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when did orange is the new black season 5 come out | List of Orange Is the New Black episodes - wikipedia
Orange Is the New Black is an American comedy - drama series created by Jenji Kohan, which premiered on July 11, 2013, on Netflix. The series, based on Piper Kerman 's memoir Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women 's Prison (2010), follows Piper Chapman (Taylor Schilling), a happily engaged New Yorker who is sent to a women 's federal prison for transporting a suitcase full of drug money across international borders, 10 years prior, for her girlfriend at the time, Alex Vause (Laura Prepon).
As of June 9, 2017, 65 episodes of Orange Is the New Black have been released, concluding the fifth season. Ten of the thirteen episodes of the fifth season were leaked online by hackers prior to its scheduled premiere date.
The series has been renewed for its sixth and seventh seasons.
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who sings the song don't let me down | Do n't Let Me Down (the Chainsmokers song) - wikipedia
"Do n't Let Me Down '' is a song by American production duo The Chainsmokers. The song features the vocals of American singer Daya, and was released on February 5, 2016, through Disruptor Records and Columbia Records. The song was written by Andrew Taggart, Emily Warren and Scott Harris. It was released on March 22, 2016, as the radio single follow - up to "Roses ''.
"Do n't Let Me Down '' became both The Chainsmokers ' and Daya 's first top five single on the US Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number three. It also became The Chainsmokers ' second consecutive top 10 entry after "Roses '', which peaked at number six. It reached the top 10 in several countries, including Australia, Austria, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. A set of remixes for the song, was released on April 15, 2016. A music video for the song was released on April 29, 2016, with appearances from The Chainsmokers and Daya.
The song won a Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording.
In an interview, Taggart stated that he first created the drop during a flight. The duo later added a "big, echoey guitar sound '' to the song, inspired by the bands the xx and Explosions in the Sky, by using a Fender electric guitar and a software plugin. Emily Warren and Scott Harris convened with the duo to create the melody and lyrics. However, the vocalist was not chosen until Taggart heard Daya 's "Hide Away '', after which the duo enlisted her to record the vocals in the studio. The song is originally for Rihanna, but her team rejected it.
The key of the song was originally a step lower, but the duo changed it in order to better accommodate Daya 's range. The third drop, which includes the saxophone, was created later in the process. The song has a double - time tempo of 80 beats per minute and a key of G ♯ minor. "Do n't Let Me Down '' follows a chord progression of E -- B -- F ♯ -- G ♯ m, and Daya 's vocals span from G ♯ to C ♯.
Robbie Daw of Idolator stated "(Do n't Let Me Down) kicks off with a haunting guitar loop and 17 - year - old Daya lamenting that she 's ' crashing, hit a wall, right now I need a miracle. ' By the time the chorus sweeps in, the song shifts into full - on trap mode '' and called it a "trappy collaboration ''. Popdust 's Jason Scott claimed "(Do n't Let Me Down) is an enormously engaging strip of gritty dance - club euphoria. Percussion vibrates underneath a well - constructed skyscraper of synth and evocative vocals from the 17 - year - old Daya. '' Rolling Stone named "Do n't Let Me Down '' one of the 30 best songs of the first half of 2016, writing "EDM may not dominate the charts the way it used to but the Chainsmokers ' swirling, turnt - up love song proves the genre has a little fight left in it. Newcomer Daya goes to battle with the aggro, big room beats and ends up coming out on top. ''
In the United States, the single debuted at number 85 on the US Billboard Hot 100 for the week of February 27, 2016 but fell off the chart the next week. It made a re-entry at number 81 for the week of March 12, 2016. The song reached a peak of number three for the week of July 16, 2016, and spent 23 weeks in the top 10; it was later named the eighth best - performing single of the year by Billboard (two spots above the duo 's number - one hit "Closer '').
In the United Kingdom, "Do n't Let Me Down '' became the Chainsmokers ' highest - charting hit (until "Closer '' which reached the top of the chart in September 2016) when the song reached number two on the UK Singles Chart on the issue dated July 21, 2016, spending 11 weeks in the top 10.
The music video for the song was released to YouTube on April 29, 2016.
In the video, Andrew Taggart and Alex Pall (The Chainsmokers) get into a yellow convertible at sunrise and begin to drive down a wooded mountain road. Intercut with shots of them driving is Daya, dressed in black leather pants and jacket, singing in a misty field full of bushes. Taggart and Pall stop the car when Daya, surrounded by dancers dressed similarly to her, stand in the middle of the road, blocking it. Daya sings as the girls perform dance moves around her while Taggart and Pall watch from the car. Suddenly, the car begins bouncing up and down on its wheels. As the beat progresses, the rocking of the car becomes more violent and aggressive. Towards the end of the song, the rocking lifts Taggart and Pall out of the car and they are suspended in the air as the girls disperse.
Usher covered "Do n't Let Me Down '' in BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge on September 5, 2016.
Singer Joy Williams released a cover of the song on March 12, 2017.
Lyca Gairanod, winner of The Voice Kids Philippines first season, covered the song in a local morning show Umagang Kay Ganda (Lit. A Morning So Beautiful) in early 2017.
The song was featured in the television series Lucifer, Degrassi: Next Class and Younger.
In March 2017, the Joy Williams version of the song was used in a State Farm Insurance commercial.
The song is featured as an exclusive content on Just Dance 2017 ' s subscription - based content, Just Dance Unlimited.
An instrumental version was used prominently as part of the BBC 's 2017 UK General Election coverage.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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how many total pin codes are there in india | Postal Index number - wikipedia
A Postal Index Number or PIN or PIN code is a code in the post office numbering or post code system used by India Post, the Indian postal administration. The code is six digits long.
The PIN Code system was introduced on 15 August 1972 by Shriram Bhikaji Velankar, an additional secretary in the Union Ministry of Communications. The system was introduced to simplify the manual sorting and delivery of mail by eliminating confusion over incorrect addresses, similar place names and different languages used by the public.
There are nine PIN zones in India, including eight regional zones and one functional zone (for the Indian Army). The first digit of the PIN code indicates the region. The second digit indicates the sub-region, and the third digit indicates the sorting district within the region. The final three digits are assigned to individual post offices.
The 9 PIN zones cover the Indian states and union territories as follows:
The first three digits of the PIN represent a specific geographical region called a sorting district that is headquartered at the main post office of the largest city and is known as the sorting office. A state may have one or more sorting districts depending on the volumes of mail handled.
The fourth digit represents the route on which a Delivery office is located in the sorting district. This is 0 for offices in the core area of the sorting district.
The last two digits represent the delivery office within the sorting district starting from 01 which would be the GPO or HO. The numbering of the delivery office is done chronologically with higher numbers assigned to newer delivery offices. If the volume of mails handled at a delivery office is too large, a new delivery office is created and the next available PIN is assigned. Thus two delivery offices situated next to each other will only have the first four digits in common.
Each PIN code is mapped to exactly one delivery post office which receives all the mail to be delivered to one or more lower offices within its jurisdiction, all of which share the same code. The delivery office can either be a General Post Office (GPO), a Head Office (HO) or Sub Office (SO) which are usually located in urban areas. The post from the delivery office is sorted and routed to other delivery offices for a different PIN or to one of the relevant sub offices or branch offices for the same PIN. Branch offices (BO) are located in rural areas and have limited postal services.
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can you buy beer on sunday in washington state | List of alcohol laws of the United states - wikipedia
The following table of alcohol laws of the United States provides an overview of alcohol - related laws by first level jurisdictions throughout the US. This list is not intended to provide a breakdown of such laws by local jurisdiction within a state; see that state 's alcohol laws page for more detailed information.
On July 17, 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. The bill would force all states to raise their drinking age from 18, 19, or 20 to 21. States that did not choose to raise their drinking age to 21 would risk losing 8 % (10 % before 2012) of federal highway funding as a penalty. As of July 1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had a minimum purchase age of 21, with some grandfather clauses, and with the exception of Louisiana 's complicated legal situation that was not resolved until July 2, 1996. Prior to 1988, the minimum purchase age varied by jurisdiction. After Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act in July 1984, states not in compliance had a portion of their federal highway budget withheld. South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply, in mid-1988. However, most states continue to allow those under 21 to drink in certain circumstances. Examples are some states like Tennessee and Washington, which allow those under 21 to drink for religious purposes. States including Oregon and New York allow those under 21 to drink on private non-alcohol selling premises.
Unlike on the mainland, the U.S. territories of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have a minimum purchase and drinking age of 18. The minimum purchase age is 21 in the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and US Minor Outlying Islands.
U.S. military reservations are exempt under federal law from state, county, and locally enacted alcohol beverage laws. Class Six stores in a base exchange facility, officers ' or NCO clubs, as well as other military commissaries which are located on a military reservation, may sell and serve alcohol beverages at any time during their prescribed hours of operation to authorized patrons. While the installation commander is free to set the drinking age, with some exceptions, most stateside military bases have a drinking age that mirrors the local community.
Individual states remain free to restrict or prohibit the manufacture of beer, mead, hard cider, wine, and other fermented alcoholic beverages at home. Homebrewing beer became legal in all 50 states in 2013 as the governor of Mississippi signed a bill legalizing homebrewing on March 19, 2013 and as the governor of Alabama signed a bill legalizing homebrewing of beer and wine which came into effect on May 9, 2013. The Mississippi bill went into effect July 1, 2013. Most states allow brewing 100 US gallons (380 L) of beer per adult per year and up to a maximum of 200 US gallons (760 L) per household annually when there are two or more adults residing in the household. Because alcohol is taxed by the federal government via excise taxes, homebrewers are prohibited from selling any beer they brew. This similarly applies in most Western countries. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter signed into law a bill allowing home beers, which was at the time not permitted without paying the excise taxes as a holdover from the prohibition of alcoholic beverages (repealed in 1933). This change also exempted home brewers from posting a "penal bond '' (which is currently $1000.00).
Production of distilled alcohols is regulated at the National level under USC Title 26 subtitle E Ch51. Numerous requirements must be met to do so and production carries an excise tax. Owning or operating a distillation apparatus without filing the proper paperwork and paying the taxes carries federal criminal penalties.
In land or property that is being rented or owned by the federal government, state, territory, and federal district alcohol laws do not apply. Instead, only laws made by the federal government apply.
Distilled spirits (liquor) are purchasable in either state - owned retail liquor stores, known as ABC Stores, or privately - owned retail liquor stores. Privately - owned retail liquor stores tend to be open on Sundays, public (federal & state) holidays, and later hours than state - owned liquor stores.
3.2 beer: 5 a.m. - midnight
Beer can be purchased at grocery / convenience stores. Spirits and wine can be purchased only at liquor stores.
No off - premises alcohol sales on Thanksgiving, Christmas Day, and New Year 's Day.
Open container law applies only to drivers, not passengers.
8 a.m. -- 3 a.m. Fri. -- Sat.
9 a.m. -- midnight daily * Grocery Stores: 9 a.m. - 12 a.m. daily
No singles sold, but stores in some areas may apply for an exemption. Certain wards may be made dry by the decision of the local ANC, but as of 2005 none are The day before a federal or district holiday, on - premises retailers may sell / serve from 8 a.m. - 3 a.m. On New Yer 's Eve, on - premises retailers may sell / serve until 4 a.m. on January 1.
No retail sale of wine in containers larger than 1 gallon. FS 564.05 Supermarkets and other licensed business establishments may sell beer, low - alcohol liquors, and wine. Liquor must be sold in dedicated liquor stores which may be in a separate part of a grocery or a drug store. As of July 1, 2015, the restriction on 64 ounce refillable containers, or growlers, has been lifted and beer may be sold in quantities of 64 ounces, in addition to the previously legal 32 and 128 ounce sizes.
Sunday off - premises sales from 12: 30 p.m. to 11: 30 p.m. allowed only by local referendum. In general, one may not be drunk in public. Though there is no state law prohibiting drinking in public, most municipal corporations and political subdivisions limit the possession of open containers of alcohol to private property, with notable exceptions being Savannah and Roswell. A charge of public drunkenness is only warranted when one is drunk in public and his acts are either loud or disorderly.
Minors, including babies, are not allowed to enter a liquor store.
Indiana has a photo identification requirement for all off - premises transactions to anyone who is or reasonably appears to be less than forty (40) years of age. (See IC 7.1 - 5 - 10 - 23).
Public intoxication is a class B misdemeanor. (IC 7.1 - 5 - 1 - 3)
Alcohol sale restriction and wet / dry (both by drink and package) allowed by both county and city local option. Approximately 39 counties in the state (mostly eastern and southern counties) are dry, all alcohol sale and possession prohibited; 22 "moist '' counties (with "wet '' cities allowing package liquor sales in counties otherwise dry); 29 counties that are otherwise dry but have communities with local option that allow sales of liquor by the drink or under special exemptions allowing sales at wineries. Majority of wet counties are around major metropolitan areas (Louisville, Lexington, Covington, Bowling Green). Note: Beginning in 2013 Liquor by the drink and beer by the drink are available on Sundays in Louisville, KY beginning at 10: 00 am. Bowling Green, KY recently began allowing Sunday sales in December 2013 for carry - out beer, wine, and liquor. Prohibition on liquor sales on Election Day was repealed effective June 24, 2013. Kentucky was one of only two states to still have Election Day prohibition, the other being South Carolina.
For an established religious purpose; When a person under twenty - one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty - one years of age or older; For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution; In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling; The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty - one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.
Alcohol can be consumed in the streets of New Orleans as long as it is in an "unbreakable container '' (no glass) and may be taken from club to club if both establishments allow it. Otherwise, it depends on the locality. Most parishes other than Orleans Parish do not permit alcoholic beverages served on premises to be carried out. However, many parishes and municipalities permit consumption of packaged beverages (for example, cans of beer) on the street. Glass bottles on the streets are prohibited. One can enter most bars at 18 years of age but must be 21 years old to purchase or consume alcohol. Also, it is legal in the state of Louisiana for a legal parent or guardian to purchase alcoholic beverages for their underaged child.
Drive - thru frozen daiquiri stands are legal and common, but the police can arrest you for driving with an open container, if you have put the straw in the cup
noon - 2 a.m. (Sunday) * sales may begin at 7 a.m. with special license extension
noon - 2 a.m. (Sunday) * sales may begin at 7 a.m. with special license extension,
11: 00 a.m. - 6: 00 p.m. (Sun)
No sales on Christmas Day. No state open container laws. Complimentary alcohol all day and night in coastal casinos. In most counties, alcohol can not be sold on Sundays. There are many dry counties in which it is illegal to possess alcoholic beverages, though some cities within dry counties have voted in beer sales.
(Mon -- Sat) 6: 00am -- 1: 30am
(Sunday) 9: 00am -- 12: 00pm
Special licenses in Kansas City and St. Louis:
(Daily) 6: 00am -- 3: 00am
(Sunday) 9: 00am -- 12: 00am
Sales permitted until 3: 00 am in those Kansas City and St. Louis bars grandfathered into the ability to double as liquor stores.
Missouri law recognizes two types of alcoholic beverage: liquor, which is any beverage containing more than 0.5 % alcohol except "non-intoxicating beer ''; and "non-intoxicating beer, '' which is beer containing between 0.5 % and 3.2 % alcohol. Liquor laws apply to all liquor, and special laws apply to "non-intoxicating beer. ''
State law also renders public intoxication legal, and explicitly prohibits any local or state law from making it a public offence. Alcohol purchase is only controlled in Panaca.
Though there is not a ban on selling alcoholic beverages at grocery stores, New Jersey limits each chain to two licenses, so with only a few exceptions, most supermarkets / convenience stores / gas stations / pharmacies do not sell alcoholic beverages. In addition, liquor sales are only permitted in a separate department or attached sister store. Bars are allowed to off - sale packaged goods. With the exception of Jersey City and Newark, all municipalities MUST allow off - sales of beer and wine at any time on - sales are permitted. However, since alcoholic beverages are generally only found in package stores, this right is rarely exercised. Alcoholic beverages by the drink as well as off - sales of beer and wine are permitted 24 hours a day in Atlantic City and Brigantine.
7 a.m. -- 11 p.m., except Sundays, for restaurants with beer and wine license.
Some counties may retain the Sunday morning beer prohibition which the state discontinued as of July 30, 2006. Twelve dry towns, mostly in western region of state. Many counties have more restrictive off - premises hours, such as bans on beer sales overnight (hours vary). All liquor stores must be owned by a single owner, who owns that store and lives within a certain distance of it -- effectively banning chain liquor stores from the state. New York City law does not allow open containers of alcohol in public.
Beverages with less than 0.5 % ABV can be sold / given to people under the age of eighteen if given by a physician in the regular line of his practice or given for established religious purposes, or the underage person is accompanied by a parent, spouse who is not an underage person, or legal guardian.
9 a.m. -- 10 p.m. (Mon -- Sat) Noon -- 5 p.m. (Sun)
Grocery Stores:
7 a.m. - 10 p.m. (Mon -
Sat)
9 a.m. - 10pm
(Sun)
Beer (but not wine) to go can be purchased at beverage outlets in any quantity. Prior to 2015 beverage centers could only sell 24 pack cases or greater. The rules were relaxed to permit sales of beer in any quantity in 2016.
* Beer and wine to go can be purchased in restaurants and grocery stores (at a separate point of purchase for alcohol and prepared foods sales in grocery stores) (six and 12 packs / 192oz max. purchase (two six packs)) with Liquor Control Board -- issued licenses
Sunday sales were prohibited in LCB stores until 2003 (selected locations) and beverage outlets (owner 's option) until 2005.
Special permits may be purchased for certain organizations for fundraisers once per calendar year, and are valid for a total of six days under the same rules governing restaurants. Grain alcohol prohibited as a beverage.
Liquor: Mon - Sat: 8 am - Midnight, Sun: Prohibited
Nonalcoholic beer is not regulated by state law.
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who is sam crow on the sons of anarchy | Sons of Anarchy - wikipedia
Sons of Anarchy is an American crime drama television series created by Kurt Sutter, which aired from 2008 to 2014. It follows the lives of a close - knit outlaw motorcycle club operating in Charming, a fictional town in California 's Central Valley. The show stars Charlie Hunnam as Jackson "Jax '' Teller, initially the vice president, who begins questioning the club and himself. Brotherhood, loyalty and redemption are constant themes.
Sons of Anarchy premiered on September 3, 2008, on cable network FX. The series 's third season attracted an average of 4.9 million weekly viewers, making it FX 's highest rated series and surpassing its other hits The Shield, Nip / Tuck and Rescue Me. The season four and five premieres were the two highest - rated telecasts in FX 's history.
The sixth season aired from September 10, 2013, through December 10, 2013. The seventh and final season of the series premiered on September 9, 2014. The series finale premiered on December 9, 2014.
The series explores vigilantism, government corruption and racism, and depicts an outlaw motorcycle club as an analogy for human transformation. Real life Oakland Hells Angel David Labrava served as a technical adviser, and also played one of the main characters, Happy Lowman, the club 's assassin.
In November 2013, Sutter indicated he was in talks with FX to make a Sons of Anarchy prequel set in the 1960s. In February 2015, he said he would not work on the prequel, likely to be titled "The First 9 '', before 2017. In November 2016 FX announced the development of a spin - off series Mayans MC, centered around Latino culture.
Each season involves parallel plot lines that intertwine and overlap, centering on both the personal and family life of Jackson "Jax '' Teller (Charlie Hunnam) and on SAMCRO (Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club, Redwood Original). SAMCRO is involved with gun - running in the western United States, and deals with rival gangs, politicians and the authorities. As vice president and later president of SAMCRO, Jax struggles to manage the club and the legacy of its founder, his father John. SAMCRO is said to resemble the Hells Angels Motorcycle Club; the series includes appearances from David Labrava (Happy), Chuck Zito (Frankie Diamonds), Rusty Coones (Quinn), and Sonny Barger (Lenny "The Pimp '' Janowitz) who are real Hells Angels members.
The series begins with the destruction of a warehouse the club uses to store and assemble guns, which is their main source of income, by a rival MC right before the overdose of Jax 's Methamphetamine - addicted ex-wife Wendy. An emergency C - section is performed, and their son Abel is delivered ten weeks prematurely. Jax finds his father 's memoirs when he visits a storage unit to collect some old baby clothes. John Teller, Jax 's father, was one of the founders of SAMCRO, and the book describes his trials with and hopes for the club. Jax 's mother, Gemma Teller - Morrow, is now married to the President of SAMCRO, Clay Morrow. Jax 's best friend Opie has just been released from prison for serving time for a club - related crime. The first season deals with Jax trying to reconcile things happening to the club with what he reads in his father 's memoirs, Opie trying to take a lesser role in the club, and local and federal law enforcement trying to shut down SAMCRO.
White separatists called the League of American Nationalists (LOAN) arrive in Charming. LOAN 's leader Ethan Zobelle and Zobelle 's enforcer, A.J. Weston, seek to drive the Sons of Anarchy from Charming. To send a message to SAMCRO, Zobelle orchestrates to have Gemma kidnapped and gang raped by Weston and two others. Due to the improper handling of an internal problem, the rift between Clay and Jax continues to widen as Jax challenges most of Clay 's decisions and comes to a head when a lone car bomb nearly kills another member of SAMCRO. The second season sees SAMCRO battling LOAN for control of Charming, Jax and Clay veering further apart in their individual visions for the club, and evading the ever - present threat of the ATF.
Gemma has been hiding in Rogue River, Oregon with Tig at the home of Gemma 's father, Nate (Hal Holbrook), who suffers from dementia. Gemma struggles when she takes Nate to his new assisted living home, and he pleads to be taken back to his house. She returns to Charming to reunite with her grandson, unaware he has been kidnapped. The return of A.T.F. agent Stahl twists the facts about the murder of Donna, Stahl attempts to make a deal with Jax behind the club 's back. Father Kellan Ashby 's sister, Maureen, contacts Gemma at Ashby 's request and tells her Abel is safe in Belfast. Upon learning of her grandson 's abduction, Gemma suffers a cardiac arrhythmia and collapses in the Teller - Morrow lot. After the club returns from Ireland and brings home Abel, agent Stahl double crosses Jax and tells the club about the side deal Jax made with her, unaware that Jax and the club had it planned all along knowing Stahl would back out of the deal. Jax, Clay, Bobby, Tig, Juice and Happy are hauled away to jail. While Opie, Chibbs, and the Prospects are all en route following Stahl. Opie kills Stahl to avenge the death of his wife, Donna.
The imprisoned SAMCRO members leave the penitentiary after their 14 - month stay and are met by Lieutenant Eli Roosevelt of the San Joaquin Sheriff 's Department, the new law enforcement present in Charming. They also discover Hale has become the mayor. US Attorney Lincoln Potter seeks Lieutenant Roosevelt 's help to build a RICO case against SAMCRO.
In retaliation for the death of Veronica Pope (Laroy 's girlfriend, who was also the daughter of powerful Oakland kingpin Damon Pope), the Niners attack SAMCRO and ambush a cargo shipment. With the death of Piney Winston and the growing conflict between the Niners and SAMCRO, along with several home invasions targeting people linked to the Club, Jax is forced to meet with Damon Pope, to face a new threat unlike anything SAMCRO has ever faced.
Following the arrest of Tara and Clay, Jax struggles to hold SAMCRO together while Tara is imprisoned. Toric approaches both Tara and Clay and offers them deals in exchange for giving up SAMCRO; both initially refuse, but Clay later relents when confronted with being thrown into the prison 's general population and assuredly being killed by inmates paid off by Damon Pope 's men as a retaliation for Pope 's murder. Juice returns to Charming after helping Bobby relocate after stepping down as VP, which angers Chibs, who does n't believe Juice has been punished enough for talking to cops and later beats him. With the growing romance between Gemma and Nero, the death of Clay Morrow, and death of Tara, the tables get turned and club starts to go in a new darker direction.
Jax struggles with his recent loss and turns himself in to the authorities. While in jail, Jax makes decisions that radically alter the direction of the club and uses it to exact revenge. Another member 's death fuels the hate and lies created by Gemma (James Phillips Spouse) and Juice, who are on the run and hiding from the club. After Jax learns the truth, he works to make things right with all parties involved. The series ends with Jax making the ultimate sacrifice to complete his part of the story of SAMCRO and fulfill his father 's vision.
Sons of Anarchy is the story of the Teller - Morrow family of Charming, California, as well as the other members of Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club, Redwood Original (SAMCRO), their families, various Charming townspeople, allied and rival gangs, associates, and law agencies that undermine or support SAMCRO 's legal and illegal enterprises.
The Sons of Anarchy (SOA) is an outlaw motorcycle club with many charters in the United States as well as overseas. The show focuses on the original and founding ("mother '') charter, Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club, Redwood Original, referred to by the acronym SAMCRO or Sam Crow, located in the fictional town of Charming, California, adjacent to the Teller - Morrow auto mechanic shop. Its nickname is reflected in the original title for the show, Forever Sam Crow. Led by President Clay Morrow, the club ' protects ' and controls Charming through close community relationships, bribery, and violent intimidation. In the early seasons they are vehement about keeping "hard '' drugs and drug dealers out of Charming. They also do not tolerate sex criminals. The club 's leadership are supporters of the IRA.
John Teller and Piermont "Piney '' Winston co-founded SAMCRO in 1967 on returning from the Vietnam War. When John 's wife Gemma becomes pregnant with their second son, Jackson (Jax), they settle in Gemma 's hometown of Charming. Six of the "Redwood Original 9 '', or "First 9 '', members were Vietnam vets, with only Lenny Janowitz alive at the end of the series.
Club members wear vests known as kuttes. The SOA patch on the back is a Grim Reaper holding a crystal ball with the Anarchist circle - A symbol, and wielding the Reaper 's traditional scythe, the handle of which has been replaced by the M16 rifle that the founders wielded in Vietnam. Only full members can wear the "patch ''. Other smaller patches have specific meanings, such as "Men of Mayhem '' worn by club members who have spilled blood on the club 's behalf, "First 9 '', worn by the original nine members, and those for the President / Vice President / Sergeant at Arms / Secretary. Kelli Jones was the costume designer for all the seasons. Due to its popularity, replicas of the vests, with the same style of top pockets, zips and button clasps, have become popular on various auction sites.
The Sons ride customised Harley - Davidson Dyna motorcycles. Each rider customises his own bike to his individual style; however, they all paint their bikes black and most sport T - bar style handlebars. A patchholder 's bike usually sports the Sons of Anarchy letters, the club 's Grim Reaper logo, or the circled "A '' club logo. In later seasons, several members switch to more touring - oriented models. For instance, Jax is often seen on a Street Glide. Prospects are not permitted to paint their bikes black until they get patched in.
Jax is also seen driving a silver Dodge Ram 1500 throughout the show. His mother (Gemma Teller Morrow) is usually seen driving a Cadillac XLR - V and an Escalade. Later in Season 6 she is seen driving a Lincoln Navigator (all are painted black).
Throughout season 7 Jax is seen refurbishing his father 's bike, a stock 1946 Harley Davidson, equipped with the correct Knucklehead motor and hardtail cradle frame. The bike which he rides in the Season 7 finale 's last scenes is fitted with an Evolution motor, and late - model swing arm frame.
The Mayans MC also ride Harley Davidson motorcycles (Panheads, Shovelheads and Evolutions). The biggest difference between their bikes and the Sons ' lies in ape hanger bars, fender skirts and bikes of all colors.
Nero Padilla errs when referring to the year of his blue Impala SS. While he mentions the "lack of child safety features in 1964 '', it is actually a 1963 Impala SS.
Some members have day jobs in local industries; most work at the Teller - Morrow garage as mechanics, but they primarily make money by illegally importing weapons and selling them to various gangs, and making protection runs for local businesses by defending valuable truck shipments against hijacking. During Season 4 they start to mule cocaine for the Galindo cartel in exchange for cash and protection. In later seasons they manage a porn studio and an escort business, both legitimately.
SAMCRO keeps meth traffickers and drug dealers out of Charming, which puts them at odds with the meth - distributing white supremacist Nordics (AKA Nords), headed by Ernest Darby. This earns them respect and admiration from the townspeople, who believe the Sons do more to protect their town than its own police. SAMCRO also has to deal with a rival, Oakland - based motorcycle club (MC), the Mayans led by Marcus Alvarez (played by Emilio Rivera, who also appeared in The Shield as Mexican drug dealer Navarro Quintero). Other groups in SAMCRO 's orbit include the San Francisco -- based Chinese mafia Lin Triad, led by Henry Lin; the Italian American Cacuzza crime family; the Russian mob led by Viktor Putlova; the Real IRA (aka RIRA) of Ireland, which supplies them with illegal Russian - made guns; the "One - Niners '', an African American street gang (which also appeared on The Shield, thus possibly putting the two in the same fictional universe) to whom SAMCRO sell weapons; and various affiliates in the state prison system, where many members of the club have been incarcerated at one time or another. These gangs serve important roles in either being enemies of the clubs or soon to be partners with the MC to bring in more money.
In the series premiere, the Mayans torch the facility the SAMCRO used for storing and assembling guns, forcing the club to buy land for and build another facility. The clubhouse, described above, includes a living area with multiple rooms (where members sometimes crash for the night), a fully operational bar, a pool table, a kitchen, a workout room, and the "chapel '', a room with an elaborate redwood conference table that has a reaper logo carved into the top, where the patched members meet to discuss club business and vote on major decisions. The club owns a secluded cabin in the woods and a warehouse outside of town (which was bought from but is still maintained by club associate Elliot Oswald), where they have stored weapons and cocaine for the Galindo Cartel. The club also rents an old soda fountain / candy shop that is used as the clubhouse in seasons 6 and 7 after the Teller / Morrow clubhouse was destroyed in an explosion. They also spend time at Red Woody, the club 's porn studio (run by Lyla), and Diosa and Diosa Norte, the club 's two escort agencies.
Sons of Anarchy has commonly been called "Hamlet on Harleys ''. Similar to Hamlet, Jax 's father was usurped by his father 's SAMCRO "brother '', who then married Jax 's mother. There are also intermittent hints at an Oedipal complex between Jax and Gemma, reflecting 20th - century interpretations of the relationship between Hamlet and his mother Queen Gertrude. Jax 's murder of the innocent Jury in season 7 mirrors Hamlet 's murder of the innocent Polonius in that it ultimately leads to his downfall.
Sutter has said of the Shakespeare element, "I do n't want to overplay that but it 's there. It was Jax 's father who started the club, so he 's the ghost in the action. You wonder what he would have made of the way it turned out. It 's not a version of Hamlet but it 's definitely influenced by it. '' Ron Perlman believed they were "going to stick to the structure of Hamlet all the way to the end (of the series). ''
Numerous episode titles refer to Hamlet including:
In the Season 1 premiere, Gemma is shown cleaning Jax 's house, and he notes that she is always cleaning. This behavior, combined with her ambitions and (sometimes murderous) machinations, have prompted some reviewers and commentators to liken her to Lady Macbeth.
The series was created by Kurt Sutter. Sutter was also the showrunner, the series ' most prolific writer, and a regular director; he directed each season finale. Sutter had previously worked as an executive producer for the FX series The Shield. The Sons of Anarchy 's ' other executive producers are father and son team Art Linson and John Linson; Jim Parriott served as an executive producer and writer for the first season only.
Paris Barclay joined Sons of Anarchy as an executive producer in the fourth season, after directing episodes in the first and second season. In addition to serving as Executive Producer in the fourth, fifth, and sixth seasons, Barclay directed three episodes each season, including the season 4 and 5 premieres, the top two highest - rated telecasts in the history of FX.
Jack LoGiudice served as a consulting producer and regular writer for the first season. He became co-executive producer for the second season, then left the series to work on The Walking Dead.
Dave Erickson also worked as a consulting producer for the first and second seasons, and then took over as co-executive producer for the third season. The series ' other regular writers are supervising producer Chris Collins and co-producer Regina Corrado. Shawn Rutherford joined as consulting producer for seasons 6 and 7.
Sutter drew regular directors from The Shield including Stephen Kay, Gwyneth Horder - Payton, Guy Ferland, and Billy Gierhart.
Although Sons of Anarchy is set in Northern California 's Central Valley (with some scenes in the Bay Area), it was filmed primarily at Occidental Studios Stage 5A in North Hollywood. Main sets located there included the clubhouse, St. Thomas Hospital, and Jax 's house. The production rooms at the studio used by the writing staff doubled as the Charming police station. External scenes were often filmed nearby in Sun Valley and Tujunga. Interior and exterior scenes set in Northern Ireland during season 3 were also filmed at Occidental Studios and surrounding areas. A second unit shot footage in Northern Ireland used in the third season.
Sons of Anarchy has received very favorable reviews over the course of its run, with many singling out Katey Sagal 's performance. On the review aggregator website Metacritic, the first season scored 68 / 100, the second season scored 86 / 100, the third season scored 84 / 100, the fourth season scored 81 / 100, the fifth season scored 72 / 100 and the 6th season scored 74 / 100.
In 2013, a collection of essays on the series was published.
The first season received positive reviews from industry critics. It scored a 68 on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews '' Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe said the first season had "real potential ''. The New York Times ' Gina Bellafante spoke highly of the cast 's acting ability, particularly Sagal 's portrayal of Gemma. Brian Lowry of Variety gave a mixed review, admiring Sutter 's creation of the club and the town of Charming but observing the early episodes lacked direction.
The second season saw a substantial increase in positive reviews. Writing for Chicago Tribune, Maureen Ryan called the second season "engrossing ''. She elaborated that "the pacing is better (and) the plotting is tighter '' and commends Sagal and Perlman for their performances. Variety 's Stuart Levine stated that the new season was "compelling ''; he also complimented the acting skill of Perlman, Sagal, Hunnam and Siff. James Poniewozik of TIME called Sagal 's performance "devastatingly powerful '' and named the series on his list of Top 10 Shows of 2009.
Some critics felt the third season was dragged down by the previous season 's cliffhanger. James Poniewozik of TIME called the season three premiere "breathtaking '' and praised Sagal 's performance with Holbrook. He later stated that Abel 's disappearance helped return the show to its central problem: Jax 's allegiance to the club. Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker agreed that Holbrook and Sagal 's scenes were "beautiful ''. He also commented that the series handled themes of loyalty and family especially well. Maureen Ryan commented that the third season divided critics and fans alike, suggesting the expanded Belfast cast made it harder for the audience to invest in the characters ' journeys. Ryan later questioned the credibility of Hector Salazar 's story, noting that he was inferior to other villainous characters such as Stahl, Zobelle and Weston. However, she praised Ally Walker 's performance, comparing her character to The Shield 's Vic Mackey. Critic Alan Sepinwall said the season was "interesting but uneven '', noting that the plot gained traction in later episodes. Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter said "Sutter should be applauded for shaking things up '', calling the slower pace a "creative necessity ''.
Alan Sepinwall stated that the fourth season risked predictability by returning to a successful formula of storytelling, but he nonetheless preferred those episodes to those of season three. Maureen Ryan reviewed the fourth season positively. She praised the addition of Lincoln Potter (played by Ray McKinnon), comparing the character 's quality to that of Breaking Bad 's antagonist, Gustavo Fring. The A.V. Club called the fourth season more "focused '' and "operatic ''. A.V. Club reviewer Zack Handlen was fond of the season but felt disappointed with the finale, saying it featured a "lousy case of dictated convenience, of an arbitrary and unbelievable reveal used to shift characters around to where the writers want them to be for next season, as opposed to where they might land organically. '' However, the review did praise Charlie Hunnam 's performance in the finale. TIME said the fourth season was the strongest since season two, but the show needed to end sooner rather than later. TIME also agreed that the finale 's contrivances were sometimes too visible, stating "it 's the principle: you can only turn up alive at your own funeral so many times before it starts to lose its impact. ''
Season five received favorable reviews and has a rating of 72 on the review aggregator site Metacritic. Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly praised the series by calling it a "richly detailed portrait of self - righteous villainy ''. The series had a rating of 8.6 / 10 on the review site IMDB.
Season six received generally favorable reviews and scored a 74 out of 100 on Metacritic.
Season seven received generally favorable reviews and scored a 68 out of 100 on Metacritic.
The seventh season 's premiere on September 9, 2014 received the highest ratings in the series ' history. The episode was watched by 6.20 million viewers.
Sons of Anarchy was nominated for Outstanding Achievement in Drama at the 2010 TCA Awards. Katey Sagal received the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Television Series (Drama) at the 68th Golden Globe Awards for her role in the third season. She also received a nomination for a 2010 Satellite Award in the category of Best Actress -- Television Series (Drama), as well as a TCA nomination for the Individual Achievement in Drama. Sons of Anarchy (Season 5) received a Screen Crush Award for having the best TV series in 2012. Also in 2012, Paris Barclay was nominated for an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Direction in a Drama Series for his direction of the Season 4 Premiere "Out ''. In 2013, Rockmond Dunbar won an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for his portrayal of Sheriff Eli Roosevelt. For the 5th Critics ' Choice Television Awards, Charlie Hunnam received a nomination for Best Actor in a Drama Series and Walton Goggins received a nomination for Best Guest Performer in a Drama Series for the seventh season.
Three EP soundtracks have been released by 20th Century Fox Records, on iTunes, featuring songs from each series. The first five - song EP, entitled Sons of Anarchy: North Country -- EP, was released on September 8, 2009 and featured the full version of the Emmy Award nominated theme song "This Life ''. A second five - song EP, entitled Sons of Anarchy: Shelter -- EP, was released on November 24, 2009 while a third six - song EP, entitled Sons of Anarchy: The King is Gone - EP, was released on November 23, 2010.
In November 2011, selected highlights from the EPs and new tracks were released in Songs of Anarchy: Music from Sons of Anarchy Seasons 1 -- 4, followed up by Sons of Anarchy: Songs of Anarchy Vol. 2 released in November 2012, Sons of Anarchy: Songs of Anarchy Vol. 3 released in December 2013, and Sons of Anarchy: Songs of Anarchy Vol. 4 released in February 2015.
In 2013, Boom! Studios began publishing a Sons of Anarchy comic book. As of September 2015, 25 issues have been published. Issue 25 is the final issue. A new comic book prequel, Sons of Anarchy: Redwood Original, was released on August 3, 2016.
Sons of Anarchy: Bratva, the first in a planned series of SOA novels to be written by Christopher Golden, was published in 2014.
A prequel series, detailing the origin of the club, is planned. Sutter stated in an August 2014 interview that the prequel would focus on the "First 9 '' members of the club and be set around the time of the Vietnam War. He added that the prequel would likely consist of a miniseries or "maybe 10 episodes or two 8 episodes seasons ''. At the conclusion of the prequel, Sutter plans to release John Teller 's manuscript, titled The Life and Death of SAMCRO.
Sons of Anarchy: The Prospect was an episodic adventure video game developed by Silverback Games and published by Orpheus Interactive. The game was originally slated to have ten episodes and to be released on Microsoft Windows, OS X, iOS, and Android. The first episode was released on February 1, 2015 for iOS only, and was met with mixed reviews. but has not seen an update since, and, although a season pass is being offered, no further episode was ever released. On April 7, 2016, refunds were issued to everyone who purchased the game or the season pass, and the game had been removed from the App Store.
Despite the apparent cancellation and refunds, the game 's publisher has not officially said anything about the development state of the nine unreleased episodes. Silverback Games has distanced themselves from the project, claiming to be "just a consultant '' and having no knowledge of the state of the game or of Orpheus Interactive.
A Sons of Anarchy game was originally planned to be developed by a studio of Rockstar Games for PC and console platforms, but was canceled shortly after in 2012. Another video game based on Sons of Anarchy was announced in February 2014, confirmed for mobile platforms in August, and the name Sons of Anarchy: The Prospect revealed in December of that year. The game was set to have never - before seen graphics for mobile devices, but failed to deliver those when the first episode was launched on February 1, 2015.
As of May 11, 2016, a spin - off series is in the works titled Mayans MC. The pilot will begin shooting in March, directed by Sutter from a script he co-wrote with Elgin James. On February 13, 2017, Edward James Olmos will star as Felipe Reyes, the once strong Mexican patriarch and EZ 's father. On January 5, 2018, FX picked up the series with an order of 10 episodes which is set to premiere sometime in 2018.
Sons of Anarchy premiered in Australia on the Showcase in 2009 while in New Zealand it appeared on TV3 on October 20, 2010 and it has been announced it is moving to the Box. The show premiered in the UK on 5 USA in 2009, before being dropped after the sixth season. The show will air in its entirety on Spike from April 2015. In the Republic of Ireland, the show aired on RTÉ Two from 2009. It premiered in Canada on Super Channel October 20, 2008. In India, season 6 is airing from September 26, 2013, only on Star World Premiere.
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which of the following is an example of potential energy answers.com | Yahoo! Answers - Wikipedia
Yahoo! Answers is a community - driven question - and - answer (Q&A) website or a knowledge market from Yahoo!, that allows users to both submit questions to be answered and answer questions asked by other users.
The website Yahoo! was officially incorporated on March 2, 1995, and was created by Jerry Yang and David Filo. The website began as a search directory for various websites, and soon grew into an established Internet resource that features the "Yahoo! Answers '' platform. Yahoo! Answers was launched on June 28, 2005, while in internal alpha testing by Director of Engineering, Ofer Shaked. Yahoo! Answers was launched to the general public while in beta testing on December 8, 2005, which lasted until May 14, 2006. Yahoo! Answers was finally incorporated for general availability on May 15, 2006.
Yahoo! Answers was created to replace Ask Yahoo!, Yahoo! 's former Q&A platform which was discontinued in March 2006. The site gives members the chance to earn points as a way to encourage participation and is based on Naver 's Knowledge iN. Yahoo! Answers is available in 12 languages, but several Asian sites operate a different platform which allows for non-Latin characters. The platform is known as Yahoo! Chiebukuro (Yahoo! 知恵袋) in Japan and as Yahoo! Knowledge in Korea, Taiwan, China, and Hong Kong. An Arabic language Q&A platform called Seen Jeem is available through the Yahoo! subsidiary Maktoob.
On December 8, 2016, Yahoo! released an app for the platform called Yahoo! Answers Now (formally known as Yahoo! Hive) for iOS and Android.
The number of poorly formed questions and inaccurate answers has made the site a target of ridicule.
Yahoo! Answers allows any questions that do not violate Yahoo! Answers community guidelines. To encourage good answers, helpful participants are occasionally featured on the Yahoo! Answers Blog. Though the service itself is free, the contents of the answers are owned by the respective users -- while Yahoo! maintains a non-exclusive royalty - free worldwide right to publish the information. Chat is explicitly forbidden in the Community Guidelines, although categories like Politics and Religion & Spirituality are mostly opinion. Users may also choose to reveal their Yahoo! Messenger ID on their Answers profile page.
Misuse of Yahoo! Answers is handled by a user moderation system, where users report posts that are in breach of guidelines or the Terms of Service. Posts are removed if they receive sufficient weight of trusted reports (reports from users with a reliable reporting history). Deletion may be appealed: an unsuccessful appeal receives a 10 - point penalty; a successful one reinstates the post and reduces the ' trust rating ' (reporting power) of the reporter. If a user receives a large number of violations in a relatively short amount of time or a very serious violation, it can cause the abuser 's account to be suspended. In extreme, but rare cases (for a Terms of Service violation), the abuser 's entire Yahoo! ID will be suddenly deactivated without warning.
To open an account, a user needs a Yahoo! ID but can use any name as identification on Yahoo! Answers. A user can be represented by a picture from various internet avatar sites or a user - made graphic uploaded to replace their default Yahoo graphic. Yahoo! Avatars was discontinued in 2012. When answering a question, a user can search Yahoo! or Wikipedia, or any source of information that the user wishes, as long as they mention their source.
Questions are initially open to answers for four days. However, the asker can choose to pick a best answer for the question after a minimum of one hour. However, comments and answers can still be posted after this time. To ask a question, one has to have a Yahoo! account with a positive score balance of five points or more.
The points system is weighted to encourage users to answer questions and to limit spam questions. There are also levels (with point thresholds), which give more site access. Points and levels have no real world value, can not be traded, and serve only to indicate how active a user has been on the site. A notable downside to the points / level system is that it encourages people to answer questions even when they do not have a suitable answer to give to gain points. Users also receive ten points for contributing the "Best Answer '' which is selected by the question 's asker. The voting function, which allowed users to vote for the answer they considered best, was discontinued in April 2014.
In addition to points awarded for activity, Yahoo! Answers staff may also award extra points if they are impressed with a user 's contributions. The Yahoo! Answers community manager has stated that "power users '' who defend the company should be thanked and rewarded.
Note: All limitations are per day.
Users begin on level 1 and receive 100 free points. Prior to this, they began on level 0, could only answer one question, and then were promoted to level 1.
Before April 20, 2012, users levels 5 and above could give an unlimited amount of questions, answers, and comments. Yahoo! Answers established an upper limit to curb spam and unproductive answers. Before April 2014 users were also able to vote for a best answer if the asker did not choose one, but this was discontinued.
The point system ostensibly encourages users to answer as many questions as they possibly can, up to their daily limit. Once a user achieves and maintains a certain minimum number of such contributions (See Note *, further...), they may receive an orange "badge '' under the name of their avatar, naming the user a Top Contributor (TC). Users can lose this badge if they do not maintain their level of participation. Once a user becomes a "Top Contributor '' in any category, the badge appears in all answers, questions, and comments by the user, regardless of category. A user can be a Top Contributor in a maximum of 3 categories. The list of Top contributors is updated every Monday. Although Yahoo! Answers staff has kept secret the conditions of becoming a TC, many theories exist among users, for example:
Out of these, none have an official status. This feature began March 8, 2007.
Badge is seen under the name staff members of Yahoo! Answers.
This type of badge is found on the name of celebrities (like mentioned above) and government departments like the health department.
These badges are found under the name of the companies or organizations who share their personal knowledge and experience with the members of Yahoo! Answers.
A number of studies have looked at the structure of the community and the interaction between askers and responders. Studies of user typology on the site have revealed that some users answer from personal knowledge -- "specialists '' -- while others use external sources to construct answers -- "synthesists '', with synthesists tending to accumulate more reward points. Adamic et al. looked at the ego networks of users and showed that it is possible to distinguish "answer people '' from "discussion people '' with the former found in specialist categories for factual information, such as mathematics and the latter more common in general interest categories, such as marriage and wrestling. They also show that answer length is a good predictor of "best answer '' choice. Kim and Oh looked at the comments given by users on choosing best answers and showed that content completeness, solution feasibility and personal agreement / confirmation were the most significant criteria.
Researchers found that questions seeking factual information received few answers and that the knowledge on Yahoo! Answers is not very deep.
Despite the presence of experts, academics and other researchers, Yahoo! Answers ' base consists of a much more general group; hence, it has been criticized for the large number of dubious questions, such as "how is babby formed how girl get pragnent '' (sic), which sparked an Internet meme.
This "Internet language '' of incorrect spelling and improper grammar also contributes to Yahoo! Answers ' reputation of being a source of entertainment rather than a fact based question and answer platform, and for the reliability, validity, and relevance of its answers. A 2008 study found that Yahoo! Answers is suboptimal for questions requiring factual answers and that the quality decreases as the number of users increases. One journalist observed that the structure Yahoo! Answers provides, particularly the persistence of inaccuracies, the inability to correct them, and a point structure that rewards participation more readily than accuracy, all indicate that the site is oriented towards encouraging use of the site, not offering accurate answers to questions. The number of poorly formed questions and inaccurate answers has made the site a target of ridicule. Likewise, posts on many Internet forums and Yahoo! Answers itself indicate that Yahoo! Answers attracts a large number of trolls.
The site does not have a system that filters the correct answers from the incorrect answers. At one time, the community could vote for the best answer among the posted answers; but that option was disabled in March 2014. For most of the life of Yahoo! Answers, once the "best answer '' was chosen, there was no way to add more answers nor to improve or challenge the best answer chosen by the question asker; there is a display of thumbs down or thumbs up for each answer, but viewers can not vote. In April 2014, this was changed to allow for additional answers after a best answer is chosen, but the best answer can never be changed. Also, while "best answers '' can be briefly commented upon, the comment is not visible by default and is hence hardly read. (Even the user who posts the question is n't notified, before or after the best answer is picked, about a comment on the question or on the best answer.) If the best answer chosen is wrong or contains problematic information, the only chance to give a better (or correct) answer will be the next time the same question is asked. The older answer will likely get higher priority in search engines. Any new answer will most probably not be seen by any original questioner.
The official Yahoo! Answers mascot is a cartoon hamster called Yamster. Yamster is a combination, or portmanteau, of the words "Yahoo '' and "hamster ''. The mascot is also used as an avatar for Yahoo! Answers staff.
During beta testing of Yahoo! Answers in 2005, the Director of Product Management would use a Gemmy Kung Fu Hamster to summon employees to meetings. The toy was a battery - operated, dancing, musical plush hamster clothed in a karate uniform. A Yahoo! Answers employee selected a photo of the toy as the staff avatar. A user then questioned the potential trademark / copyright infringement of using such an avatar. At that time, the photo was replaced with the Yahoo! Answers green smiley face. At the beginning of 2006, the green smiley face was replaced by the cartoon Yamster clad in a karate uniform. As of November 2009, the history of Yamster, complete with photos of the toy, was available on the Yahoo! Answers Team Vietnam blog.
Several celebrities and notables have appeared on Yahoo! Answers to ask questions. These users have an "official '' badge below their avatar and on their profile page. During the 2008 U.S. Presidential campaign, Hillary Clinton, John McCain, Barack Obama, and Mitt Romney posted questions on Yahoo! Answers, in addition to YouTube. In an awareness campaign, "UNICEF Up Close 2007 '', nine UNICEF ambassadors asked questions. The launch of Answers on Yahoo! India included a question from A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the President of India at that time. Other guests have included international leaders (Queen Rania of Jordan, candidate for United Nations Secretary - General Shashi Tharoor), Nobel Peace Prize laureates (Al Gore, Muhammad Yunus) and other international activists (Bono, Jean - Michel Cousteau), intellectuals (Stephen Hawking, Marilyn vos Savant), and numerous other celebrities.
Yahoo! used comScore statistics in December 2006 to proclaim Yahoo! Answers "the leading Q&A site on the web ''. Currently Yahoo! Answers is ranked as the second most popular Q&A site on the web by comScore. The slogan "The world 's leading Q&A site '' has since been adopted by Answers.com.
In 2009, Yahoo! Answers staff claimed 200 million users worldwide and 15 million users visiting daily. Google Trends has reported around 4 million unique visitors (Global) daily. In January 2010, the web analytics website Quantcast reported 24 million active users (US) per month; in November 2015, that had fallen by 77 % to 5.6 million. Quantcast traffic statistics for Yahoo! Answers, January 2010:
For January 1 -- 30, 2015:
For October 31 -- November 29, 2015:
For December 1 -- December 30, 2015:
Google Ad Planner traffic statistics for Yahoo! Answers, December 2009:
Compete Site Analytics traffic statistics for Yahoo! Answers, December 2009:
Yahoo! Answers represents between 1.03 % to 1.7 % of Yahoo! traffic.
The comedy / advice podcast My Brother, My Brother and Me features a reoccurring segment in which co-host Griffin McElroy selects and reads a particularly humorous or outrageous question from Yahoo! Answers. The hosts then discuss and attempt to answer the question, to comedic effect.
The Internet troll Ken M is a regular user on Yahoo! Answers, posting comments that confound and annoy other users. There are several communities on social media sites such as Reddit and Facebook dedicated to observing his antics, especially on Yahoo! Answers. Ken was named as one of Time 's most influential people online in 2016.
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what kind of great dane is scooby doo | Scooby - Doo (character) - wikipedia
Scoobert "Scooby '' Doo is the eponymous character and protagonist of the animated television franchise of the same name created in 1969 by the American animation company Hanna - Barbera. Scooby - Doo is a male Great Dane and lifelong companion of amateur detective Shaggy Rogers, with whom he shares many personality traits. Named after a nonsense vocal line in Frank Sinatra 's hit song "Strangers in the Night '', he features a mix of both canine and human behaviors (reminiscent of other funny animals in the Golden age of American animation), treated by his friends more or less as an equal while speaking in a famous (and much parodied) speech impediment. His catchphrase is "Scooby - Dooby - Doo! ''
Writers Joe Ruby and Ken Spears created the original Scooby - Doo series, Scooby - Doo, Where are You!, for Hanna - Barbera for CBS 's 1969 - 70 Saturday morning cartoon schedule. Originally titled Mysteries Five, the dog who later became Scooby was originally more of a sidekick character - a bongo - playing dog named "Too Much '' whose breed varied between Great Dane and sheepdog between treatments. By the time the series was pitched to the network as Who 's S-S - Scared? in early 1969, Too Much was solidified as a cowardly Great Dane. Both the dog and the series would be renamed Scooby - Doo by Fred Silverman, CBS 's head of daytime programming, between its unsuccessful first pitch and a second pitch which earned the show a green light. Silverman came up with the name from the syllables "doo - be-doo - be-doo '' in Frank Sinatra 's hit song "Strangers in the Night ''.
Taking notes from a Hanna - Barbera colleague who was also a breeder of Great Danes, Production designer Iwao Takamoto designed the Scooby - Doo character with a sloping chin, spots, a long tail, a sloped back, and bow legs - all traits in direct opposition to those of a prize - winning purebred Great Dane. In defining the personality of the dog, Ruby and Spears looked for inspiration to the characters played by Bob Hope in his horror - comedies - a coward who shows traits of bravery when his friends are in danger. Veteran H-B voice artist Don Messick was the original voice of Scooby and spent decades working on the character.
Scooby - Doo, Where Are You! premiered on CBS on September 13, 1969, at 10: 30 a.m. EST and ran for two seasons, for a total of 25 episodes. Its final first - run episode aired on October 31, 1970.
In most incarnations of the series, Scooby is regarded as a unique Great Dane dog who is able to speak in broken English, and usually puts the letter "R '' in front of words and noises made. Other incarnations, such as A Pup Named Scooby - Doo, present talking dogs as quite common in the larger fictional universe. In recent years (most notably in Scooby - Doo! Mystery Incorporated), Scooby is able to speak in complete sentences and has more dialogue, though partially retaining his speech impediment. He consistently shows about the same level of intelligence as his friends, while also being subject to the same knack for clumsiness and moments of being dimwitted as well.
Different iterations of the character have been developed and expanded in the various series featuring the characters, many of them contradicting, such as the original series and recent live - action movies where Shaggy and Scooby first meet as older teenagers for the first time. This contradicts the animated series A Pup Named Scooby - Doo, where they know each other from almost infancy, though the films may be seen as having a different continuity altogether than the cartoon products. As an adult canine, Scooby is usually treated as a mix of a pet and a friend by his companions.
In all versions of the character, Scooby and Shaggy share several personality traits, mostly being cowardly and perpetually hungry. Yet their friends (Fred, Daphne, and Velma) encourage them to go after the costumed villains, usually with "Scooby Snacks ''. The biscuit - like dog treat or cookie snack is usually shaped like a bone or, in later versions of the cartoons, Scooby 's dog tag. However, Scooby 's inherent loyalty and courage do often force him to take a more heroic stance even without any prodding. Scooby is also extremely ticklish, and this is seen in many of the television series and movies.
Scooby has a speech impediment and tends to pronounce most words as if they begin with an "R ''; however, most characters are able to understand him almost perfectly. In most iterations, he keeps his sentences relatively short, usually using charades for anything longer than three or four words. His catchphrase, usually howled at the end of every production, is "Scooby - Dooby - Doo! '' or "Rooby - Rooby - Roo ''. Scooby was voiced by Don Messick through Arabian Nights in 1994, after which point Messick quit smoking; quitting smoking changed his voice and prevented him from achieving the same raspy vocal effect (despite Messick 's efforts, he suffered a career - ending stroke in 1996 and died in 1997, before any further Scooby - Doo productions were made). Messick is also known for providing the voice of the dogs Astro on The Jetsons and Muttley (who snickered). The characteristic speech impediments of Scooby and Astro are so similar that Astro 's signature phrase, "Ruh - roh! '', is popularly and improperly attributed to Scooby (as in "Ruh - roh, Raggy! ''); of the two voices, Scooby 's had a deeper and throatier timbre than Astro 's.
Scooby is brown from head to toe with several distinctive black spots on his upper body and does not seem to have a melanistic mask. He is generally a quadruped but displays bipedal ' human ' characteristics occasionally. Scooby also has opposable thumbs and can use his front paws like hands. He has a black nose and wears an off - yellow, diamond - shaped - tagged blue collar with an "SD '' (his initials) and has four toes on each foot. Unlike other dogs, Scooby only has one pad on the sole of each of his feet (so that it was easier to draw in the Scooby - Doo Annuals).
Scooby has a fully prehensile tail he can use to swing from or press buttons. Both his head and tail are malleable and useful as a communication aid or creating a distraction.
Creator Iwao Takamoto later explained that before he designed the character, he first spoke to a Great Dane breeder, who described to him the desirable characteristics of a pedigree dog. Takamoto then drew Scooby as the opposite of this. He said "I decided to go the opposite (way) and gave him a hump back, bowed legs, small chin and such. Even his color is wrong. ''
According to the official magazine that accompanied the 2002 movie, Scooby is seven years old.
Don Messick originated the character 's speech patterns and provided Scooby - Doo 's voice in every Scooby - Doo production from 1969 until 1994 's Scooby - Doo! in Arabian Nights. Voice actor Hadley Kay voiced the character for a brief period in 1997, for two episodes of Johnny Bravo, and a few television commercials. Scott Innes (also the then - voice of Shaggy) voiced Scooby - Doo in four late 1990s / early 2000s direct - to - video films and continued to voice the character regularly for toys and video games (such as Scooby - Doo! Night of 100 Frights) until 2008. Neil Fanning provided the voice of the computer - generated Scooby - Doo in the 2002 live - action film and its 2004 sequel. The legendary Frank Welker (also the voice of Fred since 1969) has voiced Scooby since 2002, taking over beginning with What 's New, Scooby - Doo? and other spin - offs including the live - action prequels Scooby - Doo! The Mystery Begins and Scooby - Doo! Curse of the Lake Monster. Dave Coulier and Seth Green have both voiced the character in Robot Chicken.
Voiced By:
Voiced by in unofficial material and other languages:
Over the course of Scooby - Doo 's various spin - offs, various relatives of Scooby were introduced:
Casey Kasem, the previous voice actor for Shaggy Rogers, said that Scooby is "the star of the show -- the Shaquille O'Neal of the show. '' Kasem explained "People love animals more than they love people. Am I right or wrong? They give more love to their pets than they give to people. Scooby is vulnerable and lovable and not brave, and very much like the kids who watch. But like kids, he likes to think that he 's brave. ''
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who sings how does a moment last forever | How Does a Moment Last Forever - wikipedia
"How Does a Moment Last Forever '' is a song written by lyricist Tim Rice and composer Alan Menken for the Disney live action film Beauty and the Beast (2017), a remake of the animated musical of the same name. This Broadway - inspired ballad is performed in the movie by American actor Kevin Kline in his role as Maurice. It describes the relationship between his character and that of his wife, Belle 's deceased mother. Later in the film, Belle (Emma Watson) performs the song as she discovers the truth about her mother 's fate. "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' was also recorded by Canadian pop singer Celine Dion, whose version was also included on the film 's soundtrack, released on March 10, 2017. Her version plays over the ending credits of the film.
In the original animated film, Maurice does not sing at all. The remake, however, explores both Belle 's and the Beast 's past. Belle 's backstory serves to build a foundation for her relationship with the Beast. For director Bill Condon, adding detail to both Belle 's and the Beast 's past was necessary for the audiences to understand the characters: "They 're both outsiders, but how did Belle wind up being so different from everybody else in a town where nobody understands her, and how did the Beast become the person who earned that curse? That 's the stuff we started to fill in '', he said.
"How Does a Moment Last Forever '' is a ballad and its lyrics deals with the theme of nostalgia. According to Menken, it 's about hanging on to precious moments. In Beauty and the Beast, it is performed twice, first by Maurice when he reminisces about his deceased wife and later by Belle after she discovers her mother 's fate. Dion was contacted to record a pop version of the song. Although she initially had doubts, she utimately agreed because of the impact that recording "Beauty and the Beast '' has had on her career. Although she was unable to promote her version, which prompted Disney to release "Evermore '' as a single instead, the song has made an impact in certain countries due to the film 's success at the box office. It was met with generally positive reviews from critics. However, some felt that the song is unmemorable and compared it negatively to other songs recorded by Dion for movie soundtracks.
Director Bill Condon originally intended to include songs from the Broadway musical adaptation of Beauty and the Beast in the remake. However, Disney decided to recruit composer Alan Menken and lyricist Tim Rice to write entirely new songs for the film instead. Original Beauty and the Beast composer Menken reunited with Rice, with whom he had previously collaborated on the 1994 musical to write three new songs for the remake, including "How Does a Moment Last Forever '', whose original title was "Our Song Lives On ''. Rice once again replaced Howard Ashman, the animated film 's lyricist, which had died from HIV - related complications in 1991. The live action film marks the first collaboration between Menken and Rice in over two decades; the last time they worked together had been in the Beauty and the Beast musical. Menken believes that the songs he and Rice had written for the musical would not have translated well to the screen due to the structural differences between the two formats.
One of at least nine significant changes made to the film specifically for the remake, "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' was conceived to explain Belle 's backstory. Her quest to find out her mother 's fate serves, in the plot, as a foundation for her relationship with the Beast, who also lost his mother as a child. In Beauty and the Beast, the song is first performed by Maurice (Kline) shortly after the opening act "Belle ''. Belle (Watson) arrives at their house in the village and peeps on her father crafting a music box. He sings "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' and reminisces about his deceased wife and their life together in Paris. After he realizes his daughter is watching him, he quickly finishes the music box, which is modelled after him and his wife and avoids to answer any of Belle 's questions about her mother. "It 's obvious that he 's still holding on to her '', wrote Bustle 's Olivia Truffaut - Wong. This version was dubbed "Music Box '' in the soundtrack listing.
Later in the film, the Beast (Dan Stevens) allows Belle to use his enchanted book so they can travel wherever she wants. She uses it to return to the Parisian home where she lived as a baby with her parents. There, while she sings "How Does a Moment Last Forever '', they find a Plague mask and Belle learns that her mother fell victim of the plague. A flashback explains that Belle 's mother had pleaded with Maurice to abandon her in order to protect their baby daughter from the plague, which Maurice tearfully does. The scene adds more depth to Belle and solidifies her bond with the Beast. According to Truffaut - Wong, "she experiences this extremely intimate moment with him and turns to him for safety and comfort after, asking him to take her back home ''. This version was dubbed "Montmartre '' in the soundtrack listing, after the Parisian neighbourhood of the same name. In addition to these two performances, portions of the song are also interpolated into the underscore of the film.
The song received generally positive reviews from critics upon its release. Broadway World described it as "an emotional ballad about holding onto life 's precious moments ''. SunStar felt the song sadly laments Maurice 's feeling towards his deceased wife. Hello magazine described it as both "reflective and upbeat '', and worthy of an Academy Award for Best Original Song nomination. Us Weekly praised Dion 's "powerhouse vocals '' that perform the song 's "spirited riffs and flawless octave changes ''. Hollywood Life thought the "stunning '' song would leave audiences in tears, while NDTV Movies thought the song was a "subtle nod to the baggage that this production brings with it ''.
Rolling Stone gave the song a mixed review, saying that although "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' never reaches the "cinematic peaks '' of "My Heart Will Go On '', it sees Dion poignantly perform with bombast while having an understated conclusion. In a more negative light, Metro compared the song unfavourably to "Beauty and the Beast '', while Mashable felt the "wistful '' tune "fails to make much of an impression '' even after its three versions.
Celine Dion had previously recorded the pop version of "Beauty and the Beast '' with R&B artist Peabo Bryson; this song helped to establish her career as a music star in the Anglosphere. Menken asked her to be a part of the live action project as well by recording her own rendition of "How Does a Moment Last Forever '', which would play over the end credits. Her version features a "swelling mix of piano, accordion and orchestral strings '' and was recorded to an already existing music track that Menken had cut when the rest of the score was recorded.
Dion initially had doubts about whether or not to record the song due to the recent death of her husband and manager René Angélil, who had previously helped her secure the 1991 pop duet. While ultimately accepting the opportunity, she said: "(The) first Beauty and the Beast decision was made with my husband. Now I 'm making decisions on my own. It 's a little bit harder. I could n't say yes right away, because I felt like I was kind of cheating in a way ''. She eventually felt compelled to record the song because of the impact Beauty and the Beast has had on her career. According to her, "I was at the beginning of my career, it put me on the map, it put me where I am today ''.
In May 2017, Dion added "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' to the set list of her Las Vegas show, Celine. She also performed it during her 2017 European tour.
The music video was released on April 24, 2017 and only had movie footage while the song played.
Disney released Dion 's version on its official YouTube channel on March 8, 2017, nine days before the release of the film. Although not officially released as a single from Beauty and the Beast 's soundtrack, due to Dion 's unavailability to promote it, "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' has made an impact in certain countries due to the film 's success at the box office. It has peaked at number one for two weeks in the singer 's native Canadian province of Quebec, number nine on the US Billboard 's Kid Digital Song Sales, number 94 on the UK Singles Downloads Chart (number 80 in Scotland) and number 124 on the French Digital Singles Chart (number 125 on the Overall Sales Chart). "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' also proved to be successful in Asian countries like Hong Kong, Indonesia, Philippines Singapore and South Korea.
On November 17, 2017, "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' won a Hollywood Music in Media Award in category Original Song - Sci - Fi, Fantasy, Horror Film. It was also nominated in the Original Song -- Animated Film category.
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where is vitamin d synthesized in the skin | Vitamin D - wikipedia
Vitamin D is a group of fat - soluble secosteroids responsible for increasing intestinal absorption of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate, and multiple other biological effects. In humans, the most important compounds in this group are vitamin D (also known as cholecalciferol) and vitamin D (ergocalciferol). Cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol can be ingested from the diet and from supplements. Only a few foods contain vitamin D. The major natural source of the vitamin is synthesis of cholecalciferol in the skin from cholesterol through a chemical reaction that is dependent on sun exposure (specifically UVB radiation). Dietary recommendations typically assume that all of a person 's vitamin D is taken by mouth, as sun exposure in the population is variable and recommendations about the amount of sun exposure that is safe are uncertain in view of the skin cancer risk.
Vitamin D from the diet or skin synthesis is biologically inactive; enzymatic conversion (hydroxylation) in the liver and kidney is required for activation. As vitamin D can be synthesized in adequate amounts by most mammals exposed to sufficient sunlight, it is not an essential dietary factor, and so not technically a vitamin. Instead it could be considered a hormone, with activation of the vitamin D pro-hormone resulting in the active form, calcitriol, which then produces effects via a nuclear receptor in multiple locations. Cholecalciferol is converted in the liver to calcifediol (25 - hydroxycholecalciferol); ergocalciferol is converted to 25 - hydroxyergocalciferol. These two vitamin D metabolites (called 25 - hydroxyvitamin D or 25 (OH) D) are measured in serum to determine a person 's vitamin D status. Calcifediol is further hydroxylated by the kidneys to form calcitriol (also known as 1, 25 - dihydroxycholecalciferol), the biologically active form of vitamin D. Calcitriol circulates as a hormone in the blood, having a major role regulating the concentration of calcium and phosphate, and promoting the healthy growth and remodeling of bone. Calcitriol also has other effects, including some on cell growth, neuromuscular and immune functions, and reduction of inflammation.
Vitamin D has a significant role in calcium homeostasis and metabolism. Its discovery was due to effort to find the dietary substance lacking in children with rickets (the childhood form of osteomalacia). Vitamin D supplements are given to treat or to prevent osteomalacia and rickets, but the evidence for other health effects of vitamin D supplementation in the general population is inconsistent. The effect of vitamin D supplementation on mortality is not clear, with one meta - analysis finding a small decrease in mortality in elderly people, and another concluding no clear justification exists for recommending supplementation for preventing many diseases, and that further research of similar design is unneeded in these areas.
Several forms (vitamers) of vitamin D exist. The two major forms are vitamin D or ergocalciferol, and vitamin D or cholecalciferol; vitamin D without a subscript refers to either D or D or both. These are known collectively as calciferol. Vitamin D was chemically characterized in 1931. In 1935, the chemical structure of vitamin D was established and proven to result from the ultraviolet irradiation of 7 - dehydrocholesterol.
Chemically, the various forms of vitamin D are secosteroids, i.e., steroids in which one of the bonds in the steroid rings is broken. The structural difference between vitamin D and vitamin D is the side chain of D contains a double bond between carbons 22 and 23, and a methyl group on carbon 24.
The active vitamin D metabolite calcitriol mediates its biological effects by binding to the vitamin D receptor (VDR), which is principally located in the nuclei of target cells. The binding of calcitriol to the VDR allows the VDR to act as a transcription factor that modulates the gene expression of transport proteins (such as TRPV6 and calbindin), which are involved in calcium absorption in the intestine. The vitamin D receptor belongs to the nuclear receptor superfamily of steroid / thyroid hormone receptors, and VDRs are expressed by cells in most organs, including the brain, heart, skin, gonads, prostate, and breast.
VDR activation in the intestine, bone, kidney, and parathyroid gland cells leads to the maintenance of calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood (with the assistance of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin) and to the maintenance of bone content.
One of the most important roles of vitamin D is to maintain skeletal calcium balance by promoting calcium absorption in the intestines, promoting bone resorption by increasing osteoclast number, maintaining calcium and phosphate levels for bone formation, and allowing proper functioning of parathyroid hormone to maintain serum calcium levels. Vitamin D deficiency can result in lower bone mineral density and an increased risk of reduced bone density (osteoporosis) or bone fracture because a lack of vitamin D alters mineral metabolism in the body. Thus, vitamin D is also critical for bone remodeling through its role as a potent stimulator of bone resorption.
The VDR regulates cell proliferation and differentiation. Vitamin D also affects the immune system, and VDRs are expressed in several white blood cells, including monocytes and activated T and B cells. In vitro, vitamin D increases expression of the tyrosine hydroxylase gene in adrenal medullary cells, and affects the synthesis of neurotrophic factors, nitric oxide synthase, and glutathione.
A diet deficient in vitamin D in conjunction with inadequate sun exposure causes osteomalacia (or rickets when it occurs in children), which is a softening of the bones. In the developed world, this is a rare disease. However, vitamin D deficiency has become a worldwide problem in the elderly and remains common in children and adults. Low blood calcifediol (25 - hydroxy - vitamin D) can result from avoiding the sun. Deficiency results in impaired bone mineralization and bone damage which leads to bone - softening diseases, including rickets and osteomalacia. Being deficient in vitamin D can cause intestinal absorption of dietary calcium to fall to 15 %. When not deficient, an individual usually absorbs between 60 - 80 %.
Rickets, a childhood disease, is characterized by impeded growth and soft, weak, deformed long bones that bend and bow under their weight as children start to walk. This condition is characterized by bow legs, which can be caused by calcium or phosphorus deficiency, as well as a lack of vitamin D; today, it is largely found in low - income countries in Africa, Asia, or the Middle East and in those with genetic disorders such as pseudovitamin D deficiency rickets.
Maternal vitamin D deficiency may cause overt bone disease from before birth and impairment of bone quality after birth. Nutritional rickets exists in countries with intense year - round sunlight such as Nigeria and can occur without vitamin D deficiency.
Although rickets and osteomalacia are now rare in Britain, outbreaks have happened in some immigrant communities in which osteomalacia sufferers included women with seemingly adequate daylight outdoor exposure wearing Western clothing. Having darker skin and reduced exposure to sunshine did not produce rickets unless the diet deviated from a Western omnivore pattern characterized by high intakes of meat, fish, and eggs, and low intakes of high - extraction cereals. The dietary risk factors for rickets include abstaining from animal foods.
Vitamin D deficiency remains the main cause of rickets among young infants in most countries, because breast milk is low in vitamin D and social customs and climatic conditions can prevent adequate sun exposure. In sunny countries such as Nigeria, South Africa, and Bangladesh, where rickets occurs among older toddlers and children, it has been attributed to low dietary calcium intakes, which are characteristic of cereal - based diets with limited access to dairy products.
Rickets was formerly a major public health problem among the US population; in Denver, where ultraviolet rays are about 20 % stronger than at sea level on the same latitude, almost two - thirds of 500 children had mild rickets in the late 1920s. An increase in the proportion of animal protein in the 20th century American diet coupled with increased consumption of milk fortified with relatively small quantities of vitamin D coincided with a dramatic decline in the number of rickets cases. Also, in the United States and Canada, vitamin D - fortified milk, infant vitamin supplements, and vitamin supplements have helped to eradicate the majority of cases of rickets for children with fat malabsorption conditions.
Osteomalacia is a disease in adults that results from vitamin D deficiency. Characteristics of this disease are softening of the bones, leading to bending of the spine, bowing of the legs, proximal muscle weakness, bone fragility, and increased risk for fractures. Osteomalacia reduces calcium absorption and increases calcium loss from bone, which increases the risk for bone fractures. Osteomalacia is usually present when 25 - hydroxyvitamin D levels are less than about 10 ng / mL. Although the effects of osteomalacia are thought to contribute to chronic musculoskeletal pain, there is no persuasive evidence of lower vitamin D levels in chronic pain sufferers or that supplementation alleviates chronic nonspecific musculoskeletal pain.
Dark - skinned people living in temperate climates have been shown to have low vitamin D levels but the significance of this is not certain. Dark - skinned people may be less efficient at making vitamin D because melanin in the skin hinders vitamin D synthesis.
The effects of vitamin D supplementation on health are uncertain. A 2013 review did not find any effect from supplementation on the rates of disease, other than a tentative decrease in mortality in the elderly. Vitamin D supplements do not alter the outcomes for myocardial infarction, stroke or cerebrovascular disease, cancer, bone fractures or knee osteoarthritis. Low vitamin D levels may result from disease rather than cause disease.
A United States Institute of Medicine report states: "Outcomes related to cancer, cardiovascular disease and hypertension, and diabetes and metabolic syndrome, falls and physical performance, immune functioning and autoimmune disorders, infections, neuropsychological functioning, and preeclampsia could not be linked reliably with calcium or vitamin D intake and were often conflicting. '' Some researchers claim the IOM was too definitive in its recommendations and made a mathematical mistake when calculating the blood level of vitamin D associated with bone health. Members of the IOM panel maintain that they used a "standard procedure for dietary recommendations '' and that the report is solidly based on the data. Research on vitamin D supplements, including large - scale clinical trials, is continuing.
Vitamin D supplementation has been tentatively found to lead to a reduced risk of death in the elderly, but the effect has not been deemed pronounced or certain enough to make taking supplements recommendable. Other forms (vitamin D, alfacalcidol, and calcitriol) do not appear to have any beneficial effects with regard to the risk of death. High blood levels appear to be associated with a lower risk of death, but it is unclear if supplementation can result in this benefit. Both an excess and a deficiency in vitamin D appear to cause abnormal functioning and premature aging. The relationship between serum calcifediol level and all - cause mortality is parabolic. Harm from vitamin D appears to occur at a lower vitamin D level in the black population than in the white population.
In general, no good evidence supports the commonly held belief that vitamin D supplements can help prevent osteoporosis. Its general use for prevention of this disease in those without vitamin D deficiency is thus likely not needed. For older people with osteoporosis, taking vitamin D with calcium may help prevent hip fractures, but it also slightly increases the risk of stomach and kidney problems. Supplementation with higher doses of vitamin D, in those older than 65 years, may decrease fracture risk. The effect is small or none for people living independently. Low serum vitamin D levels have been associated with falls, and low bone mineral density. Taking extra vitamin D, however, does not appear to change the risk. Athletes who are vitamin D deficient are at an increased risk of stress fractures and / or major breaks, particularly those engaging in contact sports. The greatest benefit with supplementation is seen in athletes who are deficient (25 (OH) D serum levels < 30 ng / mL), or severely deficient (25 (OH) D serum levels < 25 ng / mL). Incremental decreases in risks are observed with rising serum 25 (OH) D concentrations plateauing at 50 ng / mL with no additional benefits seen in levels beyond this point.
Because it found mounting evidence for a benefit to bone health, though it had not found good evidence of other benefits, the US Food and Drug Administration has required manufacturers to declare the amount of vitamin D on nutrition facts labels, as "nutrients of public health significance '', since May 2016. By a proposed deadline extension, small manufacturers with less than $10 million in annual food sales will have to comply by 1 Jan 2021, while larger ones have to comply by 1 Jan 2020.
Vitamin D supplements have been widely marketed for their claimed anticancer properties. Associations have been shown in observational studies between low vitamin D levels and the risk of development of certain cancers. It is unclear, however, if taking additional vitamin D in the diet or as supplements affects the risk of cancer. Reviews have described the evidence as being "inconsistent, inconclusive as to causality, and insufficient to inform nutritional requirements '' and "not sufficiently robust to draw conclusions ''. One 2014 review found that supplements had no significant effect on cancer risk. Another 2014 review concluded that vitamin D may decrease the risk of death from cancer (one fewer death in 150 people treated over 5 years), but concerns with the quality of the data were noted. Insufficient evidence exists to recommend vitamin D supplements for people with cancer, although some evidence suggests that low vitamin D may be associated with a worse outcome for some cancers, and that higher 25 - hydroxy vitamin D levels at the time of diagnosis are associated with better outcomes.
Taking vitamin D supplements does not meaningfully reduce the risk of stroke, cerebrovascular disease, cardial infarction, or ischaemic heart disease. Supplementation may have no effect on blood pressure.
In general, vitamin D functions to activate the innate and dampen the adaptive immune systems. Deficiency has been linked to increased risk or severity of viral infections, including HIV. Low levels of vitamin D appear to be a risk factor for tuberculosis, and historically it was used as a treatment. Supplementation slightly decreases the risk of respiratory tract infections and the exacerbation of asthma. Evidence is lacking on whether it does so in children under five years of age. No clinical trials have been done to assess its effect on preventing other infections, such as malaria.
Although tentative data link low levels of vitamin D to asthma, evidence to support a beneficial effect on asthmatics from supplementation is inconclusive. Accordingly, supplementation is not currently recommended for treatment or prevention of asthma. Vitamin D and multiple sclerosis incidence have been linked, but it is not clear what the nature of any causal relationship might be. Two systemic reviews concluded that the evidence for vitamin D supplementation being helpful for treating people with multiple sclerosis is inconclusive.
Low levels of vitamin D are associated with two major forms of human Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): Crohn 's disease and ulcerative colitis. However, further studies are required to determine its significance and the potential role of vitamin D axis in IBD.
Diabetes -- A systematic review of 2014 concluded that the available studies show no evidence of vitamin D3 supplementation having an effect on glucose homeostasis or diabetes prevention. A review article of 2016 reported that while there is increasing evidence that vitamin D deficiency may be a risk factor for diabetes, over-all evidence regarding vitamin D levels and diabetes mellitus is contradictory, requiring further studies.
Depression -- Clinical trials of vitamin D supplementation for depressive symptoms have generally been of low quality and show no overall effect, although subgroup analysis showed supplementation for participants with clinically significant depressive symptoms or depressive disorder had a moderate effect.
Cognition and dementia -- A systematic review of clinical studies found an association between low vitamin D levels with cognitive impairment and a higher risk of developing Alzheimer 's disease. However, lower vitamin D concentrations are also associated with poor nutrition and spending less time outdoors. Therefore, alternative explanations for the increase in cognitive impairment exist and hence a direct causal relationship between vitamin D levels and cognition could not be established.
Pregnancy -- Low levels of vitamin D in pregnancy are associated with gestational diabetes, pre-eclampsia, and small (for gestational age) infants. Although taking vitamin D supplements during pregnancy raises blood levels of vitamin D in the mother at term, the extent of benefits for the mother or baby is unclear. Pregnant women who take an adequate amount of vitamin D during gestation may experience a lower risk of pre-eclampsia and positive immune effects. A 2018 review found that supplements may reduce the risk of undersized babies and of their poor rate of growth. Pregnant women often do not take the recommended amount of vitamin D.
Weight loss -- Though hypothesized that vitamin D supplementation may be an effective treatment for obesity apart from calorie restriction, one systematic review found no association of supplementation with body weight or fat mass. A 2016 meta - analysis found that circulating vitamin D status was improved by weight loss, indicating that fat mass may be inversely associated with blood levels of vitamin D.
Governmental regulatory agencies stipulate for the food and dietary supplement industries certain health claims as allowable as statements on packaging.
European Food Safety Authority
US Food and Drug Administration
Health Canada
Other possible agencies with claim guidance: Japan FOSHU and Australia - New Zealand.
Conversion: 1 μg = 40 IU.
Various institutions have proposed different recommendations for the amount of daily intake of vitamin D. These vary according to precise definition, age, pregnancy or lactation, and the extent assumptions are made regarding skin synthesis of vitamin D.
The dietary reference intake for vitamin D issued in 2010 by the Institute of Medicine (renamed National Academy of Medicine in 2015), superseded previous recommendations which were expressed in terms of Adequate Intake. The recommendations were formed assuming the individual has no skin synthesis of vitamin D because of inadequate sun exposure. The reference intake for vitamin D refers to total intake from food, beverages and supplements, and assumes that calcium requirements are being met. The tolerable upper intake level (UL) is defined as "the highest average daily intake of a nutrient that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects for nearly all persons in the general population. '' Although ULs are believed to be safe, information on the long - term effects is incomplete and these levels of intake are not recommended for long - term consumption.
For U.S food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (% DV). For vitamin D labeling purposes, 100 % of the Daily Value was 400 IU (10 μg), but as of May 27, 2016 it was revised to 800 IU (20 μg) to bring it into agreement with the RDA. The deadline to be in compliance was extended by the FDA to January 1, 2020 for large companies and January 1, 2021 for small companies.
Health Canada published recommended dietary allowances (RDA) and tolerable upper intake levels for vitamin D in 2012 based on the Institute of Medicine report.
Australia and New Zealand published nutrient reference values including guidelines for dietary vitamin D intake in 2005. About a third of Australians have vitamin D deficiency.
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in 2016 reviewed the current evidence, finding the relationship between serum 25 (OH) D concentration and musculoskeletal health outcomes is widely variable. They considered that average requirements and population reference intakes values for vitamin D can not be derived, and that a serum 25 (OH) D concentration of 50 nmol / L was a suitable target value. For all people over the age of 1, including women who are pregnant or lactating, they set an adequate intake of 15 μg / day (600 IU).
The EFSA reviewed safe levels of intake in 2012, setting the tolerable upper limit for adults at 100 μg / day (4000 IU), a similar conclusion as the IOM.
The UK National Health Service recommends babies and young children aged six months to five years, pregnant or breastfeeding women, and sun - deprived elderly people should take daily vitamin supplements to ensure sufficient vitamin D intake. In July 2016, Public Health England recommended that everyone consider taking a daily supplement containing 10 μg of vitamin D during autumn and winter because of inadequate sunlight for vitamin D synthesis.
The Swedish Government recommends an intake of 400 IU for children and adults up to 75 years, 800 IU for adults 75 and older.
Non-government organisations in Europe have made their own recommendations. The German Society for Nutrition recommends 20 μg. The European Menopause and Andropause Society recommends postmenopausal women consume15 μg (600 IU) until age 70, and 20 μg (800 IU) from age 71. This dose should be increased to 100 μg (4,000 IU) in some patients with very low vitamin D status or in case of co-morbid conditions.
Although vitamin D is not present naturally in most foods, it is commonly added as a fortification in manufactured foods. In some countries, staple foods are artificially fortified with vitamin D.
In general, vitamin D is found in fungi and vitamin D is found in animals. Vitamin D is produced by ultraviolet irradiation of ergosterol found in many fungi. The vitamin D content in mushrooms and Cladina arbuscula, a lichen, increase with exposure to ultraviolet light. This process is emulated by industrial ultraviolet lamps, concentrating vitamin D levels to higher levels.
The United States Department of Agriculture reports D and D content combined in one value.
Manufactured foods fortified with Vitamin D include some fruit juices and fruit juice drinks, meal replacement energy bars, soy protein - based beverages, certain cheese and cheese products, flour products, infant formulas, many breakfast cereals, and milk.
In 2016 in the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) amended food additive regulations for milk fortification, stating that vitamin D levels not exceed 42 IU vitamin D per 100 g (400 IU per US quart) of dairy milk, 84 IU of vitamin D per 100 g (800 IU per quart) of plant milks, and 89 IU per 100 g (800 IU per quart) in plant - based yogurts. Plant milks are defined as beverages made from soy, almond, rice, among other plant sources intended as alternatives to dairy milk.
While some studies have found that vitamin D raises 25 (OH) D blood levels faster and remains active in the body longer, others contend that vitamin D sources are equally bioavailable and effective as D for raising and sustaining 25 (OH) D.
Vitamin D content in typical foods is reduced variably by cooking. Boiled, fried and baked foods retained 69 -- 89 % of original vitamin D.
Recommendations on recommended 25 (OH) D serum levels vary across authorities, and vary based on factors like age. US labs generally report 25 (OH) D levels in ng / mL. Other countries often use nmol / L. One ng / mL is approximately equal to 2.5 nmol / L.
A 2014 review concluded that the most advantageous serum levels for 25 (OH) D for all outcomes appeared to be close to 30 ng / mL (75 nmol / L). The optimal vitamin D levels are still controversial and another review concluded that ranges from 30 to 40 ng / mL (75 to 100 nmol / L) were to be recommended for athletes. Part of the controversy is because numerous studies have found differences in serum levels of 25 (OH) D between ethnic groups; studies point to genetic as well as environmental reasons behind these variations. Supplementation to achieve these standard levels could cause harmful vascular calcification.
A 2012 meta - analysis showed that the risk of cardiovascular diseases increases when blood levels of vitamin D are lowest in a range of 8 to 24 ng / mL (20 to 60 nmol / L), although results among the studies analyzed were inconsistent.
In 2011 an IOM committee concluded a serum 25 (OH) D level of 20 ng / mL (50 nmol / L) is needed for bone and overall health. The dietary reference intakes for vitamin D are chosen with a margin of safety and ' overshoot ' the targeted serum value to ensure the specified levels of intake achieve the desired serum 25 (OH) D levels in almost all persons. No contributions to serum 25 (OH) D level are assumed from sun exposure and the recommendations are fully applicable to people with dark skin or negligible exposure to sunlight. The Institute found serum 25 (OH) D concentrations above 30 ng / mL (75 nmol / L) are "not consistently associated with increased benefit ''. Serum 25 (OH) D levels above 50 ng / mL (125 nmol / L) may be cause for concern. However, some people with serum 25 (OH) D between 30 and 50 ng / mL (75 nmol / L - 125 nmol / L) will also have inadequate vitamin D.
Vitamin D toxicity is rare. It is caused by supplementing with high doses of vitamin D rather than sunlight. The threshold for vitamin D toxicity has not been established; however, according to some research, the tolerable upper intake level (UL) is 4,000 IU / day for ages 9 -- 71 (100 μg / day), while other research concludes that, in healthy adults, sustained intake of more than 1250 μg / day (50,000 IU) can produce overt toxicity after several months and can increase serum 25 - hydroxyvitamin D levels to 150 ng / mL and greater. Those with certain medical conditions, such as primary hyperparathyroidism, are far more sensitive to vitamin D and develop hypercalcemia in response to any increase in vitamin D nutrition, while maternal hypercalcemia during pregnancy may increase fetal sensitivity to effects of vitamin D and lead to a syndrome of mental retardation and facial deformities.
A review published in 2015 noted that adverse effects have been reported only at 25 (OH) D serum concentrations above 200 nmol / L.
Published cases of toxicity involving hypercalcemia in which the vitamin D dose and the 25 - hydroxy - vitamin D levels are known all involve an intake of ≥ 40,000 IU (1,000 μg) per day.
Pregnant or breastfeeding women should consult a doctor before taking a vitamin D supplement. The FDA advised manufacturers of liquid vitamin D supplements that droppers accompanying these products should be clearly and accurately marked for 400 international units (1 IU is the biological equivalent of 25 ng cholecalciferol / ergocalciferol). In addition, for products intended for infants, the FDA recommends the dropper hold no more than 400 IU. For infants (birth to 12 months), the tolerable upper limit (maximum amount that can be tolerated without harm) is set at 25 μg / day (1,000 IU). One thousand micrograms per day in infants has produced toxicity within one month. After being commissioned by the Canadian and American governments, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) as of 30 November 2010, has increased the tolerable upper limit (UL) to 2,500 IU per day for ages 1 -- 3 years, 3,000 IU per day for ages 4 -- 8 years and 4,000 IU per day for ages 9 -- 71 + years (including pregnant or lactating women).
Calcitriol itself is auto - regulated in a negative feedback cycle, and is also affected by parathyroid hormone, fibroblast growth factor 23, cytokines, calcium, and phosphate.
Vitamin D overdose causes hypercalcemia, which is a strong indication of vitamin D toxicity -- this can be noted with an increase in urination and thirst. If hypercalcemia is not treated, it results in excess deposits of calcium in soft tissues and organs such as the kidneys, liver, and heart, resulting in pain and organ damage.
The main symptoms of vitamin D overdose which are those of hypercalcemia including anorexia, nausea, and vomiting. These may be followed by polyuria, polydipsia, weakness, insomnia, nervousness, pruritus and ultimately renal failure. Furthermore, proteinuria, urinary casts, azotemia, and metastatic calcification (especially in the kidneys) may develop. Other symptoms of vitamin D toxicity include mental retardation in young children, abnormal bone growth and formation, diarrhea, irritability, weight loss, and severe depression.
Vitamin D toxicity is treated by discontinuing vitamin D supplementation and restricting calcium intake. Kidney damage may be irreversible. Exposure to sunlight for extended periods of time does not normally cause vitamin D toxicity. The concentrations of vitamin D precursors produced in the skin reach an equilibrium, and any further vitamin D produced is degraded.
Synthesis of vitamin D in nature is dependent on the presence of UV radiation and subsequent activation in liver and in kidney. Many animals synthesize vitamin D from 7 - dehydrocholesterol, and many fungi synthesize vitamin D from ergosterol.
Click on icon in lower right corner to open. Click on genes, proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles.
The transformation that converts 7 - dehydrocholesterol to vitamin D occurs in two steps. First, 7 - dehydrocholesterol is photolyzed by ultraviolet light in a 6 - electron conrotatory ring - opening electrocyclic reaction; the product is previtamin D. Second, previtamin D spontaneously isomerizes to vitamin D (cholecalciferol) in an antarafacial sigmatropic (1, 7) hydride shift. At room temperature, the transformation of previtamin D to vitamin D in an organic solvent takes about 12 days to complete. The conversion of previtamin D to vitamin D in the skin is about 10 times faster than in an organic solvent.
The conversion from ergosterol to vitamin D follows a similar procedure, forming previtamin D by photolysis, which isomerizes to vitamin D. The transformation of previtamin D to vitamin D in methanol has a rate comparable to that of previtamin D. The process is faster in white button mushrooms.
Vitamin D is produced photochemically from 7 - dehydrocholesterol in the skin of most vertebrate animals, including humans. The precursor of vitamin D, 7 - dehydrocholesterol is produced in relatively large quantities. 7 - Dehydrocholesterol reacts with UVB light at wavelengths between 270 and 300 nm, with peak synthesis occurring between 295 and 297 nm. These wavelengths are present in sunlight, as well as in the light emitted by the UV lamps in tanning beds (which produce ultraviolet primarily in the UVA spectrum, but typically produce 4 % to 10 % of the total UV emissions as UVB). Exposure to light through windows is insufficient because glass almost completely blocks UVB light.
Adequate amounts of vitamin D can be produced with moderate sun exposure to the face, arms and legs, averaging 5 -- 30 minutes twice per week, or approximately 25 % of the time for minimal sunburn. The darker the skin, and the weaker the sunlight, the more minutes of exposure are needed. Vitamin D overdose is impossible from UV exposure; the skin reaches an equilibrium where the vitamin degrades as fast as it is created.
Sunscreen absorbs or reflects ultraviolet light and prevents much of it from reaching the skin. Sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 8 based on the UVB spectrum decreases vitamin D synthetic capacity by 95 %, and SPF 15 decreases it by 98 %.
The skin consists of two primary layers: the inner layer called the dermis, composed largely of connective tissue, and the outer, thinner epidermis. Thick epidermis in the soles and palms consists of five strata; from outer to inner, they are: the stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale. Vitamin D is produced in the keratinocytes of two innermost strata, the stratum basale and stratum spinosum.
Vitamin D can be synthesized only by a photochemical process. Phytoplankton in the ocean (such as coccolithophore and Emiliania huxleyi) have been photosynthesizing vitamin D for more than 500 million years. Primitive vertebrates in the ocean could absorb calcium from the ocean into their skeletons and eat plankton rich in vitamin D.
Land vertebrates required another source of vitamin D other than plants for their calcified skeletons. They had to either ingest it or be exposed to sunlight to photosynthesize it in their skin. Land vertebrates have been photosynthesizing vitamin D for more than 350 million years.
In birds and fur - bearing mammals, fur or feathers block UV rays from reaching the skin. Instead, vitamin D is created from oily secretions of the skin deposited onto the feathers or fur, and is obtained orally during grooming. However, some animals, such as the naked mole - rat, are naturally cholecalciferol - deficient, as serum 25 - OH vitamin D levels are undetectable.
Vitamin D (cholecalciferol) is produced industrially by exposing 7 - dehydrocholesterol to UVB light, followed by purification. The 7 - dehydrocholesterol is a natural substance in fish organs, especially the liver, or in wool grease (lanolin) from sheep. Vitamin D (ergocalciferol) is produced in a similar way using ergosterol from yeast or mushrooms as a starting material.
Vitamin D is carried in the bloodstream to the liver, where it is converted into the prohormone calcifediol. Circulating calcifediol may then be converted into calcitriol, the biologically active form of vitamin D, in the kidneys.
Whether it is made in the skin or ingested, Vitamin D is hydroxylated in the liver at position 25 (upper right of the molecule) to form 25 - hydroxycholecalciferol (calcifediol or 25 (OH) D). This reaction is catalyzed by the microsomal enzyme vitamin D 25 - hydroxylase, the product of the CYP2R1 human gene, and expressed by hepatocytes. Once made, the product is released into the plasma, where it is bound to an α - globulin carrier protein named the vitamin D - binding protein.
Calcifediol is transported to the proximal tubules of the kidneys, where it is hydroxylated at the 1 - α position (lower right of the molecule) to form calcitriol (1, 25 - dihydroxycholecalciferol, 1, 25 (OH) D). The conversion of calcifediol to calcitriol is catalyzed by the enzyme 25 - hydroxyvitamin D 1 - alpha - hydroxylase, which is the product of the CYP27B1 human gene. The activity of CYP27B1 is increased by parathyroid hormone, and also by low calcium or phosphate.
Following the final converting step in the kidney, calcitriol is released into the circulation. By binding to vitamin D - binding protein, calcitriol is transported throughout the body, including to the classical target organs of intestine, kidney and bone. Calcitriol is the most potent natural ligand of the vitamin D receptor, which mediates most of the physiological actions of vitamin D.
In addition to the kidneys, calcitriol is also synthesized by certain other cells including monocyte - macrophages in the immune system. When synthesized by monocyte - macrophages, calcitriol acts locally as a cytokine, modulating body defenses against microbial invaders by stimulating the innate immune system.
The activity of calcifediol and calcitriol can be reduced by hydroxylation at position 24 by vitamin D3 24 - hydroxylase, forming secalciferol and calcitetrol respecively.
Vitamin D (ergocalciferol) and Vitamin D (cholecaliferol) share a similar mechanism of action as outlined above. Metabolites produced by vitamin D is sometimes named with a er - or ergo prefix to differentiate them from the D - based counterparts. Nevertheless, these differences are present in the metabolism of Vitamin D and Vitamin D:
American researchers Elmer McCollum and Marguerite Davis in 1914 discovered a substance in cod liver oil which later was called "vitamin A ''. British doctor Edward Mellanby noticed dogs that were fed cod liver oil did not develop rickets and concluded vitamin A, or a closely associated factor, could prevent the disease. In 1922, Elmer McCollum tested modified cod liver oil in which the vitamin A had been destroyed. The modified oil cured the sick dogs, so McCollum concluded the factor in cod liver oil which cured rickets was distinct from vitamin A. He called it vitamin D because it was the fourth vitamin to be named. It was not initially realized that, unlike other vitamins, vitamin D can be synthesised by humans through exposure to UV light.
In 1925, it was established that when 7 - dehydrocholesterol is irradiated with light, a form of a fat - soluble vitamin is produced (now known as D). Alfred Fabian Hess stated: "Light equals vitamin D. '' Adolf Windaus, at the University of Göttingen in Germany, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1928 for his work on the constitution of sterols and their connection with vitamins. In 1929, a group at NIMR in Hampstead, London, were working on the structure of vitamin D, which was still unknown, as well as the structure of steroids. A meeting took place with J.B.S. Haldane, J.D. Bernal, and Dorothy Crowfoot to discuss possible structures, which contributed to bringing a team together. X-ray crystallography demonstrated the sterol molecules were flat, not as proposed by the German team led by Windaus. In 1932, Otto Rosenheim and Harold King published a paper putting forward structures for sterols and bile acids which found immediate acceptance. The informal academic collaboration between the team members Robert Benedict Bourdillon, Otto Rosenheim, Harold King, and Kenneth Callow was very productive and led to the isolation and characterization of vitamin D. At this time, the policy of the Medical Research Council was not to patent discoveries, believing the results of medical research should be open to everybody. In the 1930s, Windaus clarified further the chemical structure of vitamin D.
In 1923, American biochemist Harry Steenbock at the University of Wisconsin demonstrated that irradiation by ultraviolet light increased the vitamin D content of foods and other organic materials. After irradiating rodent food, Steenbock discovered the rodents were cured of rickets. A vitamin D deficiency is a known cause of rickets. Using $300 of his own money, Steenbock patented his invention. His irradiation technique was used for foodstuffs, most memorably for milk. By the expiration of his patent in 1945, rickets had been all but eliminated in the US.
In 1969, after studying nuclear fragments of intestinal cells, a specific binding protein for Vitamin D called the Vitamin D Receptor was identified by Mark Haussler and Tony Norman. In 1971 -- 72, the further metabolism of vitamin D to active forms was discovered. In the liver, vitamin D was found to be converted to calcifediol. Calcifediol is then converted by the kidneys to calcitriol, the biologically active form of vitamin D. Calcitriol circulates as a hormone in the blood, regulating the concentration of calcium and phosphate in the bloodstream and promoting the healthy growth and remodeling of bone. The vitamin D metabolites, calcifediol and calcitriol, were identified by competing teams led by Michael F. Holick in the laboratory of Hector DeLuca and by Tony Norman and colleagues.
There is considerable research activity looking at effects of vitamin D and its metabolites in animal models, cell systems, gene expression studies, epidemiology and clinical therapeutics. These different types of studies can produce conflicting evidence as to the benefits of interventions with vitamin D. One school of thought contends the human physiology is fine - tuned to an intake of 4,000 -- 12,000 IU / day from sun exposure with concomitant serum 25 - hydroxyvitamin D levels of 40 to 80 ng / mL and this is required for optimal health. Proponents of this view, who include some members of the panel that drafted a now - superseded 1997 report on vitamin D from the IOM, contend the IOM 's warning about serum concentrations above 50 ng / mL lacks biological plausibility. They suggest, for some people, reducing the risk of preventable disease requires a higher level of vitamin D than that recommended by the IOM.
The United States National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements established a Vitamin D Initiative in 2014 to track current research and provide education to consumers. In their 2016 review, they recognise that a growing body of research suggests that vitamin D might play some role in the prevention and treatment of types 1 and 2 diabetes, glucose intolerance, hypertension, multiple sclerosis, and other medical conditions. They state further: "however, most evidence for these roles comes from in vitro, animal, and epidemiological studies, not the randomized clinical trials considered to be more definitive. Until such trials are conducted, the implications of the available evidence for public health and patient care will be debated ''.
Some preliminary studies link low vitamin D levels with disease later in life. Evidence as of 2013 is insufficient to determine whether vitamin D affects the risk of cancer. One meta - analysis found a decrease in mortality in elderly people. Another meta - analysis covering over 350,000 people concluded that vitamin D supplementation in unselected community - dwelling individuals does not reduce skeletal (total fracture) or non-skeletal outcomes (myocardial infarction, ischaemic heart disease, stroke, cerebrovascular disease, cancer) by more than 15 %, and that further research trials with similar design are unlikely to change these conclusions.
Vitamin D deficiency is widespread in the European population. European research is assessing vitamin D intake levels in association with disease rates and policies of dietary recommendations, food fortification, vitamin D supplementation, and small amounts of sun exposure.
Apart from VDR activation, various alternative mechanisms of action are under study, such as inhibition of signal transduction by hedgehog, a hormone involved in morphogenesis.
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where does the term stockholm syndrome come from | Stockholm syndrome - wikipedia
Stockholm syndrome is a condition that causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors as a survival strategy during captivity. These feelings, resulting from a bond formed between captor and captives during intimate time spent together, are generally considered irrational in light of the danger or risk endured by the victims. Generally speaking, Stockholm syndrome consists of "strong emotional ties that develop between two persons where one person intermittently harasses, beats, threatens, abuses, or intimidates the other. '' The FBI 's Hostage Barricade Database System shows that roughly eight percent of victims show evidence of Stockholm syndrome.
It was formally named in 1973 when four hostages were taken during a bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden. The hostages defended their captors after being released and would not agree to testify in court against them. Stockholm syndrome is ostensibly paradoxical because the sympathetic sentiments captives feel towards their captors are the opposite of the fear and disdain an onlooker may feel towards the captors.
There are four key components that generally lead to the development of Stockholm syndrome:
Stockholm syndrome is considered a "contested illness '', due to many law enforcement officers ' doubt about the legitimacy of the condition.
Stockholm syndrome has also come to describe the reactions of some abuse victims beyond the context of kidnappings or hostage - taking. Actions and attitudes similar to those suffering from Stockholm Syndrome have also been found in victims of sexual abuse, human trafficking, discrimination, terror, and political oppression.
In 1973, Jan - Erik Olsson, a convict on parole, took four employees of the bank (three women and one man) hostage during a failed bank robbery in Kreditbanken, one of the largest banks in Stockholm, Sweden. He negotiated the release from prison of his friend Clark Olofsson to assist him. They held the hostages captive for six days (23 -- 28 August) in one of the bank 's vaults while torturing them with nooses and dynamite. When they were released, none of them would testify against either captor in court; instead they began raising money for their defense.
Nils Bejerot, a Swedish criminologist and psychiatrist coined the term after Stockholm police asked him for assistance with analyzing the victims ' reactions to the 1973 bank robbery and their status as hostages. As the idea of brainwashing was not a new concept, Bejerot, speaking on "a news cast after the captives ' release '' instinctively reduced the hostages ' reactions to a result of being brainwashed by their captors. He called it Norrmalmstorgssyndromet, meaning "The Norrmalmstorg Syndrome ''; it later became known outside of Sweden as the Stockholm syndrome. It was originally defined by psychiatrist Frank Ochberg to aid the management of hostage situations.
Mary McElroy was abducted from her home at age 25 by four men who held a gun to her, demanded her compliance, took her to an abandoned farmhouse, and chained her to a wall. She defended her kidnappers when she was released, explaining that they were only businessmen. She then continued to visit her captors while they were in jail. She eventually committed suicide and left the following note: "My four kidnappers are probably the only people on Earth who do n't consider me an utter fool. You have your death penalty now - so, please, give them a chance. ''
Natascha Kampusch was kidnapped at age ten and kept in an insulated, dark room under the garage of Wolfgang Priklopil. She would receive a variation of kind, physically and sexually abusive, controlling, and permissive treatment from her captor. Eight years after her kidnapping, Natascha left and Priklopil committed suicide. After her kidnapper 's death, Natascha lamented and kept a picture of him in her wallet.
Patty Hearst, the granddaughter of publisher William Randolph Hearst, was taken and held hostage by the Symbionese Liberation Army, "an urban guerilla group '', in 1974. She was recorded denouncing her family as well as the police under her new name, "Tania '', and was later seen working with the SLA to rob banks in San Francisco. She publicly asserted her sympathetic feelings towards the SLA and their pursuits as well. After her 1975 arrest, pleading Stockholm syndrome did not work as a proper defense in court, much to the chagrin of her defense lawyer, F. Lee Bailey. Her seven - year prison sentence was later commuted, and she was eventually presidentially pardoned by Bill Clinton, who was informed that she was not acting under her own free will.
In 1977, Colleen Stan was hitchhiking to visit a friend in southern California when she was kidnapped by Cameron Hooker and his wife Janice and forced to live in a wooden restraining box underneath their bed. For seven years she was repeatedly raped and tortured by Cameron and forced to live life as a sort of domestic / sex slave. Even though she was allowed to socialize with Janice and even visit her mother, she still continued to live in the box and did not attempt to escape. She was eventually freed by Janice, who asked Stan to not disclose her abuse as Janice was attempting to reform Cameron. Stan remained silent until Janice finally decided to turn Cameron over to the police.
There is evidence that some victims of childhood sexual abuse come to feel a connection with their abuser. They often feel flattered by the adult attention or are afraid that disclosure will create family disruption. In adulthood, they resist disclosure for emotional and personal reasons.
One instance of this was in the Elisabeth Fritzl case. Upon reaching the age of 18, Fritzl 's father locked her in the cellar of her home where she remained captive and victim to her father 's repetitive molestations for 24 years. During her confinement, she birthed seven of her father 's children, four who were kept secret and three whom her father and mother cared for openly. Due to her father also being the father of her children, Elisabeth grew attached to him.
A similar form of Stockholm syndrome called Lima syndrome has been proposed, in which abductors develop sympathy for their hostages. An abductor may also have second thoughts or experience empathy towards their victims.
Lima syndrome was named after an abduction at the Japanese embassy in Lima, Peru, in 1996, when members of a militant movement took hostage hundreds of people attending a party at the official residence of Japan 's ambassador. Within a few hours, the abductors had set free most of the hostages, including the most valuable ones, because of sympathy towards them.
Jan - Erik Olsson, the perpetrator of the original bank robbery in Stockholm, said in an interview:
"It was the hostages ' fault. They did everything I told them to. If they had n't, I might not be here now. Why did n't any of them attack me? They made it hard to kill. They made us go on living together day after day, like goats, in that filth. There was nothing to do but get to know each other. ''
Victims of the formal definition of Stockholm syndrome develop "positive feelings toward their captors and sympathy for their causes and goals, and negative feelings toward the police or authorities ''. These symptoms often follow escaped victims back into their previously ordinary lives.
From a psychoanalytic lens, it can be argued that Stockholm syndrome arises strictly as a result of survival instincts. Strentz states, "the victim 's need to survive is stronger than his impulse to hate the person who has created the dilemma. '' A positive emotional bond between captor and captive is a "defense mechanism of the ego under stress ''. These sentimental feelings are not strictly for show, however. Since captives often fear that their affection will be perceived as fake, they eventually begin to believe that their positive sentiments are genuine. The conception of Stockholm syndrome has grown to include victims of kidnappings or hostage instances, domestic or child abuse, human trafficking, incest, prisoners of war, political terrorism, cult members, concentration camp prisoners, slaves, and prostitutes. It is believed that women are especially subject to develop the condition.
Typically, Stockholm syndrome develops in captives when they engage in "face - to - face contact '' with their captors, and when captors make captives doubt the likelihood of their survival by terrorizing them into "helpless, powerless, and submissive '' states. This enables captors to appear merciful when they perform acts of kindness or fail to "beat, abuse, or rape '' the victims. Ideas like "dominance hierarchies and submission strategies '' assist in devising explanations for the illogical reasoning behind the symptoms of those suffering from Stockholm syndrome as a result of any oppressive relationship. Partial activation of the capture - bonding psychological trait may lie behind battered woman syndrome, military basic training, fraternity hazing, and sex practices such as sadism / masochism or bondage / discipline.
Evolutionarily speaking, research evidence exists to support the genuine scientific nature of Stockholm syndrome. Responses similar to those in human captives have been detected in some reptiles and mammals, primates in particular. Abuse and subsequent submission and appeasement by the victim have been observed among chimpanzees, leading to the theory that the Stockholm Syndrome may have its roots in evolutionary needs.
Life in the "environment of evolutionary adaptiveness '' (EEA) is thought by researchers such as Israeli military historian Azar Gat to be similar to that of the few remaining hunter - gatherer societies, who asserts that war and abductions were typical of human pre-history. Being captured by neighbouring tribes was a relatively common event for women. In some of those tribes (Yanomamo, for instance), practically everyone in the tribe is descended from a captive within the last three generations. As high as one in ten of females were abducted and incorporated into the tribe that captured them. Being captured and having their children killed may have been common; women who resisted capture risked being killed. When selection is intense and persistent, adaptive traits (such as capture - bonding) become universal to the population or species.
One of the "adaptive problems faced by our hunter - gatherer ancestors '', particularly females, was being abducted by another band. Life in the "human environment of evolutionary adaptiveness '' (EEA) is thought by researchers such as Israeli military historian Azar Gat to be similar to that of the few remaining hunter - gatherer societies. Azar Gat asserts that war and abductions (capture) were typical of human pre-history. When selection is intense and persistent, adaptive traits (such as capture - bonding) become universal to the population or species.
Being captured by neighboring tribes was a relatively common event for women in human history, if anything like the recent history of the few remaining tribes. In some of those tribes (Yanomamo, for instance), practically everyone in the tribe is descended from a captive within the last three generations. Perhaps as high as one in ten of females were abducted and incorporated into the tribe that captured them.
First published in 1994, author Dee Graham uses the Stockholm syndrome label to describe group or collective responses to trauma, rather than individual reactions. Graham focuses specifically on the impact of Stockholm syndrome on battered and abused women as a community. She claimed that in both the psychological and societal senses, these women are defined by their sense of fear surrounding the threat of male violence. This constant fear is what drives these women to perform actions that they know will be pleasing to men in order to avoid emotional, physical, or sexual assault as a result of male anger. Graham draws parallels between women and kidnapping victims in the sense that these women bond to men to survive, as captives bond to their captors to survive.
Recovering from Stockholm syndrome ordinarily involves "psychiatric or psychological counseling, '' where the patient is helped to realize that his or her actions and feelings stemmed from inherent human survival techniques. The process of recovery includes reinstating normalcy into the lives of victims, including helping the victim learn how to decrease his or her survival - driven behaviors.
A report by the FBI found that only 8 % of kidnapping victims showed signs of Stockholm syndrome. The sensational nature of dramatic cases causes that the public perceives this phenomenon as the rule rather than the exception. For Stockholm Syndrome to happen, FBI researchers have identified three key factors: the passage of time, continual contact, and small acts of kindness without direct and persistent abuse.
This book is widely used as the "classification system for psychological disorders '' by the American Psychiatric Association. Stockholm syndrome has not historically appeared in the manual, as many believe it falls under Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Before the fifth edition (DSM5) was released, Stockholm syndrome was under consideration to be included under ' Disorders of Extreme Stress, Not Otherwise Specified '. The work was updated in 2013, but Stockholm syndrome was not present.
Robbins and Anthony, who had historically studied a condition similar to Stockholm syndrome, known as destructive cult disorder, observed in their 1982 study that the 1970s were rich with apprehension surrounding the potential risks of brainwashing. They assert that brainwashing 's media attention during this time resulted in the fluid reception of Stockholm syndrome as a psychological condition.
Other researchers have found that although there is a lot of media coverage of Stockholm Syndrome, there has not been a lot of professional research into the phenomena. What little research has been done is often contradictory and does not always agree on what Stockholm Syndrome is. The term has grown beyond kidnappings to all kinds of abuse. Also, there is no clear definition of symptoms to ' diagnose ' the ' syndrome.
It is possible that the label Stockholm Syndrome is used too freely in cases in which it may not apply. Elizabeth Smart has been held as a classic example of Stockholm syndrome; however, she denies that she ever had any emotional attachment to her abusers. Although she chose not to run away when she had the chance, she emphasized that the threats from her captors to her and her family, and the direct presence of her captors influenced her decision to stay. Once freed from her captors, she gladly reunited with her family and felt no empathy for her abusers.
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what does the v stand for in v8 | V8 engine - wikipedia
A V8 engine is an eight - cylinder V configuration engine with the cylinders mounted on the crankcase in two sets (or banks) of four, with all eight pistons driving a common crankshaft. Most banks are set at a right angle (90 °) to each other, some at a narrower angle, with 45 °, 60 °, and 72 ° most common.
In its simplest form, the V8 is basically two parallel inline - four engines sharing a common crankshaft. However, this simple configuration, with a flat - or single - plane crankshaft, has the same secondary dynamic imbalance problems as two straight - 4s, resulting in vibrations in large engine displacements. Since the 1920s, most V8s have used the somewhat more complex crossplane crankshaft with heavy counterweights to eliminate the vibrations. This results in an engine that is smoother than a V6, while being considerably less expensive than a V12.
Most racing V8s continue to use the single plane crankshaft because it allows faster acceleration and more efficient exhaust system designs.
In 1902, Léon Levavasseur took out a patent on a light but quite powerful gasoline injected V8 engine. He called it the ' Antoinette ' after the young daughter of his financial backer. From 1904 he installed this engine in a number of competition speedboats and early aircraft. The aviation pioneer Alberto Santos - Dumont saw one of these boats in Côte d'Azur and decided to try it on his pusher configuration, canard - design 14 - bis aircraft. Its early 24 hp (18 kW) at 1400 rpm version with only 55 kg (121 lb) of weight was interesting, but proved to be underpowered. Santos - Dumont ordered a larger and more powerful version from Levavasseur. He changed its dimensions from the original 80 mm stroke and 80 mm bore to 105 mm stroke and 110 mm bore, obtaining 50 hp (37 kW) with 86 kg (190 lb) of weight, including cooling water. Its power - to - weight ratio was not surpassed for 25 years. Levavasseur eventually produced its own line of V8 equipped aircraft, named Antoinette I to VIII. Hubert Latham piloted the V8 powered Antoinette IV and Antoinette VII in July 1909 on two failed attempts to cross the English Channel. However, in 1910, Latham used the VII with the same engine to become the first in the world to reach an altitude of 3600 feet. Voisin constructed pusher biplanes with Antoinette engines, also, notably the one first flown successfully by Henry Farman in 1908.
The V8 engine configuration became popular in France from 1904 onward, and was used in a number of aircraft engines introduced by Renault, and Buchet among others. Some of these engines found their way into automobiles in small quantities. In 1905, Darracq built a special car to beat the world speed record. They came up with two racing car engines built on a common crankcase and camshaft. The result was monstrous engine with a displacement of 1,551 cu in (25,416 cc), good for 200 bhp (150 kW). Victor Hemery fixed that record on 30 December 1905 with a speed of 109.65 mph (176.46 km / h). This car still exists.
Rolls - Royce built a 3,535 cc (216 cu in) V8 car from 1905 to 1906, but only three copies were made and Rolls - Royce reverted to a I6 design.
In 1907, the Hewitt Motor Company built a large five - passenger Touring Car. It was equipped with a hefty V8 engine that developed 50 / 60 horsepower and had a bore of 4 in (102 mm) and a stroke of 4.5 in (114 mm). The Hewitt was the first American automobile to be equipped with a V8 engine.
De Dion - Bouton introduced a 7,773 cc (474 cu in) automobile V8 in 1910 and displayed it in New York in 1912. It was produced only in small quantities, but inspired a number of manufacturers to follow suit.
One of the first production automobile V8s was introduced in the United States in 1914 by Cadillac, a division of General Motors which sold 13,000 of the 5.4 L (330 cu in) L - head engines in its first year of production. Cadillac has been primarily a V8 company ever since. Oldsmobile, another division of General Motors, introduced its own 4 L (244 cu in) V8 engine in 1916. Chevrolet introduced a 288 cu in (4.7 L) V8 engine in 1917 and installed in the Chevrolet Series D. In February 1915, Swiss automotive engineer Marc Birkigt designed the first example of the famous Hispano - Suiza V8 single overhead cam aviation engines, in differing displacements, using dual ignition systems and in power levels from 150 horsepower to around 300 horsepower, in both direct - drive and geared output shaft versions. Almost 50,000 of these engines were built in Spain, France, the United Kingdom, Italy. Wright Aeronautical built them in the United States during World War I, with the French - produced versions getting almost - exclusive use to power the SPAD S. VII (about 6,000 produced) and SPAD S. XIII (nearly 8,500 produced) fighter aircraft; as well as both French and British versions (as with the Wolseley Viper version of the HS. 8A) for the Royal Air Force 's Royal Aircraft Factory S.E. 5 fighters (some 5,200 built) and Sopwith Dolphin (nearly 2,100 built) fighters. The H.S. 8 - series overhead cam valvetrain V8 aviation engines are said to have powered roughly half of all Allied aircraft of the WW I era.
By 1932, Henry Ford introduced one of his last great personal engineering triumphs: his "en block '', or one piece, V8 engine. The production was the largest commercially available V8 to the masses. Offered as an option to an improved 4 - cylinder Model "B '' engine in a low priced car, this compact V8 power plant, with its down draft carburettor, enabled 1932 Ford to outperform all other popular competitors and was conceived as years ahead of its time. The Ford flathead V8 is still heralded today as one of the first pioneers in ' hot rod ' engines.
The most prevalent V angle for a V8 is 90 °. This configuration features a wide, low engine with optimal firing and vibration characteristics. Many V6 and V10 engine configurations are derived from production V8 designs, so they often use the 90 ° angle; however, balance shafts are incorporated to reduce vibration and / or more complex cranks to even the firing cycle. One example is the Ford / Yamaha V8 used in the Ford Taurus SHO. It was based on Ford 's Duratec V6 and shares that engine 's 60 ° V angle. A similar Yamaha - built engine was used by Volvo Cars between 2005 and 2010. These engines were designed for transverse front - wheel - drive installation and are narrower than usual for efficient use of space. Because they are not at the ideal 90 ° angle for a V8, they require a counter-rotating balance shaft and offset split crankpins for complete smoothness. Additionally, 72 ° V8 engines have been used in modern racing.
The Rolls - Royce Meteorite V8 engine was derived from the Meteor tank engine (itself derived from the Merlin aero engine, so it shared the Merlin 's 60 ° V angle. In years past, Electro - Motive produced an 8 - cylinder version of their model 567 diesel locomotive engine, with a 45 ° cylinder angle. The 1932 Miller four - wheel drive race cars also featured a 45 ° V8.
An extremely narrow - angle V8 was introduced by Lancia in 1922, which had an angle between cylinder banks of only 14 °. This created an engine that was shorter than a straight - 6, but much narrower than a conventional V8. It was based on a Lancia V4 engine design that was almost completely "square '' in the length and width of its layout. Because of their compact design and overhead camshafts, these engines were lighter and more powerful than comparable engines of the time. Although Lancia stopped making the V8 design around World War II, the basic concept is used today in the Volkswagen VR6 engine.
The 90 degree V8 is made with two different type of crankshaft, the flat - plane and cross-plane:
The cross-plane approach was neither obvious nor simple to design. For this reason, most early V8 engines, including those from De Dion - Bouton, Peerless, and Cadillac, were flat - plane. The advance to a cross-plane was proposed at an automotive engineering conference in the United States in 1915, but it took another eight years to bring to production. Cadillac and Peerless (who had hired an ex-Cadillac mathematician for the job) applied for a patent on the cross-plane simultaneously, and the two agreed to share the idea. Cadillac introduced their "Compensated Crankshaft '' V8 in 1923, with the "Equipoised Eight '' from Peerless appearing in November 1924.
The V8 with a crossplane crankshaft (see below) is a common configuration for large automobile engines. V8 engines are rarely less than 3.0 L (183 cu in) in displacement and in automobile use have exceeded 8.2 L (500 cu in) in production vehicles, such as the early 1970s Cadillac Eldorado. In some applications, e.g. industrial and marine V8 engines, displacement can be even larger.
In automobiles V8 engines are used in a wide variety of cars and trucks, mostly in more powerful segments and types of vehicles such as American muscle cars, sports cars, luxury cars, pickup trucks, and sport utility vehicles. Many car manufacturers offer a V8 as an option in vehicles which have a V6 or straight - 6 as standard engine, often casting it as a symbol of exclusivity and prestige. In some cases, V6 engines are derived from V8 designs by removing two cylinders while maintaining the same V - angle so they can be built on the same assembly lines as the V8s and installed in the same engine compartments with few modifications. Some of these employ offset crankpins driving connecting rod pairs, enabling a regular firing sequence.
The traditional 90 ° big - bore V8 engine, as found on many American makes, is generally both too wide and long to fit in vehicles with a transverse engine front - wheel drive layout, so its applications are limited to rear - wheel drive sports cars, muscle cars, pony cars, luxury cars and light trucks. The shorter and occasionally narrower V6 engine is easier to fit in small engine compartments, but a few compact V8 engines are used in transverse FWD and transverse AWD engine configurations in larger cars, such as Cadillacs and Volvos. These engines often have tighter cylinder bore spacings, narrower cylinder bank angles, and other modifications to reduce their space requirements.
In motorsports, V8s are common and have been a popular engine choice in purpose - designed engines for race - cars in many different types and classes of automotive racing, with use for example in the Formula - 1 or the American NASCAR - racing league. They usually have flat - plane crankshafts, since a crossplane crankshaft results in uneven firing into the exhaust manifolds which interferes with engine tuning, and the crossplane 's heavy crankshaft counterweights can prevent the engine from accelerating rapidly. However, due to the inherent vibration that 's found in flat plane V8s, most large displacement V8s, even in motorsports, are cross-plane, including those found in NASCAR and Top Fuel.
Medium - weight trucks tend to use the straight - 6 configuration since it is simpler and easier to maintain, and because the straight - 6 is an inherently balanced layout which can be scaled up to any size necessary. Large V8s are found in the larger truck and industrial equipment lines.
Although it was the early choice for aircraft engines, the V8 engine is seldom used in modern aircraft engine as the typically heavy crankshaft counterweights are a liability. Modern light planes commonly use the flat - 8 configuration instead as it is lighter and easier to air cool. In addition it can be manufactured in modular designs sharing components with flat - 4 and flat - 6 engines. One of the few V8 engines used for aircraft propulsion in the World War II years was the German inverted V8 configuration, air - cooled Argus As 10 powerplant.
Cadillac produced the first American V8 engine in a production vehicle, the 1914 L - Head. It was a sophisticated unit with cast iron paired closed - head cylinders bolted to an aluminium crankcase, and it used a flat - plane crankshaft. Peerless followed the next year, introducing a V8 licensed from amusement park manufacturer, Herschell - Spillman. By 1917 Chevrolet had also designed a V8 engine which it began mass - producing, advanced in its design the engine had a central camshaft operating vertical overhead valves in each cylinder bank. The engine design used a counterweighted crankshaft, and detachable crossflow cylinder head, displacing 288 cu in (4.7 L) and producing, for the period, an impressive 55 hp (41 kW; 56 PS). It was primarily used in the Chevrolet Series D.
Cadillac and Peerless were one year apart again (1923 and 1924, respectively) with the introduction of the cross-plane crankshaft. Lincoln also had V8 cars in those years, as did Ferro, Northway (supplier to Cadillac), Cole (Indianapolis, and Jackson, Mississippi), Perkins (Detroit), Murray, Vernon, and Yale. Oakland, a division of GM, introduced an 85 hp (63 kW) 250 cu in (4.1 L) V8 with a 180 ° crankshaft in 1930 -- 1931. In 1932, the Oakland marque was discontinued and the V8 was used in its companion marque, Pontiac, for one year. Pontiac dropped the V8 engine in 1933 and replaced it with its smoother running Silver - Streak straight eight.
Ford was the first company in the world to use V8s en masse, meaning producing them in very large quantities for use in mass - produced vehicles. Instead of going to an inline six like its competitors when something larger than an inline four was needed, Ford designed a simple V8, the Flathead of 1932. This flat head engine powered almost all larger Ford cars through the 1953 production year, and was produced until around 1970 by Ford licensees around the world, with the valve - in - block engine powering mostly commercial vehicles. The gasoline - fueled Ford GAA armored fighting vehicle engine produced from 1940 to 1950 with a capacity of 1,100 cu in (18.0 L) is the largest displacement V8 production engine to date, and was used as a power option for the U.S. Army 's M4 Sherman tank in World War II.
After World War II, the strong demand for larger status - symbol cars made the common straight - 6 less marketable. Straight - 8 engines have problems with crankshaft whip and require a longer engine bay. In the new wider body styles, a V8 would fit in the same space as a straight - 6. Manufacturers could simplify production and offer the bigger engines as optional upgrades to base models.
In 1949, General Motors (GM) responded to Ford 's V8 success by introducing the Oldsmobile Rocket and Cadillac OHV. Chrysler introduced their FirePower 331 cu in (5.4 L) hemi - head V8 in 1951. That year Studebaker introduced its 232 cu in (3.8 L) OHV V8. Buick followed in 1953, while Packard and GM 's Chevrolet and Pontiac introduced V8s of their own in 1955. American Motors (AMC) initially purchased V8 engines from Packard, but developed its own lower - weight, 600 lb (272 kg), design in 1956.
A full history of each American manufacturer 's engines is outside of the scope in this article, but engine sizes on full - size cars grew throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and into the early - to - mid-1970s. The increasing size of full - size cars meant smaller models of car were introduced and became more popular, with the result, by the 1960s, Chrysler, Buick, Ford, and Chevrolet had two V8 model ranges - Ford was the only car maker to try to emulate the Chrysler Hemi V8s in any manner in the 1960s, first with its hemispherical - head Ford FE engine - derived, 427 SOHC - valvetrain design, then with the part - hemispherical head design used for the Boss 429 Mustang 's engine.
The larger engines, known as big - block V8s, were used in the full - size cars and muscle cars. Big - blocks generally had displacements in excess of 360 cu in (5.9 L). Big - block displacement reached its zenith with the 1970 Cadillac Eldorado 's 500 cu in (8.2 L) 500. During the 1970s, due to the oil crises and the gradual tightening of emission - standards, big - block V8s were affected and as a result their use in passenger cars decreased as manufacturers began to phase them out over more efficient designs. However, in trucks and other larger vehicles, primarily in the North American market, big - block V8s continue to be used until today, though some manufacturers, such as for example the Ford Motor Company took a different approach and developed V10s for use in their heavy duty commercial vehicles, such as Trucks and Vans, and / or used small - block derived designs in both diesel, e.g. Powerstroke, as well as petrol applications for improved power and efficiency. To this day Big - block V8s are commonly used in a wide variety of automotive racing mostly across North America, and such engines are available from many small and independent engine builders.
Smaller engines, known as small - block V8s, were fitted in the mid-size car ranges and generally displaced between 270 cu in (4.4 L) and 360 cu in (5.9 L), though some grew as large as Ford 's 402 cu in (6.6 L) 400. There is overlap between big - block and small - block ranges, and a factory engine between 6.0 and 6.6 L (366 and 403 cu in) could belong to either class. Engines of this general design architecture and category are still in production to date, albeit much evolved and advanced since their inception in the first half of the 20th century.
During the 1950s, 1960s, and, 1970s, every GM division had their own unique engines, whose merits and architectures varied. This enabled each division to have its own unique engine character, but made for much duplication of effort. Most, like the comparatively small Buick 215 and familiar Chevrolet 350, were shared across many divisions. Ford and Chrysler had fewer divisions, and favoured brand - specific shared designs. Eventually GM also began to phase - out several division - specific engines in the late 1970s, but has never gone to a single V8 architecture design.
GM Chevrolet 's modern big block engine family named vortec included the 7400 and 8100. In 2011 GM built its 100 - millionth unit of the Chevrolet small - block V8, making that general engine layout (notwithstanding the various evolutions and derivatives it has seen throughout the decades that it has been built) the most produced V8 engine in the world, as well as one of the most commercially successful engines ever.
Chrysler and GM have designed larger displacement V8s based on modern small - block V8 archtictures such as Chrysler 's 6.1 L (372.2 cu in) and 6.4 L (390.6 cu in) Eagle and Apache Hemis, and the LS7 7.0 L (427.2 cu in) version of GM 's LS and latest new LT engines.
Today, professional racing V8s are still common with American cars. Track cars commonly use engines around 4 -- 7 L (240 -- 430 cu in) in size. Pro-stock and Superstock drag racing engines usually use big - block (400 -- 600 cu in (6.6 -- 9.8 L)) Chevrolet or Ford Boss engines, some upwards of 800 cu in (13.1 L), and one 1,005 cu in (16.5 L) big block Chevrolet engine engineered by Sonny Leonard Racing which can rev to 8000 rpm and produces over 2,000 hp (1,491 kW; 2,028 PS) and 1,500 lb ⋅ ft (2,034 N ⋅ m) of torque naturally aspirated on regular pump petrol. Competitive drag racing 's nitromethane - fueled Top Fuel dragsters and funny car professional racing classes generally use the aluminum - conversion Chrysler Gen II Hemi. Superchargers for the engines are based on "blowers '' used to boost intake gas pressure in large 2 - stroke diesel engines, such as the Detroit Diesel. There is also a Ford 500 cu in (8.2 L) Boss Top Fuel / Funny car engine.
The Australian V8 is typically an American - manufactured unit from either Ford, Chrysler or General Motors.
The Holden small - block V8 was an all Australian designed and manufactured cast - iron 90 ° pushrod OHV engine, manufactured in the capacities of 4.2 L (253 CID), 5.0 L (308 CID, later destroked to 304 CID), and 5.7 L (355 CID -- Produced by Holden Special Vehicles, never actually built as a ' production ' motor). First introduced in 1969, ceasing production in 1999, it powered a variety of Holden vehicles including the Kingswood, Monaro, Torana and Commodore, and proved to be a popular and successful powerplant in Australian motorsport (especially Touring cars). Repco also developed and built the Repco - Holden Formula 5000 engine for Formula 5000 racing. Repco used the block and head castings of the Holden 308 V8 engine as its basis, (9) but it featured many modifications including Lucas fuel injection and dual coil Bosch ignition and more than 150 special components designed by Repco.
The British Leyland small block V8 was also a pushrod OHV engine, however it was an all alloy block like the American Buick / British Rover V8 it was based on. The stroke was increased to give it a capacity of 4.4 L (270 cu in). The motor was originally designed and fitted to the Leyland P76 sedan.
As of 2014, the only V8 produced in Australia is the 5.0 L V8 built by Ford Performance Vehicles to power its FPV GT & GS models. This motor is a combination of American - sourced and partially locally manufactured parts. The V8 used in current Holdens is sourced complete from GM in Canada, modified versions of the GM LS - series engine.
When the production of Ford 's Cleveland V8 range for the American market ceased in the early 1970s, the tooling was moved to Australia where Ford 's Australian arm continued to produce a local version of the 351 along with a 302 Cleveland. The Australian - built motors were also sold to De Tomaso to be used in the Pantera and Longchamps. Australian production ceased in 1982, with the last Cleveland - powered Falcon being the XE range (1400 - odd 302s and 409 351s).
The Rolls - Royce V - 8 was the first British V8. It is a 3.5 L (214 cu in) square engine with side valves and a 90 ° angle. To compete with electric cars, the engineering priorities of this engine were quietness and refinement over outright power and the design was deliberately shallow to emulate the look of the town brougham.
A later Rolls - Royce V8 was the Meteorite, an armoured vehicle and marine engine derived from the V12 Rolls - Royce Meteor tank engine by using two - thirds of the Meteor 's cylinders, the Meteor itself being developed from the Merlin aero engine.
As of 2017, Aston Martin, Bentley, Jaguar, Land Rover, McLaren, and Radical continue to manufacture V8 engines.
The V8s used in Aston Martins from 1969 to 2000 were based on an internal design by Tadek Marek and were used in a variety of models, starting with the 1969 DBS V8, followed by the Vantage, Virage, Volante convertible versions among others. After the Vantage was discontinued in 2000, there were no V8 models until the introduction in 2005 of a hand - built dry - sump version of Jaguar 's AJ - V8 with 4.3 L (262 cu in). The block, heads, crankshaft, connecting rods, pistons, camshafts, inlet and exhaust manifolds, lubrication system and engine management are all unique to the Aston Martin. It was used in the V8 Vantage. In 2008, capacity was increased to 4.7 L (287 cu in) by using pressed cylinder liners instead of cast - in liners. Aston Martin has since sourced its engines, both V8s as well as V12s, from American manufacturer Ford with additional future engine supply from Germany 's Mercedes - Benz.
A subsidiary of Riley, Autovia was launched in 1936 with a 2.9 L (177 cu in) 90 ° V8 to take on the likes of Rolls - Royce and Bentley. The triple camshaft engine was developed from a pair of 11⁄2 - litre Riley engine blocks.
Bentley See Rolls - Royce.
Edward Turner designed the lightweight 2.5 L (153 cu in) and high - performance 4.5 L (275 cu in) hemi - head Daimler V8 engines, announced in 1959. The 2.5 saw service in the Daimler SP250 (1959 -- 1964), and, after the Jaguar takeover, in the "Daimler 2.5 L V8 '' / "Daimler 250 '' (1962 -- 1969) versions of the Mk2 Jaguar bodyshell. The 4.5 L was used in the Daimler Majestic Major, (1959 -- 1968).
Jaguar introduced its first V8 engine, the AJ - V8, in 1996. It has been developed and updated in a variety of capacities from 3.3 L (201 cu in) (marketed as a 3.2 L) to 5.0 L (305 cu in). It is fitted with variable valve timing and, more recently, direct injection. The 4.0 L (244 cu in), 4.2 L (256 cu in), and 5.0 L (305 cu in) engines are available with the option of supercharging for top specification models.
The AJ - V8 featured on Ward 's 10 Best Engines list in 2000. It has been used Jaguar 's recent executive, luxury and sports cars where it replaced both the AJ6 and V12 units. The AJ - V8 can also be found some upmarket Ford and Lincoln models as well as in David Brown Automotive 's Speedback GT and Land Rovers, including a unique to Land Rover 4.4 L (269 cu in) capacity.
In 2006 Land Rover added the TDV8 to its list of engines. This diesel powered, twin turbocharged, 90 ° V8 is made with a compacted graphite iron block and aluminium head which offer good strength but lower weight. Initial capacity was 3.6 L (220 cu in) which produced 472 ft ⋅ lbf (640 N ⋅ m) at 2000 rpm. In 2010, capacity was increased to 4.4 L (269 cu in) increasing torque to 546 ft ⋅ lbf (740 N ⋅ m) at 1,500 rpm. It is currently being used in the Range Rover and Range Rover Sport.
Project 918 was a V8 engine introduced by Lotus for the S4 Esprit in 1996. The engine was a 3.5 L (214 cu in) unit designed in - house by Oliver Winterbottom, with twin turbochargers and an all - aluminium construction.
In 2010 McLaren Automotive, together with Ricardo, developed the 3.8 L (232 cu in) M838T twin - turbocharged engine, for use in the 12C and later 650S supercars. It is also used in highly modified plug - in hybrid form in the P1 hypercar.
Radical Sportscars offer a V8 powered car, the SR8, whose Powertec RPA engine is based upon two Suzuki Hayabusa engines joined to a common crank, utilising the original heads with a purpose designed block.
The Riley 8 / 90 engine was launched at the 1935 Motorshow. It was two OHV Riley 9 engines combined at 90 degrees.
Rolls - Royce 's first V8 debuted in 1905 but was short - lived. The company is better known for the L Series V8 which started development in 1952 and entered production in 1959, a joint - effort between Rolls - Royce and Bentley lead by engineer Jack Phillips. Following contemporary design practice, it featured overhead valves (OHV), a central camshaft and wedge - shaped combustion chambers. Some of its features were inspired by the Rolls - Royce Merlin aircraft engine, including the aluminium block with wet liners, gear - driven camshaft, (initially) outboard spark - plugs and porting.
First used in the Rolls Royce Silver Cloud and Bentley S2 while still available in modern Bentleys. Early versions were of 6.25 L (381 cu in) displacement that was increased to 6.75 L (412 cu in) in the 1970s. Turbocharging in various Bentley models beginning in the 1980s with power outputs increased in several steps. It currently produces 530 bhp (400 kW) and 1,100 N ⋅ m (810 ft ⋅ lb) in the Bentley Mulsanne Speed, while meeting Euro 6 and LEV II emissions standards. It was n't until 2007 that the final components which could be traced back to the 1959 engine were replaced.
Rover 's first foray into V8 engine manufacture came with the Rover Meteorite petrol or diesel engine, which was derived from the 60 ° V12 Rolls - Royce Meteor engine used in British tanks from 1943. Meteorite was used in trucks and transporters as well as for marine and stationary use.
Rover needed of a more powerful engine by the mid-1960s for passenger vehicles. The managing director of Rover, on a trip to America where he saw an example of the Buick ' Small Block ' 215 engine in the Mercury Marine experimental department and was impressed with its light weight and small size relative to its power output and potential. The 3.5 L (214 cu in) V8 was only 12 pounds (5.4 kg) heavier and less than 1 inch (2.5 cm) longer than the 2.0 L (122 cu in) Rover straight - 4. He sent the aluminium engine back to the U.K. for evaluation. It worked well in the large Rovers, being considerably shorter, lighter, and more powerful than the Rover straight 6, and Rover acquired manufacturing rights to it. The engine was introduced in Rover saloons in the late 1960s.
The engine was marketed to small car manufacturers such as Morgan, TVR, Triumph, Marcos, and MG. Land Rover also used the V8 from 1970, first in the Range Rover starting at 3.5 L (214 cu in) in the earlier models, in the utility defender from 1980 onwards, and then in the Discovery models, where it was increased to 3.9 L (238 cu in) and to 4.6 L (281 cu in) in the 1994 -- 2002 models.
The original Rover V8 had ended production, but MG Rover decided to re-engineer the Rover 75 in 2002 to fit a 4.6 L (281 cu in) Ford Modular V8.
In October 1936, the Standard Motor Company introduced the ' Flying V - Eight ' model featuring a 2.7 L (165 cu in) flathead V8 developing 20 RAC horsepower. Used in the flagship model of the company 's ' Flying Standard ' range, but customers preferred the larger, roomier straight - 6 ' Flying Twenty ' model, which cost less than the Flying V - Eight. Only 250 engines were made and production ended by the summer of 1937. Standard still had some for sale in 1938 at a reduced price.
The 1971 Triumph V8 used the Slant 4 engine as its starting point. Initially it was to be fitted with fuel injection, but due to lack of funds at parent company Leyland Motors, the system was never perfected and twin carburettors were used instead. Low quality manufacturing garnered the engine a poor reputation and the 3.0 L (183 cu in) V8 was used only in the Triumph Stag.
The specialist sports car firm TVR also produced their own V8 engine in 4.2 L (256 cu in) 350 bhp (261 kW) and 4.5 L (275 cu in) 440 bhp (328 kW) forms for the TVR Cerbera and Tuscan racer. Designed by Al Melling, the APJ8 engine is known as the Speed Eight and features a flat - plane crank and unusual 75 ° V. The engine is lightweight, weighing just 121 kg dry.
First Automobile Works introduced the first V8 engine in Asia in 1959, used in Hongqi luxury automobiles.
Tatra used their air - cooled V8 engines from 1934, when introduced Tatra 77 (first serial - produced aerodynamically designed car). These culminated in the 2.5 L unit used in the Tatra T603 range of cars. The most powerful of these was fitted to the racing variant -- known as the B - 5. This was a higher compression version of the standard engine which replaced a standard single 2BBL carburettor with two 4BBL downdraft units on a new induction manifold. Tatra later produced another air - cooled engine, used in Tatra 613 and later, in Tatra 700. These engines were well known for their reliability, good fuel consumption, and specific sound.
In the Tatra 603, two engine driven fans help pull cooling air into the engine bay -- when the vehicle is in motion the air enters through intakes in the rear wing panels and is exhausted through cut - outs below the bumper and alongside the engine itself. In the Tatra 613, one large ventilator pushes fresh cold air into the engine bay.
Tatra has used V8 air - cooled engines in their heavy duty trucks until the present day in their Tatra 815 and other models.
While France developed the very first V8 engines, they used it for pioneer era airplanes before 1910. The French De Dion - Bouton motorcar firm did produce a V8 engine for sale in a car in 1910. During the collectible, Art Deco age of French automobiles in the 1920 - 30 's, makes like Delage, Delahaye, Talbot - Lago, Bugatti and Hotchkiss et Cie used Inline - 6 and Inline - 8 cylinder engines.
In 1934, Citroën developed a Traction Avant V8 (The 22CV), but possibly due to the bankruptcy of the firm that year, this engine was never finalized for production.
Ford Société Anonyme Française built V8 powered cars (to a U.S. design) through its Matford subsidiary in Strasbourg, France from 1935 to 1954. After WW2, the vehicles badged Ford. Simca purchased Ford SAF in 1954, including the rights to continue building the V8, in the Simca Vedette. Facel, a bodywork subcontractor to Ford SAF, also built V8 cars, using Chrysler engines, from 1954 to 1964.
After WW2, France imposed very steep Tax horsepower charges - the owners of cars with engines above 2 litres were financially penalized, so France had a very small domestic market for larger engined cars, such as the V8.
Both the Citroën SM and the "PRV '' (Peugeot, Renault, Volvo) V6 were effectively 90 degree V8 motors, with two cylinders removed. An SM V8 was created as a test bed for the 1975 Maserati Quattroporte that never saw full - scale production, due to the 1974 bankruptcy of Citroën. This car was fully developed and suitable for road use. The 1973 oil crisis made a French car with a V8 engine even more difficult to rationalize.
In the 1970s. Gordini also developed a 3 L V8 for the Alpine A310, but a Renault 4 - cylinder block was mounted instead because of cost issues.
France does not currently build any V8 powered cars for road use.
German companies that have manufactured V8 engines include Argus Motoren, Argus As 10 who produced an inverted V8 air - cooled aircraft engine from 1928 to 1945. Horch introduced the V8 powered 830 Series in 1933 as a smaller alternative to their inline - 8 powered models.
In the early 1960s, Mercedes - Benz introduced the first post-WWII V8 engine by a German / European manufacturer with their M100 engine, which was first used in the 600 Pullman Limousine and later in their high - end sedans such as the 300 SEL 6.3. The successor to the M100, the M116 and M117 were available in the SL and SLC roadster and coupe as well as the S - Class four - door sedans.
Other firms making V8 engines include Volkswagen Group (Audi, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, MAN, Porsche, and Volkswagen), BMW, and Stoewer.
Alfa Romeo The Alfa Romeo Montreal was powered by a dry sump 2,593 cc (158.2 cu in) 90 ° quad - cam 16 - valve V8 (type 00564) derived from the Tipo 33 race car. Because of the limited space available for the cross-plane crankshaft, the physically small but heavy crank counterweights were made of a sintered tungsten alloy called turconit. The Montreal V8 was rated at 230 hp (170 kW) at the flywheel and weighed 162 kg (357 lb). There were also eighteen 33 Stradale cars built with a detuned 1,995 cc 260 hp (190 kW) Tipo 33 / 2 flat - crank engine. The Montreal cross-crank engine was also used in a very limited production run of 22 Alfetta GTV2. 6i. The Alfa Romeo 8C Competizione sports car has a Ferrari - built 4,691 cc (286.3 cu in) 450 PS (330 kW; 440 hp) cross-crank V8.
Ferrari
Arguably, Ferrari had their first contact with V8 power with the "inherited '' Lancia D50s in 1955. Ferrari adopted the V8 configuration for themselves for racing in 1962 with the 268 SP. The first V8 - powered Ferrari road car was 1974 's 308 GT4, with the familiar 308 GTB following closely behind. The company continued to use this Dino V8 engine ever since with the 328, 348, and successors. Ferrari 's smallest V8 (and indeed, the smallest ever) was the 2.0 L (1990 cc) unit found in the 1975 208 GT4. The company produced a slightly larger 2.0 L V8 in the 208 GTB and the 2.9 L Ferrari F40 of the 1980s. This was a turbocharged engine to reduce the road tax of the car in Italy. Automobiles with engines displacing more than 2.0 Litre were subject to a much higher tax rate. Five - valve - per - cylinder versions of Ferrari 's 3.5 L and 3.6 L V8s were found in the Ferrari F355 and Ferrari 360. The old Dino V8 was retired for 2004 with the introduction of a 4.3 L V8, based on the originally Ferrari designed Maserati 4.2 V8, in the F430 and the California. And F430 's successor, 458 Italia, with 4.5 V8.
Fiat The only Fiat to have a V8 was the Fiat 8V. The engine was a very compact OHV 1996 cc (122 CID) V8 with a 70 ° V angle and 2 valves per cylinder. The Fiat 8V was designed to participate in the Italian two - litre racing class. Fiat also built a V8 Diesel introduced in 1975 Des - 8280 naturally aspirated producing 350 hp (261 kW) for their heavy trucks and later superseded by turbocharged units in the mid eighths.
IVECO The only Italian diesel V8 engine is built by IVECO since 1984, named IVECO - aifo. The engine is used for instance in specific IVECO heavy duty trucks Turbotech, Turbostar (360, 380, 420 and 480 PS), Eurostar (480 and 520 PS), Orlandi Poker built coaches, Astra HD7 (8x4 or 8x6, 520 PS), power generation and marine applications.
Lamborghini Lamborghini built V8 engines for several of their car lines, including the Urraco, Silhouette, and Jalpa. Lamborghini is also set to build a V8 engine for the Urus.
Lancia During a brief period Lancia used V8 engines in their top of the range luxury cars in the interwar period. The first V8 engine in a Lancia vehicle was available in 1922 in the Trikappa with a 4595 cc (280 CID) making 98 bhp (73 kW). In 1928 they introduced the Dilambda with a 3956 cc (242 CID) V8 developing 100 bhp (75 kW). Later in 1931 the Astura was unveiled with two smaller versions of the existing V8, 2604 cc (159 CID) and 2973 cc (181 CID) with 72 bhp (54 kW) and 82 bhp (61 kW) respectively. All of those engines featured Lancia 's trademark narrow angle V (less than 25 °). In late 1987 Lancia introduced their top of the range luxury sedan the Lancia Thema 8.32 (Y9) which was powered by a V8 out of corporate sibling brand 's Ferrari 308. It was a 3 - litre (2927cc) unit, the 8 indicated the cylinders while the 32 indicated the number of valves. The model was of very low production numbers and was produced until May 1992.
Maserati
Maserati have used V8s for many of their models, including the Maserati Bora and the Maserati Khamsin. This engine was initially designed as a racing engine for the Maserati 450S. The company 's latest 4.2 L V8, found in the Maserati Quattroporte and Maserati Coupé & Spyder was originally designed by Ferrari, and is related to the 4.3 L V8 in the F430.
Japanese manufacturers are traditionally not known for V8 engines in their roadcars. However, they have built a few V8 engines to meet the needs of consumers, as well as for their own racing programs. In Japan, V8 engines are regarded as an expensive luxury item, due to Japanese Government engine displacement regulations that impose a yearly annual tax for engines that exceed 2000cc. Most Japanese manufacturers have introduced and installed 2.0 L V6 engines in large Japanese vehicles that are adequately powerful, making a 2.0 L V8 impractical.
Honda Honda has never built its own V8 for passenger vehicles. However, it did rebadge a Land Rover Discovery Series I with a Rover V8 as the Honda Crossroad for the Japanese market. In the late 1990s, the company resisted considerable pressure from its American dealers for a V8 engine with American Honda reportedly sending one dealer a shipment of V8 beverages to silence them.
Honda has built V8s for racing, most notably for Formula One. Honda was the sole engine builder for Indy Racing from 2006 through 2011. The Honda Indy V8 has a 10,300 rpm redline. Also, their affiliate Mugen Motorsports (now known as M - Tec) has built racing V8s that eventually found their way into limited production road cars as well as concept cars. Their MF408S engine, which powers cars in the ALMS, is also found in prototype racers such as the Mooncraft Shiden. It is the engine in the Honda Legend based Honda Max concept.
Mitsubishi In 1999, Mitsubishi Motors developed an alloy - headed 4.5 L V8, dubbed the 8A8, with double overhead camshafts and gasoline direct injection (GDI) technology for use in its Proudia and Dignity models. Financial pressures forced the company to discontinue sales of both these vehicles after only fifteen months.
Nissan Nissan built its first V8, the Y40, in 1965 for its President limousine. The Y engine has been succeeded by two families of V8, the VH series during the 1980s and 1990s and the new VK series, which is also used in select Infiniti models.
Toyota Toyota 's first V8 engine family was the V series used in the Toyota Crown Eight luxury car introduced in April 1964. This engine remained in use in the Toyota Century limousine from 1967 onward until it was replaced by a V12 in 1997. Other Toyota V8 families are the UZ engines and its replacement, the new UR series, both of which have been used as powerplants for Toyota trucks and SUVs as well as trucks, SUVs, and larger cars of Toyota 's luxury brand, Lexus. Toyota had also built V8 Formula One engines under the RVX series for Toyota Racing, Williams F1, Midland F1, and Jordan Grand Prix teams.
Yamaha While better known as a manufacturer of motorcycles, Yamaha also makes engines under contract from auto - manufacturers. They currently produce a V8 engine in conjunction with Volvo Cars the Volvo XC90 and previously the Volvo S80. They also had a contract with Ford in the 1990s to produce a V8 (3.4 L) for the Ford Taurus SHO.
Hyundai produce a number of V8 engines including the D8 diesel, the 4.5 L (275 cu in) Omega - originally a Mitsubishi design (see above) - and the 4.6 L (281 cu in) Tau.
The most well - known Swedish V8 engine producer, is probably Scania AB, with the 14 L (854 cu in) diesel, which was released in 1969 for use in the 140 model heavy trucks. At this point, the 350 hp (261 kW) turbo - charged engine was among the most powerful diesel engines offered in Europe. Scania continues using a V8 as its largest displacement engine at 16 L (976 cu in) producing maximum 730 hp (544 kW), for the R - series, G - series, and P - series (in buses and coaches he uses I6). Emission norms range between Euro 3 - Euro 6 depending on which market the vehicle is sold to.
Volvo 's 1950s concept car Philip also had a gasoline V8 engine. The car never went into production, but the engine evolved into a 120 hp 3.6 L V8 (in many aspects a "double B18 '' engine) for use in the light trucks Volvo Snabbe and Volvo Trygge from the late 1950s on.
Small scale Supercar manufacturer Koenigsegg has developed a 5.0 L (305 cu in) twin - turbocharged V8 producing 1140 bhp for use in their Agera models. This engine is unique in that it is a flexible fuel engine and produces more power while running on biofuel than on regular unleaded. Previously Koenigsegg utilized a Ford Powerplant, namely the Ford Modular 4.7 L V8.
ZIS, ZIL For the ZIL - 111 (1959), an all - new aluminium 6 L OHV V8 was developed, initially it produced 200 hp (149 kW) at 4200 rpm.
ZIL - 114 (1967) was powered by a 6,960 cc (425 cu in) V8 giving 300 hp (224 kW) at 4400 rpm. Its more modern derivative model, the ZIL - 41047, is powered by a ZIL - 4104 engine, a 7680 cc carburetted V8 giving 315 hp (235 kW) at 4600 rpm.
The ZIL trucks used (and still use) a modification of this engine (cast - iron block, aluminum heads, 6L, 150 hp (112 kW) at 3200 rpm, 6.5: 1 compression rate, one 2 - bbl carburetor).
GAZ (ZMZ)
Several cars produced under the Volga brand name: the GAZ - 23 (1962 -- 1970), GAZ - 24 - 24 V8 (1974 -- 1992), and GAZ - 31013 V8 (1982 -- 1996). In addition, both generations of the GAZ Chaika limousines (1959 -- 1982 and 1976 -- 1988) were powered by an all - aluminum OHV 5.5 L V8. These engines were designated ZMZ - 13 (GAZ - 13), one 4 - bbl carburetor), ZMZ - 14 (GAZ - 14), two 4 - bbl carburetors), ZMZ - 2424 (Volga GAZ - 24 - 24), ZMZ - 505 (two 4 - bbl carburetors) and - 503 (one 4 - bbl carburetor) (GAZ - 24 - 34, GAZ - 31013). Power output varied from 195 -- 220 hp (145 -- 164 kW). A modification of the same engine was also used in the BRDM - 2 military armored vehicle, designated ZMZ - 41.
The GAZ - 53 was powered by a 4,254 cc (259.6 cu in) ZMZ - 53 engine, which substantially was a modification of the Chaika 's engine with one 2 - bbl carburetor and decreased displacement and compression ratio. More modern version of the GAZ engine for intermediate trucks is designated ZMZ - 511.
Spanish truck and sportscar company Pegaso made around 100 cars in the 1950s and 1960s. There were two types of engines; the Z - 102 and the Z - 103 / 4 engines.
The Z - 102 first introduced in 1951 engine was an advanced design sporting quadruple camshafts (two per bank) and had 2 valves per cylinder. It was available with 1, 2 or 4 twin Weber carburettors and either normally aspirated or with one or two superchargers. It had three different capacities, 2472 cc (151 CID), 2816 cc (172 CID) and 3178 cc (194 CID) and made between 165 bhp (123 kW) and 360 bhp (270 kW).
The Z - 103 / 4 developed in the mid / late 1950s (the first prototype was made in 1954) was a much simpler design destined to power a new series of luxury and sportscars. It had a single central camshaft and 2 valves per cylinder actuated by pushrods. It had hemispherical combustion chambers (like the Z - 102 engine) and twin spark plugs. It was available with three different cubic capacities as well, 3900 cc (238 CID), 4500 cc (275 CID) and 4700 cc (287 CID). The 3.9 L engine had a twin Weber carburettor and the 4.5 and 4.7 L engines 2 quadruple Weber carbs, which gave the later a power output in excess of 300 bhp (220 kW). The very few engines of this type produced were installed in Z - 102 cars.
In aviation, V8 engines have been used by a variety of applications such as the pre-World War One Renault 8G which powered numerous pioneer aircraft, the World War One Hispano - Suiza 8 which powered many fighters including the SPAD XIII and the American Curtiss OX - 5 which powered the Curtiss Jenny trainer, and many other aircraft in the early post war period. During World War II the Argus As 10 inverted, air - cooled German V8 was used in trainers and small utility aircraft.
There are numerous marine diesel engines of V8 configuration including the Brons V8 two - stroke diesel engine, and engines by Scania and Yanmar. However, the configuration is not common in large marine engines. In June 2015, Wärtsilä published a new engine type (Wärtsilä 31) which is also available in V8 configuration. The 8V31 weighs 56 metric tons and is rated at 4,880 kilowatts (6,540 hp).
Moto Guzzi of Italy built a 148 kg (326 lb) 82 bhp (61 kW) water - cooled DOHC V8 4 - stroke motorcycle for Grand Prix racing between 1955 and 1957, referred to as the Moto Guzzi Grand Prix 500 cc V8. It was known as the Otto Cilindri, and had a very high power output but was not developed to its full potential. Each cylinder had its own carburetter.
Around 1964, Finnish TT motorcyclist technician area lecturer Tauno Nurmi built a 350 cc DOHC V8 - powered 4 - stroke motorcycle engine by the name V8 PREMIER. V angle is 90 ° and it is air - cooled. Each cylinder has its own carburettor. It is his own design and construction.
Morbidelli produced an 848 cc V8 in 1994. Earlier, Galbusera had produced a two - stroke V8 in 1938.
Honda released the NR750 in 1992. The bike had a 750 cc V4 with oval pistons, utilising 8 valves per cylinder and 2 conrods per piston; the design allowed the engine to meet FIM racing regulations limiting the number of cylinders to 4, while providing the valve area (and therefore increased efficiency) of a V8.
For the 2.5 L Formula One era of 1954 -- 1960, two British racing V8s were built in Coventry. One was the Coventry Climax FPE named the Godiva, and the other was the little - known Brooke Weston. Because of Coventry Climax 's decision not to release the engine to Kieft, HWM and Connaught at the time, the Godiva did not debut until 1966 when it raced under the 3 Litre formula on Shannon F1 at the British GP with an enlarged 3 Litre displacement. Brooke Weston DOHC V8 was scheduled to be installed on an ERA, but this did not materialise due to Leslie Johnson 's declining health prompted the sale of ERA, which pulled out of the project.
Lancia raced Vittorio Jano designed V8 DS50 engine on Lancia D50 in 1954. When Lancia withdrew from racing in 1955, Ferrari bought the Lancia team and continued to develop it. Juan Manuel Fangio won the 1956 World Drivers ' Championship in the DS50 - powered Ferrari - Lancia D50.
The 1.5 L Formula One era of 1961 -- 1965 included V8 engines from Ferrari, Coventry Climax, BRM, and ATS. Ferrari, BRM and ATS used their engines in their cars, while Coventry Climax and BRM sold engines to constructors. Apart from Phil Hill 's 1961 World Drivers ' Championship, which he won in a V6 - powered Ferrari, all the other World Drivers ' Champions (Graham Hill in 1962, Jim Clark in 1963, John Surtees in 1964, and Clark again in 1965) drove V8 - powered cars to their victories. Also, from 1962 to 1965, the top three manufacturers in each season 's Manufacturer 's Championship all predominantly used V8 engines in their cars.
The first two seasons of the 3.0 L normally aspirated / 1.5 L supercharged Formula One era of 1966 -- 1986 were won by Brabham cars with Repco V8 engines. From 1968 to 1981, F1 was largely dominated by teams using the Cosworth DFV engine. During this time, the Manufacturers ' Championship was won by Cosworth DFV powered cars every season except 1975, 1976, 1977, and 1979, which were won by 12 - cylinder Ferraris. Graham Hill, Jochen Rindt, James Hunt, Mario Andretti, Alan Jones, Nelson Piquet, and Keke Rosberg each won a World Drivers ' Championship in a Cosworth DFV powered car, while Emerson Fittipaldi won two and Jackie Stewart won three.
Throughout the 1970s the Cosworth V8 faced stiff competition from the V12 / Flat 12 engines of Matra, Ferrari and Alfa Romeo. However, because of the 90 degree V8 design of the Cosworth, it was much lighter, simpler, more fuel efficient and more compact than its 12 - cylinder rivals. What kept the Cosworth V8 competitive was because it was a compact, narrow engine it had less frontal area than a V12 / flat 12, giving the teams who used it better aero balance resulting in better downforce and straightline speed. In the late - 1970s, Lotus used "ground effect '' venturi tunnels with "sliding skirts '' to enhance roadholding and the Lotus 79 powered by the FV V8 dominated the 1978 season, ending Ferrari 's three year dominance of the constructors championship. The Ligier and Brabham also switched from bulky heavy V12s to the DFV during the 1979 / 1980 seasons. The 15 - year - old Cosworth DFVV was narrow and fit the ground effects better than the Ferrari flat 12. The British kit car teams used the old engine to exploit ground effect to win the drivers championship in 1978, 1980, 1981, and 1982.
Between the years 1995 and 2005, all Formula One cars used engines with a 3 - litre displacement, by 2005 these were all V10s. Later regulations and safety concerns by the FIA considered speeds were getting too high to be safe, after the complete banning of turbochargers in 1989, the permitted engine size was further reduced to 2.4 L V8. This reduced average power output of the engines from 900 -- 950 bhp (670 -- 710 kW), in the 2005 season, to a 2006 season average of approx. 750 -- 800 bhp (560 -- 600 kW) -- equivalent to power outputs that were being achieved on 3 L around the 1999 / 2000 seasons. This also had the effect of reducing overall costs for the teams, an aim pursued by FIA.
In the American ' Top Fuel ' class of Drag Racing, V8 engines displacing 500 cu in (8 L) today produce outputs of over 10,000 hp (7,457 kW; 10,139 PS), (1000 + hp per cylinder) and 7,400 foot - pounds of torque Based on the Chrysler Hemi and running on highly explosive Nitro - Methane fuel, these immensely powerful engines propel the cars from 0 -- 100 km / h (0 -- 62 mph) in 0.2 seconds, from 0 -- 161 km / h (0 -- 100 mph) in 0.8 seconds or less, and from 0 -- 523 km / h (0 -- 325 mph) in under 4.5 seconds.
American premier stock car racing NASCAR series has been dominated by American V8 engines since the introduction of the Oldsmobile Rocket 88 engine.
The world 's fastest non-jet - powered, i.e. piston engine powered, wheeled land vehicle, the Speed Demon, which achieved a speed of 462.345 mph, is powered by an American V8 engine. The vehicle utilizes highly modified V8 engines based on the Chevy small - block architecture, ranging in size from 299 to 388 cubic inches, with power outputs from 1980 hp for the smallest unit i.e. the 288 cui, to 2670 hp and 1310 lb. - ft. of torque for the 388 cui unit.
British BriSCA F1 Stock Cars (and their counterparts from the Netherlands) use American V8 engines for racing; typically Chevrolet small blocks for tarmac tracks and big blocks, displacing as much as 590 cu in (10 L), for racing on shale ovals. V8 Hotstox, which often run at the same fixtures as BriSCA F1 stock cars, tend to use Rover V8 engines of approximately 3.5 litre capacity, which in turn originally were based on the American 215 Buick V8 engine.
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what is the model number of the latest macbook pro | MacBook Pro - Wikipedia
The MacBook Pro (sometimes abbreviated as MBP) is a line of Macintosh portable computers introduced in January 2006 by Apple Inc. It is the high - end model of the MacBook family and is currently available in 13 - and 15 - inch screen sizes. A 17 - inch version was available between April 2006 and June 2012.
The first generation MacBook Pro is externally similar to the PowerBook G4 it replaces, but uses Intel Core processors instead of PowerPC G4 chips. The 15 - inch model was introduced first, in January 2006; the 17 - inch model followed in April. Both received several updates and Core 2 Duo processors later that year.
The product 's second iteration, known as the "unibody '' model, has a casing made from a single piece of aluminum. It debuted in October 2008 in 13 - and 15 - inch screen sizes. In January 2009, the 17 - inch model was updated with the same unibody design. Subsequent updates brought upgraded Intel Core i5 and i7 processors and introduced Intel 's Thunderbolt technology.
Apple released the third generation of MacBook Pro with a 15 - inch screen during WWDC 2012 and discontinued the 17 - inch variant. The previous generation 13 - and 15 - inch unibody models continued to sell with updated processors. The third generation model is thinner than its predecessor and is the first to include a high - resolution Retina Display. A 13 - inch variant was released in October 2012.
The fourth generation MacBook Pro was announced on October 27, 2016. It replaces the function keys with an interactive, multi-touch "Touch Bar '' and a Touch ID sensor integrated into the Power button.
The original 15 - inch MacBook Pro was announced on January 10, 2006 by Steve Jobs at the Macworld Conference & Expo. The 17 - inch model was unveiled on April 24, 2006. The first design was largely a carryover from the PowerBook G4, but uses Intel Core CPUs instead of PowerPC G4 chips. The 15 - inch MacBook Pro weighs the same as the 15 - inch aluminum PowerBook G4, but is 0.1 inches (0.25 cm) deeper, 0.4 inches (1.0 cm) wider, and 0.1 inches (0.25 cm) thinner. Other changes from the PowerBook include a built - in iSight webcam and the inclusion of MagSafe, a magnetic power connector designed to detach easily when yanked. These features were later brought over to the MacBook. The optical drive was reduced in size in order to fit into the slimmer MacBook Pro, hence it runs slower than the optical drive in the PowerBook G4 and can not write to dual layer DVDs.
Both the original 15 - and 17 - inch model MacBook Pros come with ExpressCard / 34 slots, which replace the PC Card slots found in the PowerBook G4. All first generation 15 - inch models have two USB 2.0 ports and one FireWire 400 port, while the 17 - inch models have three USB 2.0 ports as well as one FireWire 400 port. When first introduced, the MacBook Pro did not come with FireWire 800 or S - Video ports, although FireWire 800 was added in the next 15 - inch model revision and is present in every version of the 17 - inch design. S - Video capability can be attained through the use of a DVI to S - Video adapter. External displays with up to a 2,560 × 1,600 pixel resolution are supported through a dual - link DVI port. All models include a built - in Gigabit Ethernet port, Bluetooth 2.0, and 802.11 a / b / g. Later models include support for the draft 2.0 specification of 802.11 n and Bluetooth 2.1.
Apple refreshed the entire MacBook Pro line on October 24, 2006 to include Intel Core 2 Duo processors. Memory capacity was doubled for each model, to 1 GB on the low - end 15 - inch and 2 GB for the high - end 15 - and 17 - inch models. FireWire 800 was added to the 15 - inch models. Hard drive capacity was increased, although video card options stayed the same. The MacBook Pro line received a second update on June 5, 2007 with new Nvidia Geforce 8600M GT video cards and faster processor options. LED backlighting was added to the 15 - inch model 's screen, and its weight was reduced from 5.6 pounds (2.5 kg) to 5.4 pounds (2.4 kg). Furthermore, the speed of the front - side bus was increased from 667 MHz to 800 MHz. On November 1, 2007, Apple added the option of a 2.6 GHz Santa Rosa platform Core 2 Duo CPU as well as reconfigured hard drive options.
On February 26, 2008, the MacBook Pro line was again updated. LED backlighting was added as an option for the 17 - inch model. Processors were updated to "Penryn '' cores, which are built on the 45 nanometer process (65 nanometer "Merom '' cores were previously used), and hard drive and memory capacities were increased. Multi-touch capabilities, first introduced with the MacBook Air earlier that year, were brought over to the MacBook Pro 's trackpad. When the 15 - inch unibody MacBook Pro was introduced on October 14, 2008, the pre-unibody model with the same screen size was discontinued, while the 17 - inch pre-unibody model continued to be sold. The original case design was discontinued on January 6, 2009, when the 17 - inch MacBook Pro was also updated with unibody construction.
Some reviewers applauded the MacBook Pro for its doubling or tripling the speed of the PowerBook G4 in some areas. For example, the 3D rendering program Cinema 4D XL was 3.3 times as fast (2.3 times faster), and its boot - up time was more than twice as quick. The MacBook Pro generally outperformed the PowerBook G4 in performance analyzer utility tests XBench and Cinebench. Reviewers lauded the screen 's maximum brightness, 67 percent higher than the PowerBook G4; the excellent horizontal viewing angles; the matte options; and the bright, crisp, and true colors. Although the screen offered fewer vertical pixels (1,440 × 900 in the MacBook Pro instead of 1,440 × 960 in the PowerBook), one reviewer called the screen "nothing less than stellar ''. Reviewers praised the new MagSafe power adapter, although one reviewer said it disconnected too easily in some instances. They also praised the backlit keyboard, large trackpad, and the virtually silent operation of the machine. The new laptop also offered better wireless performance.
One reviewer criticized the decision to underclock the ATI Mobility Radeon X1600 graphics card by about 30 percent its original speed. The notebook was also noted for running hot. Users complained that upgrading system memory was harder than in older Apple notebooks. Since the dimensions for the 15 - inch MacBook Pro were tweaked slightly from the 15 - inch PowerBook G4, older accessories such as notebook sleeves did not work with the new models. Some users noted a slight flickering when the screen was on lower brightness settings. Apple increased the battery capacity by 10 Wh, going from 50 in the PowerBook G4 to 60, but the more powerful Core Duo CPU required more power. Battery life therefore remained about the same as in previous models, at three - plus hours.
SuperDrive: 8 × DVD - DL discs reads. 4 × DVD+ / - R & RW recording. 24 × CD - R and 10 × CD - RW recording (optional for 15 - inch) SuperDrive: 4 × DVD + R writes, 8 × DVD+ / - R read, 4 × DVD+ / - RW writes, 24 × CD - R, and 10 × CD - RW recording (17 - inch)
On October 14, 2008, in a press event at company headquarters, Apple officials announced a new 15 - inch MacBook Pro featuring a "precision aluminum unibody enclosure '' and tapered sides similar to those of the MacBook Air. Designers shifted the MacBook Pro 's ports to the left side of the case, and moved the optical disc drive slot from the front to the right side, similar to the MacBook. The new MacBook Pros had two video cards, which the user could switch between: the Nvidia GeForce 9600M GT with either 256 or 512 MB of dedicated memory and a GeForce 9400M with 256 MB of shared system memory. Although the FireWire 400 port was removed, the FireWire 800 port was retained. The DVI port was replaced with a Mini DisplayPort receptacle. The original unibody MacBook Pro came with a user - removable battery; Apple claimed five hours of use, with one reviewer reporting results closer to four on a continuous video battery stress test. Apple said that the battery would hold 80 percent of its charge after 300 recharges.
The unibody - construction MacBook Pro largely follows the styling of the original aluminum iMac and the MacBook Air and is slightly thinner than its predecessor, albeit wider and deeper due to the widescreen display. The screen is high - gloss, covered by an edge - to - edge reflective glass finish, while an anti-glare matte option is available in the 15 - and 17 - inch models in which the glass panel is removed. The entire trackpad is usable and acts as a clickable button. The trackpad is also larger than the first generation model 's, giving more room for scrolling and multi-touch gestures. When the line was updated in April 2010, inertial scrolling was added, making the scrolling experience much like that of the iPhone and iPad. The keys, still backlit, are now that of Apple 's now - standard sunken keyboard with separated black keys.
During the MacWorld Expo keynote on January 6, 2009, Phil Schiller announced a 17 - inch MacBook Pro with unibody construction. This version diverged from its 15 - inch sibling with an anti-glare "matte '' screen option (with the glossy finish standard) and a non user - removable lithium polymer battery. Instead of traditional round cells inside the casing, the lithium - ion polymer batteries are shaped and fitted into each laptop to maximally utilize space. Adaptive charging, which uses a chip to optimize the charge flow to reduce wear and tear, extends the battery 's overall life. Battery life for the 17 '' version is quoted at eight hours, with 80 percent of this charge remaining after 1,000 charge - discharge cycles.
At Apple 's Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) on June 8, 2009, it was announced that the 13 - inch unibody MacBook would be upgraded and re-branded as a MacBook Pro, leaving only the white polycarbonate MacBook in the MacBook line. It was also announced that the entire MacBook Pro line would use the non user - removable battery first introduced in the 17 - inch MacBook Pro. The updated MacBook Pro 13 - and the 15 - inch would each have up to a claimed seven hours of battery life, while the 17 - inch would keep its eight - hour capacity. Some sources even reported up to eight hours of battery life for the 13 - and 15 - inch MacBook Pros during casual use, while others reported around six hours. Like the 17 - inch MacBook Pro, Apple claims that they will last around 1,000 charge cycles while still containing 80 percent of their capacity. Graphics card options stayed the same from the previous release, although the 13 - inch and the base model 15 - inch, came with only the GeForce 9400M GPU. The screens were also improved, gaining a claimed 60 percent greater color gamut. All of these mid 2009 models also included a FireWire 800 port and all except the 17 - inch models would receive an SD card slot. The 17 - inch model would retain its ExpressCard / 34 slot. For the 13 - inch MacBook Pro, the Kensington lock slot was moved to the right side of the chassis. In August 2009, Apple extended the "matte '' anti-glare display option to the 15 - inch MacBook Pro.
On April 13, 2010, Intel Core i5 and Core i7 CPUs were introduced in the 15 - and 17 - inch models, while the 13 - inch retained the Core 2 Duo with a speed increase. The power brick was redesigned and a high - resolution display (of 1,680 × 1,050) was announced as an option for the 15 - inch models. The 13 - inch gained an integrated Nvidia GeForce 320M graphics processing unit (GPU) with 256 MB of shared memory, while the 15 - and 17 - inch models were upgraded to the GeForce GT 330M, with either 256 or 512 MB of dedicated memory. The 15 - and 17 - inch models also have an integrated Intel GPU that is built into the Core i5 and i7 processors. The 15 - inch model also gained 0.1 pounds (0.045 kg). Save for a third USB 2.0 slot, all the ports on the 17 - inch MacBook Pro are the same in type and number as on the 15 - inch version. All models come with 4 GB of system memory that is upgradeable to 8 GB. Battery life was also extended further in this update, to an estimated ten hours for the 13 - inch and 8 -- 9 hours on the 15 - and 17 - inch MacBook Pros. This was achieved through both greater power efficiency and adding more battery capacity. One reviewer reported about six hours of battery life through a continuous video battery stress test in the 15 - inch and another, who called the battery life "unbeatable '', reported nearer to eight in the 13 - inch through their "highly demanding battery drain test ''.
Thunderbolt technology, Sandy Bridge dual core Intel Core i5 and i7 (on the 13 - inch model) or quad - core i7 (on the 15 - and 17 - inch models) processors, and a high definition FaceTime camera were added on February 24, 2011. Intel HD Graphics 3000 come integrated with the CPU, while the 15 - and 17 - inch models also utilize AMD Radeon HD 6490M and Radeon HD 6750M graphics cards. Later editions of these models, following the release of OS X Lion, replaced the dashboard (F4) key with a launchpad key. The chassis bottoms are also engraved differently from the 2010 models. The Thunderbolt serial bus platform can achieve speeds of up to 10 Gbit / s, which is up to twice as fast as the USB 3.0 specification, 20 times faster than the USB 2.0 specification, and up to 12 times faster than FireWire 800. Apple says that Thunderbolt can be used to drive displays or to transfer large quantities of data in a short amount of time.
On June 11, 2012, Apple showcased its upgraded Mac notebooks, OS X Mountain Lion, and iOS 6 at the Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) in San Francisco. The new MacBook Pro models were updated with Ivy Bridge processors and USB 3.0 ports, and the default RAM on premium models was increased to 8 GB. Following this announcement, the 17 - inch model was discontinued. After a media event on October 22, 2013 Apple discontinued all second generation MacBook Pros except for the entry - level 2.5 GHz 13 - inch model. Apple discontinued the 13 - inch 2nd generation MacBook Pro on October 27, 2016. Prior to its discontinuation it was Apple 's only product to still include an optical drive and a Firewire port, and only laptop with a hard disk drive and Ethernet port.
Some reviewers praised the new laptop 's performance and compact size, the quality of the screen, and sturdy unibody build, which allowed easier upgrading of internal components as compared to the original models. Some reviewers also noted that the new MacBook Pro ran more quietly and at cooler temperatures than first generation machines. Others, however, criticized the amount of heat generated by the new design.
Reviewers lamented the loss of a matte screen option for the 2008 unibody MacBook Pro, noting the reflectiveness of the screen in sunlight, even when its brightness was turned all the way up. CNET 's Dan Ackerman commented of the mid-2009 models: "According to Apple, the new display offers a wider color gamut, and the screen certainly looks bright and colorful, but we wish the same matte - screen option offered on the 17 - inch MacBook Pro was available across the line... While the LED screen means a thinner lid and some battery life benefits, the edge - to - edge glass covering the entire display panel grabs stray light rays with ease, making the glossy screen hard to see in some lighting conditions. '' By 2011, matte screens were offered for both the 15 '' and 17 '' models. Furthermore, the addition of Mini DisplayPort instead of the more popular HDMI was criticized. The relatively low number of ports and lower end technical specifications when compared to similarly priced laptops from other brands were also bemoaned.
Laptop Magazine 's Michael Prospero praised the 2010 15 - inch model 's display, calling it "bright and crisp ''. He further commented, "While reflections from the glossy display were n't overwhelming, it 's also nice to know there 's an antiglare option -- though only for the higher resolution display. Still, colors were bright, blacks were deep and dark, and viewing angles were excellent both vertically and horizontally. '' He also lauded the quality of the iSight webcam, the responsiveness of the touchpad, the microphone and speakers, as well as the performance of the new CPUs for the 15 '' model and the long battery life. Complaints included the price of the laptop, the low number of USB ports, and the lack of HDMI.
CNET praised the automatic graphics switching features of the 15 - and 17 - inch 2010 models as well as the graphics cards themselves. Acclaim was also given to the Core i5 and i7 CPUs, the multi-touch trackpad, and the addition of audio capabilities to the Mini DisplayPort video output. They also called for the addition of HDMI and the Blu - ray optical disc format, saying that most other computers in the MacBook Pro 's price range possessed these features. CNET also criticized the option of a higher resolution screen in the 15 - inch model, saying that "the higher - resolution screen should be included by default. ''
2.53 GHz (T9400) Intel Core 2 Duo Penryn with 6 MB on - chip L2 cache Optional 2.8 GHz (T9600) with 6 MB on - chip L2 cache
2.8 GHz (T9600) (15 '' and 17 '' only) Intel Core 2 Duo Penryn with 6 MB on - chip L2 cache Optional 3.06 GHz (T9900) with 6 MB on - chip L2 cache (15 '' and 17 '' only)
Since the RAM and the hard drive on some generations of MacBook Pro are user serviceable parts, there are aftermarket modifications to enhance the system with up to 16GB of DDR3 - 1600 RAM (maximum capacity and frequency depend on the hardware in question), 7200 - rpm hard drives or third party SSDs.
Early and Late 2011 models reportedly suffer from manufacturing problems leading to overheating, graphical issues, and eventually complete GPU and logic board failure. A similar but nonidentical issue affected iMac GPUs which were later recalled by Apple. The problem was covered by many articles in Mac - focused magazines, starting late 2013 throughout 2014. In August 2014 the law firm Whitfield Bryson & Mason LLP had begun investigating the problem to determine if any legal claim exists. On October 28, 2014, the firm announced that it has filed a class - action lawsuit in a California federal court against Apple. The lawsuit will cover residents residing in both California and Florida who have purchased a 2011 MacBook Pro notebook with an AMD graphics card. The firm is also investigating similar cases across the United States. On February 20, 2015, Apple instituted the "MacBook Pro Repair Extension Program for Video Issues ''. This "will repair affected MacBook Pro systems, free of charge ''. The program covered affected MacBook Pro models until December 31, 2016 or four years from original date of sale.
On June 11, 2012 at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference in San Francisco, Apple introduced the third generation MacBook Pro, marketed as the "MacBook Pro with Retina display '' to differentiate it from the predecessor model. The new model includes Intel 's third generation Core i7 processors (Ivy Bridge microarchitecture), USB 3.0, and a high - resolution 15.4 '' IPS 2880 × 1800 - pixel Retina Display. Other new or changed features include a second Thunderbolt port, a HDMI port, and a thinner MagSafe port, dubbed the "MagSafe 2 ''. Apple introduced a 13 - inch version on October 23, 2012 with specifications similar but slightly inferior to the 15 - inch version 's, such as less powerful processors.
The new models omit Ethernet and FireWire 800 ports, though Apple offers Thunderbolt adapters for both interfaces. They also omit a SuperDrive, making the 15 - inch model Apple 's first professional notebook since the PowerBook 2400c to ship without a built - in optical drive. Instead of a hard disk drive, the new models ship with a solid state drive housed in a proprietary flash module design rather than a 2.5 '' notebook drive. Apple also claims improved speakers and microphones and a new system for cooling the notebook with improved fans. The new case design does not have a Kensington lock slot, so alternative products are required to physically secure the computer.
The Retina models also have fewer user - accessible upgrade or replacement options than previous MacBooks. Unlike in previous generations, the memory is soldered onto the logic board and is therefore not upgradable. The solid state drive is not soldered and can be replaced by users. The battery is glued into place; attempts to remove it may destroy the battery and / or trackpad. The entire case uses proprietary pentalobe screws and can not be disassembled with standard tools. While the battery is glued in, recycling companies have stated that the design is only "mildly inconvenient '' and does not hamper the recycling process.
On February 13, 2013, Apple announced updated prices and processors for the MacBook Pro with Retina Display and increased the RAM of the high - end 15 - inch model to 16 GB.
On October 22, 2013, Apple updated the line with Intel 's Haswell processors and Iris Graphics, 802.11 ac Wi - Fi, Thunderbolt 2, and PCIe - based flash storage. The chassis of the 13 - inch version was slightly slimmed to 0.71 inches (18 mm) to match the 15 - inch model. The lower - end 15 - inch model only included integrated graphics while the higher - end model continued to include a discrete Nvidia graphics card in addition to integrated graphics. Support for 4K video output via HDMI was added but limited the maximum number of external displays from three to two. On July 29, 2014 Apple announced updated prices and processors for the Haswell MacBook Pro with Retina Display.
On March 9, 2015, the 13 - inch model was updated with Intel Broadwell processors, Iris 6100 graphics, faster flash storage, increased battery life, and a Force Touch trackpad. On May 19, 2015, the 15 - inch model was also updated with similarly fast flash storage, increased battery life, the Force Touch trackpad, and an AMD Radeon R9 discrete graphics card on the higher - end model. The higher - end 15 - inch model also added support for dual - cable output to 5120 × 2880 displays. The 15 - inch models were released with the same Intel Haswell processors and Iris Pro graphics as the 2014 models due to a delay in shipment of newer Broadwell quad - core processors. Apple continued to sell the 2015 15 - inch model until July 2018.
The Retina Display MacBook Pro largely follows the design of the previous generation with its aluminum enclosure and separated black keys. The most apparent body changes are a thinner chassis and a display with a redesigned hinge and thinner bezel and the removal of the internal optical drive. The power button is moved from the upper right corner of the chassis onto the keyboard, taking the place of the optical disc eject button. At 0.71 inches (18 mm) thick, the 15 - inch model is 25 percent thinner than its predecessor. The model name is no longer placed at the bottom of the screen bezel; instead, it is found on the underside of the chassis, similar to an iOS device. It is the first Macintosh laptop to not have its model name visible during normal use, as every prior laptop had its model name on the screen bezel or keyboard.
The third generation MacBook Pro received positive reviews of the Retina Display, flash storage and power. It was criticized, however, for its high price and lack of an Ethernet port and optical drive. Roman Loyola of Macworld said that the Retina MacBook Pro was "groundbreaking '' and made people "rethink how they use technology ''. He praised the inclusion of USB 3.0 and the slimmer body. Dan Ackerman of CNET commented "I 've previously called the 15 - inch MacBook Pro one of the most universally useful all - around laptops you can buy. This new version adds to that with HDMI, faster ports, and more portability. But it also subtracts from that with its exclusion of an optical drive and Ethernet port, plus its very high starting price. The Pro and Retina Pro are clearly two laptops designed for two different users, and with the exception of all - day commuters who need something closer to a MacBook Air or ultrabook, one of the two branches of the MacBook Pro family tree is still probably the most universally useful laptop you can buy. ''
Joel Santo Domingo of PC Magazine gave the MacBook Pro an "Editor 's Choice '' rating. He praised its "brilliant Retina display '', the thin design, port selection and speedy storage, and highlighted the expandability via Thunderbolt ports which support up to seven devices each. David Pogue of The New York Times praised the 15 - inch model 's screen, keyboard, sound, start - up time, cosmetics, battery life, storage, and RAM capacity. They criticized the lack of a SuperDrive, pricing, and the MagSafe 2 power connector 's lack of backwards compatibility with the older MagSafe design.
The Retina Display on the MacBook Pro have been criticized for "image retention '', specifically for displays manufactured by LG.
In 2017, one year after the introduction of the fourth generation of the MacBook Pro, the original lead developer of Tumblr Marco Arment wrote an evocative article in which he declared the third - generation MacBook Pro the best laptop ever made. The sentiment was shared by many users of various social platforms.
Since the battery is glued in and can not be easily disassembled for recycling (an EPEAT requirement), Apple received criticisms about the machine 's ability to be recycled. Greenpeace spokesman Casey Harrell said Apple "has pitted design against the environment -- and chosen design. They 're making a big bet that people do n't care, but recycling is a big issue. '' Wired also criticized Apple 's recyclability claims, stating "(t) he design may well be comprised of ' highly recyclable aluminum and glass ' -- but my friends in the electronics recycling industry tell me they have no way of recycling aluminum that has glass glued to it like Apple did with both this machine and the recent iPad. ''
Optional 2.6 GHz (i7 - 3720QM) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache Optional 2.7 GHz (i7 - 3820QM) with 8 MB on - chip L3 cache
Optional 2.9 GHz (i7 - 3520M) dual - core Intel Core i7 Ivy Bridge processor with 4 MB shared L3 cache
Optional 3.0 GHz (i7 - 3540M) dual - core Intel Core i7 Ivy Bridge with 4 MB shared L3 cache
Optional 2.6 GHz (i5 - 4288U) dual - core Intel Core i5 Haswell with 3 MB shared L3 cache Optional 2.8 GHz (i7 - 4558U) dual - core Intel Core i7 Haswell with 4 MB shared L3 cache
Optional 2.8 GHz (i5 - 4308U) dual - core Intel Core i5 Haswell with 3 MB shared L3 cache Optional 3.0 GHz (i7 - 4578U) dual - core Intel Core i7 Haswell with 4 MB shared L3 cache
Optional 2.9 GHz (i5 - 5287U) dual - core Intel Core i5 Broadwell with 3 MB shared L3 cache Optional 3.1 GHz (i7 - 5557U) dual - core Intel Core i7 Broadwell with 4 MB shared L3 cache
Optional 2.5 GHz (i7 - 4870HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell) Optional 2.8 GHz (i7 - 4980HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell)
Optional 2.7 GHz (i7 - 3740QM) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache Optional 2.8 GHz (i7 - 3840QM) with 8 MB on - chip L3 cache
Optional 2.3 GHz (i7 - 4850HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell) Optional 2.6 GHz (i7 - 4960HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell)
Optional 2.5 GHz (i7 - 4870HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell) Optional 2.8 GHz (i7 - 4980HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell)
Apple unveiled fourth generation 13 - and 15 - inch MacBook Pro models during a press event at their headquarters on October 27, 2016. All models, except the baseline 13 - inch model, introduced the Touch Bar, a multi-touch enabled OLED strip built into the top of the keyboard in place of the function keys. The Touch Bar models also include a sapphire - glass covered Touch ID sensor at the right end of the Touch Bar which doubles as a power button. The models also introduce a "second - generation '' butterfly mechanism keyboard that provided more travel than the first iteration implemented on the Retina MacBook. The 13 - inch model has a trackpad that is 46 % larger than its predecessor while the 15 - inch model has a trackpad twice as large as the prior generation.
All ports have been replaced with either two or four combination USB - C 3.1 ports that support Thunderbolt 3 and dual DisplayPort 1.2 signals, any of which can be used for charging. The MacBook Pro is incompatible with some older Thunderbolt 3 certified peripherals, including Intel 's own reference design for Thunderbolt 3 devices. Furthermore, macOS on MacBook Pro blocks certain classes of Thunderbolt 3 compatible devices from working by blacklisting them. Devices using HDMI, previous generation Thunderbolt, and USB will require an adapter to connect to the MacBook Pro. The models come with a 3.5 mm headphone jack, although TOSLINK functionality of older generation MacBook Pros has been removed.
Other updates to the MacBook Pro include dual and quad - core Intel "Skylake '' Core i5 and i7 processors, improved graphics, and displays that offer a 25 % wider color gamut, 67 % more brightness, and 67 % more contrast. All versions are able to output to a 5K display, with the 15 - inch models capable of two. The 15 - inch models include a discrete Radeon Pro 450, 455 or 460 graphics card in addition to the integrated Intel graphics. Additionally, Apple introduced a cheaper lower - end 13 - inch model which lacks the Touch Bar in favor of function keys, and has only two USB - C ports. The flash storage in the Touch Bar models is soldered to the logic board and is not upgradeable, while in the 13 - inch model without Touch Bar, it is removable, but not replaceable, as it is a proprietary format of SSD storage.
On June 5, 2017 Apple updated the line with Intel Kaby Lake processors and newer graphics cards. Additionally, the 13 - inch model now comes with a 128GB storage option, down from the base 256GB storage. On July 12, 2018 Apple updated the Touch Bar models with Intel Coffee Lake quad - core processors in 13 - inch models and six - core processors in 15 - inch models, updated graphics cards, third - generation butterfly keyboards, Bluetooth 5, T2 SoC Chip, True Tone display technology, and larger capacity batteries. The 15 - inch model can also be configured with up to 4TB of storage, 32GB of DDR4 memory and a Core i9 processor.
The fourth generation MacBook Pro follows the design of the previous two generations with an all - metal unibody enclosure and separated black keys. A few apparent design changes are a thinner chassis, thinner screen bezel, larger trackpad, the OLED Touch Bar, and shallower butterfly mechanism keyboard with less key separation than the previous models. The speakers grilles have been relocated to the sides of the keyboard on the 13 - inch variant. Tear downs show that the speaker grilles on the 13 - inch model with Touch Bar are "largely cosmetic '', and that sound output mostly comes through the side vents. The fourth generation MacBook Pro comes in two finishes, the traditional silver color and a darker "space gray '' color. The MacBook Pro model name returns to the bottom of the screen bezel in Apple 's San Francisco font after being absent from the third generation. As with the Retina MacBook, the new models replace the backlit white Apple logo on the rear of the screen with a glossy black opaque version.
MagSafe, a magnetic charging connector, has been replaced with USB - C charging. Unlike MagSafe, which provided an indicator light within the user 's field of view to indicate the device 's charging status, the USB - C charger has no visual indicator. Instead, the MacBook Pro emits a chime when connected to power. The Macintosh startup chime that has been used since the first Macintosh in 1984 is now disabled by default. The laptop now boots automatically when the lid is opened.
Ars Technica noted that the second - generation keyboard with firm keys was a "drastic departure '' from previous Retina MacBook keyboards. It further noted that resting palms may brush the trackpad occasionally causing inadvertent cursor jumps onscreen as the laptop interprets this as input, without one 's hands or wrists actually resting on it. Also noted was an increase of bandwidth and approximately 40 percent increased read speed of the flash storage. Engadget praised the thinner, lighter design, improved display and audio, and increased speed of the graphics and flash storage, but criticized the lack of ports and price. Wired praised the display, calling it "the best laptop display I 've ever seen '', as well as praising the Touch Bar, though it criticized the need of adapters for many common connectors. Likewise, The Verge concluded that "using (the new MacBook) is alienating to anyone living in the present. I agree with Apple 's vision of the future. I 'm just not buying it today. ''
Engadget voiced their concerns that "by doing things like removing full - sized USB ports, the memory card reader and even the Function row, Apple seems to have forgotten how many of us actually work ''. Heavy keyboard users criticized the Touch Bar, noting that command - line tools like Vim rely on keyboard usage, and the Touch Bar does not provide the tactile feedback necessary for "blind '' usage of Function keys. Miriam Nielsen from the Verge said about the Touch Bar experience: "When I tried to intentionally use the Touch Bar, I felt like a kid learning how to type again. I had to keep looking down at the bar instead of looking at the images I was actually trying to edit. '' She also pointed out that after learning the Touch Bar one can not work as efficiently on any other computer. Developers have their share of headaches because they can not rely on the Touch Bar being present on every machine that runs their software. Even if Apple makes the Touch Bar an integral part of macOS, it will take "many years '' for it to become ubiquitous, in the meantime anything in the Bar needs to be available through another part of the interface.
Other items of critique were non-compatibility between Thunderbolt 2 and 3 devices, frequently unpleasant fan whine noises in idle CPU states on the larger screen (15 ") models were reported, where the two integrated fans run all the time by default. The coprocessor powering the touch bar and higher TDP of the stronger CPU models are responsible for this behavior.
The battery life of the new models also received mixed reception, with outlets reporting inconsistent battery life and inaccurate estimates of time remaining on battery by the operating system. Apple addressed the latter by hiding the display of estimated battery time remaining entirely in a macOS update. Consumer Reports did not initially recommend the 2016 MacBook Pro models, citing inconsistent and unpredictable battery life in its lab testing (which involves the consecutive loading of multiple websites). However, Apple and Consumer Reports found that the results had been affected by a bug caused by disabling caching in Safari 's developer tools. Consumer Reports performed the tests again with a patched macOS, and retracted its original assessment.
iFixit gave the models score of 1 out of 10 for repairability, noting that memory, the processor, and flash storage are soldered to the logic board, while the battery is glued to the case. The entire assembly uses proprietary pentalobe screws and can not be disassembled with standard tools.
A report by AppleInsider has claimed that the updated butterfly keyboard fails twice as often as previous models, often due to particles stuck beneath the keys. Repairs for stuck keys have been estimated to cost more than $700. In May 2018, two class action lawsuits were filed against Apple regarding the keyboard issue with one alleging a "constant threat of nonresponsive keys and accompanying keyboard failure '' and accusing Apple of not alerting consumers to the issue. In June 2018, Apple announced a Service Program to "service eligible MacBook and MacBook Pro keyboards, free of charge ''. The 2018 models added a membrane underneath keys to prevent malfunction from dust.
Testing on the 2018 Core i9 15 - inch model shows thermal throttling slows performance, according to PC Magazine "the Core i9 processor Apple chose to use inside the MacBook Pro (i9 - 8950K) has a base clock frequency of 2.9 GHz, which is capable of bursting up to 4.8 GHz when necessary. However, testing carried out by YouTuber Dave Lee makes it clear the Core i9 ca n't even maintain 2.9 GHz, let alone 4.8 GHz. In fact, it ends up running at 2.2 GHz due to the heat generated inside the chassis forcing it to throttle... This is n't a problem with Intel 's Core i9, it 's Apple 's thermal solution. '' On July 24, Apple released a software fix for the new 2018 Macbook Pros which addressed the thermal throttling issue. Apple said "there is a missing digital key in the firmware that impacts the thermal management system and could drive clock speeds down under heavy thermal loads on the new MacBook Pro ''.
A "limited number '' of 13 - inch MacBook Pro units without Touch Bar, manufactured between October 2016 and October 2017, may have the built - in battery expanded, which is also known as "swelling ''. Apple initiated a free replacement program for eligible units.
Some users are reporting kernel panics on 2018 MacBook Pro units. The T2 chip may be to blame for this issue. Apple is already aware of the issue and performing an investigation.
Optional 2.4 GHz i7 - 6660U, up to 3.4 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache
Optional 3.1 GHz i5 - 6287U, up to 3.5 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache Optional 3.3 GHz i7 - 6567U, up to 3.6 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache
2.7 GHz quad - core Intel Core i7 Skylake (6820HQ), up to 3.6 GHz, 8MB L3 cache
Optional 2.9 GHz i7 - 6920HQ, up to 3.8 GHz, 8 MB L3 cache
Optional 2.5 GHz i7 - 7660U, up to 4.0 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache
Optional 3.3 GHz i5 - 7287U, up to 3.7 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache Optional 3.5 GHz i7 - 7567U, up to 4.0 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache
2.9 GHz quad - core Intel Core i7 Kaby Lake (7820HQ), up to 3.9 GHz, 8MB L3 cache Optional 3.1 GHz i7 - 7920HQ, up to 4.1 GHz, 8 MB L3 cache
Optional 2.7 GHz i7 - 8559U, up to 4.5 GHz, 8 MB L3 cache
2.6 GHz six - core Intel Core i7 Coffee Lake (8850H), up to 4.3 GHz, 9 MB L3 cache
Optional 2.9 GHz i9 - 8950HK, up to 4.8 GHz, 12 MB L3 cache
Optional 16 GB RAM configuration available at time of purchase only
Optional 16 GB RAM configuration available at time of purchase only
Optional 16 GB RAM configuration available at time of purchase only
Optional 32 GB RAM configuration available at time of purchase only
AMD Radeon Pro 450 with 2 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.6 GHz) Configurable to Radeon Pro 455 with 2 GB of GDDR5 memory, or Pro 460 with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory
AMD Radeon Pro 555 with 2 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.8 GHz) Configurable to Radeon Pro 560 with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory
AMD Radeon Pro 555X with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.2 GHz) Configurable to Radeon Pro 560X with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory
AMD Radeon Pro 455 with 2 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.7 GHz) Configurable to Radeon Pro 460 with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory
AMD Radeon Pro 560 with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.9 GHz)
AMD Radeon Pro 560X with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.6 GHz)
The macOS operating system has been pre-installed on all MacBook Pros since release, starting with version 10.4. 4 (Tiger). Along with OS X, iLife has also shipped with all systems, beginning with iLife ' 06.
The MacBook Pro comes with the successor to BIOS, Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) 1.1. EFI handles booting differently from BIOS - based computers, but provides backwards compatibility, allowing dual and triple boot configurations. In addition to OS X, the Microsoft Windows operating system is installable on Intel x86 - based Apple computers. Officially, this is limited to both 32 - bit and 64 - bit versions of Windows XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10 with the necessary hardware drivers included with the Boot Camp software. Other x86 operating systems such as Linux are also unofficially supported. This is made possible by the presence of the Intel architecture as provided by the CPU and the BIOS emulation Apple has provided on top of EFI.
As the MacBook Pro uses a different hardware platform from earlier PowerPC (PPC) - based Macintoshes, versions of OS X prior to Lion can run PPC applications only via the Rosetta emulator, which exacts some performance penalty, can not emulate some lower - level PPC code, and does not support 64 - bit (G5 specific) PPC features. Rosetta is not present in Lion and later, so PPC applications can not be run under those versions of OS X.
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who is pi beta phi's brother fraternity | Pi Beta Phi - wikipedia
Pi Beta Phi (ΠΒΦ), often known simply as Pi Phi, is an international Fraternity for Women, founded at Monmouth College, in Monmouth, Illinois on April 28, 1867 as I.C. Sorosis, the first national secret college society of women to be modeled after the men 's Greek - letter fraternity. According to G. William Domhoff, in Who Rules America? (Seventh edition, p. 57), Pi Beta Phi was cited as one of the four or five sororities upper - class college women "joined with nationwide social prestige ''. Its headquarters are located in Town and Country, Missouri, and there are 200 chapters ever installed and more than 300 alumnae organizations across the United States and Canada. Once an initiated member in good standing graduates or otherwise leaves her college or university, she is a member for life.
Pi Beta Phi was founded as a secret organization under the name of I.C. Sorosis on April 28, 1867 at Monmouth College in Monmouth, Illinois. It began to use Greek letters as its name in 1888. Pi Beta Phi is regarded as the first national women 's fraternity. It began when twelve female students wished to enjoy the benefits of a secret society similar to those formed by collegiate men. The founders were Clara Brownlee Hutchinson, Libbie Brook Gaddis, Emma Brownlee Kilgore, Margaret Campbell, Rosa Moore, Ada Bruen Grier, Nancy Black Wallace, Jennie Horne Turnbull, Jennie Nicol, Inez Smith Soule, Fannie Thomson, and Fannie Whitenack Libbey. They planned their society at the home of Major Jacob H. Holt, where two of the women rented a room. The name chosen for the society was I.C. Sorosis. The motto chosen was Pi Beta Phi.
Shortly after the founding, the sisters had a jeweler design their official badge: a golden arrow with the letters "I.C. '' on the wings. When the name was changed to "Pi Beta Phi, '' the Greek letters replaced "I.C. '' on the wings. At the Yellowstone Convention of 1934, they voted to limit the links in the badge 's chain; there are 12, one for each of the founders.
The first fraternity convention was held in 1868 at the home of Fannie Thomson in Oquawka, Illinois. It was also in that year that the fraternity 's second chapter was established at Iowa Wesleyan College in Mount Pleasant, Iowa. The expansion made Pi Beta Phi the first national (multi-chapter) women 's secret society.
At the 1882 convention, the society officially adopted its motto as well as the fraternity colors of wine and silver blue. Six years later, the name was changed from I.C. Sorosis to Pi Beta Phi. In 1893, with the number of alumnae members growing, the fraternity organized a national alumnae department. Cooperation among women 's fraternities and sororities was formalized in 1902 with the founding of the National Panhellenic Conference, of which Pi Beta Phi was a founding member. Meanwhile, chapter expansion continued, and in 1908 the fraternity 's first Canadian chapter was established at the University of Toronto.
The fraternity 's first philanthropy, Pi Beta Phi Elementary, was organized in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, in 1912. It would be followed over the years by other philanthropic endeavors. In 1913, the fraternity also began the practice of support for its chapters through local Alumnae Advisory Committees. Central Office, a fraternity headquarters, was established in 1925.
The Kansas Alpha chapter had begun publication of The Arrow in 1885; it would eventually become a quarterly magazine published by the national fraternity for all its members. Today, dues - paying alumnae receive The Arrow by mail, while others can access it online at the fraternity 's web site.
The official symbol of Pi Beta Phi is the arrow, and the official flower is the wine carnation. The fraternity colors are wine and silver blue. The unofficial mascot is the angel, nicknamed "Angelica ''.
Pi Beta Phi does not have an official gemstone.
The crest is a lozenge emblazoned with the crest of the Brownlee family, two of whom were founders of the fraternity. The badge (pin) is a golden arrow. The pledge pin is a golden arrowhead with the Greek letter Βeta.
According to G. William Domhoff, in Who Rules America? (Seventh edition, p. 57), upper - class college women "joined one of the four or five sororities with nationwide social prestige (e.g. Kappa Kappa Gamma, Kappa Alpha Theta, Pi Beta Phi, and Delta Delta Delta). ''
A chapter is local Pi Beta Phi affiliates at a particular college or university. When expansion of Pi Beta Phi first began to other college campuses, the fraternity adopted the custom of naming chapters with Greek letters in order of their founding. Thus, the original chapter at Monmouth College became Alpha chapter, the chapter established at Iowa Wesleyan College became Gamma chapter, and so on. This naming convention became cumbersome as the number of chapters increased.
The fraternity now names chapters by their state, followed by the Greek letter designating the order of founding within each state; for example, Alpha chapter at Monmouth College is now known as Illinois Alpha. The sole exception is the chapter at Knox College, which absorbed the chapter at the now - defunct Lombard College and is now known as Illinois Beta - Delta in recognition of both chapters. Now, if a chapter closes for any reason, its name remains unused until such time as the chapter can be re-established at the same university.
Each chapter elects an Executive Council consisting of a President and nine Vice Presidents (Member Development, Fraternity Development, Finance, Membership, Administration, Philanthropy, Communications, Event Planning and Housing). Each chapter also has an Alumnae Advisory Committee and House Corporation comprising fraternity alumnae living in the area who assist the chapter.
Chapters are grouped geographically into regions, formerly known as provinces, to facilitate national organization and administration. Each collegiate region has a Regional Director and several Regional Specialists covering different functions.
Pi Beta Phi alumnae, initiated members in good standing who have graduated or otherwise left their college or university, can organize into local alumnae clubs or "pockets '' (smaller, less established clubs) which are recognized by the fraternity. Like collegiate chapters, alumnae clubs are grouped geographically into regions, which also have their own officers.
The international fraternity is governed by a Grand Council, elected at each biennial convention and comprising a Grand President and six Grand Vice Presidents (Alumnae, Collegians, Finance, Communications, Membership, and Programming). Also elected biennially are four international Directors (Collegiate Membership, Extension, Finance, and Philanthropy) and one Director for each alumnae region and each collegiate region. The work of Directors is supervised by a member of Grand Council.
In addition to the elected officers, there are several appointed international officers assigned certain functions, such as an archivist and a fraternity historian.
Like many sororities and fraternities, Pi Beta Phi members take part in a number of philanthropy programs. Over the fraternity 's history, philanthropies have included education, literacy, and the preservation of regional arts and crafts.
In 1990, Pi Beta Phi created the Pi Beta Phi Foundation, a 501 (c) (3) charitable organization.
Pi Beta Phi opened the Pi Beta Phi Settlement School in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, in 1912 to provide education, economic opportunity, and health care to the rural area. Over the years, as the community took over childhood education, Settlement School began to adapt by offering arts and crafts classes in an effort to preserve and promote the region 's crafts tradition. An extension of the Pi Beta Phi Settlement School called the Craft Work Shop was begun in 1945 in cooperation with the University of Tennessee. Now an independent nonprofit organization known as the Arrowmont School of Arts and Crafts, it is one of the oldest arts and crafts centers in the South and is a world - renowned facility providing college and graduate level courses. Arrowmont remains a major philanthropic project of Pi Beta Phi.
In conjunction with the fraternity 's commitment to the arts and crafts tradition of the Gatlinburg area, Pi Beta Phi opened the Arrowcraft Shop in 1926. The shop provided local craftspeople with an outlet to sell their products, thereby providing an economic as well as cultural benefit to the community. While no longer affiliated with Pi Beta Phi, Arrowcraft remains in operation as the oldest gift shop in Gatlinburg. It is now affiliated with the Southern Highland Craft Guild.
Another legacy of Pi Beta Phi 's tradition of educational philanthropy is Pi Beta Phi Elementary School of Gatlinburg. After the county began to take over administration of the school in the 1940s, the fraternity deeded to the county the land on which the new elementary school was built. The school is now part of the Sevier County public school system.
Pi Beta Phi became the first Greek letter organization to have a Canadian philanthropy in 1967 when, at the dual centennial of Canada and of Pi Beta Phi, the fraternity officially adopted the Northern Libraries Project to provide support for library systems in the Yukon and Northwest Territories. The project was renamed Arrow in the Arctic in 1969. Today, philanthropy funds provide English and Inuit resources for libraries in the Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut.
The Houston, Texas, Alumnae Club of Pi Beta Phi provided the framework for another of the fraternity 's national literacy projects, Champions Are Readers. CAR promotes family literacy by targeting pre-kindergarten to third graders with a fully developed reading enrichment program to encourage children to read and reinforce programs already in place in the schools.
Pi Beta Phi teamed up with First Book in 2006, sharing the same goal to give the gift of the First Book:
In June 2007, Pi Beta Phi announced its corporate partnership with First Book, an international nonprofit organization founded in 1992 with a single mission: to give children from low - income families the opportunity to read and own their first new books. Together, First Book and Pi Beta Phi are committed to bringing new books to children from low - income families in communities across the United States and Canada. In fact, within the first year of the partnership, Pi Phi and First Book donated 350,000 brand - new books.
First Book works to end child illiteracy by elevating the quality of education through making new, high - quality books available on an ongoing basis. Since 2007, Pi Beta Phi and First Book have distributed more than 1.5 millions books to children in need.
In 2005, Pi Beta Phi began a partnership with a reading awareness program called Read Across America. Commenced by the National Education Association in early March 1998, Read Across America was created to stimulate reading motivation and awareness. It has been shown through extensive research that children who are more motivated to read in turn do better in school. A celebration of reading is head annually on March 2 in honor of the birthday of well - known and beloved children 's book author, Dr. Seuss. Pi Beta Phi chapters across the country hold special literacy events and gatherings at their respective campuses that support and celebrate their partnership with Read Across America. Pi Beta Phi is also actively involved in and supports many other literacy programs such as First Book, Speed Read, Champions Are Readers, and Arrow In The Arctic, to name a few. Several philanthropic events and book drives are held at Pi Beta Phi chapters at colleges across the country to help promote literacy and get kids excited about reading.
I.C. Sorosis, the name of which was later changed to Pi Beta Phi, was founded in the home of Major Jacob H. Holt along with Meghan E Holt his beloved wife, 402 East First Avenue, Monmouth, Illinois, where founders Ada Bruen and Libbie Brook were renting a room. Over the years, the home fell into disrepair. With the approval of the 1938 convention, the fraternity bought the property at tax auction and embarked on a restoration project. Pi Beta Phi still owns and operates Holt House, which is used for various private gatherings as well as meetings by local Pi Beta Phi groups. Also there are several dolls which were made to resemble the 12 original founders. Contrary to rumor, the dolls are not made with actual hair belonging to the founders.
In 2005, the chapter at the University of California at Los Angeles was penalized for hazing pledges.
In 2010, the chapter at Cornell University received national attention after a seven - page email sent to pledges was released on what is acceptable and unacceptable to wear at certain events. The tone of the e-mail -- with lines such as "No muffin tops or camel toe '' and "I will not tolerate any gross plastic shizz (jewelry) '' -- drew criticism from the Huffington Post and many online young adult forums.
In 2010, the chapter at the Miami University was suspended for one year after underage drinking, vomiting, littering, and damaging Lake Lyndsay Lodge in Hamilton, Ohio. In August 2017, the organization closed its chapter at Miami, saying that "... the decision was made because the membership experience has routinely fallen below Fraternity expectations, particularly in regards to risk management and the lack of commitment to Pi Beta Phi 's core values. ''
In 2012, the chapter at Bucknell University was suspended for at least three years for violation of the national chapter 's policy and position statements regarding event planning - management and alcohol use.
In 2013, the chapter at the University of Nevada at Reno was banned from campus until the last active member graduated due to repeated hazing violations.
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who sent the first english settlers to jamestown | History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607 -- 99) - wikipedia
Jamestown was the first settlement of the Virginia Colony, founded in 1607, and served as capital of Virginia until 1699, when the seat of government was moved to Williamsburg. This article covers the history of the fort and town at Jamestown proper, as well as colony - wide trends resulting from and affecting the town during the time period in which it was capital.
Virginia Company of London sent an expedition to establish a settlement in the Virginia Colony in December 1606. The expedition consisted of three ships, Susan Constant (sometimes known as Sarah Constant), Godspeed, and Discovery. The Discovery was the smallest ship; the largest ship, the Susan Constant, was captained by Christopher Newport. The ships left Blackwall, now part of London, with 105 men and boys and 39 crew - members.
By April 6, 1607, Godspeed, Susan Constant and Discovery arrived at the Spanish colony of Puerto Rico, where they stopped for provisions before continuing their journey. In April 1607, the expedition reached the southern edge of the mouth of what is now known as the Chesapeake Bay. After an unusually long journey of more than four months, the 104 men and boys (one passenger of the original 105 died during the journey) arrived at their chosen settlement spot in Virginia. There were no women on the first ships.
Arriving at the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay in late April, they named the Virginia capes after the sons of their king, the southern Cape Henry, for Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, and the northern Cape Charles, for his younger brother, Charles, Duke of York. On April 26, 1607, upon landing at Cape Henry, Chaplain Robert Hunt offered a prayer, and they set up a cross near the site of the current Cape Henry Memorial. This site came to be known as the "first landing. '' A party of the men explored the area and had a minor conflict with some Virginia Indians.
After the expedition arrived in what is now Virginia, sealed orders from the Virginia Company were opened. These orders named Captain John Smith as a member of the governing Council. Smith had been arrested for mutiny during the voyage and was incarcerated aboard one of the ships. He had been scheduled to be hanged upon arrival, but was freed by Captain Newport after the opening of the orders. The same orders also directed the expedition to seek an inland site for their settlement, which would afford protection from enemy ships.
Obedient to their orders, the settlers and crewmembers re-boarded their three ships and proceeded into the Chesapeake Bay. They landed again at what is now called Old Point Comfort in the City of Hampton. In the following days, seeking a suitable location for their settlement, the ships ventured upstream along the James River. Both the James River and the settlement they sought to establish, Jamestown (originally called "James His Towne '') were named in honor of King James I.
On May 14, 1607, the colonists chose Jamestown Island for their settlement pretty much because the Virginia Company advised them to select a location that could be easily defended from attacks by other European states that were also establishing New World colonies and were periodically at war with England, notably the Dutch Republic, France, and Spain.
The island fit the criteria as it had excellent visibility up and down the James River, and it was far enough inland to minimize the potential of contact and conflict with enemy ships. The water immediately adjacent to the land was deep enough to permit the colonists to anchor their ships, yet have an easy and quick departure if necessary. An additional benefit of the site was that the land was not occupied by the Virginia Indians, most of whom were affiliated with the Powhatan Confederacy. Largely cut off from the mainland, the shallow harbor afforded the earliest settlers docking of their ships. This was its greatest attraction, but it also created a number of challenging problems for the settlers.
The settlers came ashore and quickly set about constructing their initial fort. Despite the immediate area of Jamestown being uninhabited, the settlers were attacked less than two weeks after their arrival on May 14, by Paspahegh Indians who succeeded in killing one of the settlers and wounding eleven more. Within a month, James Fort covered an acre on Jamestown Island. The wooden palisaded walls formed a triangle around a storehouse, church, and a number of houses. The fort burned down the following year.
It soon became apparent why the Virginia Indians did not occupy the site: Jamestown Island, then a peninsula, is a swampy area, and its isolation from the mainland meant that there was limited hunting available, as most game animals required larger foraging areas. The settlers quickly hunted and killed off all the large and smaller game animals that were found on the tiny peninsula. In addition, the low, marshy area was infested with airborne pests, including mosquitoes, which carried malaria, and the brackish water of the tidal James River was not a good source of water. Over 135 settlers died from malaria, and drinking the salinated and contaminated water caused many to suffer from saltwater poisoning, fevers, and dysentery.
King James I had outlined the members of the Council to govern the settlement in the sealed orders which left London with the colonists in 1606.
Those named for the initial Council were:
The Council received additional members from the First and Second Supply missions brought by Captain Newport. These were:
Also notable among the first settlers was:
Many of the settlers who came over on the initial three ships were not well - equipped for the life they found in Jamestown. A number of the original settlers were upper - class gentlemen who were not accustomed to manual labor; the group included very few farmers or skilled laborers. The climate, location, and makeup of the settlement resulted in many settlers dying of disease and starvation.
By June 15, the settlers finished building the triangular James Fort. A week later, Newport sailed back for London on Susan Constant with a load of pyrite ("fools ' gold '') and other supposedly precious minerals, leaving behind 104 colonists and Discovery. Newport returned twice from England with additional supplies in the following 18 months, leading what were termed the First and Second Supply missions.
The "First Supply '' arrived on January 2, 1608. It contained insufficient provisions and more than 70 new colonists. Despite original intentions to grow food and trade with the Virginia Indians, the barely surviving colonists became dependent upon supply missions.
On October 1, 1608, 70 new settlers arrived aboard the English "Mary and Margaret '' with the Second Supply, following a journey of approximately three months. Included in the Second Supply were Thomas Graves, Thomas Forrest, Esq and "Mistress Forrest and Anne Burras her maide. '' Mistress Forrest and Anne Burras were the first two women known to have come to the Jamestown Colony. Remains unearthed at Jamestown in 1997 may be those of Mistress Forrest.
Also included on the Second Supply were the first non-English settlers. The company recruited these as skilled craftsmen and industry specialists: soap - ash, glass, lumber milling (wainscot, clapboard, and ' deal ' -- planks, especially soft wood planks) and naval stores (pitch, turpentine, and tar). Among these additional settlers were eight "Dutch - men '' (consisting of unnamed craftsmen and three who were probably the wood - mill - men -- Adam, Franz and Samuel) "Dutch - men '' (probably meaning German or German - speakers), Polish and Slovak craftsmen, who had been hired by the Virginia Company of London 's leaders to help develop and manufacture profitable export products. There has been debate about the nationality of the specific craftsmen, and both the Germans and Poles claim the glassmaker for one of their own, but the evidence is insufficient. Ethnicity is further complicated by the fact that the German minority in Royal Prussia lived under Polish control during this period. These workers staged the first recorded strike in Colonial America for the right to vote in the colony 's 1619 election.
William Volday / Wilhelm Waldi, a Swiss German mineral prospector, was also among those who arrived in 1608. His mission was seeking a silver reservoir that was believed to be within the proximity of Jamestown. Some of the settlers were artisans who built a glass furnace which became the first proto - factory in British North America. Additional craftsmen produced soap, pitch, and wood building supplies. Among all of these were the first made - in - America products to be exported to Europe. However, despite all these efforts, profits from exports were not sufficient to meet the expenses and expectations of the investors back in England, and no silver or gold had been discovered, as earlier hoped.
The investors of the Virginia Company of London expected to reap rewards from their speculative investments. With the Second Supply, they expressed their frustrations and made demands upon the leaders of Jamestown in written form.
It fell to the third president of the Council to deliver a reply. By this time, Wingfield and Ratcliffe had been replaced by John Smith. Ever bold, Smith delivered what must have been a wake - up call to the investors in London. In what has been termed "Smith 's Rude Answer '', he composed a letter, writing (in part):
Smith did begin his letter with something of an apology, saying "I humbly intreat your Pardons if I offend you with my rude Answer... '', although at the time, the word ' rude ' was acknowledged to mean ' unfinished ' or ' rural ', in the same way modern English uses ' rustic '.
There are strong indications that those in London comprehended and embraced Smith 's message. Their Third Supply mission was by far the largest and best equipped. They even had a new purpose - built flagship constructed, Sea Venture, placed in the most experienced of hands, Christopher Newport. With a fleet of no fewer than eight ships, the Third Supply, led by Sea Venture, left Plymouth in June, 1609.
On the subject of the Virginia Company, it is notable that, throughout its existence, Sir Edwin Sandys, was a leading force. He, of course, also hoped for profits, but also his goals included a permanent colony which would enlarge English territory, relieve the nation 's overpopulation, and expand the market for English goods. He is closely identified with a faction of the company led by Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton. Although profits proved elusive for their investors, the visions for the Colony of Sir Edwin Sandys and the Earl of Southampton were eventually accomplished.
In the months before becoming president of the colony for a year in September 1608, Captain John Smith did considerable exploration up the Chesapeake Bay and along the various rivers. He is credited by legend with naming Stingray Point (near present - day Deltaville in Middlesex County for an incident there).
Smith was always seeking a supply of food for the colonists, and he successfully traded for food with the Nansemonds, who were located along the Nansemond River in the modern - day City of Suffolk, and several other groups. However, while leading one food - gathering expedition in December 1607 (before his term as colony president), this time up the Chickahominy River west of Jamestown, his men were set upon by Powhatan Indians. As his party was being slaughtered around him, Smith strapped his Indian guide in front of him as a shield and escaped with his life but was captured by Opechancanough, the Powhatan chief 's half - brother. Smith gave him a compass which pleased the warrior and made him decide to let Smith live.
Smith was taken before Wahunsunacock, who was commonly referred to as Chief Powhatan, at the Powhatan Confederacy 's seat of government at Werowocomoco on the York River. However, 17 years later, in 1624, Smith first related that when the chief decided to execute him, this course of action was stopped by the pleas of Chief Powhatan 's young daughter, Pocahontas, who was originally named "Matoaka '' but whose nickname meant "Playful Mischief ''. Many historians today find this account dubious, especially as it was omitted in all his previous versions. Smith returned to Jamestown just in time for the First Supply, in January 1608.
In September 1609, Smith was wounded in an accident. He was walking with his gun in the river, and the powder was in a pouch on his belt. His powder bag exploded. In October, he was sent back to England for medical treatment.
While back in England, Smith wrote A True Relation and The Proceedings of the English Colony of Virginia about his experiences in Jamestown. These books, whose accuracy has been questioned by some historians due to some extent by Smith 's boastful prose, were to generate public interest and new investment for the colony.
Although the life of Chief Powhatan 's young daughter, Pocahontas, would be largely tied to the English after legend credits her with saving John Smith 's life after his capture by Opechancanough, her contacts with Smith himself were minimal. However, records indicate that she became something of an emissary to the colonists at Jamestown Island. During their first winter, following an almost complete destruction of their fort by a fire in January 1608, Pocahontas brought food and clothing to the colonists. She later negotiated with Smith for the release of Virginia Indians who had been captured by the colonists during a raid to gain English weaponry.
During the next several years, the relationship between the Virginia Indians and the colonists became more strained, never more so than during the period of poor crops for both the natives and colonists which became known as the Starving Time in late 1609 and early 1610. Chief Powhatan relocated his principal capital from Werowocomoco, which was relatively close to Jamestown along the north shore of the York River, to a point more inland and secure along the upper reaches of the Chickahominy River.
In April 1613, Pocahontas and her husband, Kocoum were residing at Passapatanzy, a village of the Patawomecks, a Powhatan Confederacy tribe which did some trading with Powhatans. They lived in present - day Stafford County on the Potomac River near Fredericksburg, about 65 miles (105 km) from Werowocomoco. She was abducted by Englishmen whose leader was Samuel Argall, and transported about 90 miles (140 km) south to the English settlement at Henricus on the James River. There, Pocahontas converted to Christianity and took the name "Rebecca '' under the tutelage of Reverend Alexander Whitaker who had arrived in Jamestown in 1611. She married prominent planter John Rolfe, who had lost his first wife and child in the journey from England several years earlier, which served to greatly improve relations between the Virginia Native Americans and the colonists for several years. However, when she and John Rolfe took their young son Thomas Rolfe on a public relations trip to England to help raise more investment money for the Virginia Company, she became ill and died just as they were leaving to return to Virginia. Her interment was at St George 's Church in Gravesend.
What became known as the "Starving Time '' in the Virginia Colony occurred during the winter of 1609 -- 10. Only 60 of 500 English colonists survived.
The colonists, the first group of whom had originally arrived at Jamestown on May 14, 1607, had never planned to grow all of their own food. Instead, their plans also depended upon trade with the local Virginia Indians to supply them with enough food between the arrival of periodic supply ships from England, upon which they also relied.
This period of extreme hardship for the colonists began in 1609 with a drought which caused their already limited farming activities to produce even fewer crops than usual. Then, there were problems with both of their other sources for food.
An unexpected delay occurred during the Virginia Company of London 's Third Supply mission from England due to a major hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean. A large portion of the food and supplies had been aboard the new flagship of the Virginia Company, Sea Venture, which became shipwrecked at Bermuda and separated from the other ships, seven of which arrived at the colony with even more new colonists to feed, and few supplies, most of which had been aboard the larger flagship.
The impending hardship was further compounded by the loss of their most skillful leader in dealing with the Powhatan Confederacy in trading for food: Captain John Smith. He became injured in August 1609 in a gunpowder accident, and was forced to return to England for medical attention in October 1609. After Smith left, Chief Powhatan severely curtailed trading with the colonists for food. Neither the missing Sea Venture nor any other supply ship arrived as winter set upon the inhabitants of the young colony in late 1609.
When the survivors of the shipwreck of the Third Supply mission 's flagship Sea Venture finally arrived at Jamestown the following May 23 in two makeshift ships they had constructed while stranded on Bermuda for nine months, they found fewer than 100 colonists still alive, many of whom were sick. Worse yet, the Bermuda survivors had brought few supplies and only a small amount of food with them, expecting to find a thriving colony at Jamestown.
Thus, even with the arrival of the two small ships from Bermuda under Captain Christopher Newport, they were faced with abandoning Jamestown and returning to England. On June 7, 1610, both groups of survivors (from Jamestown and Bermuda) boarded ships, and they all set sail down the James River toward the Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean.
Shortly after they had abandoned Jamestown, they came upon a fleet of three supply ships arriving from England, commanded by a new governor, The 3rd Baron De La Warr. The two groups met on the James River on June 9, 1610 near Mulberry Island (adjacent to present - day Fort Eustis in Newport News).
With the new supply mission, Lord De La Warr, the new Governor, often known in modern times as "Lord Delaware '', brought additional colonists, a doctor, food, and much - needed supplies. He also was of a strong determination that Jamestown and the colony were not to be abandoned. He turned the departing ships around and brought the entire group back to Jamestown. This was certainly not a popular decision at the time with at least some of the group, but Lord Delaware was to prove a new kind of leader for Virginia.
Included in those returning to Jamestown was a colonist whose wife and child had died during the shipwreck of the Sea Venture and the time at Bermuda. A businessman, he had with him some seeds for a new strain of tobacco and also some untried marketing ideas. That colonist was John Rolfe. Despite his misfortune to that point, history records that he would change the future of the colony as much as Lord Delaware 's timely arrival had.
Sea Venture was the new flagship of the Virginia Company. Leaving England in 1609, and leading this Third Supply to Jamestown as "Vice Admiral '' and commanding Sea Venture, Christopher Newport was in charge of a nine - vessel fleet. Aboard the flagship Sea Venture was the Admiral of the Company, Sir George Somers, Lieutenant - General Sir Thomas Gates, William Strachey and other notable personages in the early history of English colonization in North America.
While at sea, the fleet encountered a strong storm, perhaps a hurricane, which lasted for three days. Sea Venture and one other ship were separated from the seven other vessels of the fleet. Sea Venture was deliberately driven onto the reefs of Bermuda to prevent her sinking. The 150 passengers and crew members were all landed safely but the ship was now permanently damaged.
Sea Venture 's longboat was fitted with a mast and sent to find Virginia but it and its crew were never seen again. The remaining survivors spent nine months on Bermuda building two smaller ships, Deliverance and Patience from Bermuda cedar and materials salvaged from Sea Venture.
Leaving two men at Bermuda to maintain England 's claim to the archipelago, the remainder sailed to Jamestown, finally arriving on May 23, 1610. They found the Virginia Colony in ruins and practically abandoned. Of 500 settlers who had preceded them to Jamestown, they found fewer than 100 survivors, many of whom were sick or dying. It was decided to abandon the colony and on June 7, everyone was placed aboard the ships to return to England.
During the same period that Sea Venture suffered its misfortune and its survivors were struggling in Bermuda to continue on to Virginia, back in England, the publication of Captain John Smith 's books of his adventures in Virginia sparked a resurgence in interest in the colony. This helped lead to the dispatch in early 1610 of additional colonists, more supplies, and a new governor, Thomas West, Baron De La Warr.
On June 9, 1610, Lord De La Warr and his party arrived on the James River shortly after Deliverance and Patience had abandoned Jamestown. Intercepting them about 10 miles (16 km) downstream from Jamestown near Mulberry Island, the new governor forced the remaining 90 settlers to return, thwarting their plans to abandon the colony. Deliverance and Patience turned back, and all the settlers were landed again at Jamestown.
Then, Sir George Somers returned to Bermuda with Patience to obtain more food supplies, but he died on the island that summer. His nephew, Matthew Somers, Captain of Patience, took the ship back to Lyme Regis, England instead of Virginia (leaving a third man behind). The Third Charter of the Virginia Company was then extended far enough across the Atlantic to include Bermuda in 1612. (Although a separate company, the Somers Isles Company, would be spun off to administer Bermuda from 1615, the first two successful English colonies would retain close ties for many more generations, as was demonstrated when Virginian general George Washington called upon the people of Bermuda for aid during the American War of Independence). In 1613, Sir Thomas Dale founded the settlement of Bermuda Hundred on the James River, which, a year later, became the first incorporated town in Virginia.
By 1611, a majority of the colonists who had arrived at the Jamestown settlement had died and its economic value was negligible with no active exports to England and very little internal economic activity. Only financial incentives including a promise of more land to the west from King James I to investors financing the new colony kept the project afloat.
The Anglo - Powhatan Wars were three wars fought between English settlers of the Virginia Colony, and Indians of the Powhatan Confederacy in the early seventeenth century. The First War started in 1610, and ended in a peace settlement in 1614.
In 1610, John Rolfe, whose wife and a child had died in Bermuda during passage in the Third Supply to Virginia, was just one of the settlers who had arrived in Jamestown following the shipwreck of Sea Venture. However, his major contribution is that he was the first man to successfully raise export tobacco in the Colony (although the colonists had begun to make glass artifacts to export immediately after their arrival). The native tobacco raised in Virginia prior to that time, Nicotiana rustica, was not to the liking of the Europeans but Rolfe had brought some seed for Nicotiana tabacum with him from Bermuda.
Although most people "would n't touch '' the crop, Rolfe was able to make his fortune farming it, successfully exporting beginning in 1612. Soon almost all other colonists followed suit, as windfall profits in tobacco briefly lent Jamestown something like a gold rush atmosphere. Among others, Rolfe quickly became both a wealthy and prominent man. He married the young Virginia Indian woman Pocahontas on April 24, 1614. They lived first across the river from Jamestown, and later at his Varina Farms plantation near Henricus. Their son, Thomas Rolfe, was born in 1615.
In 1611, the Virginia Company of London sent Sir Thomas Dale to act as deputy - governor or as high marshall for the Virginia Colony under the authority of Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr (Lord Delaware). He arrived at Jamestown on May 19 with three ships, additional men, cattle, and provisions. Finding the conditions unhealthy and greatly in need of improvement, he immediately called for a meeting of the Jamestown Council, and established crews to rebuild Jamestown.
He served as Governor for 3 months in 1611, and again for a two - year period between 1614 and 1616. It was during his administration that the first code of laws of Virginia, nominally in force from 1611 to 1619, was effectively tested. This code, entitled "Articles, Lawes, and Orders Divine, Politique, and Martiall '' (popularly known as Dale 's Code), was notable for its pitiless severity, and seems to have been prepared in large part by Dale himself.
Seeking a better site than Jamestown with the thought of possibly relocating the capital, Thomas Dale sailed up the James River (also named after King James) to the area now known as Chesterfield County. He was apparently impressed with the possibilities of the general area where the Appomattox River joins the James River, until then occupied by the Appomattoc Indians, and there are published references to the name "New Bermudas '' although it apparently was never formalized. (Far from the mainland of North America, the archipelago of Bermuda had been established as part of the Virginia Colony in 1612 following the shipwreck of Sea Venture in 1609).
A short distance further up the James, in 1611, he began the construction of a progressive development at Henricus on and about what was later known as Farrars Island. Henricus was envisioned as possible replacement capital for Jamestown, though it was eventually destroyed during the Indian Massacre of 1622, during which a third of the colonists were killed.
In 1616, Governor Dale joined John Rolfe and Pocahontas and their young son Thomas as they left their Varina Farms plantation for a public relations mission to England, where Pocahontas was received and treated as a form of visiting royalty by Queen Anne. This stimulated more interest in investments in the Virginia Company, the desired effect. However, as the couple prepared to return to Virginia, Pocahontas died of an illness at Gravesend on March 17, 1617, where she was buried. John Rolfe returned to Virginia alone once again, leaving their son Thomas Rolfe, then a small child, in England to obtain an education.
Once back in Virginia, Rolfe married Jane Pierce and continued to improve the quality of his tobacco with the result that by the time of his death in 1622, the Colony was thriving as a producer of tobacco.
Orphaned by the age of 8, young Thomas later returned to Virginia, and settled across the James River not far from his parents ' farm at Varina, where he married Jane Poythress and they had one daughter, Jane Rolfe, who was born in 1650. Many of the First Families of Virginia trace their lineage through Thomas Rolfe to both Pocahontas and John Rolfe, joining English and Virginia Indian heritage.
Virginia 's population grew rapidly from 1618 until 1622, rising from a few hundred to nearly 1,400 people. Wheat was also grown in Virginia starting in 1618.
On June 30, 1619 Slovak and Polish artisans conducted the first labor strike (first "in American history '') for democratic rights ("No Vote, No Work '') in Jamestown. The British Crown overturned the legislation in the Virginia House of Burgesses in its first meeting and granted the workers equal voting rights on July 21, 1619. Afterwards, the labor strike was ended and the artisans resumed their work. The House of Burgesses, the first legislature of elected representatives in America, met in the Jamestown Church. One of their first laws was to set a minimum price for the sale of tobacco and set forth plans for the creation of the first ironworks of the colony. This legislative group was the predecessor of the modern Virginia General Assembly.
In August 1619 "20 and odd Blacks '' arrived on the Dutch Man - of - War ship at Jamestown colony. This is the earliest record of Black people in colonial America These colonists were freemen and indentured servants. At this time the slave trade between Africa and the English colonies had not yet been established.
Records from 1623 and 1624 listed the African inhabitants of the colony as servants, not slaves. In the case of William Tucker, the first Black person born in the colonies, freedom was his bright right. He was son of "Antony and Isabell '', a married couple from Angola who worked as indentured servants for Captain William Tucker whom he was named after. Yet, court records show that at least one African had been declared a slave by 1640; John Punch. He was an indentured servant who ran away along with two White indentured servants and he was sentenced by the governing council to lifelong servitude. This action is what officially marked the institution of slavery in Jamestown and the future United States.
By 1620, more German settlers from Hamburg, Germany, who were recruited by the Virginia Company set up and operated one of the first sawmills in the region. Among the Germans were several other skilled craftsmen carpenters, and pitch / tar / soap - ash makers, who produced some of the colony 's first exports of these products. The Italians included a team of glass makers.
During 1621 fifty - seven unmarried women sailed to Virginia under the auspices of the Virginia Company, who paid for their transport and provided them with a small bundle of clothing and other goods to take with them. A colonist who married one of the women would be responsible for repaying the Virginia Company for his wife 's transport and provisions. The women traveled on three ships, The Marmaduke, The Warwick, and The Tyger.
Many of the women were not "maids '' but widows. Some others were children, for example Priscilla, the eight - year - old daughter of Joanne Palmer, who travelled with her mother and her new stepfather, Thomas Palmer, on The Tyger. Some were women who were traveling with family or relatives: Ursula Clawson, "kinswoman '' of ancient planter Richard Pace, traveled with Pace and his wife on the Marmaduke. Ann Jackson also came on the Marmaduke, in the company of her brother John Jackson, both of them bound for Martin 's Hundred. Ann Jackson was one of the women taken captive by the Powhatans during the Indian Massacre of 1622. She was not returned until 1630. The Council ordered that she should be sent back to England on the first available ship, perhaps because she was suffering from the consequences of her long captivity.
Some of the women sent to Virginia did marry. But most disappeared from the records -- perhaps killed in the massacre, perhaps ' dead from other causes, perhaps returned to England. In other words, they shared the fate of most of their fellow colonists.
The relations with the Natives took a turn for the worse after the death of Pocahontas in England and the return of John Rolfe and other colonial leaders in May 1617. Disease, poor harvests and the growing demand for tobacco lands caused hostilities to escalate.
After Wahunsunacock 's death in 1618, his younger brother, Opitchapam, briefly became chief. However, he was soon succeeded by his own younger brother, Opechancanough. Opechancanough was not interested in attempting peaceful coexistence with the English settlers. Instead, he was determined to eradicate the colonists from what he considered to be Indian lands.
Chief Opechancanough organized and led a well - coordinated series of surprise attacks on multiple English settlements along both sides of a 50 - mile (80 km) long stretch of the James River which took place early on the morning of March 22, 1622. This event came to be known as the Indian Massacre of 1622, and resulted in the deaths of 347 colonists (including men, women, and children) and the abduction of many others. Some say that this massacre was revenge. The Massacre caught most of the Virginia Colony by surprise and virtually wiped out several entire communities, including Henricus and Wolstenholme Town at Martin 's Hundred.
However, Jamestown was spared from destruction due to a Virginia Indian boy named Chanco who, after learning of the planned attacks from his brother, gave warning to colonist Richard Pace, with whom he lived. Pace, after securing himself and his neighbors on the south side of the James River, took a canoe across river to warn Jamestown, which narrowly escaped destruction, although there was no time to warn the other settlements. Apparently, Opechancanough subsequently was unaware of Chanco 's actions, as the young man continued to serve as his courier for some time after.
A letter by Richard Frethorne, written in 1623, reports, "we live in fear of the enemy every hour. ''
As a result, another war between the two powers lasted from 1622 to 1632.
Some historians have noted that, as the settlers of the Virginia Colony were allowed some representative government, and they prospered, King James I was reluctant to lose either power or future financial potential. In any case, in 1624, the Virginia Company lost its charter and Virginia became a crown colony.
In 1634, the English Crown created eight shires (i.e. counties) in the colony of Virginia which had a total population of approximately 5,000 inhabitants. James City Shire was established and included Jamestown. Around 1642 - 43, the name of the James City Shire was changed to James City County.
The original Jamestown fort seems to have existed into the middle of the 1620s, but as Jamestown grew into a "New Town '' to the east, written references to the original fort disappear. By 1634, a palisade (stockade) was completed across the Virginia Peninsula, which was about 6 miles (9.7 km) wide at that point between Queen 's Creek which fed into the York River and Archer 's Hope Creek, (since renamed College Creek) which fed into the James River. The new palisade provided some security from attacks by the Virginia Indians for colonists farming and fishing lower on the Peninsula from that point.
On April 18, 1644, Opechancanough again tried to force the colonists to abandon the region with another series of coordinated attacks, killing almost 500 colonists. However, this was a much less devastating portion of the growing population than had been the case in the 1622 attacks. Furthermore, the forces of Royal Governor of Virginia William Berkeley captured the old warrior in 1646, variously thought to be between 90 and 100 years old. In October, while a prisoner, Opechancanough was killed by a soldier (shot in the back) assigned to guard him. Opechancanough was succeeded as Weroance (Chief) by Nectowance and then by Totopotomoi and later by his daughter Cockacoeske.
In 1646, the first treaties were signed between the Virginia Indians and the English. The treaties set up reservations, some of the oldest in America, for the surviving Powhatan. It also set up tribute payments for the Virginia Indians to be made yearly to the English.
That war resulted in a boundary being defined between the Indians and English lands that could only be crossed for official business with a special pass. This situation would last until 1677 and the Treaty of Middle Plantation, which established Indian reservations following Bacon 's Rebellion.
On October 20, 1698, the statehouse (capitol building) in Jamestown burned for the fourth time. Once again removing itself to a familiar alternate location, the legislature met at Middle Plantation, this time in the new College Building at the College of William and Mary, which had begun meeting there in temporary quarters in 1694.
While meeting there, a group of five students from the College submitted a well - presented and logical proposal to the legislators outlining a plan and good reasons to move the capital permanently to Middle Plantation.
Despite the periodic need to relocate the legislature from Jamestown due to contingencies such as fires, (usually to Middle Plantation), throughout the seventeenth century, Virginians had been reluctant to permanently move the capital from its "ancient and accustomed place. '' After all, Jamestown had always been Virginia 's capital. It had a state house (except when it periodically burned) and a church, and it offered easy access to ships that came up the James River bringing goods from England and taking on tobacco bound for market. However, Jamestown 's status had been in some decline. In 1662, Jamestown 's status as mandatory port of entry for Virginia had been ended.
The students argued that the change to the high ground at Middle Plantation would escape the dreaded malaria and mosquitoes that had always plagued the swampy, low - lying Jamestown site. The students pointed out that, while not located immediately upon a river, Middle Plantation offered nearby access to not one, but two rivers, via two deep water (6 - 7 ' depth) creeks, Queen 's Creek leading to the York River, and College Creek (formerly known as Archer 's Hope) which led to the James River. Other advocates of the move included the Reverend Dr. James Blair and the Governor, Sir Francis Nicholson.
Several prominent individuals like John Page, Thomas Ludwell, Philip Ludwell, and Otho Thorpe had built fine brick homes and created a substantial town at Middle Plantation. And, there was of course, the new College of William and Mary with its fine new brick building.
The proposal to move the capital of Virginia to higher ground (about 12 miles (20 km) away) at Middle Plantation was received favorably by the House of Burgesses. In 1699, the capital of the Virginia Colony was officially relocated there. Soon, the town was renamed Williamsburg, in honor of King William III. Thus, the first phase of Jamestown 's history ended.
By the 1750s the land was owned and heavily cultivated, primarily by the Travis and Ambler families. A military post was located on the island during the Revolutionary War and American and British prisoners were exchanged there. During the U.S. Civil War the island was occupied by Confederate soldiers who built an earth fort near the church as part of the defense system to block the Union advance up the river to Richmond. Little further attention was paid to Virginia until preservation was undertaken in the twenty first century.
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when was the last vw camper van made | Volkswagen Type 2 - Wikipedia
The Volkswagen Type 2, known officially (depending on body type) as the Transporter, Kombi or Microbus, or, informally, as the Bus (US) or Camper (UK), is a forward control panel van introduced in 1950 by the German automaker Volkswagen as its second car model. Following -- and initially deriving from Volkswagen 's first model, the Type 1 (Beetle) -- it was given the factory designation Type 2.
As one of the forerunners of the modern cargo and passenger vans, the Type 2 gave rise to forward control competitors in the United States in the 1960s, including the Ford Econoline, the Dodge A100, and the Chevrolet Corvair 95 Corvan, the latter adopting the Type 2 's rear - engine configuration.
European competition included the 1947 -- 1981 Citroën H Van, the 1959 -- 1980 Renault Estafette (both FF layout), and the 1953 -- 1965 FR layout Ford Transit.
Japanese manufacturers also introduced similar vehicles, such as the Nissan Caravan, Toyota LiteAce and Subaru Sambar.
Like the Beetle, the van has received numerous nicknames worldwide, including the "microbus '', "minibus '', and, because of its popularity during the counterculture movement of the 1960s, Hippie van / wagon, and still remains iconic for many hippies today.
Brazil contained the last factory in the world that produced the T2 series of Type 2, which ceased production on December 31, 2013, due to the introduction of more stringent safety regulations in the country. This (after the 2002 termination of its T3 successor in South Africa) marked the end of the era of rear - engine Volkswagens manufactured, which originated in 1935 with their Type 1 prototypes.
The concept for the Type 2 is credited to Dutch Volkswagen importer Ben Pon. (It has similarities in concept to the 1920s Rumpler Tropfenwagen and 1930s Dymaxion car by Buckminster Fuller, neither of which reached production.) Pon visited Wolfsburg in 1946, intending to purchase Type 1s for import to the Netherlands, where he saw an improvised parts - mover and realized something better was possible using the stock Type 1 pan. He first sketched the van in a doodle dated April 23, 1947, proposing a payload of 690 kg (1,520 lb) and placing the driver at the very front. Production would have to wait, however, as the factory was at capacity producing the Type 1.
When capacity freed up, a prototype known internally as the Type 29 was produced in a short three months. The stock Type 1 pan proved to be too weak so the prototype used a ladder chassis with unit body construction. Coincidentally the wheelbase was the same as the Type 1 's. Engineers reused the reduction gear from the Type 81, enabling the 1.5 ton van to use a 25 hp (19 kW) flat four engine.
Although the aerodynamics of the first prototypes were poor (with an initial drag coefficient of Cd = 0.75), engineers used the wind tunnel at the Technical University of Braunschweig to optimize the design. Simple changes such as splitting the windshield and roofline into a "vee '' helped the production Type 2 achieve Cd = 0.44, exceeding the Type 1 's Cd = 0.48. Volkswagen 's new chief executive officer Heinz Nordhoff (appointed 1 January 1948) approved the van for production on 19 May 1949 and the first production model, now designated Type 2, rolled off the assembly line to debut 12 November. Only two models were offered: the Kombi (with two side windows and middle and rear seats that were easily removable by one person), and the Commercial. The Microbus was added in May 1950, joined by the Deluxe Microbus in June 1951. In all 9,541 Type 2s were produced in their first year of production.
An ambulance model was added in December 1951 which repositioned the fuel tank in front of the transaxle, put the spare tire behind the front seat, and added a "tailgate '' - style rear door. These features became standard on the Type 2 from 1955 to 1967. 11,805 Type 2s were built in the 1951 model year. These were joined by a single - cab pickup in August 1952, and it changed the least of the Type 2s until all were heavily modified in 1968.
Unlike other rear engine Volkswagens, which evolved constantly over time but never saw the introduction of all - new models, the Transporter not only evolved, but was completely revised periodically with variations retrospectively referred to as versions "T1 '' to "T5 '' (a nomenclature only invented after the introduction of the front - drive T4 which replaced the T25). However, only generations T1 to T3 (or T25 as it is still called in Ireland and Great Britain) can be seen as directly related to the Beetle (see below for details).
The Type 2, along with the 1947 Citroën H Van, are among the first ' forward control ' vans in which the driver was placed above the front roadwheels. They started a trend in Europe, where the 1952 GM Bedford CA, 1958 RAF - 977, 1959 Renault Estafette, 1960 BMC Morris J4, and 1960 Commer FC also used the concept. In the United States, the Corvair - based Chevrolet Corvan cargo van and Greenbrier passenger van went so far as to copy the Type 2 's rear - engine layout, using the Corvair 's horizontally opposed, air - cooled engine for power. Except for the Greenbrier and various 1950s -- 70s Fiat minivans, the Type 2 remained unique in being rear - engined. This was a disadvantage for the early "barndoor '' Panel Vans, which could not easily be loaded from the rear because the engine cover intruded on interior space, but generally advantageous in traction and interior noise.
The Type 2 was available as a:
Apart from these factory variants, there were a multitude of third - party conversions available, some of which were offered through Volkswagen dealers. They included, but were not limited to, refrigerated vans, hearses, ambulances, police vans, fire engines and ladder trucks, and camping van conversions by companies other than Westfalia. There were even 30 Klv 20 rail - going draisines built for Deutsche Bundesbahn in 1955.
In South Africa, it is known as a well - loved variation of the ice cream van (first, second and third generations).
The first generation of the Volkswagen Type 2 with the split windshield, informally called the Microbus, Splitscreen, or Splittie among modern fans, was produced from 8 March 1950 through the end of the 1967 model year. From 1950 to 1956, the T1 (not called that at the time) was built in Wolfsburg; from 1956, it was built at the completely new Transporter factory in Hanover. Like the Beetle, the first Transporters used the 1100 Volkswagen air - cooled engine, an 1,131 cc (69.0 cu in), DIN - rated 18 kW (24 PS; 24 bhp), air - cooled flat - four - cylinder ' boxer ' engine mounted in the rear. This was upgraded to the 1200 -- an 1,192 cc (72.7 cu in) 22 kW (30 PS; 30 bhp) in 1953. A higher compression ratio became standard in 1955; while an unusual early version of the 30 kW (41 PS; 40 bhp) engine debuted exclusively on the Type 2 in 1959. This engine proved to be so uncharacteristically troublesome that Volkswagen recalled all 1959 Transporters and replaced the engines with an updated version of the 30 kW engine. Any 1959 models that retain that early engine today are true survivors. Since the engine was totally discontinued at the outset, no parts were ever made available.
The early versions of the T1 until 1955 were often called the "Barndoor '' (retrospectively called T1a since the 1990s), owing to the enormous rear engine cover, while the later versions with a slightly modified body (the roofline above the windshield is extended), smaller engine bay, and 15 '' roadwheels instead of the original 16 '' ones are nowadays called the T1b (again, only called this since the 1990s, based on VW 's retrospective T1, 2, 3, 4 etc. naming system.). From the 1964 model year, when the rear door was made wider (same as on the bay - window or T2), the vehicle could be referred to as the T1c. 1964 also saw the introduction of an optional sliding door for the passenger / cargo area instead of the outwardly hinged doors typical of cargo vans.
In 1962, a heavy - duty Transporter was introduced as a factory option. It featured a cargo capacity of 1,000 kg (2,205 lb) instead of the previous 750 kg (1,653 lb), smaller but wider 14 '' roadwheels, and a 1.5 Le, 31 kW (42 PS; 42 bhp) DIN engine. This was so successful that only a year later, the 750 kg, 1.2 L Transporter was discontinued. The 1963 model year introduced the 1500 engine -- 1,493 cc (91.1 cu in) as standard equipment to the US market at 38 kW (52 PS; 51 bhp) DIN with an 83 mm (3.27 in) bore, 69 mm (2.72 in) stroke, and 7.8: 1 compression ratio. When the Beetle received the 1.5 L engine for the 1967 model year, its power was increased to 40 kW (54 PS; 54 bhp) DIN.
German production stopped after the 1967 model year; however, the T1 still was made in Brazil until 1975, when it was modified with a 1968 -- 79 T2 - style front end, and big 1972 - vintage taillights into the so - called "T1. 5 '' and produced until 1996. The Brazilian T1s were not identical to the last German models (the T1. 5 was locally produced in Brazil using the 1950s and 1960s - era stamping dies to cut down on retooling, alongside the Beetle / Fusca, where the pre-1965 body style was retained), though they sported some characteristic features of the T1a, such as the cargo doors and five - stud 205 mm (8.1 in) Pitch Circle Diameter rims. Wheel tracks varied between German and Brazilian production and with 14 - inch, 15 - inch and 16 - inch wheel variants but commonly front track varied from 1290 mm to 1310 mm and rear track from 1370 mm to 1390 mm.
Among American enthusiasts, it is common to refer to the different models by the number of their windows. The basic Kombi or Bus is the 11 - window (a.k.a. three - window bus because of three side windows) with a split windshield, two front cabin door windows, six rear side windows, and one rear window. The DeLuxe model featured eight rear side windows and two rear corner windows, making it the 15 - window (not available in Europe). Meanwhile, the sunroof DeLuxe with its additional eight small skylight windows is, accordingly, the 23 - window. From the 1964 model year, with its wider rear door, the rear corner windows were discontinued, making the latter two the 13 - window and 21 - window respectively. The 23 - and later 21 - window variants each carry the nickname "Samba '' or in Australia, officially "Alpine ''.
The Volkswagen Samba, in the United States also known as Sunroof Deluxe, was the most luxurious version of the T1. Volkswagen started producing Sambas in 1951.
In the USA Volkswagen vans were informally classified according to the number of windows they had. This particular model had 23 and later 21 windows including eight panoramic windows in the roof. To distinguish it from the normal Volkswagen van the name Samba was coined.
Instead of a sliding door at the side the Samba had two pivot doors. In addition the Samba had a fabric sunroof. At that time Volkswagen advertised with the idea of using the Samba to make tourist trips through the Alps.
Sambas were painted standard in two colors. Usually, the upper part was colored white. The two colored sections were separated by a decorative strip. Further the bus had a so - called "hat '': at the front of the van the roof was just a little longer than the car itself to block the sun for the driver. The windows had chrome tables and the van had a more comprehensive dashboard than the normal T1.
When Volkswagen started producing the successor of the T1 (the T2) the company also stopped producing the Samba so there are no Sambas in later versions of the Transporter.
Certain models of the Volkswagen Type 2 played a role in a historic episode during the early 1960s, known as the Chicken War. France and West Germany had placed tariffs on imports of U.S. chicken. Diplomacy failed, and in January 1964, two months after taking office, President Johnson imposed a 25 % tax (almost ten times the average U.S. tariff) on potato starch, dextrin, brandy, and light trucks. Officially, the tax targeted items imported from Europe as approximating the value of lost American chicken sales to Europe.
In retrospect, audio tapes from the Johnson White House, revealed a quid pro quo unrelated to chicken. In January 1964, President Johnson attempted to convince United Auto Workers ' president Walter Reuther not to initiate a strike just before the 1964 election, and to support the president 's civil rights platform. Reuther, in turn, wanted Johnson to respond to Volkswagen 's increased shipments to the United States.
The Chicken Tax directly curtailed importation of German - built Type 2s in configurations that qualified them as light trucks -- that is, commercial vans (panel vans) and pickups. In 1964, U.S. imports of automobile trucks from West Germany declined to a value of $5.7 million -- about one - third the value imported in the previous year. After 1971, Volkswagen cargo vans and pickup trucks, the intended targets, "practically disappeared from the U.S. market ''. While post-1971 Type 2 commercial vans and single - cab and double - cab pickups can be found in the United States today, they are exceedingly rare. Any post-1971 specimen found ostensibly has had its import tariff paid. As of 2017, the "chicken tax '' remains in effect.
In late 1967, the second generation of the Volkswagen Type 2 (T2) was introduced. It was built in Germany until 1979. In Mexico, the Volkswagen Kombi and Panel were produced from 1970 to 1994. Models before 1971 are often called the T2a (or "Early Bay ''), while models after 1972 are called the T2b (or "Late Bay '').
This second - generation Type 2 lost its distinctive split front windshield, and was slightly larger and considerably heavier than its predecessor. Its common nicknames are Breadloaf and Bay - window, or Loaf and Bay for short. At 1.6 L and 35 kW (48 PS; 47 bhp) DIN, the engine was also slightly larger. The battery and electrical system was upgraded to 12 volts, making it incompatible with electric accessories from the previous generation. The new model also did away with the swing axle rear suspension and transfer boxes previously used to raise ride height. Instead, half - shaft axles fitted with constant velocity joints raised ride height without the wild changes in camber of the Beetle - based swing axle suspension. The updated Bus transaxle is usually sought after by off - road racers using air - cooled Volkswagen components.
The T2b was introduced by way of gradual change over three years. The first models featured rounded bumpers incorporating a step for use when the door was open (replaced by indented bumpers without steps on later models), front doors that opened to 90 ° from the body, no lip on the front guards, unique engine hatches, and crescent air intakes in the D - pillars (later models after the Type 4 engine option was offered, have squared off intakes). The 1971 Type 2 featured a new, 1.6 L engine with dual intake ports on each cylinder head and was DIN - rated at 37 kW (50 PS; 50 bhp). An important change came with the introduction of front disc brakes and new roadwheels with brake ventilation holes and flatter hubcaps. Up until 1972, front indicators are set low on the nose rather than high on either side of the fresh air grille -- giving rise to their being nicknamed "Low Lights ''. 1972 's most prominent change was a bigger engine compartment to fit the larger 1.7 - to 2.0 - litre engines from the Volkswagen Type 4, and a redesigned rear end which eliminated the removable rear apron and introduced the larger late tail lights. The air inlets were also enlarged to accommodate the increased cooling air needs of the larger engines.
In 1971 the 1600cc Type 1 engine as used in the Beetle, was supplemented with the 1700cc Type 4 engine -- as it was originally designed for the Type 4 (411 and 412) models. European vans kept the option of upright fan Type 1 1600 engine but the 1700 Type 4 became standard for US spec models.
In the Type 2, the Type 4 engine was an option for the 1972 model year onward. This engine was standard in models destined for the US and Canada. Only with the Type 4 engine did an automatic transmission become available for the first time in the 1973 model year. Both engines displaced 1.7 L, DIN - rated at 49 kW (67 PS; 66 bhp) with the manual transmission and 46 kW (63 PS; 62 bhp) with the automatic. The Type 4 engine was enlarged to 1.8 L and 50 kW (68 PS; 67 bhp) DIN for the 1974 model year and again to 2.0 L and 52 kW (71 PS; 70 bhp) DIN for the 1976 model year. The two - litre option appeared in South African manufactured models during 1976, originally only in a comparably well - equipped "Executive '' model. The 1978 2.0 L now featured hydraulic valve lifters, eliminating the need to periodically adjust the valve clearances as on earlier models. The 1975 and later U.S. model years received Bosch L - Jetronic electronic fuel injection as standard equipment; 1978 was the first year for electronic ignition, utilizing a hall effect sensor and digital controller, eliminating maintenance - requiring contact - breaker points. As with all Transporter engines, the focus in development was not on power, but on low - end torque. The Type 4 engines were considerably more robust and durable than the Type 1 engines, particularly in Transporter service.
In 1972, for the 1973 model year, exterior revisions included relocated front turn indicators, squared off and set higher in the valance, above the headlights. Also, square - profiled bumpers, which became standard until the end of the T2 in 1979, were introduced in 1973. Crash safety improved with this change because of a compressible structure behind the front bumper. This meant that the T2b was capable of meeting US safety standards for passenger cars of the time, though not required of vans. The "VW '' emblem on the front valance became slightly smaller.
Later model changes were primarily mechanical. By 1974, the T2 had gained its final shape. Very late in the T2 's design life, during the late 1970s, the first prototypes of Type 2 vans with four - wheel drive (4WD) were built and tested.
1979 Volkswagen Type 2 (T2) "Silverfish '' last - edition bus. These were a limited edition model to mark the final production of T2 models in Europe
1968 Volkswagen Type 2 (T2) Hard - Top Westfalia "Cream '' bus
Brazilian Volkswagen Type 2 (T2) -- 2005 Limited Edition
1977 Volkswagen Kombi Westfalia (North America)
The T2c, with a roof raised by about 10 cm (3.9 in) was built starting in the early 1990s for the Mexican, South American and Central American markets. Since 1991, the T2c has been built in México with the water - cooled 1.8 L inline four - cylinder 53 kW (72 PS; 71 bhp) carbureted engine -- easily identified by the large, black front - mounted radiator -- and since 1995 with the 1.6 L air - cooled engines for the Brazilian market.
Once production of the original Beetle ended in late 2003, the T2 was the only Volkswagen model with an air - cooled, rear - mounted boxer engine, but then the Brazilian model shifted to a water - cooled engine on 23 December 2005. There was a 1.6 L 50 hp (37 kW; 51 PS) water - cooled diesel engine available from 1981 to 1985, which gave fuel economy of 15 km / l to 18 km / l -- but gave slow performance and its insufficient cooling system led to short engine life.
The end of the Volkswagen air - cooled engine on a worldwide basis was marked by a Special Edition Kombi. An exclusive Silver paint job, and limited edition emblems were applied to only 200 units in late 2005, and were sold as 2006 models.
Stricter emissions regulations introduced by the Brazilian government for 2006 forced a shift to a flexible - fuel water - cooled engine able to run on petrol or alcohol. Borrowed from the Volkswagen Gol, the engine is a rear - mounted EA - 111 1.4 L 8v Total Flex 1,390 cc (84.8 cu in), 58 kW (79 PS; 78 bhp) on petrol, and 60 kW (82 PS; 80 bhp) when run on ethanol, and 124 N m (91 lbf ft) torque. This version was very successful, despite the minor changes made to the overall T2 - bodied vehicle. It still included the four - speed transmission, but a new final - drive ratio enabled cruising at 120 km / h (75 mph) at 4,100 rpm. Top speed was 130 km / h (81 mph). 0 to 100 km / h (0 to 62 mph) acceleration took 22.7 seconds (vs. 29.5 seconds for the last air - cooled version). Other improvements included 6.6 % better fuel economy, and nearly 2 dB less engine noise.
The Volkswagen Type 2 is by far the longest model run in Brazil, having been introduced in September 1950 as the Volkswagen "Kombi '', a name it has kept throughout production. Only produced in two versions, bus (nine - seater or 12 - seater -- a fourth row is added for metro transportation or school bus market) or panel van, it offers only one factory option, a rear window defogger. As of June 2009, the T2 was being built at the Volkswagen Group 's São Bernardo do Campo plant at a rate of 97 per day.
The production of the Brazilian Volkswagen Kombi ended in 2013 with a production run of 600 Last Edition vehicles. A short movie called "Kombi 's last wishes '' was made by VW Brazil.
The Volkswagen Type 2 (T3), also known as T25 in the UK or Vanagon in the United States, the T3 platform was introduced in 1979, and was one of the last new Volkswagen platforms to use an air - cooled engine. The Volkswagen air - cooled engine was phased out for a water - cooled boxer engine (still rear - mounted) in 1983. Compared to its predecessor the T2, the T3 was larger and heavier, with square corners replacing the rounded edges of the older models. The T3 is sometimes called "the wedge '' by enthusiasts to differentiate it from earlier Kombis.
Since 1990, the Transporter in most world markets has been front - engined and water - cooled, similar to other contemporary Volkswagens, almost two decades later than it did for the passenger cars. T4s are marketed as Transporter in Europe. In the United States, Volkswagen Eurovan is the brand name.
The Volkswagen Transporter T5 range is the fifth generation of Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles medium - sized light commercial vehicle and people movers. Launched 6 January 2003, the T5 went into full production in April 2003, replacing the fourth generation range.
Key markets for the T5 are Germany, the United Kingdom, Russia, France and Turkey. It is not sold in the US market because it is classed as a light truck, accruing the 25 % chicken tax on importation. The T5 has a more aerodynamic design. The angle of the windshield and A-pillar is less; this makes for a large dashboard and small bonnet.
In June 2009, Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles announced the one - millionth T5 rolled off the production line in Hanover.
T5 GP introduced in 2010. Heavily facelifted with some new power plants including the 180 bi-turbo range topper. These new engines saw the demise of the now "dirty '' 5 cylinder units.
Late 2015 will see the arrival of the "Neu Sechs '', the New 6. The T6 will offer further engine changes in early 2016, but will launch with the previous generation engines. The new engines will see the introduction of Ad - Blu to meet with euro 6 emission compliance. The new 6 was expected by many to be more than just a facelift.
With the T6 now hitting the roads it is very clear it would appear to be just a facelift. New front, new tailgate and a new dash. There are quality improvements, sound deadening, new colours and improved consumption, but many believe VW have missed an opportunity to go back to the top.
The new T6 launched with the old Euro 5 non AdBlue power - plants, but is offered with a Euro 6 diesel engine with 204bhp and AdBlue. Three further Euro 6 Adblue diesel power - plants with 84ps, 102ps and 150ps are also offered.
There is some debate in the community over whether the T6 is a new model, or simply a face - lift of the T5. There are obvious external changes to the nose and tailgate, while internally there is a new dash in 2 versions. Volkswagen are claiming refinement to ride, handling and noise levels.
In 2001, a Volkswagen Microbus Concept was created, with design cues from the T1 generation in a spirit similar to the New Beetle nostalgia movement. Volkswagen planned to start selling it in the United States market in 2007, but it was scrapped in May 2004 and replaced with a more cost - effective design to be sold worldwide.
Like the Beetle, from the beginning, the Type 2 earned many nicknames from its fans. Among the most popular, at least in Germany, are VW - Bus and Bulli (or Bully) or Hippie - van or the bus. The Type 2 was meant to be officially named the Bully, but Heinrich Lanz, producer of the Lanz Bulldog farm tractor, intervened. The model was then presented as the Volkswagen Transporter and Volkswagen Kleinbus, but the Bully nickname still caught on.
The official German - language model names Transporter and Kombi (Kombinationskraftwagen, combined - use vehicle) have also caught on as nicknames. Kombi is not only the name of the passenger variant but also the Australasian and Brazilian term for the whole Type 2 family, in much the same way that they are all called VW - Bus in Germany, even the pickup truck variations. In Mexico, the German Kombi was translated as Combi and became a household word thanks to the vehicle 's popularity in Mexico City 's public transportation system. In Peru, where the term Combi was similarly adopted, the term Combi Asesina (Murderous Combi) is often used for buses of similar size, because of the notorious recklessness and competition of bus drivers in Lima to get passengers. In Portugal it is known as Pão - de-Forma (Breadloaf) because its design resembles a bread baked in a mold. Similarly, in Denmark, the Type 2 is referred to as Rugbrød (Rye bread). Finns dubbed it Kleinbus (mini-bus), as many taxicab companies adopted it for group transportation; the name Kleinbus has become an appellative for all passenger vans. The vehicle is also known as Kleinbus in Chile.
In the US, however, it is a VW bus, "vee - dub '', minibus, hippie - mobile, hippie bus, hippie van, "combie '', Microbus, or Transporter to aficionados. The early versions produced before 1967 used a split front windshield (giving rise to the nickname "Splitty ''), and their comparative rarity has led to their becoming sought after by collectors and enthusiasts. The next version, sold in the US market from 1968 to 1979, is characterised by a large, curved windshield and is commonly called a "bay - window ''. It was replaced by the Vanagon, of which only the Westfalia camper version has a common nickname, "Westy ''.
It was called Volksie Bus in South Africa, notable in a series of that country 's TV commercials. Kombi is also a generic nickname for vans and minibuses in South Africa, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe, often used as a means of public transportation. In Nigeria it was called Danfo.
In the UK, it is known as a "Campervan ''. In France, it was called a "camping - car '' (usually hyphenated) though this has been expanded to include other, often more specialized vehicles in more recent times.
T2 production began in 1970 at the Puebla assembly factory.
Offered initially only as a nine - passenger version called the Volkswagen Combi (Kombi in Brazil), and from 1973 also its cargo van version called the Volkswagen Panel, both variants were fitted with the 1.5 L air - cooled boxer engine and four - speed manual gearbox. In 1974, the 1.6 L 44 bhp (33 kW; 45 PS) boxer engine replaced the 1.5 previous one, and production continued this way up to 1987. In 1987, the water - cooled 1.8 L 85 bhp (63 kW; 86 PS) inline four - cylinder engine replaced the air - cooled 1.6 L. This new model is recognisable by its black grille (for its engine coolant radiator), bumpers and moldings.
In 1975, Volkswagen de Mexico ordered two specially made pickups from Germany, one single cab and one double cab, for the Puebla plant. These were evaluated for the possibility of building pickups in Mexico, and were outfitted with every option except the Arctic package, including front and rear fog lights, intermittent wipers, trip odometer, clock, bumper rubber, PVC tilt, and dual doors on the single cab storage compartment. VW de Mexico was interested in having the lights, wiring, brake systems and other parts manufactured in Mexico. Ultimately, VW de Mexico declined to produce pickups, and the pickups were sold to an Autohaus, a Volkswagen dealer in San Antonio, Texas, since they could not be sold in Mexico. By law, no German - made Volkswagens were to be sold in Mexico. These are probably the only pickups that were produced in Germany for Mexican import, and have the "ME '' export code on the M - code plate. The green double cab was sold to a new owner in New York, and has been lost track of. The light gray (L345, licht grau) single cab still exists. Pickups were not manufactured in Mexico, nor were they imported into Mexico from Germany, save for these two examples.
In 1988, a luxury variant -- the Volkswagen Caravelle -- made its debut in the Mexican market to compete with the Nissan Ichi Van, which was available in cargo, passenger and luxury versions.
The main differences between the two are that the Caravelle was sold as an eight - passenger version, while the Combi was available as a nine - passenger version, the Caravelle was only painted in metallic colors, while the Combi was only available in non-metallic colors, and the Caravelle was fitted with an AM / FM stereo cassette sound system, tinted windows, velour upholstery, reading lights, mid and rear headrests, and wheel covers from the European T25 model.
In 1991, the 10 cm (3.9 in) higher roof made its debut in all variants, and the Combi began to be offered in eight - or nine - passenger variants. In 1991, since Mexican anti-pollution regulations required a three - way catalytic converter, a Digifant fuel injection system replaced the previous carburetor. The three variants continued without change until 1994.
In 1994, production ended in Mexico, with models being imported from Brazil. The Caravelle was discontinued, and both the Combi and the Panel were only offered in white color and finally in 2002, replaced by the T4 EuroVan Pasajeros and EuroVan Carga, passenger and cargo van in long wheelbase version, inline five - cylinder 2.5 L 115 bhp and five - speed manual gearbox imported from Germany.
Concepts and future models: Microbus Concept
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won the nobel prize for the development of ethology | Konrad Lorenz - wikipedia
Konrad Zacharias Lorenz (German pronunciation: (ˈkɔnʁaːt ˈloːʁɛnts); 7 November 1903 -- 27 February 1989) was an Austrian zoologist, ethologist, and ornithologist. He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Nikolaas Tinbergen and Karl von Frisch. He is often regarded as one of the founders of modern ethology, the study of animal behaviour. He developed an approach that began with an earlier generation, including his teacher Oskar Heinroth.
Lorenz studied instinctive behavior in animals, especially in greylag geese and jackdaws. Working with geese, he investigated the principle of imprinting, the process by which some nidifugous birds (i.e. birds that leave their nest early) bond instinctively with the first moving object that they see within the first hours of hatching. Although Lorenz did not discover the topic, he became widely known for his descriptions of imprinting as an instinctive bond. In 1936 he met Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen, and the two collaborated in developing ethology as a separate sub-discipline of biology. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Lorenz as the 65th most cited scholar of the 20th century in the technical psychology journals, introductory psychology textbooks, and survey responses.
Lorenz 's work was interrupted by the onset of World War - II and in 1941 he was recruited into the German army as a medic. In 1944 he was sent to the Eastern Front where he was captured and spent four years as a Soviet prisoner of war. After the war he regretted his membership in the Nazi party.
Lorenz wrote numerous books, some of which, such as King Solomon 's Ring, On Aggression, and Man Meets Dog, became popular reading. His last work "Here I Am -- Where Are You? '' is a summary of his life 's work and focuses on his famous studies of greylag geese.
In his autobiographical essay, published in 1973 in Les Prix Nobel (winners of the prizes are requested to provide such essays), Lorenz credits his career to his parents, who "were supremely tolerant of my inordinate love for animals '', and to his childhood encounter with Selma Lagerlöf 's The Wonderful Adventures of Nils, which filled him with a great enthusiasm about wild geese. ``
At the request of his father, Adolf Lorenz, he began a premedical curriculum in 1922 at Columbia University, but he returned to Vienna in 1923 to continue his studies at the University of Vienna. He graduated as Doctor of Medicine (MD) in 1928 and became an assistant professor at the Institute of Anatomy until 1935. He finished his zoological studies in 1933 and received his second doctorate (PhD).
While still a student, Lorenz began developing what would become a large menagerie, ranging from domestic to exotic animals. In his popular book King Solomon 's Ring, Lorenz recounts that while studying at the University of Vienna he kept a variety of animals at his parents ' apartment, ranging from fish to a capuchin monkey named Gloria.
In 1936, at an international scientific symposium on instinct, Lorenz met his great friend and colleague Nikolaas Tinbergen. Together they studied geese -- wild, domestic, and hybrid. One result of these studies was that Lorenz "realized that an overpowering increase in the drives of feeding as well as of copulation and a waning of more differentiated social instincts is characteristic of very many domestic animals ''. Lorenz began to suspect and fear "that analogous processes of deterioration may be at work with civilized humanity. '' This observation of bird hybrids caused Lorenz to believe that domestication resulting from urbanisation in humans might also cause dysgenic effects, and to argue in two papers that the Nazi eugenics policies against this were therefore scientifically justified.
In 1940 he became a professor of psychology at the University of Königsberg. He was drafted into the Wehrmacht in 1941. He sought to be a motorcycle mechanic, but instead he was assigned as a military psychologist, conducting racial studies on humans in occupied Poznań under Rudolf Hippius. The objective was to study the biological characteristics of "German - Polish half - breeds '' to determine whether they ' benefitted ' from the same work ethics as ' pure ' Germans. The degree to which Lorenz participated in the project is unknown, but the project director Hippius referred a couple of times to Lorenz as an "examining psychologist ''.
Lorenz later described that he once saw transports of concentration camp inmates near Poznań, which made him "fully realize the complete inhumanity of the Nazis ''.
He was sent to the Russian front in 1944 where he quickly became a prisoner of war in the Soviet Union from 1944 to 1948. In captivity he continued to work as a medic and "got quite friendly with some Russians, mostly doctors ''. When he was repatriated, he was allowed to keep the manuscript of a book he had been writing, and his pet starling. He arrived back in Altenberg (his family home, near Vienna) both "with manuscript and bird intact. '' The manuscript became his 1973 book Behind the Mirror.
The Max Planck Society established the Lorenz Institute for Behavioral Physiology in Buldern, Germany, in 1950. In his memoirs Lorenz described the chronology of his war years differently from what historians have been able to document after his death. He himself claimed that he was captured in 1942, where in reality he was only sent to the front and captured in 1944, leaving out entirely his involvement with the Poznań project.
In 1958, Lorenz transferred to the Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology in Seewiesen. He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for discoveries in individual and social behavior patterns '' with two other important early ethologists, Nikolaas Tinbergen and Karl von Frisch. In 1969, he became the first recipient of the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca.
Lorenz retired from the Max Planck Institute in 1973 but continued to research and publish from Altenberg and Grünau im Almtal in Austria.
Lorenz died on 27 February 1989 in Altenberg.
Lorenz was also a friend and student of renowned biologist Sir Julian Huxley (grandson of "Darwin 's bulldog '', Thomas Henry Huxley). Famed psychoanalyst Ralph Greenson and Sir Peter Scott were good friends. Lorenz and Karl Popper were childhood friends; many years after they met during the celebration of Popper 's 80 years they wrote together a book entitled Die Zukunft ist offen.
Lorenz is recognized as one of the founding fathers of the field of ethology, the study of animal behavior. He is best known for his discovery of the principle of attachment, or imprinting, through which in some species a bond is formed between a new born animal and its caregiver. This principle had been discovered by Douglas Spalding in the 19th century, and Lorenz 's mentor Oskar Heinroth had also worked on the topic, but Lorenz 's description of Prägung, imprinting, in nidifugous birds such as greylag geese in his 1935 book Der Kumpan in der Umwelt des Vogels ("The Companion in the Environment of Birds '') became the foundational description of the phenomenon.
Here, Lorenz used Jakob von Uexküll 's concept of Umwelt to understand how the limited perception of animals filtered out certain phenomena with which they interacted instinctively. For example, a young goose instinctively bonds with the first moving stimulus it perceives, whether it be its mother, or a person. Lorenz showed that this behavior of imprinting is what allows the goose to learn to recognize members of its own species, enabling them to be the object of subsequent behavior patterns such as mating. He developed a theory of instinctive behavior that saw behavior patterns as largely innate but triggered through environmental stimuli, for example the hawk / goose effect. He argued that animals have an inner drive to carry out instinctive behaviors, and that if they do not encounter the right stimulus they will eventually engage in the behavior with an inappropriate stimulus.
Lorenz 's approach to ethology derived from a skepticism towards the studies of animal behavior done in laboratory settings. He considered that in order to understand the mechanisms of animal behavior, it was necessary to observe their full range of behaviors in their natural context. Lorenz did not carry out much traditional fieldwork but observed animals near his home. His method involved empathizing with animals, often using anthropomorphization to imagine their mental states. He believed that animals were capable of experiencing many of the same emotions as humans.
Tinbergen, Lorenz 's friend with whom he conjointly received the Nobel prize, summarized Lorenz 's major contribution to ethology as being the way in which he made behavior a topic of biological inquiry, considering behavior a part of an animal 's evolutionary equipment. Tinbergen and Lorenz contributed to making Ethology a recognized sub-discipline within Biology and founded the first specialized journal of the field "Ethology '' (originally "Zeitschift für Tierpsychologie '')
Lorenz joined the Nazi Party in 1938 and accepted a university chair under the Nazi regime. In his application for party membership he wrote, "I 'm able to say that my whole scientific work is devoted to the ideas of the National Socialists. '' His publications during that time led in later years to allegations that his scientific work had been contaminated by Nazi sympathies. His published writing during the Nazi period included support for Nazi ideas of "racial hygiene '' couched in pseudoscientific metaphors.
In his autobiography, Lorenz wrote:
I was frightened -- as I still am -- by the thought that analogous genetical processes of deterioration may be at work with civilized humanity. Moved by this fear, I did a very ill - advised thing soon after the Germans had invaded Austria: I wrote about the dangers of domestication and, in order to be understood, I couched my writing in the worst of nazi terminology. I do not want to extenuate this action. I did, indeed, believe that some good might come of the new rulers. The precedent narrow - minded catholic regime in Austria induced better and more intelligent men than I was to cherish this naive hope. Practically all my friends and teachers did so, including my own father who certainly was a kindly and humane man. None of us as much as suspected that the word "selection '', when used by these rulers, meant murder. I regret those writings not so much for the undeniable discredit they reflect on my person as for their effect of hampering the future recognition of the dangers of domestication.
After the war, Lorenz denied having been a party member, until his membership application was made public; and he denied having known the extent of the genocide, despite his position as a psychologist in the Office of Racial Policy. He was also shown to have made antisemitic jokes on ' jewish characteristics ' in letters to his mentor Heinroth. In 2015 the University of Salzburg posthumously rescinded an honorary doctorate awarded to Lorenz in 1983, citing his party membership and his assertions in his application that he was "always a National Socialist '', and that his work "stands to serve National Socialist thought ''. The university also accused him of using his work to spread "basic elements of the racist ideology of National Socialism ''.
During the final years of his life, Lorenz supported the fledgling Austrian Green Party and in 1984 became the figurehead of the Konrad Lorenz Volksbegehren, a grass - roots movement that was formed to prevent the building of a power plant at the Danube near Hainburg an der Donau and thus the destruction of the surrounding woodland.
Lorenz has been called ' The father of ethology ', by Niko Tinbergen. Perhaps Lorenz 's most important contribution to ethology was his idea that behavior patterns can be studied as anatomical organs. This concept forms the foundation of ethological research. However, Richard Dawkins called Lorenz a "' good of the species ' man '', stating that the idea of group selection was "so deeply ingrained '' in Lorenz 's thinking that he "evidently did not realize that his statements contravened orthodox Darwinian theory. ''
Together with Nikolaas Tinbergen, Lorenz developed the idea of an innate releasing mechanism to explain instinctive behaviors (fixed action patterns). They experimented with "supernormal stimuli '' such as giant eggs or dummy bird beaks which they found could release the fixed action patterns more powerfully than the natural objects for which the behaviors were adapted. Influenced by the ideas of William McDougall, Lorenz developed this into a "psychohydraulic '' model of the motivation of behavior, which tended towards group selectionist ideas, which were influential in the 1960s. Another of his contributions to ethology is his work on imprinting. His influence on a younger generation of ethologists; and his popular works, were important in bringing ethology to the attention of the general public.
Lorenz claimed that there was widespread contempt for the descriptive sciences. He attributed this to the denial of perception as the source of all scientific knowledge: "a denial that has been elevated to the status of religion. '' He wrote that in comparative behavioral research, "it is necessary to describe various patterns of movement, record them, and above all, render them unmistakably recognizable. ''
There are three research institutions named after Lorenz in Austria: the Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research (KLI) was housed in Lorenz ' family mansion at Altenberg before moving to Klosterneuburg in 2013 (1); the Konrad Lorenz Forschungsstelle (KLF) at his former field station in Grünau; and the Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, an external research facility of the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna.
Lorenz predicted the relationship between market economics and the threat of ecological catastrophe. In his 1973 book, Civilized Man 's Eight Deadly Sins, Lorenz addresses the following paradox:
All the advantages that man has gained from his ever - deepening understanding of the natural world that surrounds him, his technological, chemical and medical progress, all of which should seem to alleviate human suffering... tends instead to favor humanity 's destruction
Lorenz adopts an ecological model to attempt to grasp the mechanisms behind this contradiction. Thus "all species... are adapted to their environment... including not only inorganic components... but all the other living beings that inhabit the locality. '' p31.
Fundamental to Lorenz 's theory of ecology is the function of negative feedback mechanisms, which, in hierarchical fashion, dampen impulses that occur beneath a certain threshold. The thresholds themselves are the product of the interaction of contrasting mechanisms. Thus pain and pleasure act as checks on each other:
To gain a desired prey, a dog or wolf will do things that, in other contexts, they would shy away from: run through thorn bushes, jump into cold water and expose themselves to risks which would normally frighten them. All these inhibitory mechanisms... act as a counterweight to the effects of learning mechanisms... The organism can not allow itself to pay a price which is not worth paying. p53.
In nature, these mechanisms tend towards a ' stable state ' among the living beings of an ecology:
A closer examination shows that these beings... not only do not damage each other, but often constitute a community of interests. It is obvious that the predator is strongly interested in the survival of that species, animal or vegetable, which constitutes its prey... It is not uncommon that the prey species derives specific benefits from its interaction with the predator species... pp31 -- 33.
Lorenz states that humanity is the one species not bound by these mechanisms, being the only one that has defined its own environment:
(The pace of human ecology) is determined by the progress of man 's technology (p35)... human ecology (economy) is governed by mechanisms of POSITIVE feedback, defined as a mechanism which tends to encourage behavior rather than to attenuate it (p43). Positive feedback always involves the danger of an ' avalanche ' effect... One particular kind of positive feedback occurs when individuals OF THE SAME SPECIES enter into competition among themselves... For many animal species, environmental factors keep... intraspecies selection from (leading to) disaster... But there is no force which exercises this type of healthy regulatory effect on humanity 's cultural development; unfortunately for itself, humanity has learned to overcome all those environmental forces which are external to itself p44.
Regarding aggression in human beings, Lorenz states:
Let us imagine that an absolutely unbiased investigator on another planet, perhaps on Mars, is examining human behavior on earth, with the aid of a telescope whose magnification is too small to enable him to discern individuals and follow their separate behavior, but large enough for him to observe occurrences such as migrations of peoples, wars, and similar great historical events. He would never gain the impression that human behavior was dictated by intelligence, still less by responsible morality. If we suppose our extraneous observer to be a being of pure reason, devoid of instincts himself and unaware of the way in which all instincts in general and aggression in particular can miscarry, he would be at a complete loss how to explain history at all. The ever - recurrent phenomena of history do not have reasonable causes. It is a mere commonplace to say that they are caused by what common parlance so aptly terms "human nature. '' Unreasoning and unreasonable human nature causes two nations to compete, though no economic necessity compels them to do so; it induces two political parties or religions with amazingly similar programs of salvation to fight each other bitterly, and it impels an Alexander or a Napoleon to sacrifice millions of lives in his attempt to unite the world under his scepter. We have been taught to regard some of the persons who have committed these and similar absurdities with respect, even as "great '' men, we are wont to yield to the political wisdom of those in charge, and we are all so accustomed to these phenomena that most of us fail to realize how abjectly stupid and undesirable the historical mass behavior of humanity actually is
Lorenz does not see human independence from natural ecological processes as necessarily bad. Indeed, he states that:
A completely new (ecology) which corresponds in every way to (humanity 's) desires... could, theoretically, prove as durable as that which would have existed without his intervention (36).
However, the principle of competition, typical of Western societies, destroys any chance of this:
The competition between human beings destroys with cold and diabolic brutality... Under the pressure of this competitive fury we have not only forgotten what is useful to humanity as a whole, but even that which is good and advantageous to the individual. (...) One asks, which is more damaging to modern humanity: the thirst for money or consuming haste... in either case, fear plays a very important role: the fear of being overtaken by one 's competitors, the fear of becoming poor, the fear of making wrong decisions or the fear of not being up to snuff... pp45 -- 47.
In this book, Lorenz proposes that the best hope for mankind lies in our looking for mates based on the kindness of their hearts rather than good looks or wealth. He illustrates this with a Jewish story, explicitly described as such.
Lorenz was one of the early scientists who recognised the significance of human overpopulation. The number one deadly sin of civilized man in his book is overpopulation, which is what leads to aggression.
In his 1973 book Behind the Mirror: A Search for a Natural History of Human Knowledge, Lorenz considers the old philosophical question of whether our senses correctly inform us about the world as it is, or provide us only with an illusion. His answer comes from evolutionary biology. Only traits that help us survive and reproduce are transmitted. If our senses gave us wrong information about our environment, we would soon be extinct. Therefore, we can be sure that our senses give us correct information, for otherwise we would not be here to be deceived.
Lorenz 's best - known books are King Solomon 's Ring and On Aggression, both written for a popular audience. His scientific work appeared mainly in journal articles, written in German; it became widely known to English - speaking scientists through its description in Tinbergen 's 1951 book The Study of Instinct, though many of his papers were later published in English translation in the two volumes titled Studies in Animal and Human Behavior.
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where was the movie coal miner daughter filmed | Coal Miner 's Daughter (film) - wikipedia
Coal Miner 's Daughter is a 1980 American biographical musical film directed by Michael Apted in a screenplay written by Tom Rickman. It follows the story of country music singer Loretta Lynn, from her birth in a poor family and getting married at 13 to her rise as one of the most successful country musicians. Based on Lynn 's 1976 autobiography of the same name by George Vecsey, the film stars Sissy Spacek as Lynn. Tommy Lee Jones, Beverly D'Angelo and Levon Helm are featured in supporting roles, while Ernest Tubb, Roy Acuff, and Minnie Pearl all make cameo appearances as themselves.
A film on Lynn 's life was intended to be made since the release of the autobiography. Production for the film began in late 1979 and Lynn herself chose Spacek to portray her on screen after seeing a photograph of her, despite being unfamiliar with her films. The film 's soundtrack featured all Lynn 's hit singles which were all sung by Spacek, as well as Patsy Cline 's "Sweet Dreams '' sung by D'Angelo. The soundtrack reached the top 40 in the U.S. on the Billboard 200 and sold over 500,000 copies, thus being certified gold by the RIAA. Coal Miner 's Daughter was released theatrically on March 7, 1980. Upon its release, the film was a critical and commercial success with major acclaim drawn towards Spacek 's performance. The film grossed $67 million worldwide against a budget of $15 million, becoming the 7th highest - grossing film of 1980.
Coal Miner 's Daughter received seven nominations at the 53rd Academy Awards including for the Best Picture and winning Best Actress (Spacek). At the 38th Golden Globe Awards, the film received four nominations and won two: Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy and Best Actress -- Comedy or Musical (Spacek).
In 1945, 13 - year - old Loretta Webb is one of eight children of Ted Webb, a Van Lear coal miner raising a family with his wife in the midst of grinding poverty in Butcher Hollow, Kentucky (pronounced by locals as "Butcher Holler '').
In 1948, at the age of 15, Loretta marries 22 - year - old Oliver "Mooney '' (aka "Doo, '' short for "Doolittle '') Lynn, becoming a mother of four by the time she is 19. The family moves to northern Washington State, where Doo works in the forest industry and Loretta sings occasionally at local honky - tonks on weekends. After some time, Loretta makes an occasional appearance on local radio.
By the time Loretta turns 25, Norm Burley, the owner of Zero Records, a small Canadian record label, hears Loretta sing during one of her early radio appearances. Burley gives the couple the money needed to travel to Los Angeles to cut a demo tape from which her first single, "I 'm a Honky Tonk Girl, '' is made. After returning home from the sessions, Doo suggests he and Loretta go on a promotional tour to push the record. Doo shoots his own publicity photo for Loretta, and spends many late nights writing letters to show promoters and to radio disc jockeys all over the South. After Loretta receives an emergency phone call from her mother telling her that her father had died, she and Doo hit the road with records, photos, and their children. The two embark on an extensive promotional tour of radio stations across the South.
En route, and unbeknownst to the couple, Loretta 's first single, "I 'm a Honky Tonk Girl, '' hits the charts based on radio and jukebox plays, and earns her a spot on the Grand Ole Opry. In the summer of 1961, after seventeen straight weekly performances on the Opry, she is invited to sing at Ernest Tubb Record Shop 's Midnite Jamboree after her performance that night. Country superstar Patsy Cline, one of Loretta 's idols, who had recently been hospitalized from a near - fatal car wreck, inspires Loretta to dedicate Patsy 's newest hit "I Fall to Pieces '' to the singer herself as a musical get - well card. Cline listens to the broadcast that night from her hospital room and sends her husband Charlie Dick to Ernest Tubb Record Shop to fetch Loretta so the two can meet. A close friendship with Cline follows, which was abruptly ended by Cline 's death in a plane crash on March 5, 1963.
The next few years are a whirlwind. The stress of extensive touring, keeping up her image, overwork, and trying to keep her marriage and family together cause Loretta a nervous breakdown, which she suffers onstage at the beginning of a concert. After a year off at her ranch, in Hurricane Mills, Tennessee, Loretta goes back on the road, returning to establish herself as the "First Lady of Country Music. ''
The film closes with Loretta recounting the story of her life through her 1970 hit song, "Coal Miner 's Daughter '', to a sold - out audience.
Lynn personally chose Spacek to portray her, making the decision based on a photograph of the actress despite being unfamiliar with her films, a story Spacek recounts in a DVD audio commentary for the Collector 's Edition of the film. Initially, Spacek was reluctant to participate, and asked to do her own singing in the film in hopes of scaring off the studio from pursuing her for the role. At the time that Lynn prematurely announced on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson that "Sissy Spacek is going to play me, '' the actress was torn between friends who advised her to do Lynn 's film and those who advised her to choose instead a Nicolas Roeg project due to start filming at the same time. Talking it over with her mother - in - law that evening, Spacek was advised to pray for a sign, which she did. She and her husband subsequently went for a drive in his mother 's car, where the radio was tuned to a classical music station that changed formats at sunset every evening. As the couple pulled out of the parking garage, the title line of the song "Coal Miner 's Daughter '' sallied forth from the radio.
The film 's soundtrack featured Spacek singing all of Lynn 's hits sung in the movie, including "Coal Miner 's Daughter ''.
In an interview with Merv Griffin broadcast November 7, 1978, Loretta Lynn said that Harrison Ford was originally cast.
It has an 88 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 16 reviews; the average rating is 8.3 / 10. Variety called it "a thoughtful, endearing film charting the life of singer Loretta Lynn from the depths of poverty in rural Kentucky to her eventual rise to the title of ' queen of country music '. '' Roger Ebert stated that the film "has been made with great taste and style; it 's more intelligent and observant than movie biographies of singing stars used to be. ''
The film won the Academy Award for Best Actress (Sissy Spacek), and was nominated for Best Art Direction (Art Direction: John W. Corso; Set Decoration: John M. Dwyer), Best Cinematography, Best Film Editing, Best Picture, Best Sound (Richard Portman, Roger Heman and James R. Alexander) and Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium.
For her performance, Spacek won an Academy Award, as well as "Best Actress '' awards from the Golden Globes, the National Board of Review, the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, the New York Film Critics Circle, and the Kansas City Film Critics Circle. Her co-star Beverly D'Angelo, who played Loretta 's mentor, Patsy Cline, also chose to do her own singing rather than lip - synching; she was nominated for a Golden Globe, as was Tommy Lee Jones.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
Coal Miner 's Daughter: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on March 7, 1980, under the MCA Nashville label. It included music by Beverly D'Angelo, Levon Helm, and Sissy Spacek except for the "End Credits Medley '' and material by other artists which were not under contract to MCA. The album was certified Gold by the RIAA on January 11, 1982 and has been released on vinyl, cassette tape, and CD. Levon Helm 's Blue Moon of Kentucky was released as a single on 7 '' vinyl, both as a double - A-side and also with a non-album track also sung by Helm, Allen Toussaint 's Working in the Coal Mine, on the B - side.
Weekly charts
Certifications
On May 10, 2012, at the Grand Ole Opry, Lynn announced that Zooey Deschanel will play her in a Broadway musical adaptation.
One episode of The Simpsons, entitled "Colonel Homer '', is partly based on this film. The episode also stars Beverly D'Angelo as cocktail waitress Lurleen Lumpkin, who happens to have a beautiful country singing voice.
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who played the groom in i write sins not tragedies | I Write Sins Not Tragedies - wikipedia
"I Write Sins Not Tragedies '' is a song by American rock band Panic! at the Disco, and is the second single from their debut studio album, A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out (2005). It was released on April 27, 2006 on both CD and 7 '' vinyl. The pizzicato cello motif that the song is built upon was played by session musician Heather Stebbins. The song reached No. 7 on the United States Billboard Hot 100. This was the band 's only top forty hit until the release of "Hallelujah '' in 2015. While the song failed to hit the top 10 on the Alternative Songs chart peaking at No. 12 which was lower than their prior single, "The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage '' which peaked at No. 5, the song 's success on the Hot 100 and Mainstream Top 40 (at No. 2) charts was what made the song one of the biggest modern rock hits of 2006 and is still one of the band 's most played songs on alternative radio stations to this day.
In the UK, the song was released on February 27, 2006 as a limited edition single with a free sticker. Because the sticker was included with the CD single, the song was not eligible for the UK Singles Chart. Official Charts Company rules state that stickers are not allowed in single releases. Later, in September 2006, due to the popularity of the track and following further single releases there of "Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off '' and "But It 's Better If You Do '', going top 40 there, the single was re-released on October 30, 2006. Despite receiving significant radio airplay upon its re-release, the single only reached No. 25 in the UK Singles Chart.
Many U.S. radio stations, in response to the language found in the song, wanted an edited version. The lyrics "The poor groom 's bride is a whore '' and "Have n't you people ever heard of closing a goddamn door? '' were changed by replacing "whore '' with a "shhh '' sound and removing "god '' in "goddamn ''. Some stations -- generally modern rock stations -- still play the original version.
The song was covered by Fall Out Boy, fellow Decaydance band, for their live album, * * * *: Live in Phoenix. (Fall Out Boy commonly uses the song 's chorus as a lead - in to "This Ai n't a Scene, It 's an Arms Race '' in concert.)
"I Write Sins Not Tragedies '' was ranked No. 3 in Billboard 's Best 2000 's Video poll.
The title of the song refers to Douglas Coupland 's novel Shampoo Planet, wherein the main character, Tyler Johnson, says: "I am writing a list of tragic character flaws on my dollar bills with a felt pen. I am thinking of the people in my universe and distilling for each of these people the one flaw in their character that will be their downfall -- the flaw that will be their undoing. What I write are not sins; I write tragedies. ''
"I Write Sins Not Tragedies '' is Panic! at the Disco 's first single to have a music video. ("The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage '' was the first single, but no video was filmed.) The video for the song takes place at a strange, circus - themed wedding played by the Lucent Dossier Vaudeville Cirque.
The video starts as the bride, played by Jessie Preston, and groom, Daniel Isaac McGuffey, are about to be married. Her family dress and behave formally, but are revealed later to have fallen asleep and have eyes painted on their eyelids. His family are lower - class entertainers and carnival folk, and interrupt the wedding. The ringmaster, played by vocalist Brendon Urie, acts as narrator and disrupts the events. After an argument between the two families, the bride runs out and is followed by one of her guests. The ringmaster drags the groom outside by his tie, where his fiancée is kissing the guest who followed her out of the church. The groom straightens up, looking shocked, and Urie and the groom bow to the camera. The ringmaster is revealed to be the groom 's alter ego.
The music video by director Shane Drake won the award for Video of the Year during the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards. This marked the first occasion since the 1989 VMAs that the winner of Video of the Year did not win anything else. The video was also ranked No. 7 on VH1 's list of the Top 100 Videos of 2006.
The video was shot in December 2005. According to vocalist Brendon Urie, he and guitarist Ryan Ross suffered from the flu while filming the video clip. In August 2011, the video won Best VMA Winning Video of All Time, in a worldwide poll on MTV 's website.
UK 7 '' poster bag (February 2006)
UK CD single (February 2006)
WMI CD single (May 2006)
UK CD single (October 2006)
UK 7 '' gatefold sleeve (October 2006)
UK 7 '' picture disc (October 2006)
Enhanced CD single (October 2006)
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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the western boundary of what directly borders california | Geography of California - wikipedia
California is a U.S. state on the western coast of North America. Covering an area of 163,696 sq mi (423,970 km), California is geographically diverse. The Sierra Nevada, the fertile farmlands of the Central Valley, and the arid Mojave Desert of the south are some of the major geographic features of this U.S. state. It is home to some of the world 's most exceptional trees: the tallest (coast redwood), most massive (Giant Sequoia), and oldest (bristlecone pine). It is also home to both the highest (Mount Whitney) and lowest (Death Valley) points in the 48 contiguous states.
The state is generally divided into Northern and Southern California, although the boundary between the two is not well defined. San Francisco is decidedly a Northern California city and Los Angeles likewise a Southern California one, but areas in between do not often share their confidence in geographic identity. The US Geological Survey defines the geographic center of the state at a point near North Fork, California.
Earth scientists typically divide the state into eleven distinct geomorphic provinces with clearly defined boundaries. They are, from north to south, the Klamath Mountains, the Cascade Range, the Modoc Plateau, the Basin and Range, the Coast Ranges, the Central Valley, the Sierra Nevada, the Transverse Ranges, the Mojave Desert, the Peninsular Ranges, and the Colorado Desert.
The boundaries of California were defined by Spanish claims of Mexico, as part of the province of Alta California. The northern boundary of Spanish claims was set at 42 degrees latitude by the Adams -- Onis Treaty of 1819. The states of Nevada and Utah, also originally part of Alta California, also use that line for their northern boundaries. The southern boundary, between California and Mexico, was established by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican -- American War in 1848. The line is about 30 miles north of the former Alta California southern boundary. The eastern boundary consists of two straight lines: a north - south line from the northern border to the middle of Lake Tahoe, and a second line angling southeast to the Colorado River. From that point, 14 mi (23 km) south - southwest of Davis Dam on Lake Mohave, the southeast boundary follows the Colorado River to the international border west of Yuma. The eastern and south - eastern boundaries were decided upon during the debates of the California Constitutional Convention in 1849.
Northern California usually refers to the state 's northernmost 48 counties.
The main population centers of Northern California include San Francisco Bay Area (which includes the cities of San Francisco, Oakland, and the largest city of the region, San Jose), and Sacramento (the state capital) as well as its metropolitan area. It also contains redwood forests, along with the Sierra Nevada including Yosemite Valley and Lake Tahoe, Mount Shasta (the second - highest peak in the Cascade Range after Mount Rainier in Washington), and the northern half of the Central Valley, one of the world 's most productive agricultural regions. The climate can be generally characterized by its marine to warm Mediterranean climates along the coast, to somewhat Continental Mediterranean Climate in the valley to alpine climate zones in the high mountains. Apart from the San Francisco Bay Area and Sacramento metropolitan areas (and some other cities in the Central Valley), it is a region of relatively low population density. Northern California 's economy is noted for being the de facto world leader in industries such as high technology (both software and semiconductor), as well as being known for clean power, biomedical, government, and finance.
The Klamath Mountains are a range in northwest California and southwest Oregon, the highest peak being Mount Eddy in Trinity County, California, at 9,037 feet (2,754 m). The range has a varied geology, with substantial areas of serpentine and marble. The climate is characterized by moderately cold winters with heavy snowfall and warm, very dry summers with limited rainfall. As a consequence of the geology, the mountains have a unique flora, including several endemic or near - endemic species, such as Lawson 's Cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) and Foxtail Pine (Pinus balfouriana). Brewer 's Spruce (Picea breweriana) and Kalmiopsis (Kalmiopsis leachiana) are relict species, remaining since the last ice age.
The Cascade Range is a mountainous region stretching from the Fraser River in British Columbia, Canada down to south of Lassen Peak, California. The Cascades (as they are called for short) are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the ring of volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean. All of the known historic eruptions in the contiguous United States have been from either Cascade volcanoes or near Mono Lake. Lassen Peak was the last Cascade volcano to erupt in California, from 1914 to 1921. Lassen is the most southerly active volcano of the Cascade chain.
This region is located in the northeastern section of the state bordering Oregon and Nevada, mostly north of the Central Valley and the Sierra Nevada mountain range. The area is centered on Mount Shasta, near the Trinity Alps. Mount Shasta is a dormant volcano, but there is some evidence that it erupted in the 18th Century.
In the northeast corner of the state lies the Modoc Plateau, an expanse of lava flows that formed a million years ago and now lie at an altitude of 4,000 to 5,000 feet (1,200 to 1,500 m). The plateau has many cinder cones, juniper flats, pine forests, and seasonal lakes. The plateau lies between the Cascade Range to the west and the Warner Mountains to the east. The Lost River watershed drains the north part of the plateau, while southern watersheds either collect in basin reservoirs or flow into Big Sage Reservoir and thence to the Pit River.
Nine percent of the plateau is protected as reserves or wilderness areas, such as the Modoc National Wildlife Refuge. The plateau supports large herds of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), Rocky Mountain Elk (Cervus canadensis), and pronghorn (Antilocapra americana). Herds of wild horses and livestock grazing have altered the original high desert ecosystem of the plateau.
To the east of the Sierra is the Basin and Range geological province, which extends into Nevada. The Basin and Range is a series of mountains and valleys (specifically horsts and grabens), caused by the extension of the Earth 's crust. One notable feature of the Basin and Range is Mono Lake, which is the oldest lake in North America. The Basin and Range also contains the Owens Valley, the deepest valley in North America (more than 10,000 feet (3 km) deep, as measured from the top of Mount Whitney).
In the eastern part of the state, below the Sierra Nevada, there is a series of dry lake beds that were filled with water during the last ice age (fed by ice melt from alpine glaciers but never directly affected by glaciation; see pluvial). Many of these lakes have extensive evaporite deposits that contain a variety of different salts. In fact, the salt sediments of many of these lake beds have been mined for many years for various salts, most notably borax (this is most famously true for Owens Lake and Death Valley).
In this province reside the White Mountains, which are home to the oldest living organism in the world, the bristlecone pine
To the west of the Central Valley lies the Coast Ranges, including the Diablo Range, just east of San Francisco, and the Santa Cruz Mountains, to the south of San Francisco. The Coast Ranges north of San Francisco become increasingly foggy and rainy. These mountains are noted for their coast redwoods, the tallest trees on earth, which live within the range of the coastal fog.
California 's geography is largely defined by its central feature -- the Central Valley, a huge, fertile valley between the coastal mountain ranges and the Sierra Nevada. The northern part of the Central Valley is called the Sacramento Valley, after its main river, and the southern part is called the San Joaquin Valley / ˌsæn wɑːˈkiːn /, after its main river. The whole Central Valley is watered by mountain - fed rivers (notably the San Joaquin, Kings, and Sacramento) that drain to the San Francisco Bay system. The rivers are sufficiently large and deep that several inland cities, notably Stockton, and Sacramento are seaports.
The southern tip of the valley has interior drainage and thus is not technically part of the valley at all. Tulare Lake, once 570 square miles (1,476 square kilometers) and now dry and covered with agricultural fields, once filled much of the area.
In the east of the state lies the Sierra Nevada, which runs north -- south for 400 miles (640 km). The highest peak in the contiguous United States, Mount Whitney at 14,505 feet (4,421 m), lies within the Sierra Nevada. The topography of the Sierra is shaped by uplift and glacial action.
The Sierra has 200 -- 250 sunny days each year, warm summers, fierce winters, and varied terrain, a rare combination of rugged variety and pleasant weather. The famous Yosemite Valley lies in the Central Sierra. The large, deep freshwater Lake Tahoe lies to the North of Yosemite. The Sierra is also home to the Giant Sequoia, the most massive trees on Earth.
The most famous hiking and horse - packing trail in the Sierra is the John Muir Trail, which goes from the top of Mt. Whitney to Yosemite valley, and which is part of the Pacific Crest Trail that goes from Mexico to Canada. The three major national parks in this province are Yosemite National Park, Kings Canyon National Park, and Sequoia National Park.
The term Southern California usually refers to the ten southern-most counties of the state. This definition coincides neatly with the county lines at 35 ° 47 ′ 28 '' north latitude, which form the northern borders of San Luis Obispo, Kern, and San Bernardino counties. Another definition for Southern California uses the Tehachapi Mountains as the northern boundary.
Southern California consists of a heavily developed urban environment, home to some of the largest urban areas in the state, along with vast areas that have been left undeveloped. With over 22 million people, roughly 60 % of California 's population resides in Southern California. It is the second - largest urbanized region in the United States, second only to the Washington / Philadelphia / New York / Boston Northeastern Megalopolis. Whereas these cities are dense, with major downtown populations and significant rail and transit systems, much of Southern California is famous for its large, spread - out, suburban communities and use of automobiles and highways. The dominant areas are Los Angeles, Orange County, San Diego, and Riverside - San Bernardino, each of which is the center of its respective metropolitan area, composed of numerous smaller cities and communities. The urban area is also host to an international metropolitan region in the form of San Diego -- Tijuana, created by the urban area spilling over into Baja California.
Southern California is noted for industries including the film industry, residential construction, entertainment industry, and military aerospace. Other industries include software, automotive, ports, finance, tourism, biomedical, and regional logistics.
Southern California is separated from the rest of the state by the east - west trending Transverse Ranges, including the Tehachapi, which separate the Central Valley from the Mojave Desert. Urban Southern California intersperses the valleys between the Santa Susana Mountains, Santa Monica Mountains and San Gabriel Mountains, which range from the Pacific Coast, eastward over 100 miles (160 km), to the San Bernardino Mountains, north of San Bernardino. The highest point of the range is Mount San Gorgonio at 11,499 feet (3,505 m). The San Gabriel Mountains have Mount Wilson observatory, where the redshift was discovered in the 1920s.
The Transverse Ranges include a series of east -- west trending mountain ranges that extend from Point Conception at the western tip of Santa Barbara County, eastward (and a bit south) to the east end of the San Jacinto Mountains in western Riverside County. The Santa Ynez Mountains make up the westernmost ranges, extending from Point Conception to the Ventura River just west - northwest of Ojai, in Ventura County. Pine Mountain Ridge, Nordhoff Ridge -- Topatopa Mountains, Rincon Peak -- Red Mountain, Sulphur Mountain, Santa Paula Ridge, South Mountain -- Oat Mountain -- Santa Susana Mountains, Simi Hills, Conejo Mountains -- Santa Monica Mountains are all part of the Western Transverse Ranges, in Ventura and western Los Angeles counties.
The Liebre Mountains occupy the northwest corner of Los Angeles County, and represent a northwestern extension of the San Gabriel Mountains, both on the Pacific Plate side of the San Andreas Fault. The fault divides the San Gabriel Mountains from the San Bernardino Mountains further to the east in San Bernardino County.
It is possible to surf in the Pacific Ocean and ski on a mountain during the same winter day in Southern California.
There are harsh deserts in the Southeast of California. These deserts are caused by a combination of the cold offshore current, which limits evaporation, and the rain shadow of the mountains. The prevailing winds blow from the ocean inland. When the air passes over the mountains, adiabatic cooling causes most water in the air to rain on the mountains. When the air returns to sea level on the other side of the mountains, it recompresses, warms and dries, parching the deserts. When the wind blows from inland, the resulting hot dry katabatic winds are called the Santa Ana Winds.
The Mojave Desert is bounded by the peninsular Tehachapi Mountains on the Northwest, together with the San Gabriel and the San Bernardino Mountains on the Southwest. These Western boundaries are quite distinct, forming the dominant pie - slice shaped Antelope Valley in Southern California. The outlines of this valley are caused by the two largest faults in California: the San Andreas and the Garlock. The Mojave Desert extends Eastward into the State of Nevada. The Mojave Desert receives less than 6 inches (150 mm) of rain a year and is generally between 3,000 and 6,000 feet (1,000 and 2,000 m) of elevation. Areas such as the Antelope Valley desert which is a high desert received snow each year, in the past it could snow 2 -- 3 times a year; however, recently snow level has declined significantly to once a year or less. Most of the towns and cities in the California portion of the Mojave are relatively small, except for Palmdale and Lancaster. However, some are quite famous like Barstow, a popular stop on the famous U.S. Route 66. The Mojave Desert also contains the lowest, hottest place in the Americas: Death Valley, where temperature normally approaches 120 ° F (49 ° C) in late July and early August.
The southernmost mountains of California are the Peninsular Ranges, which are East of San Diego and continue into Baja California (Mexico) in the Sierra San Pedro Martir. The Peninsular Ranges contain the Laguna Mountains, the San Jacinto Mountains, the Santa Rosa Mountains, the Santa Ana Mountains and the Palomar Mountain Range, notable for its famous Palomar observatory. San Jacinto Peak 's eastern shoulder has a cable tram that runs from the desert floor to nearly the top of the mountain where riders can set off hiking or go cross-country skiing.
To the east of the peninsular ranges lie the Colorado and Sonoran Deserts, which extend into Arizona and Mexico.
The ground elevation is generally lower and in some areas was compressed downward, therefore the eastern Coachella and Imperial Valleys north of the U.S. - Mexican border are below sea level, the lowest community in the U.S. is Calipatria, California at 160 feet (49 m) below sea level.
One feature of the desert is the Salton Sea, an inland lake that was formed in 1905 when a swollen Colorado River breached a canal near the U.S. - Mexico border and flowed into the Salton Sink (Salton Basin) for almost two years. Today, the Salton Sea, a new version of historic Lake Cahuilla, remains as California 's largest lake.
The Pacific Ocean lies to the west of California. Sea temperatures rarely exceed 65 ° F (18 ° C), even in summer, because of up - welling deep waters with dissolved nutrients. Therefore, most sea life in and around California more closely resembles Arctic, rather than tropical, biotopes. The sea off California is remarkably fertile, a murky green filled with fish, rather than the clear dead blue of most tropical seas. Before 1930, there was an extremely valuable sardine (herring) fishery off Monterey, but this was depleted, an event later famous as the background to John Steinbeck 's Cannery Row.
Earthquakes occur due to faults that run the length of the Pacific coast, the largest being the San Andreas Fault. Major historical earthquakes include, with the magnitudes listed:
Coastal cities are vulnerable to tsunamis from locally generated earthquakes as well as those elsewhere in the Pacific Ring of Fire. The Great Chilean earthquake tsunami (1960) killed one person and caused $500,000 to $1,000,000 dollars of damage in Los Angeles, damaged harbors in many coastal cities, and flooded streets in Crescent City. Waves from the Alaskan Good Friday earthquake of 1964 killed twelve people in Crescent City and caused damage as far south as Los Angeles. USGS has released the UCERF California earthquake forecast which models earthquake occurrence in California.
California is also home to several volcanoes, including Lassen Peak, which erupted in 1914 and 1921, and Mount Shasta.
California, when only partially explored by the Spanish, was once thought to be an island, as when the southern Baja California Peninsula is approached from the Gulf of California the land appears to the west. It is expected, through the motions of plate tectonics that the sea floor spreading now acting in the Gulf of California (also known as the Sea of Cortez) will eventually extend through Southern California and along the San Andreas fault to below San Francisco, finally forming a long island in less than 150 million years. (For comparison, this is also the approximate age of the Atlantic Ocean.) Predictions suggest that this island will eventually collide with Alaska after an additional 100 million years.
California 's climate varies widely, from arid to subarctic, depending on latitude, elevation, and proximity to the coast. Coastal and Southern parts of the state have a Mediterranean climate, with somewhat rainy winters and dry summers. The influence of the ocean generally moderates temperature extremes, creating warmer winters and substantially cooler summers, especially along the coastal areas.
The state is subject to coastal storms during the winter. Eastern California is subject to summertime thunderstorms caused by the North American monsoon. Dry weather during the rest of the year produces conditions favorable to wildfires. California hurricanes occur less frequently than their counterparts on the Atlantic Ocean. Higher elevations experience snowstorms in the winter months.
Floods are occasionally caused by heavy rain, storms, and snowmelt. Steep slopes and unstable soil make certain locations vulnerable to landslides in wet weather or during earthquakes.
Coordinates: 37 ° 9 ′ 58 '' N 119 ° 26 ′ 58 '' W / 37.16611 ° N 119.44944 ° W / 37.16611; - 119.44944 (Center of California)
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who had the most sacks in the nfl this season | List of National Football League annual sacks leaders - wikipedia
This is a list of National Football League players who have led the regular season in sacks each year. Sacks became an official statistic in 1982. Michael Strahan of the New York Giants holds the record with 22.5, which he had during the 2001 season. In 2013, the NFL created the Deacon Jones Award to recognize the season leader in sacks. There have only been two players lead in sacks with 2 different teams, Jared Allen (2007 with the Chiefs and 2011 with the Vikings) and Kevin Greene (1994 with the Steelers and 1996 with the Panthers). The Chiefs and the Vikings have had the most players lead the NFL in sacks with 4.
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most of the prehistoric cave paintings that have been discovered contain images of | Cave painting - wikipedia
Cave paintings are also known as "parietal art ''. They are painted drawings on cave walls or ceilings, mainly of prehistoric origin, dated to some 40,000 years ago (around 38,000 BCE) in Eurasia. The exact purpose of the Paleolithic cave paintings is not known. Evidence suggests that they were not merely decorations of living areas since the caves in which they have been found do not have signs of ongoing habitation. They are also often located in areas of caves that are not easily accessible. Some theories hold that cave paintings may have been a way of communicating with others, while other theories ascribe a religious or ceremonial purpose to them. The paintings are remarkably similar around the world, with animals being common subjects that give the most impressive images. Humans mainly appear as images of hands, mostly hand stencils made by blowing pigment on a hand held to the wall.
The earliest known cave paintings are at least 64,000 years old. Represented by three red non-figurative symbols found in the caves of Maltravieso, Ardales and La Pasiega, Spain, these predate the arrival of modern humans to Europe by at least 20,000 years and thus must have been made by Neanderthals.
The earliest known cave paintings / drawings of animals are at least 35,000 years old and were found in caves in the district of Maros, located in Bantimurung district, South Sulawesi, Indonesia, according to datings announced in 2014. Previously it was believed that the earliest figurative paintings were in Europe. The earliest figurative paintings in Europe date back to the Aurignacian period, approximately 30,000 to 32,000 years ago, and are found in the Chauvet Cave in France, and in the Coliboaia Cave in Romania.
Nearly 340 caves have now been discovered in France and Spain that contain art from prehistoric times. Initially, the age of the paintings had been a contentious issue, since methods like radiocarbon dating can produce misleading results if contaminated by samples of older or newer material, and caves and rocky overhangs (where parietal art is found) are typically littered with debris from many time periods. But subsequent technology has made it possible to date the paintings by sampling the pigment itself, torch marks on the walls, or the formation of carbonate deposits on top of the paintings. The choice of subject matter can also indicate chronology. For instance, the reindeer depicted in the Spanish cave of Cueva de las Monedas places the drawings in the last Ice Age.
The oldest known cave painting is a red hand stencil in Maltravieso cave, Cáceres, Spain. It has been dated using the uranium - thorium method to older than 67,000 years and was made by a Neanderthal. The oldest date given to an animal cave painting is now a pig that has a minimum age of 35,400 years old at Timpuseng cave in Sulawesi, an Indonesian island.
The earliest known European figurative cave paintings are those of Chauvet Cave in France. These paintings date to earlier than 30,000 BCE (Upper Paleolithic) according to radiocarbon dating. Some researchers believe the drawings are too advanced for this era and question this age. However, more than 80 radiocarbon dates had been obtained by 2011, with samples taken from torch marks and from the paintings themselves, as well as from animal bones and charcoal found on the cave floor. The radiocarbon dates from these samples show that there were two periods of creation in Chauvet: 35,000 years ago and 30,000 years ago. One of the surprises was that many of the paintings were modified repeatedly over thousands of years, possibly explaining the confusion about finer paintings that seemed to date earlier than cruder ones. In 2009, cavers discovered drawings in Coliboaia Cave in Romania, stylistically comparable to those at Chauvet. An initial dating puts the age of an image in the same range as Chauvet: about 32,000 years old.
In Australia, cave paintings have been found on the Arnhem Land plateau showing megafauna which are thought to have been extinct for over 40,000 years, making this site another candidate for oldest known painting; however, the proposed age is dependent on the estimate of the extinction of the species seemingly depicted. Another Australian site, Nawarla Gabarnmang, has charcoal drawings that have been radiocarbon - dated to 28,000 years, making it the oldest site in Australia and among the oldest in the world for which reliable date evidence has been obtained.
Other examples may date as late as the Early Bronze Age, but the well - known Magdalenian style seen at Lascaux in France (c. 15,000 BCE) and Altamira in Spain died out about 10,000 BCE, coinciding with the advent of the Neolithic period. Some caves probably continued to be painted over a period of several thousands of years.
The next phase of surviving European prehistoric painting, the rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin, was very different, concentrating on large assemblies of smaller and much less detailed figures, with at least as many humans as animals. This was created roughly between 10,000 and 5,500 years ago, and painted in rock shelters under cliffs or shallow caves, in contrast to the recesses of deep caves used in the earlier (and much colder) period. Though individual figures are less naturalistic, they are grouped in coherent grouped compositions to a much greater degree.
The most common subjects in cave paintings are large wild animals, such as bison, horses, aurochs, and deer, and tracings of human hands as well as abstract patterns, called finger flutings. The species found most often were suitable for hunting by humans, but were not necessarily the actual typical prey found in associated deposits of bones; for example, the painters of Lascaux have mainly left reindeer bones, but this species does not appear at all in the cave paintings, where equine species are the most common. Drawings of humans were rare and are usually schematic as opposed to the more detailed and naturalistic images of animal subjects. One explanation for this may be that realistically painting the human form was "forbidden by a powerful religious taboo. '' Kieran D. O'Hara, geologist, suggests in his book Cave Art and Climate Change that climate controlled the themes depicted. Pigments used include red and yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide and charcoal. Sometimes the silhouette of the animal was incised in the rock first, and in some caves all or many of the images are only engraved in this fashion, taking them somewhat out of a strict definition of "cave painting ''.
Similarly, large animals are also the most common subjects in the many small carved and engraved bone or ivory (less often stone) pieces dating from the same periods. But these include the group of Venus figurines, which have no real equivalent in cave paintings.
Hand stencils, made by placing a hand on the wall and blowing pigment at it (probably through a pipe of some kind), form a characteristic image of a roughly round area of solid pigment with the uncoloured shape of the hand in the centre, which may then be decorated with lines or dashes. These are often found in the same caves as other paintings, or may be the only form of painting in a location. Some walls contain many hand stencils. Similar hands are also painted in the usual fashion. A number of hands show a finger wholly or partly missing, for which a number of explanations have been given. Hand images are found in similar forms in Europe, Eastern Asia and South America.
Henri Breuil interpreted the paintings as being hunting magic, meant to increase the number of animals.
Another theory, developed by David Lewis - Williams and broadly based on ethnographic studies of contemporary hunter - gatherer societies, is that the paintings were made by paleolithic shamans. The shaman would retreat into the darkness of the caves, enter into a trance state, and then paint images of their visions, perhaps with some notion of drawing power out of the cave walls themselves.
R. Dale Guthrie, who has studied both highly artistic and publicized paintings and a variety of lower quality art and figurines, identifies a wide range of skill and ages among the artists. He hypothesizes that the main themes in the paintings and other artifacts (powerful beasts, risky hunting scenes and the representation of women in the Venus figurines) are the work of adolescent males, who constituted a large part of the human population at the time. However, in analyzing hand prints and stencils in French and Spanish caves, Dean Snow of Pennsylvania State University has proposed that a proportion of them, including those around the spotted horses in Pech Merle, were of female hands.
At uKhahlamba / Drakensberg Park, South Africa, now thought to be some 3,000 years old, the paintings by the San people who settled in the area some 8,000 years ago depict animals and humans, and are thought to represent religious beliefs. Human figures are much more common in the rock art of Africa than in Europe.
Cave paintings found at the Apollo 11 Cave in Namibia are estimated to date from approximately 23,000 -- 25,000 BCE.
In 2002, a French archaeological team discovered the Laas Geel cave paintings on the outskirts of Hargeisa in the northwestern region of Somaliland. Dating back around 5,000 years, the paintings depict both wild animals and decorated cows. They also feature herders, who are believed to be the creators of the rock art. In 2008, Somali archaeologists announced the discovery of other cave paintings in Dhambalin region, which the researchers suggest includes one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the Ethiopian - Arabian style, dated to 1000 to 3000 BCE.
Additionally, between the towns of Las Khorey and El Ayo in Karinhegane, the site of numerous cave paintings of real and mythical animals. Each painting has an inscription below it, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old. Karihegane 's rock art is in the same distinctive Ethiopian - Arabian style as the Laas Geel and Dhambalin cave paintings. Around 25 miles from Las Khorey is found Gelweita, another key rock art site.
In Djibouti, rock art of what appear to be antelopes and a giraffe are also found at Dorra and Balho.
Many cave paintings are found in the Tassili n'Ajjer mountains in southeast Algeria. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the rock art was first discovered in 1933 and has since yielded 15,000 engravings and drawings that keep a record of the various animal migrations, climatic shifts, and change in human inhabitation patterns in this part of the Sahara from 6000 BCE to the late classical period. Other cave paintings are also found at the Akakus, Mesak Settafet and Tadrart in Libya and other Sahara regions including: Ayr mountains, Niger and Tibesti, Chad.
The Cave of Swimmers and the Cave of Beasts in southwest Egypt, near the border with Libya, in the mountainous Gilf Kebir region of the Sahara Desert. The Cave of Swimmers was discovered in October 1933 by the Hungarian explorer László Almásy. The site contains rock painting images of people swimming, which are estimated to have been created 10,000 years ago during the time of the most recent Ice Age.
Significant early cave paintings, executed in ochre, have been found in Kakadu, Australia. Ochre is not an organic material, so carbon dating of these pictures is often impossible. Sometimes the approximate date, or at least, an epoch, can be surmised from the painting content, contextual artifacts, or organic material intentionally or inadvertently mixed with the inorganic ochre paint, including torch soot.
A red ochre painting, discovered at the centre of the Arnhem Land Plateau, depicts two emu - like birds with their necks outstretched. They have been identified by a palaeontologist as depicting the megafauna species Genyornis, giant birds thought to have become extinct more than 40,000 years ago; however, this evidence is inconclusive for dating. It may merely suggest that Genyornis became extinct at a later date than previously determined.
Hook Island in the Whitsunday Islands is also home to a number of cave paintings created by the seafaring Ngaro people.
Well - known cave paintings include those of:
Other sites include Creswell Crags, Nottinghamshire, England (~ 14,500 ys old cave etchings and bas - reliefs discovered in 2003), Peștera Coliboaia in Romania (~ 29,000 y.o. art?), and Kapova Cave in Russia (~ 16,000 y.o. art).
Rock painting was also performed on cliff faces, but fewer of those have survived because of erosion. One example is the rock paintings of Astuvansalmi (3000 -- 2500 BC) in the Saimaa area of Finland.
When Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola first encountered the Magdalenian paintings of the Altamira cave, Cantabria, Spain in 1879, the academics of the time considered them hoaxes. Recent reappraisals and numerous additional discoveries have since demonstrated their authenticity, while at the same time stimulating interest in the artistry of Upper Palaeolithic peoples.
The Bhimbetka rock shelters exhibit the earliest traces of human life in India; a number of analyses suggest that some of these shelters were inhabited by humans for more than 100,000 years. The earliest paintings on the cave walls are believed to be of the Mesolithic period, dating to 30,000 years ago. The most recent painting, consisting of geometric figures, date to the medieval period. Executed mainly in red and white with the occasional use of green and yellow, the paintings depict the lives and times of the people who lived in the caves, including scenes of childbirth, communal dancing and drinking, religious rites and burials, as well as indigenous animals.
Distinctive monochrome and polychrome cave paintings and murals exist in the mid-peninsula regions of southern Baja California and northern Baja California Sur, consisting of Pre-Columbian paintings of humans, land animals, sea creatures, and abstract designs. These paintings are mostly confined to the sierras of this region, but can also be found in outlying mesas and rock shelters. According to recent radiocarbon studies of the area, of materials recovered from archaeological deposits in the rock shelters and on materials in the paintings themselves, suggest that the Great Murals may have a time range extending as far back as 7,500 years ago.
Native artists in the Chumash tribes created cave paintings that are located in present - day Santa Barbara, Ventura, and San Luis Obispo Counties in Southern California. They include well executed examples at Burro Flats Painted Cave and Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park.
There are also Native American pictogram examples in caves of the Southwestern United States. Cave art that is 6,000 years old was found in the Cumberland Plateau region of Tennessee.
Serra da Capivara National Park is a national park in the north east of Brazil with many prehistoric paintings; the park was created to protect the prehistoric artifacts and paintings found there. It became a World Heritage Site in 1991. Its best known archaeological site is Pedra Furada.
It is located in northeast state of Piauí, between latitudes 8 ° 26 ' 50 '' and 8 ° 54 ' 23 '' south and longitudes 42 ° 19 ' 47 '' and 42 ° 45 ' 51 '' west. It falls within the municipal areas of São Raimundo Nonato, São João do Piauí, Coronel José Dias and Canto do Buriti. It has an area of 1291.4 square kilometres (319,000 acres). The area has the largest concentration of prehistoric small farms on the American continents. Scientific studies confirm that the Capivara mountain range was densely populated in prehistoric periods.
Cueva de las Manos (Spanish for "Cave of the Hands '') is a cave located in the province of Santa Cruz, Argentina, 163 km (101 mi) south of the town of Perito Moreno, within the borders of the Francisco P. Moreno National Park, which includes many sites of archaeological and paleontological importance.
The hand images are often negative (stencilled). Besides these there are also depictions of human beings, guanacos, rheas, felines and other animals, as well as geometric shapes, zigzag patterns, representations of the sun, and hunting scenes. Similar paintings, though in smaller numbers, can be found in nearby caves. There are also red dots on the ceilings, probably made by submerging their hunting bolas in ink, and then throwing them up. The colours of the paintings vary from red (made from hematite) to white, black or yellow. The negative hand impressions date to around 550 BCE, the positive impressions from 180 BCE, while the hunting drawings are calculated to more than 10,000 years old. Most of the hands are left hands, which suggests that painters held the spraying pipe with their right hand.
There are rock paintings in caves in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Burma. In Thailand, caves and scarps along the Thai - Burmese border, in the Petchabun Range of Central Thailand, and overlooking the Mekong River in Nakorn Sawan Province, all contain galleries of rock paintings. In Malaysia the oldest paintings are at Gua Tambun in Perak, dated at 2000 years, and those in the Painted Cave at Niah Caves National Park are 1200 years old. The anthropologist Ivor Hugh Norman Evans visited Malaysia in the early 1920s and found that some of the tribes (especially Negritos) were still producing cave paintings and had added depictions of modern objects including what are believed to be cars. (See prehistoric Malaysia.)
In Indonesia the caves at Maros in Sulawesi are famous for their hand prints. About 1500 negative handprints have also been found in 30 painted caves in the Sangkulirang area of Kalimantan; preliminary dating analysis puts their age in the range of 10,000 years old. In October 2014 it was announced that the Maros painting had been dated as being about 40,000 years old. Dr Maxime Aubert, of Griffith University in Queensland, Australia, said that the minimum age for the outline of a hand was 39,900 years old, which made it "the oldest hand stencil in the world '' and added, "Next to it is a pig that has a minimum age of 35,400 years old, and this is one of the oldest figurative depictions in the world, if not the oldest one. ''
The Padah - Lin Caves of Burma contain 11,000 - year - old paintings and many rock tools.
In the Philippines at Tabon Caves the oldest artwork may be a relief of a shark above the cave entrance. It was partially disfigured by a later jar burial scene.
Originating in the Paleolithic period, the rock art found in Khoit Tsenkher Cave, Mongolia, includes symbols and animal forms painted from the walls up to the ceiling. Stags, buffalo, oxen, ibex, lions, Argali sheep, antelopes, camels, elephants, ostriches, and other animal pictorials are present, often forming a palimpsest of overlapping images. The paintings appear brown or red in color, and are stylistically similar to other Paleolithic rock art from around the world but are unlike any other examples in Mongolia.
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when was the last time the number of supreme court justices was altered | List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States - wikipedia
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest ranking judicial body in the United States. Its membership, as set by the Judiciary Act of 1869, consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight associate justices, any six of whom would constitute a quorum. Justices are nominated by the President of the United States and appointed after confirmation by the United States Senate. Justices of the Supreme Court have life tenure and receive a salary which is set at $255,500 per year for the chief justice and at $244,400 per year for each associate justice as of 2014.
The Supreme Court was created in 1789 by Article III of the United States Constitution, which stipulated that the "judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court '' together with any lower courts Congress may establish. Congress organized the Court that year with the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1789. It specified the Court 's original and appellate jurisdiction, created thirteen judicial districts, and fixed the number of justices at six (one chief justice and five associate justices).
Since 1789, Congress has occasionally altered the size of the Supreme Court, historically in response to the country 's own expansion in size. An 1801 act would have decreased the Court 's size to five members upon its next vacancy. However, an 1802 act negated the effects of the 1801 act upon the Court before any such vacancy occurred, maintaining the Court 's size at six members. Later legislation increased its size to seven members in 1807, to nine in 1837, and to ten in 1863. An 1866 act was to have reduced the Court 's size from ten members to seven upon its next three vacancies, and two vacancies did occur during this period. However, before a third vacancy occurred, the Judiciary Act of 1869 intervened, restoring the Court 's size to nine members, where it has remained since.
While the justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life, many have retired or resigned. Beginning in the early 20th century, many justices who left the Court voluntarily did so by retiring from the Court without leaving the federal judiciary altogether. A retired justice, according to the United States Code, is no longer a member of the Supreme Court, but remains eligible to serve by designation as a judge of a U.S. Court of Appeals or District Court, and many retired justices have served in these capacities. Historically, the average length of service on the Court has been less than 15 years. However, since 1970 the average length of service has increased to about 26 years.
There are currently nine justices serving on the Supreme Court; listed in order of seniority, they are:
Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, 113 persons have served on the Court. William O. Douglas holds the record for longest tenure on the Court -- 36 years, 211 days, and Thomas Johnson 's 163 day tenure is the shortest. Five individuals were confirmed for associate justice, and later appointed chief justice separately: Charles Evans Hughes, William Rehnquist, John Rutledge, Harlan F. Stone, and Edward Douglass White. While listed twice, each of them has been assigned only one index number. The justices of the Supreme Court are:
This graphical timeline depicts the progression of the justices on the Supreme Court. Information regarding each justice 's predecessors, successors and fellow justices, as well as their tenure on the court can be gleaned (and comparisons between justices drawn) from it. Additionally, The progression of presidents, along with the number of justices each nominated, is shown at the top of the timeline to give a more detailed historical context. Regarding the associate justice seat numbers, due to the several changes in the size of the Court since 1789, two of the ten seats chronicled below -- "Seat 7 '' and "Seat 5 '' -- have been abolished, both as a result of the Judicial Circuits Act of 1866.
This graphical timeline depicts the length of each current Supreme Court justice 's tenure on the Court.
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who was the first bourbon monarch how long did he rule france | House of Bourbon - wikipedia
Bourbons of Spain
House of Orléans
House of Condé (extinct)
The House of Bourbon (English: / ˈbɔːrbən /; French: (buʁˈbɔ̃)) is a European royal house of French origin, a branch of the Capetian dynasty (/ kəˈpiːʃən /). Bourbonic kings first ruled France and Navarre in the 16th century. By the 18th century, members of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty held thrones in Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Parma. Spain and Luxembourg currently have monarchs of the House of Bourbon.
The royal Bourbons originated in 1272 when the heiress of the lordship of Bourbon married the youngest son of King Louis IX. The house continued for three centuries as a cadet branch, while more senior Capetians ruled France, until Henry IV became the first Bourbon king of France in 1589. Bourbon monarchs then united to France the small kingdom of Navarre, which Henry 's father had acquired by marriage in 1555, ruling both until the 1792 overthrow of the monarchy during the French Revolution. Restored briefly in 1814 and definitively in 1815 after the fall of the First French Empire, the senior line of the Bourbons was finally overthrown in the July Revolution of 1830. A cadet Bourbon branch, the House of Orléans, then ruled for 18 years (1830 -- 1848), until it too was overthrown.
The Princes de Condé were a cadet branch of the Bourbons descended from an uncle of Henry IV, and the Princes de Conti were a cadet branch of the Condé. Both houses were prominent French noble families well known for their participation in French affairs, even during exile in the French Revolution, until their respective extinctions in 1830 and 1814.
When the Bourbons inherited the strongest claim to the Spanish throne, the claim was passed to a cadet Bourbon prince, a grandson of Louis XIV of France, who became Philip V of Spain. Permanent separation of the French and Spanish thrones was secured when France and Spain ratified Philip 's renunciation, for himself and his descendants, of the French throne in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1714, and similar arrangements later kept the Spanish throne separate from those of the Two Sicilies and Parma. The Spanish House of Bourbon (rendered in Spanish as Borbón (borˈβon)) has been overthrown and restored several times, reigning 1700 -- 1808, 1813 -- 1868, 1875 -- 1931, and since 1975. Bourbons ruled in Naples from 1734 -- 1806 and in Sicily from 1734 -- 1816, and in a unified Kingdom of the Two Sicilies from 1816 -- 1860. They also ruled in Parma from 1731 -- 1735, 1748 -- 1802 and 1847 -- 1859.
Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg married a cadet of the Parmese line and thus her successors, who have ruled Luxembourg since her abdication in 1964, have also been members of the House of Bourbon. Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil, regent for her father, Pedro II of the Empire of Brazil, married a cadet of the Orléans line and thus their descendants, known as the Orléans - Braganza, were in the line of succession to the Brazilian throne and expected to ascend its throne had the monarchy not been abolished by a coup in 1889.
All legitimate, living members of the House of Bourbon, including its cadet branches, are direct agnatic descendants of Henry IV through his son Louis XIII of France.
The pre-Capetian House of Bourbon was a noble family, dating at least from the beginning of the 13th century, when the estate of Bourbon was ruled by the Sire de Bourbon who was a vassal of the King of France. The term House of Bourbon ("Maison de Bourbon '') is sometimes used to refer to this first house and the House of Bourbon - Dampierre, the second family to rule the seigneury.
In 1272, Robert, Count of Clermont, sixth and youngest son of King Louis IX of France, married Beatrix of Bourbon, heiress to the lordship of Bourbon and member of the House of Bourbon - Dampierre. Their son Louis was made Duke of Bourbon in 1327. His descendant, the Constable of France Charles de Bourbon, was the last of the senior Bourbon line when he died in 1527. Because he chose to fight under the banner of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and lived in exile from France, his title was discontinued after his death.
The remaining line of Bourbons henceforth descended from James I, Count of La Marche, the younger son of Louis I, Duke of Bourbon. With the death of his grandson James II, Count of La Marche in 1438, the senior line of the Count of La Marche became extinct. All future Bourbons would descend from James II 's younger brother, Louis, who became the Count of Vendôme through his mother 's inheritance. While the most senior branch of the family, the House of Valois, continued to occupy the throne of France, at the death of Charles IV, Duke of Alençon in 1525, all of the princes of the blood royal were Bourbons.
In 1514, Charles, Count of Vendôme had his title raised to Duke of Vendôme. His son Antoine became King of Navarre, on the northern side of the Pyrenees, by marriage in 1555. Two of Antoine 's younger brothers were Cardinal Archbishop Charles de Bourbon and the French and Huguenot general Louis de Bourbon, 1st Prince of Condé. Louis ' male - line, the Princes de Condé, survived until 1830. Finally, in 1589, the House of Valois died out and Antoine 's son Henry III of Navarre became Henry IV of France.
Family from India 's claim to be a branch and their claim to The "Throne of France ''
As per the latest research carried out by Prince Michael of Greece and incorporated in his historical novel, Le Rajah Bourbon, Balthazar Napoleon lV de Bourbon from India is the eldest in line to the French Throne.
The first Bourbon king of France was Henry IV. He was born on 13 December 1553 in the Kingdom of Navarre. Antoine de Bourbon, his father, was a ninth - generation descendant of King Louis IX of France. Jeanne d'Albret, his mother was the Queen of Navarre and niece of King Francis I of France. He was baptized Catholic, but raised Calvinist. After his father was killed in 1562, he became Duke of Vendôme at the age of 10, with Admiral Gaspard de Coligny (1519 -- 1572) as his regent. Seven years later, the young duke became the nominal leader of the Huguenots after the death of his uncle the Prince de Condé in 1569.
Henry succeeded to Navarre as Henry III when his mother died in 1572. That same year Catherine de ' Medici, mother of King Charles IX of France, arranged for the marriage of her daughter, Margaret of Valois, to Henry, ostensibly to advance peace between Catholics and Huguenots. Many Huguenots gathered in Paris for the wedding on 24 August, but were ambushed and slaughtered by Catholics in the St. Bartholomew 's Day Massacre. Henry saved his own life by converting to Catholicism. He repudiated his conversion in 1576 and resumed his leadership of the Huguenots.
The period from 1576 to 1584 was relatively calm in France, with the Huguenots consolidating control of much of the south with only occasional interference from the royal government. Extended civil war erupted again in 1584, when François, Duke of Anjou, younger brother of King Henry III of France, died, leaving Navarre next in line for the throne. Thus began the War of the Three Henrys, as Henry of Navarre, Henry III, and the ultra-Catholic leader, Henry of Guise, fought a confusing three - cornered struggle for dominance. After Henry III was assassinated on 31 July 1589, Navarre claimed the throne as the first Bourbon king of France, Henry IV.
Much of Catholic France, organized into the Catholic League, refused to recognize a Protestant monarch and instead recognized Henry IV 's uncle, Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon, as rightful king, and the civil war continued. Henry won a crucial victory at Ivry on 14 March 1590 and, following the death of the Cardinal the same year, the forces of the League lacked an obvious Catholic candidate for the throne and divided into various factions. Nevertheless, as a Protestant, Henry IV was unable to take Paris, a Catholic stronghold, or to decisively defeat his enemies, now supported by the Spanish. He reconverted to Catholicism in 1593 -- he is said to have remarked, "Paris is well worth a mass '' -- and was crowned king retroactively to 1589 at the Cathedral of Chartres on 27 February 1594.
Henry granted the Edict of Nantes on 13 April 1598, establishing Catholicism as an official state religion but also granting the Huguenots a measure of religious tolerance and political freedom short of full equality with the practice of Catholicism. This compromise ended the religious wars in France. That same year the Treaty of Vervins ended the war with Spain, adjusted the Spanish - French border, and resulted in a belated recognition by Spain of Henry as king of France.
Ably assisted by Maximilien de Béthune, duc de Sully, Henry reduced the land tax known as the taille; promoted agriculture, public works, construction of highways, and the first French canal; started such important industries as the tapestry works of the Gobelins; and intervened in favor of Protestants in the duchies and earldoms along the German frontier. This last was to be the cause of his assassination.
Henry 's marriage to Margaret, which had produced no heir, was annulled in 1599 and he married Marie de Medici, niece of the grand duke of Tuscany. A son, Louis, was born to them in 1601. Henry IV was assassinated on 14 May 1610 in Paris. Louis XIII was only nine years old when he succeeded his father. He was to prove a weak ruler; his reign was effectively a series of distinct regimes, depending who held the effective reins of power. At first, Marie de Medici, his mother, served as regent and advanced a pro-Spanish policy. To deal with the financial troubles of France, Louis summoned the Estates General in 1614; this would be the last time that body met until the eve of the French Revolution. Marie arranged the 1615 marriage of Louis to Anne of Austria, the daughter of King Philip III of Spain.
In 1617, however, Louis conspired with Charles d'Albert, duc de Luynes to dispense with her influence, having her favorite Concino Concini assassinated on 26 April of that year. After some years of weak government by Louis 's favorites, the King made Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu, a former protégé of his mother, the chief minister of France in 1624.
Richelieu advanced an anti-Habsburg policy. He arranged for Louis ' sister, Henrietta Maria, to marry King Charles I of England, on 11 May 1625. Her pro-Catholic propaganda in England was one of the contributing factors to the English Civil War. Richelieu, as ambitious for France and the French monarchy as for himself, laid the ground for the absolute monarchy that would last in France until the Revolution. He wanted to establish a dominating position for France in Europe, and he wanted to unify France under the monarchy. He established the role of intendants, non-noble men whose arbitrary powers of administration were granted (and revocable) by the monarch, superseding many of the traditional duties and privileges of the noble governors.
Although it required a succession of internal military campaigns, he disarmed the fortified Huguenot towns that Henry had allowed. He involved France in the Thirty Years ' War (1618 -- 1648) against the Habsburgs by concluding an alliance with Sweden in 1631 and, actively, in 1635. He died in 1642 before the conclusion of that conflict, having groomed Cardinal Jules Mazarin as a successor. Louis XIII outlived him but by one year, dying in 1643 at the age of forty - two. After a childless marriage for twenty - three years his queen, Anne, delivered a son on 5 September 1638, whom he named Louis after himself. In the mid eighteenth century, the Bourbon monarchy had a faulty system for finance and taxation. Their lacking a national bank lead to them taking short - term loans, and ordering financial agents to make payments in advance or in excess of tax revenues collected.
Louis XIV succeeded his father at four years of age; he would go on to become the most powerful king in French history. His mother Anne served as his regent with her favorite Jules, Cardinal Mazarin, as chief minister. Mazarin continued the policies of Richelieu, bringing the Thirty Years ' War to a successful conclusion in 1648 and defeating the nobility 's challenge to royal absolutism in a series of civil wars known as the Frondes. He continued to war with Spain until 1659.
In that year the Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed signifying a major shift in power, France had replaced Spain as the dominant state in Europe. The treaty called for an arranged marriage between Louis and his cousin Maria Theresa, a daughter of King Philip IV of Spain by his first wife Elisabeth, the sister of Louis XIII. They were married in 1660 and had a son, Louis, in 1661. Mazarin died on 9 March 1661 and it was expected that Louis would appoint another chief minister, as had become the tradition, but instead he shocked the country by announcing he would rule alone.
For six years Louis reformed the finances of his state and built formidable armed forces. France fought a series of wars from 1667 onward and gained some territory on its northern and eastern borders. Maria Theresa died in 1683 and the next year he secretly married the devoutly Catholic Françoise d'Aubigné, marquise de Maintenon. Louis XIV began to persecute Protestants, undoing the religious tolerance established by his grandfather Henry IV, culminating in his revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685.
The last war waged by Louis XIV proved to be one of the most important to dynastic Europe. In 1700, King Charles II of Spain, a Habsburg, died without a son. Louis 's son the Grand Dauphin, as the late king 's nephew, was the closest heir, and Charles willed the kingdom to the Dauphin 's second son, the Duke of Anjou. Other powers, particularly the Austrian Habsburgs, who had the next closest claims, objected to such a vast increase in French power.
Initially, most of the other powers were willing to accept Anjou 's reign as Philip V, but Louis 's mishandling of their concerns soon drove the English, Dutch and other powers to join the Austrians in a coalition against France. The War of the Spanish Succession began in 1701 and raged for 12 years. In the end Louis 's grandson was recognized as king of Spain, but he was obliged to agree to the forfeiture of succession rights in France, the Spanish Habsburgs ' other European territories were largely ceded to Austria, and France was nearly bankrupted by the cost of the struggle. Louis died on 1 September 1715 ending his seventy - two year reign, the longest in European history.
The reign of Louis XIV was so long that he outlived both his son and eldest grandson. He was succeeded by his great - grandson Louis XV. Louis XV was born on 15 February 1710 and was thus aged only five at his ascension, the third Louis in a row to become king of France before the age of thirteen (Louis XIII became king at 9, Louis XIV at almost 5 and himself at 5). Initially, the regency was held by Philip, Duke of Orléans, Louis XIV 's nephew, as nearest adult male to the throne. This Regence was seen as a period of greater individual expression, manifested in secular, artistic, literary and colonial activity, in contrast to the austere latter years of Louis XIV 's reign.
Following Orléans ' death in 1723, the Duke of Bourbon, representative of the Bourbon - Condé cadet line, became prime minister. It was expected that Louis would marry his cousin, the daughter of King Philip V of Spain, but this engagement was broken by the duke in 1725 so that Louis could marry Maria Leszczynska, the daughter of Stanislas, former king of Poland. Bourbon 's motive appears to have been a desire to produce an heir as soon as possible so as to reduce the chances of a succession dispute between Philip V and the Duke of Orléans in the event of the sickly king 's death. Maria was already an adult woman at the time of the marriage, while the infanta was still a young girl.
Nevertheless, Bourbon 's action brought a very negative response from Spain, and for his incompetence Bourbon was soon replaced by Cardinal Andre Hercule de Fleury, the young king 's tutor, in 1726. Fleury was a peace - loving man who intended to keep France out of war, but circumstances presented themselves that made this impossible.
The first cause of these wars came in 1733 when Augustus II, the elector of Saxony and king of Poland died. With French support, Stanislas was again elected king. This brought France into conflict with Russia and Austria who supported Augustus III, Elector of Saxony and son of Augustus II.
Stanislas lost the Polish crown, but he was given the Duchy of Lorraine as compensation, which would pass to France after his death. Next came the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740 in which France supported King Frederick II of Prussia against Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary. Fleury died in 1743 before the conclusion of the war.
Shortly after Fleury 's death in 1745 Louis was influenced by his mistress the Marquise de Pompadour to reverse the policy of France in 1756 by creating an alliance with Austria against Prussia in the Seven Years ' War. The war was a disaster for France, which lost most of her overseas possessions to the British in the Treaty of Paris in 1763. Maria, his wife, died in 1768 and Louis himself died on 10 May 1774.
Louis XVI had become the Dauphin of France upon the death of his father Louis, the son of Louis XV, in 1765. He married Marie Antoinette of Austria, a daughter of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa, in 1770. Louis intervened in the American Revolution against Britain in 1778, but he is most remembered for his role in the French Revolution. France was in financial turmoil and Louis was forced to convene the Estates - General on 5 May 1789.
They formed the National Assembly and forced Louis to accept a constitution that limited his powers on 14 July 1790. He tried to flee France in June 1791, but was captured. The French monarchy was abolished on 21 September 1792 and a republic was proclaimed. The chain of Bourbon monarchs begun in 1589 was broken. Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793.
Marie Antoinette and her son, Louis, were held as prisoners. Many French royalists proclaimed him Louis XVII, but he never reigned. She was executed on 16 October 1793. He died of tuberculosis on 8 June 1795 at the age of ten while in captivity.
The French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars spread nationalism and anti-absolutism throughout Europe, and the other Bourbon monarchs were threatened. Ferdinand was forced to flee from Naples in 1806 when Napoleon Bonaparte deposed him and installed his brother, Joseph, as king. Ferdinand continued to rule from Sicily until 1815.
Napoleon conquered Parma in 1800 and compensated the Bourbon duke with Etruria, a new kingdom he created from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. It was short - lived, counting only two monarchs, Louis and Charles, as Napoleon annexed Etruria in 1807.
King Charles IV of Spain had been an ally of France. He succeeded his father, Charles III, in 1788. At first he declared war on France on 7 March 1793, but he made peace on 22 June 1795. This peace became an alliance on 19 August 1796. His chief minister, Manuel de Godoy convinced Charles that his son, Ferdinand, was plotting to overthrow him. Napoleon exploited the situation and invaded Spain in March 1808. This led to an uprising that forced Charles to abdicate on 19 March in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. Napoleon forced Ferdinand to return the crown to Charles on 30 April and then convinced Charles to relinquish it to him on 10 May. In turn, he gave it to his brother, Joseph, king of Naples on 6 June. Joseph abandoned Naples to Joachim Murat, the husband of Napoleon 's sister. This was very unpopular in Spain and resulted in the Peninsular War, a struggle that would contribute to the downfall of Napoleon.
With the abdication of Napoleon on 11 April 1814 the Bourbon dynasty was restored to the kingdom of France in the person of Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI. Napoleon escaped from exile and Louis fled in March 1815. Louis was again restored after the Battle of Waterloo on 7 July.
The conservative elements of Europe dominated the post-Napoleonic age, but the values of the French Revolution could not be easily swept aside. Louis granted a constitution on 14 June 1814 to appease the liberals, but the ultra-royalist party, led by his brother, Charles, continued to influence his reign. When he died in 1824 his brother became king as Charles X much to the dismay of French liberals. In a saying ascribed to Talleyrand, "they had learned nothing and forgotten nothing ''.
Charles passed several laws that appealed to the upper class, but angered the middle class. The situation came to a head when he appointed a new minister on 8 August 1829 who did not have the confidence of the chamber. The chamber censured the king on 18 March 1830 and in response Charles proclaimed five ordinances on 26 July intended to silence criticism against him. This almost resulted in another revolution as dramatic as the one in 1789, but moderates were able to control the situation.
As a compromise the crown was offered to Louis - Philippe, duke of Orléans, a descendant of the brother of Louis XIV, and the head of the Orleanist cadet branch of the Bourbons. Agreeing to reign constitutionally and under the tricolour, he was proclaimed King of the French on 7 August. The resulting regime, known as the July monarchy, lasted until the Revolution of 1848. The Bourbon monarchy in France ended on 24 February 1848, when Louis - Philippe was forced to abdicate and the short - lived Second Republic was established.
Some legitimists refused to recognize the Orleanist monarchy. After the death of Charles in 1836 his son was proclaimed Louis XIX, though this title was never formally recognized. Charles ' grandson Henri, comte de Chambord, the last Bourbon claimant of the French crown, was proclaimed by some Henry V, but the French monarchy was never restored.
Following the 1870 collapse of the empire of Emperor Napoleon III, Henri was offered a restored throne. However Chambord refused to accept the throne unless France abandoned the revolution - inspired tricolour and accepted what he regarded as the true Bourbon flag of France, featuring the fleur - de-lis. The tricolour, originally associated with the French Revolution and the First Republic, had been used by the July Monarchy, the Second Republic and both Empires; the French National Assembly could not possibly agree.
A temporary Third Republic was established, while monarchists waited for the comte de Chambord to die and for the succession to pass to the Comte de Paris, who was willing to accept the tricolour. Henri lived until 1883, by which time public opinion had come to accept the republic as the "form of government that divides us least. '' His death without issue marked the extinction of the French Bourbons. Thus the head of the House of Bourbon became Juan, Count of Montizón of the Spanish line of the house who was also Carlist claimant to the throne of Spain, and had become the senior male of the dynasty by primogeniture. His heir as eldest Bourbon and head of the house is today Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou.
By an ordinance of Louis Philippe I of France of 13 August 1830, it was decided that the king 's children (and his sister) would continue to bear the arms of Orléans, that Louis - Philippe 's eldest son, as Prince Royal, would bear the title of duc d'Orléans, that the younger sons would continue to have their existing titles, and that the sister and daughters of the king would be styled Royal Highness and "d'Orléans '', but the Orléans dynasts did not take the name "of France ''.
The Spanish branch of the House of Bourbon was founded by Philip V. He was born in 1683 in Versailles, the second son of the Grand Dauphin, son of Louis XIV. He was Duke of Anjou and probably never expected to be raised to a rank higher than that. However King Charles II of Spain, dying without issue, willed the throne to his grand - nephew the Duke of Anjou, younger grandson of his eldest sister Marie - Thérèse, daughter of King Philip IV of Spain who had married Louis XIV of France.
The prospect of Bourbons on both the French and Spanish thrones was resisted as creating an imbalance of power in Europe by its dominant regimes and, upon Charles II 's death on 1 November 1700, a Grand Alliance of European nations united against Philip. This was known as the War of Spanish Succession. In the Treaty of Utrecht, signed on 11 April 1713, Philip was recognized as king of Spain but his renunciation of succession rights to France was affirmed and, of the Spanish Empire 's other European territories, Sicily was ceded to Savoy, and the Spanish Netherlands, Milan and Naples were allotted to the Austrian Habsburgs.
Philip had two sons by his first wife. After her death he married Elisabeth Farnese, niece of Francesco Farnese, Duke of Parma, in 1714. She presented Philip with three sons, for whom she had ambitions of securing Italian crowns. Thus she induced Philip to occupy Sardinia and Sicily in 1717.
A Quadruple Alliance of Britain, France, Austria and the Netherlands was organized on 2 August 1718 to stop him. In the Treaty of The Hague, signed on 17 February 1720, Philip renounced his conquests of Sardinia and Sicily, but assured the ascension of his eldest son by Elisabeth to the Duchy of Parma upon the reigning duke 's death. Philip abdicated in January 1724 in favor of Louis I, his eldest son with his first wife, but Louis died in August and Philip resumed the crown.
When the War of the Polish Succession began in 1733, Philip and Elisabeth saw another opportunity to advance the claims of their sons and recover at least part of the former possessions of the Spanish crown on the Italian peninsula. Philip signed the Family Compact with Louis XV, his nephew and king of France. Charles, Duke of Parma since 1731, invaded Naples. At the conclusion of peace on 13 November 1738, control of Parma and Piacenza was ceded to Austria, which had occupied the duchies but was now forced to recognise Charles as King of Naples and Sicily. Philip also used the War of the Austrian Succession to win more territory in Italy. He did not live to see it to its conclusion, however, dying in 1746.
Ferdinand VI, second son of Philip V and his first wife, succeeded his father. He was a peace - loving monarch who kept Spain out of the Seven Years ' War. He died in 1759 in the midst of that conflict and was succeeded by his half - brother Charles III. Charles was the eldest son of Philip and Elisabeth Farnese. He was born in 1716 and had become Duke of Parma when the last Farnese duke died in 1731.
Following Spain 's victory over the Austrians at the battle of Bitonto, it proved inexpedient to reunite Naples and Sicily to Spain, so as a compromise Charles became King of Naples, as Charles IV and VII of Sicily. Following Charles ' accession to the Spanish throne in 1759 he was required, by the Treaty of Naples of 3 October 1759, to abdicate Naples and Sicily to his third son, Ferdinand, thus initiating the branch known as the Neapolitan Bourbons.
Charles revived the Family Compact with France on 15 August 1761 and joined in the Seven Years ' War against Britain in 1762; the reformist policies he had espoused in Naples were pursued with similar energy in Spain, where he completely overhauled the cumbersome bureaucracy of the state. As a French ally he opposed Britain during the American Revolution in June 1779, supplying large quantities of weapons and munitions to the rebels and keeping one third of all the British forces in the Americas occupied defending Florida and what is now Alabama, which were ultimately recaptured by Spain. Charles died in 1788.
Elisabeth Farnese 's ambitions were realized at the conclusion of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1748 when the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza, already occupied by Spanish troops, were ceded by Austria to her second son, Philip, and combined with the former Gonzaga duchy of Guastalla. Elisabeth died in 1766.
Upon the fall of the French Empire, Ferdinand I was restored to the throne of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1815, founding the House of Bourbon - Two Sicilies. His subjects revolted in 1820 and he was forced to grant a constitution; Austria invaded in March 1821 and revoked the constitution. He was succeeded by his son, Francis I, in 1825 and by his grandson, Ferdinand II, in 1830. Another revolution erupted in January 1848 and Ferdinand was also forced to grant a constitution. This constitution was revoked in 1849. Ferdinand was succeeded by his son, Francis II, in May 1859.
When Giuseppe Garibaldi captured Naples in 1860, Francis restored the constitution in an attempt to save his sovereignty. He fled to the fortress of Gaeta, which was captured by the Piedmontese troops in February 1861; his kingdom was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy on 17 March 1861, after the fall the fortress of Messina (surrendered on 12 March), although the Neapolitan troops in Civitella del Tronto resisted three days longer.
After the fall of Napoleon, Napoleon 's wife, Maria Louisa, was made Duchess of Parma. As compensation, Charles Louis, the former king of Etruria, was made the Duke of Lucca. When Maria Louisa died in 1847 he was restored to Parma as Charles II. Lucca was incorporated into Tuscany. He was succeeded by his son, Charles III, and grandson, Robert I, in 1854. The people of Parma voted for a union with the kingdom of Sardinia in 1860. After Italian unification the next year, the Bourbon dynasty in Italy was no more.
Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne of Spain in March 1814. Like his Italian Bourbon counterpart, his subjects revolted against him in January 1820 and he was forced to grant a constitution. A French army invaded in 1823 and the constitution was revoked. Ferdinand married his fourth wife, Maria Christina, the daughter of Francis I, the Bourbon king of Sicily, in 1829. Despite his many marriages he did not have a son, so in 1833 he was influenced by his wife to abolish the Salic Law so that their daughter, Isabella, could become queen depriving his brother, Don Carlos, of the throne.
Isabella II succeeded her father when he died in 1833. She was only three years old and Maria Cristina, her mother, served as regent. Maria knew that she needed the support of the liberals to oppose Don Carlos so she granted a constitution in 1834. Don Carlos found his greatest support in Catalonia and the Basques country because the constitution centralized the provinces thus denying them the autonomy they sought. He was defeated and fled the country in 1839. Isabella was declared of age in 1843 and she married her cousin Francisco de Asis, the son of her father 's brother, on 10 October 1846. A military revolution broke out against Isabella in 1868 and she was deposed on 29 September. She abdicated in favor of her son, Alfonso, in 1870, but Spain was proclaimed a republic for a brief time.
When the First Spanish Republic failed the crown was offered to Isabella 's son who accepted on 1 January 1875 as Alfonso XII. Don Carlos, who returned to Spain, was again defeated and resumed his exile in February 1876. Alfonso granted a new constitution in July 1876 that was more liberal than the one granted by his grandmother. His reign was cut short when he died in 1885 at the age of twenty - eight.
Alfonso XIII was born on 17 May 1886 after the death of his father. His mother, Maria Christina, the second wife of Alfonso XII served as regent. Alfonso XIII was declared of age in 1902 and he married Victoria Eugénie Julia Ena of Battenberg, the granddaughter of the British queen Victoria, on 31 May 1906. He remained neutral during World War I, but supported the military coup of Miguel Primo de Rivera on 13 September 1923. A movement towards the establishment of a republic began in 1930 and Alfonso fled the country on 14 April 1931. He never formally abdicated, but lived the rest of his life in exile. He died in 1941.
The Bourbon dynasty seemed finished in Spain as in the rest of the world, but it would be resurrected. The Second Spanish Republic was overthrown in the Spanish Civil War, leading to the dictatorship of Francisco Franco. He named Juan Carlos de Borbón, a grandson of Alfonso XIII, his successor in 1969. When Franco died six years later, Juan Carlos I took the throne to restore the Bourbon dynasty. The new king oversaw the Spanish transition to democracy; the Spanish Constitution of 1978 recognized the monarchy.
Since 1964 the Bourbon - Parma line has reigned agnatically in Luxembourg through Grand Dukes Jean and his son Henri. In June 2011, Luxembourg adopted absolute primogeniture, replacing the old Semi-Salic law that might have guaranteed the survival of Bourbon rule for generations.
Though it is not as powerful as it once was and no longer reigns in its native country of France, the House of Bourbon is by no means extinct and has survived to the present - day world, predominantly composed of republics.
The House of Bourbon, in its surviving branches, is believed to be the oldest royal dynasty of Europe (and the oldest documented European family altogether) that is still existing in the direct male line today: The House of Capet 's male ancestors, the Robertians, go back to Robert of Hesbaye (d. 807) as their first secured ancestor and he is believed to be a direct male descendant of Charibert de Haspengau (c. 555 -- 636). Should this be true, only the Imperial House of Japan would outmatch the Bourbon 's age, being reliably documented - as a ruling house already - from about 540. The House of Hesse traces its line back to 841, the House of Welf - Este and the House of Wettin are both emerging in the 10th century (and so do some Italian non-ruling houses like the Caetani or the Massimo family), whereas most of the other ruling families of Europe only turn up to the light of history after the year 1000.
Dates indicate reigns, not lifetimes.
Dates indicate claims, not lifetimes.
Dates indicate reigns, not lifetimes.
Dates indicate claims, not lifetimes.
Dates indicate claims, not lifetimes.
Dates indicate claims, not lifetimes.
Dates indicate seniority, not lifetimes. Where reign as king or queen of Spain is different, this is noted.
Dates indicate claims, not lifetimes.
Dates indicate reigns, not lifetimes.
Officially, the King of France had no family name. A prince with the rank of fils de France (Son of France) is surnamed "de France ''; all the male - line descendants of each fils de France, however, took his main title (whether an appanage or a courtesy title) as their family or last name. However, when Louis XVI was put on trial and later "guillotined '' (executed) by the revolutionaries National Convention in France in 1793, they somewhat contemptously referred to him in written documents and spoken address as "Citizen Louis Capet '' as if a "commoner '' (referring back to the Medieval origins of the Bourbon Dynasty 's name and referring to Hugh Capet, founder of the Capetian Dynasty).
Members of the House of Bourbon - Condé and its cadet branches, which never ascended to the throne, used the surname "de Bourbon '' until their extinction in 1830.
The daughters of Gaston, Duke of Orleans, were the first members of the House of Bourbon since the accession of Henry IV to take their surname from the appanage of their father (d'Orleans). Gaston died without a male heir; his titles reverted to the crown. It was given to his nephew, Philippe I, Duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV, whose descendants still bear the surname.
When Philippe, grandson of Louis XIV, became King of Spain as Philip V, he gave up his French titles. As a Son of France, his actual surname was "de France ''. However, since that surname was not heritable for descendants of rank lower than Son of France, and since Philippe had already given up his French titles, his descendants simply took the name of their royal house as their surname ("de Bourbon '', rendered in Spanish as "de Borbón '').
The children of Philippe 's brother, Charles, Duke of Berry (all of whom died in infancy), were given the surname "d'Alencon ''. He was Duke of Berry only in name, so the surname of his children was taken from his first substantial duchy.
The children of Charles Philippe, Count of Artois, brother of Louis XVI, were surnamed "d'Artois ''. When Charles succeeded to the throne as Charles X, his son Louis Antoine became a Son of France, with the corresponding change in surname. His grandson, Henri d'Artois, being merely a Grandson of France, would use the surname until his death.
Simplified family trees showing the relationships between the Bourbons and the other branches of the Royal House of France.
Transcontinental country. Entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
After partitions:
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what is counter trade and its various forms | Countertrade - wikipedia
Countertrade means exchanging goods or services which are paid for, in whole or part, with other goods or services, rather than with money. A monetary valuation can however be used in countertrade for accounting purposes. In dealings between sovereign states, the term bilateral trade is used.
There are six main variants of countertrade:
Countertrade also occurs when countries lack sufficient hards currency, or when other types of market trade are impossible.
In 2000, India and Iraq agreed on an "oil for wheat and rice '' barter deal, subject to United Nations approval under Article 50 of the UN Persian Gulf War sanctions, that would facilitate 300,000 barrels of oil delivered daily to India at a price of $6.85 a barrel while Iraq oil sales into Asia were valued at about $22 a barrel. In 2001, India agreed to swap 1.5 million tonnes of Iraqi crude under the oil - for - food program.
The Security Council noted: "... although locally produced food items have become increasingly available throughout the country, most Iraqis do not have the necessary purchasing power to buy them. Unfortunately, the monthly food rations represent the largest proportion of their household income. They are obliged to either barter or sell items from the food basket in order to meet their other essential needs. This is one of the factors which partly explains why the nutritional situation has not improved in line with the enhanced food basket. Moreover, the absence of normal economic activity has given rise to the spread of deep - seated poverty. ''
Countertrade transactions have been basically conducted among the former Soviet Union and its allies in the Eastern Europe and other parts of the world. The reason that these countries have allocated a big portion of their commerce to the countertrade attributed to insufficient hard currency. A significant proportion of international commerce, possibly as much as 25 %, involves the barter of products for other products rather than for hard currency. Countertrade may range from a simple barter between two countries to a complex web of exchanges meeting the needs of all countries involved.
Noted US economist Paul Samuelson was skeptical about the viability of countertrade as a marketing tool, claiming that "Unless a hungry tailor happens to find an undraped farmer, who has both food and a desire for a pair of pants, neither can make a trade ''. (This is called "double coincidence of wants ''.) But this is arguably too simplistic an interpretation of how markets operate in the real world. In any real economy, bartering occurs all the time, even if it is not the main means to acquire goods and services.
The volume of countertrade is growing. In 1972, it was estimated that countertrade was used by business and governments in 15 countries; in 1979, 27 countries; by the start of the 1990s, around 100 countries (Verzariu, 1992). A large part of countertrade has involved sales of military equipment (weaponry, vehicles and installations).
More than 80 countries nowadays regularly use or require countertrade exchanges. Officials of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) organization claimed that countertrade accounts for around 5 % of the world trade. The British Department of Trade and Industry has suggested 15 %, while some scholars believe it to be closer to 30 %, with east - west trade having been as high as 50 % in some trading sectors of Eastern European and Third World Countries for some years. A consensus of expert opinions (Okaroafo, 1989) has put the percentage of the value of world trade volumes linked to countertrade transactions at between 20 % to 25 %.
According to an official US statement, "The U.S. Government generally views countertrade, including barter, as contrary to an open, free trading system and, in the long run, not in the interest of the U.S. business community. However, as a matter of policy the U.S. Government will not oppose U.S. companies ' participation in countertrade arrangements unless such action could have a negative impact on national security ''.
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who developed the concept of an iron law of wages | Iron law of wages - wikipedia
The iron law of wages is a proposed law of economics that asserts that real wages always tend, in the long run, toward the minimum wage necessary to sustain the life of the worker. The theory was first named by Ferdinand Lassalle in the mid-nineteenth century. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels attribute the doctrine to Lassalle (notably in Marx 's 1875 Critique of the Gotha Programme), the idea to Thomas Malthus 's An Essay on the Principle of Population, and the terminology to Goethe 's "great, eternal iron laws '' in Das Göttliche.
It was coined in reference to the views of classical economists such as David Ricardo 's Law of rent, and the competing population theory of Thomas Malthus. It held that the market price of labour would always, or almost always, tend toward the minimum required for the subsistence of the labourers, reducing as the working population increased and vice versa. Ricardo believed that happened only under particular conditions.
According to Alexander Gray, Ferdinand Lassalle "gets the credit of having invented '' the phrase the "iron law of wages '', as Lassalle wrote about "das eiserne und grausame Gesetz '' (the iron and cruel law).
According to Lassalle, wages can not fall below subsistence wage level because without subsistence, laborers will be unable to work. However, competition among laborers for employment will drive wages down to this minimal level. This follows from Malthus ' demographic theory, according to which population rises when wages are above the "subsistence wage '' and falls when wages are below subsistence. Assuming the demand for labor to be a given monotonically decreasing function of the real wage rate, the theory then predicted that, in the long - run equilibrium of the system, labor supply (i.e. population) will rise or fall to the number of workers needed at the subsistence wage.
The justification for this was that when wages are higher, the supply of labor will increase relative to demand, creating an excess supply and thus depressing market real wages; when wages are lower, labor supply will fall, increasing market real wages. This would create a dynamic convergence towards a subsistence - wage equilibrium with constant population, in accordance with supply and demand theory.
As English political economist David Ricardo noticed, this prediction would not come true as long as a new investment, technology, or some other factor causes the demand for labor to increase faster than population: in that case, both real wages and population would increase over time. The demographic transition (a transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as a country industrializes) changed this dynamic in most of the developed world, leading to wages much higher than the subsistence wage. Even in countries which still have rapidly expanding populations, the need for skilled labor in certain occupations causes some wages to rise much faster than in others.
To answer the question of why wages might fall towards a subsistence level, Ricardo put forth the law of rent. Ricardo and Malthus debated this concept in a lengthy personal correspondence.
The content of the iron law of wages has been attributed to economists writing earlier than Lassalle. For example, Antonella Stirati notes that Joseph Schumpeter claimed that Anne - Robert - Jacques Turgot first formulated the concept. Some (e.g., John Kenneth Galbraith) attribute the idea to David Ricardo. According to Terry Peach, economists interpreting Ricardo as having a more flexible view of wages include Haney (1924), J.R. Hicks (1973), Frank Knight (1935), Ramsay (1836), George Stigler (1952), and Paul Samuelson (1979). She sees Ricardo, for example, as being closer to the more flexible views of population characteristic of economists prior to Malthus. The theorist Henry George noticed that Ricardo 's Law of Rent did not imply that a reduction of wages to subsistence is an immutable fact, but that it instead points the way towards reforms that could greatly increase real wages, such as a land value tax. Ricardo drew a distinction between a natural price and a market price. For Ricardo, the natural price of labor was the cost of maintaining the laborer. However, Ricardo believed that the market price of labor or the actual wages paid could exceed the natural wage level indefinitely due to countervailing economic tendencies:
Notwithstanding the tendency of wages to conform to their natural rate, their market rate may, in an improving society, for an indefinite period, be constantly above it; for no sooner may the impulse, which an increased capital gives to a new demand for labor, be obeyed, than another increase of capital may produce the same effect; and thus, if the increase of capital be gradual and constant, the demand for labor may give a continued stimulus to an increase of people...
Ricardo also claimed that the natural wage was not necessarily what was needed to physically sustain the laborer, but could be much higher depending on the "habits and customs '' of a nation:
It is not to be understood that the natural price of labor, estimated even in food and necessaries, is absolutely fixed and constant. It varies at different times in the same country, and very materially differs in different countries. It essentially depends on the habits and customs of the people. An English laborer would consider his wages under their natural rate, and too scanty to support a family, if they enabled him to purchase no other food than potatoes, and to live in no better habitation than a mud cabin; yet these moderate demands of nature are often deemed sufficient in countries where ' man 's life is cheap ', and his wants easily satisfied. Many of the conveniences now enjoyed in an English cottage, would have been thought luxuries in an earlier period of our history.
Many modern economists believe firms pay their workers a premium over subsistence levels to make them more efficient. In the theory of efficiency wages, firms pay above market clearing wages in order to incentivise employees and reduce turnover of experienced employees.
Workers enter and stay in a field because of the wages offered. Booming industries offer higher wages, forcing other industries to pay more in order to keep workers, so long as the supply of workers does not exceed the demand.
The fact that workers can also strike out on their own and compete with their employers requires wages to be high enough to dissuade workers from doing so.
Socialist critics of Lassalle and of the alleged iron law of wages, such as Karl Marx, argued that although there was a tendency for wages to fall to subsistence levels, there were also tendencies which worked in opposing directions. Marx criticized the Malthusian basis for the iron law of wages. According to Malthus, humanity is largely destined to live in poverty because an increase in productive capacity results in an increase in population. Marx criticized Lassalle for misunderstanding David Ricardo. Marx also noted that the foundation of what he called "modern political economy '' needs, for the theory of value, only for wages to be a given magnitude. He did so in praising the Physiocrats.
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who was the heading the indian army during bangladesh liberation war of 1971 | Bangladesh Liberation war - wikipedia
Decisive Indian and Bangladeshi victory
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (President of Provisional Government of Bangladesh) Tajuddin Ahmad (Prime Minister of Provisional Government of Bangladesh) M.A.G. Osmani (Cdr - in - C, Bangladesh Forces) Maj. K.M. Shafiullah (Commander, S Force) Maj. Ziaur Rahman (Commander, Z Force) Maj. Khaled Mosharraf (Commander, K Force)
Abdul Motaleb Malik (Governor of East Pakistan) Ghulam Azam (Chair, Nagorik Shanti Committee) Motiur Rahman Nizami (Emir of Jamaat - e-Islami) Abdul Quader Molla (Leader, Al - Badr) Abul Kalam Azad (Leader, Razakar) Fazlul Qadir Chaudhry (Leader, Al - Shams)
Systematic events
§ indicates events in the internal resistance movement linked to the Indo - Pakistani War. ‡ indicates events in the Indo - Pakistani War linked to the internal resistance movement in Bangladesh.
The Bangladesh Liberation War (Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ Muktijuddho), also known as the Bangladesh War of Independence, or simply the Liberation War in Bangladesh, was a revolution and armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali nationalist and self - determination movement in what was then East Pakistan and the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. It resulted in the independence of the People 's Republic of Bangladesh. The war began after the Pakistani military junta based in West Pakistan launched Operation Searchlight against the people of East Pakistan on the night of 25 March 1971. It pursued the systematic elimination of nationalist Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia, religious minorities and armed personnel. The junta annulled the results of the 1970 elections and arrested Prime minister - designate Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The war ended on 16 December 1971 after West Pakistan surrendered.
Rural and urban areas across East Pakistan saw extensive military operations and air strikes to suppress the tide of civil disobedience that formed following the 1970 election stalemate. The Pakistan Army, which had the backing of Islamists, created radical religious militias -- the Razakars, Al - Badr and Al - Shams -- to assist it during raids on the local populace. Members of the Pakistani military and supporting militias engaged in mass murder, deportation and genocidal rape. The capital Dhaka was the scene of numerous massacres, including the Dhaka University killings. An estimated 10 million Bengali refugees fled to neighboring India, while 30 million were internally displaced. Sectarian violence broke out between Bengalis and Urdu - speaking immigrants. An academic consensus prevails that the atrocities committed by the Pakistani military were a genocide.
The Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence was proclaimed from Chittagong by members of the Mukti Bahini -- the national liberation army formed by Bengali military, paramilitary and civilians. The East Bengal Regiment and the East Pakistan Rifles played a crucial role in the resistance. Led by General M.A.G. Osmani and eleven sector commanders, the Bangladesh Forces waged a mass guerrilla war against the Pakistani military. They liberated numerous towns and cities in the initial months of the conflict. The Pakistan Army regained momentum in the monsoon. Bengali guerrillas carried out widespread sabotage, including Operation Jackpot against the Pakistan Navy. The nascent Bangladesh Air Force flew sorties against Pakistani military bases. By November, the Bangladesh forces restricted the Pakistani military to its barracks during the night. They secured control of most parts of the countryside.
The Provisional Government of Bangladesh was formed on 17 April 1971 in Mujibnagar and moved to Calcutta as a government in exile. Bengali members of the Pakistani civil, military and diplomatic corps defected to the Bangladeshi provisional government. Thousands of Bengali families were interned in West Pakistan, from where many escaped to Afghanistan. Bengali cultural activists operated the clandestine Free Bengal Radio Station. The plight of millions of war - ravaged Bengali civilians caused worldwide outrage and alarm. The Indian state led by Indira Gandhi provided substantial diplomatic, economic and military support to Bangladeshi nationalists. British, Indian and American musicians organised the world 's first benefit concert in New York City to support the Bangladeshi people. Senator Ted Kennedy in the United States led a congressional campaign for an end to Pakistani military persecution; while US diplomats in East Pakistan strongly dissented with the Nixon administration 's close ties to the Pakistani military dictator Yahya Khan.
India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched preemptive air strikes on North India. The subsequent Indo - Pakistani War witnessed engagements on two war fronts. With air supremacy achieved in the eastern theatre and the rapid advance of the Allied Forces of Bangladesh and India, Pakistan surrendered in Dacca on 16 December 1971.
The war changed the geopolitical landscape of South Asia, with the emergence of Bangladesh as the seventh-most populous country in the world. Due to complex regional alliances, the war was a major episode in Cold War tensions involving the United States, the Soviet Union and the People 's Republic of China. The majority of member states in the United Nations recognised Bangladesh as a sovereign nation in 1972.
Prior to the Partition of British India, the Lahore Resolution initially envisaged separate Muslim - majority states in the eastern and northwestern zones of British India. A proposal for an independent United Bengal was mooted by Prime Minister Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy in 1946, but was opposed by the colonial authorities. The East Pakistan Renaissance Society advocated the creation of a sovereign state in eastern British India. Eventually, political negotiations led, in August 1947, to the official birth of two states, Pakistan and India, giving presumably permanent homes for Muslims and Hindus respectively following the departure of the British. The Dominion of Pakistan comprised two geographically and culturally separate areas to the east and the west with India in between. The western zone was popularly (and for a period, also officially) termed West Pakistan and the eastern zone (modern - day Bangladesh) was initially termed East Bengal and later, East Pakistan. Although the population of the two zones was close to equal, political power was concentrated in West Pakistan and it was widely perceived that East Pakistan was being exploited economically, leading to many grievances. Administration of two discontinuous territories was also seen as a challenge. On 25 March 1971, after an election won by an East Pakistani political party (the Awami League) was ignored by the ruling (West Pakistani) establishment, rising political discontent and cultural nationalism in East Pakistan was met by brutal suppressive force from the ruling elite of the West Pakistan establishment, in what came to be termed Operation Searchlight. The violent crackdown by Pakistan Army led to Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman declaring East Pakistan 's independence as the state of Bangladesh on 26 March 1971. Most Bengalis threw their support behind this move although Islamists and Biharis opposed this and sided with the Pakistan Army instead. Pakistani President Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan ordered the Pakistani military to restore the Pakistani government 's authority, beginning the civil war. The war led to a sea of refugees (estimated at the time to be about 10 million) flooding into the eastern provinces of India. Facing a mounting humanitarian and economic crisis, India started actively aiding and organising the Bangladeshi resistance army known as the Mukti Bahini.
In 1948, Governor - General Muhammad Ali Jinnah declared that "Urdu, and only Urdu '' would be the federal language of Pakistan. However, Urdu was historically prevalent only in the north, central, and western region of the subcontinent; whereas in East Bengal, the native language was Bengali, one of the two most easterly branches of the Indo - European languages. The Bengali - speaking people of Pakistan constituted over 30 % of the country 's population. The government stand was widely viewed as an attempt to suppress the culture of the eastern wing. The people of East Bengal demanded that their language be given federal status alongside Urdu and English. The Language Movement began in 1948, as civil society protested the removal of the Bengali script from currency and stamps, which were in place since the British Raj. The movement reached its climax in 1952, when on 21 February, the police fired on protesting students and civilians, causing several deaths. The day is revered in Bangladesh as the Language Movement Day. Later, in memory of the deaths in 1952, UNESCO declared 21 February as International Mother Language Day in November 1999.
Although East Pakistan had a larger population, West Pakistan dominated the divided country politically and received more money from the common budget.
Bengalis were under - represented in the Pakistan military. Officers of Bengali origin in the different wings of the armed forces made up just 5 % of overall force by 1965; of these, only a few were in command positions, with the majority in technical or administrative posts. West Pakistanis believed that Bengalis were not "martially inclined '' unlike Pashtuns and Punjabis; the "Martial races '' notion was dismissed as ridiculous and humiliating by Bengalis. Moreover, despite huge defence spending, East Pakistan received none of the benefits, such as contracts, purchasing and military support jobs. The Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 over Kashmir also highlighted the sense of military insecurity among Bengalis, as only an under - strength infantry division and 15 combat aircraft without tank support were in East Pakistan to thwart any Indian retaliations during the conflict.
The only common bond between the two Pakistani wings was religion. But there were differences even in religious practices. Bengali Muslims tended to be less conservative in religious zeal, and had come to accept their Hindu minority and neighbours despite some communal clashes. Many Bengali Muslims strongly objected to the Islamist paradigm imposed by the Pakistani state. Most members of West Pakistan 's ruling elite also belonged to a liberal society, yet understood a common faith as the mobilising factor behind Pakistan 's creation and the subsuming of Pakistan 's multiple identities into one.
Cultural and linguistic differences between the two wings outweighed any religious unity. The Bengalis were very proud of their culture and language which with its Devnagari script and Sanskrit vocabulary was unacceptable to the West Pakistani elite who considered it to smack of Hindu culture.
The Bangladeshi liberation struggle against Pakistan was led by secular leaders. With this reality and the feeling of Islamic solidarity in the background, Islamists in East Pakistan viewed Bengali nationalism as unacceptable and instead sided with the Pakistani Army 's efforts to crush the Bengali independence movement. Secularists hailed the Bangladeshi victory as the triumph of secular Bengali nationalism over religion - centred Pakistani nationalism.
Most of the politically - active ulama of East Pakistan either remained neutral or sided with the Pakistani state, since they perceived the break - up of Pakistan as a loss for Islam.
Although East Pakistan accounted for a slight majority of the country 's population, political power remained in the hands of West Pakistanis. Since a straightforward system of representation based on population would have concentrated political power in East Pakistan, the West Pakistani establishment came up with the "One Unit '' scheme, where all of West Pakistan was considered one province. This was solely to counterbalance the East wing 's votes.
After the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan 's first prime minister, in 1951, political power began to devolve to the new President of Pakistan, which replaced the office of Governor General when Pakistan became a republic, and, eventually, the military. The nominal elected chief executive, the Prime Minister, was frequently sacked by the establishment, acting through the President.
The East Pakistanis observed that the West Pakistani establishment would swiftly depose any East Pakistanis elected Prime Minister of Pakistan, such as Khawaja Nazimuddin, Mohammad Ali Bogra, or Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy. Their suspicions were further aggravated by the military dictatorships of Ayub Khan (27 October 1958 -- 25 March 1969) and Yahya Khan (25 March 1969 -- 20 December 1971), both West Pakistanis. The situation reached a climax in 1970, when the Bangladesh Awami League, the largest East Pakistani political party, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a landslide victory in the national elections. The party won 167 of the 169 seats allotted to East Pakistan, and thus a majority of the 313 seats in the National Assembly. This gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a government. However, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (a former Foreign Minister), the leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party, refused to allow Rahman to become the Prime Minister of Pakistan. Instead, he proposed the idea of having two Prime Ministers, one for each wing. The proposal elicited outrage in the east wing, already chafing under the other constitutional innovation, the "One Unit scheme ''. Bhutto also refused to accept Rahman 's Six Points. On 3 March 1971, the two leaders of the two wings along with the President General Yahya Khan met in Dacca to decide the fate of the country. After their discussions yielded no satisfactory results, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for a nationwide strike. Bhutto feared a civil war, therefore, he sent his trusted companion, Mubashir Hassan. A message was conveyed, and Rahman decided to meet Bhutto. Upon his arrival, Rahman met with Bhutto and both agreed to form a coalition government with Rahman as Premier and Bhutto as President. However, the military was unaware of these developments, and Bhutto increased his pressure on Rahman to reach a decision.
On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (soon to be the prime minister) delivered a speech at the Racecourse Ground (now called the Suhrawardy Udyan). In this speech he mentioned a further four - point condition to consider at the National Assembly Meeting on 25 March:
He urged his people to turn every house into a fort of resistance. He closed his speech saying, "Our struggle is for our freedom. Our struggle is for our independence. '' This speech is considered the main event that inspired the nation to fight for its independence. General Tikka Khan was flown into Dacca to become Governor of East Bengal. East - Pakistani judges, including Justice Siddique, refused to swear him in.
Between 10 and 13 March, Pakistan International Airlines cancelled all their international routes to urgently fly "government passengers '' to Dacca. These "government passengers '' were almost all Pakistani soldiers in civilian dress. MV Swat, a ship of the Pakistan Navy carrying ammunition and soldiers, was harboured in Chittagong Port, but the Bengali workers and sailors at the port refused to unload the ship. A unit of East Pakistan Rifles refused to obey commands to fire on the Bengali demonstrators, beginning a mutiny among the Bengali soldiers.
The 1970 Bhola cyclone made landfall on the East Pakistan coastline during the evening of 12 November, around the same time as a local high tide, killing an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people. Though the exact death toll is not known, it is considered the deadliest tropical cyclone on record. A week after the landfall, President Khan conceded that his government had made "slips '' and "mistakes '' in its handling of the relief efforts due to a lack of understanding of the magnitude of the disaster.
A statement released by eleven political leaders in East Pakistan ten days after the cyclone hit charged the government with "gross neglect, callous and utter indifference ''. They also accused the president of playing down the magnitude of the problem in news coverage. On 19 November, students held a march in Dacca protesting the slowness of the government 's response. Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani addressed a rally of 50,000 people on 24 November, where he accused the president of inefficiency and demanded his resignation.
As the conflict between East and West Pakistan developed in March, the Dacca offices of the two government organisations directly involved in relief efforts were closed for at least two weeks, first by a general strike and then by a ban on government work in East Pakistan by the Awami League. With this increase in tension, foreign personnel were evacuated over fears of violence. Relief work continued in the field, but long - term planning was curtailed. This conflict widened into the Bangladesh Liberation War in December and concluded with the creation of Bangladesh. This was one of the first times that a natural event helped trigger a civil war.
A planned military pacification carried out by the Pakistan Army -- codenamed Operation Searchlight -- started on 25 March to curb the Bengali independence movement by taking control of the major cities on 26 March, and then eliminating all opposition, political or military, within one month. The Pakistani state claimed to justify starting Operation Searchlight on the basis of anti-Bihari violence by Bengalis in early March.
Before the beginning of the operation, all foreign journalists were systematically deported from East Pakistan.
The main phase of Operation Searchlight ended with the fall of the last major town in Bengali hands in mid-May. The operation also began the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. These systematic killings served only to enrage the Bengalis, which ultimately resulted in the secession of East Pakistan later in the same year. Bangladeshi media and reference books in English have published casualty figures which vary greatly, from 5,000 -- 35,000 in Dacca, and 200,000 -- 3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole, although independent researchers, including the British Medical Journal, have put forward the figure ranging from between 125,000 and 505,000. American political scientist Rudolph Rummel puts total deaths at 1.5 million. The atrocities have been referred to as acts of genocide.
According to the Asia Times,
At a meeting of the military top brass, Yahya Khan declared: "Kill 3 million of them and the rest will eat out of our hands. '' Accordingly, on the night of 25 March, the Pakistani Army launched Operation Searchlight to "crush '' Bengali resistance in which Bengali members of military services were disarmed and killed, students and the intelligentsia systematically liquidated and able - bodied Bengali males just picked up and gunned down.
Although the violence focused on the provincial capital, Dacca, it also affected all parts of East Pakistan. Residential halls of the University of Dacca were particularly targeted. The only Hindu residential hall -- Jagannath Hall -- was destroyed by the Pakistani armed forces, and an estimated 600 to 700 of its residents were murdered. The Pakistani army denied any cold blooded killings at the university, though the Hamoodur Rahman Commission in Pakistan concluded that overwhelming force was used at the university. This fact, and the massacre at Jagannath Hall and nearby student dormitories of Dacca University, are corroborated by a videotape secretly filmed by Professor Nurul Ula of the East Pakistan University of Engineering and Technology, whose residence was directly opposite the student dormitories.
The scale of the atrocities was first made clear in the West when Anthony Mascarenhas, a Pakistani journalist who had been sent to the province by the military authorities to write a story favourable to Pakistan 's actions, instead fled to the United Kingdom and, on 13 June 1971, published an article in The Sunday Times describing the systematic killings by the military. The BBC wrote: "There is little doubt that Mascarenhas ' reportage played its part in ending the war. It helped turn world opinion against Pakistan and encouraged India to play a decisive role '', with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi herself stating that Mascarenhas ' article has led her "to prepare the ground for India 's armed intervention ''.
Hindu areas suffered particularly heavy blows. By midnight, Dacca was burning, especially the Hindu - dominated eastern part of the city. Time magazine reported on 2 August 1971, "The Hindus, who account for three - fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Pakistani military hatred. ''
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested by the Pakistani Army. Yahya Khan appointed Brigadier (later General) Rahimuddin Khan to preside over a special tribunal prosecuting Rahman with multiple charges. The tribunal 's sentence was never made public, but Yahya caused the verdict to be held in abeyance in any case. Other Awami League leaders were arrested as well, while a few fled Dacca to avoid arrest. The Awami League was banned by General Yahya Khan.
The violence unleashed by the Pakistani forces on 25 March 1971 proved the last straw to the efforts to negotiate a settlement. Following these outrages, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed an official declaration that read:
Today Bangladesh is a sovereign and independent country. On Thursday night, West Pakistani armed forces suddenly attacked the police barracks at Razarbagh and the EPR headquarters at Pilkhana in Dacca. Many innocent and unarmed have been killed in Dhaka city and other places of Bangladesh. Violent clashes between E.P.R. and Police on the one hand and the armed forces of Pakistan on the other, are going on. The Bengalis are fighting the enemy with great courage for an independent Bangladesh. May Allah aid us in our fight for freedom. Joy Bangla (May Bangladesh be victorious).
Sheikh Mujib also called upon the people to resist the occupation forces through a radio message. Rahman was arrested on the night of 25 -- 26 March 1971 at about 1: 30 am (as per Radio Pakistan 's news on 29 March 1971).
A telegram containing the text of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 's declaration reached some students in Chittagong. The message was translated to Bengali by Dr. Manjula Anwar. The students failed to secure permission from higher authorities to broadcast the message from the nearby Agrabad Station of Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation. However, the message was read several times by the independent Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendro Radio established by some rebel Bangali Radio workers in Kalurghat. Major Ziaur Rahman was requested to provide security of the station and he also read the Declaration on 27 March 1971. Major Ziaur Rahman broadcast announcement of the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
This is Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra. I, Major Ziaur Rahman, at the direction of Bangobondhu Mujibur Rahman, hereby declare that Independent People 's Republic of Bangladesh has been established. At his direction, I have taken the command as the temporary Head of the Republic. In the name of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalees to rise against the attack by the West Pakistani Army. We shall fight to the last to free our motherland. Victory is, by the Grace of Allah, ours. Joy Bangla.
The Kalurghat Radio Station 's transmission capability was limited, but the message was picked up by a Japanese ship in the Bay of Bengal. It was then re-transmitted by Radio Australia and later by the British Broadcasting Corporation.
M.A. Hannan, an Awami League leader from Chittagong, is said to have made the first announcement of the declaration of independence over the radio on 26 March 1971.
26 March 1971 is considered the official Independence Day of Bangladesh, and the name Bangladesh was in effect henceforth. In July 1971, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi openly referred to the former East Pakistan as Bangladesh. Some Pakistani and Indian officials continued to use the name "East Pakistan '' until 16 December 1971.
At first, resistance was spontaneous and disorganised, and was not expected to be prolonged. However, when the Pakistani Army cracked down upon the population, resistance grew. The Mukti Bahini became increasingly active. The Pakistani military sought to quell them, but increasing numbers of Bengali soldiers defected to this underground "Bangladesh army ''. These Bengali units slowly merged into the Mukti Bahini and bolstered their weaponry with supplies from India. Pakistan responded by airlifting in two infantry divisions and reorganising their forces. They also raised paramilitary forces of Razakars, Al - Badrs and Al - Shams (who were mostly members of the Muslim League and other Islamist groups), as well as other Bengalis who opposed independence, and Bihari Muslims who had settled during the time of partition.
On 17 April 1971, a provisional government was formed in Meherpur District in western Bangladesh bordering India with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in prison in Pakistan, as President, Syed Nazrul Islam as Acting President, Tajuddin Ahmad as Prime Minister, and General Muhammad Ataul Ghani Osmani as Commander - in - Chief, Bangladesh Forces. As fighting grew between the occupation army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini, an estimated 10 million Bengalis sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal.
Bangladesh forces command was set up on 11 July, with Col. M.A.G. Osmani as commander - in - chief (C - in - C) with the status of Cabinet Minister, Lt. Col., Abdur Rabb as chief of Staff (COS), Group Captain AK Khandker as Deputy Chief of Staff (DCOS) and Major AR Chowdhury as Assistant Chief of Staff (ACOS).
General Osmani had differences of opinion with the Indian leadership regarding the role of the Mukti Bahini in the conflict. Indian leadership initially envisioned Bengali forces to be trained into a small elite guerrilla force of 8,000 members, led by the surviving East Bengal Regiment soldiers operating in small cells around Bangladesh to facilitate the eventual Indian intervention, but with the Bangladesh government in exile, General Osmani favoured a different strategy:
Bangladesh was divided into eleven sectors in July, each with a commander chosen from defected officers of the Pakistani army who joined the Mukti Bahini to conduct guerrilla operations and train fighters. Most of their training camps were situated near the border area and were operated with assistance from India. The 10th Sector was directly placed under the Commander in Chief (C - in - C) General M.A.G. Osmani and included the Naval Commandos and C - in - C 's special force. Three brigades (11 Battalions) were raised for conventional warfare; a large guerrilla force (estimated at 100,000) was trained.
Three brigades (eight infantry battalions and three artillery batteries) were put into action between July and September. During June and July, Mukti Bahini had regrouped across the border with Indian aid through Operation Jackpot and began sending 2000 -- 5000 guerrillas across the border, the so - called Monsoon Offensive, which for various reasons (lack of proper training, supply shortage, lack of a proper support network inside Bangladesh) failed to achieve its objectives. Bengali regular forces also attacked BOPs in Mymensingh, Comilla and Sylhet, but the results were mixed. Pakistani authorities concluded that they had successfully contained the Monsoon Offensive, which proved a near - accurate observation.
Guerrilla operations, which slackened during the training phase, picked up after August. Economic and military targets in Dacca were attacked. The major success story was Operation Jackpot, in which naval commandos mined and blew up berthed ships in Chittagong, Mongla, Narayanganj and Chandpur on 15 August 1971.
Bangladeshi conventional forces attacked border outposts. Kamalpur, Belonia and the Battle of Boyra are a few examples. 90 out of 370 BOPs fell to Bengali forces. Guerrilla attacks intensified, as did Pakistani and Razakar reprisals on civilian populations. Pakistani forces were reinforced by eight battalions from West Pakistan. The Bangladeshi independence fighters even managed to temporarily capture airstrips at Lalmonirhat and Shalutikar. Both of these were used for flying in supplies and arms from India. Pakistan sent another five battalions from West Pakistan as reinforcements.
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had concluded that instead of taking in millions of refugees, it was economical to go to war against Pakistan. As early as 28 April 1971, the Indian Cabinet had asked General Manekshaw (Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee) to "Go into East Pakistan ''. Hostile relations in the past between India and Pakistan added to India 's decision to intervene in Pakistan 's civil war. Resultantly, the Indian government decided to support the creation of a separate state for ethnic Bengalis by supporting the Mukti Bahini. For this, RAW, helped to organise, train and arm these insurgents. Consequently, the Mukti Bahini succeeded in harassing Pakistani military in East Pakistan, thus creating conditions conducive for a full - scale Indian military intervention in early December. Thus, wary of the growing involvement of India, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched a pre-emptive strike on Indian Air Force bases on 3 December 1971. The attack was modelled on the Israeli Air Force 's Operation Focus during the Six - Day War, and intended to neutralise the Indian Air Force planes on the ground. The strike was seen by India as an open act of unprovoked aggression. This marked the official start of the Indo - Pakistani War.
As a response to the attack, both India and Pakistan formally acknowledged the "existence of a state of war between the two countries '', even though neither government had formally issued a declaration of war.
Three Indian corps were involved in the liberation of East Pakistan. They were supported by nearly three brigades of Mukti Bahini fighting alongside them, and many more fighting irregularly. This was far superior to the Pakistani army of three divisions. The Indians quickly overran the country, selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. Pakistani forces were unable to effectively counter the Indian attack, as they had been deployed in small units around the border to counter guerrilla attacks by the Mukti Bahini. Unable to defend Dacca, the Pakistanis surrendered on 16 December 1971.
The Indian Air Force carried out several sorties against Pakistan, and within a week, IAF aircraft dominated the skies of East Pakistan. It achieved near - total air supremacy by the end of the first week as the entire Pakistani air contingent in the east, PAF No. 14 Squadron, was grounded because of Indian and Bangladesh airstrikes at Tejgaon, Kurmitolla, Lal Munir Hat and Shamsher Nagar. Sea Hawks from the carrier INS Vikrant also struck Chittagong, Barisal and Cox 's Bazar, destroying the eastern wing of the Pakistan Navy and effectively blockading the East Pakistan ports, thereby cutting off any escape routes for the stranded Pakistani soldiers. The nascent Bangladesh Navy (comprising officers and sailors who defected from the Pakistani Navy) aided the Indians in the marine warfare, carrying out attacks, most notably Operation Jackpot.
On 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi, CO of Pakistan Army forces located in East Pakistan signed the Instrument of Surrender. At the time of surrender only a few countries had provided diplomatic recognition to the new nation. Over 93,000 Pakistani troops surrendered to the Indian forces & Bangladesh Liberation forces, making it the largest surrender since World War II, although the Pakistani Army had fought gallantly according to Indian Army Chief Sam Manekshaw. Bangladesh sought admission in the UN with most voting in its favour, but China vetoed this as Pakistan was its key ally. The United States, also a key ally of Pakistan, was one of the last nations to accord Bangladesh recognition. To ensure a smooth transition, in 1972 the Simla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan. The treaty ensured that Pakistan recognised the independence of Bangladesh in exchange for the return of the Pakistani PoWs. India treated all the PoWs in strict accordance with the Geneva Convention, rule 1925. It released more than 93,000 Pakistani PoWs in five months. Further, as a gesture of goodwill, nearly 200 soldiers who were sought for war crimes by Bengalis were also pardoned by India. The accord also gave back 13,000 km (5,019 sq mi) of land that Indian troops had seized in West Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas; most notably Kargil (which would in turn again be the focal point for a war between the two nations in 1999). This was done as a measure of promoting "lasting peace '' and was acknowledged by many observers as a sign of maturity by India. However, some in India felt that the treaty had been too lenient to Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency, arguing that the fragile democracy in Pakistan would crumble if the accord was perceived as being overly harsh by Pakistanis.
Reaction to the defeat and dismemberment of half the nation was a shocking loss to top military and civilians alike. Few had expected that they would lose the formal war in under a fortnight, and there was also unsettlement over what was perceived as a meek surrender of the army in East Pakistan. Yahya Khan 's dictatorship collapsed and gave way to Bhutto, who took the opportunity to rise to power. General Niazi, who surrendered along with 93,000 troops, was viewed with suspicion and contempt upon his return to Pakistan. He was shunned and branded a traitor. The war also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan 's declared strategic doctrine that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan ''.
During the war there were widespread killings and other atrocities -- including the displacement of civilians in Bangladesh (East Pakistan at the time) and widespread violations of human rights began with the start of Operation Searchlight on 25 March 1971. Members of the Pakistani military and supporting Islamist militias from Jamaat e Islami killed an estimated 300,000 to 3,000,000 people and raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape. Some Islamic clerics issued fatwas in support of raping Bengali women, especially Hindu women, as they considered the conflict a holy war. During the war, a fatwa in Pakistan declared that the Bengali freedom fighters were Hindus and that their women could be taken as "the booty of war ''.
A large section of the intellectual community of Bangladesh were murdered, mostly by the Al - Shams and Al - Badr forces, at the instruction of the Pakistani Army. Just two days before the surrender, on 14 December 1971, Pakistan Army and Razakar militia (local collaborators) picked up at least 100 physicians, professors, writers and engineers in Dacca, and murdered them, leaving the dead bodies in a mass grave.
Many mass graves have been discovered in Bangladesh. The first night of war on Bengalis, which is documented in telegrams from the American Consulate in Dacca to the United States State Department, saw indiscriminate killings of students of Dacca University and other civilians. Numerous women were tortured, raped and killed during the war; the exact numbers are not known and are a subject of debate. The widespread rape of Bangladeshi women led to birth of thousands of war babies. The Pakistan Army also kept numerous Bengali women as sex - slaves inside the Dacca Cantonment. Most of the girls were captured from Dacca University and private homes. There was significant sectarian violence not only perpetrated and encouraged by the Pakistani army, but also by Bengali nationalists against non-Bengali minorities, especially Biharis. In June 1971, Bihari representatives stated that 500,000 Biharis were killed by Bengalis. R.J. Rummel gives a prudent estimate of 150,000 killed.
On 16 December 2002, the George Washington University 's National Security Archive published a collection of declassified documents, consisting mostly of communications between US embassy officials and United States Information Service centres in Dacca and India, and officials in Washington, D.C. These documents show that US officials working in diplomatic institutions within Bangladesh used the terms "selective genocide '' and "genocide '' (see The Blood Telegram) for information on events they had knowledge of at the time. Genocide is the term that is still used to describe the event in almost every major publication and newspaper in Bangladesh, although in Pakistan, the accusations against Pakistani forces continue to be disputed.
Following Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 's declaration of independence in March 1971, a worldwide campaign was undertaken by the Provisional Government of Bangladesh to drum up political support for the independence of East Pakistan as well as humanitarian support for the Bengali people.
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi provided extensive diplomatic and political support to the Bangladesh movement. She toured many countries in a bid to create awareness of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis. This effort was to prove vital later during the war, in framing the world 's context of the war and to justify military action by India. Also, following Pakistan 's defeat, it ensured prompt recognition of the newly independent state of Bangladesh.
Though the United Nations condemned the human rights violations during and following Operation Searchlight, it failed to defuse the situation politically before the start of the war.
Following India 's entry into the war, Pakistan, fearing certain defeat, made urgent appeals to the United Nations to intervene and force India to agree to a ceasefire. The UN Security Council assembled on 4 December 1971 to discuss the hostilities in South Asia. After lengthy discussions on 7 December, the United States made a resolution for "immediate cease - fire and withdrawal of troops ''. While supported by the majority, the USSR vetoed the resolution twice. In light of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis, the United Kingdom and France abstained on the resolution.
On 12 December, with Pakistan facing imminent defeat, the United States requested that the Security Council be reconvened. Pakistan 's Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was rushed to New York City to make the case for a resolution on the cease fire. The council continued deliberations for four days. By the time proposals were finalised, Pakistan 's forces in the East had surrendered and the war had ended, making the measures merely academic. Bhutto, frustrated by the failure of the resolution and the inaction of the United Nations, ripped up his speech and left the council.
Most UN member nations were quick to recognise Bangladesh within months of its independence.
As the Bangladesh Liberation War approached the defeat of the Pakistan Army, the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan became the first state in the world to recognise the newly independent country on 6 December 1971. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the first President of Bangladesh visited Bhutan to attend the coronation of Jigme Singye Wangchuck, the fourth King of Bhutan in June 1974.
The US government stood by its old ally Pakistan both politically and materially. US President Richard Nixon and his National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger feared Soviet expansion into South and Southeast Asia. Pakistan was a close ally of the People 's Republic of China, with whom Nixon had been negotiating a rapprochement and which he intended to visit in February 1972. Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America 's new tacit ally, China. To demonstrate to China the bona fides of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the US Congress - imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan and routed them through Jordan and Iran, while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan. The Nixon administration also ignored reports it received of the genocidal activities of the Pakistani Army in East Pakistan, most notably the Blood telegram.
Nixon denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan 's defeat seemed certain, Nixon sent the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal, a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclear threat. Enterprise arrived on station on 11 December 1971. On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed US Task Force 74 in the Indian Ocean from 18 December until 7 January 1972.
The Soviet Union supported Bangladesh and Indian armies, as well as the Mukti Bahini during the war, recognising that the independence of Bangladesh would weaken the position of its rivals -- the United States and China. It gave assurances to India that if a confrontation with the United States or China developed, the USSR would take countermeasures. This was enshrined in the Indo - Soviet friendship treaty signed in August 1971. The Soviets also sent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.
At the end of the war, the Warsaw Pact countries were among the first to recognise Bangladesh. The Soviet Union accorded recognition to Bangladesh on 25 January 1972. The United States delayed recognition for some months, before according it on 8 April 1972.
As a long - standing ally of Pakistan, the People 's Republic of China reacted with alarm to the evolving situation in East Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West Pakistan and Pakistani - controlled Kashmir. Believing that just such an Indian attack was imminent, Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border with India to discourage it. The Chinese did not, however, respond to this encouragement, because unlike the 1962 Sino - Indian War when India was caught entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployed eight mountain divisions to the Sino - Indian border to guard against such an eventuality. China instead threw its weight behind demands for an immediate ceasefire.
When Bangladesh applied for membership to the United Nations in 1972, China vetoed their application because two United Nations resolutions regarding the repatriation of Pakistani prisoners of war and civilians had not yet been implemented. China was also among the last countries to recognise independent Bangladesh, refusing to do so until 31 August 1975.
Notes
Citations
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
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who played rogue in the first x-men movie | Anna Paquin - Wikipedia
Anna Helene Paquin (/ ˈpækwɪn /; born 24 July 1982) is a Canadian - born New Zealand actress. Born in Manitoba and brought up in Wellington, New Zealand, Paquin studied at Hutt Intermediate School and Wellington Girls ' College in New Zealand before moving to Los Angeles during her youth where she studied at Windward School and went on to complete a year at Columbia University before leaving post-secondary to focus on her acting career. As a child, she beat 5000 candidates for the role of Flora McGrath in Jane Campion 's romantic drama film The Piano (1993), despite having had little to no acting experience prior to getting the role. For her performance, she received the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress at the age of 11, making her the second - youngest Academy Award winner in Oscar history.
Paquin went on to become a successful child actress, receiving multiple Young Artist Award nominations for her roles in Fly Away Home (1996), The Member of the Wedding (1997), and A Walk on the Moon (1999), and was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture for appearing in Cameron Crowe 's comedy - drama film Almost Famous (2000). She played mutant superheroine Rogue in multiple films of the X-Men franchise and was nominated for a Saturn Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award for her performance in the first installment.
Paquin is also known for playing the lead role of Sookie Stackhouse in the HBO vampire drama television series True Blood (2008 -- 2014). For her performance in the series, Paquin won the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Series -- Drama in 2009 and was nominated for an additional Golden Globe Award in 2010, as well as three Saturn Awards and a Screen Actors Guild Award in 2010. Among other accolades, Paquin has been nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award, a Golden Globe Award, and a Screen Actors Guild Award for her work on the 2007 television film Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee and a Golden Globe Award for her work on the 2009 television film The Courageous Heart of Irena Sendler. Paquin has been married since 2010 to actor Stephen Moyer, with whom she has two children.
Paquin was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, the daughter of Mary Paquin (née Brophy), an English teacher and native of Wellington, New Zealand, and Brian Paquin, a high school Physical Education teacher from Canada. Paquin has two older siblings: Andrew (born 1977), a director, and Katya (born 1980), whose partner is the Green Party of New Zealand 's former co-leader Russel Norman. Paquin is of Dutch, French and Irish descent. Paquin 's family moved to New Zealand when she was four. Her musical childhood hobbies in New Zealand included playing the viola, cello and piano. She also participated in gymnastics, ballet, swimming and downhill skiing, though she did not have any hobbies related to acting.
While in New Zealand, Paquin attended Raphael House Rudolf Steiner School in Lower Hutt until she was 9yrs old then on to Hutt Intermediate School (1994 -- 95). Having begun her secondary education in Wellington at Wellington Girls ' College, she completed her high school diploma at Windward School in Los Angeles, after moving to the U.S. with her mother following her parents ' divorce (1995). She graduated from Windward School in June 2000 and completed the school 's Community Service requirement by working in a soup kitchen and at a Special Education Centre. She studied at Columbia University for one year but has since been on a leave of absence to continue her acting career.
Director Jane Campion was looking for a little girl to play a main role in The Piano, set to film in New Zealand, and a newspaper advertisement was run announcing an open audition. Paquin 's sister read the ad and went to try out with a friend; this inspired Paquin to also audition. When Campion met Paquin -- whose only acting experience had been as a skunk in a school play -- she was very impressed with the nine - year - old 's performance of the monologue about Flora 's father, and she was chosen from among the 5000 candidates.
When The Piano was released in 1993 it was lauded by critics, won prizes at a number of film festivals, and eventually became a popular film among a wide audience. Paquin 's debut performance in the film earned her the 1993 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress at the age of 11, making her the second - youngest Oscar winner in history, behind Tatum O'Neal. The Piano was made as a small independent film and was n't expected to be widely known, and Paquin and her family did not plan to continue in the acting circles. However, she was invited to the William Morris Agency, and she kept receiving offers for new roles. She systematically refused them, but she did appear in three commercials for the phone company MCI in 1994. She later made a series of television commercials for Manitoba Telecom Systems in her birth city of Winnipeg. She also appeared as a voice in an audio book entitled The Magnificent Nose in 1994.
In 1996, she appeared in two films. The first role was as young Jane in Jane Eyre. The other was a lead part in Fly Away Home playing a young girl who, after her mother dies, moves in with her father and finds solace in taking care of orphaned goslings.
As a teenager, she had roles in films, including A Walk on the Moon, Amistad, Hurlyburly, She 's All That and Almost Famous.
Paquin played the mutant superheroine Rogue in the Marvel Comics movie X-Men in 2000, its sequel X2 in 2003, and its third installment, X-Men: The Last Stand, in 2006.
Between 2006 and 2007, she starred in, as well as executive - produced Blue State. The film is made by Paquin Films, a production company formed by both her and her brother, Andrew Paquin. In November 2006, she completed the film Margaret, which was released in 2011. She played Elaine Goodale in HBO 's made - for - TV film Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, based on Dee Brown 's best - seller. In 2007, she played the role of Laurie in the horror film Trick ' r Treat, which was released in 2009.
Paquin was cast as waitress Sookie Stackhouse in the HBO series True Blood in 2008, her first role in a TV series. The show is based on The Southern Vampire Mysteries series of novels by Charlaine Harris, set in the fictional town of Bon Temps, Louisiana. While working on True Blood, she started dating co-star Stephen Moyer and later married him in 2010.
In 2009, Paquin played Irena Sendler, a Polish woman hailed as a heroine of the Holocaust, in The Courageous Heart of Irena Sendler, a CBS TV film biographical film based on the book Mother of the Children of the Holocaust: The Irena Sendler Story, by Anna Mieszkowska. The film was made in Latvia, and was a Hallmark Hall of Fame presentation for the network.
In 2010, Paquin 's film The Romantics, a romantic comedy with Josh Duhamel and Katie Holmes, was released in the US at selected cinemas in September. She played a cameo role in Scream 4, alongside Kristen Bell in 2011. She also played the voice of Kristin on an episode of Phineas and Ferb.
Paquin reprised her role as Rogue in the 2014 film X-Men: Days of Future Past, but most of her scenes were cut out for the theatrical release. An alternate version of the film with all of Paquin 's scenes reinstated was released as The Rogue Cut on 14 July 2015. Paquin voiced Ramsey in Disney Pixar 's film The Good Dinosaur. She also played Nancy Holt, the wife of a Confederate soldier, in the 2016 miniseries Roots.
In June 2016, the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of the 2016 Orlando gay nightclub shooting; in the video, Paquin and others told the stories of the people killed there.
Paquin currently stars in the Canadian crime drama Bellevue which airs on CBC Television and can next be seen in husband Stephen Moyer 's directorial debut, The Parting Glass.
On 5 August 2009, Paquin announced her engagement to her True Blood co-star Stephen Moyer, whom she had been dating since filming the series pilot in 2007. They married on 21 August 2010 at a private residence in Malibu, California. Paquin and Moyer have fraternal twins called Charlie and Poppy, who were born in September 2012. Through her marriage to Moyer, Paquin also has a stepson, Billy (born in 2000), and a stepdaughter, Lilac (born in 2002). The family resides in Venice, Los Angeles, California.
On 1 April 2010, Paquin came out as bisexual in a public service announcement for the Give a Damn campaign as part of the True Colours Fund, an advocacy group organized by Cyndi Lauper dedicated to LGBT equality. The True Colours Fund was created to "inspire and engage everyone, especially straight people, to become active participants in the advancement of gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender equality ''. The video features Anna Paquin stating, "I 'm Anna Paquin. I 'm bisexual, and I give a damn ''. When asked about her participation in the video, Paquin responded by saying, "It was n't like it was a big secret, it was just a cause I cared about and privately supported, but not one that I had ever had an opportunity to speak out about in a way that would be useful. Obviously I know that one person 's voice does n't necessarily do that much, but I just wanted to do my bit. '' In May 2012, in an Us Weekly interview Paquin rejected the notion that bisexuality is a choice. "My sexuality is not made up, for a bisexual, it 's not about gender. That 's not the deciding factor to who they 're attracted to, '' stated Paquin.
Paquin also supports other charities and foundations such as the Children 's Hospital Los Angeles, Make - A-Wish Foundation, Elton John AIDS Foundation, and The Art of Elysium.
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bishop george ahr high school edison new jersey | Bishop George Ahr High School - wikipedia
Bishop George Ahr High School, also known as Bishop Ahr or BGA, is a four - year, private, college preparatory, and coeducational Roman Catholic high school serving students in ninth through twelfth grades located on a campus covering 34 acres (14 ha) in the northern section of Edison, in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States. The school operates under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Metuchen. The school opened in 1969 as St. Thomas Aquinas High School, and was renamed for Bishop George Ahr in 1984.
As of the 2015 - 16 school year, the school had an enrollment of 832 students and 57.6 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student -- teacher ratio of 14.4: 1. The school 's student body was 56.4 % White, 16.8 % Asian, 13.2 % Hispanic, 8.3 % Black, 0.5 % Native Hawaiian / Pacific Islander and 4.8 % two or more races. Students attend the school from Middlesex, Union, Monmouth, and Somerset Counties in Central New Jersey.
The administration and teaching faculty are composed of Felician Sisters and lay people. All 72 faculty members hold a B.S. or B.A. degree; a significant percentage have M.A. degrees, and some hold a Ph. D. Bishop George Ahr High School is overseen by the New Jersey Department of Education and is accredited by AdvancED.
Clubs at Bishop Ahr include:
Latin Honor Society, National Honor Society, Chinese Honor Society, Spanish Honor Society, Italian Honor Society, Tri-M (Music Honor Society), Science Honor Society
The Bishop George Ahr High School Trojans compete in the Greater Middlesex Conference, which includes public and private high schools located in the greater Middlesex County area and operates under the supervision of the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association. Sports offered for men include: baseball, basketball, bowling, cross country, football, golf, lacrosse, soccer, swimming, tennis, wrestling, and winter and spring track. Women 's sports include: basketball, bowling, cheerleading, cross country, golf, gymnastics, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, volleyball, and winter and spring track.
The football team was champion of the Middlesex County Blue Division in 2005, 2007, and 2008. The wrestling team won the 2007 Non-Public South B sectional championship with a 46 - 27 win over Holy Cross. Their baseball team won the 2006 team won the Non-Public South A sectional championship over St. Augustine, 16 - 15. The school 's swimming team won the Greater Middlesex Conference in 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2011.
The girls ' gymnastics team has won the team state championship in 1992, 1994, 1995, 2003 - 2007, 2010 and 2013; the 10 titles are the second most of any school in the state.
The softball team took the 2009 Non-Public South A Sectional title, shutting out both Holy Spirit High School and Camden Catholic High School, and won the tournament final over Gloucester Catholic High School to win the team 's first sectional title for nine years.
The girls ' soccer team won the NJ Non-Public A state championship against Immaculata High School 1 - 0. The Varsity cheerleading team won the National Championship and best overall Grand Champion in Myrtle Beach, S.C. on March 11.
Bishop Ahr High School offers students a wide range of creative options, including art courses in a full - studio Art department, graphic design courses, video production, an award - winning Drama Department, and an award - winning Music department.
The Drama department performs three full show runs per school year with a fall Shakespeare play, a fall drama production, and a spring musical. The Drama department has competed and won awards at the Bucks County Playhouse, among many other events.
The Music Department includes a Marching Band, a Symphonic Band, a Concert Choir, a Liturgical Band, a Jazz Band, and Music Theory courses.
In May 2012, Bishop Ahr 's Music Department competed in the 2012 Music Showcase Festival in Busch Gardens, VA. The Jazz Band won 1st place overall Jazz ensemble. The Concert Band won 2nd place overall Concert Band. The Jazz Choir won 1st place overall jazz Choir. The Concert choir won 1st place overall mixed choir. The concert choir also won the grand championship trophy for the highest overall competition score among all vocal groups.
Bishop Ahr High School has always been committed to providing a wide array of technology courses and options to its students. The cornerstone of BGA 's approach to educational technology is that there is n't one right tool for every task. BGA teachers have at their disposal a number of technology options that they can call upon depending on the nature of their lesson. In addition to three computer labs, teachers also have access to a fleet of laptops, iPads, and Chromebooks that they can use to enhance their instructional offerings. To round out these offerings, BGA has a robust bring - your - own - device (BYOD) policy that allows teachers the opportunity to infuse technology on - the - fly, allowing them to incorporate technology in a real world manner and to capitalize on teachable moments.
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stan by eminem is it based on a true story | Stan (song) - wikipedia
"Stan '' is a song by American rapper Eminem featuring English singer Dido. It was released on November 21, 2000 as the third single from Eminem 's third album The Marshall Mathers LP (2000). It reached number one in twelve countries, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Ireland and Australia.
Dido 's lyrics are a remix of the opening lines from her song "Thank You. '' The 45 King - produced track also uses a slightly modified break from "Thank You '' as its base sample. Coincidentally, both songs were released as singles in late 2000. "Stan '' has been called one of Eminem 's best songs and is considered one of his signature songs. Rolling Stone magazine ranked "Stan '' at # 296 in their list in The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The song was also listed at # 15 on VH1 's list of the greatest hip hop songs of all - time and was also named in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.
The song was nominated for multiple awards, including Best Song at the MTV Europe Music Awards, Video of the Year, Best Rap Video, Best Direction, Best Cinematography at the MTV Video Music Awards, but only won Best International Artist Video at the MuchMusic Video Awards. In April 2011, Complex magazine put together a list of the 100 greatest Eminem songs, ranking "Stan '' at # 2. The name of the eponymous character has given rise to a slang term online which refers to overzealous, maniacal, overly obsessed fans of a celebrity or personality; the term has been included in the Oxford English Dictionary.
On November 5, 2013, Eminem released a follow - up song, "Bad Guy, '' on his eighth album The Marshall Mathers LP 2.
The song tells the story of a person named Stanley "Stan '' Mitchell who claims to be the biggest fan of Eminem. Stan writes a plethora of letters to Eminem; with each verse he becomes gradually more obsessed with him, and when there is no reply, he becomes progressively angrier. He finally creates a voice recording of himself driving his car into a river, with his pregnant girlfriend in the trunk, as shown in the lyrics:
"So this is my cassette I 'm sending you, I hope you hear it. I 'm in the car right now, doing 90 on the freeway. Hey Slim, I drank a fifth of vodka, you dare me to drive? See Slim... (Stan 's girlfriend screams from the trunk) Shut up, bitch! I 'm trying to talk! Hey Slim, that 's my girlfriend screaming in the trunk. But I did n't slit her throat, I just tied her up. See, I ai n't like you, ' cause if she suffocates, she 'll suffer more, then she 'll die too. Well, got ta go, I 'm almost at the bridge now... Oh, shit! I forgot! How am I supposed to send this shit out?! ''
The first three verses are delivered by Eminem as Stan, while the fourth verse is Eminem as himself attempting to write to Stan and reason with the troubled young man, only to realize -- to his shock -- that he had already heard about Stan 's death on the news.
The video is a literal interpretation of the story, featuring Devon Sawa as Stan and Dido as his pregnant girlfriend. A prologue involves Stan dying his hair blonde and reacting angrily to being called "Stanley. '' Later, Stan sits in a room "full of your posters and your pictures, '' with Eminem 's image on every available surface, writing letters that express his devotion as "your (Eminem 's) biggest fan. '' He is aware of even the most minute developments in Eminem 's personal life.
Stan wants Eminem to contact him through a personal letter or a phone call; but, due to unfortunate circumstances, the letters fail to reach Eminem in a timely manner. Believing he has been ignored, Stan uses a tape recorder to document his most disturbing act yet: he ties up his girlfriend, stows her in his trunk, and drives along a rain - soaked highway, intending to drive off a bridge. His final communication involves a reference to "My Name Is '' ("I drank a fifth of vodka, dare me to drive? '') as well as invoking the popular urban legend that Phil Collins 's "In the Air Tonight '' was a true story, before realizing he has no way of transmitting this particular tape to "Slim, '' and committing the act anyway.
Eminem finally gets around to responding to Stan. He apologizes for being late, thanks him for being a fan, and expresses interest in Stan 's personal life. Eminem worries about Stan 's mental state and says he does n't want Stan to end up like a story he had seen on the news recently -- a man who had driven drunk off a bridge with his girlfriend in the trunk, about whom he quickly realizes, "It was you. Damn. ''
In the MTV "clean '' version the song and video were censored. Significant portions from the first two verses and most of the third verse were removed. MTV also cut out all traces of Stan 's girlfriend bound in the trunk of the car and removed one scene showing him guzzling vodka while driving. In the MTV full version, which is 8: 15 long, verse 3 censors Stan mentioning his girlfriend in the trunk (so "Shut up bitch '' and "screaming in the trunk '' is censored), and about him not slitting her throat, but tied her up, and "if she suffocates, she 'll suffer more, then she 'll die too '', which "slit '', "tied her up '', "suffocates '', and "die '' is censored.
Dido has stated that she was gagged in the third verse of the video, but this was censored so widely that versions with her gagged are rare. In the uncensored version, Stan is shown drinking at the wheel of the car before showing Dido struggling in the trunk of the car. She manages to remove the duct tape from her mouth and screams before struggling for breath. Most versions were censored so that there is only a brief clip of Dido in the trunk of the car towards the end of the verse. It also censors when Stan says he "drank a fifth of vodka '', which censors "drank '' and "vodka ''; and censors when he says he 's on "a thousand downers '', which "downers '' is censored; and also censors Stan drinking while driving. At the end of the third verse, "Well, got ta go, I 'm almost at the bridge now '' is changed to "Well, got ta go, I 'm almost at the end of the bridge now ''. In the fourth verse, the line "(And what 's this) shit about us meant to be together '' is completely censored. All references to the girlfriend in the trunk are censored out, including the line: "And had his girlfriend in his trunk, and she was pregnant with his kid. ''
In the MTV short version, which was used for radio airplay due to time constraints, the second verse lines that are missing are from "I ai n't that mad though, I just do n't like bein ' lied to '' to "I even got a tattoo of your name across the chest ''; the video cuts showing Stan meeting Eminem, talking about how his father cheated and beat his mother and showed him getting a "Slim Shady '' tattoo on his chest. The missing lyrics from the third verse are of Stan talking about drinking while driving and referencing "In the Air Tonight '', which in the video, it skips from showing Stan near - missing a car, and swerving to avoid crashing into it. The lines that are missing are from "Hey Slim, I drank a fifth of vodka, you dare to me to drive? '' to "I hope you know I ripped all of your pictures off the wall ''. It also removes the chorus after the third verse and goes straight to the fourth verse; the video then cuts to Eminem at last receiving the letter from Stan, and the car sinking more into the water.
In the Fuse version of the video, various lines and words are silenced, more so than on the clean version of the LP; half of one of the beginning verses are cut out, and then the song fades out about halfway through the second verse. The LP version of the song is over six minutes long, and, as mentioned, the full version of the video is 8: 15; however, when Fuse played the video, it was slightly over two minutes.
In Fuse 's original state as a rock and alternative station, the same versions as on MTV were shown. "Stan '' was also released on track 17 of Curtain Call: The Hits, which features Elton John. On the clean and explicit versions of Curtain Call: The Hits, the live track censored only the profanity, unlike the clean version of the studio track version of "Stan ''.
Stephen Thomas Erlewine highlighted the song. Entertainment Weekly praised the song, too: "Eminem proves himself a peerless rap poet with a profound understanding of the power of language. Stan, an epistolary exchange between the artist and a dangerously obsessive fan, may be the most moving song about star worship ever recorded '' and added that "Stan '' blazes significant new ground for rap. LA Times was also positive: "' Stan ', the album 's most haunting track, is superb storytelling with a point. It has the affecting tone of such rap high points as Ice Cube 's ' It Was a Good Day ' and 2Pac 's ' Dear Mama '. ''
An album review found on CD Universe shares a similar opinion: "The most startling moment has to be ' Stan ', featuring haunting, ethereal guest vocals from Dido; an incongruously sublime track, it spins an O. Henry - meets - ' 60s teenage - death - song tale of obsessed fan worship gone terribly wrong. '' NME magazine praised the song: "' Stan ' is a wonderful short story, an astute study in extreme fandom. '' Sputnik Music described that "Stan 's sampling of Dido and use of rain and writing sound effects '' make the album versatile. The same critic listed the song in the Recommended Downloads list and reviewed it:
"If you have n't heard this, you probably make a career out of living under rocks. It tells the story of an obsessive fan who kills themselves because their idol (Eminem) never writes back, and introduces one of the album 's key themes -- the scary power of fame. Ironic, then, that this album made him the biggest cultural figurehead on the planet. It starts with a sample of Dido 's ' Thank You ' under a sample of rain. This sample goes on to form the song 's hook, relating the level of Stan 's obsession and almost making him a sympathetic character (Your picture on my wall / It reminds me that it 's not so bad...). Offsetting this is Eminem 's raps under the persona of Stan, which reveal him as a reprehensible character; mentally unstable, self - mutilating, sexually confused, volatile, and abusive to his pregnant girlfriend (whose life he takes too, when he takes his own). Eminem 's final verse is him attempting to write back, asking him not to be like this guy he saw on the news... Overplayed? Yes. But even so, of all of Eminem 's singles, this one demonstrates his power as a rapper and his skill as a poet best. ''
IGN praised the song as "easily the most scathingly introspective rumination on fan adoration, idol assimilation, and borderline stalker etiquette. Teamed to Dido 's lulling ' Thank You ' with its almost somnambulistically hypnotic pop sultriness provides a jolting contrast to the twisted storyline of a musical obsession gone awry. It also paints a picture of what it 's like to be knee deep in the push - and - pull world of a superstar. The song 's poignancy never fades, even almost five years later it 's still potent. '' Slant Magazine was mixed: "' Stan ' is an interesting look into the mind of a fanatic (albeit through the eyes of an equally disturbed individual), but it 's structured entirely around someone else 's work (Dido 's ' Thank You '). ''
"Stan '' is perhaps Eminem 's most critically acclaimed song, after "Lose Yourself '', and has been called a "cultural milestone '', referred to as "Eminem 's best song '' by About.com. Analyzing "Stan '' in The Guardian, writer and literary critic Giles Foden compared Eminem to Robert Browning.
At the 2001 Grammy Awards, when he was facing all manner of criticism from GLAAD over his lyrics, Eminem responded by performing "Stan '' with singer Elton John, who is openly gay, singing Dido 's lines. Many of the profanities were substituted, for example, "You 're like his favorite idol '' in place of "You 're like his fucking idol '', and "stuff '' for "shit ''. Recordings of this performance were available for download on Eminem 's official website Eminem.com and, later, on his 2005 greatest hits release Curtain Call: The Hits.
Christian rap artist KJ - 52 recorded two songs: "Dear Slim '' and "Dear Slim, Part II '', attempting to contact Eminem and talk to him about his own faith and help him through his troubles. The lyrics to "Dear Slim '' reference the obsessed fan in "Stan ''. Various instruments within the song "My Life '' by The Game were taken from "Stan. ''
Rapper Canibus released a response track to this song titled "U Did n't Care '' in which Canibus, portraying Stan, accused Eminem of not caring about him at all.
"Stan '' has entered into the lexicon as a term for an overly - obsessed fan of someone or something. The term is especially popular in the rap community; in "Ether '', the anti-Jay - Z diss track, Nas notably called Jay - Z a "stan '' of both himself and The Notorious B.I.G.. The term was added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2017.
"Stan '' has been listed by many as one of the greatest hip - hop songs of all time. It was ranked # 3 on a list of the greatest rap songs in history by Q magazine and came tenth in a similar survey conducted by Top40-Charts.com. Rolling Stone Magazine 's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ranked it # 290, one of Eminem 's two songs on the list along with "Lose Yourself ''; in the updated 2010 list, it was ranked at # 296. It ranked # 45 on About.com 's Top 100 Rap Songs.
The song ranked # 15 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop, and # 2 on their Countdown Millennium Songs. It was also named the 46th Best Song of the Decade by Complex magazine, and the 10th Best Song of the decade by Rolling Stone Magazine. The song was ranked at number 58 in Rolling Stone Magazine 's list of "100 Greatest Hip - Hop songs of all time ''.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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lazy town robbie rotten we are number one | We Are Number One - wikipedia
"We Are Number One '' is a song from the English language Icelandic children 's television series LazyTown, composed by Máni Svavarsson. The song was featured in the twelfth episode of the show 's fourth season, entitled "Robbie 's Dream Team '', which is the 103rd episode overall.
The song gained popularity in September 2016, when a remix was uploaded onto the YouTube channel SiIvaGunner, where various parodies have been subsequently uploaded since, as well as proper cover versions by bands such as comedy punk group The Radioactive Chicken Heads.
The official music video has over 48 million views on YouTube as of August 29, 2018. It is the most viewed video of the LazyTown YouTube channel.
Written in common time, the song has a tempo of 162 beats per minute. It is written in the key of F harmonic minor, also incorporating elements from the Hungarian gypsy scale as it features a raised fourth scale degree, and follows the chord progression of Fm -- Db -- C.
Robbie Rotten, the primary antagonist of LazyTown, attempts to teach his "dream team '' of villainous accomplices (three fictional doppelgänger actors named Bobby, Tobby, and Flobby Rotten) how to successfully catch a superhero (specifically Sportacus).
Robbie Rotten demonstrates multiple methods to his team: an overhead cage attached to a tree (which ends up trapping Robbie), a large butterfly net, a false apple containing enough sugar to induce an overdose and consequently, temporary unconsciousness, to the sugar - averse Sportacus, a somewhat small fishing net, and banana peels intended to cause Sportacus to slip, but instead causing Robbie 's own team to do so.
The sugar apple proves to be an effective trick, successfully sedating Sportacus and giving Robbie and his team a chance to put him in a portable cage. Robbie 's three teammates relocate the trapped Sportacus to Robbie 's underground headquarters while Robbie stays on the surface to set up a cannon, revealed in the full episode to be the way Robbie intends to run Sportacus out of town. However, his plans are thwarted when Stephanie and Stingy open the base 's periscope and use its cylindrical interior as a means of transporting a real apple to Sportacus. The apple rolls towards the cage undetected by the now - sleeping Bobby, Tobby, and Flobby, with Sportacus reaching it and regaining his power, of which he was deprived by the sugar overdose. He then uses his reclaimed strength to break free from the cage and coax his three captors to play sports with him on the surface of LazyTown.
Robbie watches as his previous companions play sports with Sportacus, and out of apparent anger, walks over to them disregarding a bucket on the ground. This bucket is kicked, hitting and triggering Robbie 's cannon and blasting Robbie away from the scene on the cannonball. The video ends with Bobby, Tobby, and Flobby accidentally falling into a trapping pit constructed to capture Sportacus, reinforcing for a final time the clumsiness of the team.
The song originally had the working title called "Villain Number One '' before it was changed to "We Are Number One ''.
During production there were many lyrics that did not get approved; many of these lyrics have Robbie singing something different than what he actually sung in the final version. These lyrics first surfaced to the public when it was revealed by Máni during the live stream that Stefán Karl held on Facebook on 11 December 2016, at the Icelandic studios where the show was filmed. These unused lyrics were released to the public on SoundCloud by user 8847444 on 13 December 2016.
Two years after the LazyTown episode aired, "We Are Number One '' became an Internet phenomenon due to Robbie Rotten 's performer Stefán Karl Stefánsson having announced that he had been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. A campaign was created by Mark Valenti, head writer for LazyTown, on the crowdfunding platform GoFundMe to pay for Stefán Karl 's living costs while he was too unwell to work, and the creators of these parodies used their videos to raise awareness for the campaign. As of 20 December 2016, the campaign had surpassed its $100,000 goal.
To thank the contributors, Stefán Karl held a live stream on Facebook on 11 December 2016, where he performed "We Are Number One '' with the other actors (Björn Thors, Bergur Þór Ingólfsson, Snorri Engilbertsson) from the original music video which was later uploaded to his personal YouTube channel.
Typically, these parodies take the form of the original music video edited in some irregular and often highly complex way, most of them with the title "We Are Number One but... '' which is a meme, followed by the changes from the original, which would occasionally be placed in the video description due to their length, like "every time they say one the video gets more high pitched ''. This type of remix was common in 2016, particularly during the year 's waning months; a The Verge article described "We Are Number One '' and other, similar remixes as "weird solipsistic creation (s) ''.
The official LazyTown YouTube channel has posted several videos relating to the song, including an hour loop of the original song, an instrumental version, a reversed instrumental version, every "one '' being replaced by "The Mine Song '' (another song from the series, also with numerous parodies, which later became an internet meme in November 2016), a compilation of the songs with other well - known songs from the series (however, in PAL speed) and the full episode that the song appeared in, "Robbie 's Dream Team '' from 2014. The original tracks (otherwise known as the "stems '') used in composing the song were released shortly after.
A petition was set up to have Stefán Karl perform the song to represent Iceland in the Eurovision Song Contest, receiving over 12,000 signatures. The petition wanted him to participate in the 2017 edition, but he did not apply, acknowledging that he was unlikely to do so, as recovering from his cancer was a bigger priority. Stefán Karl died from bile duct cancer on August 21, 2018.
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where does most of kenya's income comes from | Economy of Kenya - Wikipedia
Standard & Poor 's: B+ (Domestic) B+ (Foreign) BB - (T&C Assessment) Outlook: Stable Fitch: B+ Outlook: Stable
Kenya 's economy is market - based with a few state - owned infrastructure enterprises and maintains a liberalised external trade system. The country is generally perceived as Eastern and central Africa 's hub for Financial, Communication and Transportation services. Major industries include: agriculture, forestry and fishing, mining and minerals, industrial manufacturing, energy, tourism and financial services. As of 2015 estimates, Kenya had a GDP of $69.977 billion making it the 72nd largest economy in the world. Per capita GDP was estimated at $1,587.
The government of Kenya is generally investment friendly and has enacted several regulatory reforms to simplify both foreign and local investment, including the creation of an export processing zone. The export processing zone is expected to grow rapidly through input of foreign direct investment. An increasingly significant portion of Kenya 's foreign inflows are remittances by non-resident Kenyans who work in the US, Middle East, Europe and Asia. Compared to its neighbours, Kenya has well - developed social and physical infrastructure.
As of March 2014, economic prospects were positive with above 5 % GDP growth expected, largely because of expansions in telecommunications, transport, construction and a recovery in agriculture. These improvements are supported by a large pool of English - speaking professional workers. There is a high level of computer literacy, especially among the youth.
In 2017, Kenya ranked 92nd in the World Bank ease of doing business rating from 113rd in 2016 (of 190 countries).
After its independence, Kenya promoted rapid economic growth through public investment, encouragement of smallholder agricultural production, and incentives for private often foreign industrial investment. Gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an annual average of 6.6 % from 1963 to 1973 and 7.2 % during the 1970s. Agricultural production grew by 4.7 % annually during the same period, stimulated by redistributing estates, diffusing new crop strains, and opening new areas to cultivation. Between 1974 and 1990, however, Kenya 's economic performance declined. With GDP growth averaging 4.2 % per year in the 1980s and 2.2 % a year in the 1990s.
Kenya 's inward - looking policy of import substitution and rising oil prices made Kenya 's manufacturing sector uncompetitive. The government began a massive intrusion in the private sector. Lack of export incentives, tight import controls, and foreign exchange controls made the domestic environment for investment even less attractive. From 1991 to 1993, Kenya had its worst economic performance since independence. Growth in GDP stagnated, and agricultural production shrank at an annual rate of 3.9 %. Inflation reached a record 100 % in August 1993, and the government 's budget deficit was over 10 % of GDP. As a result of these combined problems, bilateral and multilateral donors suspended program aid to Kenya in 1991.
Throughout these first three decades of independence, Kenya 's parastatals, partly from a lack of expertise and endemic corruption, largely inhibited economic development. In 1979, a presidential commission went as far as saying that they constituted "a serious threat to the economy ''; a decade later, they had still not furthered industrialisation or fostered the development of a Black - Kenyan business class. The backbone of the country 's private - sector success was provided by Asian Kenyans; during the colonial period, it was they who had created their country 's internal market, and then dominated internal trade. British colonizers instituted segregation based on skin colour: Whites were first - class citizens, Indians (who came to Kenya to work on the East African Railway as labourers, were second - class citizens, and native Kenyans were third - class citizens. As a result, various laws were set in place to limit African Kenyans in their own land, for example, they had to walk around with ' Passes ' at all times, and free movement, schooling and entrepreneurial endeavours for Africans in Kenya was strictly enforced by colonial police between the late 1800s and Kenya 's Independence in 1963. Post-independence, and particularly after being pushed out of its retail stronghold after its "Africanisation '', those who stayed in Kenya transferred their dominance to the more advanced sectors of its commerce and industry, easily out - competing Western multinationals in notable instances. Prominent Asian - Kenyan businesspeople include Manu Chandaria and Madatally Manji.
In 1993, the Government of Kenya began a major program of economic reform and liberalisation. A new minister of finance and a new governor of the central bank undertook a series of economic measures with the assistance of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). As part of this program, the government eliminated price controls and import licensing, removed foreign exchange controls, privatised a range of publicly owned companies, reduced the number of civil servants, and introduced conservative fiscal and monetary policies. From 1994 to 1996, Kenya 's real GDP growth rate averaged just over 4 % a year.
In 1997, however, the economy entered a period of slowing or stagnant growth, due in part to adverse weather conditions and reduced economic activity prior to general elections in December 1997. In July 1997, the Government of Kenya refused to meet commitments made earlier to the IMF on governance reforms. As a result, the IMF suspended lending for three years, and the World Bank also put a $90 million structural adjustment credit on hold. The economy however registered an improvement between 2002 and 2007 under kibaki administration.
The Government of Kenya took positive steps on reform, including the 1997 establishment of the Kenya Anti-Corruption Authority, and measures to improve the transparency of government procurements and reduce the government payroll. In July 2000, the IMF signed a $150 million Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility, and the World Bank followed suit shortly after with a $157 million Economic and Public Sector Reform credit.
This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Kenya at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Kenyan Shillings.
Small scale businesses are providing a more and more jobs in Kenya. With increased but simplified regulations, they are able to blossom into large, legitimate businesses that can eventually create more jobs and government revenue.
In 2006 Kenya 's gross domestic product (GDP) was about US $17.39 billion. Per capita GDP averages somewhat more than US $450 annually. Adjusted in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms, per capita GDP in 2006 was about US $1,200. The country 's real GDP growth picked up to 2.3 percent in early 2004 and to nearly 6 percent in 2005 and 2006, compared with a sluggish 1.4 percent in 2003 and throughout President Daniel arap Moi 's last term (1997 -- 2002). Real GDP is expected to continue to improve, largely because of expansions in tourism, telecommunications, transport, and construction and a recovery in agriculture. The Kenya Central Bank forecast for 2007 is between 5 and 6 percent GDP growth. GDP composition by sector, according to 2004 estimates, was as follows: agriculture, 25.7 percent; manufacturing, 14.0 percent; trade, restaurants, and hotels, 13.8 percent; transport and communications, 6.9 percent; government services, 15.6 percent; and other, 24.0 percent.
Agriculture: In 1980, agriculture accounted for 33 % of Kenya 's overall GDP. In 1990, the value agriculture added to GDP was 30 percent, in 2000, it increased to 32 percent, and in 2011, and the value agriculture added to overall GDP fell to 23 percent.
Industry and manufacturing: In the last 31 years, this component of Kenya 's GDP has been greatly fluctuating. In 1980, industry and manufacturing accounted for 21 percent of Kenya 's overall GDP. In 1990, it decreased to 19 percent, and in 2000, the value added to GDP decreased again to 17 percent. In 2011, there was a slight rise to 19 percent of Kenya 's overall GDP.
Services: The World Bank defines Services as jobs that are included in "wholesale and retail trade, transport, government, financial, professional, and personal services. '' In 1980, services accounted for 47 percent of Kenya 's overall GPD. In 1990, it accounted for 51 percent, in 2000 it stayed constant at 51 percent, and in 2011, the services sector accounted for 58 percent of Kenya 's overall GDP.
The agricultural sector continues to dominate Kenya 's economy, although only 15 percent of Kenya 's total land area has sufficient fertility and rainfall to be farmed, and only 7 or 8 percent can be classified as first - class land. In 2006 almost 75 percent of working Kenyans made their living on the land, compared with 80 percent in 1980. About one - half of total agricultural output is non-marketed subsistence production. Agriculture is the second largest contributor to Kenya 's gross domestic product (GDP), after the service sector. In 2005 agriculture, including forestry and fishing, accounted for about 24 percent of GDP, as well as for 18 percent of wage employment and 50 percent of revenue from exports. The principal cash crops are tea, horticultural produce, and coffee; horticultural produce and tea are the main growth sectors and the two most valuable of all of Kenya 's exports. In 2005 horticulture accounted for 23 percent and tea for 22 percent of total export earnings. Coffee has declined in importance with depressed world prices, accounting for just 5 percent of export receipts in 2005. The production of major food staples such as corn is subject to sharp weather - related fluctuations. Production the downturns periodically necessitate food aid -- for example, in 2004 aid for 1.8 million people ⎯ because of one of Kenya 's intermittent droughts. However, the expansion of credit to the agricultural sector has enabled farmers to better deal with the large risk of agriculture based on rainfall and the dramatic fluctuations of the prices of agricultural products.
Tea, coffee, sisal, pyrethrum, corn, and wheat are grown in the fertile highlands, one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa. Livestock predominates in the semi-arid savanna to the north and east. Coconuts, pineapples, cashew nuts, cotton, sugarcane, sisal, and corn are grown in the lower - lying areas.
Resource degradation has reduced output from forestry. In 2004 roundwood removals came to 22,162,000 cubic meters. Fisheries are of local importance around Lake Victoria and have potential on Lake Turkana. Kenya 's total catch reported in 2004 was 128,000 metric tons. However, output from fishing has been declining because of ecological disruption. Pollution, overfishing, and the use of unauthorised fishing equipment have led to falling catches and have endangered local fish species.
Kenya has no significant mineral endowment. The mining and quarrying sector makes a negligible contribution to the economy, accounting for less than 1 percent of gross domestic product, the majority contributed by the soda ash operation at Lake Magadi in south - central Kenya. Thanks largely to rising soda ash output, Kenya 's mineral production in 2005 reached more than 1 million tons. One of Kenya 's largest foreign - investment projects in recent years is the planned expansion of Magadi Soda. Apart from soda ash, the chief minerals produced are limestone, gold, salt, large quantities of niobium, fluorspar, and fossil fuel.
All unextracted minerals are government property, according to the Mining Act. The Department of Mines and Geology, under the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, controls exploration and exploitation of such minerals.
Gold yielded an estimated 200 kg in 2010 and in recent time it has been reported a resource of 1.31 million ounces at 12.1 grams per tonne, totalling 1.3 m ounces of gold. However it expects further drilling work to revise this up to at least 2m ounces by the end of the year and this was produced by small - scale artisan miners in the Migori Archaean Greenstone Belt and mostly in the Western part of the country. The Kenya Ministry of Mines has set up new procedures binding the Export of precious metals. The Sector looks for many more investors via the use of these procedures.In situations whereby a new local mining is in a business transaction with a buyer who wants to invest in mining, You have to contact the office director for the proper procedure and document acquisition to able to carry out the mining activity;
Dan Kazungu, Kenya 's cabinet secretary for mining, said that the country was seeking to ratify its Mining Act to establish as "a robust legislative framework '' to support its burgeoning mining industry.
Nonetheless Gold yielded within the EAC can circulate with the communities without restriction and little duties are paid which require a Certificate of Free Circulation of Goods, For Exportation of Gold out of Kenya to it outside world, it is an obligation that a 7 % Taxes and duty be paid to the custom control Bureau together with the KRA duties to allow the gold to be ship out to it destination; For other EAC Taxes contact their Ministry of minerals or office In charge but no Gold will circulate without an EAC permit from the Government that the Gold is free and clear and of non-criminal and non-terrorist origin, unencumbered and free of any adverse claims, liens and encumbrances, and is transferable and exportable.
The Kenya Ministry of mines has levid a 5 % duty Tax on nickel, vanadium, cassiterite, colombo - tantalite, uranium, rare earth oxides, peat, cobalt, copper, platinum, hydropower, niobium, tantalum, gold, tin, tungsten, kaolin and limestone and this levid also apply for export of Diamonds, base metals, gemstones (including the unique Tanzanite) and a variety of industrial minerals (such as phosphates, mica, gypsum, limestone, graphite, quartz and vermiculite)
Together with the EAC certificate, The following documents must be apply for; Customs Declaration Form (s), Export Permit, Proof of export duty paid, Statement of gross weight of the Shipment as determined, before delivery to the Delivery Point, by Seller, Certificate that the Gold does not contain any mercury and / or cyanide.
Investment in Mining: The EAC countries are richly endowed with a variety of mineral resources.
Burundi is well endowed with deposits of nickel, vanadium, cassiterite, colombo - tantalite, gold, uranium, rare earth oxides, peat, cobalt, copper, platinum, hydropower, niobium, tantalum, gold, tin, tungsten, kaolin and limestone.
Kenya has four belts of minerals - the gold green stone belt in western Kenya, which extends to Tanzania; the Mozambique belt passing through central Kenya, the source of Kenya 's unique gemstones; the Rift belt, which has a variety of resources including soda ash, fluorspar and diatomite; and, the coastal belt, which has titanium.
Rwanda has deposits of cassiterite, a tin ore, which is a very important ingredient of electronics components. The mineral is also found in Walikale, in DRC 's Northern Kivu Province, a part that borders Rwanda in the east. Other potentially profitable minerals include wolframite, columbite - tentalite, amblygonite and tantalite (colttan). Gold has also been explored in some parts of the country. Some semi-precious stones including tourmaline, topaz, corundum, chiastolite, amethyst, opal and agate have been discovered.
Tanzania has a wide variety of minerals including diamonds, gold, base metals, gemstones (including the unique Tanzanite) and a variety of industrial minerals (such as phosphates, mica, gypsum, limestone, graphite, quartz and vermiculite) that have a wide range of applications in ceramics, pottery, brick and tile - making, and glass manufacture as well as nickel, cobalt, copper, apatite, niobium, iron ore and coal.
Uganda also has a variety of mineral resources including copper, cobalt, tin, iron ore, tungsten, beryllium, limestone, phosphates, salt, clays, feldspar, diatomite, silica sand, glass, sand gravel, and construction materials such as granites and gneisses.
Investment opportunities exist in mining stone for the construction and building industry, phosphates for agriculture, salt for domestic and chemical uses, iron ore for the iron and steel industry, kaolin for leather tanning and pharmaceuticals, and silica sand and trona for glass manufacture; exploration and development of mineral deposits including oil, gold, copper, cobalt sulphide and hematite iron.
Whilst Kenya is a relatively new mining destination we are very pleased with the relationships we have built and the support we have received and look forward to working closely with all stakeholders as we progress this highly promising project
Although Kenya is the most industrially developed country in East Africa, manufacturing still accounts for only 14 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). This level of manufacturing GDP represents only a slight increase since independence. Expansion of the sector after independence, initially rapid, has stagnated since the 1980s, hampered by shortages in hydroelectric power, high energy costs, dilapidated transport infrastructure, and the dumping of cheap imports. However, due to urbanisation, the industry and manufacturing sectors have become increasingly important to the Kenyan economy, and has been reflected by an increasing GDP per capita. Industrial activity, concentrated around the three largest urban centres, Nairobi, Mombasa, and Kisumu, is dominated by food - processing industries such as grain milling, beer production, and sugarcane crushing, and the fabrication of consumer goods, e.g., vehicles from kits. Kenya also has an oil refinery that processes imported crude petroleum into petroleum products, mainly for the domestic market. In addition, a substantial and expanding informal sector engages in small - scale manufacturing of household goods, motor - vehicle parts, and farm implements. About half of the investment in the industrial sector is foreign, with the United Kingdom providing half. The United States is the second largest investor.
Kenya 's inclusion among the beneficiaries of the US Government 's African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) has given a boost to manufacturing in recent years. Since AGOA took effect in 2000, Kenya 's clothing sales to the United States increased from US $44 million to US $270 million (2006). Other initiatives to strengthen manufacturing have been the new government 's favourable tax measures, including the removal of duty on capital equipment and other raw materials.
The largest share of Kenya 's electricity supply comes from hydroelectric stations at dams along the upper Tana River, as well as the Turkwel Gorge Dam in the west. A petroleum - fired plant on the coast, geothermal facilities at Olkaria (near Nairobi), and electricity imported from Uganda make up the rest of the supply. Kenya 's installed capacity stood at 1,142 megawatts a year between 2001 and 2003. The state - owned Kenya Electricity Generating Company (KenGen), established in 1997 under the name of Kenya Power Company, handles the generation of electricity, while the Kenya Power and Lighting Company (KPLC) handles transmission and distribution. Shortfalls of electricity occur periodically, when drought reduces water flow. In 1997 and 2000, for example, drought prompted severe power rationing, with economically damaging 12 - hour blackouts. Frequent outages, as well as high cost, remain serious obstacles to economic activity. Tax and other concessions are planned to encourage investment in hydroelectricity and in geothermal energy, in which Kenya is a pioneer. The government plans to open two new power stations in 2008, Sondu Miriu (hydroelectric) and Olkaria IV (geothermal), but power demand growth is strong, and demand is still expected to outpace supply during periods of drought.
Kenya has recently found some hydrocarbon reserves on its semi arid northern region of Turkana after several decades of intermittent exploration. Prospecting also continues off Kenya 's shore. In the meantime, Kenya currently imports all crude petroleum requirements. Petroleum accounts for 20 to 25 percent of the national import bill. Kenya Petroleum Refineries -- a 50: 50 joint venture between the government and several oil majors -- operates the country 's sole oil refinery in Mombasa. However, this oil refinery facility has been shut down and Kenya currently imports refined oil. In 2004 oil consumption was estimated at 55,000 barrels (8,700 m) a day. Most of the Mombasa refinery 's production is transported via Kenya 's Mombasa -- Nairobi pipeline.
Kenya 's services sector, which contributes about 63 percent of GDP, is dominated by tourism. The tourism sector exhibited steady growth in most years since independence and by the late 1980s had become the country 's principal source of foreign exchange. In the late 1990s, tourism relinquished this position to tea exports because of a terrorism - related downturn. The downturn followed the 1998 bombing of the U.S Embassy in Nairobi and later negative travel advisories from Western governments.
Tourists, the largest number from Germany and the United Kingdom, are attracted to the coastal beaches and the game reserves, notably, the expansive Tsavo East National Park and Tsavo West National Park (20,808 square kilometres) in the southeast. The government and tourist industry organisations have taken steps to address security issues and to reverse negative publicity. Such steps include establishing a tourist police and launching marketing campaigns in key tourist origin markets. In 2006 tourism generated US $803 million, up from US $699 million the previous year.
Kenya is East and Central Africa 's hub for financial services. The Nairobi Stock Exchange (NSE) is ranked 4th in Africa in terms of market capitalisation.
The Kenya banking system is supervised by the Central Bank of Kenya (CBK). As of late July 2004, the system consisted of 43 commercial banks (down from 48 in 2001), several non-bank financial institutions, including mortgage companies, four savings and loan associations, and several score foreign - exchange bureaus. Two of the four largest banks, the Kenya Commercial Bank (KCB) and the National Bank of Kenya (NBK), are partially government - owned, and the other two are majority foreign - owned (Barclays Bank and Standard Chartered). Most of the many smaller banks are family - owned and - operated.
In 2006 Kenya 's labour force was estimated to include about 12 million workers, almost 75 percent in agriculture. The number employed outside small - scale agriculture and pastoralism was about 6 million. In 2004 about 15 percent of the labour force was officially classified as unemployed. Other estimates place Kenya 's unemployment much higher, even up to 40 percent. In recent years, Kenya 's labour force has shifted from the countryside to the cities, such as Nairobi, as Kenya becomes increasingly urbanised.
The labour force participation rate in Kenya has been constant from 1997 to 2010 for both women and men. In 1997, 65 percent of women were employed in some type of labour and 76 percent of men were employed. In 2005, 60 percent of women and 70 percent of men were in the labour force, and in 2010, 61 percent of women and 72 percent of men were a part of the labour force.
In the past twenty years, Kenyans have moved away from family farming towards jobs that pay wages or to start small businesses outside of agriculture. In 1989, 4.5 million Kenyan 's, out of a total working population of 7.3 million, worked on family farms. In 2009, only 6.5 million Kenya 's, 45 percent, out of a total working population of 14.3 million, work on family farms, as compared to Tanzania, where 66 of the working population worked on family farms. More than half of family farm workers in Kenya are women, 3.8 million, compared to men who make up 2.7 million.
According to the World Bank 2012 Kenya Economic Update, "Men are much more likely than women to hold wage jobs, and women are more likely to work on family farms. Twice as many men as women hold wage jobs, and more men work principally in wage jobs than on family farms. Most Kenyans are now striving get modern, wage jobs. '' Modern wage jobs include being a "engineer, telecommunication specialist, cut flower worker, teacher, construction worker, housekeepers, professionals, any industrial and manufacturing job, and port and dock workers. '' In 1989, there were only 1.9 million Kenyans employed in wage work, in 2009, 5.1 million Kenyans work in modern, wage jobs. In wage jobs, men dominate over women. In 2009, 3.4 million men held wage jobs, while only 1.3 million women were employed in wage jobs.
Non-farm self - employment has risen from 1989 to 2009. The World Bank characterises non-farm self - employment to include jobs being a "street vendor, shop owner, dressmaker, assistant, fishmonger, caterer, etc. '' Non-farm self - employment has risen from a total of 0.9 million working in 1989 to a total of 2.7 million workers in 2009. There is almost an equal number of men and women in the non-farm self - employment category. The men make up 1.4 million workers, and the women 1.3 million.
The exchange rate of the Kenya shilling between 2003 and 2010 has averaged at about KSh74 - 78 to US $1.
The average inflation between 2005 and July 2015 is 8.5 %,
As at July 2015 Kenya 's inflation rate is 6.62 %.
In 2006 Kenya 's revenues totalled US $4.448 billion, while its estimated expenditures totalled US $5.377 billion. Government budget balance as a percentage of gross domestic product -- a low − 5.5 percent in 2004 -- had improved to − 2.1 percent in 2006.
As at 2012, Kenya set a record high budget of 1.459 trillion KES.
In 2006 Kenya had a current account deficit of US $1.5 billion. This figure was a significant increase over 2005, when the current account had a deficit of US $495 million. In 2006 the current account balance as a percentage of gross domestic product was − 4.2.
In 2006 Kenya 's external debt totalled US $6.7 billion. The debt is forecast to be a manageable 30 percent of gross domestic product in 2007.
The Kenya Economic Stimulus Program (ESP) was an initiative that aimed to stimulate economic activity in Kenya through investment in long term solutions to the challenges of food security, rural unemployment and underdevelopment. Its stated objective was to promote regional development for equity and social stability, improving infrastructure, enhancing the quality of education, availing affordable health - care for all Kenyans, investing in the conservation of the environment and expanding the access to and building the ICT capacity of the general populace of Kenya. In launching the Economic Stimulus Programme, the Ministry of Finance aimed to achieve regional development for equity and social stability.
Originally introduced in 2003, the Integrated Financial Management Information System (IFMIS) was re-engineered by the Ministry of Finance to curb fraud and other malpractices that stem from inefficiency. In re-engineering IFMIS, the Ministry aimed to put Kenya 's financial and economic information in a format that was accessible from an online platform, which would radically improve public expenditure management under the Ministry of Finance.
IFMIS enables fully integrated planning for the budgeting process since it links planning policy objectives and budget allocation. It also seeks to support the e-Government shared services strategy by taking government financial services online. IFMIS will ensure that status reports are readily available, which enhances capacity to track budgets thus enabling effective decision - making. The three pronged benefits of IFMIS include leading to improvements in planning and budgeting, monitoring, evaluation and accountability and budget execution. Other benefits include aiding in the reduction in maintenance cost of government fleets in terms of fuel and spares where huge losses have been previously incurred.
The Fund for the Inclusion of Informal Sector (FIIS), a fund that allows Micro and Small Entrepreneurs (MSE) to access credit facilities, expand their businesses and increase their savings.
It also aims to help informal enterprises transition to formal sector enterprises through access to formal providers of financial services. The fund is a revolving fund through which the government enters into credit facility agreements with select banks for on - lending to micro-and small - enterprises through branches, authorised banking agents and other channels, particularly mobile banking.
Its objective is to ensure that the MSE sector becomes efficient, innovative and has a diversified and competitive product range. It will also provide policies that raise the earnings and productivity of an estimated 8.3 million Kenyans working in the informal sector.
The operations of the investor compensation fund, which aimed to compensate investors who had lost money to defunct stock brokers such as Nyaga Stock Brokers and Discount Securities Limited, was launched under his watch. In launching the operations of the fund, also ensured that the interests of future investors were safeguarded. The fund had prior to the launch of its operations been established under the Capital Markets Act.
This Fund is specifically meant to compensate investors who suffer losses resulting from failure of a licensed stockbroker or dealer to meet his contractual obligations. In both the case of the collapse of Nyaga Stock Brokers and the collapse of Discount Securities Limited all genuine claims within the statutory maximum of Sh. 50,000 per every investor were compensated.
The government, through treasury and public financial management reforms, strengthened audit capacity as a result of structured capacity building and the merger of all Government of Kenya (GoK) audit functions (including those of schools and local authorities) so as to enhance their independence and effectiveness. The Ministry of Finance also issued a circular to bring donor - funded projects within the mandate of the Treasury 's Internal Audit Department (IAD) with an aim of effectively monitoring the use of funds allocated to these projects.
Since independence, Kenya, a nonaligned country, has seen both substantial foreign investment and significant amounts of development aid (total aid was $943 million in 2006, which was 4 % of GNI), some from Russia, some from China and others from the high developed countries. Between 60 and 70 percent of industry is still owned from abroad.
Kenya 's development assistance has come from increasingly diverse sources in recent years with China taking an increasingly higher prominent role than the west. The share of funding provided by the United Kingdom has fallen significantly, while that of multilateral agencies, particularly the World Bank and the European Development Fund, has increased. The most active investors currently are the Chinese.
Kenya is active within regional trade blocs such as the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and the East African Community (EAC), a partnership of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. The aim of the EAC is to create a common market of the three states modelled on the European Union. Among the early steps toward integration is the customs union which has eliminated duties on goods and non-tariff trade barriers among the members.
Kenya 's chief exports are horticultural products and tea. In 2005, the combined value of these commodities was US $1,150 million, about 10 times the value of Kenya 's third most valuable export, coffee. Kenya 's other significant exports are petroleum products, sold to near neighbours, fish, cement, pyrethrum, and sisal. The leading imports are crude petroleum, chemicals, manufactured goods, machinery, and transportation equipment. Africa is Kenya 's largest export market, followed by the European Union.
The major destinations for exports are the United Kingdom (UK), Tanzania, Uganda, and the Netherlands. Major suppliers are China, India, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and South Africa. Kenya 's main exports to the United States are garments traded under the terms of the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). Despite AGOA, Kenya 's apparel industry is struggling to hold its ground against Asian competition and runs a trade deficit with the United States. Many of Kenya 's problems relating to the export of goods are believed by most economists to be caused by Kenya 's export of inexpensive goods that saturate the global market but do little to substantially raise the amount of money coming into the country.
Kenya is also the dominant trade partner of Uganda (12.3 % exports, 15.6 % imports) and Rwanda (30.5 % exports, 17.3 % imports).
Kenya typically has a substantial trade deficit. The trade balance fluctuates widely because Kenya 's main exports are primary commodities subject to the effects of both world prices and weather. In 2005 Kenya 's income from exports was about US $3.2 billion. The payment for imports was about US $5.7 billion, yielding a trade deficit of about US $2.5 billion.
Kenyan policies on foreign investment generally have been favourable since independence, with occasional tightening of restrictions to promote the Africanization of enterprises. Foreign investors have been guaranteed ownership and the right to remit dividends, royalties, and capital. In the 1970s, the government disallowed foreign investment unless there was also some government participation in the ownership of an enterprise.
Notwithstanding some restrictions, between 60 and 70 percent of industry is still owned from abroad, a significant portion of which can be traced to fraudulent asset transfers by the colonial Britain during transition to independence. This denied Kenyans the opportunity to progress economically -- relegating most of them to poverty and creating conditions that would lead to dependency on foreign aid. However, Kenyan has had more economic success and more success raising its own quality of life than some of its neighbours in Sub-Saharan Africa.
As of 18 June 2012, the Kenya Economic Update launched in Nairobi, indicating that the economy is stabilising due to government action in the third quarter of 2011. The actions taken consisted of a raise in interest rates that in turn brought inflation down. The latest World Bank economic report is projecting an economic growth of 5 percent in 2012, but the economy is still vulnerable to shocks that may reduce growth to a lower 4.1 percent. Johannes Zutt, the World Bank County Director for Kenya, quoted -- '' Kenya 's per capita income has exceeded US $800 for the first time, and Kenyans have an opportunity to enjoy better standards of living as the economy progresses towards middle - income status in the coming years. '' Jane Kiringai, the Bank 's Senior Economist for Kenya, makes a point that -- "Structural weaknesses, including a widening current account deficit, pose a significant risk to Kenya 's economic stability. Another oil price shock, poor harvest, or contagion in the Euro zone could easily create renewed economic turbulence and reverse the recent gains. '' Although these problems are currently taking place, the East African Community is creating opportunities to reduce the shocks occurring in Kenya 's economy.
The Vision 2030 is Kenya 's current blue - print for the future of economic growth. The long - term goals of this vision are to create a prosperous, and globally competitive nation with a high quality of life by the year 2030. To do this, it aims to transform Kenyan industry all the while creating a clean and secure environment. The vision is separated into three different pillars: economic, social, and political governance.
The Economic Pillar is seeking to achieve growth in the Gross Domestic Product of 10 percent by 2012. The economic areas that the Vision 2030 is targeting are: tourism, agriculture, wholesale / retail trade, manufacturing, IT enabled services, and Financial Services.
The Social Pillar of Vision 2030 has the objective of improving the quality of life for all Kenyans. It aims to do this by targeting human and social welfare programs, specifically: education and training, health, environment, housing and urbanisation, children and social development, and youth and sports.
The Political Pillar of Vision 2030 objective is to move to the future as one nation and envisions a democratic system that is issue based, people centred, results oriented, and is accountable to the public. It targets five main areas: The rule of law -- the Constitution of Kenya, electoral and political processes, democracy and public service delivery, transparency and accountability, and security, peace building and conflict management.
The economy 's heavy dependence on rain - fed agriculture and the tourism sector leaves it vulnerable to cycles of boom and bust. The agricultural sector employs nearly 75 percent of the country 's 38 million people. Half of the sector 's output remains subsistence production.
Kenya 's economic performance has been hampered by numerous interacting factors: heavy dependence on a few agricultural exports that are vulnerable to world price fluctuations, population growth that has outstripped economic growth, prolonged drought that has necessitated power rationing, deteriorating infrastructure, and extreme disparities of wealth that have limited the opportunities of most to develop their skills and knowledge. Poor governance and corruption also have had a negative impact on growth, making it expensive to do business in Kenya. According to Transparency International, Kenya ranks among the world 's half - dozen most corrupt countries. Bribery and fraud cost Kenya as much as US $1 billion a year. Kenyans, 23 percent living on less than US $1 per day, pay some 16 bribes a month -- two in every three encounters with public officials. Another large drag on Kenya 's economy is the burden of human immunodeficiency virus / acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV / AIDS). Prospects significantly improved under the Kibaki government, whose policy aims include budgetary reforms and debt restraint.
Despite early disillusionment of western donors with the government, the economy has seen a broad - based expansion, led by strong performance in tourism and telecommunications, and acceptable post-drought results in agriculture, especially the vital tea sector. Kenya 's economy grew by more than 7 % in 2007 and its foreign debt was greatly reduced. However, it is possible to underscore that situation in Kenya will be stable over foreseeable future and it will result in stable economic growth, in 2014 it is expected to reach 4 % and more in 2015 due to growing flow of foreign investment, prospective promotion of Kenyan goods on global markets and increment in demand for agricultural products, especially, for tea and cut flowers. Western donors are now adopting a less paternalistic attitude towards their relations with African nations. However, there is still significant improvement to be done. 2007 -- 2008 post election violence also impacted a lot to Kenyan economy, these prove for the down swing of Kenya business cycle within the period.
General:
This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook website https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html.
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what place are the new york jets in | New York Jets - wikipedia
American Football League (1960 -- 1969)
National Football League (1970 -- present)
Green, White
League championships (1) †
Division championships (4)
The New York Jets are a professional American football team located in the New York metropolitan area. The Jets compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) East division. The team is headquartered in Florham Park, New Jersey. In a unique arrangement for the league, the Jets share MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey with the New York Giants. The franchise is legally and corporately registered as New York Jets, LLC.
The team was founded in 1959 as the Titans of New York, an original member of the American Football League (AFL); later, the franchise joined the NFL in the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970. The team began to play in 1960 at the Polo Grounds. Under new ownership, the current name was adopted in 1963 and the franchise moved to Shea Stadium in 1964 and then to the Meadowlands Sports Complex in 1984. The Jets advanced to the playoffs for the first time in 1968 and went on to compete in Super Bowl III where they defeated the Baltimore Colts, becoming the first AFL team to defeat an NFL club in an AFL -- NFL World Championship Game. Since 1968, the Jets have appeared in the playoffs 13 times, and in the AFC Championship Game four times, most recently losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers in 2010. However, the Jets have never returned to the Super Bowl, making them one of three NFL teams to win their lone Super Bowl appearance, along with the New Orleans Saints and Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Apart from the Cleveland Browns and Detroit Lions, who have never reached the Super Bowl (although both won NFL championships prior to 1966), the Jets ' drought is the longest among current NFL franchises.
The team 's training facility, Atlantic Health Jets Training Center, which opened in 2008, is located in Florham Park. The team currently holds their annual training camp sessions in Florham Park, New Jersey.
The first organizational meeting of the American Football League took place on August 14, 1959. Harry Wismer, representing the city of New York at the meeting, proclaimed the state was ready for another professional football team and that he was more than capable of running the daily operations.
Wismer was granted the charter franchise later dubbed the Titans of New York as Wismer explained, "Titans are bigger and stronger than Giants. '' He secured the Titans ' home field at the decrepit Polo Grounds, where the team struggled financially and on the field during its first three years. By 1962, the debt continued to mount for Wismer, forcing the AFL to assume the costs of the team until season 's end.
A five - man syndicate, headed by Sonny Werblin, saved the team from certain bankruptcy, purchasing the lowly Titans for $1 million. Werblin renamed the team the New York Jets since the team would play in Shea Stadium near LaGuardia Airport. The new name was intended to reflect the modern approach of his team. The Jets ' owners hired Weeb Ewbank as the general manager and head coach. Ewbank and quarterback Joe Namath led the Jets to prominence in 1969, when New York defeated the heavily favored Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III and solidified the AFL 's position in the world of professional football.
When the AFL and NFL merged, the team fell into a state of mediocrity along with their star quarterback, Namath, who only had three successful post-merger seasons after injuries hampered much of his career. The Jets continued to spiral downward before enjoying a string of successes in the 1980s, which included an appearance in the 1982 AFC Championship Game, and the emergence of the popular New York Sack Exchange.
The early 1990s saw New York struggling. After firing coach Bruce Coslet, owner Leon Hess hired Pete Carroll who struggled to a 6 -- 10 record and was promptly fired at the end of the season. Thereafter, Rich Kotite was selected to lead the team to victory; instead he led the Jets to a 4 -- 28 record over the next two years. Kotite stepped down at the end of his second season forcing the Jets to search for a new head coach.
Hess lured then - disgruntled New England Patriots head coach Bill Parcells to New York in 1997. Parcells led the team back to relevance and coached them to the AFC Championship Game in 1998. Hess died in 1999 while the team, plagued by injuries, produced an eight win record, falling short of a playoff berth. At the end of the season, Parcells stepped down as head coach deferring control to his assistant, Bill Belichick; Belichick resigned the very next day (leaving a napkin at the stage for his introduction, on which he had written "I resign as HC of the NYJ '') and went on to accept the head coaching position with the Patriots.
The franchise obtained a new owner in Woody Johnson in 2000. Additionally, through the 2000s the Jets visited the playoffs five times, a franchise record, under the direction of three different coaches. Rex Ryan was hired in January 2009. Ryan led the team to back - to - back AFC Championship appearances during his first two years but the team never made the playoffs again during his tenure.
Harry Wismer, a businessman, had been interested in sports for much of his life when he was granted a charter franchise in the American Football League. A three - sport letterman, football, particularly, stuck with Wismer who went on to play for the University of Florida and Michigan State before a knee injury ended his playing career. Undeterred, Wismer began his career as a broadcaster originally with Michigan State and became a pioneer of the industry. Later, as the Titans owner, Wismer formulated a league - wide policy which allowed broadcasting rights to be shared equally among the teams.
Wismer, who had previously had a 25 % stake in the Washington Redskins, was interested in the American Football League and was given a franchise to develop in New York. Wismer, whose philosophy was who you knew mattered most, tried to make the team and the league a success. His efforts began to accrue debt as the Titans ' first two seasons were mediocre with attendance dropping in the team 's second year. The franchise was sold for $1 million to a five - man syndicate headed by Sonny Werblin of the Gotham Football Club, Inc., in February 1963.
Sonny Werblin graduated from Rutgers University and was employed by the Music Corporation of America, eventually becoming president of the company 's television division. With a vast knowledge of media, Werblin was determined to put the spotlight on the team. His first order of business, after changing the team 's name and jerseys, was to sign Joe Namath to an unprecedented contract. Werblin 's gamble would later pay off as Namath, who became a public star, led the Jets on to victory in Super Bowl III, though by then Werblin had sold his stake in the team.
Werblin 's partners, Townsend B. Martin, Leon Hess, Donald C. Lillis, and Philip H. Iselin, had a falling out with Werblin over the way the team was run -- though the franchise had begun to make a profit, Werblin was making all the policies and decisions himself with little or no input from his partners, much to their dismay. Though Werblin initially resisted their ultimatum to dissolve the partnership, Werblin agreed to be bought out in 1968. Werblin remained involved in the sports community and became the first chairman and CEO of the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority where he helped to create the Meadowlands Sports Complex, including Giants Stadium.
Leon Hess became well known for his Hess Corporation gas stations; however, he also played an instrumental part in the development of the Jets during his tenure as co-owner and eventual sole owner. Hess had often fought for improvements while the team was a tenant at Shea Stadium but generally stayed away from football operations, allowing his coaches and general manager to make football - related decisions.
Becoming the team 's majority stockholder in 1973, Hess bought Philip H. Iselin 's share upon his death in 1976 after which only two of Hess ' partners remained, Townsend Martin and Helen Dillon, who had inherited the stake from her father Donald Lillis, upon his death. Hess began to buy out the remaining partners in 1981 when he bought Martin 's 25 % stake for $5 million. Hess bought Dillon 's stake three years later for another $5 million, acquiring sole control of the team.
Hess had a passion for his team and took losses hard. In 1995, following a mediocre 6 -- 10 season under Pete Carroll, despite generally shying away from football operations, Hess announced "I 'm 80 years old, I want results now '' during a conference in which Rich Kotite was introduced as the team 's new coach. After two unsuccessful years with Kotite, Hess heavily involved himself in hiring Bill Parcells in hopes to see his team again reach the Super Bowl. He did not live to see his dream realized, dying on May 7, 1999.
With the team for sale, two potential buyers were found in Cablevision and philanthropist Woody Johnson whose grandfather, Robert Wood Johnson II, expanded Johnson & Johnson. Johnson was unknown among the other NFL owners at the time of his $635 million purchase of the franchise. However, Johnson had a passion for sports according to former Knicks general manager Ernie Grunfeld and desired to own his own team. Johnson has been considered to be an enabler who wants the best from his employees.
Much like Hess, Johnson left many of the football related decisions up to his management team and tended to avoid the spotlight. However, upon hiring head coach Rex Ryan, Johnson had an increased presence as he molded the Jets into his team. In 2017, Johnson was appointed by President Donald Trump as the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom. Once his post was confirmed, his brother Christopher took over day - to - day operations for the team, including personnel decisions.
Owner Harry Wismer sought out a place for the team to play their home games but was only able to secure the dilapidated Polo Grounds, which had not had a major tenant since the baseball New York Giants vacated the stadium in 1957. The Titans played their first four seasons at the stadium -- in the final season they were renamed the Jets. The Titans shared the stadium with baseball 's new expansion team, the New York Mets, for two years before both teams moved to the Shea Stadium in Queens in 1964. The Jets hold the distinction of being the final team to host a game at the Polo Grounds, a 19 -- 10 loss to the Buffalo Bills on December 14, 1963.
Wismer hoped the Titans could play in what would become known as Shea Stadium beginning in 1961. However, funding difficulties and legal problems delayed construction of the stadium. Wismer signed a memorandum of understanding in late 1961 to secure the Titans ' new home. That memorandum recognized that the Mets would have exclusive use of the stadium until they had completed their season. As the team moved to Shea under new ownership, they were, in most years, required to open the season with several road games, a problem made worse in 1969 and 1973 when the Mets had long playoff runs.
Feeling that this arrangement put the Jets at a disadvantage, the team announced in 1977 that they would play two home games a year during the month of September at the Giants ' new home in New Jersey, Giants Stadium. Litigation began between New York City and the Jets over the issue, and in the lawsuit 's settlement, the city agreed to allow the Jets to play two September home games a season at Shea beginning in 1978 for the remaining six years in the Jets ' lease. In 1977, the Jets were to play one September game at Giants Stadium and an October 2 game at Shea.
In spite of these issues, majority owner Leon Hess was interested in renewing the team 's lease at Shea, which was due to expire in 1983. Hess negotiated with New York mayor Ed Koch. Hess wanted the city to redevelop the stadium to expand its capacity. He also hoped to renegotiate other aspects of the lease -- the Jets received no money from ticketholders parking at Shea. Hess 's proposals met resistance from Koch. When negotiations reached an impasse, the Jets announced their intention to depart for New Jersey. On December 10, 1983 the Jets played their final game at Shea and lost to the Steelers 34 -- 7. As fans pillaged the stadium for mementos, the scoreboard read "N.J. Jets '' in reference to the Jets ' departure to the Meadowlands.
When the Jets joined the Giants at the stadium, many Jets fans hoped the name, Giants Stadium, would be changed. However, the Giants, who had the authority to approve the change, refused. In an effort to conceal the fact that they played in a stadium built and decorated for another team, the stadium grounds crew was assigned to make the stadium more Jet - friendly during Jets games by putting up green banners and placing the Jets ' logo over the Giants '. No change could be made to the blue and red seating bowl. The Jets were featured in the first NFL playoff game in the stadium 's history, falling to the Patriots on December 28, 1985.
As the Jets sought to become a stronger franchise and remove themselves from their counterparts ' shadow, the team entered into negotiations with the Metropolitan Transportation Authority in an attempt to build a stadium on the west side of Manhattan, entering a bidding war with TransGas Energy Systems and Cablevision for the rights to the West Side Yard property -- Hess, prior to his death, had been approached by former mayor Rudy Giuliani about bringing the team to the West Side when their lease at Giants Stadium expired in 2008. Cablevision was fixated against the Jets owning the land as Madison Square Garden, located only a few blocks away, would be forced to compete with the stadium. Team owners had voted, 31 -- 1, with the Buffalo Bills the only objectors, to award the 2010 Super Bowl to New York contingent on the Jets winning the bid and completing construction of the stadium prior to 2010.
The MTA unanimously voted to sell the land to the Jets for approximately $210 million as the committee agreed that having the stadium would be beneficial in the long run. An angry Cablevision, community groups and transportation advocates were determined to derail the Jets ' attempts at building the stadium and two lawsuits challenging the construction of the stadium on environmental grounds were filed.
Although confident they could secure the stadium, their hopes were dashed when Sheldon Silver and Joseph L. Bruno, both of whom held veto power over the stadium construction, refused to support the project, alleging it would hurt rather than help the development of the West Side.
Defeated, the Jets agreed to enter a 50 -- 50 partnership with their rival, the Giants, to build a new stadium effectively agreeing to a 99 - year lease, which the Giants had signed earlier in the year, to remain in New Jersey. The stadium, known as MetLife Stadium, became the first in the history of the NFL to be jointly built by two franchises. The stadium, which is illuminated in different colors depending on which team is hosting a game, opened in April 2010 and saw the Jets and Giants open the stadium together in a preseason exhibition game. The Jets ' first regular season home game at the new stadium was held on September 13, 2010 and was shown nationwide on Monday Night Football. New York lost to the Ravens 10 -- 9. Team owners voted to have the stadium host Super Bowl XLVIII, held in 2014.
Since the inception of the American Football League, the Jets have maintained what is considered to be a marquee rivalry with the New England Patriots. The rivalry was relatively docile in its early years until 1966 when the Jets removed the Patriots, who had hopes of appearing in Super Bowl I, from playoff contention with a 38 -- 28 defeat at Shea Stadium. The Patriots returned the favor in 1985 when the Jets lost to New England 26 -- 14 in the wild card round; the Patriots went on to Super Bowl XX where they were defeated by the Bears.
The rivalry began to escalate and receive increased media attention in 1997 when a disgruntled Bill Parcells vacated his head coaching position with New England to accept the same position with New York. The following year, the Jets signed Pro Bowl running back Curtis Martin from the Patriots. After the Jets declined during Parcells ' third year, Parcells decided to resign as head coach. His assistant, Bill Belichick, resigned suddenly the next day to become the head coach of the Patriots instead.
A critical turning point of the rivalry took place on September 23, 2001 when Jets linebacker Mo Lewis tackled Drew Bledsoe, leaving the veteran with internal bleeding. This provided an opportunity for Tom Brady to take over as the starting quarterback and during his tenure, Brady successfully guided New England to five Super Bowl titles. In 2006, Eric Mangini, an assistant under Belichick, left New England to join the Jets as their head coach. Under Mangini, the famous Spygate incident took place, further escalating tensions between both clubs. When Rex Ryan was hired as the team 's head coach, the rivalry further escalated due to an increased war of words between both teams. In January 2011, the two met in a Divisional Round playoff game. The visiting Jets pulled a 28 -- 21 upset to advance to the AFC Championship Game, which they ultimately lost one week later to the Pittsburgh Steelers.
The Jets and the Bills represent the same state (New York), and this rivalry represents the differences between New York City and Western New York, where the Bills play. The teams are both charter members of the American Football League and have generally stayed in the same division since, even after the NFL and AFL merged. Aside from a few notable moments, such as a playoff game in 1981, ex-Jets coach Rex Ryan coaching the Bills for two years, O.J. Simpson breaking an NFL rushing record against the Jets, and notable mishaps by quarterbacks Mark Sanchez and J.P. Losman, this has been an otherwise mellow rivalry.
New York has maintained a rivalry with the Miami Dolphins since the Dolphins ' inception in 1966. One of the most famous games in Jets history took place in 1994 when the Dolphins ran the Fake Spike play, giving them an improbable victory and halting the Jets ' momentum that season, serving as a precursor to the Jets ' next two unsuccessful years under Rich Kotite. The Jets went on to complete an improbable victory of their own on October 23, 2000 in what is known as The Monday Night Miracle. The Jets, trailing the Dolphins 30 -- 7 at the end of the third quarter, rallied in the fourth quarter scoring 23 unanswered points, eventually winning in overtime with a 40 - yard John Hall kick.
When Rex Ryan became New York 's head coach, there was an increased war of words between the clubs culminating with Ryan flashing an obscene gesture to heckling Dolphins fans in January 2010. The rivalry continued between both teams when Sal Alosi, then the strength and conditioning coach of the Jets, tripped Dolphins cornerback Nolan Carroll. Carroll was not seriously injured and Alosi resigned nearly two months later.
The New York Jets previously maintained a high tension rivalry against their in - town counterparts, the New York Giants, that has since diminished due to the infrequency with which the teams meet in the regular season. The pinnacle of the rivalry came on August 17, 1969 when both the Jets and Giants met for the first time, in a preseason game which was viewed as a "turf war '' by both opponents. The Giants, considered a mediocre team at the time, were regarded as underdogs and were under much scrutiny by the media and their fans. Ultimately, the Jets bested their rival 37 -- 14; this would result in the firing of Giants coach Allie Sherman.
The Jets met the Giants in 1988 during the final game of the regular season. The Jets, with a 7 -- 7 -- 1 record, had little to lose as their hopes for playoff contention had vanished. The Giants, however, were contending for a playoff spot and a victory would have secured their spot and their division title. Although the six point favorites, the Giants were unable to overcome the Jets defense which saw the Jets sack quarterback Phil Simms eight times. With the Jets ' victory and victories by the Rams and Eagles, the Giants were eliminated from playoff contention and the Jets gained respect in the eyes of many.
In spite of the big sibling rivalry that has resulted in trash talk between the players, both teams have formed an unexpected and consequently strong partnership sharing Giants Stadium for 26 years and MetLife Stadium, a venture in which both teams own a 50 % share of the stadium. The rivalry regained much of its tension in the 2011 NFL season when the Jets and Giants met in Week 16. Both teams needed a victory to keep their playoffs hope alive and there was significant trash talk between Rex Ryan and his players and many of the Giants in the weeks leading up to the game. Ryan and Giants running back Brandon Jacobs reportedly came close to blows after the game, a 29 -- 14 win by the Giants. The two teams met again on December 6, 2015, with the Jets winning 23 -- 20 in overtime.
The Jets ' colors are hunter green and white. The team 's current uniform and primary logo, in use since 1998, are modernized versions of the design used from 1965 to 1977. The helmet is white with two parallel green stripes down the center, and a green facemask. The primary logo, which appears on each side of the helmet and on the jersey front by the player 's left shoulder, is a green oval with the word "JETS '' in thick white sans - serif italics over "NY '' in outline serif lettering, and a white miniature football graphic at bottom center. The jerseys have standard one - color block numerals and serif lettering, alternating stripes on the shoulders, and opposite - colored sleeves and TV numerals. The team uses both white pants with two parallel green stripes from hip to knee on each side, and green pants with white stripes.
The team 's original uniforms, as the Titans of New York in 1960, were navy blue with old gold numerals, gold pants with two parallel blue stripes on each side, and navy blue helmets with a single gold stripe down the center and no logo decals. The white jerseys had navy blue numerals. In 1961, the Titans added UCLA - style shoulder stripes (gold and white on the blue jerseys, gold and navy blue on the white jerseys), changed the pants striping to a blue stripe flanked by white stripes, and employed a somewhat brighter shade of gold.
When the Titans became the Jets in 1963, navy and gold were abandoned in favor of kelly green and white. The jerseys had opposite - colored sleeves with thick stripes on the shoulders and cuffs, above and below the TV numerals. The pants were white with two parallel green stripes on each side. The new helmets were white with a single green stripe down the center; the logo on each side was a silhouette of a jet airplane in green, with the word "JETS '' in thick white sans - serif italics along the fuselage. In 1964, the single green stripe became two parallel stripes, and the jet - plane decal was replaced with a white football shape outlined in green, with the word "JETS '' in thick green sans - serif italics in front of "NY '' in green outline serif lettering, and a miniature football at bottom center. The decals were difficult to see from a distance (or on television), so the colors were reversed in 1965.
This design remained largely unchanged through 1977, apart from some variations to the numeral and lettering typefaces, the angle of the helmet decals, and adjustments to the shoulder and sleeve striping due to changes in NFL jersey tailoring and materials.
The Jets ' first major design change was made for the 1978 season. The kelly green and white color scheme was retained; the new helmets were solid green with white facemasks, and a stylized "JETS '' wordmark in white on each side. The mark featured angular lettering and a silhouette of a modern jet airplane extending horizontally to the right from the top of the "J '' above the "ETS ''. The jerseys featured large TV numerals on the shoulders and two thick parallel stripes on the sleeves, while the pants had a single green stripe from hip to knee on each side. In 1990, the Jets modified this design by adding thin black outlines to the numerals, lettering, stripes and helmet decals, changing the facemasks from white to black, and adding a set of green pants to be worn with the white jerseys.
The Jets adopted their current uniform and logo design in 1998. Green pants were added in 2002, and have been worn with both the white and green jerseys.
The Jets were the first NFL team to wear a "throwback '' uniform, in 1993 for a home game against the Cincinnati Bengals celebrating the 25th anniversary of the 1968 championship team. The jersey and pants mimicked the 1963 -- 77 design, although the team wore its regular green helmets with a white - outlined version of the 1965 -- 77 logo decal. In 1994, as part of the NFL 's 75th Anniversary celebration, the Jets wore both home and road versions of this uniform in select games, again using their regular green helmets with the 1965 -- 77 logo but with two parallel white stripes down the center.
In 2007, the team introduced a new "throwback '' uniform, evoking the original Titans of New York and combining elements of the 1960 and 1961 -- 62 uniforms, with navy blue helmets and jerseys, old gold numerals and helmet stripes, gold and white shoulder stripes, and gold pants with blue and white stripes on each side. These uniforms appeared again in 2008, 2009 and 2011, with a white jersey variation also appearing in 2009 as part of the NFL 's celebration of the American Football League 's 50th anniversary.
The team originally named the Jets Flag Crew was established in 2006. In 2007, the group underwent an expansion and was appropriately renamed the Jets Flight Crew. The squad regularly performs choreographed routines during the team 's home contests. Auditions have been held annually since their inception to attract new members.
The Jets Junior Flight Crew was established in 2010 offering children the opportunity to train with the Flight Crew while improving their "talent and abilities in a non-competitive environment. ''
The Jets ' current flagship radio station is WEPN 98.7 ESPN with Bob Wischusen, as the play - by - play announcer and former Jet Marty Lyons of the Sack Exchange, as the color analyst.
Any preseason games not nationally televised are shown on WCBS - TV. SportsNet New York, which serves as the official home of the Jets, airs over 250 hours of "exclusive, in depth '' material on the team in high definition.
Monday Night Football games are televised in a simulcast with ESPN by either sister station WABC - TV, or WPIX - TV if WABC chooses to waive the game to another station to carry regularly scheduled programming. Thursday Night Football carriage of a Jets game is incumbent on the producing network for that game (either WCBS or WNBC), which is also simulcast by NFL Network.
This is a partial list of the Jets ' last five completed seasons. For the full season - by - season franchise results, see List of New York Jets seasons.
Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated December 19, 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 13 Inactive, 12 Practice squad
Ewbank, Martin, Maynard, and Namath are recognized based upon their achievements with the Jets. Ewbank is also recognized based upon his achievements with the Baltimore Colts, coaching them to NFL championships in 1958 and 1959. Riggins is recognized primarily for his seasons with the Washington Redskins (1976 -- 1979, 1981 -- 1985), as is Monk (1980 -- 1993), who won three Super Bowl championships with Washington. Lott is in the Hall of Fame primarily for his exploits as a member of the San Francisco 49ers. Baugh and Turner are recognized based upon their achievements as players with other teams, rather than their head coaching stints with the Jets. While Parcells reversed the fortunes of the Jets, he had major impact for the New York Giants, coaching them to two Super Bowl victories. Wolf only had a brief stint with the Jets between 1990 and 1991, while most of his major contributions occurred as an executive and player personnel director with the Oakland Raiders (1963 -- 1974, 1979 -- 1989), and later as General Manager of the Green Bay Packers (1991 -- 2001). Favre only played one season as a member of the Jets in 2008, between most of his career with the Packers (1992 -- 2007) and his last two NFL seasons with the Minnesota Vikings (2009 -- 2010).
The Jets established a Ring of Honor on July 20, 2010, to commemorate former alumni. Each season, players will be nominated by an internal committee and then inducted into the Ring. There is no specific amount of honorees to be selected each year.
The following Titans / Jets were selected to the American Football League All - Time Team on January 14, 1970. The first and second teams were determined by a panel of members of the AFL 's Hall of Fame Board of Selectors:
New York announced their official All - Time Four Decade team in 2003 which, was determined by the fans of the team.
Perhaps the most famous of the Jets ' first round picks came in 1965 when they selected Alabama quarterback Joe Namath who boosted the Jets into the national spotlight with his boisterous personality and lifestyle. His physical talents on the field helped improve the Jets ' fortunes, leading them to victory over the Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III. Though injuries hampered the latter part of Namath 's career, he is best remembered, according to former teammate John Dockery, as "a guy that came along and broke a lot of the conventions. '' Namath was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1985.
Perhaps one of the most disappointing players in Jets history was running back Blair Thomas. Thomas, who averaged 5.4 yards per carry at Penn State, was an intriguing prospect the Jets were interested in utilizing to help their cumbersome offense. Confident in their decision, the Jets drafted Thomas with the second overall pick in 1990, expecting him to be a solid player for years to come. Thomas ran for only 620 yards in 1990, and failed to meet the high expectations. By the time Thomas left the team as an unrestricted free agent in 1993, he had rushed for 2,009 yards and only five touchdowns. The 2008 first round pick, defensive lineman Vernon Gholston, followed a similar path, failing to record a sack during his three - year tenure with the team.
An infamous pick was Kyle Brady in 1995, who was drafted ahead of Warren Sapp, one of many disappointments during Rich Kotite 's tenure as coach. However, in the same draft, the Jets did better with Hugh Douglas.
In the 2013 and 2014 seasons, one of the Jets ' strongest units has been their defensive line, manned by 1st Round selections Muhammad Wilkerson (2011) and Sheldon Richardson (2013). In 2013, Wilkerson ended the season with 10.5 sacks, matching the last Jets player to have more than 10 sacks in a single season, John Abraham in 2005. Also that year, Richardson was honored with an award from the AP for Defensive Rookie of the Year. The Jets ' run defense was stout with all three in the line up, finishing fifth as a team in rushing yards allowed in 2014.
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which city is famous for its large cinco de mayo celebration | Cinco de Mayo - wikipedia
Cinco de Mayo (pronounced (ˈsiŋko ðe ˈmaʝo) in Latin America, Spanish for "Fifth of May '') is an annual celebration held on May 5. The date is observed to commemorate the Mexican Army 's unlikely victory over the French Empire at the Battle of Puebla, on May 5, 1862, under the leadership of General Ignacio Zaragoza.
In the United States, Cinco de Mayo has taken on a significance beyond that in Mexico. More popularly celebrated in the United States than Mexico, the date has become associated with the celebration of Mexican - American culture. In Mexico, the commemoration of the battle continues to be mostly ceremonial, such as through military parades or battle reenactments.
Cinco de Mayo is sometimes mistaken for Mexico 's Independence Day -- the most important national holiday in Mexico -- which is celebrated on September 16, commemorating the Cry of Dolores that initiated the war of Mexican independence from Spain.
Cinco de Mayo has its roots in the Second French intervention in Mexico, which took place in the aftermath of the 1846 -- 48 Mexican -- American War and the 1858 -- 61 Reform War. The Reform War was a civil war that pitted Liberals (who believed in separation of church and state, and freedom of religion) against Conservatives (who favored a tight bond between the Catholic Church and the Mexican state). These wars nearly bankrupted the Mexican Treasury. On July 17, 1861, Mexican President Benito Juárez issued a moratorium in which all foreign debt payments would be suspended for two years. In response, Britain, France, and Spain sent naval forces to Veracruz to demand reimbursement. Britain and Spain negotiated with Mexico and withdrew, but France, at the time ruled by Napoleon III, decided to use the opportunity to establish an empire in Mexico that would favor French interests, the Second Mexican Empire. The empire was part of an envisioned "Latin America '' (term used to imply cultural kinship of the region with France) that would rebuild French influence in the American continent and exclude Anglophone American territories.
Late in 1861, a well - armed French fleet stormed Veracruz, landing a large French force and driving President Juárez and his government into retreat. Moving on from Veracruz towards Mexico City, the French army encountered heavy resistance from the Mexicans close to Puebla, at the Mexican forts of Loreto and Guadalupe. The French army of 8,000 attacked the poorly equipped Mexican army of 4,000. On May 5, 1862, the Mexicans decisively defeated the French army. The victory represented a significant morale boost to the Mexican army and the Mexican people at large and helped establish a sense of national unity and patriotism.
The Mexican victory, however, was short - lived. A year later, with 30,000 troops, the French were able to defeat the Mexican army, capture Mexico City, and install Emperor Maximilian I as ruler of Mexico. The French victory was itself short - lived, lasting only three years, from 1864 to 1867. By 1865, "with the American Civil War now over, the U.S. began to provide more political and military assistance to Mexico to expel the French ''. Upon the conclusion of the American Civil War, Napoleon III, facing a persistent Mexican guerilla resistance, the threat of war with Prussia, and "the prospect of a serious scrap with the United States '', retreated from Mexico starting in 1866. The Mexicans recaptured Mexico City, and Maximilian I was apprehended and executed, along with his Mexican generals Miguel Miramón and Tomás Mejía Camacho in Cerro de las Campanas, Querétaro. "On June 5, 1867, Benito Juárez finally entered Mexico City where he installed a new government and reorganized his administration. ''
The Battle of Puebla was significant, both nationally and internationally, for several reasons. First, although considerably outnumbered, the Mexicans defeated a much - better - equipped French army. "This battle was significant in that the 4,000 Mexican soldiers were greatly outnumbered by the well - equipped French army of 8,000 that had not been defeated for almost 50 years. '' Second, since the Battle of Puebla, some have argued that no country in the Americas has subsequently been invaded by any other European military force. Historian Justo Sierra has written in his Political Evolution of the Mexican People that, had Mexico not defeated the French in Puebla on May 5, 1862, France would have gone to the aid of the Confederacy in the U.S. Civil War and the United States ' destiny would have been different.
According to a paper published by the UCLA Center for the Study of Latino Health and Culture about the origin of the observance of Cinco de Mayo in the United States, the modern American focus on that day first started in California in 1863 in response to the resistance to French rule in Mexico. "Far up in the gold country town of Columbia (now Columbia State Park) Mexican miners were so overjoyed at the news that they spontaneously fired off rifle shots and fireworks, sang patriotic songs and made impromptu speeches. ''
A 2007 UCLA Newsroom article notes that, "the holiday, which has been celebrated in California continuously since 1863, is virtually ignored in Mexico. '' TIME magazine reports that "Cinco de Mayo started to come into vogue in 1940s America during the rise of the Chicano Movement. '' The holiday crossed over from California into the rest of the United States in the 1950s and 1960s but did not gain popularity until the 1980s when marketers, especially beer companies, capitalized on the celebratory nature of the day and began to promote it. It grew in popularity and evolved into a celebration of Mexican culture and heritage, first in areas with large Mexican - American populations, like Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston and San Jose.
In a 1998 study in the Journal of American Culture it was reported that there were more than 120 official US celebrations of Cinco de Mayo in 21 different states. An update in 2006 found that the number of official Cinco de Mayo events was 150 or more, according to José Alamillo, a professor of ethnic studies at Washington State University in Pullman, who has studied the cultural impact of Cinco de Mayo north of the border. Los Angeles ' Fiesta Broadway has been billed as the largest Cinco de Mayo celebration in the world, which it most certainly was at its peak in the 1990s when it attracted crowds of 500,000 or more. In recent years attendance has seen a dramatic decrease.
On June 7, 2005, the United States Congress issued a concurrent resolution calling on the President of the United States to issue a proclamation calling upon the people of the United States to observe Cinco de Mayo with appropriate ceremonies and activities. To celebrate, many display Cinco de Mayo banners while school districts hold special events to educate students about its historical significance. Special events and celebrations highlight Mexican culture, especially in its music and regional dancing. Examples include baile folklórico and mariachi demonstrations held annually at the Plaza del Pueblo de Los Ángeles, near Olvera Street. Commercial interests in the United States have capitalized on the celebration, advertising Mexican products and services, with an emphasis on alcoholic beverages, foods, and music. According to Nielsen, in 2013 more than $600 million worth of beer was purchased in the United States for Cinco de Mayo, more than for the Super Bowl or St. Patrick 's Day.
On May 9, 1862, President Juárez declared that the anniversary of the Battle of Puebla would be a national holiday regarded as "Battle of Puebla Day '' or "Battle of Cinco de Mayo ''.
Today, the commemoration of the battle is not observed as a national holiday in Mexico (i.e. not a statutory holiday). However, all public schools are closed nationwide in Mexico on May 5. The day is an official holiday in the State of Puebla, where the Battle took place, and also a full holiday (no work) in the neighboring State of Veracruz.
In Puebla, historical reenactments, parades, and meals take place to commemorate the battle. Parade participants dress as French and Mexican soldiers to reenact the battle. Every year the city also hosts the Festival Internacional de Puebla, which gathers national and international artists, traditional musicians and dancers. As well as the Festival Internacional del Mole, with an emphasis on the city 's iconic mole poblano.
In Mexico City, military commemoration is occasionally held at the Campo Marte. A street, Avenida Cinco de Mayo, in the Historic Center of Mexico City was named after the battle in 1862 by Benito Juárez.
Events tied to Cinco de Mayo also occur outside Mexico and the United States. As in the United States, celebrations elsewhere also emphasize Mexican cuisine, culture and music. For example, Windsor, Ontario, Canada, holds a "Cinco de Mayo Street Festival '', some Canadian pubs play Mexican music and serve Mexican food and drink, and a sky - diving club near Vancouver holds a Cinco de Mayo skydiving event. In the Cayman Islands, in the Caribbean, there is an annual Cinco de Mayo air guitar competition, and at Montego Bay, Jamaica, there is a Cinco de Mayo celebration. The city of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, holds an annual Mexican Festival to honor the day, and celebrations are held in London and New Zealand. Other celebrations of the day can also be found in Cape Town, South Africa, Lagos, Nigeria, and in Paris. Cinco de Mayo is celebrated in Japan in Osaka and in Tokyo 's Yoyogi Park Event Space as a celebration of Latin American culture.
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(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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who sings so you won't let go | Say You Wo n't Let Go - wikipedia
"Say You Wo n't Let Go '' is a song by British singer and songwriter James Arthur. The song was released as a digital download on 9 September 2016 in the United Kingdom by Columbia Records as the lead single from his second studio album Back from the Edge (2016). The single peaked at the top of the UK Singles Chart, a position it maintained for three weeks. Outside the United Kingdom, the single has topped the charts in Australia, New Zealand, Sweden and the Republic of Ireland. It also became his first hit in the US, peaking at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100.
On 12 September 2016, the song was at number 30 on The Official Chart Update in the United Kingdom. On 16 September 2016, the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 25, and peaked at number one two weeks later, spending three consecutive weeks at the top. The song was ranked the nineteenth biggest - selling song of 2016 in the UK, making Arthur the biggest - selling British male artist of the year. By the second week of January 2017, it had surpassed the one million sales mark, making him the first - ever X Factor act to have two singles sell over a million copies in his homeland. Controversy arose when similarities to The Script 's "The Man Who Ca n't Be Moved '' were found, yet the Script ultimately decided not to pursue legal action. In early March, it had gone double platinum in the UK.
In the United States, the song is his first single to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100, making Arthur only the second winner of The X Factor UK to reach the US top 40 (following Leona Lewis) and only the third winner to chart on the Hot 100 following Lewis and Little Mix. In May 2017, the song reached No. 1 on the Adult Pop Songs Airplay Chart, more than six months after its release in the US. The song was also certified platinum in the US by the RIAA on May 18, 2017. In 2017, the song has sold almost 1,244,000 digital copies in the US as of September 2017.
On 15 September 2016, the song entered the Irish Singles Chart at number 91 before peaking at number one on 14 October and spending four non-consecutive weeks at the top of the charts. The song has also charted in Australia, France, New Zealand and Sweden. On February 26, 2017, it was announced on Channel 4 's Sunday Brunch that the single had sold 2 million copies worldwide.
A music video to accompany the release of "Say You Wo n't Let Go '' was first released onto YouTube on 9 September 2016 at a total length of three minutes and thirty seconds.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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where did dwyane wade play high school basketball | Dwyane Wade - wikipedia
Dwyane Tyrone Wade Jr. (/ dweɪn / dwain; born January 17, 1982) is an American professional basketball player for the Chicago Bulls of the National Basketball Association (NBA). After a successful college career at Marquette, Wade was drafted fifth overall in the 2003 NBA draft by the Miami Heat. He was named to the All - Rookie team and the All - Star team the following twelve seasons. In his third season, Wade led the Heat to their first NBA championship in franchise history and was named the 2006 NBA Finals MVP. At the 2008 Summer Olympics, Wade led the United States men 's basketball team, commonly known as the "Redeem Team '', in scoring, and helped them capture gold medal honors in Beijing, China. In the 2008 -- 09 season, Wade led the league in scoring and earned his first NBA scoring title. With LeBron James and Chris Bosh, Wade guided Miami to four consecutive NBA Finals from 2011 to 2014, winning back - to - back championships in 2012 and 2013. In 2016, Wade departed the Heat in free agency to play for the Chicago Bulls.
Dwyane Wade was born on the South Side of Chicago, Illinois, to JoLinda and Dwyane Wade Sr, whose name 's unusual spelling was decided by his own mother. In 1977, JoLinda, at the age of 18, already had two children. Wade has described his upbringing in Chicago as being very difficult. Wade stated that "(his) mom was on drugs and (his) family was in the gang environment, so it was a rough childhood. '' At a very young age, Wade already witnessed police raids and found dead bodies several times in a nearby garbage can. When he was only 4 months old, his parents separated -- and would later divorce. Jolinda was given custody of the two children, and she moved to her mother 's house with them. The family struggled financially, and it was around that time when Jolinda started dealing drugs. His mom was addicted to several substances including cigarettes, alcohol, heroin, and cocaine. JoLinda would get high with friends at her home, even in the presence of her children. In an interview with ESPN, Wade said "I 've seen the needles laying around the house. I 've seen my mother shoot up before. I 've seen a lot of things my mother did n't even know I 'd seen as a kid. '' At the age of 6, he recalls police -- with guns drawn -- raiding his home as they searched for his mother. When Wade turned 8 years old, his older sister, Tragil, tricked him -- by telling him they were going to the movies -- into living with his father, a former Army sergeant, and stepmother in a nearby neighborhood. Wade would still occasionally visit his mom. A year later, his father moved the family to Robbins, Illinois. After moving to Robbins, Wade did n't see his mother for two years. During this time, JoLinda was able to access a free supply of drugs by volunteering to be a tester -- i.e., someone who tests street drugs for impurities before the dealers try to sell them. JoLinda was hospitalized and nearly died after she mistakenly injected herself with LSD. In 1994, JoLinda was arrested for possession of crack cocaine with intent to sell and locked up in Cook County Jail. Wade, at the age of 10, reunited with his mom by talking with her at Cook County Jail through a glass panel over a telephone. JoLinda served 23 months in prison for her crimes, but while serving her second sentence in 1997, she failed to report to prison while on work release.
Wade turned to sports, especially basketball and football, to avoid the temptations of participating in drug and gang - related activities. Wade 's mom and dad would often take him to the park to play basketball. He cites one of his older sisters, Tragil, as the individual most responsible for his childhood upbringing and for steering him in the proper direction. As a child growing up in the Chicago area, Wade idolized Chicago Bulls star Michael Jordan, and has said he patterns his game after him.
Wade attended Harold L. Richards High School in Oak Lawn. Wade quickly found success as a wide receiver on the football team, but he needed to work extremely hard to earn playing time on the varsity basketball team during his junior year. While he did not acquire much playing time during his second year, his stepbrother, Demetris McDaniel, was the star of the team. Wade grew four inches in the summer before his junior year and saw an increase in playing time, averaging 20.7 points and 7.6 rebounds per game. The following year, Wade averaged 27.0 points and 11.0 rebounds per game while leading his team to a 24 -- 5 record. It advanced to the title game of the Class AA Eisenhower Sectional. During this season he set school records for points (676) and steals (106) in a season. Wade has stated that his high school coach, Jack Fitzgerald, was one of the most positive influences in his life during this time. Wade was recruited by only three college basketball teams (Marquette University, Illinois State, and DePaul University) due to academic problems.
During most of Wade 's time at Marquette, his mother was either eluding the law or serving time in jail for selling crack cocaine. On October 14, 2001, JoLinda declared that she would change her life and get clean while attending a service at a Chicago church. Wade, then a sophomore at Marquette, went home for Christmas to be with his mom, who he believed was clean and sober for the first time in his life. However, JoLinda admitted to him that she was actually going back to prison. Wade told ESPN, "I was hurt because I felt like I was just getting my mom back, and now she had to leave again. '' On January 2, 2002, his mother went back to prison to serve her 14 - month sentence. She says she has been clean since 2003.
Wade chose to play college basketball for Tom Crean at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. During Wade 's freshman year at Marquette, he was ineligible to play with the men 's team as he had fallen short of academic standards set by the NCAA 's Proposition 48. Wade sought tutoring to improve his writing skills in order to regain eligibility.
Wade earned eligibility to play for the 2001 -- 2002 season, and he led the Golden Eagles in scoring with 17.8 ppg, led the conference in steals at 2.47 per game, and averaged 6.6 rebounds and 3.4 assists per game. Marquette finished with a 26 -- 7 record, the school 's best record since the 1993 -- 94 season.
In 2002 -- 03, Wade led Marquette in scoring again with 21.5 ppg, and Marquette won the school 's first and only Conference USA championship with a 27 -- 6 record. That season Wade led the Golden Eagles to the Final Four, the school 's first appearance in the Final Four since winning the 1977 national championship. After the season, he was named to the All - America First Team by the Associated Press; Wade is the first Marquette basketball player since 1978 to do so.
Wade 's performance during the Midwest Regional Final of the 2003 NCAA Tournament was highly publicized by the national press. Against heavily favored, top - ranked and top - seeded Kentucky Wildcats, Wade recorded a triple - double with 29 points, 11 rebounds, and 11 assists. His triple - double was the fourth in NCAA Tournament history. Wade 's exceptional play helped lead Marquette over the Wildcats 83 -- 69 and into the Final Four; Wade was named MVP of the Midwest Regional. Marquette finished the season ranked No. 6 in the AP poll, the school 's highest ranking since the 1976 -- 77 season. Wade 's strong tournament play resulted in increased visibility in the national media and, consequently, a high draft projection. As a result, he elected to forgo his senior year at Marquette and enter the 2003 NBA draft. On February 3, 2007, almost four years after Wade played in his final collegiate game, Marquette retired his jersey at halftime of a game against Providence. Although Marquette requires student - athletes to graduate prior to receiving jersey retirement honors, the University made a special exception for Wade based on his accomplishments since leaving Marquette.
On March 5, 2003, JoLinda Wade was released from prison. Three days later she saw Dwyane play basketball for the first time in five years. She watched Marquette beat Cincinnati, 70 - 61, at the Bradley Center to win the Conference USA regular - season championship. Dwyane had 26 points, 10 rebounds, and five assists.
Selected 5th overall in the 2003 NBA draft by the Miami Heat, Wade quickly emerged as a productive player on a youthful Miami Heat team and averaged 16.2 points on 46.5 % shooting with averages of 4.0 rebounds and 4.5 assists per game. Wade is one of only four Marquette University players to be drafted in the first round; his is the highest draft selection in school history. After a 5 -- 15 start, the Heat would gradually improve and finish 42 -- 40 to qualify for the NBA playoffs. He further distinguished himself with outstanding performances in the playoffs, particularly against the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Semi-finals. In the end, however, Wade 's successful rookie season was somewhat overshadowed by the success of fellow rookies Carmelo Anthony and LeBron James. Wade did earn unanimous selection to the 2004 NBA All - Rookie Team, and also finished third in rookie of the year voting (behind James and Anthony). He was ranked in the top five among rookies in several major statistical categories, including second in field goal percentage, second in steals, third in scoring, fourth in assists, and fourth in minutes played. In the playoffs Wade hit a game - winning shot in Game 1 of the Heat 's first round series against the New Orleans Hornets. The Heat won the series 4 -- 3 and advanced to the second round to face the top - seeded and best record team in the NBA, the Indiana Pacers, in a very entertaining series that almost pushed the 61 - win Pacers to the edge, though Miami would eventually lose the series in six games. He became the fourth rookie since the shot clock era began to lead his team in scoring and assist average in the postseason.
Before the 2004 -- 05 season, Shaquille O'Neal was traded from the Los Angeles Lakers to the Heat. The following season, Miami improved by 17 games, from a 42 -- 40 record in the 2003 -- 04 season to an Eastern Conference - best 59 -- 23 record in the 2004 -- 05 season. The league 's coaches selected Wade to be a reserve in the 2005 All - Star Game. He scored 14 points in 24 minutes of play.
In the first round of the 2005 NBA Playoffs, Wade averaged 26.3 points, 8.8 assists, and 6.0 rebounds while maintaining a 50 % field - goal percentage as the Heat swept the New Jersey Nets. Wade continued his high level of play in the second round by averaging 31 points, 7 rebounds, and 8 assists per game as the Heat swept the Washington Wizards. The Heat 's playoff run was stopped by the Detroit Pistons, the previous season 's champions, in 7 games in the Eastern Conference Finals. Wade scored 42 and 36 points in Games 2 and 3 respectively despite playing with sinusitis, the flu, and a knee strain. He also suffered a strained rib muscle in Game 5 of the Conference Finals that prevented him from playing in the series ' sixth game and limited him in the seventh. The Heat lost the series in the seventh game despite leading three games to two after the fifth game and holding a lead with three minutes remaining in Game 7.
By the 2005 -- 06 season Wade had developed into one of the most prominent players in the NBA and was elected to his second All - Star Game, this time a starter. In the 2006 All - Star Game, Wade made the game - winning put - back off of the Philadelphia 76ers ' Allen Iverson 's missed shot, to lead the East to a 122 -- 120 victory over the West. He scored 20 points on 9 / 11 field goals in 30 minutes of play. He finished the 2005 -- 06 regular season averaging 27.2 points, 6.7 assists, 5.7 rebounds, and 1.95 steals per game.
Against the Chicago Bulls in the first round of the 2006 NBA Playoffs, Wade shook off a few injuries that scared Heat fans, including a severely bruised hip in Game 5. Returning late in the half, Wade resurrected his team by scoring 15 of his 28 points while suffering from intense pain, leading the Heat to the much - needed 3 -- 2 series lead. After this, Wade successfully led his team to the 2006 NBA Finals, despite suffering from flu - like symptoms in game 6 of the Eastern Conference Finals against the Detroit Pistons. He put up a double - double with 14 points and 10 assists in that game, including an 8 - point flurry to close out the third quarter that put the game out of reach.
In his first trip to the NBA Finals, in which Miami faced off against the Dallas Mavericks, Wade had some especially memorable moments. His performance in games three, four, and five, in which he scored 42, 36, and 43 points, respectively, helped bring the Heat back from a 0 -- 2 deficit to lead the series 3 - 2. In Game 3 Wade tied his career playoff high with 42 points and grabbed a career - high 13 rebounds. Fifteen of his 42 points came in the fourth quarter, in which the Heat erased a 13 - point deficit over the final 6: 29 with a 22 -- 7 run which included a go - ahead jumper by NBA veteran Gary Payton that sealed the win. The Heat went on to win Game 6 behind Wade 's 36 points, taking the series 4 -- 2, and Wade was presented with the Finals MVP trophy. He became the fifth youngest player in NBA history to capture NBA Finals MVP honors and recorded the third highest scoring average by a player in his first NBA Finals with 34.7 points per game. His 33.8 PER in the NBA finals was ranked by ESPN 's John Hollinger as the greatest Finals performance since the NBA - ABA merger.
In the 2006 -- 07 season, Wade missed a total of 31 games due to injury. He was elected to his third straight All - Star Game and received All - NBA honors. He became the first guard to earn All - NBA honors after missing at least 31 games in a season since Pete Maravich of the Utah Jazz earned Second Team honors during the 1977 -- 78 season. Despite Wade 's play, the Heat struggled early in the season with injuries and were 20 -- 25 on February 1, 2007. But with Shaquille O'Neal healthy and Pat Riley returning to the bench after undergoing hip and knee surgeries respectively, the Heat seemed poised to surge into the second half of the season. However, during a game against the Houston Rockets on February 21, 2007, while attempting to steal the ball from Shane Battier, Wade dislocated his left shoulder and was assisted off the court in a wheelchair. After the injury, he was left with the decision to either rehabilitate the shoulder or undergo season - ending surgery. Wade later announced that he would put off the surgery and rehabilitate his shoulder with the intention of rejoining the team in time for the playoffs. After missing 23 games to recover from the injury, Wade returned to the active roster in a game against the Charlotte Bobcats. Sporting a black sleeve to help protect his dislocated left shoulder, Wade played 27 minutes and recorded 12 points and 8 assists, in an 111 -- 103 overtime loss. For the season, Wade averaged 27.4 points, 7.5 assists, 4.7 rebounds, and 2.1 steals per game shooting 50 % from the field, and finished the season as the NBA 's leader in PER (Player efficiency rating).
In the playoffs, Wade averaged 23.5 points, 6.3 assists, and 4.8 rebounds per game, as the Heat were swept in the first round by the Chicago Bulls. Following the playoffs, Wade underwent a pair of successful surgeries to repair his dislocated left shoulder and left knee. The knee ailment, commonly called "jumper 's knee '', prevented Wade from joining USA Basketball in the Olympic Qualifying Tournament over the summer.
After missing the Tournament of Americas Olympic Qualifiers over the summer, Miami 's eight pre-season games and first seven regular season games to recover from off - season left knee and left shoulder surgeries, Wade made his first appearance of the 2007 -- 08 season on November 14, 2007. Battling pain in his left knee throughout the season, Wade was elected to his fourth consecutive All - Star Game appearance. However, with the Heat holding the worst record in the NBA and Wade still experiencing problems in his left knee, Heat coach Pat Riley announced Wade would miss the final 21 games of the season to undergo OssaTron treatment on his left knee. Wade averaged 24.6 points, 6.9 assists, 4.2 rebounds, and 1.7 steals per game for the season.
After undergoing months of rehabilitation on his left knee and helping the U.S. Olympic team win a gold medal at the 2008 Olympics, in which he led the team in scoring, Wade returned to the starting lineup at the start of the 2008 -- 09 season. Early in the season, Wade became the second player in NBA history to tally at least 40 points, 10 assists and five blocked shots in a game since Alvan Adams did so in the 1976 -- 77 season. With a healthy Wade leading the league in scoring and the Heat making a push for a playoff position, Wade was elected to his fifth consecutive All - Star game appearance.
Following the All - Star game, Wade recorded 50 points on 56.6 % shooting and added 5 rebounds and 5 assists in a blow - out loss against the Orlando Magic. Wade became the fourth player in NBA history to score at least 50 points while his team lost by at least 20 in a game. The following game, Wade recorded a career - high 16 assists and added 31 points and 7 rebounds in a 103 -- 91 win against the Detroit Pistons. Wade became the second player to record 15 or more assists after scoring at least 50 points since Wilt Chamberlain did so in 1968. Two games later, Wade tied a franchise record with 24 points in the fourth quarter, as he led the Heat back from a 15 - point deficit in the final nine minutes of the quarter to secure a 120 -- 115 win over the New York Knicks. For the game, Wade recorded 46 points on 55 % field goal shooting, 10 assists, 8 rebounds, 4 steals and 3 blocks. Wade followed the performance with a second consecutive 40 - point game against the Cleveland Cavaliers. Playing against his Eastern Conference rival and good friend, LeBron James, Wade registered 41 points on 53 % shooting, 9 assists, 7 steals, 7 rebounds and one block as the Heat lost 107 -- 100. The following game, in former teammate Shaquille O'Neal's return to Miami since being traded, Wade tied a career - high with 16 assists and added 35 points on 62 % shooting, 6 rebounds, a steal and a block, as the Heat defeated the Phoenix Suns 135 -- 129. Wade became the only player in Heat history to have multiple games with at least 30 points and 15 assists. Less than a week later, Wade tied his franchise record with his 78th consecutive game of scoring in double figures in a double overtime thriller against the Chicago Bulls, in which he scored the game - winning three - point basket to secure a 130 -- 127 win. Wade finished with 48 points on 71.4 % shooting, 12 assists, 6 rebounds, 4 steals and 3 blocks in 50 minutes. According to the Elias Sports Bureau, Wade joined Wilt Chamberlain as the only other player in NBA history to score that many points and have that many assists in a game, while having as high of a field goal percentage. Two games later, Wade surpassed Alonzo Mourning and became the Heat 's all - time leading scorer in a triple overtime classic against the Utah Jazz. Wade finished with 50 points, 10 rebounds, 9 assists, 4 steals, and 2 blocks in a 140 -- 129 win.
During the season, Wade became the first player in NBA history to accumulate at least 2,000 points, 500 assists, 100 steals, and 100 blocks in a season and is the first player of 6 ft. 5 in. or shorter to register at least 100 blocks in a season. Wade also became just the fifth player in NBA history to reach 2,000 points, 500 assists, and 150 steals in a season. After a 97 -- 92 win against the Charlotte Bobcats, Wade helped the Heat clinch a playoff berth and become only the second team in NBA History to reach the postseason after winning 15 or fewer games the year before. In a 122 -- 105 win against the New York Knicks, Wade recorded a career - high 55 points on 63 % field goal shooting and added 9 rebounds and 4 assists. Wade recorded 50 points through three quarters and was pulled out of the game while he was one point shy of eclipsing the franchise record of 56 points set by Glen Rice. For the season, Wade averaged a league - high 30.2 points per game, earning his first NBA Scoring Title, and added 7.5 assists, 5.0 rebounds, 2.2 steals, and 1.3 blocks per game. Wade finished the season with higher point, assist, steal and block averages than LeBron James and Kobe Bryant, who both finished ahead of Wade in the MVP race.
On November 1, in just his third game of the 2009 -- 10 season Wade recorded his 10,000 th career point in a 95 -- 87 win against the Chicago Bulls. On November 12 against the Cleveland Cavaliers, Wade made a spectacular dunk over Anderson Varejão, considered by many to be one of the greatest of the season until then. LeBron James himself described the dunk as "great, probably top 10 all - time ''. Two days later against the New Jersey Nets, with the Heat down by two in the final seconds, Wade hit a clutch three - point shot, giving the Heat the win by one point, 81 -- 80. On January 6, Wade scored a season - high 44 points in an overtime loss against the Boston Celtics, the most points scored by a player in a losing effort in the season until that point. On January 21, Wade was selected to play for the East in the 2010 NBA All - Star Game, which was his sixth overall All - Star appearance. Wade was named the game 's MVP after recording 28 points, 11 assists, 5 steals and 6 rebounds.
In just his second game back from the All - Star Game on February 17, Wade strained his calf in the first quarter. He left the game with 8 points in 8 minutes of play, ending his personal and also Heat 's franchise record streak of 148 consecutive games with at least 10 points. On April 2, Wade was named Eastern Conference Player of the Month and Player of the Week twice for his play in the month of March, leading the Heat to a 12 -- 3, the team 's best record since March 2006. It was his first Player of the Month award of the season and 5th of his career. He averaged 26.9 and 7.5 assists per game, which both ranked third in the Eastern Conference, and 2.3 steals per game, which ranked first. Wade recorded six 30 points games and had six double - doubles in the month, including a season - high 14 assists in an overtime win against the Los Angeles Lakers on March 4.
For the season, Wade averaged 26.6 points on 47.6 % field goal shooting, 6.5 assists, 4.8 rebounds, 1.8 steals and 1.1 blocks per game, while leading his team to a 47 -- 35 record, clinching the fifth seed in the NBA Playoffs. In the first round, with the Heat facing a sweep against the Boston Celtics, Wade recorded a career playoff - high and also franchise record 46 points, outscoring the entire Celtics team in the 4th quarter with 19 points versus 15 by Boston. It was also Wade 's sixth career playoff game with at least 40 points scored. Despite averaging 33.2 points on 56.4 % shooting, 6.8 assists, 5.6 rebounds, 1.6 steals and 1.6 blocks, Wade and the Heat would lose to Boston in five games.
During the off - season, Miami - Dade County commissioners voted unanimously to rename the county "Miami - Wade County '' for one week from July 1 -- 7, 2010 in Wade 's honor and to try and convince Wade to stay in Miami and sign with the Heat. On July 7, it was announced that Wade would be re-signing with the Miami Heat, along with former Toronto Raptor Chris Bosh. The following day, LeBron James announced he would be joining the Heat to play with Wade and Bosh, causing a stir in the media and among fans. The deals were officially announced on July 10; Bosh and James arrived via sign - and - trade deals. The Heat finished with a 58 - 24 record in the first year of the Big 3 Era and earned the second seed in the Eastern Conference. For the season, Wade averaged 25.5 points, 6.4 rebounds, 4.6 assists, and 1.5 steals per game, shooting 50 % from the field. After defeating the Philadelphia 76ers, Boston Celtics, and Chicago Bulls, the Heat reached the Finals but lost to the Dallas Mavericks in six games. Wade averaged 26.5 points, 7 rebounds and 5.2 assists per game for the NBA Finals and 24.5 points, 7.1 rebounds and 4.4 for the entire playoffs. Prior to the beginning of the 2011 -- 12 NBA season, Bosh in 2012 opined Wade should take the last second shot instead of Bosh or James to win or lose a game based on Wade 's past success.
On February 26, 2012, at the All - Star Game Wade recorded what was only the third triple - double in the history of the contest, posting 24 points, 10 rebounds, and 10 assists, joining Michael Jordan and LeBron James as the only players ever to record the prestigious stat (at the 1997 and 2011 games respectively). On March 10, 2012, Wade made the game - winning shot against the Indiana Pacers, giving the Heat a 93 -- 91 overtime win. Wade finished the season averaging 22.1 points, 4.8 assists, 4.6 rebounds, and 1.7 steals per game. In the playoffs, the Heat defeated the New York Knicks in 5 games in the first round, then defeated the Indiana Pacers in 6 games in the second round. Wade heated up in Game 6 of the second round, recording 41 points and 10 rebounds. The Celtics took the Heat to seven games in the Eastern Conference Finals, but the Heat prevailed and advanced to the NBA Finals. They lost to the Oklahoma City Thunder in Game 1 of the finals but won the next four games, and Wade secured his second NBA title. Wade averaged 22.6 points per game in the series. The Heat became the first team in NBA history to win a championship after trailing in three different playoff series.
Before the start of the 2012 -- 13 NBA season, Wade underwent surgery due to a left knee injury. He missed the 2012 Summer Olympics. While Wade missed the Heat 's first pre-season game against the Atlanta Hawks, he returned in time for the Heat 's second pre-season game against the Los Angeles Clippers, which was held at the MasterCard Center in Beijing, China. Miami won the game 94 -- 80. On December 26, 2012, during an away game against the Charlotte Bobcats, Wade kicked guard Ramon Sessions in the groin. The following day, Wade was suspended by the NBA for one game. Wade finished the 2012 -- 2013 season with averages of 21.2 points, 5 rebounds and 5.1 assists per game.
In the playoffs, injuries limited Wade to a career - low scoring average of 15.9 points per game, but he upped his average to 19.6 points a game during the NBA Finals against the San Antonio Spurs. After the teams split the first two games in Miami, the Spurs blew out the Heat in game 3 to take a 2 - 1 series lead. In game 4, Wade scored 32 points on 56 percent shooting to go with 6 steals as the Heat defeated the Spurs 109 - 93. The Spurs would bounce back in game 5 despite Wade 's 25 points and 10 assists. Wade scored 14 points in Miami 's overtime win in game 6, followed by 23 points and 10 rebounds in game 7 as the Heat clinched their second straight championship and Wade 's third title.
In the 2013 -- 14 season, Wade played in 54 games due to injury and the team 's decision to rest him during back - to - back games. Wade averaged 19 points per game and posted a career - high 54 percent field goal percentage, and had notable games in victories against elite teams such as a 32 - point outing against the Pacers on November 7 and 29 points against the Los Angeles Clippers on December 18. In the playoffs, the team increased Wade 's minutes per game, noted by a 28 - point performance in the closing game of Miami 's second - round victory over the Brooklyn Nets and a 23 - point outing in a crucial game 2 road victory against Indiana in the Eastern Finals. The Heat would go on to win the series in six games, advancing to their fourth straight NBA Finals. Wade averaged 19.1 points a game during the playoffs on 52 percent shooting, his best percentage in a playoff run since 2010. The Heat would once again face the San Antonio Spurs in the 2014 NBA Finals. However, they would lose in five games.
On June 28, 2014, Wade and teammates James and Bosh all opted out of their contracts in order to cut costs with the intention of all re-signing. James announced on his website on July 11 that he was returning to Cleveland after four successful seasons with Wade in Miami. Four days later, Wade re-signed with the Heat and was later joined by a returning Bosh, Udonis Haslem, Chris Andersen and Mario Chalmers as well as former rivals Danny Granger and Luol Deng.
After playing in the Heat 's first eight games of the 2014 -- 15 season, Wade missed seven consecutive games due to a hamstring injury. He returned to action on November 30 against the New York Knicks to score a then season - high 27 points in an 88 - 79 win. On December 17, despite Wade 's season - high 42 points, the Heat were defeated 105 - 87 by the Utah Jazz. He was named an All - Star for the 11th time, however, on February 11, he pulled out of the game due to another hamstring injury and was replaced by Kyle Korver. The Heat finished the season with a 37 - 45 win / loss record, as Wade missed the post-season for just the second time in his career.
On June 29, 2015, Wade opted out of his contract with the Heat to become a free agent. On July 10, 2015, he re-signed with the Heat once again to a one - year, $20 million contract. Wade hit just seven shots from beyond the arc during the entire 2015 -- 16 regular season. However, the 2016 postseason saw a change in Wade 's play. He converted on his first seven three - point shot attempts before missing his first one during a Game 3 loss to the Toronto Raptors in the conference semi-finals. According to Elias Sports Bureau, Wade had never made more than five three - pointers in a row during his career.
On July 6, 2016, Wade announced, in a letter to Miami, that he had agreed to join the Chicago Bulls on a two - year deal worth $47.5 million. Wade said he felt unwanted and under - appreciated by Heat president Pat Riley, and noted that his relationship with Riley was in tatters by the end of negotiations. On July 15, he officially signed with the Bulls. He made his debut for the Bulls in their season opener on October 27, scoring 22 points with four made three - pointers in a 105 -- 99 win over the Boston Celtics. The next day, Wade was fined $25,000 for making a throat slash gesture after a game - sealing three - point shot. On November 4, he scored 35 points on 12 - of - 20 shooting in a 117 -- 104 loss to the New York Knicks. He made five three - pointers to give him 10 in five games in 2016 -- 17; he had a total of seven in 2015 -- 16. On January 21, 2017, he had 30 points and two key steals in the final minute of the Bulls ' 102 -- 99 win over the Sacramento Kings. After questioning the desire of the team 's younger players following a loss to the Atlanta Hawks on January 25, Wade was fined and held out of the starting lineup against Miami on January 27 as punishment. On March 16, 2017, Wade underwent an MRI for a right elbow injury suffered in the fourth quarter of the Bulls ' game against the Memphis Grizzlies the previous night. The results of the MRI showed a sprain and a small fracture in the elbow. Wade returned to action on April 8, 2017, scoring 14 points in a 107 -- 106 loss to the Brooklyn Nets.
Wade was a member of the 2004 US Olympics team with fellow NBA All - Stars LeBron James and Carmelo Anthony. The team competed in the 2006 FIBA World Championship in Japan, in which Wade averaged 19.3 points per game. The team won a bronze medal, which disappointed many USA fans who had hoped for a return to the days of the original "Dream Team ''. Wade was named to the USA Men 's Basketball National Team from 2006 to 2008. He was named co-captain of the 2006 team, along with James and Anthony. In 2007, due to injury, Wade was unable to compete at the Tournament of Americas Olympic Qualifiers, where the United States compiled a 10 -- 0 record and qualified for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, China.
At the 2008 Olympics, the United States went unbeaten and earned gold medal honors, defeating the 2006 World Champion Spain in the final game. Wade led the team in scoring throughout the tournament and tallied a game - high 27 points in 27 minutes on 75 % field goal shooting and added 4 steals, 2 assists and 2 rebounds in the game. For the tournament, he averaged a team - high 16 points in 18 minutes on 67 % field goal shooting, 4 rebounds, 2 assists and 2.3 steals, as the United States lived up to their Redeem Team moniker and captured gold medal honors for the first time since 2000.
On June 28, 2012, it was reported that Wade would miss the 2012 Olympics in London because of knee surgery.
Standing at 6 feet 4 inches tall (1.93 m) and weighing 220 pounds (100 kg), Wade is a shooting guard that is also capable of playing point guard as he did during his rookie season and in subsequent seasons with smaller lineups. On offense, he has established himself as one of the quickest and most difficult players to guard, as well as one of the best slashers in the NBA. Wade 's signature one - two step allows him to dash past bigger defenders and occasionally get the extra foul shot. Wade is able to get to the free throw line consistently; he ranked first in free - throw attempts per 48 minutes in 2004 -- 05 and again in the 2006 -- 07 season. He has proven himself an unselfish player, averaging 6.1 assists per game throughout his career. After winning the NBA Finals MVP Award in 2006, Wade developed a reputation as one of the premier clutch players in the NBA. He has gained a reputation for being capable of hitting game - winning baskets and potential game - winning free throws.
David Thorpe, an athletic trainer who runs a training center for NBA players in the offseason, also cites Wade 's developing post up game as one of his strengths. "Watching Wade operate on the left block is literally like watching old footage of MJ (Michael Jordan) '', comments Thorpe. Thorpe goes on to say that Wade 's best moves from the post are his turnaround jump shot, double pivot, and what Thorpe terms as a "freeze fake '', a pump fake Wade uses to get his opponent to jump, so that he can then drive around him to the basket. The main weakness cited in Wade 's ability is his lack of three - point range; he has averaged. 289 on three - point field goal attempts for his career.
Wade is best known for his ability to convert difficult lay - ups, even after hard mid-air collisions with larger defenders. As crowd pleasing as his high - flying style of basketball may be, some have expressed concerns over the dangers of playing in this manner, as Wade has already hurt his knees and wrists after mid-air collisions with larger players. Wade has also established himself on defense for his ability to block shots and accumulate steals. He became the NBA 's all - time leader in blocks for players listed 6'4 '' (193 cm) and under, which he achieved in only 679 games, over 400 games less than the previous record holder: Dennis Johnson (1100).
During the big three era, Wade has seen his overall offensive production decrease, a result of sharing the offense with LeBron James and Chris Bosh, but has succeeded at overall shooting a greater percentage despite taking fewer shots and playing more off the ball.
Wade married his high school girlfriend Siohvaughn Funches in 2002. He filed for a divorce in 2007, which was granted in 2010 after a lengthy and acrimonious court battle. In 2011, Wade was granted sole custody of his two sons with Funches, Zaire Blessing Dwyane Wade (born February 4, 2002) and Zion Malachi Airamis Wade (born May 29, 2007). Wade also raises a nephew, Dahveon (born 2002), who is the son of Wade 's sister Deanna. Wade began dating actress Gabrielle Union in 2009. According to Wade, he and Union briefly split up at some point early in 2013 due to career demands. During that time, Wade and longtime friend Aja Metoyer conceived a son, Xavier Zechariah Wade (born November 10, 2013). Wade and Union became engaged in December 2013, and married on August 30, 2014, in Miami.
Wade has spoken out about violence in Chicago, in part due to his own family 's experience with it. His nephew, Darin Johnson, was shot twice in the leg in 2012 but recovered. Wade 's first cousin, 32 - year - old Nykea Aldridge, was fatally shot on the afternoon of August 26, 2016, while pushing a stroller in Chicago 's Parkway Gardens, when two men exchanged gunfire nearby, hitting her in the arm and the head. A mother of four, Aldridge was pronounced dead at the hospital. The child in the stroller was not hurt. Wade, who had recently spoken publicly the area 's problem of violence, reacted by tweeting, "Another act of senseless gun violence. 4 kids lost their mom for NO REASON. Unreal. # EnoughIsEnough ''.
Wade 's nicknames include D - Wade and Flash, which was given to him by former teammate Shaquille O'Neal who would sing, "He 's the greatest in the Universe '', in reference to the Queen song of the same name from the 1980 film Flash Gordon. The Heat 's 2005 NBA Playoffs run and Wade 's performances with Shaquille O'Neal hampered by injury, led to an explosion of media attention and rapid increase in Wade 's popularity. During those playoffs, Wade 's jersey became the top selling jersey in the league and remained so for nearly two years. After the Heat 's success and Wade 's memorable performances during the 2006 NBA Playoffs, Wade was further elevated into the public 's eye and appeared on several talk shows, including Late Show with David Letterman and Live with Regis and Kelly. He also made a guest star appearance on Disney Channel 's Austin & Ally as himself, who is an obsessed fan of Austin Moon.
Wade has been featured in a number of magazine articles and publications. In 2005, he was featured on People 's 50 Most Beautiful People, and in 2006 he was named the NBA 's best - dressed player by GQ Magazine. In 2007, Esquire named him to their 4th annual Best Dressed Men in the World list for the second straight year. Wade has endorsement deals with companies such as Gatorade, Lincoln, Staples, Sean John, T - Mobile (his TV commercials feature him paired with NBA legend Charles Barkley), and Topps. He had his own line of shoes with Converse named "The Wade '' and a series of Sidekick phones known as the D - Wade Edition with T - Mobile. During the 2009 -- 10 season, Wade switched from Converse to Nike 's Jordan Brand. Wade noted that the partnership ended on good terms, stating, "When I came into the NBA, I did n't have a lot of exposure and Converse gave me an opportunity to head a brand and be the face of a brand. I 'm really thankful for six long, good years. I 've gotten five shoes out of the deal and my dream came true at the Converse brand because they put my name on a pair of sneakers. '' Wade was hand - chosen by Michael Jordan and debuted the Air Jordan 2010 during the 2010 NBA All - Star break. During the 2011 NBA Playoffs, Wade debuted his first signature shoe for the Jordan Brand, joining fellow players Carmelo Anthony and Chris Paul, who have their own signature shoes for the brand. After his Jordan Brand contract expired in 2012, Wade signed with the Chinese athletic brand Li - Ning.
Wade is well known for his philanthropic involvement in various organizations. In 2003, he founded The Wade 's World Foundation, which provides support to community - based organizations that promote education, health, and social skills for children in at - risk situations. He hosts a variety of community outreach programs in Chicago and South Florida. In 2008, he announced his partnership with former teammate Alonzo Mourning 's charitable foundation and co-hosted ZO 's Summer Groove, an annual summer event. On December 24, 2008, Wade purchased a new home for a South Florida woman whose nephew accidentally burned down the family home. In addition, Wade donated some furnishings, clothing, and gifts to the family for the holiday.
After breaking his own Miami Heat single - season scoring record, Wade gave the jersey he wore in that night 's victory to 8 - year - old Michael Stolzenberg, an avid Heat fan that had his hands and feet removed surgically due to a bacterial infection. Wade stated that he knew Stolzenberg previously and wished to add to his collection of Heat memorabilia. Wade has been known for visiting other sick children, usually in private to avoid placing himself in the media spotlight.
In September 2009, Wade donated money from his foundation to keep the Robbins, Illinois public library from having to shut down. He handed the library director Priscilla Coatney a $25,000 check in order to resurrect the building, which brought Coatney to tears. He called the donation a "small contribution '', and reminisced about the difficult experiences he faced as a child, stating that he sometimes did not know how he would find his next meal. In January 2010, Wade and Alonzo Mourning co-founded The Athletes Relief Fund for Haiti ", which raised money to help the victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. In the three days since the fund began soliciting donations from athletes, Wade announced that the "Athletes Relief Fund for Haiti '' had already raised over $800,000. Wade stated, "I expected nothing less from my friends and colleagues in the sports community, our commitment to this cause knows no bounds, and we will continue to accept any and all donations throughout the days ahead. '' Wade is also an avid supporter of St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital and has served as an Ambassador for their Hoops for St. Jude basketball initiative.
Wade is a devout Christian and chose the number 3 because it represents the Holy Trinity. He tithes 10 % of his salary to a church in Chicago. His mother, Jolinda, strengthened her ties to Christianity in 2001 after years of drug abuse and dealing. She served as a minister during her final prison sentence in 2002 and 2003. She was ordained as a Baptist minister in January 2007 and formed the non-denominational Temple of Praise Binding and Loosing Ministry in Chicago. In May 2008, Wade purchased a church building for his mother 's ministry.
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what are the 3 types of plays that shakespeare wrote | Shakespeare 's plays - wikipedia
The plays written by English poet, playwright, and actor William Shakespeare (1564 -- 1616) have the reputation of being among the greatest in the English language and in Western literature. Traditionally, the plays are divided into the genres of tragedy, history, and comedy; they have been translated into every major living language, in addition to being continually performed all around the world.
Many of his plays appeared in print as a series of quartos, but approximately half of them remained unpublished until 1623, when the posthumous First Folio was published. The traditional division of his plays into tragedies, comedies and histories follows the categories used in the First Folio. However, modern criticism has labelled some of these plays "problem plays '' that elude easy categorisation, or perhaps purposely break generic conventions, and has introduced the term romances for what scholars believe to be his later comedies.
When Shakespeare first arrived in London in the late 1570s or early 1580s, dramatists writing for London 's new commercial playhouses (such as The Curtain) were combining two different strands of dramatic tradition into a new and distinctively Elizabethan synthesis. Previously, the most common forms of popular English theatre were the Tudor morality plays. These plays, celebrating piety generally, use personified moral attributes to urge or instruct the protagonist to choose the virtuous life over Evil. The characters and plot situations are largely symbolic rather than realistic. As a child, Shakespeare would likely have seen this type of play (along with, perhaps, mystery plays and miracle plays).
The other strand of dramatic tradition was classical aesthetic theory. This theory was derived ultimately from Aristotle; in Renaissance England, however, the theory was better known through its Roman interpreters and practitioners. At the universities, plays were staged in a more academic form as Roman closet dramas. These plays, usually performed in Latin, adhered to classical ideas of unity and decorum, but they were also more static, valuing lengthy speeches over physical action. Shakespeare would have learned this theory at grammar school, where Plautus and especially Terence were key parts of the curriculum and were taught in editions with lengthy theoretical introductions.
Archaeological excavations on the foundations of the Rose and the Globe in the late twentieth century showed that all London English Renaissance theatres were built around similar general plans. Despite individual differences, the public theatres were three stories high, and built around an open space at the centre. Usually polygonal in plan to give an overall rounded effect, three levels of inward - facing galleries overlooked the open centre into which jutted the stage -- essentially a platform surrounded on three sides by the audience, only the rear being restricted for the entrances and exits of the actors and seating for the musicians. The upper level behind the stage could be used as a balcony, as in Romeo and Juliet, or as a position for a character to harangue a crowd, as in Julius Caesar.
Usually built of timber, lath and plaster and with thatched roofs, the early theatres were vulnerable to fire, and gradually were replaced (when necessary) with stronger structures. When the Globe burned down in June 1613, it was rebuilt with a tile roof.
A different model was developed with the Blackfriars Theatre, which came into regular use on a long term basis in 1599. The Blackfriars was small in comparison to the earlier theatres, and roofed rather than open to the sky; it resembled a modern theatre in ways that its predecessors did not.
For Shakespeare as he began to write, both traditions were alive; they were, moreover, filtered through the recent success of the University Wits on the London stage. By the late 16th century, the popularity of morality and academic plays waned as the English Renaissance took hold, and playwrights like Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe revolutionised theatre. Their plays blended the old morality drama with classical theory to produce a new secular form. The new drama combined the rhetorical complexity of the academic play with the bawdy energy of the moralities. However, it was more ambiguous and complex in its meanings, and less concerned with simple allegory. Inspired by this new style, Shakespeare continued these artistic strategies, creating plays that not only resonated on an emotional level with audiences but also explored and debated the basic elements of what it means to be human. What Marlowe and Kyd did for tragedy, John Lyly and George Peele, among others, did for comedy: they offered models of witty dialogue, romantic action, and exotic, often pastoral location that formed the basis of Shakespeare 's comedic mode throughout his career.
Shakespeare 's Elizabethan tragedies (including the history plays with tragic designs, such as Richard II) demonstrate his relative independence from classical models. He takes from Aristotle and Horace the notion of decorum; with few exceptions, he focuses on high - born characters and national affairs as the subject of tragedy. In most other respects, though, the early tragedies are far closer to the spirit and style of moralities. They are episodic, packed with character and incident; they are loosely unified by a theme or character. In this respect, they reflect clearly the influence of Marlowe, particularly of Tamburlaine. Even in his early work, however, Shakespeare generally shows more restraint than Marlowe; he resorts to grandiloquent rhetoric less frequently, and his attitude towards his heroes is more nuanced, and sometimes more sceptical, than Marlowe 's. By the turn of the century, the bombast of Titus Andronicus had vanished, replaced by the subtlety of Hamlet.
In comedy, Shakespeare strayed even further from classical models. The Comedy of Errors, an adaptation of Menaechmi, follows the model of new comedy closely. Shakespeare 's other Elizabethan comedies are more romantic. Like Lyly, he often makes romantic intrigue (a secondary feature in Latin new comedy) the main plot element; even this romantic plot is sometimes given less attention than witty dialogue, deceit, and jests. The "reform of manners, '' which Horace considered the main function of comedy, survives in such episodes as the gulling of Malvolio.
Shakespeare reached maturity as a dramatist at the end of Elizabeth 's reign, and in the first years of the reign of James. In these years, he responded to a deep shift in popular tastes, both in subject matter and approach. At the turn of the decade, he responded to the vogue for dramatic satire initiated by the boy players at Blackfriars and St. Paul 's. At the end of the decade, he seems to have attempted to capitalise on the new fashion for tragicomedy, even collaborating with John Fletcher, the writer who had popularised the genre in England.
The influence of younger dramatists such as John Marston and Ben Jonson is seen not only in the problem plays, which dramatise intractable human problems of greed and lust, but also in the darker tone of the Jacobean tragedies. The Marlovian, heroic mode of the Elizabethan tragedies is gone, replaced by a darker vision of heroic natures caught in environments of pervasive corruption. As a sharer in both the Globe and in the King 's Men, Shakespeare never wrote for the boys ' companies; however, his early Jacobean work is markedly influenced by the techniques of the new, satiric dramatists. One play, Troilus and Cressida, may even have been inspired by the War of the Theatres.
Shakespeare 's final plays hark back to his Elizabethan comedies in their use of romantic situation and incident. In these plays, however, the sombre elements that are largely glossed over in the earlier plays are brought to the fore and often rendered dramatically vivid. This change is related to the success of tragicomedies such as Philaster, although the uncertainty of dates makes the nature and direction of the influence unclear. From the evidence of the title - page to The Two Noble Kinsmen and from textual analysis it is believed by some editors that Shakespeare ended his career in collaboration with Fletcher, who succeeded him as house playwright for the King 's Men. These last plays resemble Fletcher 's tragicomedies in their attempt to find a comedic mode capable of dramatising more serious events than had his earlier comedies.
During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, "drama became the ideal means to capture and convey the diverse interests of the time. '' Stories of various genres were enacted for audiences consisting of both the wealthy and educated and the poor and illiterate. Later on, he retired at the height of the Jacobean period, not long before the start of the Thirty Years ' War. His verse style, his choice of subjects, and his stagecraft all bear the marks of both periods. His style changed not only in accordance with his own tastes and developing mastery, but also in accord with the tastes of the audiences for whom he wrote.
While many passages in Shakespeare 's plays are written in prose, he almost always wrote a large proportion of his plays and poems in iambic pentameter. In some of his early works (like Romeo and Juliet), he even added punctuation at the end of these iambic pentameter lines to make the rhythm even stronger. He and many dramatists of this period used the form of blank verse extensively in character dialogue, thus heightening poetic effects.
To end many scenes in his plays he used a rhyming couplet to give a sense of conclusion, or completion. A typical example is provided in Macbeth: as Macbeth leaves the stage to murder Duncan (to the sound of a chiming clock), he says,
That summons thee to heaven or to hell.
Shakespeare 's writing (especially his plays) also feature extensive wordplay in which double entendres and rhetorical flourishes are repeatedly used. Humour is a key element in all of Shakespeare 's plays. Although a large amount of his comical talent is evident in his comedies, some of the most entertaining scenes and characters are found in tragedies such as Hamlet and histories such as Henry IV, Part 1. Shakespeare 's humour was largely influenced by Plautus.
Shakespeare 's plays are also notable for their use of soliloquies, in which a character makes a speech to him - or herself so the audience can understand the character 's inner motivations and conflict.
In his book Shakespeare and the History of Soliloquies, James Hirsh defines the convention of a Shakespearean soliloquy in early modern drama. He argues that when a person on the stage speaks to himself or herself, they are characters in a fiction speaking in character; this is an occasion of self - address. Furthermore, Hirsh points out that Shakespearian soliloquies and "asides '' are audible in the fiction of the play, bound to be overheard by any other character in the scene unless certain elements confirm that the speech is protected. Therefore, a Renaissance playgoer who was familiar with this dramatic convention would have been alert to Hamlet 's expectation that his soliloquy be overheard by the other characters in the scene. Moreover, Hirsh asserts that in soliloquies in other Shakespearian plays, the speaker is entirely in character within the play 's fiction. Saying that addressing the audience was outmoded by the time Shakespeare was alive, he "acknowledges few occasions when a Shakespearean speech might involve the audience in recognising the simultaneous reality of the stage and the world the stage is representing. '' Other than 29 speeches delivered by choruses or characters who revert to that condition as epilogues "Hirsh recognises only three instances of audience address in Shakespeare 's plays, ' all in very early comedies, in which audience address is introduced specifically to ridicule the practice as antiquated and amateurish. ' ''
As was common in the period, Shakespeare based many of his plays on the work of other playwrights and recycled older stories and historical material. His dependence on earlier sources was a natural consequence of the speed at which playwrights of his era wrote; in addition, plays based on already popular stories appear to have been seen as more likely to draw large crowds. There were also aesthetic reasons: Renaissance aesthetic theory took seriously the dictum that tragic plots should be grounded in history. For example, King Lear is probably an adaptation of an older play, King Leir, and the Henriad probably derived from The Famous Victories of Henry V. There is speculation that Hamlet (c. 1601) may be a reworking of an older, lost play (the so - called Ur - Hamlet), but the number of lost plays from this time period makes it impossible to determine that relationship with certainty. (The Ur - Hamlet may in fact have been Shakespeare 's, and was just an earlier and subsequently discarded version.) For plays on historical subjects, Shakespeare relied heavily on two principal texts. Most of the Roman and Greek plays are based on Plutarch 's Parallel Lives (from the 1579 English translation by Sir Thomas North), and the English history plays are indebted to Raphael Holinshed 's 1587 Chronicles. This structure did not apply to comedy, and those of Shakespeare 's plays for which no clear source has been established, such as Love 's Labour 's Lost and The Tempest, are comedies. Even these plays, however, rely heavily on generic commonplaces.
While there is much dispute about the exact Chronology of Shakespeare plays, as well as the Shakespeare Authorship Question, the plays tend to fall into three main stylistic groupings. The first major grouping of his plays begins with his histories and comedies of the 1590s. Shakespeare 's earliest plays tended to be adaptations of other playwright 's works and employed blank verse and little variation in rhythm. However, after the plague forced Shakespeare and his company of actors to leave London for periods between 1592 and 1594, Shakespeare began to use rhymed couplets in his plays, along with more dramatic dialogue. These elements showed up in The Taming of the Shrew and A Midsummer Night 's Dream. Almost all of the plays written after the plague hit London are comedies, perhaps reflecting the public 's desire at the time for light - hearted fare. Other comedies from Shakespeare during this period include Much Ado About Nothing, The Merry Wives of Windsor and As You Like It.
The middle grouping of Shakespeare 's plays begins in 1599 with Julius Caesar. For the next few years, Shakespeare would produce his most famous dramas, including Macbeth, Hamlet, and King Lear. The plays during this period are in many ways the darkest of Shakespeare 's career and address issues such as betrayal, murder, lust, power and egoism.
The final grouping of plays, called Shakespeare 's late romances, include Pericles, Prince of Tyre, Cymbeline, The Winter 's Tale and The Tempest. The romances are so called because they bear similarities to medieval romance literature. Among the features of these plays are a redemptive plotline with a happy ending, and magic and other fantastic elements.
Except where noted, the plays below are listed, for the thirty - six plays included in the First Folio of 1623, according to the order in which they appear there, with two plays that were not included (Pericles, Prince of Tyre and The Two Noble Kinsmen) being added at the end of the list of comedies and Edward III at the end of the list of histories.
Note: Plays marked with are now commonly referred to as the "late romances ''. Plays marked with are sometimes referred to as the "problem plays ''. The three plays marked with were not included in the First Folio.
Like most playwrights of his period, Shakespeare did not always write alone, and a number of his plays were collaborative, although the exact number is open to debate. Some of the following attributions, such as for The Two Noble Kinsmen, have well - attested contemporary documentation; others, such as for Titus Andronicus, remain more controversial and are dependent on linguistic analysis by modern scholars.
Note: For a comprehensive account of plays possibly by Shakespeare or in part by Shakespeare, see the separate entry on the Shakespeare Apocrypha.
Unlike his contemporary Ben Jonson, Shakespeare did not have direct involvement in publishing his plays and produced no overall authoritative version of his plays before he died. As a result, the problem of identifying what Shakespeare actually wrote is a major concern for most modern editions.
One of the reasons there are textual problems is that there was no copyright of writings at the time. As a result, Shakespeare and the playing companies he worked with did not distribute scripts of his plays, for fear that the plays would be stolen. This led to bootleg copies of his plays, which were often based on people trying to remember what Shakespeare had actually written.
Textual corruptions also stemming from printers ' errors, misreadings by compositors, or simply wrongly scanned lines from the source material litter the Quartos and the First Folio. Additionally, in an age before standardised spelling, Shakespeare often wrote a word several times in a different spelling, and this may have contributed to some of the transcribers ' confusion. Modern editors have the task of reconstructing Shakespeare 's original words and expurgating errors as far as possible.
In some cases the textual solution presents few difficulties. In the case of Macbeth for example, scholars believe that someone (probably Thomas Middleton) adapted and shortened the original to produce the extant text published in the First Folio, but that remains our only authorised text. In others the text may have become manifestly corrupt or unreliable (Pericles or Timon of Athens) but no competing version exists. The modern editor can only regularise and correct erroneous readings that have survived into the printed versions.
The textual problem can, however, become rather complicated. Modern scholarship now believes Shakespeare to have modified his plays through the years, sometimes leading to two existing versions of one play. To provide a modern text in such cases, editors must face the choice between the original first version and the later, revised, usually more theatrical version. In the past editors have resolved this problem by conflating the texts to provide what they believe to be a superior Ur - text, but critics now argue that to provide a conflated text would run contrary to Shakespeare 's intentions. In King Lear for example, two independent versions, each with their own textual integrity, exist in the Quarto and the Folio versions. Shakespeare 's changes here extend from the merely local to the structural. Hence the Oxford Shakespeare, published in 1986 (second edition 2005), provides two different versions of the play, each with respectable authority. The problem exists with at least four other Shakespearian plays (Henry IV, part 1, Hamlet, Troilus and Cressida, and Othello).
During Shakespeare 's lifetime, many of his greatest plays were staged at the Globe Theatre and the Blackfriars Theatre. Shakespeare 's fellow members of the Lord Chamberlain 's Men acted in his plays. Among these actors were Richard Burbage (who played the title role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare 's plays, including Hamlet, Othello, Richard III and King Lear), Richard Cowley (who played Verges in Much Ado About Nothing), William Kempe, (who played Peter in Romeo and Juliet and, possibly, Bottom in A Midsummer Night 's Dream) and Henry Condell and John Heminges, who are most famous now for collecting and editing the plays of Shakespeare 's First Folio (1623).
Shakespeare 's plays continued to be staged after his death until the Interregnum (1649 -- 1660), when all public stage performances were banned by the Puritan rulers. After the English Restoration, Shakespeare 's plays were performed in playhouses with elaborate scenery and staged with music, dancing, thunder, lightning, wave machines, and fireworks. During this time the texts were "reformed '' and "improved '' for the stage, an undertaking which has seemed shockingly disrespectful to posterity.
Victorian productions of Shakespeare often sought pictorial effects in "authentic '' historical costumes and sets. The staging of the reported sea fights and barge scene in Antony and Cleopatra was one spectacular example. Too often, the result was a loss of pace. Towards the end of the 19th century, William Poel led a reaction against this heavy style. In a series of "Elizabethan '' productions on a thrust stage, he paid fresh attention to the structure of the drama. In the early twentieth century, Harley Granville - Barker directed quarto and folio texts with few cuts, while Edward Gordon Craig and others called for abstract staging. Both approaches have influenced the variety of Shakespearian production styles seen today.
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england players and what clubs they play for | England national football team - wikipedia
The England national football team represents England in international football and is controlled by the Football Association, the governing body for football in England.
England is one of the two oldest national teams in football, alongside Scotland, whom they played in the world 's first international football match in 1872. England 's home ground is Wembley Stadium, London, and their headquarters are at St George 's Park, Burton upon Trent. The team 's manager is Gareth Southgate. Although part of the United Kingdom, England 's representative side plays in major professional tournaments, but not the Olympic Games.
Since first entering the tournament in 1950, England has qualified for the FIFA World Cup fifteen times. They won the 1966 World Cup, when they hosted the finals, and finished fourth in 1990 and 2018. Since first entering in 1964, England have never won the UEFA European Championship, with their best performances being a third place finish in 1968 and 1996, the latter as hosts.
The England national football team is the joint - oldest in the world; it was formed at the same time as Scotland. A representative match between England and Scotland was played on 5 March 1870, having been organised by the Football Association. A return fixture was organised by representatives of Scottish football teams on 30 November 1872.
This match, played at Hamilton Crescent in Scotland, is viewed as the first official international football match, because the two teams were independently selected and operated, rather than being the work of a single football association. Over the next forty years, England played exclusively with the other three Home Nations -- Scotland, Wales and Ireland -- in the British Home Championship.
At first, England had no permanent home stadium. They joined FIFA in 1906 and played their first ever games against countries other than the Home Nations on a tour of Central Europe in 1908. Wembley Stadium was opened in 1923 and became their home ground. The relationship between England and FIFA became strained, and this resulted in their departure from FIFA in 1928, before they rejoined in 1946. As a result, they did not compete in a World Cup until 1950, in which they were beaten in a 1 -- 0 defeat by the United States, failing to get past the first round in one of the most embarrassing defeats in the team 's history.
Their first defeat on home soil to a foreign team was a 0 -- 2 loss to the Republic of Ireland, on 21 September 1949 at Goodison Park. A 6 -- 3 loss in 1953 to Hungary, was their second defeat by a foreign team at Wembley. In the return match in Budapest, Hungary won 7 -- 1. This stands as England 's largest ever defeat. After the game, a bewildered Syd Owen said, "it was like playing men from outer space ''. In the 1954 FIFA World Cup, England reached the quarter - finals for the first time, and lost 4 -- 2 to reigning champions Uruguay.
Although Walter Winterbottom was appointed as England 's first ever full - time manager in 1946, the team was still picked by a committee until Alf Ramsey took over in 1963. The 1966 FIFA World Cup was hosted in England and Ramsey guided England to victory with a 4 -- 2 win against West Germany after extra time in the final, during which Geoff Hurst famously scored a hat - trick. In UEFA Euro 1968, the team reached the semi-finals for the first time, being eliminated by Yugoslavia.
England qualified for the 1970 FIFA World Cup in Mexico as reigning champions, and reached the quarter - finals, where they were knocked out by West Germany. England had been 2 -- 0 up, but were eventually beaten 3 -- 2 after extra time. They failed in qualification for the 1974, leading to Ramsey 's dismissal, and 1978 FIFA World Cups. Under Ron Greenwood, they managed to qualify for the 1982 FIFA World Cup in Spain (the first time competitively since 1962); despite not losing a game, they were eliminated in the second group stage.
The team under Bobby Robson fared better as England reached the quarter - finals of the 1986 FIFA World Cup, losing 2 -- 1 to Argentina in a game made famous by two goals by Maradona for very contrasting reasons, before losing every match in UEFA Euro 1988. They next went on to achieve their second best result in the 1990 FIFA World Cup by finishing fourth -- losing again to West Germany in a semi-final finishing 1 -- 1 after extra time, then 3 -- 4 in England 's first penalty shoot - out.
Despite losing to Italy in the third place play - off, the members of the England team were given bronze medals identical to the Italians '. The England team of 1990 were welcomed home as heroes and thousands of people lined the streets, for a spectacular open - top bus parade. However, the team did not win any matches in UEFA Euro 1992, drawing with tournament winners Denmark, and later with France, before being eliminated by host nation Sweden.
The 1990s saw four England managers, each in the role for a relatively brief period. Graham Taylor was Robson 's successor, but resigned after England failed to qualify for the 1994 FIFA World Cup. At UEFA Euro 1996, held in England, Terry Venables led England, equalling their best performance at a European Championship, reaching the semi-finals as they did in 1968, before exiting via a penalty shoot - out loss to Germany.
He resigned following investigations into his financial activities. His successor, Glenn Hoddle, similarly left the job for non-footballing reasons after just one international tournament -- the 1998 FIFA World Cup -- in which England were eliminated in the second round again by Argentina and again on penalties (after a 2 -- 2 draw). Following Hoddle 's departure, Kevin Keegan took England to UEFA Euro 2000, but performances were disappointing and he resigned shortly afterwards.
Sven - Göran Eriksson took charge of the team between 2001 and 2006, and was the first non-English manager of England. He guided England to the quarter - finals of the 2002 FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro 2004, and the 2006 FIFA World Cup. England lost only five competitive matches during the Swede 's tenure, and England rose to number four in the world ranking under his guidance. Eriksson 's contract was extended by the Football Association by two years, to include UEFA Euro 2008. However, it was terminated by them at the 2006 World Cup 's conclusion.
Steve McClaren was then appointed as head coach, and was sacked unanimously by The Football Association on 22 November 2007, after failing to get the team to Euro 2008. The following month, he was replaced by a second foreign manager, Italian Fabio Capello, whose experience included stints at Juventus and Real Madrid.
England won all but one of their qualifying games for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, but at the tournament itself, England drew their opening two games; this led to questions about the team 's spirit, tactics and ability to handle pressure. They progressed to the next round, however, where they were beaten 4 -- 1 by Germany, their heaviest defeat in a World Cup finals tournament match.
In February 2012, Capello resigned from his role as England manager, following a disagreement with the FA over their request to remove John Terry from team captaincy after accusations of racial abuse concerning the player. Following this, there was media speculation that Harry Redknapp would take the job. However, on 1 May 2012, Roy Hodgson was announced as the new manager, just six weeks before UEFA Euro 2012. England managed to finish top of their group, winning two and drawing one of their fixtures, but exited the Championships in the quarter - finals via a penalty shoot - out, this time to Italy.
In the 2014 FIFA World Cup, England were eliminated at the group stage for the first time since the 1958 World Cup, and the first time at a major tournament since Euro 2000. England 's points total of one from three matches was its worst ever in the World Cup, obtaining one point from drawing against Costa Rica in their last match. England qualified for UEFA Euro 2016, with 10 wins from 10 qualifying matches, but were ultimately eliminated in the Round of 16, losing 2 -- 1 to Iceland. Hodgson resigned as manager immediately, and just under a month later was replaced by Sam Allardyce. After only 67 days Allardyce resigned from his managerial post by mutual agreement, after alleged breach of rules of the FA, making him the shortest serving permanent England manager. However, because his sole game as England manager was a 1 -- 0 victory against Slovakia, he left the job with a 100 % win rate, the best any England manager in history has ever had.
Gareth Southgate, then the coach of the England under - 21 team, was put in temporary charge of the national team until November of that year., before being given the position on a permanent basis. Under Southgate, England finished 1st in the qualifying group for the FIFA World Cup 2018, remaining unbeaten in the process. At the tournament, held in Russia, England came second in their group, behind Belgium and ahead of Tunisia and debutants Panama. They defeated Colombia on penalties in the first knock - out round, and then beat Sweden 2 - 0 in the quarter - final to reach only their third World Cup semi-final. In the semi-final, they were beaten 2 - 1 in extra time by Croatia. England were beaten by Belgium, 2 - 0, in the third place match.
England 's traditional home colours are white shirts, navy blue shorts and white or black socks. The team has periodically worn an all - white kit.
Although England 's first away kits were blue, England 's traditional away colours are red shirts, white shorts and red socks. In 1996, England 's away kit was changed to grey shirts, shorts and socks. This kit was only worn three times, including against Germany in the semi-final of Euro 1996 but the deviation from the traditional red was unpopular with supporters and the England away kit remained red until 2011, when a navy blue away kit was introduced. The away kit is also sometimes worn during home matches, when a new edition has been released to promote it.
England have occasionally had a third kit. At the 1970 World Cup England wore a third kit with pale blue shirts, shorts and socks against Czechoslovakia. They had a kit similar to Brazil 's, with yellow shirts, yellow socks and blue shorts which they wore in the summer of 1973. For the World Cup in 1986 England had a third kit of pale blue, imitating that worn in Mexico sixteen years before and England retained pale blue third kits until 1992, but they were rarely used.
Umbro first agreed to manufacture the kit in 1954 and since then has supplied most of the kits, the exceptions being from 1959 -- 1965 with Bukta and 1974 -- 1984 with Admiral. Nike purchased Umbro in 2008 and took over as kit supplier in 2013 following their sale of the Umbro brand.
The motif of the England national football team has three lions passant guardant, the emblem of King Richard I, who reigned from 1189 to 1199. In 1872, English players wore white jerseys emblazoned with the three lions crest of the Football Association. The lions, often blue, have had minor changes to colour and appearance. Initially topped by a crown, this was removed in 1949 when the FA was given an official coat of arms by the College of Arms; this introduced ten Tudor roses, one for each of the regional branches of the FA. Since 2003, England top their logo with a star to recognise their World Cup win in 1966; this was first embroidered onto the left sleeve of the home kit, and a year later was moved to its current position, first on the away shirt.
For the first fifty years of their existence, England played their home matches all around the country. They initially used cricket grounds before later moving on to football clubs ' stadiums. The original Empire Stadium was built in Wembley, London, for the British Empire Exhibition.
England played their first match at the stadium in 1924 against Scotland and for the next 27 years Wembley was used as a venue for matches against Scotland only. The stadium later became known simply as Wembley Stadium and it became England 's permanent home stadium during the 1950s. In October 2000, the stadium closed its doors, ending with a defeat.
This stadium was demolished during the period of 2002 -- 2003, and work began to completely rebuild it. During this time, England played at venues across the country, though by the time of the 2006 World Cup qualification, this had largely settled down to having Manchester United 's Old Trafford stadium as the primary venue, with Newcastle United 's St. James ' Park used on occasions when Old Trafford was unavailable.
They returned to the new Wembley Stadium in March 2007. The stadium is now owned by the Football Association, via its subsidiary Wembley National Stadium Limited.
All England matches are broadcast with full commentary on BBC Radio 5 Live. From the 2008 -- 09 season until the 2017 -- 18 season, England 's home and away qualifiers, and friendlies both home and away are broadcast live on ITV (often with the exception of STV, the ITV franchisee in central and northern Scotland). England 's away qualifiers for the 2010 World Cup were shown on Setanta Sports until that company 's collapse. As a result of Setanta Sports 's demise, England 's World Cup qualifier in Ukraine on 10 October 2009 was shown in the United Kingdom on a pay - per - view basis via the internet only. This one - off event was the first time an England game had been screened in such a way. The number of subscribers, paying between £ 4.99 and £ 11.99 each, was estimated at between 250,000 and 300,000 and the total number of viewers at around 500,000.
The following players were called up to the England squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup and preceding friendlies. Caps and goals correct as of: 14 July 2018, after the match against Belgium.
The following players have also been called up to the England squad within the last twelve months.
Withdrew from latest squad due to injury Preliminary squad / standby Player retired from the national team
Updated 9 October 2017.
Players in bold are still active, at least at club level.
Players with an equal number of caps are ranked in chronological order of reaching the milestone.
Updated 9 October 2017.
Players in bold are still active, at least at club level.
For the all - time record of the national team against opposing nations, see the team 's all - time record page
England first appeared at the 1950 FIFA World Cup, and have subsequently qualified for a total of 15 FIFA World Cup Finals tournaments, tied for sixth best by number of appearances. They are also tied for sixth by number of wins, alongside France and Spain. The national team is one of eight national teams to have won at least one FIFA World Cup title. The England team won their first and only World Cup title in 1966. The tournament was played on home soil, and England defeated West Germany 4 -- 2 in the final. In 1990, England finished in fourth place, losing 2 -- 1 to host nation Italy in the third place play - off, after losing on penalties to champions West Germany in the semi-final. They also finished in fourth place in 2018. The team also reached the quarter - final stage in 1954, 1962, 1970, 1986, 2002 and 2006.
England failed to qualify for the World Cup in 1974, 1978 and 1994. The team 's earliest exit in the finals tournament was its elimination in the first round in 1950, 1958 and, most recently, the 2014 FIFA World Cup, after being defeated in both their opening two matches for the first time, versus Italy and Uruguay in Group D. In 1950, four teams remained after the first round, in 1958 eight teams remained and in 2014 sixteen teams remained. In 2010, England suffered its most resounding World Cup defeat, 4 -- 1 to Germany, in the Round of 16. This after drawing with the United States and Algeria, and defeating Slovenia 1 -- 0, in the group stage.
Champions Runners - up Third place Fourth place
England 's greatest achievements at the UEFA European Championship have been to finish in third place in 1968 and 1996. England hosted Euro 96, and have qualified for nine UEFA European Championship finals tournaments, tied for fourth best by number of appearances. The team has also reached the quarter - final on two recent occasions, in 2004 and 2012. The team 's worst result in the competition was a first - round elimination in 1980, 1988, 1992 and 2000. The team did not enter in 1960, and failed to qualify for the finals in 1964, 1972, 1976, 1984, and 2008.
Major:
Regional:
Other:
CONCACAF and CFU:
Unrecognised:
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what is special about the hanging gardens of babylon | Hanging Gardens of Babylon - wikipedia
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World as listed by Hellenic culture, described as a remarkable feat of engineering with an ascending series of tiered gardens containing a wide variety of trees, shrubs, and vines, resembling a large green mountain constructed of mud bricks, and said to have been built in the ancient city of Babylon, near present - day Hillah, Babil province, in Iraq.
According to one legend, the Neo-Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled between 605 and 562 BC, built the Hanging Gardens, alongside a grand palace that came to be known as The Marvel of Mankind, for his Median wife, Queen Amytis, because she missed the green hills and valleys of her homeland; this is attested to by the Babylonian priest Berossus, writing in about 290 BC, and quoted later by Josephus.
The Hanging Gardens are the only one of the Seven Wonders for which the location has not been definitively established. There are no extant Babylonian texts which mention the gardens, and no definitive archaeological evidence has been found in Babylon. Three theories have been suggested to account for this. One: that they were purely mythical, and the descriptions found in ancient Greek and Roman writers including Strabo, Diodorus Siculus and Quintus Curtius Rufus represent a romantic ideal of an eastern garden. Two: that they existed in Babylon, but were completely destroyed sometime around the first century AD. Three: that the legend refers to a well - documented garden that the Assyrian King Sennacherib (704 -- 681 BC) built in his capital city of Nineveh on the River Tigris, near the modern city of Mosul.
There are five principal writers whose descriptions of Babylon are extant in some form today. These writers concern themselves with the size of the Hanging Gardens, their overall design and means of irrigation, and why they were built.
Josephus (c. 37 -- 100 AD) quotes a description of the gardens by Berossus, a Babylonian priest of Marduk writing circa 290 BC. Berossus described the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and is the only source to credit that king with the construction of the Hanging Gardens.
In this palace he erected very high walks, supported by stone pillars; and by planting what was called a pensile paradise, and replenishing it with all sorts of trees, he rendered the prospect an exact resemblance of a mountainous country. This he did to gratify his queen, because she had been brought up in Media, and was fond of a mountainous situation.
Diodorus Siculus (active c. 60 -- 30 BC) seems to have consulted the 4th century BC texts of both Cleitarchus (a historian of Alexander the Great) and Ctesias of Cnidus. Diodorus ascribes the construction to a Syrian king. He states that the garden was in the shape of a square, with each side approximately four plethra long. The garden was tiered, with the uppermost gallery being 50 cubits high. The walls, 22 feet thick, were made of brick. The bases of the tiered sections were sufficiently deep to provide root growth for the largest trees, and the gardens were irrigated from the nearby Euphrates.
Quintus Curtius Rufus (fl. 1st century AD) probably drew on the same sources as Diodorus. He states that the gardens were located on top of a citadel, which was 20 stadia in circumference. He attributes the building of the gardens to a Syrian king, again for the reason that his queen missed her homeland.
The account of Strabo (c. 64 BC -- 21 AD) possibly based his account on the lost account of Onesicritus from the 4th century BC He mentions that the gardens were watered by means of a screw leading to the gardens from the Euphrates.
The last of the classical sources, thought to be independent of the others, is A Handbook to the Seven Wonders of the World, authored not by Philo of Byzantium, but by another author of the same name who flourished in the 4th to 5th century AD. The method of raising water by screw matches that described by Strabo. The author marvels at the engineering and ingenuity of building vast areas of deep soil, which had a tremendous mass, so far above the natural grade of the surrounding land, as well as the irrigation techniques.
There is some controversy as to whether the Hanging Gardens were an actual construction or a poetic creation, owing to the lack of documentation in contemporaneous Babylonian sources. There is also no mention of Nebuchadnezzar 's wife Amyitis (or any other wives), although a political marriage to a Median or Persian would not have been unusual. Many records exist of Nebuchadnezzar 's works, yet his long and complete inscriptions do not mention any garden.
Herodotus, who describes Babylon in his Histories, does not mention the Hanging Gardens.
To date, no archaeological evidence has been found at Babylon for the Hanging Gardens. It is possible that evidence exists beneath the Euphrates, which can not be excavated safely at present. The river flowed east of its current position during the time of Nebuchadnezzar II, and little is known about the western portion of Babylon. Rollinger has suggested that Berossus attributed the Gardens to Nebuchadnezzar for political reasons, and that he had adopted the legend from elsewhere.
A recent theory proposes that the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were actually constructed by the Assyrian king Sennacherib (reigned 704 -- 681 BC) for his palace at Nineveh. Stephanie Dalley posits that during the intervening centuries the two sites became confused, and the extensive gardens at Sennacherib 's palace were attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II 's Babylon. Recently discovered evidence includes excavation of a vast system of aqueducts inscribed to Sennacherib, which Dalley proposes were part of a 80 - kilometre (50 mi) series of canals, dams, and aqueducts used to carry water to Nineveh with water - raising screws used to raise it to the upper levels of the gardens.
Dalley bases her arguments on recent developments in the decipherment of contemporary Akkadian inscriptions. Her main points are:
King Sennacherib 's Hanging Garden was considered a world wonder not just for its beauty -- a year - round oasis of lush green in a dusty summer landscape -- but also for the marvelous feats of water engineering that maintained the garden.
There was a tradition of Assyrian royal garden building. King Ashurnasirpal II (883 -- 859 BC) had created a canal, which cut through the mountains. Fruit tree orchards were planted. Also mentioned were pines, cypresses and junipers; almond trees, date trees, ebony, rosewood, olive, oak, tamarisk, walnut, terebinth, ash, fir, pomegranate, pear, quince, fig, and grapes.
Sennacherib is the only Mesopotamian king who has left a record of his love for his wife. Of Sennacherib 's palace, he mentions the massive limestone blocks that reinforce the flood defences. Parts of the palace were excavated by Austin Henry Layard in the mid-19th century. His citadel plan shows contours which would be consistent with Sennacherib 's garden, but its position has not been confirmed. The area has been used as a military base in recent times, making it difficult to investigate further.
A sculptured wall panel of Assurbanipal shows the garden in its maturity. One original panel and the drawing of another are held by the British Museum, although neither is on public display. Several features mentioned by the classical authors are discernible on these contemporary images.
The irrigation of such a garden demanded an upgraded water supply to the city of Nineveh. The canals stretched over 50 km into the mountains. Sennacherib was proud of the technologies he had employed and describes them in some detail on his inscriptions. At the headwater of Bavian (Khinnis) his inscription mentions automatic sluice gates. An enormous aqueduct crossing the valley at Jerwan was constructed of over 2 million dressed stones. It used stone arches and waterproof cement. On it is written:
Sennacherib king of the world king of Assyria. Over a great distance I had a watercourse directed to the environs of Nineveh, joining together the waters... Over steep - sided valleys I spanned an aqueduct of white limestone blocks, I made those waters flow over it.
Sennacherib claims to be the first to deploy a new casting technique in place of the "lost - wax '' process for his monumental (30 tonne) bronze castings.
Sennacherib could bring the water into his garden at a high level because it was sourced from further up the mountains. He then raised the water even higher by deploying his new water screws. This meant he could build a garden that towered above the landscape with large trees on the top of the terraces -- a stunning artistic effect that surpassed those of his predecessors and which justifies his own claim to have built a "Wonder for all Peoples ''.
Coordinates: 32 ° 32 ′ 08 '' N 44 ° 25 ′ 39 '' E / 32.5355 ° N 44.4275 ° E / 32.5355; 44.4275
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who scored the most goals for bayern munich | List of FC Bayern Munich records and statistics - wikipedia
This list has details on FC Bayern Munich records and statistics.
Information on the club 's coaches before the Bundesliga era is hard to come by. The information as given in the following table is from the club 's website.
In contrast to the pre-Bundesliga era a list of coaches since the inception of the national league (Bundesliga) in 1963 is readily available on the club 's website. Felix Magath (in 2005), Ottmar Hitzfeld (in 2008), Louis van Gaal (in 2010), and Jupp Heynckes (in 2013) were awarded the title of German Football Manager of the Year for their work at Bayern. In 2001 Hitzfeld was awarded UEFA Coach of the Year and the IFFHS World 's Best Club Coach titles. Also in 2013 Heynckes was awarded FIFA World Coach of the Year and the IFFHS World 's Best Club Coach titles.
At the club 's founding Franz John was appointed as the first president. The current president, Uli Hoeneß, is Bayern 's 37th president with several presidents having multiple spells in office (counted separately.)
Bayern has won 68 major trophies. National titles (57) International titles (11)
Bayern is one of only five clubs to have won all three major European competitions. Bayern are also the last club to have won the European Cup three times in a row, entitling them to wear a multiple - winner badge during Champions League matches.
The scores by Müller of 1972, 70 and 73 are still unmatched record!
The following World Cup winning players, played at Bayern Munich at some point during their career. Highlighted Players played for Bayern Munich while winning the World Cup.
Franz Beckenbauer won the World Cup 1974 as player and 1990 as coach. He was also player and later coach for Bayern Munich. Jupp Heynckes won the World Cup as player and later became coach of Bayern Munich.
Since 1945 (Entrance to Oberliga Süd)
Since 1945 (Entrance to Oberliga Süd)
^ I: The represent are the AG 's earnings and revenues. ^ II: The number represents the club 's members.
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how many lists are there in the indian constitution | State List - wikipedia
The State List or List - II is a list of 61 items (Initially there were 66 items in the list) in Schedule Seven to the Constitution of India. The legislative section is divided into three lists: Union List, State List and Concurrent List. Unlike the federal governments of the United States, Switzerland or Australia, residual powers remain with the Union Government, as with the Canadian federal government.
If any provision of a law made by the Legislature of a State is repugnant to any provision of a law made by Parliament which Parliament is competent to enact, or to any provision of an existing law with respect to one of the matters enumerated in the Concurrent List, then, the law made by Parliament, whether passed before or after the law made by the Legislature of such State, or, as the case may be, the existing law, shall prevail and the law made by the Legislature of the State shall, to the extent of the repugnancy, be void. There is an exception to this in cases "where a law made by the Legislature of a State with respect to one of the matters enumerated in the Concurrent List contains any provision repugnant to the provisions of an earlier law made by Parliament or an existing law with respect to that matter, then, the law so made by the Legislature of such State shall, if it has been reserved for the consideration of the President and has received his assent, prevail in that State. Provided that nothing in this clause shall prevent Parliament from enacting at any time any law with respect to the same matter including a law adding to, amending, varying or repealing the law so made by the Legislature of the State. ''
The 61 items currently on the list are:
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what is the name of cheetah in english | Cheetah - wikipedia
Former range Low density Medium density High density
The cheetah (/ ˈtʃiːtə /; Acinonyx jubatus) is a large cat of the subfamily Felinae that occurs in Southern, North and East Africa, and a few localities in Iran. The species is IUCN Red Listed as vulnerable, as it suffered a substantial decline in its historic range in the 20th century due to habitat loss, poaching, illegal pet trade, and conflict with humans. By 2016, the global cheetah population has been estimated at approximately 7,100 individuals in the wild. Several African countries have taken steps to improve cheetah conservation measures.
It is the fastest land animal. The only extant member of the genus Acinonyx, the cheetah was formally described by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1775. The cheetah is characterised by a slender body, deep chest, spotted coat, small rounded head, black tear - like streaks on the face, long thin legs and long spotted tail. Its lightly built, slender form is in sharp contrast with the robust build of the big cats, making it more similar to the cougar. The cheetah reaches nearly 70 to 90 cm (28 to 35 in) at the shoulder, and weighs 21 -- 72 kg (46 -- 159 lb). Though taller than the leopard, it is notably smaller than the lion. Typically yellowish tan or rufous to greyish white, the coat is uniformly covered with nearly 2,000 solid black spots.
Cheetahs are active mainly during the day, with hunting their major activity. Adult males are sociable despite their territoriality, forming groups called coalitions. Females are not territorial; they may be solitary or live with their offspring in home ranges. Carnivores, cheetah mainly prey upon antelopes and gazelles. They will stalk their prey to within 100 -- 300 m (330 -- 980 ft), charge towards it and kill it by tripping it during the chase and biting its throat to suffocate it to death. Cheetahs can reach speeds of 112 km / h (70 mph) in short bursts, but this is disputed by more recent measurements. The average speed of cheetahs is about 64 km / h (40 mph). Cheetahs are induced ovulators, breeding throughout the year. Gestation is nearly three months long, resulting in a litter of typically three to five cubs (the number can vary from one to eight). Weaning occurs at six months; siblings tend to stay together for some time. Cheetah cubs face higher mortality than most other mammals, especially in the Serengeti region. Cheetahs inhabit a variety of habitats -- dry forests, scrub forests and savannahs.
Because of its prowess at hunting, the cheetah was tamed and used to kill game at hunts in the past. The animal has been widely depicted in art, literature, advertising and animation.
The vernacular name "cheetah '' is derived from cītā (Hindi: चीता), which in turn comes from the Sanskrit word citrakāyaḥ (चित्रकायः) meaning "bright '' or "variegated ''. The first recorded use of this word has been dated back to 1610. An alternative name for the cheetah is "hunting leopard ''. The scientific name of the cheetah is Acinonyx jubatus. The generic name Acinonyx originated from the combination of two Greek words: akinetos means motionless, and onyx means claw. A rough translation of the word would be "non-moving claws '', a reference to the limited retractability (capability of being drawn inside the paw) of the claws of the cheetah relative to other cats '. The specific name jubatus means "maned '' in Latin, referring to the dorsal crest of this animal.
Lynx rufus (Bobcat)
L. canadensis (Canadian lynx)
L. pardinus (Iberian lynx)
L. lynx (Eurasian lynx)
Acinonyx jubatus (Cheetah)
Puma concolor (Cougar)
Herpailurus yagouaroundi (Jaguarundi)
Felis chaus (Jungle cat)
F. nigripes (Black - footed cat)
F. silvestris silvestris (European wildcat)
F. margarita (Sand cat)
F. silvestris lybica (African wildcat)
F. catus (Domestic cat)
The cheetah is the only extant species of the genus Acinonyx. It belongs to Felinae, the subfamily of Felidae that also includes lynxes, wildcats, and the puma. The species was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in his 1775 publication Die Säugethiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur mit Beschreibungen.
The cheetah 's closest relatives are the cougar (Puma concolor) and the jaguarundi (Herpailurus yagouaroundi). These three species together form the Puma lineage, one of the eight lineages of Felidae. The sister group of the Puma lineage is a clade of smaller Old World cats that includes the genera Felis, Otocolobus and Prionailurus.
Although the cheetah is an Old World cat, molecular evidence indicates that the three species of the Puma lineage evolved in North America two to three million years ago, where they possibly had a common ancestor during the Miocene. They possibly diverged from this ancestor 8.25 million years ago. The cheetah diverged from the puma and the jaguarundi around 6.7 million years ago. A genome study suggests that cheetahs experienced two genetic bottlenecks in their history, the first about 100,000 years ago and the second about 12,000 years ago, greatly lowering their genetic variability. These bottlenecks may have been associated with migrations across Asia and into Africa (with the current African population founded about 12,000 years ago), and / or with a depletion of prey species at the end of the Pleistocene.
Cheetah fossils found in the lower beds of the Olduvai Gorge site in northern Tanzania date back to the Pleistocene. The extinct species of Acinonyx are older than the cheetah, with the oldest known from the late Pliocene; these fossils are about three million years old. These species include Acinonyx pardinensis (Pliocene epoch), notably larger than the modern cheetah, and A. intermedius (mid-Pleistocene period). While the range of A. intermedius stretched from Europe to China, A pardinensis spanned over Eurasia as well as eastern and southern Africa. A variety of larger cheetah believed to have existed in Europe fell to extinction around half a million years ago.
Extinct North American cats resembling the cheetah had historically been assigned to Felis, Puma or Acinonyx. However, a phylogenetic analysis in 1990 placed these species under the genus Miracinonyx. Miracinonyx exhibited a high degree of similarity with the cheetah. However, in 1998, a DNA analysis showed that Miracinonyx inexpectatus, M. studeri, and M. trumani (early to late Pleistocene epoch), found in North America, are more closely related to the cougar than modern cheetahs.
In 1775, Schreber described a stuffed cheetah skin from the Cape of Good Hope. In the 19th and 20th centuries, several cheetah specimen were described and proposed as subspecies. The following table is based on the classification of the species provided in Mammal Species of the World. It also reflects the classification used by IUCN Red List assessors and the revision by the Cat Classification Task Force:
It occurs in Southern and East African countries including Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. It is regionally extinct in Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi. In 2007, the Southern African population was roughly estimated at less than 5,000 to maximum 6,500 adult individuals. In 2010, it was reported to persist in Iona National Park in southwestern Angola. It was introduced in the Hlane Royal National Park of Swaziland and reintroduced in Malawi 's Liwonde National Park. Since 1999, the population suffered a massive decline in Zimbabwe. as well as in Mozambique following the civil wars during 1980s and 1990s.
It is thought to have been separated from the Asiatic cheetah nearly 0.32 -- 0.67 million years ago.
It used to occur from the Arabian Peninsula and to Turkey, Central Asia, Afghanistan and Pakistan to India.
The diploid number of chromosomes in the cheetah is 38, the same as in most other felids (though for the ocelot and the margay the number is 36). A remarkable feature of the cheetah is its unusually low genetic variability in comparison to other felids. Consequently, individuals show considerable genetic similarity to one another, as illustrated by skin grafts, electrophoretic evidence and reproductive surveys. A prolonged period of inbreeding, following a genetic bottleneck during the last ice age, is believed to be the reason behind this anomaly. The consequences of such genetic uniformity might include a low sperm count, decreased sperm motility, deformed flagella, difficulty in captive breeding and susceptibility to disease.
The king cheetah is a variety of cheetah with a rare mutation for cream - coloured fur marked with large, blotchy spots and three dark, wide stripes extending from their neck to the tail. In 1926 Major A. Cooper wrote about an animal he had shot near modern - day Harare. Describing the animal, he noted its remarkable similarity to the cheetah, but the body of this individual was covered with fur as thick as that of a snow leopard and the spots merged to form stripes. He suggested that it could be a cross between a leopard and a cheetah. After further similar animals were discovered, it was established they were similar to the cheetah in having non-retractable claws -- a characteristic feature of the cheetah.
English zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock described it as a new species by the name of Acinonyx rex ("rex '' being Latin for "king '', the name translated to "king cheetah ''); However, he changed his position on its species status in 1939. English hunter - naturalist Abel Chapman considered it to be a colour morph of the spotted cheetah. Since 1927 the king cheetah has been reported five more times in the wild; an individual was photographed in 1975.
In May 1981 two spotted sisters gave birth at the De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Centre (South Africa), and each litter contained one king cheetah. Each sister had mated with a wild male from the Transvaal region (where king cheetahs had been recorded). Further king cheetahs were later born at the Centre. They have been known to exist in Zimbabwe, Botswana and northern Transvaal. In 2012 the cause of this alternative coat pattern was found to be a mutation in the gene for transmembrane aminopeptidase Q (Taqpep), the same gene responsible for the striped "mackerel '' versus blotchy "classic '' patterning seen in tabby cats. Hence, genetically the king cheetah is simply a variety of the common cheetah and not a separate species. This case is similar to that of the black panthers. The appearance is caused by a mutation in a recessive gene. As a result, if two mating cheetahs have the same gene, then a quarter of their offspring can be expected to be king cheetahs.
The cheetah is a felid with several distinctive features -- a slender body, deep chest, spotted pelage, a small rounded head, black tear - like streaks on the face, long thin legs and a long spotted tail. Its lightly built, slender form is in sharp contrast with the robust build of the big cats. The head - and - body length ranges from 112 -- 150 centimetres (44 -- 59 in). Adult cheetahs average 70 -- 90 cm (28 -- 35 in) at the shoulder, and weigh 21 -- 72 kilograms (46 -- 159 lb). It is taller than the leopard, which stands nearly 55 -- 70 centimetres (22 -- 28 in) at the shoulder. The weight range of the cheetah overlaps with that of the leopard, which weighs 28 -- 65 kilograms (62 -- 143 lb). On the other hand, the cheetah is significantly shorter than the lion, whose average height is nearly 120 centimetres (47 in). Moreover, it is much lighter than the lion, among which females weigh 126 kilograms (278 lb) and the much heavier males weigh 186 kilograms (410 lb). Based on measurements, the smallest cheetahs have been reported from the Sahara, northeastern Africa and Iran. A sexually dimorphic species, males are generally larger than females.
The head is small and rounded. Saharan cheetah have narrow canine faces. Small, short, and rounded, the ears are marked by black patches on the back; the edges and base of the ears are tawny. The high - set eyes have round pupils. The whiskers, shorter and fewer in number than those of other felids, are fine and inconspicuous. The pronounced tear streaks are unique to the cheetah. These streaks originate from the corner of the eyes and run down the nose to the mouth. Their role is obscure -- they may be serving as a shield for the eyes against the sun 's glare, a helpful feature as the cheetah hunts mainly during the day; another purpose could be to define facial expressions.
Basically yellowish tan or rufous to greyish white, the coat of the cheetah is uniformly covered with nearly 2,000 solid black spots. The upper parts are in stark contrast to the underbelly, which is completely white. Each spot measures nearly 3.2 -- 5.1 centimetres (1.3 -- 2.0 in) across. Every cheetah has a unique pattern of spots on its coat; hence, this serves as a distinct identity for each individual. Cheetah fur is short and often coarse. Fluffy fur covers the chest and the ventral side. Several colour morphs of the cheetah have been identified, including melanistic and albino forms. Black cheetah have been observed in Kenya and Zambia. In 1877 -- 1878, English zoologist Philip Sclater described two partially albino specimens from South Africa. A ticked (tabby) cheetah was photographed in Kenya in 2012. Juveniles are typically dark with long, loose, blue to grey hair. A short mane, about 8 centimetres (3.1 in) long, on the neck and the shoulders, is all that remains of the cape in adults. The exceptionally long and muscular tail measures 60 -- 80 centimetres (24 -- 31 in), and ends in a bushy white tuft. While the first two - thirds of the tail are covered in spots, the final part is marked with four to six dark rings or stripes. The arrangement of the terminal stripes of the tail differs among individuals, but the stripe patterns of siblings are very similar. In fact, the tail of an individual will typically resemble its siblings ' to a greater extent than it resembles its mother 's or any other individual 's.
The cheetah is sometimes confused with the leopard, and can be distinguished by its small round spots in contrast to the leopard 's rosettes in addition, the leopard lacks the tear streaks of the cheetah. The cougar possesses neither the tear streaks nor the spotted coat pattern of the cheetah. The serval has a form very similar to that of the cheetah but is significantly smaller. Moreover, it has a shorter tail and spots that fuse to form stripes on the back.
Being in the genus Acinonyx, the morphology of the cheetah differs notably from the big cats (genus Panthera). The face and the jaw are unusually shortened and the sagittal crest is poorly developed, possibly to reduce weight and enhance speed. In fact, the skull resembles that of the smaller cats. Another point of similarity to the small cats is the long and flexible spine, in contrast to the stiff and short one of other large felids. A 2001 study of felid morphology stated that the truncation of the development of the middle phalanx bone in the cheetah at a relatively younger age than other felids could be a major reason for the peculiar morphology of the cheetah. The cheetah appears to show convergent evolution with canids in morphology as well as behaviour. For example, the cheetah has a relatively long snout, long legs and deep chest, tough foot pads and blunt, semi-retractable claws; moreover, its hunting behaviour resembles that of canids. In the 2001 study, it was observed that the claws of cheetah have features intermediate between those of felids and the wolf. In the Puma lineage, the cheetah 's skull morphology is similar to that of the puma -- both have short, wide skulls -- while that of the jaguarundi is different.
The cheetah has a total of 30 teeth; the dental formula is 3.1. 3.1 3.1. 2.1. The deciduous dentition is 3.1. 23.1. 2. The sharp, narrow cheek teeth help in tearing flesh, whereas the small and flat canine teeth bite the throat of the prey to suffocate it. Males have slightly bigger heads with wider incisors and longer mandibles than females. The muscles between the skull and jaw are short, and thus do not allow the cheetah to open its mouth as much as other cats. Digitigrade animals, the cheetah have tough foot pads that make it convenient to run on firm ground. The hind legs are longer than the forelegs. The relatively longer metacarpals, metatarsals (of the lower leg), radius, ulna, tibia, and fibula increase the length of each jump. The straightening of the flexible vertebral column also adds to the length.
Cheetahs have a high concentration of nerve cells, arranged in a band in the centre of the eyes. This arrangement, called a "visual streak '', significantly enhances the sharpness of the vision. Among the felids, the visual streak is most concentrated and efficient in the cheetah. The nasal passages are short and large; the smallness of the canines helps to accommodate the large nostrils. The cheetah is unable to roar due to the presence of a sharp - edged vocal fold within the larynx.
The paws of the cheetah are narrower than those of other felids. The slightly curved claws lack a protective sheath and are weakly retractable (semi-retractable). This is a major point of difference between the cheetah and the big cats, which have fully retractable claws, and a similarity to canids. Additionally, the claws of the cheetah are shorter as well as straighter than those of other cats. Absence of protection makes the claws blunt; however, the large and strongly curved dewclaw is remarkably sharp.
Cheetahs are diurnal (active mainly during the day), whereas leopards, tigers, and lions are nocturnal (active mainly at night); diurnality allows better observation and monitoring of the animal. Hunting is the major activity throughout the day; peaks are observed during dawn and dusk indicating crepuscular tendencies. Groups rest in grassy clearings after dusk, though males and juveniles often roam around at night. The cheetah is an alert animal; individuals often inspect their vicinity at observation points such as elevations. Even while resting, they take turns at keeping a lookout.
Apart from the lion, the cheetah is the only cat that is gregarious; however, female cheetahs tend to remain solitary. Tim Caro, of the University of California, Davis, identified the various social classes and their longevity. Pregnant and nursing females, a few adolescents, and males who have not joined any groups are typically solitary. Non-lactating females, their cubs, adolescent siblings, and several males will form their own groups. A loose association between individuals of the opposite sex can be observed during the breeding season. These social groups typically keep away from one another.
Adult males are typically gregarious despite their territoriality, and may group together for life and form "coalitions ''. These groups collectively defend their territories. In most cases, a coalition will comprise brothers born in the same litter who stayed together after weaning. However, if a cub is the only male in the litter, then two or three lone males may form a small group, or a lone male may join an existing group. Males in coalitions establish territories that ensure maximum access to females. Solitary males may or may not be territorial. Some males alternate between solitude and coalitions, whichever ensures encounters with a greater number of females. Although a coalition, due to its larger membership, demands a greater amount of resources than do the solitary males or their groups, the coalition has a greater chance of encountering and acquiring females for mating.
Females are not territorial, and live alone or with their offspring. Juveniles form mixed - sex groups after weaning, but most of the young females stay back with their mother, with whom they do not show any significant interaction. Males eventually mature and try to acquire territories.
Males in coalitions establish territories in locations that ensure maximum access to females. Males exhibit marking behaviour -- territories, termite mounds, trees, common tracks and junctions, and trees are marked by urine, faeces, and claw scratches. The sizes can be location specific. For example, territories range from 33 to 42 km (13 to 16 sq mi) in the Serengeti, while in the Phinda Private Game Reserve, the size can be 57 to 161 km (22 to 62 sq mi). Territorial solitary males establish considerably larger territories, as large as 777 km (300 sq mi) in the Serengeti or 1,390 km (540 sq mi) in central Namibia. A 1987 study of the social organisation in males showed that territoriality depends on the size and age of the males and the membership of the coalition. It concluded that solitary as well as grouped males have a nearly equal chance of coming across females, but the males in coalitions are notably healthier and have better chances of survival than their solitary counterparts. In the Serengeti, only 4 % of the solitary males hold territories, while those who joined coalitions were far more successful. The average period for which territories are held is four months for singletons, seven - and - a-half months for pairs, and 22 months for trios.
Males exhibit pronounced marking behaviour -- territories, termite mounds, trees, common tracks, and junctions are marked by urine, faeces, and claw scratches. Males marking their territory by urination stand less than a metre away from a tree or rock surface with the tail raised, pointing the penis either horizontally backward or 60 ° upward. Territorial clashes can take place between two coalitions, or coalitions and solitary males; fights, however, are rarely gruesome. Another major reason for fights is to acquire dominance in the breeding season. These can even involve cannibalism.
Unlike male and other felines, female cheetahs do not establish territories. Instead, they live in unguarded areas, known as "home ranges ''. Though home ranges often overlap, there is hardly any interaction between the females. Females are regular visitors to male territories. The size of a home range depends mainly on the availability of prey. The greater the density of prey animals in an area, the smaller the home range of a female cheetah there. In areas with nomadic prey animals (such as the Thomson 's gazelle in the Serengeti and the springbok in the Kalahari Desert), the home ranges cover hundreds of square kilometres. In contrast, home ranges are merely 100 -- 200 square kilometres (39 -- 77 sq mi) large where sedentary prey, such as the impala in the Kruger National Park, is available.
The cheetah is a vocal felid. A wide variety of cheetah vocalisations have been identified by several terms, but most of these lack a detailed acoustic description, which makes it difficult to assess reliably which term denotes which sound. In 2010 Robert Eklund (of the University of Göteborg, Sweden) and colleagues published a detailed report on the purring of the cheetah and compared it with that observed in other felids. The cheetah purrs when content, or to greet known individuals. A characteristic of purring is that it is realised on both egressive and ingressive airstreams. Other vocalisations Eklund identified include:
R.D. Estes has listed, in addition to the aforementioned vocalisations, some other sounds made by the cheetah:
Scent plays a significant role in olfactory communication. Cheetahs often investigate urine - marked places (territories or common landmarks) for a long time by crouching on their forelegs and carefully smelling the place. Then the male will itself urinate there and sniff at its own scent before leaving. Other observing individuals will repeat the ritual. Females may also show marking behaviour but less prominently than the males. Females in oestrus will show maximum urine - marking, and her excrement can attract males from far off.
Social meetings are marked by mutual sniffing in oral and genital areas, grooming one another, rubbing the cheeks, and face - licking. Further physical contact has not been observed.
The tear streaks are a means of visual communication. The tear streaks combined with the black lips and the contrasting white fur give the face a striking appearance and form clear expressions when viewed from a close range. The ears and the face are obscure from a distance, and so are the expressions. On the other hand, the tail is quite conspicuous and is probably used by mothers to direct juveniles to follow them.
Cheetahs engage in several displays during fights, hunting, or self - defence. Prior to a sprint, the cheetah will hold its head down, with aggression on its face, and approach the target in a stiff gait. The aggressive expression is maintained during the run. To defend itself or its prey, a cheetah will hold its body low to the ground, and produce a snarl with its mouth wide open, the eyes staring threateningly ahead and the ears folded backward. This may be accompanied by moans, hisses, and growls. In more severe cases, the ground is hit with the paws. Fights are characterised by biting, tearing out the fur and attempts at strangling on both sides.
The cheetah is a carnivore that prefers medium - sized prey with a body mass ranging from 23 to 56 kg (51 to 123 lb). Blesbok, duiker, Grant 's gazelle, impala, reedbuck, springbok, and Thomson 's gazelle are some of the common targets of the cheetah. Other prey animals include the bat - eared fox, bushbuck, kudu, hartebeest, nyala, oribi, roan antelope, steenbok, sable antelope, and waterbuck; they prey less frequently on the African buffalo, gemsbok, giraffe, ostrich, warthog, wildebeest, and zebra. A study showed that a major proportion of the diet of Asiatic cheetahs consists of livestock; local species such as chinkara, desert hare, goitered gazelle, ibex, rodents, and wild sheep are also hunted. Generally, only groups of cheetahs will attempt to kill large animals such as hartebeest, although mothers with young cubs will attempt to secure a large prey all by themselves. There are no records of cheetah killing human beings. The diet of a cheetah depends on the area in which it lives. For example, on the East African plains, its preferred prey is the Thomson 's gazelle, somewhat smaller than the cheetah. In contrast, in Kwa - Zulu Natal the preferred prey is the significantly larger nyala, males of which can weigh up to 130 kg (290 lb). They do, however, opt for young and adolescent targets, which make up about 50 % of the cheetah diet despite constituting only a small portion of the prey population.
Cheetahs hunt primarily throughout the day, but geographical variations exist. For instance, cheetahs in the Sahara and the Masai Mara hunt after sunset to escape the high temperatures of the day. In the Serengeti they hunt when the lions and hyenas are inactive. A study in Nairobi National Park in Kenya showed that the success of the hunt depends on the species, age, sex, and habitat of the prey, and the size of the hunting herd or the efficiency of the hunting individual. Cheetahs hunt by vision rather than by scent. Prey is located from observation points or while roaming. Animals toward the edges of the herd are preferred. The cheetah will stalk their prey to within 100 -- 300 m (330 -- 980 ft); it will try to approach it as closely as possible while concealing itself in cover, sometimes even up to within 60 m (200 ft) of the prey. The cheetah will crouch and move slowly while stalking, occasionally becoming motionless. The chase usually lasts less than a minute; if the cheetah fails to make a kill quickly, it will give up. Cheetahs have an average hunting success rate of 40 to 50 %.
Cheetahs kill their prey by tripping it during the chase; the cheetah can use its strong dewclaw to knock the prey off its balance. To kill medium - to large - sized prey, the cheetah bites the prey 's throat to suffocate it to death. A bite on the back of the neck or the snout is enough to kill smaller prey. The prey is then taken to a shaded place; the cheetah, highly exhausted after the chase, rests beside the kill and pants heavily for nearly five to 55 minutes. Groups of cheetah devour the kill peacefully, though minor growling may be observed. Cheetahs not involved in hunting will immediately start eating. Cheetah can consume large quantities of food. In a study at the Etosha National Park (Namibia), the cheetah consumed as much as 10 kilograms (22 lb) within two hours and stayed close to the remains for 11 hours. Cheetah move their head from side to side so that the sharp carnassial teeth effectively tear the flesh, which can then be swallowed without chewing. They typically begin with the hindquarters, and then progress toward the abdomen and the spine. Rib bones are chewed on at the ends, and the limbs are not generally torn apart while eating.
The cheetah, especially mothers with young cubs, are highly vigilant; they need to remain on a lookout for large carnivores who might steal the prey or harm the cubs, and for any potential prey. In Africa, the cheetah surrenders its kill to sturdier carnivores such as lions, leopards, spotted and brown hyenas, and wild dogs. Cheetahs lose around 10 to 15 % of their kills to other predators; the percentage was found to be as high as 50 % in a 1986 study. Cheetahs have rarely been observed to feed on the kills of other carnivores; this may be due to vultures and spotted hyena adroitly capturing and consuming heavy carcasses within a short time.
In Central Asia, the cheetah competed with grey wolf, and to a lesser extent also with striped hyena, leopard and caracal.
The cheetah 's thin and light body makes it well - suited to short, explosive bursts of speed, rapid acceleration, and an ability to execute extreme changes in direction while moving at high speed. These adaptations account for much of the cheetah 's ability to catch fast - moving prey.
The cheetah is the fastest land animal. It was called the "felid version of the greyhound '', as both have similar morphology and the ability to reach tremendous speeds in a shorter time than other mammals.
The large nasal passages ensure fast flow of sufficient air, and the enlarged heart and lungs allow the enrichment of blood with oxygen in a short time. This allows cheetahs to rapidly regain their stamina after a chase. During a typical chase, their respiratory rate increases from 60 to 150 breaths per minute. While running, in addition to having good traction due to their semi-retractable claws, cheetahs use their tail as a rudder - like means of steering that enables them to make sharp turns, necessary to outflank antelopes that often change direction to escape during a chase. The protracted claws increase grip over the ground, while foot pads make the sprint more convenient over tough ground. The tight binding of the tibia and the fibula restrict rotation about the lower leg, thus stabilising the animal throughout the sprint; the downside, however, is that this reduces climbing efficiency. The pendulum - like motion of the scapula increases the stride length and assists in shock absorption. The extension of the vertebral column can add as much as 76 cm (30 in) to the length of a stride. During more than half of the time of the sprint, the animal has all four limbs in the air; this also contributes to the stride length.
The cheetah runs no more than 500 m (1,640 ft) at the speed of 80 to 112 km / h (50 to 70 mph); it very rarely runs at this high speed as most chases are within 100 m (330 ft).
A 1973 study suggested that cheetah sprinting distance was limited by excessive heat buildup. A more recent work has shown that while cheetah body temperatures increase during a run, temperature does n't appear to lead cheetahs to abandon hunts as their temperatures are higher after successfully catching prey than when unsuccessful.
In general, the speed of a hunting cheetah averages 64 km / h (40 mph) during a chase, interspersed with a few short bursts when the speed may vary between 104 and 120 km / h (65 and 75 mph); the most reliable measurement of the typical speed during a short chase is 112 km / h (70 mph). However, this value of the maximum speed is disputed, with more recent measurements using solar - powered GPS collars in 367 hunts showing a maximum speed of 93 km / h (58 mph). The speeds attained by the cheetah may be only slightly greater than those achieved by the pronghorn 88.5 km / h (55.0 mph) and the springbok 88 km / h (55 mph). Yet the cheetah has a greater probability of succeeding in the chase due to its exceptional acceleration -- it can attain a speed of 75 km / h (47 mph) in just two seconds. One stride or jump of a galloping cheetah averages 6.7 metres (22 ft). Similarly, the ability to change direction rapidly is pivotal in ensuring hunting success. Cheetahs typically walk at 3 -- 4 kilometres per hour (1.9 -- 2.5 mph).
Speed and acceleration values for the hunting cheetah may be different from those for the non-hunting because, while engaged in the chase, the cheetah is more likely to be twisting and turning and may be running through vegetation. In 2012 an 11 - year - old cheetah from the Cincinnati Zoo named Sarah made a world record by running 100 m (330 ft) in 5.95 seconds over a set run, during which she ran a recorded maximum speed of 98 km / h (61 mph). A study of five wild cheetahs (three females, two males) during hunting reported a maximum speed of 93 km / h (58 mph), with an average of 48 to 56 km / h (30 to 35 mph). Speed can be increased by almost 10 km / h (6 mph) in a single stride. The average chase is 173 m (568 ft) and the maximum ranges from 407 to 559 m (1,335 to 1,834 ft).
Cheetahs breed throughout the year; they are induced ovulators. Females become sexually mature at 21 to 22 months of age. Females are polyoestrus -- they have an oestrus ("heat '') cycle every 12 days (this can vary from 10 to 20 days), each oestrus lasting one to three days. A female can give birth again after 17 to 20 months; however, on the loss of a whole litter mothers can mate again. Urine - marking in males becomes more pronounced when a female in their vicinity comes into oestrus. Males fight among one another to secure access to the female; even males in a coalition may show some aggression toward one another on approaching a female. One male eventually wins dominance over the others. Mating, observed mainly at night, begins with the male approaching the female, who lies down on the ground. No courtship behaviour is observed; the male immediately secures hold of the female 's nape and copulation takes place. The pair then ignore each other and part ways. However, they meet and copulate a few more times within the next few days. Polyandrous, females can mate with several males. The mean number of motile sperm in a single ejaculation is nearly 25.3 million.
Gestation is nearly three months long. The number of cubs born can vary from one to eight, though the common number is three to five. Birth takes place in a sheltered place such as thick vegetation. Each cub weighs nearly 150 -- 400 g (5.3 -- 14.1 oz) at birth; the eyes, shut at birth, open in 4 to 11 days. Newborn cubs can crawl and spit; they can start walking by two weeks. Their nape, shoulders and back are thickly covered with long bluish grey hair. This downy underlying fur, called a "mantle '', gives them a Mohawk - type appearance; this fur is shed as the cheetah grows older. It has been suggested that this mane gives a cheetah cub the appearance of the honey badger, and could act as a camouflage in both animals. Cheetah cubs are highly vulnerable during the first few weeks of their life; mothers keep their cubs hidden in dense vegetation for the first month.
Cubs start following their mothers at six weeks. The mother frequently shifts the cubs to new locations. A study of play behaviour of cheetah cubs showed that cubs tend to play after nursing or while they are on the move with their mothers. Play involves plenty of agility; attacks are seldom lethal. Playing cubs stay near their mothers. The study further revealed that while the cubs showed improvement in catching each other as they grew up, the ability to crouch and hide did not develop remarkably. Thus, it was suggested that play helps develop only certain aspects of predator defence. Weaning occurs at three to six months of age. The mother brings kills to her cubs; the cubs might purr as the mother licks them clean after the meal. Cubs as young as six months try to capture small prey like hares and juvenile gazelles. However, they may have to wait until as long as 15 months of age to make a successful kill on their own.
The offspring may stay with the mother for 13 to 20 months, associating with one another and feeding on kills together. After weaning, juveniles may form mixed - sex herds; young females may stay back with their mother, but there is hardly any interaction between the mother and daughters. The females in the mixed - sex herd gradually move out as they near sexual maturity. In the Serengeti, average age of independence of 70 observed litters was 17.1 months. Young females had their first litters at the age of about 2.4 years and subsequent litters about 20 months later. The lifespan of wild cheetahs is 14 to 15 years for females; their reproductive cycle typically ends by 12 years of age. Males generally live as long as 10 years.
High mortality rates have been recorded in the Serengeti. In a 1994 study, nearly 77 % of litters died before eight weeks of birth, and nearly 83 % of those alive could not make it to adolescence (14 weeks). Lions emerged as the major predator of juveniles, accounting for nearly 78 % of the deaths. The study concluded that the survival rate of cubs till weaning was a mere 4.8 %. This was attributed to the open terrain of the region, which does not allow cheetahs to conceal themselves. Cheetah cubs face higher mortality than most other large mammals.
It has been suggested that the significant lack of genetic diversity in cheetahs is a cause of poor quality and production of sperm, and birth defects such as cramped teeth, kinked tails, and bent limbs. Cheetahs do have low fertility rates, but they appear to have flourished for thousands of years with these low levels of genetic variance. Cheetah expert Laurie Marker points out that the high level of genetic uniformity would mean that if an infectious disease surfaced in a population, all of them have (or lack) the same level of immunity. In 1982, 60 % of the cheetah population in the Wildlife Safari (Oregon, United States) died due to a peritonitis epidemic.
The cheetah inhabits a variety of habitats. In Africa, it has been observed in dry forests, scrub forests, and savannahs. In prehistoric times, the cheetah was distributed throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe. Gradually, it vanished from Europe. Nearly 500 years ago, the cheetah was still common throughout Africa, though it avoided deserts and tropical forests. In Eurasia, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Palestine, Syria, and the Ganga and Indus river valleys in South Asia sheltered large numbers of cheetahs. However, today the cheetah has been exterminated from the majority of its earlier range. The IUCN estimates that the total expanse of the range of the cheetah in earlier times was approximately 25,344,648 km (9,785,623 sq mi); the range (as of 2015) has since then reduced to 2,709,054 km (1,045,972 sq mi), a substantial decline of 89 %.
The African cheetah occurs mainly in eastern and southern regions; the range across the continent has declined to a mere 10 % of the historic expanse. The range in eastern Africa has reduced to 6 % of its original range, so that presently it is distributed in an area of 310,586 km (119,918 sq mi). In the Horn of Africa, the cheetah occurs in Ethiopia, Kenya, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. The range has not reduced as much in the southern part of the continent, where it occurs in an area of 1,223,388 km (472,353 sq mi), 22 % of its original range. Significant populations thrive in south - western Angola, Botswana, Malawi, south - western Mozambique, Namibia, northern South Africa, southern Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Very few isolated populations occur in the Sahara; the population density in this region is as low as two to three individuals per 10,000 km (3,900 sq mi). They occur in very low numbers in northern and western Africa.
The distribution of prey may influence habitat preferences; in a study in the Kruger National Park, female cheetahs were found to spend a significant amount of time in woodlands, where impala occurred. It was suggested that though the forested area was unsuitable for hunting, the females preferred woodlands to encounter more impala. Male coalitions, on the other hand, shunned dense habitats and spent most of the time in open savannahs. An explanation given for this was that the coalitions prefer larger prey than impala. Though they do not prefer montane regions, cheetahs can occur at elevations as high as 4,000 m (13,000 ft). An open area with some cover, such as diffused bushes, is probably ideal for the cheetah because it needs to stalk and pursue its prey over a distance, exploiting its speed. This also minimises the risk of encountering larger carnivores. Complete lack of cover, however, can be a cause of prey loss and mortality.
In the past, the cheetah ranged across vast stretches in Asia, from the Mediterranean and the Arabian Peninsula in the west to the Indian subcontinent in the east, and as far north as the Caspian and Aral Seas. However, the cheetah has disappeared from the majority of its historic range, except Iran and possibly a few areas in Afghanistan, and Turkmenistan.
The cheetah has been classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN; it is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) and Appendix I of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species). In 2014 the CITES Standing Committee recognised the cheetah as a "species of priority '' in their strategies in northeastern Africa to counter wildlife trafficking. As of 2015, the IUCN gives the total number of surviving individuals as nearly 6,700. Regional estimates have been given as: 1,960 in eastern Africa (as of 2007); 4,190 in southern Africa (as of 2007); and 440 in western, central, and northern Africa (as of 2012). The southern half of the continent, therefore, is home to the largest number of cheetah. 29 sub-populations have been identified, of which most consist of no more than 500 individuals. A small population of 60 to 100 individuals was reported from Iran in 2007. Populations are feared to be declining, especially those of adults.
The cheetah is threatened by habitat loss through agricultural and industrial expansion; moreover, the species apparently requires a large area to live in as indicated by its low population densities. It appears to be less capable of coexisting with humans than the leopard. Human interference disturbs hunting and feeding of cheetah. With 76 % of its range consisting of unprotected land, the cheetah is often targeted by farmers and pastoralists who attempt to protect their livestock. However, cheetah is not known to prey on livestock. Game hunters may also try to harm cheetahs as they deprive them of valuable game. Roadkill is be another threat, especially in areas where roads have been constructed near natural habitat or protected areas. Cases of roadkill involving cheetahs have been reported from Kalmand, Iran, Touran National Park, and Bafq. The threat posed by infectious diseases may be minor, given the low population densities and hence the reduced chance of infection.
In 2016, it was estimated that there are just 7,100 cheetahs remaining in the wild, and simulation modelling suggested that they are at risk of extinction. The authors suggested a re-categorisation on the IUCN Red List for the species from vulnerable to endangered.
The IUCN has recommended co-operation between countries across the cheetah 's range to minimise the conflict between cheetahs and human beings. A 2016 study showed that ecotourism can have a significantly positive impact on the conservation of the cheetah. Although the requirement of space for the habitat would have to be compromised in most cases, establishment of private reserves for cheetahs and ensuring the absence of predators and poachers could be a successful conservation measure. Additionally, the financial benefits accrued and the awareness generated can further aid the cause of the cheetah. At the same time, the animals should not be unnecessarily handled or disturbed, as cheetahs are particularly sensitive to human interference.
The Range Wide Conservation Program for Cheetah and African Wild Dogs (RWCP), the brainchild of Sarah Durant and Rosie Woodroffe (of the Zoological Society of London), was started in 2007 with the primary aim of ensuring better conservation measures for the cheetah and the wild dog -- two species with very low population densities. A joint initiative by the ZSL, the Wildlife Conservation Society, and the IUCN Cat Specialist Group, the program has among its major goals a review of the conservation policies adopted by the South African countries, and study and action on illegal hunting and trade of the cheetah. In a 2007 publication, Durant emphasised the role of land management and improvement in connectivity across the range in cheetah conservation, in the lack of which the populations might face severe fragmentation.
Benin (2014), Botswana (2007), Chad (2015), Ethiopia (2010), Kenya (2007), Mozambique (2010), Namibia (2013), Niger (2012), South Africa (2009), South Sudan (2009), Tanzania (2013), Zambia (2009), and Zimbabwe (2009) have formulated action plans for the conservation of the cheetah (the years in which the workshops were held are given in brackets).
In the 20th century, the populations of cheetah in India saw a drastic fall. The last physical evidence of the cheetah in India was thought to be three individuals, all shot by the Maharajah of Surguja (a man also noted for holding a record for shooting 1,360 tigers), in 1947 in eastern Madhya Pradesh, but a female was sighted in Koriya district, present - day Chhattisgarh, in 1951. During the early 2000s, scientists from the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad, proposed a plan to clone Asiatic cheetahs obtained from Iran. India asked Iran to transport one live pair to India, or, if that was not possible, allow them to collect sperm and eggs of the cheetah pair in Iran itself. However, Iran rejected both proposals.
In September 2009, the then Minister of Environment and Forests, Jairam Ramesh, assigned the Wildlife Trust of India and the Wildlife Institute of India with the task of examining the potential of cheetah reintroduction in the nation. The report, submitted in 2010, showed that the Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary and Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, and Shahgarh Landscape and Desert National Park in Rajasthan have a high potential to support reintroduced cheetah populations. These areas were found to be spacious; of these four areas, the Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary had the largest available area, 6,800 square kilometres (2,600 sq mi). Moreover, these were rich in prey availability. The Sanjay National Park, though comprising an area of 12.500 square kilometres (4.826 sq mi) and having supported cheetah populations before the independence of India in 1947, is no longer suitable for the cheetah due to low prey density and risks of poaching.
In 2001 the Iranian government collaborated with the Cheetah Conservation Fund, the IUCN, Panthera, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the Wildlife Conservation Society on the Conservation of Asiatic Cheetah Project (CACP) to protect the natural habitat of the Asiatic cheetah and its prey, to ensure that development projects do not hamper its survival, and to highlight the plight of the Asiatic cheetah. Iran declared 31 August as National Cheetah Day in 2006.
The cheetah shows little aggression toward human beings, and can be easily tamed, as it has been since antiquity. Reliefs in the Deir el - Bahari temple complex tell of an expedition by Egyptians to the Land of Punt during the reign of the pharaoh Hatshepsut (1507 -- 1458 BC) that fetched, among other things, animals called "panthers '' for Egypt. Two types of "panthers '' were depicted in these sculptures: leashed cheetahs, referred to as "panthers of the north '', and sturdy leopards, referred to as "panthers of the south ''. During the New Kingdom (16th to 11th centuries BC), cheetahs were common pet animals for the royalty, who adorned the animals with ornate collars and leashes. The Egyptians would use their dogs to bring the concealed prey out in the open, after which a cheetah would be set upon it to kill it. A Sumerian seal dating back to nearly 3000 BC, featuring a leashed animal resembling a cheetah, has fuelled speculation that the cheetah might have been first domesticated and used for hunting in Sumer (Mesopotamia). However, Thomas T. Allsen (of The College of New Jersey) argues that the depicted animal might not be a cheetah given its largely dog - like features; moreover, the background gives an impression of a montane area, which the cheetah does not typically inhabit.
Mainly two kinds of theories have been put forth to explain the subsequent expansion of the cheetah into Asia, Europe, and the rest of Africa. Historians who accept the Sumerian origin of the domesticated cheetah -- such as Heinz F. Friederichs and Burchard Brentjes -- hold that the animal gradually spread out to central and northern Africa, from where it reached India. On the other hand, historians such as Frederick E. Zeuner accept the Egyptian origin and state that the cheetah gradually spread into central Asia, Iran, and India. In the third century AD, Roman author Claudius Aelianus wrote of tame panthers in India and "smaller lions '' that would be used for tracking and hunting; the account can not be very reliable as Roman, as well as Greek, literature is not generally clear in its references to different types of cats.
Hunting with cheetahs became more prevalent toward the seventh century AD. The 11th - century Clephane Horn, possibly of Byzantine origin, is believed to depict domesticated hunting cheetahs. In the Middle East, the cheetah would accompany the nobility to hunts in special seats behind saddles. Cheetahs continued to be associated with royalty and elegance in western Asia till as late as the 19th century. The first phase of taming would take several weeks, in which the cheetah would be kept tethered and made to get accustomed to human beings. Next, the cheetah would be tempted with food and trained to mount horses. Finally, its hunting instincts would be aroused by slaughtering animals before it. The whole process could take as long as a year to complete. In eastern Asia, the records are confusing as regional names for the leopard and the cheetah may be used interchangeably. The earliest depiction of cheetahs from eastern Asia dates back to the Tang dynasty (7th to 10th centuries AD); paintings depict tethered cheetahs as well as cheetahs mounted on horses. Chinese emperors would use cheetahs, as well as caracals, as gifts. In the 13th and the 14th centuries, the Yuan rulers bought numerous caracals, cheetahs, and tigers from the western parts of the empire and Muslim merchants, in return for gold, silver, cash, and silk. According to the Ming Shilu, the subsequent Ming dynasty (14th to 17th centuries) continued this practice. The cheetah gradually entered Eurasia toward the 14th century, though they never became as popular as they had in the Middle East. The Mughal ruler Akbar the Great (1556 -- 1605) is said to have kept as many as 1000 cheetahs. However, his son Jahangir wrote in his memoirs, Tuzk - e-Jahangiri, that only one of them gave birth to cubs. Mughal rulers trained cheetahs as well as caracals in a similar way as the West Asians, and used them to hunt game -- especially blackbuck. The rampant hunting severely affected the populations of wild animals.
Mortality under captivity is generally high; reasons include stillbirths, birth defects, cannibalism, hypothermia, neglect of cubs by mothers, and infectious diseases. A study comparing the health of captive and wild cheetahs noted that despite having similar genetic make - up, wild cheetahs are far healthier than their captive counterparts. The study identified possible stress factors such as restricted habitat and interaction with human beings and other carnivores, and recommended private and spacious areas for captive cheetahs. A study of diseases suffered by captive cheetahs in the period 1989 -- 92 in several North American zoos showed that hepatic veno - occlusive disease, a disease of the liver, had affected 82 % of the deceased cheetahs, caused nine deaths, and occurred in 51 % of living females. Chronic gastritis was detected in 91 % of the population. Glomerulosclerosis, a disease of the kidneys, emerged as another significant disease, affecting 84 % of the cheetahs; another renal disease, nephrosclerosis, affected 39 % of the cheetahs. Feline infectious peritonitis caused two deaths. Pneumonia was a major cause for juvenile deaths. Another study concluded that excess of vitamin A in their diets could result in veno - occlusive disease in their livers.
Moreover, cheetahs are poor breeders in captivity, while wild individuals are far more successful. In a 1992 study, females in Serengeti were found to have 95 % success rate in breeding. In contrast, only 20 % of the North American captive cheetahs bred successfully in 1991. Studies have shown that in - vitro fertilisation in cheetah poses more difficulties than are faced in the case of other cats.
The cheetah has been widely portrayed in a variety of artistic works. In Bacchus and Ariadne, an oil painting by the 16th - century Italian painter Titian, the chariot of the Greek god Dionysus (Bacchus) is depicted as being drawn by two cheetahs. The cheetahs in the painting were previously considered to be leopards. In 1764 English painter George Stubbs commemorated the gifting of a cheetah to George III by the English Governor of Madras, Sir George Pigot in his painting Cheetah with Two Indian Attendants and a Stag. The painting depicts a cheetah, hooded and collared by two Indian servants, along with a stag it was supposed to prey upon. The 1896 painting The Caress, by the 19th - century Belgian symbolist painter Fernand Khnopff, is a representation of the myth of Oedipus and the Sphinx. It portrays a creature with a woman 's head and a cheetah 's body (often misidentified as a leopard 's).
The Bill Thomas Cheetah American sports / racing car, a Chevrolet - based coupe first designed and driven in 1963, was an attempt to challenge Carroll Shelby 's Shelby Cobra in American sports car competition of the 1960s era. Due to only two dozen or fewer chassis ever being built, with only a dozen of these being complete cars, the Cheetah was never homologated for competition beyond prototype status, with its production ending in 1966.
A variety of literature mentions the cheetah. In 1969 author Joy Adamson, of Born Free fame, wrote The Spotted Sphinx, a biography of her pet cheetah Pippa. Hussein, An Entertainment, a novel by Patrick O'Brian set in the British Raj period in India, illustrates the practice of royalty keeping and training cheetahs to hunt antelopes. The book How It Was with Dooms tells the true story of a family raising an orphaned cheetah cub named Dooms in Kenya. The 2005 film Duma was loosely based on this book.
The cheetah has often been featured in marketing and animation. In 1986 Frito - Lay introduced the Chester Cheetah, an anthropomorphic cheetah, as the mascot for their Cheetos. The first release of Apple Inc. 's Mac OS X, the Mac OS X 10.0, was code - named "Cheetah ''; the subsequent versions released before 2013 were all named after cats. The animated series ThunderCats had a character named "Cheetara '', an anthropomorphic cheetah, voiced by Lynne Lipton. Comic book superheroine Wonder Woman 's chief adversary is Dr. Barbara Ann Minerva, alias The Cheetah.
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who gave the cycle theory of social change | Social cycle theory - wikipedia
Social cycle theories are among the earliest social theories in sociology. Unlike the theory of social evolutionism, which views the evolution of society and human history as progressing in some new, unique direction (s), sociological cycle theory argues that events and stages of society and history are generally repeating themselves in cycles. Such a theory does not necessarily imply that there can not be any social progress. In the early theory of Sima Qian and the more recent theories of long - term ("secular '') political - demographic cycles as well as in the Varnic theory of P.R. Sarkar an explicit accounting is made of social progress.
Interpretation of history as repeating cycles of Dark and Golden Ages was a common belief among ancient cultures.
The more limited cyclical view of history defined as repeating cycles of events was put forward in the academic world in the 19th century in historiosophy (a branch of historiography) and is a concept that falls under the category of sociology. However, Polybius, Ibn Khaldun (see Asabiyyah), and Giambattista Vico can be seen as precursors of this analysis. The Saeculum was identified in Roman times. In recent times, P.R. Sarkar in his Social Cycle Theory has used this idea to elaborate his interpretation of history.
Among the prominent historiosophers, Russian philosopher Nikolai Danilewski (1822 -- 1885) is important. In Rossiia i Evropa (1869) he differentiated between various smaller civilizations (Egyptian, Chinese, Persian, Greek, Roman, German, and Slav, among others). He wrote that each civilization has a life cycle, and by the end of the 19th century the Roman - German civilization was in decline, while the Slav civilization was approaching its Golden Age. A similar theory was put forward by Oswald Spengler (1880 -- 1936) who in his Der Untergang des Abendlandes (1918) also argued that the Western civilization had entered its final phase of development and its decline was inevitable.
The first social cycle theory in sociology was created by Italian sociologist and economist Vilfredo Pareto (1848 -- 1923) in his Trattato di Sociologia Generale (1916). He centered his theory on the concept of an elite social class, which he divided into cunning ' foxes ' and violent ' lions '. In his view of society, the power constantly passes from the ' foxes ' to the ' lions ' and vice versa.
Sociological cycle theory was also developed by Pitirim A. Sorokin (1889 -- 1968) in his Social and Cultural Dynamics (1937, 1943). He classified societies according to their ' cultural mentality ', which can be ideational (reality is spiritual), sensate (reality is material), or idealistic (a synthesis of the two). He interpreted the contemporary West as a sensate civilization dedicated to technological progress and prophesied its fall into decadence and the emergence of a new ideational or idealistic era.
Alexandre Deulofeu (1903 -- 1978) developed a mathematical model of social cycles that he claimed fit historical facts. He argued that civilizations and empires go through cycles in his book Mathematics of History (in Catalan, published in 1951). He claims that each civilization passes through a minimum of three 1700 - year cycles. As part of civilizations, empires have an average lifespan of 550 years. He also stated that by knowing the nature of these cycles, it could be possible to modify the cycles in such a way that change could be peaceful instead of leading to war. Deulofeu believed he had found the origin of Romanesque art, during the 9th century, in an area between Empordà and Roussillon, which he argued was the cradle of the second cycle of western European civilization.
One of the most important recent findings in the study of the long - term dynamic social processes was the discovery of the political - demographic cycles as a basic feature of the dynamics of complex agrarian systems.
The presence of political - demographic cycles in the pre-modern history of Europe and China, and in chiefdom level societies worldwide has been known for quite a long time, and already in the 1980s more or less developed mathematical models of demographic cycles started to be produced (first of all for Chinese "dynastic cycles '') (Usher 1989). At the moment we have a considerable number of such models (Chu and Lee 1994; Nefedov 1999, 2002, 2003, 2004; S. Malkov, Kovalev, and A. Malkov 2000; S. Malkov and A. Malkov 2000; Malkov and Sergeev 2002, 2004a, 2004b; Malkov et al. 2002; Malkov 2002, 2003, 2004; Turchin 2003, 2005a; Korotayev et al. 2006).
Recently the most important contributions to the development of the mathematical models of long - term ("secular '') sociodemographic cycles have been made by Sergey Nefedov, Peter Turchin, Andrey Korotayev, and Sergey Malkov. What is important is that on the basis of their models Nefedov, Turchin and Malkov have managed to demonstrate that sociodemographic cycles were a basic feature of complex agrarian systems (and not a specifically Chinese or European phenomenon).
The basic logic of these models is as follows:
It has become possible to model these dynamics mathematically in a rather effective way. Note that the modern theories of political - demographic cycles do not deny the presence of trend dynamics and attempt at the study of the interaction between cyclical and trend components of historical dynamics.
Modern social scientists from different fields have introduced cycle theories to predict civilizational collapses in approaches that apply contemporary methods that update the approach of Spengler, such as the work of Joseph Tainter suggesting a civilizational life - cycle. In more micro-studies that follow the work of Malthus, scholars such as David Lempert have presented "alpha - helix '' models of population, economics, and political response, including violence, in cyclical forms that add aspects of culture change into the model. Lempert has also modeled political violence in Russian society, suggesting that theories attributing violence in Russia to ideologies are less useful than cyclical models of population and economic productivity.
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aerosmith songs don't want to miss a thing | I Do n't Want to Miss a Thing - wikipedia
"I Do n't Want to Miss a Thing '' is a power ballad performed by American hard rock band Aerosmith for the 1998 film Armageddon which Steven Tyler 's daughter Liv Tyler starred in. Written by Diane Warren, the song debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 (the first # 1 for the band after 28 years together). It is one of three songs performed by the band for the film, the other two being "What Kind of Love Are You On '' and "Sweet Emotion ''. The song stayed at number one for four weeks from September 5 to 26, 1998. The song also stayed at number 1 for several weeks in several other countries. It sold over a million copies in the UK and reached number four on the UK Singles Chart.
In 1997, Diane Warren was watching Barbara Walters interview James Brolin and Barbra Streisand. Brolin said he missed Streisand when they were asleep, and Warren wrote down the words "I do n't want to miss a thing '', before there was even a song.
"When I first heard it, '' recalled drummer Joey Kramer, "it was just a demo with piano and singing. It was difficult to imagine what kind of touch Aerosmith could put on it and make it our own... As soon as we began playing it as a band, then it instantly became an Aerosmith song. ''
This song was Aerosmith 's biggest hit, debuting at number 1 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, where it stayed for four weeks in September, and reaching number 1 around the world, including Australia, the Philippines, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Austria, Norway, Italy, the Netherlands, and Switzerland.
The song helped introduce Aerosmith to a new generation and remains a slow dance staple.
It was one of many songs written by Warren in that period. The original version was a collaboration between Chicago musician Phil Kosch of Treaty of Paris and Super Happy Fun Club, and nephew of chart topping writer Lou Bega. Bega introduced the two and they penned the initial track, but ultimately Kosch was uncredited.
The song was nominated for both an Academy Award for Best Original Song and a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Original Song.
The song appeared on the Argentine version and a European re-released version of the album Nine Lives. It also appeared on the Japanese version of Just Push Play.
"Crash '' and the original "Pink '' appeared as tracks 9 and 11, respectively, on all versions of Nine Lives.
The music video for this song was shot at the Minneapolis Armory in 1998 and was directed by Francis Lawrence. It features the band playing the song intertwined with scenes from the film Armageddon. It features an appearance by Steven Tyler 's daughter Liv, who plays Grace Stamper in the film. Steven Tyler injured his knee the day before the shoot, so they used many close - up shots due to his limited movement.
The video begins with shots of the moon in orbit and several asteroids passing by safely and then a view of Earth before zooming in to show Steven Tyler singing. The shots interchange between the band and Mission Control viewing the band singing via their monitors. As the video progresses it reveals that the band is playing in front of what appears to be the fictional Space Shuttle Freedom. Along with Aerosmith, a full hand orchestra plays in sync with the melody. Then smoke surrounds the orchestra and the members of Aerosmith as Freedom takes off from the launch pad. Finally, the screen goes out as a tearful Grace touches one of the monitors to reach out to her father (real life father Steven Tyler in the video; on - screen father Harry Stamper, played by Bruce Willis, in the film).
The video was highly successful and greatly contributed to the song 's success, receiving heavy airplay on MTV and went on to become the second most popular video of 1998, only behind Brandy and Monica 's "The Boy is Mine ''. It also won awards for MTV Video Music Award for Best Video from a Film, and Best Video at Boston Music Awards.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
In late 1998, country music artist Mark Chesnutt recorded a cover version of the song. His rendition is the first single and title track from his 1999 album of the same name. Chesnutt 's cover spent two weeks at number one on the US Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks (now Hot Country Songs) charts in early 1999, and is the last of his eight number ones on that chart. It is also the first of only two singles in his career to reach the Billboard Hot 100, where it peaked at number 17 in early 1999.
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how did the northern european rulers encouraged the renaissance | Northern Renaissance - wikipedia
The Northern Renaissance was the Renaissance that occurred in Europe north of the Alps. Before 1497, Italian Renaissance humanism had little influence outside Italy. From the late 15th century, its ideas spread around Europe. This influenced the German Renaissance, French Renaissance, English Renaissance, Renaissance in the Low Countries, Polish Renaissance and other national and localized movements, each with different characteristics and strengths.
In France, King Francis I imported Italian art, commissioned Venetian artists (including Leonardo da Vinci), and built grand palaces at great expense, starting the French Renaissance. Trade and commerce in cities like Bruges in the 15th century and Antwerp in the 16th increased cultural exchange between Italy and the Low Countries, however in art, and especially architecture, late Gothic influences remained present until the arrival of Baroque even as painters increasingly drew on Italian models.
Universities and the printed book helped spread the spirit of the age through France, the Low Countries and the Holy Roman Empire, and then to Scandinavia and finally Britain by the late 16th century. Writers and humanists such as Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard and Desiderius Erasmus were greatly influenced by the Italian Renaissance model and were part of the same intellectual movement. During the English Renaissance (which overlapped with the Elizabethan era) writers such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe composed works of lasting influence. The Renaissance was brought to Poland directly from Italy by artists from Florence and the Low Countries, starting the Polish Renaissance.
In some areas the Northern Renaissance was distinct from the Italian Renaissance in its centralization of political power. While Italy and Germany were dominated by independent city - states, most of Europe began emerging as nation - states or even unions of countries. The Northern Renaissance was also closely linked to the Protestant Reformation with the resulting long series of internal and external conflicts between various Protestant groups and the Roman Catholic Church having lasting effects.
Feudalism had dominated Europe for a thousand years, but was on the decline at the beginning of the Renaissance. The reasons for this decline include the post-plague environment, the increasing use of money rather than land as a medium of exchange, the growing number of serfs living as freemen, the formation of nation - states with monarchies interested in reducing the power of feudal lords, the increasing uselessness of feudal armies in the face of new military technology (such as gunpowder), and a general increase in agricultural productivity due to improving farming technology and methods. As in Italy, the decline of feudalism opened the way for the cultural, social, and economic changes associated with the Renaissance in Europe.
Finally, the Renaissance in Europe would also be kindled by a weakening of the Roman Catholic Church. The slow demise of feudalism also weakened a long - established policy in which church officials helped keep the population of the manor under control in return for tribute. Consequently, the early 15th century saw the rise of many secular institutions and beliefs. Among the most significant of these, humanism, would lay the philosophical grounds for much of Renaissance art, music, and science. Desiderius Erasmus, for example, was important in spreading humanist ideas in the north, and was a central figure at the intersection of classical humanism and mounting religious questions. Forms of artistic expression which a century ago would have been banned by the church were now tolerated or even encouraged in certain circles.
The velocity of transmission of the Renaissance throughout Europe can also be ascribed to the invention of the printing press. Its power to disseminate information enhanced scientific research, spread political ideas and generally impacted the course of the Renaissance in northern Europe. As in Italy, the printing press increased the availability of books written in both vernacular languages and the publication of new and ancient classical texts in Greek and Latin. Furthermore, the Bible became widely available in translation, a factor often attributed to the spread of the Protestant Reformation.
One of the most important technological development of the Renaissance was the invention of the caravel. This combination of European and African ship building technologies for the first time made extensive trade and travel over the Atlantic feasible. While first introduced by the Italian states and the early captains, such as Giovanni Caboto, Giovanni da Verrazzano and Columbus, who were Italian explorers, the development would end Northern Italy 's role as the trade crossroads of Europe, shifting wealth and power westwards to Spain, Portugal, France, England, and the Netherlands. These states all began to conduct extensive trade with Africa and Asia, and in the Americas began extensive colonisation activities. This period of exploration and expansion has become known as the Age of Discovery. Eventually European power spread around the globe.
The detailed realism of Early Netherlandish painting was greatly respected in Italy, but there was little reciprocal influence on the North until nearly the end of the 15th century. Despite frequent cultural and artistic exchange, the Antwerp Mannerists (1500 -- 1530) -- chronologically overlapping with but unrelated to Italian Mannerism -- were among the first artists in the Low Countries to clearly reflect Italian formal developments.
Around the same time, Albrecht Dürer made his two trips to Italy, where he was greatly admired for his prints. Dürer, in turn, was influenced by the art he saw there. Other notable painters, such as Hans Holbein the Elder and Jean Fouquet, retained a Gothic influence that was still popular in the north, while highly individualistic artists such as Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel the Elder developed styles that were imitated by many subsequent generations. Northern painters in the 16th century increasingly looked and travelled to Rome, becoming known as the Romanists. The High Renaissance art of Michelangelo and Raphael and the late Renaissance stylistic tendencies of Mannerism that were in vogue had a great impact on their work.
Renaissance humanism and the large number of surviving classical artworks and monuments encouraged many Italian painters to explore Greco - Roman themes more prominently than northern artists, and likewise the famous 15th - century German and Dutch paintings tend to be religious. In the 16th century, mythological and other themes from history became more uniform amongst northern and Italian artists. Northern Renaissance painters, however, had new subject matter, such as landscape and genre painting.
As Renaissance art styles moved through northern Europe, they changed and were adapted to local customs. In England and the northern Netherlands the Reformation brought religious painting almost completely to an end. Despite several very talented Artists of the Tudor Court in England, portrait painting was slow to spread from the elite. In France the School of Fontainebleau was begun by Italians such as Rosso Fiorentino in the latest Mannerist style, but succeeded in establishing a durable national style. By the end of the 16th century, artists such as Karel van Mander and Hendrik Goltzius collected in Haarlem in a brief but intense phase of Northern Mannerism that also spread to Flanders.
The Renaissance is one of the most interesting and disputed periods of European history. Many scholars see it as a unique time with characteristics all its own. A second group views the Renaissance as the first two to three centuries of a larger era in European history usually called early modern Europe, which began in the late fifteenth century and ended on the eve of the French Revolution (1789) or with the close of the Napoleonic era (1815). Some social historians reject the concept of the Renaissance altogether. Historians also argue over how much the Renaissance differed from the Middle Ages and whether it was the beginning of the modern world, however defined.
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tv shows that take place in new mexico | Category: television shows set in new Mexico - wikipedia Help
Television shows set in New Mexico:
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what are all of the parts of the respiratory system | Respiratory system - wikipedia
a biological system of specific organs and structures for gas exchange in animals and plants
The respiratory system (also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange in animals and plants. The anatomy and physiology that make this happen varies greatly, depending on the size of the organism, the environment in which it lives and its evolutionary history. In land animals the respiratory surface is internalized as linings of the lungs. Gas exchange in the lungs occurs in millions of small air sacs called alveoli in mammals and reptiles, but atria in birds. These microscopic air sacs have a very rich blood supply, thus bringing the air into close contact with the blood. These air sacs communicate with the external environment via a system of airways, or hollow tubes, of which the largest is the trachea, which branches in the middle of the chest into the two main bronchi. These enter the lungs where they branch into progressively narrower secondary and tertiary bronchi that branch into numerous smaller tubes, the bronchioles. In birds the bronchioles are termed parabronchi. It is the bronchioles, or parabronchi that generally open into the microscopic alveoli in mammals and atria in birds. Air has to be pumped from the environment into the alveoli or atria by the process of breathing which involves the muscles of respiration.
In most fish, and a number of other aquatic animals (both vertebrates and invertebrates) the respiratory system consists of gills, which are either partially or completely external organs, bathed in the watery environment. This water flows over the gills by a variety of active or passive means. Gas exchange takes place in the gills which consist of thin or very flat filaments and lammelae which expose a very large surface area of highly vascularized tissue to the water.
Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange. Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants includes anatomical features such as stomata, that are found in various parts of the plant.
In humans and other mammals, the anatomy of a typical respiratory system is the respiratory tract. The tract is divided into an upper and a lower respiratory tract. The upper tract includes the nose, nasal cavities, sinuses, pharynx and the part of the larynx above the vocal folds. The lower tract (Fig. 2.) includes the lower part of the larynx, the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and the alveoli.
The branching airways of the lower tract are often described as the respiratory tree or tracheobronchial tree (Fig. 2). The intervals between successive branch points along the various branches of "tree '' are often referred to as branching "generations '', of which there are, in the adult human about 23. The earlier generations (approximately generations 0 -- 16), consisting of the trachea and the bronchi, as well as the larger bronchioles which simply act as air conduits, bringing air to the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli (approximately generations 17 -- 23), where gas exchange takes place. Bronchioles are defined as the small airways lacking and cartilagenous support.
The first bronchi to branch from the trachea are the right and left main bronchi. Second only in diameter to the trachea (1.8 cm), these bronchi (1 - 1.4 cm in diameter) enter the lungs at each hilum, where they branch into narrower secondary bronchi known as lobar bronchi, and these branch into narrower tertiary bronchi known as segmental bronchi. Further divisions of the segmental bronchi (1 to 6 mm in diameter) are known as 4th order, 5th order, and 6th order segmental bronchi, or grouped together as subsegmental bronchi.
Compared to the, on average, 23 number of branchings of the respiratory tree in the adult human, the mouse has only about 13 such branchings.
The alveoli are the dead end terminals of the "tree '', meaning that any air that enters them has to exit via the same route. A system such as this creates dead space, a volume of air (about 150 ml in the adult human) that fills the airways after exhalation and is breathed back into the alveoli before environmental air reaches them. At the end of inhalation the airways are filled with environmental air, which is exhaled without coming in contact with the gas exchanger.
The lungs expand and contract during the breathing cycle, drawing air in and out of the lungs. The volume of air moved in or out of the lungs under normal resting circumstances (the resting tidal volume of about 500 ml), and volumes moved during maximally forced inhalation and maximally forced exhalation are measured in humans by spirometry. A typical adult human spirogram with the names given to the various excursions in volume the lungs can undergo is illustrated below (Fig. 3):
Not all the air in the lungs can be expelled during maximally forced exhalation. This is the residual volume of about 1.0 - 1.5 liters which can not be measured by spirometry. Volumes that include the residual volume (i.e. functional residual capacity of about 2.5 - 3.0 liters, and total lung capacity of about 6 liters) can therefore also not be measured by spirometry. Their measurement requires special techniques.
The rates at which air is breathed in or out, either through the mouth or nose, or into or out of the alveoli are tabulated below, together with how they are calculated. The number of breath cycles per minute is known as the respiratory rate.
In mammals, inhalation at rest is primarily due to the contraction of the diaphragm. This is an upwardly domed sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. When it contracts the sheet flattens, (i.e. moves downwards as shown in Fig. 7) increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. The contracting diaphragm pushes the abdominal organs downwards. But because the pelvic floor prevents the lowermost abdominal organs moving in that direction, the pliable abdominal contents cause the belly to bulge outwards to the front and sides, because the relaxed abdominal muscles do not resist this movement (Fig. 7). This entirely passive bulging (and shrinking during exhalation) of the abdomen during normal breathing is sometimes referred as "abdominal breathing '', although it is, in fact, "diaphragmatic breathing '', which is not visible on the outside of the body. Mammals only use their abdominal muscles only during forceful exhalation (see Fig. 8, and discussion below). Never during any form of inhalation.
As the diaphragm contracts, the rib cage is simultaneously enlarged by the ribs being pulled upwards by the intercostal muscles as shown in Fig. 4. All the ribs slant downwards from the rear to the front (as shown in Fig. 4); but the lowermost ribs also slant downwards from the midline outwards (Fig. 5). Thus the rib cage 's transverse diameter can be increased in the same way as the antero - posterior diameter is increase by the so - called pump handle movement shown in Fig. 4.
The enlargement of the thoracic cavity 's vertical dimension by the contraction of the diaphragm, and its two horizontal dimensions by the lifting of the front and sides of the ribs, causes the intrathoracic pressure to fall. The lungs ' interiors are open to the outside air, and being elastic, therefore expand to fill the increased space. The inflow of air into the lungs occurs via the respiratory airways (Fig. 2). In health these airways (starting at the nose or mouth, and ending in the microscopic dead - end sacs called alveoli) are always open, though the diameters of the various sections can be changed by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The alveolar air pressure is therefore always close to atmospheric air pressure (about 100 kPa at sea level) at rest, with the pressure gradients that cause air to move in and out of the lungs during breathing rarely exceeding 2 -- 3 kPa.
During exhalation the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax. This returns the chest and abdomen to a position determined by their anatomical elasticity. This is the "resting mid-position '' of the thorax and abdomen (Fig. 7) when the lungs contain their functional residual capacity of air (the light blue area in the right hand illustration of Fig. 7), which in the adult human has a volume of about 2.5 -- 3.0 liters (Fig. 3). Resting exhalation lasts about twice as long as inhalation because the diaphragm relaxes passively more gently than it contracts actively during inhalation.
The volume of air that moves in or out (at the nose or mouth) during a single breathing cycle is called the tidal volume. In a resting adult human it is about 500 ml per breath. At the end of exhalation the airways contain about 150 ml of alveolar air which is the first air that is breathed back into the alveoli during inhalation. This volume air that is breathed out of the alveoli and back in again is known as dead space ventilation, which has the consequence that of the 500 ml breathed into the alveoli with each breath only 350 ml (500 ml - 150 ml = 350 ml) is fresh warm and moistened air. Since this 350 ml of fresh air is thoroughly mixed and diluted by the air that remains in the alveoli after normal exhalation (i.e. the functional residual capacity of about 2.5 -- 3.0 liters), it is clear that the composition of the alveolar air changes very little during the breathing cycle (see Fig. 9). The oxygen tension (or partial pressure) remains close to 13 - 14 kPa (about 100 mm Hg), and that of carbon dioxide very close to 5.3 kPa (or 40 mm Hg). This contrasts with composition of the dry outside air at sea level, where the partial pressure of oxygen is 21 kPa (or 160 mm Hg) and that of carbon dioxide 0.04 kPa (or 0.3 mmHg).
During heavy breathing (hyperpnea), as, for instance, during exercise, inhalation is brought about by a more powerful and greater excursion of the contracting diaphragm than at rest (Fig. 8). In addition the "accessory muscles of inhalation '' exaggerate the actions of the intercostal muscles (Fig. 8). These accessory muscles of inhalation are muscles that extend from the cervical vertebrae and base of the skull to the upper ribs and sternum, sometimes through an intermediary attachment to the clavicles. When they contract the rib cage 's internal volume is increased to a far greater extent than can be achieved by contraction of the intercostal muscles alone. Seen from outside the body the lifting of the clavicles during strenuous or labored inhalation is sometimes called clavicular breathing, seen especially during asthma attacks and in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
During heavy breathing, exhalation is caused by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation. But now, the abdominal muscles, instead of remaining relaxed (as they do at rest), contract forcibly pulling the lower edges of the rib cage downwards (front and sides) (Fig. 8). This not only drastically decreases the size of the rib cage, but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax (Fig. 8). The end - exhalatory lung volume is now well below the resting mid-position and contains far less air than the resting "functional residual capacity ''. However, in a normal mammal, the lungs can not be emptied completely. In an adult human there is always still at least 1 liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.
The automatic rhythmical breathing in and out, can be interrupted by coughing, sneezing (forms of very forceful exhalation), by the expression of a wide range of emotions (laughing, sighing, crying out in pain, exasperated intakes of breath) and by such voluntary acts as speech, singing, whistling and the playing of wind instruments. All of these actions rely on the muscles described above, and their effects on the movement of air in and out of the lungs.
Although not a form of breathing, the Valsalva maneuver involves the respiratory muscles. It is, in fact, a very forceful exhalatory effort against a tightly closed glottis, so that no air can escape from the lungs. Instead abdominal contents are evacuated in the opposite direction, through orifices in the pelvic floor. The abdominal muscles contract very powerfully, causing the pressure inside the abdomen and thorax to rise to extremely high levels. The Valsalva maneuver can be carried out voluntarily, but is more generally a reflex elicited when attempting to empty the abdomen during, for instance, difficult defecation, or during childbirth. Breathing ceases during this maneuver.
The primary purpose of the respiratory system is the equilibration of the partial pressures of the respiratory gases in the alveolar air with those in the pulmonary capillary blood (Fig. 11). This process occurs by simple diffusion, across a very thin membrane (known as the blood -- air barrier), which forms the walls of the pulmonary alveoli (Fig. 10). It consisting of the alveolar epithelial cells, their basement membranes and the endothelial cells of the alveolar capillaries (Fig. 10). This blood gas barrier is extremely thin (in humans, on average, 2.2 μm thick). It is folded into about 300 million small air sacs called alveoli (each between 75 and 300 μm in diameter) branching off from the respiratory bronchioles in the lungs, thus providing an extremely large surface area (approximately 145 m) for gas exchange to occur.
The air contained within the alveoli has a semi-permanent volume of about 2.5 - 3.0 liters which completely surrounds the alveolar capillary blood (Fig. 12). This ensures that equilibration of the partial pressures of the gases in the two compartments is very efficient and occurs very quickly. The blood leaving the alveolar capillaries and is eventually distributed throughout the body therefore has a partial pressure of oxygen of 13 - 14 kPa (100 mmHg), and a partial pressure of carbon dioxide of 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg) (i.e. the same as the oxygen and carbon dioxide gas tensions as in the alveoli). As mentioned in the section above, the corresponding partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the ambient (dry) air at sea level are 21 kPa (160 mmHg) and 0.04 kPa (0.3 mmHg) respectively.
This marked difference between the composition of the alveolar air and that of the ambient air can be maintained because the functional residual capacity is contained in dead - end sacs connected to the outside air by fairly narrow and relatively long tubes (the airways: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and their branches down to the bronchioles), through which the air has to be breathed both in and out (i.e. there is no unidirectional through - flow as there is in the bird lung). This typical mammalian anatomy combined with the fact that the lungs are not emptied and re-inflated with each breath (leaving a substantial volume of air, of about 2.5 - 3.0 liters, in the alveoli after exhalation), ensures that the composition of the alveolar air is only minimally disturbed when the 350 ml of fresh air is mixed into it with each inhalation. Thus the animal is provided with a very special "portable atmosphere '', whose composition differs significantly from the present - day ambient air. It is this portable atmosphere (the functional residual capacity) to which the blood and therefore the body tissues are exposed -- not to the outside air.
The resulting arterial partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide are homeostatically controlled. A rise in the arterial partial pressure of CO and, to a lesser extent, a fall in the arterial partial pressure of O, will reflexly cause deeper and faster breathing till the blood gas tensions in the lungs, and therefore the arterial blood, return to normal. The converse happens when the carbon dioxide tension falls, or, again to a lesser extent, the oxygen tension rises: the rate and depth of breathing are reduced till blood gas normality is restored.
Since the blood arriving in the alveolar capillaries has a partial pressure of O of, on average, 6 kPa (45 mmHg), while the pressure in the alveolar air is 13 - 14 kPa (100 mmHg), there will be a net diffusion of oxygen into the capillary blood, changing the composition of the 3 liters of alveolar air slightly. Similarly, since the blood arriving in the alveolar capillaries has a partial pressure of CO of also about 6 kPa (45 mmHg), whereas that of the alveolar air is 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg), there is a net movement of carbon dioxide out of the capillaries into the alveoli. The changes brought about by these net flows of individual gases into and out of the alveolar air necessitate the replacement of about 15 % of the alveolar air with ambient air every 5 seconds or so. This is very tightly controlled by the monitoring of the arterial blood gases (which accurately reflect composition of the alveolar air) by the aortic and carotid bodies, as well as by the blood gas and pH sensor on the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata in the brain. There are also oxygen and carbon dioxide sensors in the lungs, but they primarily determine the diameters of the bronchioles and pulmonary capillaries, and are therefore responsible for directing the flow of air and blood to different parts of the lungs.
It is only as a result of accurately maintaining the composition of the 3 liters of alveolar air that with each breath some carbon dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere and some oxygen is taken up from the outside air. If more carbon dioxide than usual has been lost by a short period of hyperventilation, respiration will be slowed down or halted until the alveolar partial pressure of carbon dioxide has returned to 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg). It is therefore strictly speaking untrue that the primary function of the respiratory system is to rid the body of carbon dioxide "waste ''. The carbon dioxide that is breathed out with each breath could probably be more correctly be seen as a byproduct of the body 's extracellular fluid carbon dioxide and pH homeostats
If these homeostats are compromised, then a respiratory acidosis, or a respiratory alkalosis will occur. In the long run these can be compensated by renal adjustments to the H and HCO concentrations in the plasma; but since this takes time, the hyperventilation syndrome can, for instance, occur when agitation or anxiety cause a person to breathe fast and deeply thus causing a distressing respiratory alkalosis through the blowing off of too much CO from the blood into the outside air.
Oxygen has a very low solubility in water, and is therefore carried in the blood loosely combined with hemoglobin. The oxygen is held on the hemoglobin by four ferrous iron - containing heme groups per hemoglobin molecule. When all the heme groups carry one O molecule each the blood is said to be "saturated '' with oxygen, and no further increase in the partial pressure of oxygen will meaningfully increase the oxygen concentration of the blood. Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is carried as bicarbonate ions (HCO) in the plasma. However the conversion of dissolved CO into HCO (through the addition of water) is too slow for the rate at which the blood circulates through the tissues on the one hand, and through alveolar capillaries on the other. The reaction is therefore catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme inside the red blood cells. The reaction can go in both directions depending on the prevailing partial pressure of CO. A small amount of carbon dioxide is carried on the protein portion of the hemoglobin molecules as carbamino groups. The total concentration of carbon dioxide (in the form of bicarbonate ions, dissolved CO, and carbamino groups) in arterial blood (i.e. after it has equilibrated with the alveolar air) is about 26 mM (or 58 ml / 100 ml), compared to the concentration of oxygen in saturated arterial blood of about 9 mM (or 20 ml / 100 ml blood).
Ventilation of the lungs in mammals occurs via the respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata and the pons of the brainstem. These areas form a series of neural pathways which receive information about the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. This information determines the average rate of ventilation of the alveoli of the lungs, to keep these pressures constant. The respiratory center does so via motor nerves which activate the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration.
The breathing rate increases when the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood increases. This is detected by central blood gas chemoreceptors on the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata. The aortic and carotid bodies, are the peripheral blood gas chemoreceptors which are particularly sensitive to the arterial partial pressure of O though they also respond, but less strongly, to the partial pressure of CO. At sea level, under normal circumstances, the breathing rate and depth, is determined primarily by the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide rather than by the arterial partial pressure of oxygen, which is allowed to vary within a fairly wide range before the respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata and pons respond to it to change the rate and depth of breathing.
Exercise increases the breathing rate due to the extra carbon dioxide produced by the enhanced metabolism of the exercising muscles. In addition passive movements of the limbs also reflexly produce an increase in the breathing rate.
Information received from stretch receptors in the lungs limits tidal volume (the depth of inhalation and exhalation).
The alveoli are open (via the airways) to the atmosphere, with the result that alveolar air pressure is exactly the same as the ambient air pressure at sea level, at altitude, or in any artificial atmosphere (e.g. a diving chamber, or decompression chamber) in which the individual is breathing freely. With expansion of the lungs (through lowering of the diaphragm and expansion of the thoracic cage) the alveolar air now occupies a larger volume, and its pressure falls proportionally, causing air to flow in from the surroundings, through the airways, till the pressure in the alveoli is once again at the ambient air pressure. The reverse obviously happens during exhalation. This process (of inhalation and exhalation) is exactly the same at sea level, as on top of Mt. Everest, or in a diving chamber or decompression chamber.
However, as one rises above sea level the density of the air decreases exponentially (see Fig. 14), halving approximately with every 5500 m rise in altitude. Since the composition of the atmospheric air is almost constant below 80 km, as a result of the continuous mixing effect of the weather, the concentration of oxygen in the air (mmols O per liter of ambient air) decreases at the same rate as the fall in air pressure with altitude. Therefore, in order to breathe in the same amount of oxygen per minute, the person has to inhale a proportionately greater volume of air per minute at altitude than at sea level. This is achieved by breathing deeper and faster (i.e. hyperpnea) than at sea level (see below).
There is, however, a complication that increases the volume of air that needs to be inhaled per minute (respiratory minute volume) to provide the same amount of oxygen to the lungs at altitude as at sea level. During inhalation the air is warmed and saturated with water vapor during its passage through the nose passages and pharynx. Saturated water vapor pressure is dependent only on temperature. At a body core temperature of 37 ° C it is 6.3 kPa (47.0 mmHg), irrespective of any other influences, including altitude. Thus at sea level, where the ambient atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa, the moistened air that flows into the lungs from the trachea consists of water vapor (6.3 kPa), nitrogen (74.0 kPa), oxygen (19.7 kPa) and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases (a total of 100 kPa). In dry air the partial pressure of O at sea level is 21.0 kPa (i.e. 21 % of 100 kPa), compared to the 19.7 kPa of oxygen entering the alveolar air. (The tracheal partial pressure of oxygen is 21 % of (100 kPa -- 6.3 kPa) = 19.7 kPa). At the summit of Mt. Everest (at an altitude of 8,848 m or 29,029 ft) the total atmospheric pressure is 33.7 kPa, of which 7.1 kPa (or 21 %) is oxygen. The air entering the lungs also has a total pressure of 33.7 kPa, of which 6.3 kPa is, unavoidably, water vapor (as it is at sea level). This reduces the partial pressure of oxygen entering the alveoli to 5.8 kPa (or 21 % of (33.7 kPa -- 6.3 kPa) = 5.8 kPa). The reduction in the partial pressure of oxygen in the inhaled air is therefore substantially greater than the reduction of the total atmospheric pressure at altitude would suggest (on Mt Everest: 5.8 kPa vs. 7.1 kPa).
A further minor complication exists at altitude. If the volume of the lungs were to be instantaneously doubled at the beginning of inhalation, the air pressure inside the lungs would be halved. This happens regardless of altitude. Thus, halving of the sea level air pressure (100 kPa) results in an intrapulmonary air pressure of 50 kPa. Doing the same at 5500 m, where the atmospheric pressure is only 50 kPa, the intrapulmonary air pressure falls to 25 kPa. Therefore, the same change in lung volume at sea level results in a 50 kPa difference in pressure between the ambient air and the intrapulmonary air, whereas it result in a difference of only 25 kPa at 5500 m. The driving pressure forcing air into the lungs during inhalation is therefore halved at this altitude. The rate of inflow of air into the lungs during inhalation at sea level is therefore twice that which occurs at 5500 m. However, in reality, inhalation and exhalation occur far more gently and less abruptly than in the example given. The differences between the atmospheric and intrapulmonary pressures, driving air in and out of the lungs during the breathing cycle, are in the region of only 2 -- 3 kPa. A doubling or more of these small pressure differences could be achieved by only very minor adjustments to the breathing effort at high altitudes.
All of the above influences of low atmospheric pressures on breathing are accommodated primarily by breathing deeper and faster (hyperpnea). The exact degree of hyperpnea is determined by the blood gas homeostat, which regulates the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. This homeostat prioritizes the regulation of the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide over that of oxygen at sea level. That is to say, at sea level the arterial partial pressure of CO is maintained at very close to 5.3 kPa (or 40 mmHg) under a wide range of circumstances, at the expense of the arterial partial pressure of O, which is allowed to vary within a very wide range of values, before eliciting a corrective ventilatory response. However, when the atmospheric pressure (and therefore the partial pressure of O in the ambient air) falls to below 50 - 75 % of its value at sea level, oxygen homeostasis is given priority over carbon dioxide homeostasis. This switch - over occurs at an elevation of about 2500 m (or about 8000 ft). If this switch occurs relatively abruptly, the hyperpnea at high altitude will cause a severe fall in the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide, with a consequent rise in the pH of the arterial plasma. This is one contributor to high altitude sickness. On the other hand, if the switch to oxygen homeostasis is incomplete, then hypoxia may complicate the clinical picture with potentially fatal results.
There are oxygen sensors in the smaller bronchi and bronchioles. In response to low partial pressures of oxygen in the inhaled air these sensors reflexly cause the pulmonary arterioles to constrict. (This is the exact opposite of the corresponding reflex in the tissues, where low arterial partial pressures of O cause arteriolar vasodilation.) At altitude this causes the pulmonary arterial pressure to rise resulting in a much more even distribution of blood flow to the lungs than occurs at sea level. At sea level the pulmonary arterial pressure is very low, with the result that the tops of the lungs receive far less blood than the bases, which are relatively over-perfused with blood. It is only in middle of the lungs that the blood and air flow to the alveoli are ideally matched. At altitude this variation in the ventilation / perfusion ratio of alveoli from the tops of the lungs to the bottoms is eliminated, with all the alveoli perfused and ventilated in more or less the physiologically ideal manner. This is a further important contributor to the acclimatatization to high altitudes and low oxygen pressures.
The kidneys measure the oxygen content (mmol O / liter blood, rather than the partial pressure of O) of the arterial blood. When the oxygen content of the blood is chronically low, as at high altitude, the oxygen - sensitive kidney cells secrete erythropoietin (often known only by its abbreviated form as EPO) into the blood. This hormone stimulates the red bone marrow to increase its rate of red cell production, which leads to an increase in the hematocrit of the blood, and a consequent increase in its oxygen carrying capacity (due to the now high hemoglobin content of the blood). In other words, at the same arterial partial pressure of O, a person with a high hematocrit carries more oxygen per liter of blood than a person with a lower hematocrit does. High altitude dwellers therefore have higher hematocrits than sea - level residents.
Irritation of nerve endings within the nasal passages or airways, can induce a cough reflex and sneezing. These responses cause air to be expelled forcefully from the trachea or nose, respectively. In this manner, irritants caught in the mucus which lines the respiratory tract are expelled or moved to the mouth where they can be swallowed. During coughing, contraction of the smooth muscle in the airway walls narrows the trachea by pulling the ends of the cartilage plates together and by pushing soft tissue into the lumen. This increases the expired airflow rate to dislodge and remove any irritant particle or mucus.
Respiratory epithelium can secrete a variety of molecules that aid in the defense of the lungs. These include secretory immunoglobulins (IgA), collectins, defensins and other peptides and proteases, reactive oxygen species, and reactive nitrogen species. These secretions can act directly as antimicrobials to help keep the airway free of infection. A variety of chemokines and cytokines are also secreted that recruit the traditional immune cells and others to site of infections.
Surfactant immune function is primarily attributed to two proteins: SP - A and SP - D. These proteins can bind to sugars on the surface of pathogens and thereby opsonize them for uptake by phagocytes. It also regulates inflammatory responses and interacts with the adaptive immune response. Surfactant degradation or inactivation may contribute to enhanced susceptibility to lung inflammation and infection.
Most of the respiratory system is lined with mucous membranes that contain mucosa - associated lymphoid tissue, which produces white blood cells such as lymphocytes.
The lungs make a surfactant, a surface - active lipoprotein complex (phospholipoprotein) formed by type II alveolar cells. It floats on the surface of the thin watery layer which lines the insides of the alveoli, reducing the water 's surface tension.
The surface tension of a watery surface (the water - air interface) tends to make that surface shrink. When that surface is curved as it is in the alveoli of the lungs, the shrinkage of the surface decreases the diameter of the alveoli. The more acute the curvature of the water - air interface the greater the tendency for the alveolus to collapse. This has three effects. Firstly the surface tension inside the alveoli resists expansion of the alveoli during inhalation (i.e. it makes the lung stiff, or non-compliant). Surfactant reduces the surface tension and therefore makes the lungs more compliant, or less stiff, than if it were not there. Secondly, the diameters of the alveoli increase and decrease during the breathing cycle. This means that the alveoli have a greater tendency to collapse (i.e. cause atelectasis) at the end of exhalation that at the end of inhalation. Since surfactant floats on the watery surface, its molecules are more tightly packed together when the alveoli shrink during exhalation. This causes them to have a greater surface tension - lowering effect when the alveoli are small than when they are large (as at the end of inhalation, when the surfactant molecules are more widely spaced). The tendency for the alveoli to collapse is therefore almost the same at the end of exhalation as at the end of inhalation. Thirdly, the surface tension of the curved watery layer lining the alveoli tends to draw water from the lung tissues into the alveoli. Surfactant reduces this danger to negligible levels, and keeps the alveoli dry.
Pre-term babies who are unable to manufacture surfactant have lungs that tend to collapse each time they breathe out. Unless treated, this condition, called respiratory distress syndrome, is fatal. Basic scientific experiments, carried out using cells from chicken lungs, support the potential for using steroids as a means of furthering development of type II alveolar cells. In fact, once a premature birth is threatened, every effort is made to delay the birth, and a series of steroid injections is frequently administered to the mother during this delay in an effort to promote lung maturation.
The lung vessels contain a fibrinolytic system that dissolves clots that may have arrived in the pulmonary circulation by embolism, often from the deep veins in the legs. They also release a variety of substances that enter the systemic arterial blood, and they remove other substances from the systemic venous blood that reach them via the pulmonary artery. Some prostaglandins are removed from the circulation, while others are synthesized in the lungs and released into the blood when lung tissue is stretched.
The lungs activate one hormone. The physiologically inactive decapeptide angiotensin I is converted to the aldosterone - releasing octapeptide, angiotensin II, in the pulmonary circulation. The reaction occurs in other tissues as well, but it is particularly prominent in the lungs. Angiotensin II also has a direct effect on arteriolar walls, causing arteriolar vasoconstriction, and consequently a rise in arterial blood pressure. Large amounts of the angiotensin - converting enzyme responsible for this activation are located on the surfaces of the endothelial cells of the alveolar capillaries. The converting enzyme also inactivates bradykinin. Circulation time through the alveolar capillaries is less than one second, yet 70 % of the angiotensin I reaching the lungs is converted to angiotensin II in a single trip through the capillaries. Four other peptidases have been identified on the surface of the pulmonary endothelial cells.
The movement of gas through the larynx, pharynx and mouth allows humans to speak, or phonate. Vocalization, or singing, in birds occurs via the syrinx, an organ located at the base of the trachea. The vibration of air flowing across the larynx (vocal cords), in humans, and the syrinx, in birds, results in sound. Because of this, gas movement is vital for communication purposes.
Panting in dogs, cats, birds and some other animals provides a means of reducing body temperature, by evaporating saliva in the mouth (instead of evaporating sweat on the skin).
Disorders of the respiratory system can be classified into several general groups:
Disorders of the respiratory system are usually treated by a pulmonologist and respiratory therapist.
Where there is an inability to breathe or an insufficiency in breathing a medical ventilator may be used.
Horses are obligate nasal breathers which means that they are different from many other mammals because they do not have the option of breathing through their mouths and must take in air through their noses.
The elephant is the only mammal known to have no pleural space. Rather, the parietal and visceral pleura are both composed of dense connective tissue and joined to each other via loose connective tissue. This lack of a pleural space, along with an unusually thick diaphragm, are thought to be evolutionary adaptations allowing the elephant to remain underwater for long periods of time while breathing through its trunk which emerges as a snorkel.
In the elephant the lungs are attached to the diaphragm and breathing relies mainly on the diaphragm rather than the expansion of the ribcage.
The respiratory system of birds differs significantly from that found in mammals. Firstly they have rigid lungs which do not expand and contract during the breathing cycle. Instead an extensive system of air sacs (Fig. 15) distributed throughout their bodies act as the bellows drawing environmental air into the sacs, and expelling the spent air after it has passed through the lungs (Fig. 18). Birds also do not have diaphragms or pleural cavities.
Bird lungs are smaller than those in mammals of comparable size, but the air sacs account for 15 % of the total body volume, compared to the 7 % devoted to the alveoli which act as the bellows in mammals.
Inhalation and exhalation are brought about by alternately increasing and decreasing the volume of the entire thoraco - abdominal cavity (or coelom) using both their abdominal and costal muscles. During inhalation the muscles attached to the vertebral ribs (Fig. 17) contract angling them forwards and outwards. This pushes the sternal ribs, to which they are attached at almost right angles, downwards and forwards, taking the sternum (with its prominent keel) in the same direction (Fig. 17). This increases both the vertical and transverse diameters of thoracic portion of the trunk. The forward and downward movement of, particularly, the posterior end of the sternum pulls the abdominal wall downwards, increasing the volume of that region of the trunk as well. The increase in volume of the entire trunk cavity reduces the air pressure in all the thoraco - abdominal air sacs, causing them to fill with air as described below.
During exhalation the external oblique muscle which is attached to the sternum and vertebral ribs anteriorly, and to the pelvis (pubis and ilium in Fig. 17) posteriorly (forming part of the abdominal wall) reverses the inhalatory movement, while compressing the abdominal contents, thus increasing the pressure in all the air sacs. Air is therefore expelled from the respiratory system in the act of exhalation.
During inhalation air enters the trachea via the nostrils and mouth, and continues to just beyond the syrinx at which point the trachea branches into two primary bronchi, going to the two lungs (Fig. 16). The primary bronchi enter the lungs to become the intrapulmonary bronchi, which give off a set of parallel branches called ventrobronchi and, a little further on, an equivalent set of dorsobronchi (Fig. 16). The ends of the intrapulmonary bronchi discharge air into the posterior air sacs at the caudal end of the bird. Each pair of dorso - ventrobronchi is connected by a large number of parallel microscopic air capillaries (or parabronchi) where gas exchange occurs (Fig. 16). As the bird inhales, tracheal air flows through the intrapulmonary bronchi into the posterior air sacs, as well as into the dorsobronchi, but not into the ventrobronchi (Fig. 18). This is due to the bronchial architecture which directs the inhaled air away from the openings of the ventrobronchi, into the continuation of the intrapulmonary bronchus towards the dorsobronchi and posterior air sacs. From the dorsobronchi the inhaled air flows through the parabronchi (and therefore the gas exchanger) to the ventrobronchi from where the air can only escape into the expanding anterior air sacs. So, during inhalation, both the posterior and anterior air sacs expand, the posterior air sacs filling with fresh inhaled air, while the anterior air sacs fill with "spent '' (oxygen - poor) air that has just passed through the lungs.
During exhalation the pressure in the posterior air sacs (which were filled with fresh air during inhalation) increases due to the contraction of the oblique muscle described above. The aerodynamics of the interconnecting openings from the posterior air sacs to the dorsobronchi and intrapulmonary bronchi ensures that the air leaves these sacs in the direction of the lungs (via the dorsobronchi), rather than returning down the intrapulmonary bronchi (Fig. 18). From the dorsobronchi the fresh air from the posterior air sacs flows through the parabronchi (in the same direction as occurred during inhalation) into ventrobronchi. The air passages connecting the ventrobronchi and anterior air sacs to the intrapulmonary bronchi direct the "spent '', oxygen poor air from these two organs to the trachea from where it escapes to the exterior. Oxygenated air therefore flows constantly (during the entire breathing cycle) in a single direction through the parabronchi.
The blood flow through the bird lung is at right angles to the flow of air through the parabronchi, forming a cross-current flow exchange system (Fig. 19). The partial pressure of oxygen in the parabronchi declines along their lengths as O diffuses into the blood. The blood capillaries leaving the exchanger near the entrance of airflow take up more O than do the capillaries leaving near the exit end of the parabronchi. When the contents of all capillaries mix, the final partial pressure of oxygen of the mixed pulmonary venous blood is higher than that of the exhaled air, but is nevertheless less than half that of the inhaled air, thus achieving roughly the same systemic arterial blood partial pressure of oxygen as mammals do with their bellows - type lungs.
The trachea is an area of dead space: the oxygen - poor air it contains at the end of exhalation is the first air to re-enter the posterior air sacs and lungs. In comparison to the mammalian respiratory tract, the dead space volume in a bird is, on average, 4.5 times greater than it is in mammals of the same size. Birds with long necks will inevitably have long tracheae, and must therefore take deeper breaths than mammals do to make allowances for their greater dead space volumes. In some birds (e.g. the whooper swan, Cygnus cygnus, the white spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia, the whooping crane, Grus americana, and the helmeted curassow, Pauxi pauxi) the trachea, which some cranes can be 1.5 m long, is coiled back and forth within the body, drastically increasing the dead space ventilation. The purpose of this extraordinary feature is unknown.
The anatomical structure of the lungs is less complex in reptiles than in mammals, with reptiles lacking the very extensive airway tree structure found in mammalian lungs. Gas exchange in reptiles still occurs in alveoli however. Reptiles do not possess a diaphragm. Thus, breathing occurs via a change in the volume of the body cavity which is controlled by contraction of intercostal muscles in all reptiles except turtles. In turtles, contraction of specific pairs of flank muscles governs inhalation and exhalation.
Both the lungs and the skin serve as respiratory organs in amphibians. The ventilation of the lungs in amphibians relies on positive pressure ventilation. Muscles lower the floor of the oral cavity, enlarging it and drawing in air through the nostrils into the oral cavity. With the nostrils and mouth closed, the floor of the oral cavity is then pushed up, which forces air down the trachea into the lungs. The skin of these animals is highly vascularized and moist, with moisture maintained via secretion of mucus from specialised cells, and is involved in cutaneous respiration. While the lungs are of primary organs for gas exchange between the blood and the environmental air (when out of the water), the skin 's unique properties aid rapid gas exchange when amphibians are submerged in oxygen - rich water. Some amphibians have gills, either in the early stages of their development (e.g. tadpoles of frogs), while others retain them into adulthood (e.g. some salamanders).
Oxygen is poorly soluble in water. Fully aerated fresh water therefore contains only 8 -- 10 ml O / liter compared to the O concentration of 210 ml / liter in the air at sea level. Furthermore, the coefficient of diffusion (i.e. the rate at which a substances diffuses from a region of high concentration to one of low concentration, under standard conditions) of the respiratory gases is typically 10,000 faster in air than in water. Thus oxygen, for instance, has a diffusion coefficient of 17.6 mm / s in air, but only 0.0021 mm / s in water. The corresponding values for carbon dioxide are 16 mm / s in air and 0.0016 mm / s in water. This means that when oxygen is taken up from the water in contact with a gas exchanger, it is replaced considerably more slowly by the oxygen from the oxygen - rich regions small distances away from the exchanger than would have occurred in air. Fish have developed gills deal with these problems. Gills are specialized organs containing filaments, which further divide into lamellae. The lamellae contain a dense thin walled capillary network that exposes a large gas exchange surface area to the very large volumes of water passing over them.
Gills use a countercurrent exchange system that increases the efficiency of oxygen - uptake from the water. Fresh oxygenated water taken in through the mouth is uninterruptedly "pumped '' through the gills in one direction, while the blood in the lamellae flows in the opposite direction, creating the countercurrent blood and water flow (Fig. 22), on which the fish 's survival depends.
Water is drawn in through the mouth by closing the operculum (gill cover), and enlarging the mouth cavity (Fig. 23). Simultaneously the gill chambers enlarge, producing a lower pressure there than in the mouth causing water to flow over the gills. The mouth cavity then contracts inducing the closure of the passive oral valves, thereby preventing the back - flow of water from the mouth (Fig. 23). The water in the mouth is, instead, forced over the gills, while the gill chambers contract emptying the water they contain through the opercular openings (Fig. 23). Back - flow into the gill chamber during the inhalatory phase is prevented by a membrane along the ventroposterior border of the operculum (diagram on the left in Fig. 23). Thus the mouth cavity and gill chambers act alternately as suction pump and pressure pump to maintain a steady flow of water over the gills in one direction. Since the blood in the lamellar capillaries flows in the opposite direction to that of the water, the consequent countercurrent flow of blood and water maintains steep concentration gradients for oxygen and carbon dioxide along the entire length of each capillary (lower diagram in Fig. 22). Oxygen is therefore able to continually diffuse down its gradient into the blood, and the carbon dioxide down its gradient into the water. Although countercurrent exchange systems theoretically allow an almost complete transfer of a respiratory gas from one side of the exchanger to the other, in fish less than 80 % of the oxygen in the water flowing over the gills is generally transferred to the blood.
In certain active pelagic sharks, water passes through the mouth and over the gills while they are moving, in a process known as "ram ventilation ''. While at rest, most sharks pump water over their gills, as most bony fish do, to ensure that oxygenated water continues to flow over their gills. But a small number of species have lost the ability to pump water through their gills and must swim without rest. These species are obligate ram ventilators and would presumably asphyxiate if unable to move. Obligate ram ventilation is also true of some pelagic bony fish species.
There are a few fish that can obtain oxygen for brief periods of time from air swallowed from above the surface of the water. Thus Lungfish possess one or two lungs, and the labyrinth fish have developed a special "labyrinth organ '', which characterizes this suborder of fish. The labyrinth organ is a much - folded supra branchial accessory breathing organ. It is formed by a vascularized expansion of the epibranchial bone of the first gill arch, and is used for respiration in air.
This organ allows labyrinth fish to take in oxygen directly from the air, instead of taking it from the water in which they reside through use of gills. The labyrinth organ helps the oxygen in the inhaled air to be absorbed into the bloodstream. As a result, labyrinth fish can survive for a short period of time out of water, as they can inhale the air around them, provided they stay moist.
Labyrinth fish are not born with functional labyrinth organs. The development of the organ is gradual and most juvenile labyrinth fish breathe entirely with their gills and develop the labyrinth organs when they grow older.
Some species of crab use a respiratory organ called a branchiostegal lung. Its gill - like structure increases the surface area for gas exchange which is more suited to taking oxygen from the air than from water. Some of the smallest spiders and mites can breathe simply by exchanging gas through the surface of the body. Larger spiders, scorpions and other arthropods use a primitive book lung.
Most insects breath passively through their spiracles (special openings in the exoskeleton) and the air reaches every part of the body by means of a series of smaller and smaller tubes called ' trachaea ' when their diameters are relatively large, and ' tracheoles ' when their diameters are very small. The tracheoles make contact with individual cells throughout the body. They are partially filled with fluid, which can be withdrawn from the individual tracheoles when the tissues, such as muscles, are active and have a high demand for oxygen, bringing the air closer to the active cells. This is probably brought about by the buildup of lactic acid in the active muscles causing an osmotic gradient, moving the water out of the tracheoles and into the active cells. Diffusion of gases is effective over small distances but not over larger ones, this is one of the reasons insects are all relatively small. Insects which do not have spiracles and trachaea, such as some Collembola, breathe directly through their skins, also by diffusion of gases.
The number of spiracles an insect has is variable between species, however they always come in pairs, one on each side of the body, and usually one pair per segment. Some of the Diplura have eleven, with four pairs on the thorax, but in most of the ancient forms of insects, such as Dragonflies and Grasshoppers there are two thoracic and eight abdominal spiracles. However, in most of the remaining insects there are fewer. It is at the level of the tracheoles that oxygen is delivered to the cells for respiration.
Insects were once believed to exchange gases with the environment continuously by the simple diffusion of gases into the tracheal system. More recently, however, large variation in insect ventilatory patterns have been documented and insect respiration appears to be highly variable. Some small insects do not demonstrate continuous respiratory movements and may lack muscular control of the spiracles. Others, however, utilize muscular contraction of the abdomen along with coordinated spiracle contraction and relaxation to generate cyclical gas exchange patterns and to reduce water loss into the atmosphere. The most extreme form of these patterns is termed discontinuous gas exchange cycles.
Molluscs generally possess gills that allow gas exchange between the aqueous environment and their circulatory systems. These animals also possess a heart that pumps blood containing hemocyanin as its oxygen - capturing molecule. Hence, this respiratory system is similar to that of vertebrate fish. The respiratory system of gastropods can include either gills or a lung.
Plants use carbon dioxide gas in the process of photosynthesis, and exhale oxygen gas as waste. The chemical equation of photosynthesis is 6 CO (carbon dioxide) and 6 H O (water), which in the presence of sunlight makes C H O (glucose) and 6 O (oxygen). Photosynthesis uses electrons on the carbon atoms as the repository for the energy obtained from sunlight. Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis. It reclaims the energy to power chemical reactions in cells. In so doing the carbon atoms and their electrons are combined with oxygen forming CO which is easily removed from both the cells and the organism. Plants use both processes, photosynthesis to capture the energy and oxidative metabolism to use it.
Plant respiration is limited by the process of diffusion. Plants take in carbon dioxide through holes, known as stomata, that can open and close on the undersides of their leaves and sometimes other parts of their anatomy. Most plants require some oxygen for catabolic processes (break - down reactions that release energy). But the quantity of O used per hour is small as they are not involved in activities that require high rates of aerobic metabolism. Their requirement for air, however, is very high as they need CO for photosynthesis, which constitutes only 0.04 % of the environmental air. Thus, to make 1 g of glucose requires the removal of all the CO from at least 18.7 liters of air at sea level. But inefficiencies in the photosynthetic process cause considerably greater volumes of air to be used.
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who opened the gate in the prison walking dead | Killer Within - wikipedia
"Killer Within '' is the fourth episode of the third season and 23rd episode overall of the post-apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead. It originally aired on AMC in the United States on November 4, 2012, and was written by Sang Kyu Kim and directed by Guy Ferland. The episode marked Sarah Wayne Callies and IronE Singleton 's final appearances as Lori Grimes and Theodore "T - Dog '' Douglas and as regular actors on the show. Most television critics positively reviewed the episode, applauding its bleak undertones and the performances. However, some commentators criticized the narrative ploys and the direction taken in the program. "Killer Within '' was viewed by 9.27 million viewers, including 4.9 percent of those in the 18 to 49 demographic upon its initial broadcast in the United States.
Outside the prison, an unidentified individual lures a group of walkers towards the prison, breaking open the front gate 's lock to allow them inside.
In Woodbury, Michonne (Danai Gurira) is suspicious of how The Governor (David Morrissey) recovered supplies from a nearby National Guard camp, but he refuses to discuss it. She expresses her concerns with Andrea (Laurie Holden), and believes they should leave and head for the coast. Andrea would rather stay, and provides information on the Greene farmstead to allow Merle (Michael Rooker) to look for his brother Daryl. The Governor tells Meryl he will allow the search once Meryl obtains more concrete information. Andrea begins to become romantically involved with The Governor.
At the prison, Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln) discusses with the others about making the prison their permanent home. The two remaining prisoners Axel (Lew Temple) and Oscar (Vincent Ward) request to join the group, but Rick, still distrustful, informs them of his intent to send them away at the end of the week.
The group gathers as Hershel Greene (Scott Wilson) takes his first steps after the amputation of his foot. Suddenly, walkers swarm the courtyard, scattering the group. T - Dog (IronE Singleton) races after Carol (Melissa McBride) and sacrifices himself by barreling into a walker horde to let her escape. Rick, Glenn (Steven Yeun), and Daryl (Norman Reedus) find the gate 's lock broken and re-secure it to prevent further walkers from entering. Rick accuses Axel and Oscar of the treachery, but an alarm begins sounding due to activation of a backup generator, potentially drawing more walkers. Rick realizes the prisoners can not be at fault and lets them lead him to the generator room. There they find Andrew (Markice Moore), whom Rick had left for dead, as the instigator. Andrew is about to kill Rick when Oscar shoots him, and then turns the gun over to Rick. They stop the generator and disable the alarm.
Elsewhere, Carl (Chandler Riggs) covers for his mother Lori (Sarah Wayne Callies) and Maggie (Lauren Cohan) as they take shelter in a boiler room. Lori has gone into labor, but is bleeding profusely during her contractions. Lori demands Maggie perform a lethal Caesarean section to deliver the child. The baby is delivered safely, but Lori dies; Carl takes a moment to mourn before shooting her in the head to prevent reanimation.
With the walkers dealt with, the group rejoins in the courtyard, though Carol is still missing. Rick sees Carl and Maggie emerging from a cell block with the baby, but realizes Lori is not with them, and becomes hysterical.
"Killer Within '' was written by Sang Kyu Kim. Guy Ferland directed, his second such credit for The Walking Dead 's third season. Ferland previously directed episode 3, "Walk with Me ''.
"Killer Within '' signified the final appearances of Sarah Wayne Callies (Lori) and IronE Singleton (T - Dog) as regulars. Although Callies suggested Lori 's death to Frank Darabont on numerous occasions, Glen Mazzara made the decision to kill her off. The writing team chose to advance the revelation into the earlier part of the season, to provide "fresh '' opportunities for the staff. Mazzara and Callies conversed minimally about how Lori would die, but Callies opted to wait until the script 's release to acquire more insight, since her character "does n't know she 's going to die ''. She rehearsed and revised the dialogue with Mazzara for a couple of weeks. Some of the adjustments, Mazzara said, were n't initially in the script. "I just thought, it belongs there, '' Callies stated.
To prepare for the death scene, Callies viewed the Stanley Kubrick - directed war film Full Metal Jacket (1987) with Ferland. She liked Arliss Howard 's performance and described his character 's demise as a brisk, "kind of strange death ''. Callies did not practice her character 's death with Riggs. Instead, the final day enabled them to possess "so many emotions in (their) hearts '' and to deliver an emotionally poignant and raw performance.
Producers trained Cohan to perform a Caesarian in preparation for the scene. Callies wore a leotard-esque rig resembling a pregnant abdomen; a prosthetic abdomen was later glued onto the suit. This process took approximately one hour to complete. Inside the prosthetic abdomen was additional layering that imitated a uterus, which held the fetus. An insert shot was taken while the abdomen was sliced open, emphasizing the uncontrollable blood flow. The liquid was pumped through a small tube attached to the front of the suit.
Singleton was informed about his character 's fate before production of the third season began and had to avoid arousing any suspicion from the public, particularly T - Dog 's fans. Singleton said about his character 's "heroic '' death: "When I read (the script), I was thankful that he would go out as a hero. It made me feel really appreciated. ''
The central theme in "Killer Within '' is death. T - Dog sacrifices himself to allow Carol to escape, while Lori dies after an improvised operation, and Andrew dies while trying to kill Rick. Kirkman wanted Rick and Carl to develop a different psyche during the season and Lori 's death would serve as a catalyst for both characters ' development. Rick 's anguish manifests in much of the episode 's concluding scene. Kirkman agreed, proclaiming that not only was it inevitable, but it also develops Rick 's character.
Sarah Wayne Callies described her takes on the scene and its significance to TVLine: "I thought it was brilliant. I thought it was brilliantly shot to have Carl strong and cold in the foreground and Rick collapsed. I know they shot it a bunch of different ways. There were a bunch of different ideas about how that scene could play. But it was beautiful because in some ways it 's the apotheosis of Carl. It 's this young boy having just performed a great act of both mercy and violence (against) his mother recognizing that dad 's not going to be able to get me through this right now, so I 'll be the strong one. ''
Both T - Dog and Lori 's deaths were heroic by design and reflected their personal lives. Mazzara stated that T - Dog 's stint as a football player became evident as "he just heroically acts as a linebacker and just clotheslines these walkers, even at his own expense. '' Regarding Lori 's demise, he professed that childbirth was heroic: "That heroism of a woman giving birth and paying a price and just being focused on the survival of her children is a beautiful story, and a story that 's actually taken place millions of times throughout history. '' In his article for Entertainment Weekly, Darren Franich linked facets of Lori 's death to the Book of Job and suggested that it acted as a "triple '' catharsis for the character. Franich perceived Lori 's extramarital affair with Shane Walsh (Jon Bernthal) as an allegorical allusion to Original Sin -- a Christian theological concept of damnation -- which then transitions into an "optimistic New Testament vision of hope '' as Lori comes to terms with her destiny. "She was confident, and fearless, and heroic, '' Franich concluded in his review for "Killer Within ''.
Hudson observed tribalism as a trope in "Killer Within '', which he ascribed to the reluctance of Maggie, Rick, and others in the group to allow Oscar and Axel into their clan. The Los Angeles Times journalist noted that these characters had been severed from the cultural and social fabric of their past civilization for so long that they have reverted to "traveling in a small, tightly knit group, hunting and gathering, and regarding anyone who is n't part of their it as a deadly threat. ''
The episode 's initial broadcast attracted 9.27 million viewers, significantly down from the previous episode, which amassed 10.51 million viewers. "Killer Within '' acquired a 4.9 rating in the 18 - 49 demographic. Despite steep decreases in weekly ratings, the episode was the night 's top cable program in terms of ratings, beating out Real Housewives of Atlanta and Breaking Amish by a considerable margin. In the United Kingdom, "Killer Within '' garnered 893,000 viewers, the most - viewed television program of the week on FX.
"Killer Within '' was lauded by television commentators. The Washington Post entertainment journalist Jen Chaney said that "Killer Within '' offered the "most emotionally upsetting development '' in the series to date, a sentiment echoed by Time 's Nate Rawlings, who argued that the episode was The Walking Dead 's most powerful installment since "Beside the Dying Fire ''. Bex Schwartz wrote in her review for Rolling Stone magazine that "Killer Within '' was the program 's best episode to date. The Huffington Post 's Maureen Ryan described it as a "taut, terrifically paced hour '' with an "incredibly powerful ending '', while Eric Goldman of IGN called it "an incredibly tense (and) unrelenting '' episode in his 9.5 out of 10 review.
The fates of Lori and T - Dog garnered favorable reviews from television commentators. According to HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall, the moment when Lori and Carl share their goodbyes was the most heartbreaking event since the ending of the second season episode "Pretty Much Dead Already ''. Los Angeles Times columnist Laura Hudson felt it was a grim departure for a character who endured long bouts of grief for reasons beyond her control. Erik Kain from Forbes magazine found Lori 's death especially difficult to watch, and was shocked by T - Dog 's "sudden '' death despite the fact that he "was never as prominent a figure '' on the program. "As hard as these deaths were to watch, '' Kain wrote, "they also give me faith in the show. '' Even though he stated that T - Dog died "a hero 's death '', Michael Rapoport of The Wall Street Journal concluded that Lori 's "gut - churning '' demise was the more memorable.
Lori 's demise was featured in The Huffington Post 's list of "The Biggest ' OMG ' TV Moments of 2012 '', and placed nineteenth in Slate 's article covering the year 's most noteworthy television moments. Journalist Chris Kirk said that the segment was "utterly surprising '', and pointed out that the writers beguiled viewers by shedding light onto Lori 's crumbled relationship with Rick.
Some reviewers presented more negative critiques. Ted Pigeon of Slant Magazine asserted that, although the latter half of the installment contained some of the show 's most touching material, the methodology behind its narratives was "all too apparent ''. Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club in his review felt the episode "stumble (d) '' in how T - Dog and Lori were eliminated and in how the Woodbury storyline repeated what was already known. Handlen commented in his B+ review that "killing T - Dog and Lori earned the show an immediate thrill, but it also meant crossing off two potential sources of drama, people who had a history on the series, however thin or poorly developed that history might have been. ''
The performances of The Walking Dead ensemble was a frequent topic in the critiques. Lincoln 's performance received kudos from various media outlets including HitFix, Rolling Stone, and Slate. To Goldman, Lincoln 's collapsing onto the ground was a "suitably powerful and evocative '' gesture that epitomized the essence of the series. In addition, the IGN writer commended Callies, Riggs, and Cohan for their performances in "Killer Within ''. Sepinwall added that Callies "absolutely sold '' the portrayal of a mother saying "goodbye to the son who had to grow up much too quickly ''.
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who is the owner of i phone company | Apple Inc. - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 37 ° 19 ′ 55 '' N 122 ° 01 ′ 52 '' W / 37.33182 ° N 122.03118 ° W / 37.33182; - 122.03118
Apple Inc. is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California, that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. The company 's hardware products include the iPhone smartphone, the iPad tablet computer, the Mac personal computer, the iPod portable media player, the Apple Watch smartwatch, the Apple TV digital media player, and the HomePod smart speaker. Apple 's software includes the macOS and iOS operating systems, the iTunes media player, the Safari web browser, and the iLife and iWork creativity and productivity suites, as well as professional applications like Final Cut Pro, Logic Pro, and Xcode. Its online services include the iTunes Store, the iOS App Store and Mac App Store, Apple Music, and iCloud.
Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell Wozniak 's Apple I personal computer. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. in January 1977, and sales of its computers, including the Apple II, saw significant momentum and revenue growth for the company. Within a few years, Jobs and Wozniak had hired a staff of computer designers and had a production line. Apple went public in 1980 to instant financial success. Over the next few years, Apple shipped new computers featuring innovative graphical user interfaces, such as the original Macintosh in 1984, and Apple 's marketing commercials for its products received widespread critical acclaim. However, the high price tag of its products and limited software titles caused problems, as did power struggles between executives at the company. In 1985, Wozniak stepped away from Apple and Jobs resigned entirely, bringing other Apple employees with him and creating his own company that same year -- NeXT.
As the market for personal computers increased, Apple 's computers saw diminishing sales due to lower - priced products from competitors, in particular, those offered with the Microsoft Windows operating system. More executive job shuffles happened at Apple until then - CEO Gil Amelio in 1997 decided to buy NeXT to bring Jobs back. Jobs regained leadership within the company and became the new CEO shortly after. He began a process to rebuild Apple 's status, which included opening Apple 's own retail stores in 2001, making numerous acquisitions of software companies to create a portfolio of software titles, and changing some of the hardware used in its computers. It again saw success and returned to profitability. In January 2007, Jobs announced that Apple Computer, Inc. would be renamed Apple Inc. to reflect its shifted focus toward consumer electronics. He also announced the iPhone, which saw critical acclaim and significant financial success. In August 2011, Jobs resigned as CEO due to health complications, and Tim Cook became the new CEO. Two months later, Jobs died, marking the end of an era for the company.
Apple 's worldwide annual revenue totaled $229 billion for the 2017 fiscal year. Apple is the world 's largest information technology company by revenue and the world 's third - largest mobile phone manufacturer after Samsung and Huawei. In August 2018, Apple became the first public U.S. company to be valued at over US $ 1 trillion. The company employs 123,000 full - time employees and maintains 504 retail stores in 24 countries as of 2018. It operates the iTunes Store, which is the world 's largest music retailer. As of January 2018, more than 1.3 billion Apple products are actively in use worldwide. The company enjoys a high level of brand loyalty and has been repeatedly ranked as the world 's most valuable brand. However, it receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors, its environmental and business practices, including anti-competitive behavior, as well as the origins of source materials.
Apple Computer Company was founded on April 1, 1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne. The company 's first product was the Apple I, a computer single - handedly designed and hand - built by Wozniak, and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. Apple I was sold as a motherboard (with CPU, RAM, and basic textual - video chips), which was less than what is now considered a complete personal computer. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market - priced at $666.66 ($2,867 in 2017 dollars, adjusted for inflation).
Apple Computer, Inc. was incorporated on January 3, 1977, without Wayne, who left and sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800 only a couple weeks after co-founding Apple. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple. During the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980, yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118 million, an average annual growth rate of 533 %.
The Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16, 1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its major rivals, the TRS - 80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell - based color graphics and open architecture. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 ⁄ - inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the desktop platform for the first "killer app '' of the business world: VisiCalc, a spreadsheet program. VisiCalc created a business market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II: compatibility with the office. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore and Tandy.
By the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line. The company introduced the Apple III in May 1980 in an attempt to compete with IBM and Microsoft in the business and corporate computing market. Jobs and several Apple employees, including human -- computer interface expert Jef Raskin, visited Xerox PARC in December 1979 to see the Xerox Alto. Xerox granted Apple engineers three days of access to the PARC facilities in return for the option to buy 100,000 shares (800,000 split - adjusted shares) of Apple at the pre-IPO price of $10 a share.
Jobs was immediately convinced that all future computers would use a graphical user interface (GUI), and development of a GUI began for the Apple Lisa. In 1982, however, he was pushed from the Lisa team due to infighting. Jobs then took over Wozniak and Raskin 's low - cost - computer project, the Macintosh. A race broke out between the Lisa team and the Macintosh team over which product would ship first. Lisa won the race in 1983 and became the first personal computer sold to the public with a GUI, but was a commercial failure due to its high price tag and limited software titles.
On December 12, 1980, Apple went public at $22 per share, generating more capital than any IPO since Ford Motor Company in 1956, and immediately creating 300 millionaires.
In 1984, Apple launched the Macintosh, the first personal computer to be sold without a programming language. Its debut was signified by "1984 '', a $1.5 million television commercial directed by Ridley Scott that aired during the third quarter of Super Bowl XVIII on January 22, 1984. The commercial is now hailed as a watershed event for Apple 's success and was called a "masterpiece '' by CNN and one of the greatest commercials of all time by TV Guide.
The Macintosh initially sold well, but follow - up sales were not strong due to its high price and limited range of software titles. The machine 's fortunes changed with the introduction of the LaserWriter, the first PostScript laser printer to be sold at a reasonable price, and PageMaker, an early desktop publishing package. It has been suggested that the combination of these three products were responsible for the creation of the desktop publishing market. The Macintosh was particularly powerful in the desktop publishing market due to its advanced graphics capabilities, which had necessarily been built in to create the intuitive Macintosh GUI.
In 1985, a power struggle developed between Jobs and CEO John Sculley, who had been hired two years earlier. The Apple board of directors instructed Sculley to "contain '' Jobs and limit his ability to launch expensive forays into untested products. Rather than submit to Sculley 's direction, Jobs attempted to oust him from his leadership role at Apple. Sculley found out that Jobs had been attempting to organize a coup and called a board meeting at which Apple 's board of directors sided with Sculley and removed Jobs from his managerial duties. Jobs resigned from Apple and founded NeXT Inc. the same year. Wozniak also left Apple in 1985 to pursue other ventures, stating that the company had "been going in the wrong direction for the last five years ''.
After Jobs ' and Wozniak 's departure, the Macintosh product line underwent a steady change of focus to higher price points, the so - called "high - right policy '' named for the position on a chart of price vs. profits. Jobs had argued the company should produce products aimed at the consumer market and aimed for a $1000 price for the Macintosh, which they were unable to meet. Newer models selling at higher price points offered higher profit margin, and appeared to have no effect on total sales as power users snapped up every increase in power. Although some worried about pricing themselves out of the market, the high - right policy was in full force by the mid-1980s, notably due to Jean - Louis Gassée 's mantra of "fifty - five or die '', referring to the 55 % profit margins of the Macintosh II.
This policy began to backfire in the last years of the decade as new desktop publishing programs appeared on PC clones that offered some or much of the same functionality of the Macintosh but at far lower price points. The company lost its monopoly in this market and had already estranged many of its original consumer customer base who could no longer afford their high - priced products. The Christmas season of 1989 was the first in the company 's history that saw declining sales, and led to a 20 % drop in Apple 's stock price. Gassée 's objections were overruled, and he was forced from the company in 1990. Later that year, Apple introduced three lower cost models, the Macintosh Classic, Macintosh LC and Macintosh IIsi, all of which saw significant sales due to pent - up demand.
In 1991, Apple introduced the PowerBook, replacing the "luggable '' Macintosh Portable with a design that set the current shape for almost all modern laptops. The same year, Apple introduced System 7, a major upgrade to the operating system which added color to the interface and introduced new networking capabilities. It remained the architectural basis for the Classic Mac OS. The success of the PowerBook and other products brought increasing revenue. For some time, Apple was doing incredibly well, introducing fresh new products and generating increasing profits in the process. The magazine MacAddict named the period between 1989 and 1991 as the "first golden age '' of the Macintosh.
Apple believed the Apple II series was too expensive to produce and took away sales from the low - end Macintosh. In the 1990s, Apple released the Macintosh LC, and began efforts to promote that computer by advising developer technical support staff to recommend developing applications for Macintosh rather than Apple II, and authorizing salespersons to direct consumers towards Macintosh and away from Apple II. The Apple IIe was discontinued in 1993.
The success of Apple 's lower - cost consumer models, especially the LC, also led to cannibalization of their higher priced machines. To address this, management introduced several new brands, selling largely identical machines at different price points aimed at different markets. These were the high - end Quadra, the mid-range Centris line, and the ill - fated Performa series. This led to significant market confusion, as customers did not understand the difference between models.
Apple also experimented with a number of other unsuccessful consumer targeted products during the 1990s, including digital cameras, portable CD audio players, speakers, video consoles, the eWorld online service, and TV appliances. Enormous resources were also invested in the problem - plagued Newton division based on John Sculley 's unrealistic market forecasts. Ultimately, none of these products helped and Apple 's market share and stock prices continued to slide.
Throughout this period, Microsoft continued to gain market share with Windows by focusing on delivering software to cheap commodity personal computers, while Apple was delivering a richly engineered but expensive experience. Apple relied on high profit margins and never developed a clear response; instead, they sued Microsoft for using a GUI similar to the Apple Lisa in Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp. The lawsuit dragged on for years before it was finally dismissed. At this time, a series of major product flops and missed deadlines sullied Apple 's reputation, and Sculley was replaced as CEO by Michael Spindler.
By the early 1990s, Apple was developing alternative platforms to the Macintosh, such as A / UX. The Macintosh platform itself was becoming outdated because it was not built for multitasking and because several important software routines were programmed directly into the hardware. In addition, Apple was facing competition from OS / 2 and UNIX vendors such as Sun Microsystems. The Macintosh would need to be replaced by a new platform or reworked to run on more powerful hardware.
In 1994, Apple allied with IBM and Motorola in the AIM alliance with the goal of creating a new computing platform (the PowerPC Reference Platform), which would use IBM and Motorola hardware coupled with Apple software. The AIM alliance hoped that PReP 's performance and Apple 's software would leave the PC far behind and thus counter Microsoft. The same year, Apple introduced the Power Macintosh, the first of many Apple computers to use Motorola 's PowerPC processor.
In 1996, Spindler was replaced by Gil Amelio as CEO. Amelio made numerous changes at Apple, including extensive layoffs and cut costs. After numerous failed attempts to improve Mac OS, first with the Taligent project and later with Copland and Gershwin, Amelio chose to purchase NeXT and its NeXTSTEP operating system and bring Steve Jobs back to Apple.
At the 1997 Macworld Expo, Jobs announced that Apple would join Microsoft to release new versions of Microsoft Office for the Macintosh, and that Microsoft had made a $150 million investment in non-voting Apple stock. On November 10, 1997, Apple introduced the Apple Online Store, which was tied to a new build - to - order manufacturing strategy.
The NeXT deal was finalized on February 9, 1997, bringing Jobs back to Apple as an advisor. On July 9, 1997, Amelio was ousted by the board of directors after overseeing a three - year record - low stock price and crippling financial losses. Jobs acted as the interim CEO and began restructuring the company 's product line; it was during this period that he identified the design talent of Jonathan Ive, and the pair worked collaboratively to rebuild Apple 's status.
On August 15, 1998, Apple introduced a new all - in - one computer reminiscent of the Macintosh 128K: the iMac. The iMac design team was led by Ive, who would later design the iPod and the iPhone. The iMac featured modern technology and a unique design, and sold almost 800,000 units in its first five months.
During this period, Apple completed numerous acquisitions to create a portfolio of digital production software for both professionals and consumers. In 1998, Apple purchased Macromedia 's Key Grip software project, signaling an expansion into the digital video editing market. The sale was an outcome of Macromedia 's decision to solely focus upon web development software. The product, still unfinished at the time of the sale, was renamed "Final Cut Pro '' when it was launched on the retail market in April 1999. The development of Key Grip also led to Apple 's release of the consumer video - editing product iMovie in October 1999. Next, Apple successfully acquired the German company Astarte, which had developed DVD authoring technology, as well as Astarte 's corresponding products and engineering team in April 2000. Astarte 's digital tool DVDirector was subsequently transformed into the professional - oriented DVD Studio Pro software product. Apple then employed the same technology to create iDVD for the consumer market. In July 2001, Apple acquired Spruce Technologies, a PC DVD authoring platform, to incorporate their technology into Apple 's expanding portfolio of digital video projects.
In 2002, Apple purchased Nothing Real for their advanced digital compositing application Shake, as well as Emagic for the music productivity application Logic. The purchase of Emagic made Apple the first computer manufacturer to own a music software company. The acquisition was followed by the development of Apple 's consumer - level GarageBand application. The release of iPhoto in the same year completed the iLife suite.
Mac OS X, based on NeXT 's OPENSTEP and BSD Unix, was released on March 24, 2001, after several years of development. Aimed at consumers and professionals alike, Mac OS X aimed to combine the stability, reliability, and security of Unix with the ease of use afforded by an overhauled user interface. To aid users in migrating from Mac OS 9, the new operating system allowed the use of OS 9 applications within Mac OS X via the Classic Environment.
On May 19, 2001, Apple opened its first official eponymous retail stores in Virginia and California. On October 23 of the same year, Apple debuted the iPod portable digital audio player. The product, which was first sold on November 10, 2001, was phenomenally successful with over 100 million units sold within six years. In 2003, Apple 's iTunes Store was introduced. The service offered online music downloads for $0.99 a song and integration with the iPod. The iTunes Store quickly became the market leader in online music services, with over five billion downloads by June 19, 2008. Two years later, the iTunes Store was the world 's largest music retailer.
At the Worldwide Developers Conference keynote address on June 6, 2005, Jobs announced that Apple would begin producing Intel - based Mac computers in 2006. On January 10, 2006, the new MacBook Pro and iMac became the first Apple computers to use Intel 's Core Duo CPU. By August 7, 2006, Apple made the transition to Intel chips for the entire Mac product line -- over one year sooner than announced. The Power Mac, iBook and PowerBook brands were retired during the transition; the Mac Pro, MacBook, and MacBook Pro became their respective successors. On April 29, 2009, The Wall Street Journal reported that Apple was building its own team of engineers to design microchips. Apple also introduced Boot Camp in 2006 to help users install Windows XP or Windows Vista on their Intel Macs alongside Mac OS X.
Apple 's success during this period was evident in its stock price. Between early 2003 and 2006, the price of Apple 's stock increased more than tenfold, from around $6 per share (split - adjusted) to over $80. In January 2006, Apple 's market cap surpassed that of Dell. Nine years prior, Dell 's CEO Michael Dell had said that if he ran Apple he would "shut it down and give the money back to the shareholders. '' Although Apple 's market share in computers had grown, it remained far behind it 's competitor Microsoft Windows, accounting for about 8 % of desktops and laptops in the US.
Since 2001, Apple 's design team has progressively abandoned the use of translucent colored plastics first used in the iMac G3. This design change began with the titanium - made PowerBook and was followed by the iBook 's white polycarbonate structure and the flat - panel iMac.
During his keynote speech at the Macworld Expo on January 9, 2007, Jobs announced that Apple Computer, Inc. would thereafter be known as "Apple Inc. '', because the company had shifted its emphasis from computers to consumer electronics. This event also saw the announcement of the iPhone and the Apple TV. The company sold 270,000 iPhone units during the first 30 hours of sales, and the device was called "a game changer for the industry ''. Apple would achieve widespread success with its iPhone, iPod Touch and iPad products, which introduced innovations in mobile phones, portable music players and personal computers respectively. Furthermore, by early 2007, 800,000 Final Cut Pro users were registered.
In an article posted on Apple 's website on February 6, 2007, Jobs wrote that Apple would be willing to sell music on the iTunes Store without digital rights management (DRM), thereby allowing tracks to be played on third - party players, if record labels would agree to drop the technology. On April 2, 2007, Apple and EMI jointly announced the removal of DRM technology from EMI 's catalog in the iTunes Store, effective in May 2007. Other record labels eventually followed suit and Apple published a press release in January 2009 to announce the corresponding changes to the iTunes Store.
In July 2008, Apple launched the App Store to sell third - party applications for the iPhone and iPod Touch. Within a month, the store sold 60 million applications and registered an average daily revenue of $1 million, with Jobs speculating in August 2008 that the App Store could become a billion - dollar business for Apple. By October 2008, Apple was the third - largest mobile handset supplier in the world due to the popularity of the iPhone.
On December 16, 2008, Apple announced that 2009 would be the last year the corporation would attend the Macworld Expo, after more than 20 years of attendance, and that senior vice president of Worldwide Product Marketing Phil Schiller would deliver the 2009 keynote address in lieu of the expected Jobs. The official press release explained that Apple was "scaling back '' on trade shows in general, including Macworld Tokyo and the Apple Expo in Paris, France, primarily because the enormous successes of the Apple Retail Stores and website had rendered trade shows a minor promotional channel.
On January 14, 2009, Jobs announced in an internal memo that he would be taking a six - month medical leave of absence from Apple until the end of June 2009 and would spend the time focusing on his health. In the email, Jobs stated that "the curiosity over my personal health continues to be a distraction not only for me and my family, but everyone else at Apple as well '', and explained that the break would allow the company "to focus on delivering extraordinary products ''. Despite Jobs 's absence, Apple recorded its best non-holiday quarter (Q1 FY 2009) during the recession with revenue of $8.16 billion and profit of $1.21 billion.
After years of speculation and multiple rumored "leaks '', Apple unveiled a large screen, tablet - like media device known as the iPad on January 27, 2010. The iPad ran the same touch - based operating system as the iPhone, and many iPhone apps were compatible with the iPad. This gave the iPad a large app catalog on launch, despite very little development time before the release. Later that year on April 3, 2010, the iPad was launched in the US. It sold more than 300,000 units on its first day, and 500,000 by the end of the first week. In May of the same year, Apple 's market cap exceeded that of competitor Microsoft for the first time since 1989.
In June 2010, Apple released the iPhone 4, which introduced video calling, multitasking, and a new uninsulated stainless steel design that acted as the phone 's antenna. Later that year, Apple again refreshed its iPod line of MP3 players by introducing a multi-touch iPod Nano, an iPod Touch with FaceTime, and an iPod Shuffle that brought back the buttons of earlier generations. Additionally, on October 20, Apple updated the MacBook Air laptop, iLife suite of applications, and unveiled Mac OS X Lion, the last version with the name Mac OS X.
In October 2010, Apple shares hit an all - time high, eclipsing $300.
On January 6, 2011, the company opened its Mac App Store, a digital software distribution platform similar to the iOS App Store.
Alongside peer entities such as Atari and Cisco Systems, Apple was featured in the documentary Something Ventured, which premiered in 2011 and explored the three - decade era that led to the establishment and dominance of Silicon Valley.
On January 17, 2011, Jobs announced in an internal Apple memo that he would take another medical leave of absence for an indefinite period to allow him to focus on his health. Chief Operating Officer Tim Cook assumed Jobs 's day - to - day operations at Apple, although Jobs would still remain "involved in major strategic decisions ''. Apple became the most valuable consumer - facing brand in the world. In June 2011, Jobs surprisingly took the stage and unveiled iCloud, an online storage and syncing service for music, photos, files and software which replaced MobileMe, Apple 's previous attempt at content syncing.
This would be the last product launch Jobs would attend before his death. It has been argued that Apple has achieved such efficiency in its supply chain that the company operates as a monopsony (one buyer, many sellers) and can dictate terms to its suppliers. In July 2011, due to the American debt - ceiling crisis, Apple 's financial reserves were briefly larger than those of the U.S. Government.
On August 24, 2011, Jobs resigned his position as CEO of Apple. He was replaced by Cook and Jobs became Apple 's chairman. Prior to this, Apple did not have a chairman and instead had two co-lead directors, Andrea Jung and Arthur D. Levinson, who continued with those titles until Levinson became chairman of the board in November.
On October 5, 2011, Steve Jobs died, marking the end of an era for Apple. The first major product announcement by Apple following Jobs 's passing occurred on January 19, 2012, when Apple 's Phil Schiller introduced iBooks Textbooks for iOS and iBook Author for Mac OS X in New York City. Jobs had stated in his biography that he wanted to reinvent the textbook industry and education.
From 2011 to 2012, Apple released the iPhone 4S and iPhone 5, which featured improved cameras, an intelligent software assistant named Siri, and cloud - sourced data with iCloud; the third and fourth generation iPads, which featured Retina displays; and the iPad Mini, which featured a 7.9 - inch screen in contrast to the iPad 's 9.7 - inch screen. These launches were successful, with the iPhone 5 (released September 21, 2012) becoming Apple 's biggest iPhone launch with over two million pre-orders and sales of three million iPads in three days following the launch of the iPad Mini and fourth generation iPad (released November 3, 2012). Apple also released a third - generation 13 - inch MacBook Pro with a Retina display and new iMac and Mac Mini computers.
On August 20, 2012, Apple 's rising stock price increased the company 's market capitalization to a world - record $624 billion. This beat the non-inflation - adjusted record for market capitalization set by Microsoft in 1999. On August 24, 2012, a US jury ruled that Samsung should pay Apple $1.05 billion (£ 665m) in damages in an intellectual property lawsuit. Samsung appealed the damages award, which the Court reduced by $450 million. The Court further granted Samsung 's request for a new trial. On November 10, 2012, Apple confirmed a global settlement that would dismiss all lawsuits between Apple and HTC up to that date, in favor of a ten - year license agreement for current and future patents between the two companies. It is predicted that Apple will make $280 million a year from this deal with HTC.
A previously confidential email written by Jobs a year before his death was presented during the proceedings of the Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co. lawsuits and became publicly available in early April 2014. With a subject line that reads "Top 100 -- A, '' the email was sent only to the company 's 100 most senior employees and outlines Jobs 's vision of Apple Inc. 's future under 10 subheadings. Notably, Jobs declares a "Holy War with Google '' for 2011 and schedules a "new campus '' for 2015.
In March 2013, Apple filed a patent for an augmented reality (AR) system that can identify objects in a live video stream and present information corresponding to these objects through a computer - generated information layer overlaid on top of the real - world image. The company also made several high - profile hiring decisions in 2013. On July 2, 2013, Apple recruited Paul Deneve, Belgian President and CEO of Yves Saint Laurent as a vice president reporting directly to Tim Cook. A mid-October 2013 announcement revealed that Burberry executive Angela Ahrendts will commence as a senior vice president at Apple in mid-2014. Ahrendts oversaw Burberry 's digital strategy for almost eight years and, during her tenure, sales increased to about US $3.2 billion and shares gained more than threefold.
Alongside Google vice-president Vint Cerf and AT&T CEO Randall Stephenson, Cook attended a closed - door summit held by President Obama on August 8, 2013, in regard to government surveillance and the Internet in the wake of the Edward Snowden NSA incident. On February 4, 2014, Cook met with Abdullah Gül, the President of Turkey, in Ankara to discuss the company 's involvement in the Fatih project.
In the first quarter of 2014, Apple reported sales of 51 million iPhones and 26 million iPads, becoming all - time quarterly sales records. It also experienced a significant year - over-year increase in Mac sales. This was contrasted with a significant drop in iPod sales. In May 2014, the company confirmed its intent to acquire Dr. Dre and Jimmy Iovine 's audio company Beats Electronics -- producer of the "Beats by Dr. Dre '' line of headphones and speaker products, and operator of the music streaming service Beats Music -- for $3 billion, and to sell their products through Apple 's retail outlets and resellers. Iovine felt that Beats had always "belonged '' with Apple, as the company modeled itself after Apple 's "unmatched ability to marry culture and technology. '' The acquisition was the largest purchase in Apple 's history.
Apple has been at the top of Interbrand 's annual Best Global Brands report for 4 years in a row; 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016, with a valuation of $178.1 billion.
In January 2016, it was announced that one billion Apple devices were in active use worldwide.
On May 12, 2016, Apple Inc., invested US $ 1 billion in Didi Chuxing, a Chinese competitor to Uber. The Information reported in October 2016 that Apple had taken a board seat in Didi Chuxing, a move that James Vincent of The Verge speculated could be a strategic company decision by Apple to get closer to the automobile industry, particularly Didi Chuxing 's reported interest in self - driving cars.
On June 6, 2016, Forbes released their list of companies ranked on revenue generation. In the trailing fiscal year, Apple appeared on the list as the top tech company. It ranked third, overall, with $233 billion in revenue. This represents a movement upward of two spots from the previous year 's list.
On April 6, 2017, Apple launched Clips, an app that allows iPad and iPhone users to make and edit videos. The app provides a way to produce short videos to share with other users on the Messages app, Instagram, Facebook and other social networks. Apple also introduced Live Titles for Clips that allows users to add live animated captions and titles using their voice.
In May 2017, Apple refreshed two of its website designs. Their public relations "Apple Press Info '' website was changed to an "Apple Newsroom '' site, featuring a greater emphasis on imagery and therefore lower information density, and combines press releases, news items, and photos. Its "Apple Leadership '' overview of company executives was also refreshed, adding a simpler layout with a prominent header image and two - column text fields. 9to5Mac noted the design similarities to several of Apple 's redesigned apps in iOS 10, particularly its Apple Music and News software.
In June 2017, Apple announced the HomePod, its smart speaker aimed to compete against Sonos and Amazon Echo. Towards the end of the year, TechCrunch reported that Apple was acquiring Shazam, a company specializing in music, TV, film and advertising recognition. The acquisition was confirmed a few days later, reportedly costing Apple $400 million, with media reports noting that the purchase looked like a move by Apple to get data and tools to bolster its Apple Music streaming service.
On June 5, 2018, Apple deprecated OpenGL across all OSes and urges developers to use Metal as the alternative.
Macs currently in production:
Apple sells a variety of computer accessories for Macs, including Thunderbolt Display, Magic Mouse, Magic Trackpad, Magic Keyboard, the AirPort wireless networking products, and Time Capsule.
On October 23, 2001, Apple introduced the iPod digital music player. Several updated models have since been introduced, and the iPod brand is now the market leader in portable music players by a significant margin. More than 350 million units have shipped as of September 2012. Apple has partnered with Nike to offer the Nike + iPod Sports Kit, enabling runners to synchronize and monitor their runs with iTunes and the Nike+ website.
In late July 2017, Apple discontinued its iPod Nano and iPod Shuffle models, leaving only the iPod Touch available for purchase.
At the Macworld Conference & Expo in January 2007, Steve Jobs introduced the long - anticipated iPhone, a convergence of an Internet - enabled smartphone and iPod. The first - generation iPhone was released on June 29, 2007, for $499 (4 GB) and $599 (8 GB) with an AT&T contract. On February 5, 2008, it was updated to have 16 GB of memory, in addition to the 8 GB and 4 GB models. It combined a 2.5 G quad band GSM and EDGE cellular phone with features found in handheld devices, running scaled - down versions of Apple 's Mac OS X (dubbed iPhone OS, later renamed iOS), with various Mac OS X applications such as Safari and Mail. It also includes web - based and Dashboard apps such as Google Maps and Weather. The iPhone features a 3.5 - inch (89 mm) touchscreen display, Bluetooth, and Wi - Fi (both "b '' and "g '').
A second version, the iPhone 3G, was released on July 11, 2008, with a reduced price of $199 for the 8 GB version and $299 for the 16 GB version. This version added support for 3G networking and assisted GPS navigation. The flat silver back and large antenna square of the original model were eliminated in favor of a glossy, curved black or white back. Software capabilities were improved with the release of the App Store, which provided iPhone - compatible applications to download. On April 24, 2009, the App Store surpassed one billion downloads. On June 8, 2009, Apple announced the iPhone 3GS. It provided an incremental update to the device, including faster internal components, support for faster 3G speeds, video recording capability, and voice control.
At the Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) on June 7, 2010, Apple announced the redesigned iPhone 4. It featured a 960 × 640 display, the Apple A4 processor, a gyroscope for enhanced gaming, a 5MP camera with LED flash, front - facing VGA camera and FaceTime video calling. Shortly after its release, reception issues were discovered by consumers, due to the stainless steel band around the edge of the device, which also serves as the phone 's cellular signal and Wi - Fi antenna. The issue was corrected by a "Bumper Case '' distributed by Apple for free to all owners for a few months. In June 2011, Apple overtook Nokia to become the world 's biggest smartphone maker by volume. On October 4, 2011, Apple unveiled the iPhone 4S, which was first released on October 14, 2011. It features the Apple A5 processor and Siri voice assistant technology, the latter of which Apple had acquired in 2010. It also features an updated 8MP camera with new optics. Apple began a new accessibility feature, Made for iPhone Hearing Aids with the iPhone 4S. Made for iPhone Hearing Aids feature Live Listen, it can help the user hear a conversation in a noisy room or hear someone speaking across the room. Apple sold 4 million iPhone 4S phones in the first three days of availability.
On September 12, 2012, Apple introduced the iPhone 5. It has a 4 - inch display, 4G LTE connectivity, and the upgraded Apple A6 chip, among several other improvements. Two million iPhones were sold in the first twenty - four hours of pre-ordering and over five million handsets were sold in the first three days of its launch. Upon the launch of the iPhone 5S and iPhone 5C, Apple set a new record for first - weekend smartphone sales by selling over nine million devices in the first three days of its launch. The release of the iPhone 5S and 5C was the first time that Apple simultaneously launched two models.
A patent filed in July 2013 revealed the development of a new iPhone battery system that uses location data in combination with data on the user 's habits to moderate the handsets power settings accordingly. Apple is working towards a power management system that will provide features such as the ability of the iPhone to estimate the length of time a user will be away from a power source to modify energy usage and a detection function that adjusts the charging rate to best suit the type of power source that is being used.
In a March 2014 interview, Apple designer Jonathan Ive used the iPhone as an example of Apple 's ethos of creating high - quality, life - changing products. He explained that the phones are comparatively expensive due to the intensive effort that is used to make them:
We do n't take so long and make the way we make for fiscal reasons... Quite the reverse. The body is made from a single piece of machined aluminium... The whole thing is polished first to a mirror finish and then is very finely textured, except for the Apple logo. The chamfers (smoothed - off edges) are cut with diamond - tipped cutters. The cutters do n't usually last very long, so we had to figure out a way of mass - manufacturing long - lasting ones. The camera cover is sapphire crystal. Look at the details around the SIM - card slot. It 's extraordinary!
On September 9, 2014, Apple introduced the iPhone 6, alongside the iPhone 6 Plus that both have screen sizes over 4 - inches. One year later, Apple introduced the iPhone 6S, and iPhone 6S Plus, which introduced a new technology called 3D Touch, including an increase of the rear camera to 12 MP, and the FaceTime camera to 5 MP. On March 21, 2016, Apple introduced the iPhone SE that has a 4 - inch screen size last used with the 5S and has nearly the same internal hardware as the 6S.
In July 2016, Apple announced that one billion iPhones had been sold.
On September 7, 2016, Apple introduced the iPhone 7 and the iPhone 7 Plus, which feature improved system and graphics performance, add water resistance, a new rear dual - camera system on the 7 Plus model, and, controversially, remove the 3.5 mm headphone jack.
On September 12, 2017, Apple introduced the iPhone 8 and iPhone 8 Plus, standing as evolutionary updates to its previous phones with a faster processor, improved display technology, upgraded camera systems and wireless charging. The company also announced iPhone X, which radically changes the hardware of the iPhone lineup, removing the home button in favor of facial recognition technology and featuring a near bezel-less design along with wireless charging.
On January 27, 2010, Apple introduced their much - anticipated media tablet, the iPad. It offers multi-touch interaction with multimedia formats including newspapers, e-books, photos, videos, music, word processing documents, video games, and most existing iPhone apps using a 9.7 - inch screen. It also includes a mobile version of Safari for web browsing, as well as access to the App Store, iTunes Library, iBookstore, Contacts, and Notes. Content is downloadable via Wi - Fi and optional 3G service or synced through the user 's computer. AT&T was initially the sole U.S. provider of 3G wireless access for the iPad.
On March 2, 2011, Apple introduced the iPad 2, which had a faster processor and a camera on the front and back. It also added support for optional 3G service provided by Verizon in addition to AT&T. The availability of the iPad 2 was initially limited as a result of a devastating earthquake and tsunami in Japan in March 2011.
The third - generation iPad was released on March 7, 2012, and marketed as "the new iPad ''. It added LTE service from AT&T or Verizon, an upgraded A5X processor, and Retina display. The dimensions and form factor remained relatively unchanged, with the new iPad being a fraction thicker and heavier than the previous version and featuring minor positioning changes.
On October 23, 2012, Apple 's fourth - generation iPad came out, marketed as the "iPad with Retina display ''. It added the upgraded A6X processor and replaced the traditional 30 - pin dock connector with the all - digital Lightning connector. The iPad Mini was also introduced. It featured a reduced 7.9 - inch display and much of the same internal specifications as the iPad 2.
On October 22, 2013, Apple introduced the iPad Air and the iPad Mini with Retina Display, both featuring a new 64 - bit Apple A7 processor.
The iPad Air 2 was unveiled on October 16, 2014. It added better graphics and central processing and a camera burst mode as well as minor updates. The iPad Mini 3 was unveiled at the same time.
Since its launch, iPad users have downloaded over three billion apps. The total number of App Store downloads, as of June 2015, is over 100 billion.
On September 9, 2015, Apple announced the iPad Pro, an iPad with a 12.9 - inch display that supports two new accessories, the Smart Keyboard and Apple Pencil. An updated IPad Mini 4 was announced at the same time. A 9.7 - inch iPad Pro was announced on March 21, 2016. On June 5, 2017, Apple announced a new iPad Pro with a 10.5 - inch display to replace the 9.7 inch model and an updated 12.9 - inch model.
The original Apple Watch smartwatch was announced by Tim Cook on September 9, 2014, being introduced as a product with health and fitness - tracking. It was released on April 24, 2015.
The second generation of Apple Watch, Apple Watch Series 2, was released in September 2016, featuring greater water resistance, a faster processor, and brighter display.
On September 12, 2017, Apple introduced Apple Watch Series 3 featuring LTE cellular connectivity, giving the wearable independence from an iPhone except for the setup process.
At the 2007 Macworld conference, Jobs demonstrated the Apple TV (previously known as the iTV), a set - top video device intended to bridge the sale of content from iTunes with high - definition televisions. The device links up to a user 's TV and syncs, either via Wi - Fi or a wired network, with one computer 's iTunes library and streams content from an additional four. The Apple TV originally incorporated a 40 GB hard drive for storage, included outputs for HDMI and component video, and played video at a maximum resolution of 720p. On May 30, 2007, a 160 GB hard disk drive was released alongside the existing 40 GB model. A software update released on January 15, 2008, allowed media to be purchased directly from the Apple TV.
In September 2009, Apple discontinued the original 40 GB Apple TV and now continues to produce and sell the 160 GB Apple TV. On September 1, 2010, Apple released a completely redesigned Apple TV. The new device is 1 / 4 the size, runs quieter, and replaces the need for a hard drive with media streaming from any iTunes library on the network along with 8 GB of flash memory to cache media downloaded. Like the iPad and the iPhone, Apple TV runs on an A4 processor. The memory included in the device is half of that in the iPhone 4 at 256 MB; the same as the iPad, iPhone 3GS, third and fourth - generation iPod Touch.
It has HDMI out as the only video output source. Features include access to the iTunes Store to rent movies and TV shows (purchasing has been discontinued), streaming from internet video sources, including YouTube and Netflix, and media streaming from an iTunes library. Apple also reduced the price of the device to $99. A third generation of the device was introduced at an Apple event on March 7, 2012, with new features such as higher resolution (1080p) and a new user interface.
At the September 9, 2015, event, Apple unveiled an overhauled Apple TV, which now runs a variant of macOS, called tvOS, and contains 32GB or 64 GB of NAND Flash to store games, programs, and to cache the current media playing. The release also coincided with the opening of a separate Apple TV App Store and a new Siri Remote with a glass touchpad, gyroscope, and microphone.
At the September 12, 2017 event, Apple released a new 4K Apple TV with the same form factor as the 4th Generation model. The 4K model is powered by the A10X SoC designed in - house that also powers their second - generation iPad Pro. The 4K model also has support for high dynamic range.
Apple 's first smart speaker, the HomePod was released on February 9, 2018 after being delayed from its initial December 2017 release. It also features 7 tweeters in the base, a four - inch woofer in the top, and six microphones for voice control and acoustic optimization
Apple develops its own operating systems to run on its devices, including macOS for Mac personal computers, iOS for its iPhone, iPad and iPod Touch smartphones and tablets, watchOS for its Apple Watch smartwatches, and tvOS for its Apple TV digital media player.
For iOS and macOS, Apple also develops its own software titles, including Pages for writing, Numbers for spreadsheets, and Keynote for presentations, as part of its iWork productivity suite. For macOS, it also offers iMovie and Final Cut Pro X for video editing, and GarageBand and Logic Pro X for music creation.
Apple 's range of server software includes the operating system macOS Server; Apple Remote Desktop, a remote systems management application; and Xsan, a storage area network file system.
Apple also offers online services with iCloud, which provides cloud storage and synchronization for a wide range of user data, including documents, photos, music, device backups, and application data, and Apple Music, its music and video streaming service.
According to the Sydney Morning Herald, Apple wants to start producing an electric car with autonomous driving as soon as 2020. Apple has made efforts to recruit battery development engineers and other electric automobile engineers from A123 Systems, LG Chem, Samsung Electronics, Panasonic, Toshiba, Johnson Controls and Tesla Motors.
Apple Energy, LLC is a wholly owned subsidiary of Apple Inc. that sells solar energy. As of June 6, 2016, Apple 's solar farms in California and Nevada have been declared to provide 217.9 megawatts of solar generation capacity. In addition to the company 's solar energy production, Apple has received regulatory approval to construct a landfill gas energy plant in North Carolina. Apple will use the methane emissions to generate electricity. Apple 's North Carolina data center is already powered entirely with energy from renewable sources.
According to Steve Jobs, the company 's name was inspired by his visit to an apple farm while on a fruitarian diet. Jobs thought the name "Apple '' was "fun, spirited and not intimidating ''.
Apple 's first logo, designed by Ron Wayne, depicts Sir Isaac Newton sitting under an apple tree. It was almost immediately replaced by Rob Janoff 's "rainbow Apple '', the now - familiar rainbow - colored silhouette of an apple with a bite taken out of it. Janoff presented Jobs with several different monochromatic themes for the "bitten '' logo, and Jobs immediately took a liking to it. However, Jobs insisted that the logo be colorized to humanize the company. The logo was designed with a bite so that it would not be confused with a cherry. The colored stripes were conceived to make the logo more accessible, and to represent the fact the Apple II could generate graphics in color. This logo is often erroneously referred to as a tribute to Alan Turing, with the bite mark a reference to his method of suicide. Both Janoff and Apple deny any homage to Turing in the design of the logo.
On August 27, 1999 (the year following the introduction of the iMac G3), Apple officially dropped the rainbow scheme and began to use monochromatic logos nearly identical in shape to the previous rainbow incarnation. An Aqua - themed version of the monochrome logo was used from 1998 to 2003, and a glass - themed version was used from 2007 to 2013.
Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak were Beatles fans, but Apple Inc. had name and logo trademark issues with Apple Corps Ltd., a multimedia company started by the Beatles in 1967. This resulted in a series of lawsuits and tension between the two companies. These issues ended with the settling of their lawsuit in 2007.
Apple 's first slogan, "Byte into an Apple '', was coined in the late 1970s. From 1997 to 2002, the slogan "Think Different '' was used in advertising campaigns, and is still closely associated with Apple. Apple also has slogans for specific product lines -- for example, "iThink, therefore iMac '' was used in 1998 to promote the iMac, and "Say hello to iPhone '' has been used in iPhone advertisements. "Hello '' was also used to introduce the original Macintosh, Newton, iMac ("hello (again) ''), and iPod.
From the introduction of the Macintosh in 1984, with the 1984 Super Bowl commercial to the more modern ' Get a Mac ' adverts, Apple has been recognized for its efforts towards effective advertising and marketing for its products. However, claims made by later campaigns were criticized, particularly the 2005 Power Mac ads. Apple 's product commercials gained a lot of attention as a result of their eye - popping graphics and catchy tunes. Musicians who benefited from an improved profile as a result of their songs being included on Apple commercials include Canadian singer Feist with the song "1234 '' and Yael Naïm with the song "New Soul ''.
Apple owns a YouTube channel where they release advertisements, tips, and introductions for their devices.
-- Alex Riley, writing for the BBC
Apple customers gained a reputation for devotion and loyalty early in the company 's history. BYTE in 1984 stated that
There are two kinds of people in the world: people who say Apple is n't just a company, it 's a cause; and people who say Apple is n't a cause, it 's just a company. Both groups are right. Nature has suspended the principle of noncontradiction where Apple is concerned.
Apple is more than just a company because its founding has some of the qualities of myth... Apple is two guys in a garage undertaking the mission of bringing computing power, once reserved for big corporations, to ordinary individuals with ordinary budgets. The company 's growth from two guys to a billion - dollar corporation exemplifies the American Dream. Even as a large corporation, Apple plays David to IBM 's Goliath, and thus has the sympathetic role in that myth.
Apple evangelists were actively engaged by the company at one time, but this was after the phenomenon had already been firmly established. Apple evangelist Guy Kawasaki has called the brand fanaticism "something that was stumbled upon, '' while Ive explained in 2014 that "People have an incredibly personal relationship '' with Apple 's products. Apple Store openings and new product releases can draw crowds of hundreds, with some waiting in line as much as a day before the opening. The opening of New York City 's Fifth Avenue "Cube '' store in 2006 became the setting of a marriage proposal, and had visitors from Europe who flew in for the event. In June 2017, a newlywed couple took their wedding photos inside the then - recently opened Orchard Road Apple Store in Singapore. The high level of brand loyalty has been criticized and ridiculed, applying the epithet "Apple fanboy '' and mocking the lengthy lines before a product launch. An internal memo leaked in 2015 suggested the company planned to discourage long lines and direct customers to purchase its products on its website.
Fortune magazine named Apple the most admired company in the United States in 2008, and in the world from 2008 to 2012. On September 30, 2013, Apple surpassed Coca - Cola to become the world 's most valuable brand in the Omnicom Group 's "Best Global Brands '' report. Boston Consulting Group has ranked Apple as the world 's most innovative brand every year since 2005.
The New York Times in 1985 stated that "Apple above all else is a marketing company ''. John Sculley agreed, telling The Guardian newspaper in 1997 that "People talk about technology, but Apple was a marketing company. It was the marketing company of the decade. '' Research in 2002 by NetRatings indicate that the average Apple consumer was usually more affluent and better educated than other PC company consumers. The research indicated that this correlation could stem from the fact that on average Apple Inc. products were more expensive than other PC products.
In response to a query about the devotion of loyal Apple consumers, Jonathan Ive responded:
What people are responding to is much bigger than the object. They are responding to something rare -- a group of people who do more than simply make something work, they make the very best products they possibly can. It 's a demonstration against thoughtlessness and carelessness.
The Apple website home page has been used to commemorate, or pay tribute to, milestones and events outside of Apple 's product offerings:
Apple Inc. 's world corporate headquarters are located in the middle of Silicon Valley, at 1 -- 6 Infinite Loop, Cupertino, California. This Apple campus has six buildings that total 850,000 square feet (79,000 m) and was built in 1993 by Sobrato Development Cos.
Apple has a satellite campus in neighboring Sunnyvale, California, where it houses a testing and research laboratory. AppleInsider published article in March 2014 claiming that Apple has a tucked away a top - secret facility where is developing the SG5 electric vehicle project codenamed "Titan '' under the shell company name SixtyEight Research.
In 2006, Apple announced its intention to build a second campus in Cupertino about 1 mile (1.6 km) east of the current campus and next to Interstate 280. The new campus building has been designed by Norman Foster. The Cupertino City Council approved the proposed "spaceship '' design campus on October 15, 2013, after a 2011 presentation by Jobs detailing the architectural design of the new building and its environs. The new campus is planned to house up to 13,000 employees in one central, four - storied, circular building surrounded by extensive landscape. It will feature a café with room for 3,000 sitting people and parking underground as well as in a parking structure. The 2.8 million square foot facility will also include Jobs 's original designs for a fitness center and a corporate auditorium.
Apple has expanded its campuses in Austin, Texas concurrently with building Apple Park in Cupertino. The expansion consists of two locations, with one having 1.1 million square feet of workspace, and the other 216,000 square feet. At the biggest location, 6,000 employees work on technical support, manage Apple 's network of suppliers to fulfill product shipments, aid in maintaining iTunes Store and App Store, handle economy, and continuously update Apple Maps with new data. At its smaller campus, 500 engineers work on next - generation processor chips to run in future Apple products.
Apple 's headquarters for Europe, the Middle East and Africa (EMEA) are located in Cork in the south of Ireland. The facility, which opened in 1980, was Apple 's first location outside of the United States. Apple Sales International, which deals with all of Apple 's international sales outside of the USA, is located at Apple 's campus in Cork along with Apple Distribution International, which similarly deals with Apple 's international distribution network. On April 20, 2012, Apple added 500 new jobs at its European headquarters, increasing the total workforce from around 2,800 to 3,300 employees. The company will build a new office block on its Hollyhill Campus to accommodate the additional staff. Its United Kingdom headquarters is at Stockley Park on the outskirts of London.
In February 2015, Apple opened their new 180,000 - square - foot headquarters in Herzliya, Israel, which will accommodate approximately 800 employees. This opening was Apple 's third office located within Israel; the first, also in Herzliya, was obtained as part of the Anobit acquisition, and the other is a research center in Haifa.
In December 2015, Apple bought the 70,000 - square - foot manufacturing facility in North San Jose previously used by Maxim Integrated, in an $18.2 million deal.
The first Apple Stores were originally opened as two locations in May 2001 by then - CEO Steve Jobs, after years of attempting but failing store - within - a-store concepts. Seeing a need for improved retail presentation of the company 's products, he began an effort in 1997 to revamp the retail program to get an improved relationship to consumers, and hired Ron Johnson in 2000. Jobs relaunched Apple 's online store in 1997, and opened the first two physical stores in 2001. Despite initial media speculation that Apple would fail, its stores were highly successful, bypassing the sales numbers of competing nearby stores and within three years reached US $1 billion in annual sales, becoming the fastest retailer in history to do so. Over the years, Apple has expanded the number of retail locations and its geographical coverage, with 499 stores across 22 countries worldwide as of December 2017. Strong product sales have placed Apple among the top - tier retail stores, with sales over $16 billion globally in 2011.
In May 2016, Angela Ahrendts, Apple 's current Senior Vice President of Retail, unveiled a significantly redesigned Apple Store in Union Square, San Francisco, featuring large glass doors for the entry, open spaces, and rebranded rooms. In addition to purchasing products, consumers can get advice and help from "Creative Pros '' -- individuals with specialized knowledge of creative arts; get product support in a tree - lined Genius Grove; and attend sessions, conferences and community events, with Ahrendts commenting that the goal is to make Apple Stores into "town squares '', a place where people naturally meet up and spend time. The new design will be applied to all Apple Stores worldwide, a process that has seen stores temporarily relocate or close.
Many Apple Stores are located inside shopping malls, but Apple has built several stand - alone "flagship '' stores in high - profile locations. It has been granted design patents and received architectural awards for its stores ' designs and construction, specifically for its use of glass staircases and cubes. The success of Apple Stores have had significant influence over other consumer electronics retailers, who have lost traffic, control and profits due to a perceived higher quality of service and products at Apple Stores. Apple 's notable brand loyalty among consumers causes long lines of hundreds of people at new Apple Store openings or product releases. Due to the popularity of the brand, Apple receives a large number of job applications, many of which come from young workers. Although Apple Store employees receive above - average pay, are offered money toward education and health care, and receive product discounts, there are limited or no paths of career advancement. A May 2016 report with an anonymous retail employee highlighted a hostile work environment with harassment from customers, intense internal criticism, and a lack of significant bonuses for securing major business contracts.
Apple 's new store design in Union Square, San Francisco
New store design in New Town Plaza, Hong Kong
Fifth Avenue, New York City
London
Paris
Sydney
IFC mall store in Hong Kong
Barcelona
TsUM store in Moscow
Madrid
Apple was one of several highly successful companies founded in the 1970s that bucked the traditional notions of corporate culture. Jobs often walked around the office barefoot even after Apple became a Fortune 500 company. By the time of the "1984 '' television commercial, Apple 's informal culture had become a key trait that differentiated it from its competitors. According to a 2011 report in Fortune, this has resulted in a corporate culture more akin to a startup rather than a multinational corporation.
As the company has grown and been led by a series of differently opinionated chief executives, it has arguably lost some of its original character. Nonetheless, it has maintained a reputation for fostering individuality and excellence that reliably attracts talented workers, particularly after Jobs returned to the company. Numerous Apple employees have stated that projects without Jobs 's involvement often took longer than projects with it.
To recognize the best of its employees, Apple created the Apple Fellows program which awards individuals who make extraordinary technical or leadership contributions to personal computing while at the company. The Apple Fellowship has so far been awarded to individuals including Bill Atkinson, Steve Capps, Rod Holt, Alan Kay, Guy Kawasaki, Al Alcorn, Don Norman, Rich Page, and Steve Wozniak.
At Apple, employees are specialists who are not exposed to functions outside their area of expertise. Jobs saw this as a means of having "best - in - class '' employees in every role. For instance, Ron Johnson -- Senior Vice President of Retail Operations until November 1, 2011 -- was responsible for site selection, in - store service, and store layout, yet had no control of the inventory in his stores (this was done by Cook, who had a background in supply - chain management). Apple is also known for strictly enforcing accountability. Each project has a "directly responsible individual, '' or "DRI '' in Apple jargon. As an example, when iOS senior vice president Scott Forstall refused to sign Apple 's official apology for numerous errors in the redesigned Maps app, he was forced to resign. Unlike other major U.S. companies Apple provides a relatively simple compensation policy for executives that does not include perks enjoyed by other CEOs like country club fees or private use of company aircraft. The company typically grants stock options to executives every other year.
In 2015, Apple had 110,000 full - time employees. This increased to 116,000 full - time employees the next year, a notable hiring decrease, largely due to its first revenue decline. Apple does not specify how many of its employees work in retail, though its 2014 SEC filing put the number at approximately half of its employee base. In September 2017, Apple announced that it had over 123,000 full - time employees.
Apple has a strong culture of corporate secrecy, and has an anti-leak Global Security team that recruits from the National Security Agency, the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the United States Secret Service.
In December 2017, Glassdoor named Facebook the best place to work, according to reviews from anonymous employees, with Apple dropping to 48th place, having originally entered at rank 19 in 2009, peaking at rank 10 in 2012, and falling down the ranks in subsequent years.
An editorial article in The Verge in September 2016 by technology journalist Thomas Ricker explored some of the public 's perceived lack of innovation at Apple in recent years, specifically stating that Samsung has "matched and even surpassed Apple in terms of smartphone industrial design '' and citing the belief that Apple is incapable of producing another breakthrough moment in technology with its products. He goes on to write that the criticism focuses on individual pieces of hardware rather than the ecosystem as a whole, stating "Yes, iteration is boring. But it 's also how Apple does business. (...) It enters a new market and then refines and refines and continues refining until it yields a success ''. He acknowledges that people are wishing for the "excitement of revolution '', but argues that people want "the comfort that comes with harmony ''. Furthermore, he writes that "a device is only the starting point of an experience that will ultimately be ruled by the ecosystem in which it was spawned '', referring to how decent hardware products can still fail without a proper ecosystem (specifically mentioning that Walkman did n't have an ecosystem to keep users from leaving once something better came along), but how Apple devices in different hardware segments are able to communicate and cooperate through the iCloud cloud service with features including Universal Clipboard (in which text copied on one device can be pasted on a different device) as well as inter-connected device functionality including Auto Unlock (in which an Apple Watch can unlock a Mac in close proximity). He argues that Apple 's ecosystem is its greatest innovation.
The Wall Street Journal reported in June 2017 that Apple 's increased reliance on Siri, its virtual personal assistant, has raised questions about how much Apple can actually accomplish in terms of functionality. Whereas Google and Amazon make use of big data and analyze customer information to personalize results, Apple has a strong pro-privacy stance, intentionally not retaining user data. "Siri is a textbook of leading on something in tech and then losing an edge despite having all the money and the talent and sitting in Silicon Valley '', Holger Mueller, a technology analyst, told the Journal. The report further claims that development on Siri has suffered due to team members and executives leaving the company for competitors, a lack of ambitious goals, and shifting strategies. Despite switching Siri 's functions to machine learning and algorithms, which dramatically cut its error rate, the company reportedly still failed to anticipate the popularity of Amazon 's Echo, which features the Alexa personal assistant. Improvements to Siri stalled, executives clashed, and there were disagreements over the restrictions imposed on third - party app interactions. While Apple acquired an England - based startup specializing in conversational assistants, Google 's Assistant had already become capable of helping users select Wi - Fi networks by voice, and Siri was lagging in functionality.
In December 2017, two articles from The Verge and ZDNet debated what had been a particularly devastating week for Apple 's macOS and iOS software platforms. The former had experienced a severe security vulnerability, in which Macs running the then - latest macOS High Sierra software were vulnerable to a bug that let anyone gain administrator privileges by entering "root '' as the username in system prompts, leaving the password field empty and twice clicking "unlock '', gaining full access. The bug was publicly disclosed on Twitter, rather than through proper bug bounty programs. Apple released a security fix within a day and issued an apology, stating that "regrettably we stumbled '' in regards to the security of the latest updates. After installing the security patch, however, file sharing was broken for users, with Apple releasing a support document with instructions to separately fix that issue. Despite its promise of "auditing our development processes to help prevent this from happening again '', users who installed the security update while running the older 10.13. 0 version of the High Sierra operating system rather than the then - newest 10.13. 1 release experienced that the "root '' security vulnerability was re-introduced, and persisted even after fully updating their systems. On iOS, a date bug caused iOS devices that received local app notifications at 12: 15am on December 2, 2017 to repeatedly restart. Users were recommended to turn off notifications for their apps. Apple quickly released an update, done during the nighttime in Cupertino, California time and outside of their usual software release window, with one of the headlining features of the update needing to be delayed for a few days. The combined problems of the week on both macOS and iOS caused The Verge 's Tom Warren to call it a "nightmare '' for Apple 's software engineers and described it as a significant lapse in Apple 's ability to protect its more than 1 billion devices. ZDNet 's Adrian Kingsley - Hughes wrote that "it 's hard to not come away from the last week with the feeling that Apple is slipping ''. Kingsley - Hughes also concluded his piece by referencing an earlier article, in which he wrote that "As much as I do n't want to bring up the tired old "Apple would n't have done this under Steve Jobs ' watch '' trope, a lot of what 's happening at Apple lately is different from what the (sic) came to expect under Jobs. Not to say that things did n't go wrong under his watch, but product announcements and launches felt a lot tighter for sure, as did the overall quality of what Apple was releasing. '' He did, however, also acknowledge that such failures "may indeed have happened '' with Jobs in charge, though returning to the previous praise for Jobs ' quality, stating "it 's almost guaranteed that given his personality that heads would have rolled, which limits future failures ''.
The company 's manufacturing, procurement, and logistics enable it to execute massive product launches without having to maintain large, profit - sapping inventories. In 2011, Apple 's profit margins were 40 percent, compared with between 10 and 20 percent for most other hardware companies. Cook 's catchphrase to describe his focus on the company 's operational arm is: "Nobody wants to buy sour milk ''.
During the Mac 's early history Apple generally refused to adopt prevailing industry standards for hardware, instead creating their own. This trend was largely reversed in the late 1990s, beginning with Apple 's adoption of the PCI bus in the 7500 / 8500 / 9500 Power Macs. Apple has since joined the industry standards groups to influence the future direction of technology standards such as USB, AGP, HyperTransport, Wi - Fi, NVMe, PCIe and others in its products. FireWire is an Apple - originated standard that was widely adopted across the industry after it was standardized as IEEE 1394 and is a legally mandated port in all Cable TV boxes in the United States.
Apple has gradually expanded its efforts in getting its products into the Indian market. In July 2012, during a conference call with investors, CEO Tim Cook said that he "(loves) India '', but that Apple saw larger opportunities outside the region. India 's requirement that 30 % of products sold be manufactured in the country was described as "really adds cost to getting product to market ''. In October 2013, Indian Apple executives unveiled a plan for selling devices through instalment plans and store - within - a-store concepts, in an effort to expand further into the market. The news followed Cook 's acknowledgment of the country in July when sales results showed that iPhone sales in India grew 400 % during the second quarter of 2013. In March 2016, The Times of India reported that Apple had sought permission from the Indian government to sell refurbished iPhones in the country. However, two months later, the application was rejected, citing official country policy. In May 2016, Apple opened an iOS app development center in Bangalore and a maps development office for 4,000 staff in Hyderabad. In February 2017, Apple once again requested permission to sell used iPhones in the country. The same month, Bloomberg reported that Apple was close to receiving permission to open its first retail store in the country. In March, The Wall Street Journal reported that Apple would begin manufacturing iPhone models in India "over the next two months '', and in May, the Journal wrote that an Apple manufacturer had begun production of iPhone SE in the country, while Apple told CNBC that the manufacturing was for a "small number '' of units. Reuters reported in December 2017, that Apple and the Indian government were clashing over planned increases to import taxes for components used in mobile phone production, with Apple having engaged in talks with government officials to try to delay the plans, but the Indian government sticking to its policies of no exemptions to its "Made in India '' initiative. The import tax increases went into effect a few days later, with Apple being hurt the most out of all phone manufacturers, having nine of out ten phones imported into the country, whereas main smartphone competitor Samsung produces almost all of its devices locally.
In May 2017, the company announced a $1 billion funding project for "advanced manufacturing '' in the United States, and subsequently invested $200 million in Corning Inc., a manufacturer of toughened Gorilla Glass technology used in its iPhone devices. The following December, Apple 's chief operating officer, Jeff Williams, told CNBC that the "$1 billion '' amount was "absolutely not '' the final limit on its spending, elaborating that "We 're not thinking in terms of a fund limit... We 're thinking about, where are the opportunities across the U.S. to help nurture companies that are making the advanced technology -- and the advanced manufacturing that goes with that -- that quite frankly is essential to our innovation ''.
The company advertised its products as being made in America until the late 1990s; however, as a result of outsourcing initiatives in the 2000s, almost all of its manufacturing is now handled abroad. According to a report by The New York Times, Apple insiders "believe the vast scale of overseas factories, as well as the flexibility, diligence and industrial skills of foreign workers, have so outpaced their American counterparts that "Made in the U.S.A. '' is no longer a viable option for most Apple products ".
In 2006, the Mail on Sunday reported on the working conditions of the Chinese factories where contract manufacturers Foxconn and Inventec produced the iPod. The article stated that one complex of factories that assembled the iPod and other items had over 200,000 workers living and working within it. Employees regularly worked more than 60 hours per week and made around $100 per month. A little over half of the workers ' earnings was required to pay for rent and food from the company.
Apple immediately launched an investigation after the 2006 media report, and worked with their manufacturers to ensure acceptable working conditions. In 2007, Apple started yearly audits of all its suppliers regarding worker 's rights, slowly raising standards and pruning suppliers that did not comply. Yearly progress reports have been published since 2008. In 2011, Apple admitted that its suppliers ' child labor practices in China had worsened.
The Foxconn suicides occurred between January and November 2010, when 18 Foxconn (Chinese: 富士康) employees attempted suicide, resulting in 14 deaths -- the company was the world 's largest contract electronics manufacturer, for clients including Apple, at the time. The suicides drew media attention, and employment practices at Foxconn were investigated by Apple. Apple issued a public statement about the suicides, and company spokesperson Steven Dowling said:
(Apple is) saddened and upset by the recent suicides at Foxconn... A team from Apple is independently evaluating the steps they are taking to address these tragic events and we will continue our ongoing inspections of the facilities where our products are made.
The statement was released after the results from the company 's probe into its suppliers ' labor practices were published in early 2010. Foxconn was not specifically named in the report, but Apple identified a series of serious labor violations of labor laws, including Apple 's own rules, and some child labor existed in a number of factories. Apple committed to the implementation of changes following the suicides.
Also in 2010, workers in China planned to sue iPhone contractors over poisoning by a cleaner used to clean LCD screens. One worker claimed that he and his coworkers had not been informed of possible occupational illnesses. After a high suicide rate in a Foxconn facility in China making iPads and iPhones, albeit a lower rate than that of China as a whole, workers were forced to sign a legally binding document guaranteeing that they would not kill themselves. Workers in factories producing Apple products have also been exposed to n - hexane, a neurotoxin that is a cheaper alternative than alcohol for cleaning the products.
A 2014 BBC investigation found excessive hours and other problems persisted, despite Apple 's promise to reform factory practice after the 2010 Foxconn suicides. The Pegatron factory was once again the subject of review, as reporters gained access to the working conditions inside through recruitment as employees. While the BBC maintained that the experiences of its reporters showed that labor violations were continuing since 2010, Apple publicly disagreed with the BBC and stated: "We are aware of no other company doing as much as Apple to ensure fair and safe working conditions ''.
In December 2014, the Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights published a report which documented inhumane conditions for the 15,000 workers at a Zhen Ding Technology factory in Shenzhen, China, which serves as a major supplier of circuit boards for Apple 's iPhone and iPad. According to the report, workers are pressured into 65 - hour work weeks which leaves them so exhausted that they often sleep during lunch breaks. They are also made to reside in "primitive, dark and filthy dorms '' where they sleep "on plywood, with six to ten workers in each crowded room. '' Omnipresent security personnel also routinely harass and beat the workers.
Following a Greenpeace protest, Apple released a statement on April 17, 2012, committing to ending its use of coal and shifting to 100 % renewable clean energy. By 2013 Apple was using 100 % renewable energy to power their data centers. Overall, 75 % of the company 's power came from clean renewable sources.
In 2010, Climate Counts, a nonprofit organization dedicated to directing consumers toward the greenest companies, gave Apple a score of 52 points out of a possible 100, which puts Apple in their top category "Striding ''. This was an increase from May 2008, when Climate Counts only gave Apple 11 points out of 100, which placed the company last among electronics companies, at which time Climate Counts also labeled Apple with a "stuck icon '', adding that Apple at the time was "a choice to avoid for the climate conscious consumer ''.
In May 2015, Greenpeace evaluated the state of the Green Internet and commended Apple on their environmental practices saying, "Apple 's commitment to renewable energy has helped set a new bar for the industry, illustrating in very concrete terms that a 100 % renewable Internet is within its reach, and providing several models of intervention for other companies that want to build a sustainable Internet. ''
As of 2016, Apple states that 100 % of its U.S. operations run on renewable energy, 100 % of Apple 's data centers run on renewable energy and 93 % of Apple 's global operations run on renewable energy. However, the facilities are connected to the local grid which usually contains a mix of fossil and renewable sources, so Apple carbon offsets its electricity use. The Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT) allows consumers to see the effect a product has on the environment. Each product receives a Gold, Silver, or Bronze rank depending on its efficiency and sustainability. Every Apple tablet, notebook, desktop computer, and display that EPEAT ranks achieves a Gold rating, the highest possible. Although Apple 's data centers recycle water 35 times, the increased activity in retail, corporate and data centers also increase the amount of water use to 573 million gallons in 2015.
During an event on March 21, 2016, Apple provided a status update on its environmental initiative to be 100 % renewable in all of its worldwide operations. Lisa P. Jackson, Apple 's vice president of Environment, Policy and Social Initiatives who reports directly to CEO, Tim Cook, announced that as of March 2016, 93 % of Apple 's worldwide operations are powered with renewable energy. Also featured was the company 's efforts to use sustainable paper in their product packaging; 99 % of all paper used by Apple in the product packaging comes from post-consumer recycled paper or sustainably managed forests, as the company continues its move to all paper packaging for all of its products. Apple working in partnership with Conservation Fund, have preserved 36,000 acres of working forests in Maine and North Carolina. Another partnership announced is with the World Wildlife Fund to preserve up to 1,000,000 acres of forests in China. Featured was the company 's installation of a 40 MW solar power plant in the Sichuan province of China that was tailor - made to coexist with the indigenous yaks that eat hay produced on the land, by raising the panels to be several feet off of the ground so the yaks and their feed would be unharmed grazing beneath the array. This installation alone compensates for more than all of the energy used in Apple 's Stores and Offices in the whole of China, negating the company 's energy carbon footprint in the country. In Singapore, Apple has worked with the Singaporean government to cover the rooftops of 800 buildings in the city - state with solar panels allowing Apple 's Singapore operations to be run on 100 % renewable energy. Liam was introduced to the world, an advanced robotic disassembler and sorter designed by Apple Engineers in California specifically for recycling outdated or broken iPhones. Reuses and recycles parts from traded in products.
Apple announced on August 16, 2016, that Lens Technology, one of its major suppliers in China, has committed to power all its glass production for Apple with 100 percent renewable energy by 2018. The commitment is a large step in Apple 's efforts to help manufacturers lower their carbon footprint in China. Apple also announced that all 14 of its final assembly sites in China are now compliant with UL 's Zero Waste to Landfill validation. The standard, which started in January 2015, certifies that all manufacturing waste is reused, recycled, composted, or converted into energy (when necessary). Since the program began, nearly, 140,000 metric tons of waste have been diverted from landfills.
Following further campaigns by Greenpeace, in 2008, Apple became the first electronics manufacturer to fully eliminate all polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in its complete product line. In June 2007, Apple began replacing the cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) backlit LCD displays in its computers with mercury - free LED - backlit LCD displays and arsenic - free glass, starting with the upgraded MacBook Pro. Apple offers comprehensive and transparent information about the CO e, emissions, materials, and electrical usage concerning every product they currently produce or have sold in the past (and which they have enough data needed to produce the report), in their portfolio on their homepage. Allowing consumers to make informed purchasing decisions on the products they offer for sale. In June 2009, Apple 's iPhone 3GS was free of PVC, arsenic, and BFRs. All Apple products now have mercury - free LED - backlit LCD displays, arsenic - free glass, and non-PVC cables. All Apple products have EPEAT Gold status and beat the latest Energy Star guidelines in each product 's respective regulatory category.
In November 2011, Apple was featured in Greenpeace 's Guide to Greener Electronics, which ranks electronics manufacturers on sustainability, climate and energy policy, and how "green '' their products are. The company ranked fourth of fifteen electronics companies (moving up five places from the previous year) with a score of 4.6 / 10. Greenpeace praises Apple 's sustainability, noting that the company exceeded its 70 % global recycling goal in 2010. It continues to score well on the products rating with all Apple products now being free of PVC plastic and BFRs. However, the guide criticizes Apple on the Energy criteria for not seeking external verification of its greenhouse gas emissions data and for not setting out any targets to reduce emissions. In January 2012, Apple requested that its cable maker, Volex, begin producing halogen - free USB and power cables.
In February 2016, Apple issued a US $1.5 billion green bond (climate bond), the first ever of its kind by a U.S. tech company. The green bond proceeds are dedicated to the financing of environmental projects.
Apple is the world 's largest information technology company by revenue, the world 's largest technology company by total assets, and the world 's second - largest mobile phone manufacturer after Samsung.
In its fiscal year ending in September 2011, Apple Inc. reported a total of $108 billion in annual revenues -- a significant increase from its 2010 revenues of $65 billion -- and nearly $82 billion in cash reserves. On March 19, 2012, Apple announced plans for a $2.65 - per - share dividend beginning in fourth quarter of 2012, per approval by their board of directors.
The company 's worldwide annual revenue in 2013 totaled $170 billion. In May 2013, Apple entered the top ten of the Fortune 500 list of companies for the first time, rising 11 places above its 2012 ranking to take the sixth position. As of 2016, Apple has around US $234 billion of cash and marketable securities, of which 90 % is located outside the United States for tax purposes.
Apple amassed 65 % of all profits made by the eight largest worldwide smartphone manufacturers in quarter one of 2014, according to a report by Canaccord Genuity. In the first quarter of 2015, the company garnered 92 % of all earnings.
On April 30, 2017, The Wall Street Journal reported that Apple had cash reserves of $250 billion, officially confirmed by Apple as specifically $256.8 billion a few days later.
As of August 3, 2018, Apple is the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. On August 2, 2018, Apple became the first publicly traded U.S. company to reach a $1 trillion market value.
Apple has created subsidiaries in low - tax places such as Ireland, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and the British Virgin Islands to cut the taxes it pays around the world. According to The New York Times, in the 1980s Apple was among the first tech companies to designate overseas salespeople in high - tax countries in a manner that allowed the company to sell on behalf of low - tax subsidiaries on other continents, sidestepping income taxes. In the late 1980s, Apple was a pioneer of an accounting technique known as the "Double Irish with a Dutch sandwich, '' which reduces taxes by routing profits through Irish subsidiaries and the Netherlands and then to the Caribbean.
British Conservative Party Member of Parliament Charlie Elphicke published research on October 30, 2012, which showed that some multinational companies, including Apple Inc., were making billions of pounds of profit in the UK, but were paying an effective tax rate to the UK Treasury of only 3 percent, well below standard corporation tax. He followed this research by calling on the Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne to force these multinationals, which also included Google and The Coca - Cola Company, to state the effective rate of tax they pay on their UK revenues. Elphicke also said that government contracts should be withheld from multinationals who do not pay their fair share of UK tax.
Apple Inc. claims to be the single largest taxpayer to the Department of the Treasury of the United States of America with an effective tax rate of approximately of 26 % as of the Second Quarter of the Apple Fiscal Year 2016. In an interview with the German newspaper FAZ in October 2017, Tim Cook stated, that Apple is the biggest taxpayer worldwide.
In 2015, Reuters reported that Apple had earnings abroad of $54.4 billion which were untaxed by the IRS of the United States. Under U.S. tax law governed by the IRC, corporations do n't pay income tax on overseas profits unless the profits are repatriated into the United States and as such Apple argues that to benefit its shareholders it will leave it overseas until a repatriation holiday or comprehensive tax reform takes place in the United States.
On 12 July 2016 the Central Statistics Office (Ireland) announced that 2015 Irish GDP had grown by 26.3 %, and 2015 Irish GNP had grown by 18.7 %. The figures attracted international scorn, and were labelled by Nobel - prize winning economist, Paul Krugman, as leprechaun economics. It was not until 2018 that Irish economists could definitively prove that the 2015 growth was due to Apple restructuring its controversial double Irish subsidiaries (Apple Sales International), which Apple converted into a new Irish capital allowances for intangible assets tax scheme (expires in January 2020). The affair required the Central Bank of Ireland to create a new measure of Irish economic growth, Modified GNI * to replace Irish GDP, given the distortion of Apple 's tax schemes. Irish GDP is 143 % of Irish Modified GNI *.
On August 30, 2016, after a two - year investigation, the EU Competition Commissioner concluded Apple received "illegal State aid '' from Ireland. The EU ordered Apple to pay 13 billion euros ($14.5 billion), plus interest, in unpaid Irish taxes for 2004 - 2014. It is the largest tax fine in history. The Commission found that Apple had benefitted from a private Irish Revenue Commissioners tax ruling regarding its double Irish tax structure, Apple Sales International (ASI). Instead of using two companies for its double Irish structure, Apple was given a ruling to split ASI into two internal "branches ''. The Chancellor of Austria, Christian Kern, put this decision into perspective by stating that "every Viennese cafe, every sausage stand pays more tax in Austria than a multinational corporation ''.
As of April 24, 2018, Apple agreed to start paying € 13 billion in back taxes to the Irish government, the repayments will be held in an escrow account while Apple and the Irish government continue their appeals in EU courts.
Apple Inc. is a joint - stock company registered with the SEC. As of 20 July 2018, it has 4,829,926,000 outstanding shares. These are mainly held by institutional investors and funds.
Apple has been a participant in various legal proceedings and claims since it began operation. In particular, Apple is known for and promotes itself as actively and aggressively enforcing its intellectual property interests. Some litigation examples include Apple v. Samsung, Apple v. Microsoft, Motorola Mobility v. Apple Inc., and Apple Corps v. Apple Computer. Apple has also had to defend itself against charges on numerous occasions of violating intellectual property rights. Most have been dismissed in the courts as shell companies known as patent trolls, with no evidence of actual use of patents in question. On December 21, 2016, Nokia announced that in the U.S. and Germany, it has filed a suit against Apple, claiming that the latter 's products infringe on Nokia 's patents. Most recently, in November 2017, the United States International Trade Commission announced an investigation into allegations of patent infringement in regards to Apple 's remote desktop technology; Aqua Connect, a company that builds remote desktop software, has claimed that Apple infringed on two of its patents.
Apple has a notable pro-privacy stance, actively making privacy - conscious features and settings part of its conferences, promotional campaigns, and public image. With its iOS 8 mobile operating system in 2014, the company started encryption all contents of iOS devices through users ' passcodes, making it impossible for the company to provide customer data to law enforcement requests seeking such information. With the popularity rise of cloud storage solutions, Apple began a technique in 2016 to do deep learning scans for facial data in photos on the user 's local device and encrypting the content before uploading it to Apple 's iCloud storage system. It also introduced "differential privacy '', a way to collect crowdsourced data from many users, while keeping individual users anonymous, in a system that Wired described as "trying to learn as much as possible about a group while learning as little as possible about any individual in it ''. Users are explicitly asked if they want to participate, and can actively opt - in or opt - out.
That said, Apple aids law enforcement in criminal investigations by providing iCloud backups of users ' devices, and the company 's commitment to privacy has been questioned by its efforts to promote biometric authentication technology in its newer iPhone models, which do n't have the same level of constitutional privacy as a passcode in the United States.
Apple is a partner of (PRODUCT) RED, a fundraising campaign for AIDS charity. In November 2014, Apple arranged for all App Store revenue in a two - week period to go to the fundraiser, generating more than US $ 20 million, and in March 2017, it released an iPhone 7 with a red color finish.
Apple contributes financially to fundraisers in times of natural disasters. In November 2012, it donated $2.5 million to the American Red Cross to aid relief efforts after Hurricane Sandy, and in 2017 it donated $5 million to relief efforts for both Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Harvey, as well as for the 2017 Central Mexico earthquake. The company has also used its iTunes platform to encourage donations, including, but not limited to, help the American Red Cross in the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, followed by similar procedure in the aftermath of the 2011 Japan earthquake, Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines in November 2013, and European migrant crisis in September 2015. Apple emphasizes that it does not incur any processing or other fees for iTunes donations, sending 100 % of the payments directly to relief efforts, though it also acknowledges that the Red Cross does not receive any personal information on the users donating and that the payments may not be tax deductible.
On April 14, 2016, Apple and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) announced that they have engaged in a partnership to, "help protect life on our planet. '' Apple released a special page in the iTunes App Store, Apps for Earth. In the arrangement, Apple has committed that through April 24, WWF will receive 100 % of the proceeds from the applications participating in the App Store via both the purchases of any paid apps and the In - App Purchases. Apple and WWF 's Apps for Earth campaign raised more than $8 million in total proceeds to support WWF 's conservation work. WWF announced the results at WWDC 2016 in San Francisco.
Apple has been criticised for alleged unethical business practices such as anti-competitive behavior, rash litigation, and dubious tax tactics, production methods involving the use of sweatshop labor, customer service issues involving allegedly misleading warranties and insufficient data security, as well as its products ' environmental footprint. Critics have claimed that Apple products combine stolen and / or purchased designs that Apple claims are its original creations. Additionally, it has been criticized for its alleged collaboration with the U.S. surveillance program PRISM.
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when does michael myers vs. jason come out | Jason Voorhees - wikipedia
Jason Voorhees is the main character from the Friday the 13th series. He first appeared in Friday the 13th (1980) as the young son of camp cook - turned - killer Mrs. Voorhees, in which he was portrayed by Ari Lehman. Created by Victor Miller, with contributions by Ron Kurz, Sean S. Cunningham, and Tom Savini, Jason was not originally intended to carry the series as the main antagonist. The character has subsequently been represented in various other media, including novels, video games, comic books, and a cross-over film with another iconic horror film character, Freddy Krueger.
The character has primarily been an antagonist in the films, whether by stalking and killing the other characters, or acting as a psychological threat to the protagonist, as is the case in Friday the 13th: A New Beginning. Since Lehman 's portrayal, the character has been represented by numerous actors and stuntmen, sometimes by more than one at a time; this has caused some controversy as to who should receive credit for the portrayal. Kane Hodder is the best known of the stuntmen to portray Jason Voorhees, having played the character in four consecutive films.
The character 's physical appearance has gone through many transformations, with various special makeup effects artists making their mark on the character 's design, including makeup artist Stan Winston. Tom Savini 's initial design has been the basis for many of the later incarnations. The trademark hockey goalie mask did not appear until Friday the 13th Part III. Since Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives, filmmakers have given Jason superhuman strength, regenerative powers, and near invulnerability. He has been seen as a sympathetic character, whose motivation for killing has been cited as being driven by the immoral actions of his victims and his own rage over having drowned as a child. Jason Voorhees has been featured in various humor magazines, referenced in feature films, parodied in television shows, and was the inspiration for a horror punk band. Several toy lines have been released based on various versions of the character from the Friday the 13th films. Jason Voorhees 's hockey mask is a widely recognized image in popular culture.
Jason Voorhees first appears during a nightmare of the main character Alice (Adrienne King) in the original Friday the 13th film; he becomes the main antagonist of the series in its sequels. As well as the films, there have been books and comics that have either expanded the universe of Jason, or been based on a minor aspect of him.
Jason made his first cinematic appearance in the original Friday the 13th on May 9, 1980. In this film, Jason is portrayed in the memories of his mother, Mrs. Voorhees (Betsy Palmer), and as a hallucination of the film 's protagonist, Alice (Adrienne King). Though the character makes no contemporary appearance onscreen, he propels the film 's plot -- Mrs. Voorhees, the cook at Camp Crystal Lake, seeks revenge for his death, which she blames on the camp counselors. Jason 's second appearance was in the sequel, Friday the 13th Part 2 (1981). Revealed to be alive, an adult Jason exacts revenge on Alice for decapitating his mother in the original film. Jason (Steven Dash and Warrington Gillette), returns to Crystal Lake, living there as a hermit and guarding it from all intruders. Five years later a group of teenagers arrive to set up a new camp, only to be murdered one by one by Jason, who wears a pillow case over his head to hide his face. Ginny (Amy Steel), the lone survivor, finds a cabin in the woods with a shrine built around the severed head of Mrs. Voorhees, and surrounded by mutilated corpses. Ginny fights back and slams a machete through Jason 's shoulder. Jason is left for dead as Ginny is taken away in an ambulance. In Friday the 13th Part III (1982), Jason (Richard Brooker) escapes to a nearby lake resort, Higgins Haven, to rest from his wounds. At the same time, Chris Higgins (Dana Kimmell) returns to the property with some friends. An unmasked and reclusive Jason kills anyone who wanders into the barn where he is hiding. Taking a hockey mask from a victim to hide his face, he leaves the barn to kill the rest of the group. Chris fends off Jason by slamming an axe into his head, but the night 's events drive her into hysteria as the police take her away.
Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter (1984) continues the story, with a presumed - dead Jason (Ted White) found by the police and taken to the morgue. Jason awakens at the morgue and kills an attendant and a nurse, and makes his way back to Crystal Lake. A group of teens renting a house there fall victim to Jason 's rampage. Jason then seeks out Trish (Kimberly Beck) and Tommy Jarvis (Corey Feldman) next door. While Trish distracts Jason, Tommy kills him. Friday the 13th: A New Beginning follows Tommy Jarvis (John Shepherd), who was committed to a mental hospital after the events of The Final Chapter, and has grown up constantly afraid that Jason (Tom Morga) will return. Jason 's body was supposedly cremated after Tommy killed him. Roy Burns (Dick Wieand) uses Jason 's persona to become a copycat killer at the halfway home to which Tommy was moved. Jason appears in the film only through Tommy 's dreams and hallucinations. In Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives (1986), Tommy (Thom Mathews), who has run away from a mental institution, visits Jason 's grave and learns that Jason 's body was never actually cremated, but buried in a cemetery near Crystal Lake. While attempting to destroy his body, Tommy inadvertently resurrects Jason (C.J. Graham) via a piece of cemetery fence that acts as a lightning rod. Now possessing superhuman abilities, Jason returns to Crystal Lake, now renamed Forest Green, and begins his killing spree anew. Tommy eventually lures Jason back to the lake where he drowned as a child and chains him to a boulder on the lake floor, but almost dies in the process. Tommy 's friend, Megan Garris, finishes Jason off by cutting his face with a boat propeller.
Friday the 13th Part VII: The New Blood (1988) begins an undisclosed amount of time after Jason Lives. Jason (Kane Hodder) is freed from his chains by the telekinetic Tina Shepard (Lar Park Lincoln), who was attempting to resurrect her father. Jason begins killing those who occupy Crystal Lake, and after a battle with Tina, is dragged back to the bottom of the lake by an apparition of Tina 's father. Friday the 13th Part VIII: Jason Takes Manhattan (1989) sees Jason return from the grave, brought back to life via an underwater electrical cable. He follows a group of students on their senior class trip to Manhattan, boarding the Lazarus to wreak havoc. Upon reaching Manhattan, Jason kills all the survivors but Rennie (Jensen Daggett) and Sean (Scott Reeves); he chases them into the sewers, where he is submerged in toxic waste and dies. Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday (1993) marked the second time Jason was officially killed according to studio canon. Through an unexplained resurrection, he returns to Crystal Lake, where he is hunted by the FBI. The FBI sets up a sting to kill Jason, which proves successful. Through mystical possession, however, Jason survives by passing his demon - infested heart from one being to the next. Though Jason does not physically appear throughout most of the film, it is learned he has a half - sister and a niece, and that he needs them to retrieve and reinhabit his body. After resurrecting it, Jason is stabbed by his niece Jessica Kimble (Kari Keegan) and dragged into Hell.
Jason X (2001) marked Kane Hodder 's last performance as Jason. The film starts off in 2010; Jason has returned after another unexplained resurrection. Captured by the U.S. government in 2008, Jason is being experimented upon in a research facility, where it has been determined that he has regenerative capabilities and that cryonic suspension is the only possible solution to stop him, since numerous attempts to execute him have proved unsuccessful. Jason escapes, killing all but one of his captors, and slices through the cryo - chamber, spilling cryonics fluid into the room, freezing himself and the only other survivor, Rowan (Lexa Doig). A team of students 445 years later discover Jason 's body. On the team 's spacecraft, Jason thaws from his cryonic suspension and begins killing the crew. Along the way, he is enhanced by a regenerative nanotechnology process, which gives him an impenetrable metal body. Finally, he is ejected into space and falls to the planet Earth Two, burning in the atmosphere.
Freddy vs. Jason (2003) is a crossover film in which Jason battles A Nightmare on Elm Street 's villain Freddy Krueger (Robert Englund), a supernatural killer who murders people in their dreams. Krueger has grown weak, as people in his home town of Springwood have suppressed their fear of him. Freddy, who is impersonating Jason 's mother (Paula Shaw), resurrects Jason (Ken Kirzinger) from Hell and sends him to Springwood to cause panic and fear. Jason accomplishes this, but refuses to stop killing. A battle ensues in both the dream world and Crystal Lake. The identity of the winner is left ambiguous, as Jason surfaces from the lake holding Freddy 's severed head, which winks and laughs.
In the 2009 Friday the 13th reboot, young Jason (Caleb Guss) witnesses his mother 's (Nana Visitor) beheading as a child and follows in her footsteps, killing anyone who comes to Crystal Lake. The adult Jason (Derek Mears) kidnaps Whitney Miller (Amanda Righetti), a girl who looks like his mother, and holds her prisoner in his underground tunnels. Months later, Whitney 's brother Clay (Jared Padalecki) comes to Crystal Lake and rescues her. Eventually, Whitney uses Jason 's devotion to his mother against him, stabbing him with his own machete while he is distracted when she appears.
Jason first appeared outside of film in the 1982 novelization of Friday the 13th Part 3 by Michael Avallone. Avallone chose to use an alternate ending, which was filmed for Part 3 but never used, as the ending for his 1982 adaptation. In the alternate film ending, Chris, who is in the canoe, hears Rick 's voice and immediately rushes back to the house. When she opens the door, Jason is standing there with a machete, and he decapitates her. Jason next appears in print in the 1986 novelization of Jason Lives by Simon Hawke, who also adapted the first three films in 1987 and 1988. Jason Lives specifically introduced Elias Voorhees, Jason 's father, a character that was slated to appear in the film but was cut by the studio. In the novel, instead of being cremated, Elias has Jason buried after his death.
Jason made his comic book debut in the 1993 adaptation of Jason Goes to Hell, written by Andy Mangels. The three - issue series was a condensed version of the film, with a few added scenes that were never shot. Jason made his first appearance outside of the direct adaptations in Satan 's Six No. 4, published in 1993, which is a continuation of the events of Jason Goes to Hell. In 1995, Nancy A. Collins wrote a three - issue, non-canonical miniseries involving a crossover between Jason and Leatherface. The story involves Jason stowing away aboard a train, after being released from Crystal Lake when the area is drained due to heavy toxic waste dumping. Jason meets Leatherface, who adopts him into his family after the two become friends. Eventually they turn on each other. In 1994 four young adult novels were released under the title of Friday the 13th. They did not feature Jason explicitly, but revolve around people becoming possessed by Jason when they put on his mask.
In 2003 and 2005, Black Flame published novelizations of Freddy vs. Jason and Jason X respectively. In 2005 they began publishing a new series of novels; one set was published under the Jason X title, while the second set utilized the Friday the 13th title. The Jason X series consisted of four sequels to the novelization of the film. Jason X: The Experiment was the first published. In this novel, Jason is being used by the government, who are trying to use his indestructibility to create their own army of "super soldiers ''. Planet of the Beast follows the efforts of Dr. Bardox and his crew as they try to clone the body of a comatose Jason, and shows their efforts to stay alive when Jason wakes from his coma. Death Moon revolves around Jason crash - landing at Moon Camp Americana. Jason is discovered below a prison site and unknowingly awakened in To The Third Power. Jason has a son in this book, conceived through a form of artificial insemination.
On May 13, 2005, Avatar Press began releasing new Friday the 13th comics. The first, titled Friday the 13th, was written by Brian Pulido and illustrated by Mike Wolfer and Greg Waller. The story takes place after the events of Freddy vs. Jason, where siblings Miles and Laura Upland have inherited Camp Crystal Lake. Knowing that Jason caused the recent destruction, Laura, unknown to her brother, sets out to kill Jason using a paramilitary group, so that she and her brother can sell the property. A three - issue miniseries titled Friday the 13th: Bloodbath was released in September 2005. Written by Brian Pulido and illustrated by Mike Wolfer and Andrew Dalhouse, the story involves a group of teenagers who come from Camp Tomorrow, a camp that sits on Crystal Lake, for work and a "party - filled weekend ''. The teenagers discover they share common family backgrounds, and soon awaken Jason, who hunts them. Brian Pulido returned for a third time in October 2005 to write Jason X. Picking up after the events of the Jason X film, Über - Jason is now on Earth II where a biological engineer, Kristen, attempts to subdue Jason, in hopes that she can use his regenerative tissue to save her own life and the lives of those she loves. In February 2006 Avatar published Friday the 13th: Jason vs. Jason X. Written and illustrated by Mike Wolfer, the story takes place after the events of the film Jason X. A salvage team discovers the spaceship Grendel and awakens a regenerated Jason Voorhees. The "original '' Jason and Über - Jason are drawn to each other, resulting in a battle to the death. In June 2006 a one - shot comic entitled Friday the 13th: Fearbook was released, written by Mike Wolfer with art by Sebastian Fiumara. The comic has Jason being captured and experimented upon by the Trent Organization; Jason escapes and seeks out Violet, the survivor of Friday the 13th: Bloodbath, who is being contained by the Trent Organization in their Crystal Lake headquarters.
The Friday the 13th novella storyline was not connected to the Jason X series, and did not continue the stories set forth by the films, but furthered the character of Jason in its own way. Friday the 13th: Church of the Divine Psychopath has Jason resurrected by a religious cult. Jason is stuck in Hell, when recently executed serial killer Wayne Sanchez persuades Jason to help him return to Earth in Friday the 13th: Hell Lake. In Hate - Kill - Repeat, two religious serial killers attempt to find Jason at Crystal Lake, believing that the three of them share the same contempt for those that break the moral code. In The Jason Strain, Jason is on an island with a group of convicts placed there by television executives running a reality game show. The character of Pamela Voorhees returns from the grave in Carnival of Maniacs. Pamela is in search of Jason, who is now part of a traveling sideshow and about to be auctioned off to the highest bidder.
In December 2006 DC Comics imprint Wildstorm began publishing new comic books about Jason Voorhees under the Friday the 13th moniker. The first set was a six - issue miniseries involving Jason 's return to Camp Crystal Lake, which is being renovated by a group of teenagers in preparation for its reopening as a tourist attraction. The series depicts various paranormal phenomena occurring at Crystal Lake. Jason 's actions in this storyline are driven by the vengeful spirits of a Native American tribe wiped out on the lake by fur traders sometime in the 19th century. On July 11 and August 15, 2007, Wildstorm published a two - part special entitled Friday the 13th: Pamela 's Tale. The two - issue comic book covers Pamela Voorhees ' journey to Camp Crystal Lake and the story of her pregnancy with Jason as she recounts it to hitchhiker Annie, a camp counselor who was killed in the original film. Wildstorm released another two - part special, entitled Friday the 13th: How I Spent My Summer Vacation, that was released on September 12 and October 10, 2007. The comic book provides new insight into the psychology of Jason Voorhees as he befriends a boy born with a skull deformity. Wildstorm released a six - issue series called Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash, starring the two killers and Ash from the Evil Dead series. In this story, Freddy uses the Necronomicon, which is in the Voorhees ' basement, to escape from Jason 's subconscious and "gain powers unlike anything he 's had before ''. Freddy attempts to use Jason to retrieve the book, stating it will make him a real boy. Ash, who is working at the local S - Mart in Crystal Lake, learns of the book 's existence and sets out to destroy it. Wildstorm released another two - issue miniseries on January 9 and February 13, 2008, titled Friday the 13th: Bad Land, written and illustrated by Ron Marz and Mike Huddleston respectively. The miniseries features Jason stalking a trio of teenaged hikers taking shelter from a blizzard in Camp Crystal Lake.
A sequel to Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash, subtitled The Nightmare Warriors, was released by Wildstorm in 2009. Jason escapes from the bottom of Crystal Lake to resume his hunt for Ash, but is captured by the U.S. government. Freddy helps him escape and appoints him the general of his Deadite army, using the Necronomicon to heal his accumulated injuries and decomposition; it removes his natural deformities in the process. At the climax of the story, Jason battles his nemesis Tommy Jarvis and his great - niece Stephanie Kimble; Stephanie impales him before Tommy decapitates him with a shard of glass. Jason 's soul is then absorbed by Freddy, who uses it to increase his own power.
Initially created by Victor Miller, Jason 's final design was a combined effort by Miller, Ron Kurz, and Tom Savini. The name "Jason '' is a combination of "Josh '' and "Ian '', Miller 's two sons, and "Voorhees '' was inspired by a girl that Miller knew at high school whose last name was Van Voorhees. Miller felt it was a "creepy - sounding name '', which was perfect for his character. Miller initially wrote Jason as a normal - looking child, but the crew behind the film decided he needed to be deformed. Victor Miller explained Jason was not meant to be a creature from the "Black Lagoon '' in his script, and scripted Jason as a mentally disabled young boy; it was Savini who made Jason deformed. Ron Kurz confirmed that Miller 's version of Jason was that of a normal child, but claims that it was his idea to turn Jason into a "mongoloid creature '', and have him "jump out of the lake at the end of the film ''. Miller later agreed the ending would not have been as good if he looked like "Betsy Palmer at eight years old ''. Miller wrote a scene where Alice dreams she is attacked in a canoe by Jason, and then she wakes up in a hospital bed. Miller 's intention was to get as close to Carrie 's ending as possible. Savini believed having Jason pop out of the lake would be psychologically disturbing to the audience, and since Alice is supposed to be dreaming, the crew could get away with adding anything they wanted.
When it came time to cast the role of Jason, Ari Lehman, who had received a part in Sean Cunningham 's Manny 's Orphans, arrived to read for the character of Jack. Before he could get started, Cunningham walked in and offered him a different part: Jason. Without having read a single word, Cunningham just looked at Ari and said, "You 're the right size, you 've got it. '' In the original Friday the 13th, Ari Lehman is seen only in a brief flashback as the surprise ending. Subsequent actors who portrayed a young Jason include Timothy Burr Mirkovich in Jason Takes Manhattan and Spencer Stump in Freddy vs. Jason. The adult role of Jason Voorhees has been played by various actors, some not credited, others taking great pride in their parts. Due to the physical demands the adult character requires, and the lack of emotional depth depicted, many of the actors since have been stuntmen. The most well - known among them is Kane Hodder, who is cited as the best to play the role.
Many ideas were suggested for the sequel to Friday the 13th, including making the title part of a serialized film series, where each succeeding film would be its own story and not related to any previous film under the Friday the 13th moniker. It was Phil Scuderi, one of the producers for the original film, who suggested bringing Jason back for the sequel. The director Steve Miner felt it was the obvious direction to take the series, as he felt the audience wanted to know more about the child who attacked Alice in the lake. Miner decided to pretend as if Alice did not see the "real Jason '' in her dream, and Jason had survived his drowning as a boy and had grown up. After killing Jason in The Final Chapter, it was the director Joseph Zito 's intention to leave the door open for the studio to make more films with Tommy Jarvis as the main antagonist. Screenwriter Barney Cohen felt Jarvis would become a substitute for Jason, but the idea was never fully developed in A New Beginning. Director and co-screenwriter Danny Steinmann disliked the idea of Jason not being the killer, but decided to use Tommy 's fear of Jason as the primary story. This idea was immediately abandoned in Jason Lives, when A New Beginning did not spark the "creative success '' the studio was looking for. Executive producer Frank Mancuso, Jr. wanted to bring Jason back, and he did not care how it was achieved. In yet another alteration of the series ' continuity, Tom McLoughlin chose to ignore the idea that Jason had survived his drowning, instead presenting him as always having been some sort of supernatural force. Since A New Beginning, no sequel has attempted to replace Jason as the main antagonist. Miller, who has not seen any of the sequels, took issue with all of them because they made Jason the villain. Miller believes the best part of his screenplay was that it was about a mother avenging the senseless death of her son. Miller stated, "Jason was dead from the very beginning; he was a victim, not a villain. ''
Jason Voorhees went from deceased child to full - grown man for Friday the 13th Part 2, and Warrington Gillette was hired to play the role. Gillette auditioned for the role of Paul; that role eventually went to John Furey. Under the belief that he had attended the Hollywood Stuntman 's School, Gillette was offered the role of Jason Voorhees. Initially Gillette was unsure about the character, but the idea of starring in his first film grew on Gillette, and he also thought the role was amusing. It became apparent Gillette could not perform the necessary stunts, so the stunt coordinator Cliff Cudney brought in Steve Daskawisz. Daskawisz filmed all of the scenes except the opening sequence and the unmasking shot at the end; Gillette returned for the unmasking scenes. Gillette received credit for playing Jason, while Daskawisz was given credit as the stunt double. When Part 3 was released the following year, Daskawisz was credited as Jason for the reused footage from the climax of the film. Initially, Daskawisz was asked to return to the role for Part 3, but it would have required him to pay for his own transportation and housing during filming. Having secured a part on Guiding Light, Daskawisz declined.
Now wanting a "bigger and stronger - looking '' Jason, one that was also "more athletic and powerful '', Steve Miner hired former British trapeze artist Richard Brooker. After a simple conversation, Miner decided he was the right person for the job. Being new to the country, Brooker believed that "playing a psychopathic killer '' was the best way into the movie business. Brooker became the first actor to wear Jason 's now - signature hockey mask. According to Brooker, "It felt great with the mask on. It just felt like I really was Jason because I did n't have anything to wear before that. '' For The Final Chapter, Joseph Zito brought his own spin to the character, one that required a "real hardcore stuntman ''; Ted White was hired to perform the role. White, who only took the job for the money, did "get into the Jason psychology '' when he arrived on the set. White went so far as to not speak to any of the other actors for long stretches. As filming continued, White 's experience was not pleasant, and in one instance, he went to battle for co-star Judie Aronson, who played Samantha, when the director kept her naked in the lake for extended periods of time. Displeased with his experience from filming, White had his name removed from the credits. As with Friday the 13th Part 2, there was confusion over who performed the role in A New Beginning, partly because Jason is not the literal antagonist in the film. When Ted White turned down the opportunity to return, Dick Wieand was cast. Wieand is credited as Roy Burns, the film 's actual murderer, but it was stuntman Tom Morga who performed in the few flashes of Jason, as well as portraying Roy in almost all of the masked scenes. Wieand has been outspoken about his lack of enthusiasm over his role in the film. Feeling alienated during the shoot, Wieand spent most of his time in his trailer. By comparison, Morga enjoyed his time as Jason and made sure he "really got into the character ''.
A nightclub manager in Glendale, C.J. Graham, was interviewed for the role of Jason in Jason Lives, but was initially passed over because he had no experience as a stuntman. Dan Bradley was hired, but Paramount executives felt Bradley did not have the right physique to play the role, and Graham was hired to replace him. Although Bradley was replaced early during filming, he can be seen in the paintball sequence of the film. Graham opted to perform most of his own stunts, including the scene where Jason catches on fire while battling Tommy in the lake. The rest of the cast spoke highly of Graham, remarking that he never complained during all the uncomfortable situations he was placed in. Graham had no intention of being an actor or a stuntman, but the idea of playing the "bad guy '', and the opportunity to wear the prosthetics, intrigued him. Graham was not brought back to reprise the role, but has often been cited as speaking highly of his time in the part.
Kane Hodder took over the role in The New Blood, and played Jason in the next four films. He previously worked alongside director John Carl Buechler on a film called Prison. Based on his experience working with Hodder, Buechler petitioned Frank Mancuso Jr. to hire him, but Mancuso was apprehensive about Hodder 's limited size. Knowing he planned to use full body prosthetics, Buechler scheduled a test screening, the first in Friday the 13th history for the character, and Mancuso immediately gave Hodder approval upon seeing him. It is Buechler 's contention that Hodder gave Jason his first true personality, based on the emotions, specifically the rage, that Hodder would emit while acting the part. According to Hodder, he wanted to "get in touch with Jason 's thirst for revenge '' and try to better understand his motivation to kill. After viewing the previous films, Hodder decided that he would approach Jason as a more "quick and agile '' individual than he had been portrayed in the previous sequels. John Carl Buechler felt that Kane had "natural affinity for the role '' -- so much that Kane 's appearance, when wearing the mask, would often terrify the cast, the crew, and in one incident a lone stranger that he came across on his walk back to his trailer. Initially Frank Mancuso Jr. and Barbara Sachs planned to use a Canadian stuntperson for Jason Takes Manhattan. Hodder acted as his own voice, calling and requesting that he be allowed to reprise the role; the ultimate decision was left to director Rob Hedden, who intended to use Hodder, because he felt Hodder knew the lore of the series. With Sean Cunningham 's return as producer for Jason Goes to Hell, Hodder felt his chances of reprising the role were even better: Hodder had worked as Cunningham 's stunt coordinator for years. Regardless, Adam Marcus, the director for Jason Goes to Hell, always intended to hire Hodder for the role. Jason X would mark Hodder 's last performance as Jason, to date. Todd Farmer, who wrote the screenplay for Jason X, knew Hodder would play Jason from the beginning. Jim Isaac was a fan of Hodder 's work on the previous films, so hiring him was an easy decision.
New Line believed Freddy vs. Jason needed a fresh start, and choose a new actor for Jason. Cunningham disagreed with their decision, believing Hodder was the best choice for the role. Hodder did receive the script for Freddy vs. Jason, and had a meeting with director Ronny Yu and New Line executives, but Matthew Barry and Yu felt the role should be recast to fit Yu 's image of Jason. According to Hodder, New Line failed to provide him with a reason for the recasting, but Yu has explained he wanted a slower, more deliberate Jason, and less of the aggressive movements that Hodder had used in the previous films. Yu and development executive Jeff Katz recognized the outcry among fans over the replacement of Hodder as Jason, but stood by their choice in recasting.
The role eventually went to Ken Kirzinger, a Canadian stuntman who worked on Jason Takes Manhattan. There are conflicting reports over the reason Kirzinger was cast. According to Yu, Kirzinger was hired because he was taller than Robert Englund, the actor who portrays Freddy Krueger. Kirzinger stands 6 feet 5 inches (1.96 m), compared to the 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m) of Kane Hodder, and Yu wanted a much larger actor to tower over the 5 - foot - 10 - inch (1.78 m) Englund. Kirzinger believes his experience on Part VIII helped him land the part, as Kirzinger doubled for Hodder on two scenes for the film, but also believes he was simply sized up and handed the job. Although he was hired by the creative crew, New Line did not officially cast Kirzinger until first seeing him on film. Kirzinger 's first scene was Jason walking down Elm Street. New Line wanted a specific movement in Jason 's walk; Kirzinger met their expectations and signed a contract with the studio. However, concerns that test audiences were confused by the film 's original ending caused the studio to reshoot the final scene. Actor Douglas Tait was brought in to film the new ending, as he was available for the reshoot and had been the production 's second choice to portray the role of Jason during the original casting.
For the 2009 remake, stuntman Derek Mears was hired to portray Jason Voorhees at the recommendation of makeup special effects supervisor Scott Stoddard. Mears 's pleasant demeanor had the studio worried about his ability to portray such a menacing character on screen, but Mears assured them he would be able to perform the role. When Mears auditioned for the role he was asked why they should hire an actor over just another guy in a mask. As Mears explained, portraying Jason is similar to Greek mask work, where the mask and the actor are two separate entities, and, based on the scene, there will be various combinations of mask and actor in the performance.
The physical design of Jason Voorhees has gone through changes, some subtle and some radical. For Friday the 13th, the task of coming up with Jason 's appearance was the responsibility of Tom Savini, whose design for Jason was inspired by someone Savini knew as a child whose eyes and ears did not line up straight. The original design called for Jason to have hair, but Savini and his crew opted to make him bald, so he would look like a "hydrocephalic, mongoloid pinhead '', with a dome - shaped head. Savini created a plaster mold of Ari Lehman 's head and used that to create prosthetics for his face. Lehman personally placed mud -- from the bottom of the lake -- all over his body to make himself appear "really slimy. ''
For Part 2, Steve Miner asked Carl Fullerton, the make - up effects supervisor, to stick to Savini 's original design, but Fullerton only had one day to design and sculpt a new head. Fullerton drew a rough sketch of what he believed Jason should look like, and had it approved by Miner. Fullerton added long hair to the character. Gillette had to spend hours in a chair as they applied rubber forms all over his face, and had to keep one eye closed while the "droopy eye '' application was in place. Gillette 's eye was closed for twelve hours at a time while he was filming the final scenes of the film. False teeth created by a local dentist were used to distort Gillette 's face. Much of the basic concept of Fullerton 's design was eliminated for Part 3. Miner wanted to use a combination of the designs from Tom Savini and Carl Fullerton, but as work progressed the design began to lean more and more toward Savini 's concept. Stan Winston was hired to create a design for Jason 's head, but the eyes were level and Doug White, the make - up artist for Part 3, needed a droopy right eye. White did keep Winston 's design for the back of the head, because the crew did not have the time to design an entirely new head for Jason. The process of creating Jason 's look was hard work for White, who had to constantly make alterations to Richard Brooker 's face, even up to the last day of filming.
The script for Part 3 called for Jason to wear a mask to cover his face, having worn a bag over his head in Part 2; what no one knew at the time was that the mask chosen would become a trademark for the character, and one instantly recognizable in popular culture in the years to come. During production, Steve Miner called for a lighting check. None of the effects crew wanted to apply any make - up for the light check, so they decided to just throw a mask on Brooker. The film 's 3D effects supervisor, Martin Jay Sadoff, was a hockey fan, and had a bag of hockey gear with him on the set. He pulled out a Detroit Red Wings goaltender mask for the test. Miner loved the mask, but it was too small. Using a substance called VacuForm, Doug White enlarged the mask and created a new mold to work with. After White finished the molds, Terry Ballard placed red triangles on the mask to give it a unique appearance. Holes were punched into the mask and the markings were altered, making it different from Sadoff 's mask. There were two prosthetic face masks created for Richard Brooker to wear underneath the hockey mask. One mask was composed of approximately 11 different appliances and took about six hours to apply to Brooker 's face; this mask was used for scenes where the hockey mask was removed. In the scenes where the hockey mask is over the face, a simple head mask was created. This one - piece mask would slip on over Brooker 's head, exposing his face but not the rest of his head.
Tom Savini agreed to return to make - up duties for The Final Chapter because he felt he should be the one to bring Jason full circle in terms of his look from child to man. Savini used his design from the original Friday the 13th, with the same practice of application as before, but molded from Ted White 's face. Since Jason is not the actual killer in A New Beginning, it was not necessary to do any major designing for Jason 's look. Only a head mask to cover the top and back of the head, like the one Brooker wore while wearing the hockey mask, was needed for the film. Make - up artist Louis Lazzara, who cites A New Beginning as almost a direct sequel to The Final Chapter, did base his head - mask on Tom Savini 's design for The Final Chapter.
Friday the 13th Part VII: The New Blood sought to make Jason more of a "classic monster along the lines of Frankenstein. '' From the beginning, Buechler tried to tie the previous films together by having Jason 's appearance reflect that of the damage he received in the previous installments. Buechler wanted the motor boat damage from Jason Lives, and the axe and machete cuts Jason received in Part 3 and Part 4 to part of the design for The New Blood. Since Jason had been submerged under water in the previous entry, the effects team wanted Jason to appear "rotted '', with bones and ribs showing, and for Jason 's features to have a more defined feel to them. Howard Berger was inspired by Carl Fullerton 's design in The New Blood, and wanted to incorporate the exposed flesh concept into his model for Jason Goes to Hell. Berger designed Jason 's skin to overlap with the mask, to make it appear as if the skin and mask had fused and the mask could no longer be removed. Gregory Nicotero and Berger sculpted a full - body, foam latex suit for Kane Hodder to wear under the costume. The idea was to reveal as much of Jason 's skin as possible, because Nicotero and Berger knew the physical character would not be seen for most of the film.
Stephan Dupuis was given the task of redesigning Jason for the tenth Friday the 13th film. One concept brought into the film was Jason 's regenerative abilities. Dupuis gave the character more hair and more of a natural flesh appearance to illustrate the constant regeneration the character goes through; Dupuis wanted a more "gothic '' design for Jason, so he added chains and shackles, and made the hockey mask more angular. Jim Isaac and the rest of his crew wanted to create an entirely new Jason at some point in the film. The idea was for the teens to completely destroy Jason 's body, allowing the futuristic technology to bring him back to life. What was referred to as Über - Jason was designed to have chunks of metal growing from his body, bonded by tendrils that grew into the metal, all pushing through a leather suit. The metal was created from VacuForm, the same material used to increase the size of the original hockey mask, and was attached by Velcro. The tendrils were made from silicone. All of the pieces were crafted onto one suit, including an entire head piece, which Hodder wore. The make - up effects team added zippers along the side of the suit, which allowed Hodder to enter and exit the suit within 15 minutes.
By the time Freddy vs. Jason entered production there had been ten previous Friday the 13th films. Make - up effects artist Terezakis wanted to put his own mark on Jason 's look -- he wanted Jason to be less rotted and decomposed and more defined, so that the audience would see a new Jason, but still recognized the face. Terezakis tried to keep continuity with the previous films, but recognized that had he followed them too literally, then "Jason would have been reduced to a pile of goo. '' Ronny Yu wanted everything surrounding the hockey mask to act as a frame, making the mask the focal point of each shot. To achieve this, Terezakis created a "pooled - blood look '' for the character by painting the skin black, based on the idea the blood had pooled in the back of his head because he had been lying on his back for a long time. As with other make - up artists before him, Terezakis followed Savini 's original skull design, and aged it appropriately.
For the 2009 version of Friday the 13th, effects artist Scott Stoddard took inspiration from Carl Fullerton 's design in Friday the 13th Part 2 and Tom Savini 's work in Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter. Stoddard wanted to make sure that Jason appeared human and not like a monster. Stoddard 's vision of Jason includes hair loss, skin rashes, and the traditional deformities in his face, but he attempted to craft Jason 's look in a way that would allow for a more human side to be seen. Stoddard took inspiration from the third and fourth films when designing Jason 's hockey mask. The make - up artist managed to acquire an original set piece, which he studied and later sculpted. Although he had a model of one of the original masks, Stoddard did not want to replicate it in its entirety. As Stoddard explains, "Because I did n't want to take something that already existed, there were things I thought were great, but there were things I wanted to change a bit. Make it custom, but keep all the fundamental designs. Especially the markings on the forehead and cheeks. Age them down a bit, break them up. '' In the end, Stoddard crafted six versions of the mask, each with varying degrees of wear.
In his original appearance, Jason was scripted as a mentally disabled young boy. Since Friday the 13th, Jason Voorhees has been depicted as a non-verbal, indestructible, machete - wielding mass murderer. Jason is primarily portrayed as being completely silent throughout the film series. Exceptions to this include flashbacks of Jason as a child, and a brief scene in Jason Takes Manhattan where the character cries out "Mommy, please do n't let me drown! '' in a child 's voice before being submerged in toxic waste, and in Jason Goes To Hell where his spirit possesses other individuals. Online magazine Salon 's Andrew O'Hehir describes Jason as a "silent, expressionless... blank slate. '' When discussing Jason psychologically, Sean S. Cunningham said, "... he does n't have any personality. He 's like a great white shark. You ca n't really defeat him. All you can hope for is to survive. '' Since Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives, Jason has been a "virtually indestructible '' being. Tom McLoughlin, the film 's director, felt it was silly that Jason had previously been just another guy in a mask, who would kill people left and right, but get "beaten up and knocked down by the heroine at the end ''. McLoughlin wanted Jason to be more of a "formidable, unstoppable monster ''. In resurrecting Jason from the dead, McLoughlin also gave him the weakness of being rendered helpless if trapped beneath the waters of Crystal Lake; inspired by vampire lore, McLoughlin decided that Jason had in fact drowned as a child, and that returning him to his original resting place would immobilize him. This weakness would be presented again in The New Blood, and the idea that Jason had drowned as a child was taken up by director Rob Hedden as a plot element in Jason Takes Manhattan.
Many have given suggestions as Jason 's motivation for killing. Ken Kirzinger refers to Jason as a "psychotic mama 's boy gone horribly awry... very resilient. You ca n't kill him, but he feels pain, just not like everyone else. '' Kirzinger goes on to say that Jason is a "psycho - savant '', and believes his actions are based on pleasing his mother, and not anything personal. Andrew O'Hehir has stated, "Coursing hormones act, of course, as smelling salts to prudish Jason, that ever - vigilant enforcer of William Bennett - style values. '' Todd Farmer, writer for Jason X, wrote the scene where Jason wakes from cryonic hibernation just as two of the teenagers are having sex. Farmer liked the idea that sex acts triggered Jason back to life. Whatever his motivations, Kane Hodder believes there is a limit to what he will do. According to Hodder, Jason might violently murder any person he comes across, but when Jason Takes Manhattan called for Hodder to kick the lead character 's dog, Hodder refused, stating that, while Jason has no qualms against killing humans, he is not bad enough to hurt animals. Another example from Jason Takes Manhattan, involves Jason being confronted by a street gang of young teenage boys one of whom threatens him with a knife, however Jason chooses not to kill them and instead scares them off by lifting up his mask and showing them his face. Likewise, director Tom McLoughlin chose not to have Jason harm any of the children he encounters in Jason Lives, stating that Jason would not kill a child, out of a sympathy for the plight of children generated by his own death as a child.
In Jason Goes to Hell, director Adam Marcus decided to include a copy of the Necronomicon Ex-Mortis, from the Evil Dead franchise, in the Voorhees home as a way to insinuate that Jason was actually a "Deadite '', a type of demonic being from that series. Marcus stated the book 's placement was intended to imply that Pamela Voorhees had used it to resurrect Jason after his childhood drowning, resulting in his supernatural abilities: "This is why Jason is n't Jason. He 's Jason plus The Evil Dead... That, to me, is way more interesting as a mashup, and (Sam) Raimi loved it! It 's not like I could tell New Line my plan to include The Evil Dead, because they do n't own The Evil Dead. So it had to be an Easter egg, and I did focus on it. It absolutely is canon. '' In an early draft of Freddy vs. Jason, it was decided that one of the villains needed a redeemable factor. Ronald D. Moore, co-writer of the first draft, explained that Jason was the easiest to make redeemable, because no one had previously ventured into the psychology surrounding the character. Moore saw the character as a "blank slate '', and felt he was a character the audience could really root for. Another draft, penned by Mark Protosevich, followed Moore 's idea of Jason having a redeemable quality. In the draft, Jason protects a pregnant teenager named Rachel Daniels. Protosevich explained, "It gets into this whole idea of there being two kinds of monsters. Freddy is a figure of actual pure evil and Jason is more like a figure of vengeance who punishes people he feels do not deserve to live. Ultimately, the two of them clash and Jason becomes an honorable monster. '' Writers Damian Shannon and Mark Swift, who wrote the final draft of the film, disagreed about making Jason a hero, although they drew comparisons between the fact that Freddy was a victimizer and Jason was a victim. They stated, "We did not want to make Jason any less scary. He 's still a brutal killer... We never wanted to put them in a situation where Jason is a hero... They 're both villains to be equally feared. '' Brenna O'Brien, co-founder of Fridaythe13thfilms.com, saw the character as having sympathetic qualities. She stated, "(Jason) was a deformed child who almost drowned and then spent the rest of his childhood growing up alone in the woods. He saw his mother get murdered by a camp counselor in the first Friday the 13th, and so now he exacts his revenge on anyone who returns to Camp Crystal Lake. Teenage fans can identify with that sense of rejection and isolation, which you ca n't really get from other killers like Freddy Krueger and Michael Myers. ''
As Jason went through some characterization changes in the 2009 film, Derek Mears likens him more to a combination of John Rambo, Tarzan, and the Abominable Snowman from Looney Tunes. To him, this Jason is similar to Rambo because he sets up the other characters to fall into his traps. Like Rambo, he is more calculated because he feels that he has been wronged and he is fighting back; he is meant to be more sympathetic in this film. Fuller and Form contend that they did not want to make Jason too sympathetic to the audience. As Brad Fuller explains, "We do not want him to be sympathetic. Jason is not a comedic character, he is not sympathetic. He 's a killing machine. Plain and simple. ''
In 2005, California State University 's Media Psychology Lab surveyed 1,166 people Americans aged from 16 to 91 on the psychological appeal of movie monsters. Many of the characteristics associated with Jason Voorhees were appealing to the participants. In the survey, Jason was considered to be an "unstoppable killing machine. '' Participants were impressed by the "cornucopic feats of slicing and dicing a seemingly endless number of adolescents and the occasional adult. '' Out of the ten monsters used in the survey -- which included vampires, Freddy Krueger, Frankenstein 's monster, Michael Myers, Godzilla, Chucky, Hannibal Lecter, King Kong, and the Alien -- Jason scored the highest in all the categories involving killing variables. Further characteristics that appealed to the participants included Jason 's "immortality, his apparent enjoyment of killing (and) his superhuman strength. ''
Jason Voorhees is one of the leading cultural icons of American popular culture. In 1992 Jason was awarded the MTV Lifetime Achievement Award. He was the first of only three completely fictional characters to be presented the award; Godzilla (1996) and Chewbacca (1997) are the others. Jason was named No. 26 in Wizard magazine 's "100 greatest villains of all time ''. Universal Studios theme parks, in collaboration with New Line Cinema, used the character for their Halloween Horror Nights event.
The character has been produced and marketed as merchandise over the years. In 1988 Screamin ' Toys produced a model kit where owners could build their own Jason statuette. The kit required the owner to cut and paint various parts in order to assemble the figure. Six years later, Screamin ' Toys issued a new model kit for Jason Goes to Hell. Both kits are now out of production. McFarlane Toys released two toy lines, one in 1998 and the other in 2002. The first was a figure of Jason from Jason Goes to Hell, and the other was of Über - Jason from Jason X. Since McFarlane 's last toy line in 2002, there has been a steady production of action figures, dolls, and statuettes. These include tie - ins with the film Freddy vs. Jason (2003). In April 2010 Sideshow Toys released a polystone statue of Jason, based on the version appearing in the 2009 remake.
Jason has made an appearance in five video games. He first appeared in a 1985 Commodore 64 game. His next appearance was in 1989, when LJN, an American game company known for its games based on popular movies in the 1980s and early 1990s, released Friday the 13th on the Nintendo Entertainment System. The premise involved the gamer, who picks one of six camp counselors as their player, trying to save the campers from Jason, while battling various enemies throughout the game. On October 13, 2006, a Friday the 13th game was released for mobile phones. The game puts the user in the persona of Jason as he battles the undead. Jason also appears as a playable character in the fighting game Mortal Kombat X as a downloadable content bonus character. A new Friday the 13th video game was released in 2017, which allows players to take control of Jason or camp counselors in a multiplayer format focused on Jason trying to kill the counselors before they can escape or time runs out.
The character has been referenced, or made cameo appearances, in various entertainment mediums. Outside of literature sources based on the character, Jason has been featured in a variety of magazines and comic strips. Cracked magazine has released several issues featuring parodies of Jason, and he has been featured on two of their covers. Mad magazine has featured the character in almost a dozen stories. He has appeared twice in the comic strip Mother Goose and Grimm. The Usagi Yojimbo antagonist Jei is based on Voorhees; his name, with the honorific "- san '' attached, is in fact a pun on Voorhees ' first name.
Many musical artists have made references to Jason Voorhees. Inspired by his own experience, Ari Lehman founded a band called FIRSTJASON. Lehman 's band is classified as horror punk, and is influenced by the sounds of the Dead Kennedys and The Misfits. The band 's name pays homage to Lehman 's portrayal of Jason Voorhees in the original Friday the 13th. One of the band 's songs is entitled "Jason is Watching ''. In 1986, coinciding with the release of Jason Lives, Alice Cooper released "He 's Back (The Man Behind the Mask) '' from his album Constrictor. The song was written to "signal Jason 's big return '' to the cinema, as he had been almost entirely absent in the previous film. Rapper Eminem has referenced Jason in several of his songs. The song "Criminal '', from the album The Marshall Mathers LP, mentions Jason specifically, while songs "Amityville '' and "Off the Wall '' -- the latter featured fellow rapper Redman -- contain Harry Manfredini 's music "ki, ki, ki... ma, ma, ma '' from the film series. Eminem sometimes wears a hockey mask during concerts. Other rap artists that have referenced Jason include Tupac Shakur, Dr. Dre, LL Cool J, and Insane Clown Posse. In 1989, Puerto Rican rapper Vico C had a song titled "Viernes 13 '' which featured Jason in Puerto Rico. The song was so popular in the island that Vico C wrote a second part titled "Viernes 13, Parte II ''. VH1 issued an advertisement for their Vogue Fashion Awards which was labeled "Friday the 20th '', and featured Jason 's mask created out of rhinestone.
Jason has been referenced or parodied in other films. In the film Scream, directed by Freddy Krueger creator Wes Craven, actress Drew Barrymore 's character is being stalked by a killer who calls her on her home phone. In order to survive, she must answer the man 's trivia questions. One question is "name the killer in Friday the 13th. '' She incorrectly guesses Jason, who did not become the killer for the film series until Part 2. Writer Kevin Williamson claimed his inspiration for this scene came when he asked this question in a bar while a group was playing a movie trivia quiz game. He received a free drink, because nobody got the answer right. In another Wes Craven film, Cursed, a wax sculpture of Jason, from Jason Goes to Hell, can be seen in a wax museum. In 2014, Jason made a cameo appearance in the RadioShack Super Bowl XLVIII commercial "The ' 80s Called ''.
Jason has also been referenced by several television shows. The stop motion animated television show Robot Chicken features Jason in three of its comedy sketches. In episode seventeen, "Operation: Rich in Spirit '', the mystery - solving teenagers from Scooby - Doo arrive at Camp Crystal Lake to investigate the Jason Voorhees murders, and are killed off one by one. Velma is the only survivor, and in typical Scooby - Doo fashion, she rips off Jason 's mask to reveal his true identity: Old Man Phillips. In episode nineteen, "That Hurts Me '', Jason reappears, this time as a housemate of "Horror Movie Big Brother '', alongside other famous slasher movie killers such as Michael Myers, Freddy Krueger, Leatherface, Pinhead, and Ghostface. Three years later, in episode sixty - two, Jason is shown on the days before and after a typical Friday the 13th. Jason is spoofed in the season five episode of Family Guy entitled "It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married One ''. The so - called "Mr. Voorhees '' explains to Asian reporter Trisha Takanawa how happy he is to see local wildlife return following the cleanup and rejuvenation of Lake Quahog. He reappears later in the episode as the manager of the "Britches and Hose '' clothing store. As opposed to his monstrous personality in the films, Jason is depicted here as polite and articulate, albeit still a psychopath; he murders random swimmers and threatens to kill his employee if she screws up. In an episode of The Simpsons, Jason appears in a Halloween episode sitting on the couch with Freddy Krueger waiting for the family to arrive. When Freddy asks where the family is, Jason responds, "Ehh, whaddya gon na do? '' and turns the TV on. He also appears in The Simpsons episode "Stop, or My Dog Will Shoot! '', alongside Pinhead, menacing Bart in a fantasy sequence. The South Park episodes "Imaginationland Episode II '' and "III '' feature Jason among an assortment of other villains and monsters as an inhabitant of the "bad side '' of Imaginationland, a world populated by fictional characters. This version of Jason has an effeminate voice and describes the removal of Strawberry Shortcake 's eyeball as "super hardcore ''. Experimental pop artist Eric Millikin created a large mosaic portrait of Jason Voorhees out of Halloween candy and spiders as part of his "Totally Sweet '' series in 2013.
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what was the power structure of the byzantine empire | Byzantine army - wikipedia
The Byzantine army or Eastern Roman army was the primary military body of the Byzantine armed forces, serving alongside the Byzantine navy. A direct continuation of the Roman army, the Eastern Roman army maintained a similar level of discipline, strategic prowess and organization. It was among the most effective armies of western Eurasia for much of the Middle Ages. Over time the cavalry arm became more prominent in the Byzantine army as the legion system disappeared in the early 7th century. Later reforms reflected some Germanic and Asian influences -- rival forces frequently became sources of mercenary units e.g.; Huns, Cumans, Alans and (following the Battle of Manzikert) Turks, meeting the Empire 's demand for light cavalry mercenaries. Since much of the Byzantine military focused on the strategy and skill of generals utilizing militia troops, heavy infantry were recruited from Frankish and later Varangian mercenaries.
From the seventh to the 12th centuries, the Byzantine army was among the most powerful and effective military forces in the world -- neither Middle Ages Europe nor (following its early successes) the fracturing Caliphate could match the strategies and the efficiency of the Byzantine army. Restricted to a largely defensive role in the 7th to mid-9th centuries, the Byzantines developed the theme - system to counter the more powerful Caliphate. From the mid-9th century, however, they gradually went on the offensive, culminating in the great conquests of the 10th century under a series of soldier - emperors such as Nikephoros II Phokas, John Tzimiskes and Basil II. The army they led was less reliant on the militia of the themes; it was by now a largely professional force, with a strong and well - drilled infantry at its core and augmented by a revived heavy cavalry arm. With one of the most powerful economies in the world at the time, the Empire had the resources to put to the field a powerful host when needed, in order to reclaim its long - lost territories.
After the collapse of the theme - system in the 11th century, the Byzantines grew increasingly reliant on professional Tagmata troops, including ever - increasing numbers of foreign mercenaries. The Komnenian emperors made great efforts to re-establish a native army, instituting the pronoia system of land grants in exchange for military service. Nevertheless, mercenaries remained a staple feature of late Byzantine armies since the loss of Asia Minor reduced the Empire 's recruiting - ground, while the abuse of the pronoia grants led to a progressive feudalism in the Empire. The Komnenian successes were undone by the subsequent Angeloi dynasty, leading to the dissolution of the Empire at the hands of the Fourth Crusade in 1204.
The Emperors of Nicaea managed to form a small but effective force using the same structure of light and heavily armed troops, both natives and foreigners. It proved effective in defending what remained of Byzantine Anatolia and reclaiming much of the Balkans and even Constantinople itself in 1261. Another period of neglect of the military followed in the reign of Andronikos II Palaiologos, which allowed Anatolia to fall prey to an emerging power, the Ottoman emirate. Successive civil wars in the 14th century further sapped the Empire 's strength and destroyed any remaining chance of recovery, while the weakening of central authority and the devolution of power to provincial leaders meant that the Byzantine army was now composed of a collection of militias, personal entourages and mercenary detachments.
Just as what we today label the Byzantine Empire was in reality and to contemporaries a continuation of the Roman Empire, so the Byzantine army was an outgrowth of the Late Roman structure, which largely survived until the mid-7th century. The official language of the army for centuries continued to be Latin but this would eventually give way to Greek as in the rest of the Empire, though Latin military terminology would still be used throughout its history.
In the period after the Muslim conquests, which saw the loss of Syria and Egypt, the remainders of the provincial armies were withdrawn and settled in Asia Minor, initiating the thematic system. Despite this unprecedented disaster, the internal structures of the army remained much the same, and there is a remarkable continuity in tactics and doctrine between the 6th and 11th centuries. The Battle of Manzikert in 1071 and the subsequent Seljuk invasions, together with the arrival of the Crusades and the incursions of the Normans, would severely weaken the Byzantine state and its military, which increasingly had to rely on foreign mercenaries.
The Eastern Empire dates from the creation of the Tetrarchy ("Quadrumvirate '') by the Emperor Diocletian in 293. His plans for succession did not outlive his lifetime, but his reorganization of the army did by centuries. Rather than maintain the traditional infantry - heavy legions, Diocletian reformed it into limitanei ("border '') and comitatenses ("field '') units.
There was an expansion of the importance of the cavalry, though the infantry still remained the major component of the Roman armies, in contrast to common belief. In preparation for Justinian 's African campaign of 533 - 534 AD, the army assembled amounted to 10,000 foot soldiers and 5,000 mounted archers and federate lancers.
The limitanei and ripenses were to occupy the limes, the Roman border fortifications. The field units, by contrast, were to stay well behind the border and move quickly where they were needed, whether for offensive or defensive roles, as well as forming an army against usurpers. The field units were held to high standards and took precedence over Limitanei in pay and provisions.
Cavalry formed about one - third of the units, but as a result of smaller units, about one - quarter of the Roman armies consisted of cavalry. About half the cavalry consisted of heavy cavalry (including the stablesiani). They were armed with spear or lance and sword and armored in mail. Some had bows, but they were meant for supporting the charge instead of independent skirmishing.
In the field armies there was a component of some 15 % of cataphractarii or clibanarii, heavily armoured cavalry who used shock tactics. The light cavalry (including the scutarii and promoti) featured high amongst the limitanei, being very useful troops on patrol. They included horse archers (Equites Sagittarii). The infantry of the comitatenses was organized in regiments (variously named legiones, auxilia or just numeri) of about 500 -- 1,200 men. They were still the heavy infantry of old, with a spear or sword, shield, body armour and a helmet. But now each regiment was supported by a detachment of light infantry skirmishers.
If needed, the infantry could take off (some of) their armour to act in a more flexible way as Modares did (according to Zosimus) during the Gothic War of the 370s. The regiments were commanded by a tribunus ("tribune '') and brigaded in pairs (cavalry units did, too) under a comes. These brigades probably were tactical and strategic units only, as no traces survive of brigade staff corps.
On the other hand, little is known of the limitanei. The old legions, cohorts and cavalry alae survived there, and newer units were created (the new legions, or auxilia and vexillationes, amongst the cavalry. The limitanei infantry may have been lighter - equipped than the comitatenses infantry, but there is no evidence whatsoever. They were paid less than the field troops and recruited locally. Consequently, they were of inferior quality. However, they were in the line of fire. They countered most incursions and raids. Thus, it can be assumed they did have superior field experience (except in periods of long campaigning for the comitatenses), though that experience did not extend to large battles and sieges.
The Scholae Palatinae units, which were more properly known as the Schola Protectores Domestici and the "Protective Association of the Royal Escort '' (also called the Obsequium), were the personal guard of the Emperor, and were created to replace the Praetorian Guard disbanded by Constantine I.
Following a major reorganisation of the Roman army during the Emperor Diocletian 's reign (284 - 305 AD) the legions in the third and fourth century bore little resemblance to those of the Republic or earlier Roman empire. Reduced in numbers to about 1,000 men per legion, these units became static garrison troops, sometimes serving on a part - time militia basis as hereditary limitanei. As such they were separate from the new mobile field army.
The army of Justinian I was the result of fifth - century reorganizations to meet growing threats to the empire, the most serious from the expanding Persian empire. Gone were the familiar legions, cohorts and alae of old Rome, and in their place were small infantry battalions or horse regiments called an arithmos, tagma or numerus. A numerus had between 300 and 400 men and was commanded by a tribune. Two or more numeri formed a brigade, or moira; two or more brigades a division, or meros.
There were six classifications of troops:
The size of Justinian 's army is unclear. Bury, writing in the 1920s, accepted the estimate of 150,000 troops of all classes in 559 given by Agathia of Myrina in his History. Modern scholars estimate the total strength of the imperial army under Justinian to be between 300,000 and 350,000 soldiers. Field armies generally had 15,000 to 25,000 soldiers and were formed mainly of comitatenses and foederati, reinforced by the commanders ' retinues and barbarian allies. The expeditionary force of Belisarius during his reconquest of Carthage from the Vandals in 533 is illustrative.
This army had 10,000 comitatenses and foederati infantry, with 3,000 similarly composed cavalry. There were 600 Huns and 400 Herules, all mounted archers, and 1,400 or 1,500 mounted bucellarii of Belisarius ' retinue. The small force of less than 16,000 men voyaged from the Bospherus to North Africa on 500 ships protected by 92 dromons, or war - ships.
Tactics, organization and equipment had been largely modified to deal with the Persians. The Romans adopted elaborate defensive armor from Persia, coats of mail, cuirasses, casques and greaves of steel for tagma of elite heavy cavalrymen called cataphracts, who were armed with bow and arrows as well as sword and lance.
Large numbers of light infantry were equipped with the bow, to support the heavy infantry known as scutatii (Meaning '' shield men '') or skutatoi. These wore a steel helmet and a coat of mail, and carried a spear, axe and dagger. They generally held the centre of a Roman line of battle. Infantry armed with javelins were used for operations in mountain regions.
Notable military events during the reign of Justinian included the battle of Dara in 530, when Belisarius, with a force of 25,000, defeated the Persian emperor 's army of 40,000. In addition to his reconquest of Carthage, noted above, Belisarius also recaptured Sicily, Naples, Rome and the rest of Italy from the Goths in a war lasting from 535 to 554. Another famous commander of the time was the imperial eunuch Narses, who defeated a Gothic army at Busta Gallorum on the eastern coast of Italy in 552.
Towards the end of the sixth century, the Emperor Maurice, or senior officers writing for him, described in great detail the Byzantine army of the period in The Strategikon, a manual for commanders. Maurice, who reigned from 582 to 602, certainly had extensive military experience. In 592, he forced the Persians to sign a treaty that regained extensive Armenian territory for the empire that had been lost in earlier wars. Maurice then turned to the western frontier in the Balkans. In a war that lasted the rest of his life, he defeated the Avars and Slavs in battle, but could not gain a decisive victory.
The Strategikon 's author gives us a fair picture of the Byzantine army and its troops, including the equipment borrowed from the Herules, Goths, Slavs and especially the Avars, once barbarian enemies all. Cavalrymen should have "hooded coats of mail reaching to their ankles which may be drawn up by thongs and rings, along with carying cases. '' Helmets were to have small plumes on top and bows were to be suited to the strength of each man, their cases broad enough that strung bows can fit in them, and spare bow strings kept the men 's saddle bags. The men 's quivers should have covers and hold 30 or 40 arrows and they should carry small files and awls in their baldrics. The cavalry lances should be "of the Avar type with leather thongs in the middle of the shaft and with pennons. '' The men were also to have "swords and round neck pieces of the Avar type with linen fringes outside and wool inside. '' Young foreigners unskilled with the bow should have lances and shields and bucellary troops ought to have iron gauntlets and small tassles hanging from the back straps and neck straps of their horses, as well as small pennons hanging from their own shoulders over their coats of mail, "for the more handsome the soldier is, in his armament, the more confidence he gains in himself and the more fear he inspires in the enemy. '' Lances were apparently expected to be thrown, for the troops should have "two lances so as to have a spare in case the first one misses. Unskilled men should use lighter bows. ''
The manual then describes horse gear and the trooper 's clothing. "The horses, especially those of the officers and the other special troops, in particular those in the front ranks of the battle line, should have protective pieces of iron armor about their heads and breast plates of iron or felt, or else breast and neck coverings such as the Avars use. The saddles should have large and thick cloths; the bridles should be of good quality; attached to the saddles should be two iron stirrups, a lasso with thong, hobble, a sadle bag large enough to hold three or four days ' rations when needed. There should be four tassels on the back strap, one on top of the head, and one under the chin. ''
"The men 's clothing, '' the Strategikon continues, "especially their tunics, whether made of linen, goat 's hair or rough wool, should be broad and full, cut according to the Avar pattern, so they can be fastened to cover the knees while riding and give a neat appearance. They should also be provided with an extra-large cloak or hooded mantle of felt with broad sleeves to wear, large enough to wear over their armament, including the coat of mail and the bow. '' "Each squad should have a tent, as well as sickles and axes to meet any contingency. It is well to have tents of the Avar type, which combine practicality with good appearance. ''
"The men, '' according to The Strategikon, "should certainly be required to provide servants for themselves, slave or free... Should they neglect this and find themselves without servants, then in time of battle it will be necessary to detail some of the soldiers themselves to the baggage train, and there will be fewer men fighting in the ranks. But if, as can easily happen, some of the men are unable to afford servants, then it will be necessary to require that three or four soldiers join in maintaining one servant. A similar arrangement should be made with the pack animals, which may be needed to carry the coats of mail and the tents. ''
The manual then describes a system of unit identification that sounds like a fore - runner of medieval heraldry. The flags of a meros or division, should be the same color. The streamers of its immediate sub-units, the several moiras or brigades, should also have their own color. Thus, the manual states, "each individual tagma, (battalion or squadron) may easily recognize its own standard. Other distinctive devices known to the soldiers should be imposed on the fields of the flags, so that they may easily be recognized according to meros, moira and tagma. The standards of the merarchs (meros commander) should be particularly distinctive and conspicuous, so they may be recognized by their troops at a great distance. ''
The Strategikon deals more briefly with the infantry. They are to wear Gothic tunics "coming down to their knees or short ones split up the sides and Gothic shoes with thick soles, broad toes and plain stitching, fastened with no more than two clasps the soles studded with a few nails for greater durability. '' Boots or greaves are discouraged, "for they are unsuitable for marching and, if worn, slow one down. Their mantles should be simple, not like Bulgarian cloaks. Their hair should be cut short, and it is better if it is not allowed to grow long. ''
The descriptions of the armament of the "heavy - armed infantrymen '' are equally terse. "The men of each arithmos or tagma, '' the Strategikon tells us, "should have shields of the same color, Herulian swords, lances, helmets with small plumes and tassels on top and on the cheek plates - at least the first men in the file should have these - slings, and lead - pointed darts. The picked men of the files should have mail coats, all of them if it can be done, but in any case the first two in the file. They should also have iron or wooden greaves, at least the first and second in each file. ''
The light - armed infantryman, still quoting the Strategikon, "should carry bows on their shoulders with large quivers holding about 30 or 40 arrows. They should have small shields, as well as crossbows with short arrows in small quivers. These can be fired a great distance with the bows and cause harm to the enemy. For men who might not have bows or are not experienced archers, small javelins or Slavic spears should be provided. They should also carry lead - pointed darts in leather cases, and slings. ''
The strength of the Byzantine army and navy in 565 is estimated by Teadgold to have been 379,300 men, with a field army and part of the guards totaling 150,300, and the frontier troops, part of the guards and the oarsmen totaling 229,000. These numbers probably held through the reign of Maurice. However, the largest field army mentioned in the Strategikon is a force of 34,384 (16,384 heavy infantry, 8,000 light - armed troops and 10,000 cavalry) which is given as an example of "the past, when the legions were composed of large numbers of men. '' Writing of his own time, Maurice stipulates that an army of more than 24,000 men should be divided into four components and an army of less than 24,000 into three. In another section, Maurice describes the formation of cavalry tagmas of 300 to 400 men into morias of 2,000 to 3,000 and the morias into meros of 6,000 to 7,000.
The themata (Gr. θέματα) were administrative divisions of the empire in which a general (Gr. στρατηγός, strategos) exercised both civilian and military jurisdiction and a Judge (Κριτής του Θέματος, Krites tou thematos) held the judicial power. The name is peculiar; Treadgold 's closest guess is that thema was being used to denote "emplacements ''. Modern historians agree that the designations of the first themes came from the field armies that were stationed in Asia Minor.
The themata were organized as a response to the enormous military and territorial losses suffered during the conquests of the Muslim Rashidun Caliphate - Syria in 637, Armenia and Egypt in 639, North Africa in 652 and Cyprus in 654. Treadgold cites estimates that indicate the empire 's population dropped from 19.5 million in 560 to 10.5 million in 641. At the same time the size of armed forces plunged from 379,300 men to 129,000.
By 662, the empire had lost more than half its territory in 30 years, and the first mentions occur in surviving records of themata under the command of generals, or strategi, that are the remnants of the former mobile armies now stationed in set districts. At some later time, when payment in cash had become difficult, the soldiers were given land grants within their districts for their support.
The dates of this process are uncertain, but Treadgold points to 659 - 662 as the most likely time - frame, as this is the period when the Emperor Constans II made a truce with the Arabs that gave the army time to regroup, the government ran out of money to pay the troops, and the empire 's enormous losses of territory stopped. The themata so formed provided a bulwark against Arab invasions and raids that lasted until the late 11th century. Themata were also formed in the west, as a response to the Serb and Bulgar incursions that drove the empire 's frontier from the Danube River south to Thrace and the Peloponnese.
The five original themata were all in Asia Minor and originated from the earlier mobile field armies. They were:
Within each theme, eligible men were given grants of land to support their families and to equip themselves. Following revolts strengthened by the large size of these divisions, Leo III the Isaurian, Theophilus, and Leo VI the Wise all responded by breaking the themes up into smaller areas and dividing control over the armies within each theme into various tourmai. The large early themes were progressively split up in the 8th -- 9th centuries to reduce their governors ' power, while in the 10th century, new and much smaller themes, called "Armenian themes '' because many were settled by Armenians, were created in the East in conquered territories. While in ca. 842 the Taktikon Uspensky lists 18 strategoi of themes, the De Thematibus of ca. 940 lists 28, and the Escorial Taktikon, written ca. 971 -- 975, lists almost 90 strategoi of themes and other military commands.
Sicily had been completely lost to the expanding Emirate of Sicily at the beginning of Constantine VII 's reign in 905 and Cyprus was a condominium jointly administered with the Abbasid Caliphate until its reconquest by Nikephoros II Phokas in 965. Constantinople itself was under an Eparch and protected by the numerous tagmata and police forces.
The empire is estimated by Treadgold to have had a population of 7 million in 774, with an army and navy that totaled 118,400. This included 62,000 thematic troops in 10 themes (including 4,000 marines in the naval themes of Hellas and Cibyrrhaeot), 18,000 in six tagmas, and 38,400 oarsmen divided between the Imperial fleet and the naval themes. By 840, the population had grown by a million, while the army had expanded to a total strength of 154,600. There were 96,000 soldiers and marines in 20 themes and 24,000 in the tagmas, while the number of Imperial and thematic oarsmen declined to 34,200.
Under the direction of the thematic strategoi, tourmarchai commanded from two up to four divisions of soldiers and territory, called tourmai. Under them, the droungarioi headed subdivisions called droungoi, each with a thousand soldiers. In the field, these units would be further divided into banda with a nominal strength of 300 men, although at times reduced to little more than 50. Again, the fear of empowering effective revolts was largely behind these subdivisions.
The following table illustrates the thematic structure as found in the Thracesian Theme, circa 902 -- 936.
The tagmata (τάγματα, "regiments '') were the professional standing army of the Empire, formed by Emperor Constantine V after the suppression of a major revolt in the Opsician Theme in 741 -- 743. Anxious to safeguard his throne from the frequent revolts of the thematic armies, Constantine reformed the old guard units of Constantinople into the new tagmata regiments, which were meant to provide the emperor with a core of professional and loyal troops. They were typically headquartered in or around Constantinople, although in later ages they sent detachments to the provinces. The tagmata were exclusively heavy cavalry units and formed the core of the imperial army on campaign, augmented by the provincial levies of thematic troops who were more concerned with local defense.
The four main tagmata were:
There were also auxiliary tagmata, such as the Noumeroi (Gr. Νούμεροι), a garrison unit for Constantinople, which probably included the regiment "of the Walls '' (Gr. τῶν Τειχέων, tōn Teicheōn), manning the Walls of Constantinople., and the Optimatoi (Gr. Ὀπτιμάτοι, "the Best ''), a support unit responsible for the mules of the army 's baggage train (the τοῦλδον, touldon).
Treadgold estimates that between 773 and 899, the strength of the Schools, Excubitors, Watch and Hicanati was 16,000 cavalrymen, that of the Numera and Walls 4,000 infantry. The Optimates had 2,000 support troops until sometime after 840, when their strength was raised to 4,000. In circa 870, the Imperial Fleet Marines were founded, adding another 4,000, for a total active force of 28,000.
There was also the Hetaireia (Gr. Ἑταιρεία, "Companions ''), which comprised the various mercenary corps in Imperial service, subdivided in Greater, Middle and Lesser, each commanded by a Hetaireiarchēs
In addition to these more or less stable units, any number of shorter - lived tagmata were formed as favoured units of various emperors. Michael II raised the Tessarakontarioi, a special marine unit, and John I Tzimiskes created a corps called the Athanatoi (Gr. Ἀθάνατοι, the "Immortals '') after the old Persian unit.
At the beginning of the Komnenian period in 1081, the Byzantine Empire had been reduced to the smallest territorial extent in its history. Surrounded by enemies, and financially ruined by a long period of civil war, the empire 's prospects had looked grim. Yet, through a combination of skill, determination and years of campaigning, Alexios I Komnenos, John II Komnenos and Manuel I Komnenos managed to restore the power of the Byzantine Empire by constructing a new army from the ground up.
The new force is known as the Komnenian army. It was both professional and disciplined. It contained formidable guards units such as the Varangian Guard and the Immortals (a unit of heavy cavalry) stationed in Constantinople, and also levies from the provinces. These levies included cataphract cavalry from Macedonia, Thessaly and Thrace, and various other provincial forces from regions such as the Black Sea coast of Asia Minor.
Under John II, a Macedonian division was maintained, and new native Byzantine troops were recruited from the provinces. As Byzantine Asia Minor began to prosper under John and Manuel, more soldiers were raised from the Asiatic provinces of Neokastra, Paphlagonia and even Seleucia (in the south east). Soldiers were also drawn from defeated peoples, such as the Pechenegs (cavalry archers), and the Serbs, who were used as settlers stationed at Nicomedia.
Native troops were organised into regular units and stationed in both the Asian and European provinces. Komnenian armies were also often reinforced by allied contingents from the Principality of Antioch, Serbia and Hungary, yet even so they generally consisted of about two - thirds Byzantine troops to one - third foreigners. Units of archers, infantry and cavalry were grouped together so as to provide combined arms support to each other.
This Komnenian army was a highly effective, well - trained and well - equipped force, capable of campaigning in Egypt, Hungary, Italy and Palestine. However, like many aspects of the Byzantine state under the Komnenoi, its biggest weakness was that it relied on a powerful and competent ruler to direct and maintain its operations. While Alexios, John and Manuel ruled (c. 1081 -- c. 1180), the Komnenian army provided the empire with a period of security that enabled Byzantine civilization to flourish. Yet, as we shall see, at the end of the twelfth century the competent leadership upon which the effectiveness of the Komnenian army depended largely disappeared. The consequences of this breakdown in command were to prove disastrous for the Byzantine Empire.
In the year 1185, the emperor Andronikos I Komnenos was killed. With him died the Komnenos dynasty, which had provided a series of militarily competent emperors for over a century. They were replaced by the Angeloi, who have the reputation of being the most unsuccessful dynasty ever to occupy the Byzantine throne.
The army of the Byzantine empire at this point was highly centralised. It was dominated by a system in which the emperor gathered together his forces and personally led them against hostile armies and strongholds. Generals were closely controlled, and all arms of the state looked to Constantinople for instruction and reward.
However, the inaction and ineptitude of the Angeloi quickly lead to a collapse in Byzantine military power, both at sea and on land. Surrounded by a crowd of slaves, mistresses and flatterers, they permitted the empire to be administered by unworthy favourites, while they squandered the money wrung from the provinces on costly buildings and expensive gifts to the churches of the metropolis. They scatterred money so lavishly as to empty the treasury, and allowed such licence to the officers of the army as to leave the Empire practically defenceless. Together, they consummated the financial ruin of the state.
The empire 's enemies lost no time in taking advantage of this new situation. In the east the Turks invaded the empire, gradually eroding Byzantine control in Asia Minor. Meanwhile, in the west, the Serbs and Hungarians broke away from the empire for good, and in Bulgaria the oppressiveness of Angeloi taxation resulted in the Vlach - Bulgarian Rebellion late in 1185. The rebellion led to the establishment of the Second Bulgarian Empire on territory which had been vital to the empire 's security in the Balkans.
Kaloyan of Bulgaria annexed several important cities, while the Angeloi squandered the public treasure on palaces and gardens and attempted to deal with the crisis through diplomatic means. Byzantine authority was severely weakened, and the growing power vacuum at the centre of the empire encouraged fragmentation, as the provinces began to look to local strongmen rather than the government in Constantinople for protection. This further reduced the resources available to the empire and its military system, as large regions passed outside central control.
It was in this situation that the disintegration of the military ' theme ' system, which had been the foundation of the empire 's remarkable success from the eighth to eleventh centuries, revealed itself as a real catastrophe for the Byzantine state.
The first advantage of the theme system had been its numerical strength. It is thought that the Byzantine field army under Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143 -- 1180) had numbered some 40,000 men. However, there is evidence that the thematic armies of earlier centuries had provided the empire with a numerically superior force. The army of the theme of Thrakesion alone had provided about 9,600 men in the period 902 -- 936, for example. Furthermore, the thematic armies had been stationed in the provinces, and their greater independence from central command meant that they were able to deal with threats quickly at a local level. This, combined with their greater numbers, allowed them to provide greater defense in depth.
The other key advantage of the theme system was that it had offered the Byzantine state good value for money. It provided a means of cheaply mobilising large numbers of men. The demise of the system meant that armies became more expensive in the long run, which reduced the numbers of troops that the emperors could afford to employ. The considerable wealth and diplomatic skill of the Komnenian emperors, their constant attention to military matters, and their frequent energetic campaigning, had largely countered this change. But the luck of the empire in having the talented Komneni to provide capable leadership was not a long - term solution to a structural problem in the Byzantine state itself.
After the death of Manuel I Komnenos in 1180, the Angeloi had not lavished the same care on the military as the Komneni had done, and the result was that these structural weakness began to manifest themselves in military decline. From 1185 on, Byzantine emperors found it increasingly difficult to muster and pay for sufficient military forces, while their incompetence exposed the limitations of the entire Byzantine military system, dependent as it was on competent personal direction from the emperor. The culmination of the empire 's military disintegration under the Angeloi was reached on 13 April 1204, when the armies of the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople.
Thus, the problem was not so much that the Komnenian army was any less effective in battle (the thematic army 's success rate was just as varied as that of its Komnenian counterpart); it is more the case that, because it was a smaller, more centralised force, the twelfth century army required a greater degree of competent direction from the emperor in order to be effective. Although formidable under an energetic leader, the Komnenian army did not work so well under incompetent or uninterested emperors. The greater independence and resilience of the thematic army had provided the early empire with a structural advantage that was now lost.
For all of the reasons above, it is possible to argue that the demise of the theme system was a great loss to the Byzantine empire. Although it took centuries to become fully apparent, one of the main institutional strengths of the Byzantine state was now gone. Thus it was not the army itself that was to blame for the decline of the empire, but rather the system that supported it. Without strong underlying institutions that could endure beyond the reign of each emperor, the state was extremely vulnerable in times of crisis. Byzantium had come to rely too much on individual emperors, and its continued survival was now no longer certain. While the theme system 's demise did play a major role in the empire 's military decline, other factors were important as well. These include:
After 1204 the emperors of Nicaea continued some aspects of the system established by the Komneni. However, despite the restoration of the empire in 1261, the Byzantines never again possessed the same levels of wealth, territory and manpower that had been available to the Komnenian emperors and their predecessors. As a result, the military was constantly short of funds. After the death of Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1282, unreliable mercenaries such as the grand Catalan Company came to form an ever larger proportion of the remaining forces.
At the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Byzantine army totaled about 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreign mercenaries. Against the 80,000 Ottoman troops besieging the city, the odds were hopeless. The Byzantines resisted the third attack by the Sultan 's elite Janissaries and according to some accounts on both sides were on the brink of repelling them, but a Genoan general in charge of a section of the defense, Giovanni Giustiniani, was grievously wounded during the attack, and his evacuation from the ramparts caused a panic in the ranks of the defenders. Many of the Italians, who were paid by Giustiniani himself, fled the battle.
Some historians suggest that the Kerkoporta gate in the Blachernae section had been left unlocked, and the Ottomans soon discovered this mistake -- although accounts indicate that this gain for the Ottomans was in fact contained by defenders and pushed back. The Ottomans rushed in. Emperor Constantine XI himself led the last defense of the city by himself. Throwing aside his purple regalia, he stood in front of the oncoming Ottoman Turks with sword and shield in hand.
The emperor was struck twice by the Turk troops, the mortal blow being a knife to his back. There, on the walls of Constantinople, alone and abandoned by his remaining troops, the emperor died. The fall of the Byzantine capital meant the end of the Roman empire. The Byzantine army, the last surviving direct descendant of the Roman legions, was finished.
The exact size and composition of the Byzantine army and its units is a matter of considerable debate, due to the scantness and ambiguous nature of the primary sources. The following table contains approximate estimates. All estimates excludes the number of oarsmen, for those estimates see Byzantine navy.
According to Mark Whittow the military resources of the Byzantine Empire were broadly comparable to those of other early medieval European states. As such Byzantium may not have been wealthier or more powerful than other European states, but it was more centralized and more united, and this was a vital factor in its survival. By using various Byzantine sources he guesses the entire cavalry forces of the empire, between the 8th and 10th centuries, were somewhere just over 10,000 and the number of infantry 20,000, and argues that the Byzantine armies should be numbered in hundreds or thousands and not tens of thousands.
The word cataphract (from the Greek κατάφρακτος, kataphraktos, with a literal meaning of ' completely armored ' in English) was what Greek - and later Latin - speaking peoples used to describe heavy cavalry. Historically, the cataphract was a heavily armed and armoured cavalryman who saw action from the earliest days of Antiquity up through the High Middle Ages. Originally, the term cataphract referred to a type of armour worn to cover the whole body and that of the horse. Eventually the term described the cavalryman himself.
The cataphracts were both fearsome and disciplined. Both man and horse were heavily armoured, the riders equipped with lances, bows and maces. These troops were slow compared to other cavalry, but their effect on the battlefield, particularly under the Emperor Nikephoros II, was devastating. More heavily armoured types of cataphract were called clibanarii (klibanaphoroi). These were eventually subsumed by the cataphract, and as such most Byzantine heavy cavalry became known as cataphracts.
The Byzantine cavalry were ideally suited to combat on the plains of Anatolia and northern Syria, which, from the seventh century onwards, constituted the principal battleground in the struggle against the forces of Islam. They were heavily armed using lance, mace and sword as well as strong composite bows which allowed them to achieve success against lighter, faster enemies, being particularly effective against both the Arabs and Turks in the east, and the Hungarians and Pechenegs in the west.
By the mid-Byzantine period (c900 - 1200) the regular mounted arm was broadly divided into katafraktoi (heavily armored and intended for shock action), koursorses (medium weight equipped with mail or scale armor) and lightly armed horse archers.
The Byzantine Empire 's military tradition originated in the late Roman period, and its armies always included professional infantry soldiers. Though they varied in relative importance during the Byzantine army 's history, under Basil II in particular heavy infantry were an important component of the Byzantine army. These troops generally had mail armour, large shields, and were armed with swords and spears. Under militarily competent emperors such as Basil II, they were among the best heavy infantry in the world.
Pronoiar troops began to appear during the twelfth century, particularly during the reign of the emperor Manuel I Komnenos (1143 -- 1180). These were soldiers paid in land instead of money, but they did not operate under the old theme system of the middle Byzantine period. Pronoiai developed into essentially a license to tax the citizens who lived within the boundaries of the grant (the paroikoi). Pronoiars (those who had been granted a pronoia) became something like tax collectors, who were allowed to keep some of the revenue they collected.
These men are therefore generally considered to have been the Byzantine equivalent of western knights: part soldiers, part local rulers. However, it is important to note that the emperor was still the legal owner of the Pronoiars ' land. Usually cavalry, pronoiars would have been equipped with mail armour, lances, and horse barding. Manuel re-equipped his heavy cavalry in western style at some point during his reign; it is likely that many of these troops would have been pronoiars. These troops became particularly common after 1204, in the service of the Empire of Nicaea in western Asia Minor.
Akrites (plural Akritoi or Akritai) were defenders of the Anatolian borders of the Empire. They appeared after either the Arab conquests, or much later when Turkish tribes raided Anatolia from the east. The Akritoi units were formed from native Greeks living near the eastern borders. Whether such men were really soldier - farmers or lived on rents from smallholdings while concentrating on their military duties is still a matter of debate. The Akritoi were probably mostly light troops, armed with bows and javelins.
They were most adept at defensive warfare, often against raiding Turkish light horsemen in the Anatolian mountains, but could also cover the advance of the regular Byzantine army. Their tactics probably consisted of skirmishing and ambushes in order to catch the fast - moving Turkish horse - archers. Greek folklore and traditional songs of the Byzantine era to the 19th century heavily feature Akrites and their (always exaggerated) deeds (see acritic songs).
The Byzantine army frequently employed foreign mercenary troops from many different regions. These troops often supplemented or assisted the empire 's regular forces; at times, they even formed the bulk of the Byzantine army. But for most of the Byzantine army 's long history, foreign and military soldiers reflected the wealth and might of the Byzantine empire, for the emperor who was able to gather together armies from all corners of the known world was formidable.
Foreign troops during the late Roman period were known as the foederati ("allies '') in Latin, and during the Byzantine period were known as the Phoideratoi (Gr. Φοιδεράτοι) in Greek. From this point, foreign troops (mainly mercenaries) were known as the Hetairoi (Gr. Ἑταιρείαι, "Companionships '') and most frequently employed in the Imperial Guard. This force was in turn divided into the Great Companionships (Μεγάλη Εταιρεία), the Middle Companionships (Μέση Εταιρεία), and the Minor Companionships (Μικρά Εταιρεία), commanded by their respective Hetaireiarches -- "Companionship lords ''. These may have been divided upon a religious basis separating the Christian subjects, Christian foreigners, and non-Christians, respectively.
During the beginning of the 6th century, several barbarian tribes who eventually destroyed the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century eventually were recruited in the armies of the Eastern Roman Empire. Among them were the Heruli, who had deposed the last Western Roman Emperor Romulus Augustulus under their leader Odoacer in 476. Other barbarians included the Huns, who had invaded the divided Roman Empire during the second quarter of the 5th century under Attila, and the Gepids, who had settled in the Romanian territories north of the Danube River.
It was these same barbarian mercenaries that Emperor Justinian had used to help his legions reclaim the lost Roman territories of the West, which including Italy, North Africa, Sicily, and Gaul. The Byzantine general Belisarius used Hunnic archers and Heruli mercenaries in his army to reclaim North Africa and the Balearic Islands from the Vandals, and in 535 - 537, he recruited Heruli infantry and Hunnic horsemen to help him secure Sicily and all of southern Italy, as well as defend the city of Rome from the Ostrogoths.
In 552, the Armenian general Narses defeated the Ostrogoths with an army that contained a large number of Germanic soldiers, including 3,000 Heruli and 400 Gepids. Two years later, Narses crushed a combined army of invading Franks and Alemanni with a Roman army that including a contingent of Heruli mercenary troops.
Additionally, during the Komnenian period, the mercenary units would simply be divided by ethnicity and called after their native lands: the Inglinoi (Englishmen), the Phragkoi (Franks), the Skythikoi (Scythians), the Latinikoi (Latins), and so on. Ethiopians even served during the reign of Theophilos. These mercenary units, especially the Skythikoi, were also often used as a police force in Constantinople.
The most famous of all Byzantine regiments was the legendary Varangian Guard. This unit traced its roots to the 6,000 Rus sent to Emperor Basil II by Vladimir of Kiev in 988. The tremendous fighting abilities of these axe - wielding, barbarian Northerners and their intense loyalty (bought with much gold) established them as an elite body, which soon rose to become the Emperors ' personal bodyguard. This is further exemplified by the title of their commander, Akolouthos (Ακόλουθος, "Acolyte / follower '' to the Emperor).
Initially the Varangians were mostly of Scandinavian origin, but later the guard came to include many Anglo - Saxons (after the Norman Conquest) as well. The Varangian Guard fought at the Battle of Beroia in 1122 with great distinction, and were present at the Battle of Sirmium in 1167, in which the Byzantine army smashed the forces of the Kingdom of Hungary. The Varangian Guard is thought to have been disbanded after the sack of Constantinople by the forces of the Fourth Crusade in 1204; nearly all contemporary accounts agreed that they were the most important Byzantine unit present and were instrumental in driving off the first Crusader assaults.
The Byzantines originally used weapons developed from their Roman origins, swords, spears, javelins, slings and bows etc. However they were gradually influenced by the weapons of their Turkish and Arab neighbors, adopting the use of the composite bow and the cavalry mace
There were many sword (xiphos) types; straight, curved, one - and two - handed, which are depicted in illustrations. According to the Strategika, by the sixth century the short Roman gladius had been abandoned in favor of a long two - edged sword, the spathion, used by both the infantry and cavalry. The tenth century Sylloge Tacticorum gives the length of this kind of sword as the equivalent of 94 cm and mentions a new saber - like sword of the same length, the paramerion, a curved one - edged slashing weapon for cavalrymen. Both weapons could be carried from a belt or by a shoulder strap.
Infantrymen and cavalrymen carried spears for thrusting and javelins for throwing. Cavalrymen of the sixth and seventh century wielded lances with a thong in the middle of the shaft (Avar style) and a pennant. Infantrymen 's spears (kontaria) in the tenth century were 4 - 4.5 meters long (cavalry lances were slightly shorter) with an iron point (xipharion, aichme).
One type of spear, the menaulion, is described in detail; it was very thick, taken whole from young oak or cornel saplings and capped by a long blade (45 -- 50 cm), for use by especially strong infantrymen (called menaulatoi after their weapon) against enemy kataphraktoi - an excellent example of a weapon and a type of specialized soldier developed for a specific tactical role. Both light infantry and cavalry carried javelins (akontia, riptaria) no longer than three meters.
Maces (rabdia) and axes (pelekia, tzikouria) served as shock weapons. The tenth century kataphraktoi carried heavy all - iron maces (siderorabdia) -- six -, four - or three - cornered -- to smash their way through enemy infantry. Infantrymen used maces and battle - axes in hand - to - hand combat; the two handed axe was the preferred weapon of the mercenaries from Rus ' and Varangian Guard of the tenth and eleventh centuries. Byzantine axes were single - bladed (rounded or straight edged), sometimes with a spike opposite the blade.
The sling (sphendone) and the bow (toxon) were the weapons used by light soldiers. Slings were the ordinary hand - held type; the Roman staff sling (fustibalis) was apparently little used. The Byzantine bow, like the late Roman bow, was the composite, reflex type featuring an unbendable horn grip with the reinforced wooden bowstave slung in reverse of the bow 's natural flex when unstrung.
A bowshot (flight, not target, range) is over three hundred meters for an infantry bow, but cavalry bows, standing 1.2 meters high, were smaller and less tightly strung for greater accuracy and ease of handling, they had a flight range of 130 -- 135 meters. The solenarion is a hollow tube through which an archer could launch several small arrows (mues, i.e., "mice '') at a time; Anna Komnene remarked that the Crusader 's Western - type crossbow, which she called a tzangra, was unknown to Byzantium before the 12th century.
Representational evidence, including propaganda monuments, gravestones, tombs, and the Exodus fresco, often shows Roman soldiers with one or two spears; one tombstone shows a soldier with five shorter javelins. Archaeological evidence, from Roman burials and Scandinavian bog - deposits, shows similar spearheads, though the shafts are rarely preserved.
Representational evidence sometimes still shows Roman swords. Archaeological evidence shows that the gladius has disappeared; various short semispathae supplement the older pugiones while medium - long spathae replace the medium - short gladii. These have the same straight double - edged blades as older Roman swords.
Representational evidence and recovered laths, as well as arrowheads and bracers, show Roman use of composite bows.
Representational evidence, recovered bosses, and some complete shields from Dara, show that most Roman infantry and some Roman cavalry carried shields.
Although the representational evidence, including gravestones and tombs, often shows soldiers without armor, the archaeological evidence includes remains of lamellar, mail, and helmets.
It is worth noting that the Empire never developed or understood the concept of a "holy war ''. Its neighbours ' concepts of Jihad seemed to it gross perversions of scripture or simple excuses for looting and destruction. Emperors, generals and military theorists alike found war to be a failing of governance and political relations, to be avoided whenever possible. Only wars waged defensively or to avenge a wrong could in any sense be considered just, and in such cases the Byzantines felt that God would protect them.
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who plays captain kirk in the new star trek movie | William Shatner - wikipedia
William Shatner, OC (born March 22, 1931) is a Canadian actor, author, producer, and director. In his seven decades of television, Shatner became a cultural icon for his portrayal of James T. Kirk, captain of the USS Enterprise, in the Star Trek franchise. He has written a series of books chronicling his experiences playing Captain Kirk and being a part of Star Trek, and has co-written several novels set in the Star Trek universe. He has written a series of science fiction novels called TekWar that were adapted for television.
Shatner also played the eponymous veteran police sergeant in T.J. Hooker (1982 -- 86) and hosted the reality - based television series Rescue 911 (1989 -- 96), which won a People 's Choice Award for the Favorite New TV Dramatic Series. Shatner also appeared in seasons 4 and 5 of the NBC series 3rd Rock from the Sun as the "Big Giant Head '' that the alien characters reported to. From 2004 until 2008, he starred as attorney Denny Crane in the final season of the legal drama The Practice and its spinoff series Boston Legal, a role that earned him two Emmy Awards. As of December 2017, he is in his second season of the comical NBC real - life travelogue with other male companions "of a certain age '' in Better Late Than Never.
Shatner has also worked as a musician; an author; screenwriter and director; celebrity pitchman; and a passionate owner, trader, breeder, rider, and aficionado of horses.
Shatner was born in the Notre - Dame - de-Grâce neighbourhood of Montréal, Québec, Canada, to a Conservative Jewish household. His parents are Anne (née Garmaise) and Joseph Shatner, a clothing manufacturer. He has two sisters, Joy and Farla. His paternal grandfather, Wolf Schattner, anglicized the family name to "Shatner ''.
All of Shatner 's four grandparents were Jewish immigrants (from Austria - Hungary, Ukraine, and Lithuania).
Shatner attended two schools in Notre - Dame - de-Grâce, Willingdon Elementary School and West Hill High School, and is an alumnus of the Montreal Children 's Theatre. He studied Economics at the McGill University Faculty of Management in Montreal, Canada, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Commerce degree. In June 2011, McGill University awarded him an honorary Doctorate of Letters. Shatner was also awarded an honorary Doctorate of Letters from New England Institute of Technology in May 2018.
After graduating from McGill University in 1952, Shatner became the business manager for the Mountain Playhouse in Montreal before joining the Canadian National Repertory Theatre in Ottawa, where he trained as a classical Shakespearean actor. Shatner began performing at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Stratford, Ontario, beginning in 1954. He played a range of roles at the Stratford Festival in productions that included a minor role in the opening scene of a renowned and nationally televised production of Sophocles ' Oedipus Rex directed by Tyrone Guthrie, Shakespeare 's Henry V, and Marlowe 's Tamburlaine the Great, in which Shatner made his Broadway debut in 1956.
In 1954, he was cast as Ranger Bob on The Canadian Howdy Doody Show. Shatner was an understudy to Christopher Plummer; the two would later appear as adversaries in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country.
His film debut was in the Canadian film Butler 's Night Off (1951). His first feature role came in the MGM film The Brothers Karamazov (1958) with Yul Brynner, in which he starred as the youngest of the Karamazov brothers, Alexei. In December 1958, he appeared opposite Ralph Bellamy, playing Roman tax collectors in Bethlehem on the day of Jesus ' birth in a vignette of a Hallmark Hall of Fame live television production entitled The Christmas Tree directed by Kirk Browning, which featured in other vignettes such performers as Jessica Tandy, Margaret Hamilton, Bernadette Peters, Richard Thomas, Cyril Ritchard, and Carol Channing. Shatner had a leading role in an Alfred Hitchcock Presents third - season (1957 -- 58) episode titled "The Glass Eye, '' one of his first appearances on American television.
In 1959, he received good reviews when he played the role of Lomax in the Broadway production of The World of Suzie Wong. In March 1959, while performing on stage in Suzie Wong, Shatner was also playing detective Archie Goodwin in what would have been television 's first Nero Wolfe series, had it not been aborted by CBS after shooting a pilot and a few episodes. He appeared twice as Wayne Gorham in NBC 's Outlaws (1960) Western series with Barton MacLane, and then in another Alfred Hitchcock Presents 5th - season episode titled "Mother, May I Go Out to Swim? '' In 1961, he starred in the Broadway play A Shot in the Dark with Julie Harris and directed by Harold Clurman. Walter Matthau (who won a Tony Award for his performance) and Gene Saks were also featured in this play. Shatner featured in two episodes of the NBC television series Thriller ("The Grim Reaper '' and "The Hungry Glass '') and the film The Explosive Generation (1961).
Guthrie had called the young Shatner the Stratford Festival 's most promising actor, and he was seen as a peer to contemporaries like Steve McQueen, Paul Newman, and Robert Redford. Shatner was not as successful as the others, however, and during the 1960s he "became a working actor who showed up on time, knew his lines, worked cheap and always answered his phone. '' His motto was "Work equals work, '' but Shatner 's willingness to take any role, no matter how "forgettable, '' likely hurt his career. He took the lead role in Roger Corman 's movie The Intruder (1962) and received very good reviews for his significant role in the Stanley Kramer film Judgment at Nuremberg (1961) and two episodes, "Nick of Time '' and "Nightmare at 20,000 Feet, '' of the science fiction anthology series The Twilight Zone. In the 1963 -- 64 season, he appeared in an episode of the ABC series Channing. In 1963, he starred in the Family Theater production called "The Soldier '' and received credits in other programs of The Psalms series. That same year, he guest - starred in Route 66, in the episode "Build Your Houses with Their Backs to the Sea. ''
In 1964, Shatner guest - starred in Season 2, Episode 2 (titled "Cold Hands, Warm Heart '') of the ABC sci - fi anthology series The Outer Limits. That appearance may have been considered prescient in relation to his iconic, career - defining role of Captain James T. Kirk on NBC 's series Star Trek two years later. He played an astronaut returning from a mission who was discussing a planned mission to Mars called "Project Vulcan ''; on Star Trek, Kirk 's first officer and best friend, Mr. Spock, was half - Vulcan and was born and raised on that planet. Also that year, he appeared in an episode of the CBS drama The Reporter ("He Stuck in His Thumb '') and co-starred with Laurence Harvey, Claire Bloom, Newman, and Edward G. Robinson in the Western feature film The Outrage.
In 1965, Shatner guest - starred in 12 O'Clock High as Major Curt Brown in the segment "I Am the Enemy '' and in The Man from U.N.C.L.E. in an episode that also featured Leonard Nimoy, with whom Shatner would soon be paired in Star Trek. He also starred in the critically acclaimed drama For the People in 1965, as an assistant district attorney, co-starring with Jessica Walter. The program lasted only 13 episodes. Shatner starred in the 1966 gothic horror film Incubus (Esperanto: Inkubo,) the second feature - length movie ever made with all dialogue spoken in Esperanto. He also starred in an episode of Gunsmoke in 1966 as the character Fred Bateman. He appeared as attorney - turned - counterfeiter Brett Skyler in a 1966 episode of The Big Valley, "Time To Kill. '' In 1967, he starred in the little known film White Comanche starring as two characters: Johnny Moon and his twin brother Notah.
Shatner was cast as Captain James T. Kirk for the second pilot of Star Trek, titled "Where No Man Has Gone Before ''. He was then contracted to play Kirk for the Star Trek series and held the role from 1966 to 1969. During its original run on NBC, the series pulled in only modest ratings and was cancelled after three seasons. In his role as Kirk, Shatner famously kissed actress Nichelle Nichols (Lt. Uhura) in the November 22, 1968, Star Trek episode, "Plato 's Stepchildren ''. The episode is popularly cited as the first example of a kiss between a white man and a black woman on scripted television in the United States. In 1973, he returned to the role of Captain Kirk, albeit only in voice, in the animated Star Trek series.
After the cancellation of Star Trek in early 1969, Shatner experienced difficulty in finding work in the early 1970s, having become somewhat typecast from his role as Kirk. With very little money and few acting prospects, Shatner lost his home and lived in a truck bed camper in the San Fernando Valley until small roles turned into higher - paying jobs. Shatner refers to this part of his life as "that period '', a humbling time during which he would take any odd job, including small party appearances, to support his family.
Shatner again appeared in "schlock '' films, such as Corman 's Big Bad Mama (1974) and the horror film The Devil 's Rain (1975), Kingdom of the Spiders (1977), and the TV movie The Horror at 37,000 Feet. Shatner received good reviews as the lead prosecutor in a 1971 PBS adaptation of Saul Levitt 's play The Andersonville Trial. Other television appearances included a starring role in the western - themed secret agent series Barbary Coast during 1975 and 1976, and guest roles on many 1970s series such as The Six Million Dollar Man, Columbo, The Rookies, Kung Fu, Ironside and Mission: Impossible. A martial arts enthusiast, Shatner studied American Kenpo karate under black belt Tom Bleecker (who trained under the founder of American Kenpo Ed Parker). Shatner was an occasional celebrity guest on The $10,000 Pyramid and The $20,000 Pyramid in the 1970s, once appearing opposite Leonard Nimoy in a week - long match - up billed as "Kirk vs. Spock ''. In a notable 1977 appearance he gave an illegal clue ("the blessed '' for Things That Are Blessed; he intended to say "the Virgin Mary '') at the top of the pyramid ($200) which deprived the contestant of a big money win, and reacted strongly, throwing his chair out of the Winner 's Circle. Other shows included The Hollywood Squares, Celebrity Bowling, Beat the Clock, Tattletales, Mike Stokey 's Stump the Stars and Match Game. Richard Dawson, during an Archive of American Television interview, mentioned that Shatner was Mark Goodson 's first choice to host the Family Feud pilot in 1976, but gave the job to Dawson instead. He did a number of television commercials for Ontario - based Loblaws and British Columbia - based SuperValu supermarket chains in the 1970s, and finished the Loblaws ad spots by saying, "At Loblaws, more than the price is right. But, by Gosh, the price is right. '' He also did a number of television commercials for General Motors, endorsing the Oldsmobile brand, and Promise margarine.
After its cancellation, Star Trek engendered a cult following during the 1970s from syndicated reruns, and Captain Kirk became a cultural icon. Shatner began appearing at Star Trek conventions organized by Trekkies. In the mid-1970s, Paramount began pre-production for a revised Star Trek television series, tentatively titled Star Trek: Phase II. However, the phenomenal success of Star Wars (1977) led the studio to instead consider developing a Star Trek motion picture. Shatner and the other original Star Trek cast members returned to their roles when Paramount produced Star Trek: The Motion Picture, released in 1979. He played Kirk in the next six Star Trek films, ending with the character 's death in Star Trek Generations (1994). Some later appearances in the role are in the movie sequences of the video game Starfleet Academy (1997), briefly for a DirecTV advertisement using footage from Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country running from late summer 2006, and the 2013 Academy Awards, in which he reprised the role for a comedic interlude with host Seth MacFarlane.
Although Trekkies resurrected Star Trek after cancellation, in a 1986 Saturday Night Live sketch about a Star Trek convention, Shatner advised a room full of fans to "get a life ''. The much - discussed sketch accurately portrayed his feelings about Trekkies, which the actor had previously discussed in interviews. Shatner had been their unwilling subject of adoration for years; as early as April 1968, a group attempted to rip his clothes off as the actor left 30 Rockefeller Plaza, and he stopped attending conventions for more than a decade during the 1970s and 1980s. Shatner also appeared in the film Free Enterprise in 1998, in which he played himself and tried to dispel the Kirk image of himself from the view of the film 's two lead characters. He also has found an outlet in spoofing the cavalier, almost superhuman, persona of Captain Kirk in films such as Airplane II: The Sequel (1982) and National Lampoon 's Loaded Weapon 1 (1993). In 1994, he starred as the murderer in the Columbo episode "Butterfly in Shades of Grey ''.
Besides the Star Trek films, Shatner landed a starring role on television as the titular police officer T.J. Hooker, which ran from 1982 to 1986. He then hosted the popular dramatic re-enactment series Rescue 911 from 1989 to 1996. During the 1980s Shatner also began directing film and television, directing numerous episodes of T.J. Hooker and the feature film Star Trek V: The Final Frontier.
Shatner has enjoyed success with a series of science fiction novels published under his name, though most are widely believed to have been written by uncredited co-writers such as William T. Quick and Ron Goulart. The first, published in 1989, was TekWar, which Shatner claims he developed initially as a screenplay during a Writers Guild strike that delayed production of Star Trek V: The Final Frontier. The series of books led to four TekWar television movies, in which Shatner played the role of Walter Bascom, the lead character 's boss. A short - lived television series followed, airing on USA Network and Sci - Fi Channel in the United States and CTV in Canada, in which Shatner made several appearances in the Bascom role and directed some of the episodes.
In 1995, a first - person shooter game named William Shatner 's TekWar was released. He also played as a narrator in the 1995 American documentary film Trinity and Beyond: The Atomic Bomb Movie directed by Peter Kuran. He narrated a television miniseries shot in New Zealand A Twist in the Tale (1998). In the television series 3rd Rock from the Sun, Shatner appeared in several 1999 -- 2000 episodes as the "Big Giant Head '', a high - ranking officer from the same alien planet as the Solomon family who becomes a womanizing party - animal on Earth. The role earned Shatner an Emmy Award nomination.
Shatner has appeared in advertisements for many companies and products. In the early 1980s he appeared in print and television ads endorsing the Commodore VIC - 20 home computer. Since the late 1990s he has done a series of commercials for the travel web site priceline.com, in which Shatner plays a pompous, fictionalized version of himself. Although he received stock options for the commercials, Shatner says that reports that they are now worth hundreds of millions of dollars are exaggerated. Shatner was also the CEO of the Toronto, Ontario - based C.O.R.E. Digital Pictures, a special effects studio that operated from 1994 to 2010.
In May 1999, Simon & Schuster published Shatner 's book, Get a Life!, which details his experiences with Star Trek fandom, anecdotes from Trek conventions, and his interviews with dedicated fans, in particular those who found deeper meaning in the franchise.
Shatner co-starred in the movie Miss Congeniality (2000) as Stan Fields, playing the role of co-host of the Miss United States Pageant alongside future Boston Legal co-star Candice Bergen. He reprised the role in the sequel Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous (2004), in which Stan Fields was kidnapped in Las Vegas along with the winner of the pageant of the previous year. (Shatner hosted the Miss USA Pageant in 2001 as a real presenter in Gary, Indiana.) In the live - action / animated film Osmosis Jones (2001), he voiced Mayor Phlegmming, the self - centered head of the "City of Frank '', a community comprising all the cells and microorganisms of a man 's body, who is constantly preoccupied with his reelection and his own convenience, even to the detriment of his "city '' and constituents. In 2003, Shatner appeared in Brad Paisley 's "Celebrity '' and "Online '' music videos along with Little Jimmy Dickens, Jason Alexander, and Trista Rehn. Shatner also had a supporting role in the comedy DodgeBall: A True Underdog Story (2004), which starred Ben Stiller and Vince Vaughn. Star Trek: Enterprise producer Manny Coto stated in Star Trek Communicator 's October 2004 issue that he was preparing a three - episode story arc for Shatner. Shortly thereafter, Enterprise was cancelled.
After David E. Kelley saw Shatner 's commercials, he brought Shatner on to the final season of the legal drama The Practice. His Emmy Award - winning role, the eccentric but highly capable attorney Denny Crane, was essentially "William Shatner the man... playing William Shatner the character playing the character Denny Crane, who was playing the character William Shatner. '' Shatner took the Crane role to Boston Legal, and won a Golden Globe, an Emmy in 2005, and was nominated again in 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009 for his work. With the 2005 Emmy win, Shatner became one of the few actors (along with co-star James Spader as Alan Shore) to win an Emmy Award while playing the same character in two different series. Even rarer, Shatner and Spader each won a second consecutive Emmy while playing the same character in two different series. Shatner remained with the series until its end in 2008.
Shatner made several guest appearances on The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien, including cameos reciting Sarah Palin 's resignation speech, Twitter posts, and autobiography. (Palin herself made a cameo on the show in December 2009, reciting passages from Shatner 's autobiography, Up Til ' Now in front of Shatner himself.) He has also recited Twitter posts by Levi Johnston, father of Palin 's grandson. He also appears in the opening graphics of the occasional feature "In the Year 3000 '', with his disembodied head floating through space, announcing, "And so we take a cosmic ride into that new millennium; that far off reality that is the year 3000 '', followed by the tag line, "It 's the future, man. '' He also played the voice of Ozzie the opossum in DreamWorks ' 2006 feature Over the Hedge.
In January 2007, Shatner launched a series of daily vlogs on his life called ShatnerVision on the LiveVideo.com website. In 2008, he launched his video blogs on YouTube in a project renamed "The Shatner Project. '' Shatner also starred as the voice of Don Salmonella Gavone on the 2009 YouTube animated series The Gavones.
Shatner was not "offered or suggested '' a role in the 2009 film Star Trek. Director J.J. Abrams said in July 2007 that the production was "desperately trying to figure out a way to put him in '' but that to "shove him in... would be a disaster '', an opinion echoed by Shatner in several interviews. At a convention held in 2010, Shatner commented on the film by saying "I 've seen that wonderful film. '' Shatner had invented his own idea about the beginning of Star Trek with his 2007 novel, Star Trek: Academy -- Collision Course. His autobiography Up Till Now: The Autobiography was released in 2008. He was assisted in writing it by David Fisher. Shatner has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame (for television work) at 6901 Hollywood Boulevard. He also has a star on the Canada 's Walk of Fame. Shatner was the first Canadian actor to star in three successful television series on three different major networks (NBC, CBS, and ABC). He also starred in the CBS sitcom $ # *! My Dad Says, which is based on the Twitter feed Shit My Dad Says created by Justin Halpern. The series premiered in late 2010 and was canceled May 2011. Shatner is also the host of the interview show Shatner 's Raw Nerve on The Biography Channel, and the Discovery Channel television series Weird or What? Also in 2011, Shatner appeared in the episode of Psych titled, "In For a Penny '' on the USA Network as the estranged father of Junior Detective Juliet O'Hara (Maggie Lawson). He has signed on to continue the role into the 2012 season.
In 2011, Shatner starred in The Captains, a feature - length documentary which he also wrote and directed. The film follows Shatner as he interviews the other actors who have portrayed starship captains within the Star Trek franchise. Shatner 's interviewees included Patrick Stewart, Avery Brooks, Kate Mulgrew, Scott Bakula, and Chris Pine. In the film, Shatner also interviews Christopher Plummer, who is an old friend and colleague from Shatner 's days with the Stratford Shakespeare Festival.
In February 2012, Shatner performed in a new one - man show on Broadway, called Shatner 's World: We Just Live in It. After a three - week run at the Music Box Theatre, the show toured throughout the United States.
In May 2012, Shatner was the guest presenter on the British satirical television quiz show Have I Got News for You, during which he coined the portmanteau "pensioneer '', combining the words "pensioner '' and "pioneer ''.
On July 28, 2012, the premium cable TV channel Epix premiered Get a Life!, a documentary on Star Trek fandom starring Shatner that takes its title from his infamous Saturday Night Live line and his 1999 book on the topic.
On September 25, 2012, Shatner portrayed the home plate umpire in the music video "At Fenway '', which was written and recorded by crooner Brian Evans.
On April 24, 2014 he performed for one night only an autobiographical one - man show on Broadway, which was later broadcast in over 700 theaters across Canada, Australia, and the United States. A large portion of the revenue went to charity.
In 2015, he played Mark Twain in an episode of the Canadian historical crime drama series Murdoch Mysteries. Also in 2015, he played Croatoan -- main character Audrey Parker 's interdimensional, dangerous father -- in the last episodes of the fifth and final season of SyFy channel 's fantasy series Haven.
Premiering August 23, 2016, Shatner appeared in the NBC reality miniseries Better Late Than Never, which documented the adventures of Shatner and three other aging celebrities (Henry Winkler, Terry Bradshaw and George Foreman) as they travel to Japan, South Korea and Southeast Asia. That same year, he cofounded the comic - book company Shatner Singularity, whose titles include the graphic novel Stan Lee 's ' God Woke ' by Stan Lee and Fabian Nicieza. That work won the 2017 Independent Publisher Book Awards ' Outstanding Books of the Year Independent Voice Award. Better Late Than Never was renewed for a second season on NBC with a "preview '' episode on December 11, 2017, and an "official '' season premiere on New Year 's Day, January 1, 2018.
In 2017, Shatner appeared in the animated television series My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic as the voice of Grand Pear, the estranged maternal grandfather of Applejack and her siblings, in the seventh season episode "The Perfect Pear ''. Shatner noted himself as a "brony '', a member of the Friendship Is Magic fan base; he confirmed his involvement in the series via his Twitter account following a post where he recited one of the show 's catch phrases.
Shatner began his musical career with the spoken - word 1968 album The Transformed Man, delivering exaggerated, interpretive recitations of "Mr. Tambourine Man '' and "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds. '' He performed a reading of the Elton John song "Rocket Man '' during the 1978 Science Fiction Film Awards that has been widely parodied. Ben Folds, who has worked with him several times, produced and co-wrote Shatner 's well - received second studio album, Has Been, in 2004. His third studio album, Seeking Major Tom, was released on October 11, 2011. The fourth, Ponder the Mystery, was released in October 2013 on Cleopatra Records, produced and composed by musician Billy Sherwood (member of Yes). Shatner also has done a concert tour with CIRCA:, which includes an ex and current member of Yes, Tony Kaye and Billy Sherwood.
Shatner recorded a wake - up call that was played for the crew of STS - 133 in the Space Shuttle Discovery on March 7, 2011, its final day docked to the International Space Station. Backed by the musical theme from Star Trek, it featured a voice - over based on his spoken introduction from the series ' opening credits: "Space, the final frontier. These have been the voyages of the Space Shuttle Discovery. Her 30 - year mission: To seek out new science. To build new outposts. To bring nations together on the final frontier. To boldly go, and do, what no spacecraft has done before. ''
Shatner dislikes watching himself perform, and says that he has never watched any Star Trek or Boston Legal television episodes nor any of the Star Trek movies except while editing Star Trek V: The Final Frontier which he directed, although his book Star Trek Memories makes reference to his having re-watched episodes of Star Trek.
Shatner has been married four times. His first marriage, to Gloria Rand (née Rabinowitz), produced three daughters: Leslie (b. 1958), Lisabeth (b. 1960), and Melanie (b. 1964). Rand was a Canadian actress. Rand and Shatner married on August 12, 1956. Shatner left Rand while he was acting in Star Trek: The Original Series, after which she divorced him in March 1969. The divorce was finalized in 1969. Shatner 's second marriage was to Marcy Lafferty (daughter of producer Perry Lafferty) and lasted from 1973 to 1996.
His third marriage was to Nerine Kidd Shatner, from 1997 until her death in 1999. On August 9, 1999, Shatner returned home around 10 p.m. to discover Nerine 's body at the bottom of their backyard swimming pool. She was 40 years old. An autopsy detected alcohol and Valium (diazepam) in her blood, but the coroner ruled the cause of death as an accidental drowning. The LAPD ruled out foul play, and the case was closed.
Speaking to the press shortly after his wife 's death, a clearly shaken and emotional Shatner said that she "meant everything '' to him, and called her his "beautiful soulmate ''. Shatner urged the public to support Friendly House, a nonprofit organization that helps women re-establish themselves in the community after suffering from alcoholism and drug addiction. He later told Larry King in an interview that "... my wife, whom I loved dearly, and who loved me, was suffering with a disease that we do n't like to talk about: alcoholism. And she met a tragic ending because of it. ''
In his 2008 book Up Till Now: The Autobiography, Shatner discusses how Leonard Nimoy helped take Nerine to treatment for her alcoholism. Shatner writes in an excerpt from his book:
Leonard Nimoy 's personal experience of alcoholism now came to play a central role in my life and it helped us bond together in a way I never could have imagined in the early days of Star Trek. After Nerine (Kidd) and I had been to dinner with Leonard and Susan Nimoy one evening, Leonard called and said: "Bill, you know she 's an alcoholic? '' I said I did. I married Nerine in 1997, against the advice of many and my own good sense. But I thought she would give up alcohol for me. We had a celebration in Pasadena, and Leonard was my best man. I woke up about eight o'clock the next morning and Nerine was drunk. She was in rehab for 30 days three different times. Twice she almost drank herself to death. Leonard took Nerine to Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, but she did not want to quit.
In 2000, a Reuters story reported that Shatner was planning to write and direct The Shiva Club, a dark comedy about the grieving process inspired by his wife 's death. Shatner 's 2004 album Has Been included a spoken - word piece titled "What Have You Done '' that describes his anguish upon discovering his wife 's body in the pool.
Since 2001, Shatner has been married to Elizabeth Anderson Martin. In 2004, she co-wrote the song "Together '' on Shatner 's album Has Been.
Shatner first appeared on screen with Leonard Nimoy in 1964, when both actors guest - starred in an episode of The Man from U.N.C.L.E. entitled "The Project Strigas Affair. '' However, Shatner states in his autobiography that he does not recall meeting Nimoy at that time. As co-stars on Star Trek, they interacted socially both on and off the set. After Star Trek 's cancellation in 1969, Shatner and Nimoy reunited in the production of Star Trek: The Animated Series, as well as The $20,000 Pyramid, where "Kirk vs. Spock '' appeared on two different tables. Nimoy also guest - starred on T.J. Hooker, a show in which Shatner played the title role.
Shatner 's bereavement following the 1999 death of his third wife, Nerine, served to strengthen his friendship with Nimoy. Nimoy also appeared alongside Shatner at the TV Land Awards (hosted by John Ritter). Nimoy summarized his four - decade friendship with Shatner by remarking, "Bill 's energy was good for my performance, ' cause Spock could be the cool individual, our chemistry was successful, right from the start. ''
Nimoy spoke about their mutual rivalry during the Star Trek years:
Very competitive, sibling rivalry up to here. After the show had been on the air a few weeks and they started getting so much mail for Spock, then the dictum came down from NBC: "Give us more of that guy, they love that guy, you know? '' Well, that can be... that can be a problem for the leading man who was hired as the star of the show; and suddenly, here 's this guy with ears -- "What 's this, you know? ''
On an episode of the A&E series Biography, where it was also divulged that Nimoy was Shatner 's best man at his wedding with his fourth wife Elisabeth, Nimoy remarked, "Bill Shatner hogging the stage? No. Not the Bill Shatner I know. '' When Nimoy died in 2015, Shatner stated "I loved him like a brother. We will all miss his humor, his talent, and his capacity to love. '' Although Shatner was unable to attend Nimoy 's funeral due to other commitments, his daughters attended in his place, and Shatner created his own online memorial for Nimoy.
Shatner has been a friend of actress Heather Locklear since 1982, when she began co-starring with him on T.J. Hooker. As she was also appearing in a semi-regular role in another Aaron Spelling production, Dynasty, Locklear was asked by Entertainment Tonight whether this schedule was difficult. She replied "I 'd get really nervous and want to be prepared '' for Shatner and for the experienced cast of Dynasty. After T.J. Hooker ended, Shatner helped Locklear get other roles. Locklear supported a grieving Shatner in 1999 when he was mourning the death of his wife Nerine. In 2005, Locklear appeared in two episodes of Shatner 's Boston Legal as Kelly Nolan, a woman being tried for killing her much older, wealthy husband. Shatner 's character is attracted to Nolan and tries to insert himself into her defense. Locklear was asked how she came to appear on Boston Legal. She explained "I love the show, it 's my favorite show; and I sorta kind of said, ' Should n't I be William Shatner 's illegitimate daughter, or his love interest? ' ''
-- Shatner, on having to work again with two of his Star Trek co-stars in the 1994 movie, Star Trek Generations
For years, Shatner was accused by some of his Star Trek co-stars of being difficult to work with, particularly by George Takei, Walter Koenig and James Doohan, the latter two of whom Shatner acknowledges in his autobiography Star Trek Movie Memories. In the 2004 Star Trek DVD sets, Shatner seemed to have made up with Takei, but their differences continue to resurface.
In the 1990s, Shatner made numerous attempts to reconcile with Doohan, but was unsuccessful for some time, Doohan being the only former Star Trek co-star refusing to be interviewed by Shatner for his 1993 memoir Star Trek Memories and its 1994 follow - up, Star Trek Movie Memories. However, an Associated Press article published at the time of Doohan 's final convention appearance in late August 2004 stated that Doohan, already suffering from severe health problems, had forgiven Shatner and they had mended their relationship. At a convention directly preceding Doohan 's last one, Sky Conway, the convention 's head, stated, "At our show: ' The Great Bird of the Galaxy ' in El Paso Texas in November 2003, a celebration of Gene Roddenberry and Star Trek, Bill and Jimmy went on stage together. Behind the scenes and before they went on stage, they hugged each other, apologized and expressed their love and admiration for each other. Bill specifically asked me to get them together so he could make amends and clear the air between the two of them before it was too late. ''
Shatner suffers from tinnitus, which he has speculated might be the result of a pyrotechnical accident on set while shooting the Star Trek episode "Arena '' -- though he did not begin to suffer symptoms until the early 1990s, more than twenty years after the incident. Shatner is involved in the American Tinnitus Association. His treatment for this condition involved wearing a small electronic device that generated a low - level, broadband sound (white noise) that "helped his brain put the tinnitus in the background '' -- a process known as habituation.
In 2006, Shatner sold his kidney stone for US $25,000 to GoldenPalace.com. In an appearance on The View on May 16, 2006, Shatner said the $25,000 and an additional $20,000 raised from the cast and crew of Boston Legal paid for the building of a house by Habitat for Humanity.
In his spare time, Shatner enjoys breeding and showing American Saddlebreds and Quarter Horses. Shatner rode one of his own horses, a mare named Great Belles of Fire, in Star Trek Generations. Shatner has a 360 - acre (150 ha) farm near Versailles, Kentucky, named Belle Reve Farm (from the French beau rêve, "Beautiful Dream '' -- Belle Reve was the name of Blanche Dubois ' and her sister Stella 's family home in A Streetcar Named Desire), where he raises American Saddlebreds. Three of his notable horses include Call Me Ringo, Revival, and Sultan 's Great Day. The farm 's activities help benefit the Central Kentucky Riding for Hope "Horses For Heroes '' program. Shatner also plays on the World Poker Tour in the Hollywood Home Games, where celebrities play for their favorite charities. Since 1990, he has been a leading force behind the Hollywood Charity Horse Show, which raises money for children 's charities.
On New Years Day 1994, Shatner was the Grand Marshal of the Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, CA. Instead of riding in a classic car, he rode his horse down the parade route. For the 80th Rose Bowl game afterward, he participated in the pregame ceremonies including the coin toss between the University of Wisconsin Badgers and the University of California - Los Angeles (UCLA) Bruins. Wisconsin would go onto win the game 21 - 16.
In 2014, Shatner was one of the Grand Marshals for the 102nd Calgary Stampede as he is an avid equestrian.
In September 2016, Shatner attended the 2016 Salt Lake Comic Con as a special guest.
In 2017, Shatner hosted as ' captain ' of the maiden voyage of a Star Trek - themed cruise entitled "Star Trek: The Cruise ''. The cruise was the first licensed by CBS Productions to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the show. Through PETA, Shatner asked that the 2018 cruise not offer any "swim with dolphins '' experiences, explaining in a letter to the Norwegian Cruise Line 's CEO that "The exploitation of any species for profit and entertainment would have violated the Prime Directive. ''
Shatner has been in over 20 films and 30 television shows along with video games and commercials.
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who is the car driver on the heineken commercial | Jackie Stewart - wikipedia
Sir John Young "Jackie '' Stewart, OBE (born 11 June 1939) is a British former Formula One racing driver from Scotland. Nicknamed the "Flying Scot '', he competed in Formula One between 1965 and 1973, winning three World Drivers ' Championships, and twice finishing as runner - up over those nine seasons.
Outside of Formula One, he narrowly missed out on a win at his first attempt at the Indianapolis 500 in 1966, and competed in the Can - Am series in 1971 and 1972. Between 1997 and 1999, in partnership with his son, Paul, he was team principal of the Stewart Grand Prix Formula One racing team.
Stewart was also instrumental in improving the safety of motor racing, campaigning for better medical facilities and track improvements at motor racing circuits.
Stewart was born in Milton, Dunbartonshire, Scotland, a village 15 miles west of Glasgow. Stewart 's family were Austin, later Jaguar, car dealers and had built up a successful business. His father had been an amateur motorcycle racer, and his brother Jimmy was a racing driver with a growing local reputation who drove for Ecurie Ecosse and competed in the 1953 British Grand Prix at Silverstone.
Jackie attended Hartfield primary school in the nearby town of Dumbarton, and moved to Dumbarton Academy at the age of 12. He experienced learning difficulties owing to undiagnosed dyslexia, and due to the condition not being understood or even widely known about at the time, he was regularly berated and humiliated by teachers and peers alike for being "dumb '' and "thick ''. Stewart was unable to continue his secondary education past the age of 16, and began working in his father 's garage as an apprentice mechanic. He was not actually diagnosed with dyslexia until 1980, when his oldest son Mark was diagnosed with the condition. On learning that dyslexia can be genetically passed on, and seeing very similar symptoms with his son that he had experienced himself as a child, Stewart asked if he could be tested, and was diagnosed with the disorder, by which time he was 41 years old. He has said: "When you 've got dyslexia and you find something you 're good at, you put more into it than anyone else; you ca n't think the way of the clever folk, so you 're always thinking out of the box. ''
At the age of 13 he had won a clay pigeon shooting competition and then went on to become a prize - winning member of the Scottish shooting team, competing in the United Kingdom and abroad. He won the British, Irish, Welsh and Scottish skeet shooting championships and twice won the "Coupe de Nations '' European championship. He competed for a place in the British trap shooting team for the 1960 Summer Olympics, but finished third behind Joseph Wheater and Brett Huthart. Stewart 's first car was a light green Austin A30 with "real leather (covered) seats '' which he purchased shortly before his seventeenth birthday for 375 British pounds, a detail he was able to recall for an interviewer sixty years later. He had saved up the purchase price from tips received from his job at the family garage.
He took up an offer from Barry Filer, a customer of the family business, to test in a number of his cars at Oulton Park. For 1961, Filer provided a Marcos, in which Stewart scored four wins, and competed once in Filer 's Aston DB4GT. In 1962, to help decide if he was ready to become a professional driver, he tested a Jaguar E-type at Oulton Park, matching Roy Salvadori 's times in a similar car the year before. He won two races, his first in England, in the E-type, and David Murray of Ecurie Ecosse offered him a ride in the Tojeiro EE Mk2, and their Cooper T49, in which he won at Goodwood. For 1963, he earned fourteen wins, a second, and two thirds, with six retirements.
In 1964, he again signed with Ecurie Ecosse. Ken Tyrrell, then running the Formula Junior team for the Cooper Car Company, heard of the young Scotsman from Goodwood 's track manager and called up Jimmy Stewart to see if his younger brother was interested in a tryout. Jackie came down for the test at Goodwood, taking over a new, and very competitive, Formula Three T72 - BMC which Bruce McLaren was testing. Soon Stewart was bettering McLaren 's times, causing McLaren to return to the track for some quicker laps. Again, Stewart was quicker, and Tyrrell offered Stewart a spot on the team.
In 1964 he drove in Formula Three for Tyrrell. His debut, in the wet at Snetterton on 15 March, was dominant; he took a 25 - second lead in just two laps before coasting home to a win by 44 seconds. Within days, he was offered a Formula One ride with Cooper, but declined, preferring to gain experience under Tyrrell; he failed to win just two races (one to clutch failure, one to a spin) in becoming F3 champion.
After running John Coombs ' E-type and practising in a Ferrari at Le Mans, he took a trial in an F1 Lotus 33 - Climax, in which he impressed Colin Chapman and Jim Clark. Stewart again refused a ride in F1, but went instead to the Lotus Formula Two team. In his F2 debut, he was second at the difficult Circuit Clermont - Ferrand in a Lotus 32 - Cosworth.
While he signed with BRM alongside Graham Hill in 1965, a contract which netted him £ 4,000, his first race in an F1 car was for Lotus, as stand - in for an injured Jim Clark, at the non-championship Rand Grand Prix in December 1964; after qualifying in pole position the Lotus broke in the first heat, but he won the second and claimed fastest lap. On his World Championship F1 debut in South Africa, he finished sixth. His first major competition victory came in the BRDC International Trophy in the late spring, and before the end of the year he won his first World Championship race at Monza, fighting wheel - to - wheel with teammate Hill 's P261. Stewart finished his rookie season with a win, three seconds, a third, a fifth, and a sixth, and third place in the World Drivers ' Championship. He also piloted Tyrrell 's unsuccessful F2 Cooper T75 - BRM, and drove the Rover Company 's revolutionary turbine car at the 24 Hours of Le Mans alongside Graham Hill.
At the start of the 1966 season, Stewart won the Tasman Series from his BRM teammate Graham Hill in two - litre BRMs and also raced closely with his great rival and friend Jim Clark who was somewhat disadvantaged by an unreliable Lotus 39 which was let down by its old 2.5 litre Climax engine.
In F1, after his promising start the previous year, 1966 was a poor year for Stewart; the 3 - litre H16 BRMs were unreliable, although Stewart did win the Monaco Grand Prix in a 2 - litre engined car. The most significant event in that year was his accident at the Belgian Grand Prix at Spa - Francorchamps, which sparked his campaign to improve safety in F1.
Stewart had some success in other forms of racing during the year, winning the 1966 Rothmans 12 Hour International Sports Car Race and almost winning the Indianapolis 500 on his first attempt, in John Mecom 's Lola T90 - Ford, only to be denied by a broken scavenge pump while leading by over a lap with eight laps to go. However, Stewart 's performance, having had the race fully in hand, sidelined only by mechanical failure, won him Rookie of the Year honours despite the winner, Graham Hill, also being an Indianapolis rookie.
BRM 's fortunes did not improve in 1967, despite closely contesting the Tasman Series with Jim Clark who probably raced closer and harder with Jackie than at any time in their careers. While Clark usually won, Stewart won a classic victory in the New Zealand Grand Prix with Clark attempting to run him down in the last laps with bodywork flying off his Lotus. In F1 the BRMs were still struggling with reliability problems and Stewart came no higher than second at Spa, despite having to drive one - handed while holding the car in gear with the other. In F2 he won events at Karlskoga, Enna, Oulton Park, and Albi in a Tyrrell - entered Matra MS5 or MS7. He also placed 2nd driving a works - entered Ferrari driving with Chris Amon at the BOAC 6 Hours at Brands Hatch, the 10th round of World Sportscar Championship at the time.
Stewart also did the 1967 National 500 NASCAR race but did not qualify for the race.
For 1968 in Formula One, he switched to Tyrrell 's Matra International team, where he drove a Matra MS10 - Cosworth. After a promising start in South Africa with the Matra MS9 development mule he missed Jarama and Monaco due to an F2 injury at Jarama and his first win of the season was in heavy rain at Zandvoort. Another win in rain and fog at the Nürburgring followed, where he won by a margin of four minutes. He also won at Watkins Glen but his car failed at Mexico City, and so he lost the drivers ' title to Hill.
In 1969, driving the Matra MS80 - Cosworth, Stewart had a number of races where he completely dominated the opposition, such as winning by over 2 laps at Montjuïc, a minute in front at Clemont - Ferrand and more than a lap at Silverstone. With additional wins at Kyalami, Zandvoort, and Monza, Stewart became world champion. Until 2005 he was the only driver to have won the championship driving for a French marque and remains the only driver to win the world championship in a French - built car. Also that year, Stewart led at least one lap of every World Championship Grand Prix, and remains the only driver to achieve this feat.
For 1970, Matra insisted on using their own V12 engines, while Tyrrell and Stewart wanted to continue with the Cosworth and maintain their connection to Ford, which conflicted with Matra 's recent connections to Chrysler. Tyrrell decided to build his own car and in the interim bought a chassis from March Engineering; Stewart took the March 701 - Cosworth to wins at the Daily Mail Race of Champions and Jarama, but factory development on the car stalled and it was soon overcome by the Lotus team 's new 72. The new Tyrrell 001 - Cosworth, appeared in August suffered problems but showed promise. Tyrrell continued to be sponsored by French fuel company Elf, and Stewart raced in a car painted French Racing Blue for many years. Stewart also continued to race sporadically in Formula Two, winning at Crystal Palace and placing at Thruxton. A projected Le Mans appearance, to co-drive the 4.5 litre Porsche 917K with Steve McQueen, did not come off, due to McQueen 's inability to get insurance. He also raced Can - Am, in the revolutionary Chaparral 2J. Stewart achieved pole position in two events, ahead of the dominant McLarens, but the chronic unreliability of the 2J prevented Stewart from finishing any races.
Stewart went on to win the Formula One world championship in 1971 using the Tyrrell 003 - Cosworth, winning Spain, Monaco, France, Britain, Germany, and Canada. He also did a full season in Can - Am, driving a Carl Haas sponsored Lola T260 - Chevrolet. During the 1971 season, Stewart was the only driver able to challenge the McLarens driven by Denny Hulme and Peter Revson. Stewart won two races; at Mont Tremblant and Mid Ohio, and finished 3rd in the championship.
The stress of racing year round and on several continents eventually caused medical problems for Stewart. During the 1972 Grand Prix season he missed the Belgian Grand Prix at Nivelles due to gastritis, and had to cancel plans to drive a Can - Am McLaren, but won the Argentine, French, U.S. and Canadian Grands Prix, to come second to Emerson Fittipaldi in the drivers ' standings. Stewart also competed in a Ford Capri RS2600 in the European Touring Car Championship, with F1 teammate François Cevert and other F1 pilots, at a time where the competition between Ford and BMW was at a height. Their best result was at the 6 Hours of Paul Ricard, finishing second. 1n 1972 Stewart also received the OBE.
Entering the 1973 season, Stewart had decided to retire. He nevertheless won at South Africa, Belgium, Monaco, the Netherlands, and Austria. His last and then record - setting 27th victory came at the Nürburgring with a 1 -- 2 for Tyrrell. "Nothing gave me more satisfaction than to win at the Nürburgring and yet, I was always afraid. '' Stewart later said. "When I left home for the German Grand Prix I always used to pause at the end of the driveway and take a long look back. I was never sure I 'd come home again. '' After the fatal crash of his teammate François Cevert in practice for the 1973 United States Grand Prix at Watkins Glen, Stewart retired one race earlier than intended and missed what would have been his 100th Grand Prix. Stewart had already won the Drivers ' Championship at the Italian Grand Prix two races previously; this was a race where Stewart had to come into the pits to change a flat tyre, and he drove from 20th to finish 4th.
Stewart held the record for most wins by a Formula One driver (27) for 14 years until Alain Prost won the 1987 Portuguese Grand Prix, and the record for most wins by a British Formula One driver for 19 years until Nigel Mansell won the 1992 British Grand Prix. In his commentary work for race broadcaster Channel 9 during qualifying for the 1988 Australian Grand Prix, Stewart said that he had been asked numerous times if he was unhappy about losing his record to Prost, going on to say that he was happy that his record had been taken by someone of the calibre of Prost as he openly believed him to be the best driver in Formula One.
At Spa - Francorchamps in 1966, Stewart ran off the track while driving at 165 mph (266 km / h) in heavy rain, and crashed into a telephone pole and a shed before coming to rest in a farmer 's outbuilding. His steering column pinned his leg, while ruptured fuel tanks emptied their contents into the cockpit. There were no track crews to extricate him, nor were proper tools available. There were no doctors or medical facilities at the track, and Stewart was put in the bed of a pickup truck, remaining there until an ambulance arrived. He was first taken to the track 's first aid centre, where he waited on a stretcher, which was placed on a floor strewn with cigarette ends and other rubbish. Finally, another ambulance crew picked him up, but the ambulance driver got lost driving to a hospital in Liège. Ultimately, a private jet flew Stewart back to the UK for treatment.
After his crash at Spa, Stewart became an outspoken advocate for auto racing safety. Later, he explained, "If I have any legacy to leave the sport I hope it will be seen to be an area of safety because when I arrived in Grand Prix racing so - called precautions and safety measures were diabolical. '' By Stewart 's reckoning, a driver who raced for five years had a two - thirds chance of being killed in a crash.
Stewart continued, commenting on his crash at Spa:
I lay trapped in the car for twenty - five minutes, unable to be moved. Graham and Bob Bondurant got me out using the spanners from a spectator 's toolkit. There were no doctors and there was nowhere to put me. They in fact put me in the back of a van. Eventually an ambulance took me to a first aid spot near the control tower and I was left on a stretcher, on the floor, surrounded by cigarette ends. I was put into an ambulance with a police escort and the police escort lost the ambulance, and the ambulance did n't know how to get to Liège. At the time they thought I had a spinal injury. As it turned out, I was n't seriously injured, but they did n't know that.
I realised that if this was the best we had there was something sadly wrong: things wrong with the race track, the cars, the medical side, the fire - fighting, and the emergency crews. There were also grass banks that were launch pads, things you went straight into, trees that were unprotected and so on. Young people today just would n't understand it. It was ridiculous.
In response, Stewart campaigned with Louis Stanley (BRM team boss) for improved emergency services and better safety barriers around race tracks. "We were racing at circuits where there were no crash barriers in front of the pits, and fuel was lying about in churns in the pit lane. A car could easily crash into the pits at any time. It was ridiculous. '' As a stop - gap measure, Stewart hired a private doctor to be at all his races, and taped a spanner to the steering shaft of his BRM in case it would be needed again. Stewart pressed for mandatory seat belt usage and full - face helmets for drivers, which have become unthinkable omissions for modern races. Likewise, he pressed track owners to modernize their tracks, including organizing driver boycotts of races at Spa - Francorchamps in 1969, the Nürburgring in 1970, and Zandvoort in 1972 until barriers, run - off areas, fire crews, and medical facilities were improved.
Some drivers and press members believed the safety improvements for which Stewart advocated detracted from the sport, while track owners and race organizers balked at the extra costs. "I would have been a much more popular World Champion if I had always said what people wanted to hear. I might have been dead, but definitely more popular. '', Stewart later said.
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap)
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Subsequently, he became a consultant for Ford Motor Company while continuing to be a spokesman for safer cars and circuits in Formula One.
During the period 1971 to 1986, Stewart covered F1 races, NASCAR races and Indianapolis 500 as a color commentator, and also functioned as host for the latter. Jackie was a play - by - play announcer for the Luge at the 1976 Winter Olympics and the Equestrian at the 1976 Summer Olympics (partnered with Chris Schenkel) on ABC 's Wide World of Sports. He was noted for his insightful analysis, Scottish accent, and rapid delivery, which once caused Jim McKay to remark that Stewart spoke almost as fast as he drove.
Later, Stewart covered CART IndyCar races starting at Long Beach in 1987 on NBC SportsWorld, along with Paul Page. He returned in 1988, along with Charlie Jones. Stewart only covered road course and street races in his brief time at NBC. He did not return in 1989 and was replaced by Johnny Rutherford and Tom Sneva.
Stewart also worked on Australian and Canadian TV coverage, from the late 1986 to the mid 1990s.
In 1997 Stewart returned to Formula One, with Stewart Grand Prix, as a team owner in partnership with his son, Paul. As the works Ford team, their first race was the 1997 Australian Grand Prix. The only success of their first year came at the rain - affected Monaco Grand Prix where Rubens Barrichello finished second. The following year, 1998, was less competitive, with no podiums and few points.
However, after Ford acquired Cosworth in July 1998, the team risked designing and building a new engine for 1999. The SF3 was consistently competitive throughout the season. The team won one race at the European Grand Prix at the Nürburgring with Johnny Herbert, while Barrichello took three 3rd places, pole in France, and briefly led his home race at Interlagos. The team was later bought by Ford and became Jaguar Racing in 2000 (which became Red Bull Racing in 2005).
Stewart is also the head sports consultant / patron for the Royal Bank of Scotland. In March 2009, he waived his fee for the year in response to the bank losing £ 24bn in 2008.
Stewart received Sports Illustrated magazine 's 1973 "Sportsman of the Year '' award, the only auto racer to win the title. In the same year he also won BBC Television 's "Sports Personality Of The Year '' award, and was named as ABC 's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year in which he was shared with American pro football player O.J. Simpson. In 1990, he was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame. In 1996, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Heriot - Watt University in Edinburgh. In 1998 Stewart received an honorary doctorate from Cranfield University where he later served as chairman of the steering committee for the MSc Motorsport Engineering and Management.
He was a subject of the television programme This Is Your Life in January 1970 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at Thames Television 's Euston Road Studios.
In the 1971 Birthday Honours Stewart was created an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE). In 2001 he received a knighthood, in both cases the honour was for services to motor racing.
In 2002 he became a founding patron of the Scottish Sports Hall of Fame, and an inaugural inductee.
In 2003 The World Forum on the Future of Sport Shooting Activities presented Stewart the Sport Shooting Ambassador Award. The Award goes to an outstanding individual whose efforts have promoted the shooting sports internationally.
On 27 November 2008, Stewart was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) degree from the University of St Andrews.
On 26 June 2009, Stewart was awarded the Freedom of West Dunbartonshire at a special ceremony in his hometown of Dumbarton.
In 2010, Stewart was named as a founding member of Motor Sport magazine 's Hall of Fame.
On 28 January 2012, Stewart gave the starting command for the 50th Anniversary of the Rolex 24 At Daytona. He assumed the role after previously announced Grand Marshal A.J. Foyt was forced to cancel his visit due to complications from his recent knee surgery.
Stewart appears in the 1966 John Frankenheimer movie Grand Prix doing all the driving scenes for actor Brian Bedford, who played Scott Stoddard, as Bedford did not know how to drive. Stewart anachronistically appeared in a cameo in a 1977 episode of "Lupin III '' as a competitor in the 1977 Monaco Grand Prix and also once appeared on the UK motoring program Top Gear as a driving instructor for host James May. Stewart was the subject in the Roman Polanski - produced film Weekend of a Champion, in which Polanski shadows him throughout a race weekend at the 1971 Monaco Grand Prix.
George Harrison, a good friend of Stewart 's, released a single, "Faster '', in 1979 as a tribute to Stewart, Niki Lauda, Ronnie Peterson and fellow Formula One race car drivers. He is also interviewed in some depth in Martin Scorsese 's documentary biography of Harrison, George Harrison: Living in the Material World. Stewart was featured in the video to the song "Supreme '' by British singer, Robbie Williams. Stewart also wrote the foreword for the book The Centenary Of The Car 1885 - 1985 by Andrew Whyte in 1984.
Stewart appeared in several UPS commercials in 2002 and 2003 as a consultant for Dale Jarrett to convince Jarrett to "race the Big Brown truck ''. He, along with his son Mark, appeared in a Vectrex commercial in the 1980s as a spokesman for the General Consumer Electronics (GCE) / Milton Bradley Vectrex home video game. Stewart also featured in a special presentation video of the then all new Ford Mondeo in 1993, the video was given away free on the front cover of What Car? magazine in 1993.
Stewart currently (2017) appears in US commercials for Heineken beer, in which he refuses an offered beer saying "I 'm still driving '' before driving away in a Jaguar F - Type.
Stewart 's helmet was white, with the red, green, blue, white and yellow Royal Stewart tartan surrounding the top.
Stewart lives in the Buckinghamshire village of Ellesborough. Between 1969 and 1997 he lived in Begnins, near Lake Geneva in Switzerland (and later sold his house to Phil Collins). He married his childhood sweetheart Helen (née McGregor) in 1962 and they have two sons. Paul was a racing driver, and later ran Paul Stewart Racing with his father, selling it in 1999. Mark is a film and television producer.
Stewart dictated his autobiography due to his dyslexia. In a 2009 interview, and in the book, he discusses his close relationship with his older brother Jimmy, who was also a successful racing driver in his youth but had a long struggle with alcoholism. Jimmy died in 2008.
1950 G. Farina 1951 J.M. Fangio 1952 A. Ascari 1953 A. Ascari 1954 J.M. Fangio 1955 J.M. Fangio 1956 J.M. Fangio 1957 J.M. Fangio 1958 M. Hawthorn 1959 J. Brabham
1960 J. Brabham 1961 P. Hill 1962 G. Hill 1963 J. Clark 1964 J. Surtees 1965 J. Clark 1966 J. Brabham 1967 D. Hulme 1968 G. Hill 1969 J. Stewart
1970 J. Rindt 1971 J. Stewart 1972 E. Fittipaldi 1973 J. Stewart 1974 E. Fittipaldi 1975 N. Lauda 1976 J. Hunt 1977 N. Lauda 1978 M. Andretti 1979 J. Scheckter
1980 A. Jones 1981 N. Piquet 1982 K. Rosberg 1983 N. Piquet 1984 N. Lauda 1985 A. Prost 1986 A. Prost 1987 N. Piquet 1988 A. Senna 1989 A. Prost
1990 A. Senna 1991 A. Senna 1992 N. Mansell 1993 A. Prost 1994 M. Schumacher 1995 M. Schumacher 1996 D. Hill 1997 J. Villeneuve 1998 M. Häkkinen 1999 M. Häkkinen
2000 M. Schumacher 2001 M. Schumacher 2002 M. Schumacher 2003 M. Schumacher 2004 M. Schumacher 2005 F. Alonso 2006 F. Alonso 2007 K. Räikkönen 2008 L. Hamilton 2009 J. Button
2010 S. Vettel 2011 S. Vettel 2012 S. Vettel 2013 S. Vettel 2014 L. Hamilton 2015 L. Hamilton 2016 N. Rosberg 2017 L. Hamilton
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where is the keel located on a boat | Keel - wikipedia
On boats and ships, keel can refer to either of two parts: a structural element that sometimes resembles a fin and protrudes below a boat along the central line, or a hydrodynamic element. These parts overlap. As the laying down of the keel is the initial step in the construction of a ship, in British and American shipbuilding traditions the construction is dated from this event. Only the ship 's launching is considered more significant in its creation.
The word can also be used as a synecdoche to refer to a complete boat, such as a keelboat.
A structural keel is the bottom-most structural member around which the hull of a ship is built. The keel runs along the centerline of the ship, from the bow to the stern. The keel is often the first part of a ship 's hull to be constructed, and laying the keel, or placing the keel in the cradle in which the ship will be built may mark the start time of its construction. Large, modern ships are now often built in a series of pre-fabricated, complete hull sections rather than being built around a single keel, so shipbuilding process commences with cutting the first sheet of steel.
The most common type of keel is the "flat plate keel '', and this is fitted in the majority of ocean - going ships and other vessels. A form of keel found on smaller vessels is the "bar keel '', which may be fitted in trawlers, tugs, and smaller ferries. Where grounding is possible, this type of keel is suitable with its massive scantlings, but there is always a problem of the increased draft with no additional cargo capacity. If a double bottom is fitted, the keel is almost inevitably of the flat plate type, bar keels often being associated with open floors, where the plate keel may also be fitted.
Duct keels are provided in the bottom of some vessels. These run from the forward engine room bulkhead to the collision bulkhead and are utilized to carry the double bottom piping. The piping is then accessible when cargo is loaded.
The keel surface on the bottom of the hull gives the ship greater directional control and stability. In non-sailing hulls, the keel helps the hull to move forward, rather than slipping to the side. In traditional boat building, this is provided by the structural keel, which projects from the bottom of the hull along most or all of its length. In modern construction, the bar keel or flat - plate keel performs the same function. There are many types of fixed keels, including full keels, long keels, fin keels, winged keels, bulb keels, and bilge keels among other designs. Deep - draft ships will typically have a flat bottom and employ only bilge keels, both to aid directional control and to damp rolling motions
In sailboats, keels use the forward motion of the boat to generate lift to counteract the leeward force of the wind. The rudimentary purpose of the keel is to convert the sideways motion of the wind when it is abeam into forward motion. A secondary purpose of the keel is to provide ballast. Keels are different from centreboards and other types of foils in that keels are made of heavy materials to provide ballast to stabilize the boat. Keels may be fixed, or non-movable, or they may retract to allow sailing in shallower waters. Retracting keels may pivot (a swing keel) or slide upwards to retract, and are usually retracted with a winch due to the weight of the ballast. Since the keel provides far more stability when lowered than when retracted (due to the greater moment arm involved), the amount of sail carried is generally reduced when sailing with the keel retracted.
Types of non-fixed keels include swing keels and canting keels. Canting keels can be found on racing yachts, such as those competing in the Volvo Ocean Race. They provide considerably more righting moment as the keel moves out to the windward - side of the boat while using less weight. The horizontal distance from the weight to the pivot is increased, which generates a larger righting moment.
The word "keel '' comes from Old English cēol, Old Norse kjóll, = "ship '' or "keel ''. It has the distinction of being regarded by some scholars as the very first word in the English language recorded in writing, having been recorded by Gildas in his 6th century Latin work De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, under the spelling cyulae (he was referring to the three ships that the Saxons first arrived in).
Carina is the Latin word for "keel '' and is the origin of the term careen (to clean a keel and the hull in general, often by rolling the ship on its side). An example of this use is Careening Cove, a suburb of Sydney, Australia, where careening was carried out in early colonial days.
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tae oh actor legend of the blue sea | Shin Won - ho - wikipedia
Shin Won - ho (born October 23, 1991) is a South Korean singer, actor and member of multinational idol group Cross Gene. He has featured in television series Bachelor 's Vegetable Store (2011), Big (2012) and The Legend of the Blue Sea (2016).
Shin Won - Ho debuted as an actor in a commercial film with G - Dragon in August 2012. He gained public recognition in the 2012 television series Big and debuted as an idol with Cross Gene in 2012.
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when does what would you do come back on | What Would You Do? (ABC news series) - wikipedia
What Would You Do? (formerly known as Primetime: What Would You Do? through its fifth season) is an American situational hidden camera television program that has been broadcast on ABC since February 26, 2008. It is hosted by news correspondent John Quiñones and was created by Chris Whipple.
The program was conceived as a format - based series for ABC 's newsmagazine Primetime, however all on - air references to its parent series were removed from What Would You Do? following the discontinuance of Primetime as a standalone program by the network in 2010 (with subject - based formats of the program, such as Primetime: Family Secrets, airing thereafter during the summer months or as a temporary replacement for entertainment programs cancelled during the fall - to - spring television season).
The program features actors acting out scenes of conflict or illegal activity in public settings while hidden cameras record the scene, and the focus is on whether or not bystanders intervene, and how. Variations are also usually included, such as changing the genders, the races or the clothing of the actors performing the scene, to see if bystanders react differently. Quiñones appears at the end of each scenario to interview bystanders and witnesses about their reactions.
As the experiment goes on, psychology professors, teachers, or club members watch and discuss the video with Quiñones, explaining and making inferences on the bystanders ' reactions.
Many of the scenario actors appear in only one or two episodes. Several, however, have become staples of the program, including Yuval David, Diana Henry, Vince August, Jeremy Holm, Michael J. Lyons and Traci Hovel.
Reruns of older What Would You Do? episodes began airing on the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN) on February 15, 2011, under the title What Would You Do?: OWN Edition (in a manner similar to the specialized network - based titles of other network newsmagazines aired in the form of episode compilations on cable channels such as Dateline on ID and 48 Hours on ID on Investigation Discovery).
Reruns of the series began airing on HLN in 2013, as part of the cable news channel 's primetime schedule. In the United States, the show can be seen on A&E since 2015.
2014 Season
2015 Season
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where is the biggest nuclear power plant in the us | List of the largest nuclear power stations in the United States - wikipedia
This article lists the largest nuclear power stations in the United States, in terms of Nameplate capacity.
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what is the lord of the rings order | The Lord of the Rings (film series) - wikipedia
The Lord of the Rings is a film series consisting of three high fantasy adventure films directed by Peter Jackson. They are based on the novel The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien. The films are subtitled The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Two Towers (2002) and The Return of the King (2003). They are a New Zealand - American venture produced by WingNut Films and The Saul Zaentz Company and distributed by New Line Cinema.
Considered to be one of the biggest and most ambitious film projects ever undertaken, with an overall budget of $281 million (some sources say $310 - $330 million), the entire project took eight years, with the filming for all three films done simultaneously and entirely in New Zealand, Jackson 's native country. Each film in the series also had special extended editions released on DVD a year after their respective theatrical releases. While the films follow the book 's general storyline, they do omit some of the novel 's plot elements and include some additions to and deviations from the source material.
Set in the fictional world of Middle - earth, the films follow the hobbit Frodo Baggins (Elijah Wood) as he and the Fellowship embark on a quest to destroy the One Ring, and thus ensure the destruction of its maker, the Dark Lord Sauron. The Fellowship eventually splits up and Frodo continues the quest together with his loyal companion Sam (Sean Astin) and the treacherous Gollum (Andy Serkis). Meanwhile, Aragorn (Viggo Mortensen), heir in exile to the throne of Gondor, Legolas, Gimli, Merry, and Pippin, and the wizard Gandalf (Ian McKellen) unite to rally the Free Peoples of Middle - earth in the War of the Ring.
The series was received with overwhelming praise and was a major financial success, with the films collectively being among the highest - grossing film series of all time. The films were critically acclaimed and heavily awarded, winning 17 out of 30 total Academy Award nominations. The final film in the series, The Return of the King, won all 11 of its Academy Award nominations including Best Picture, which also tied it with Ben - Hur and Titanic for most Academy Awards received for a film. The series received wide praise for its innovative special and visual effects.
Director Peter Jackson first came into contact with The Lord of the Rings when he saw Ralph Bakshi 's 1978 animated film The Lord of the Rings. Jackson "enjoyed the film and wanted to know more. '' Afterwards, he read a tie - in edition of the book during a twelve - hour train journey from Wellington to Auckland when he was seventeen.
In 1995, Jackson was finishing The Frighteners and considered The Lord of the Rings as a new project, wondering "why nobody else seemed to be doing anything about it ''. With the new developments in computer - generated imagery following Jurassic Park, Jackson set about planning a fantasy film that would be relatively serious and feel real. By October, he and his partner Fran Walsh teamed up with Miramax Films boss Harvey Weinstein to negotiate with Saul Zaentz who had held the rights to the book since the early 1970s, pitching an adaptation of The Hobbit and two films based on The Lord of the Rings. Negotiations then stalled when Universal Studios offered Jackson a remake of King Kong. Weinstein was furious, and further problems arose when it turned out Zaentz did not have distribution rights to The Hobbit; United Artists, which was in the market, did. By April 1996, the rights question was still not resolved.
Jackson decided to move ahead with King Kong before filming The Lord of the Rings, prompting Universal to enter a deal with Miramax to receive foreign earnings from The Lord of the Rings while Miramax received foreign earnings from King Kong. It was also revealed that Jackson originally wanted to finish King Kong before The Lord of the Rings began. But due to location problems, he decided to start with The Lord of the Rings franchise instead.
When Universal cancelled King Kong in 1997, Jackson and Walsh immediately received support from Weinstein and began a six - week process of sorting out the rights. Jackson and Walsh asked Costa Botes to write a synopsis of the book and they began to re-read the book. Two to three months later, they had written their treatment. The first film would have dealt with what would become The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers, and the beginning of The Return of the King, ending with Saruman 's death, and Gandalf and Pippin going to Minas Tirith. In this treatment, Gwaihir and Gandalf visit Edoras after escaping Saruman, Gollum attacks Frodo when the Fellowship is still united, and Farmer Maggot, Glorfindel, Radagast, Elladan and Elrohir are present. Bilbo attends the Council of Elrond, Sam looks into Galadriel 's mirror, Saruman is redeemed before he dies and the Nazgûl just make it into Mount Doom before they fall. They presented their treatment to Harvey and Bob Weinstein, the latter of whom they focused on impressing with their screenwriting as he had not read the book. They agreed upon two films and a total budget of $75 million.
During mid-1997, Jackson and Walsh began writing with Stephen Sinclair. Sinclair 's partner, Philippa Boyens, was a major fan of the book and joined the writing team after reading their treatment. It took 13 -- 14 months to write the two film scripts, which were 147 and 144 pages respectively. Sinclair left the project due to theatrical obligations. Amongst their revisions, Sam is caught eavesdropping and forced to go along with Frodo, instead of Sam, Merry, and Pippin figuring out about the One Ring themselves and voluntarily going along after confronting Frodo about it, as occurs in the original novel. Gandalf 's account of his time at Orthanc was pulled out of flashback and Lothlórien was cut, with Galadriel doing what she does in the story at Rivendell. Denethor attends the Council with his son. Other changes included having Arwen rescue Frodo, and the action sequence involving the cave troll. The writers also considered having Arwen absorb Éowyn 's role entirely by having her kill the Witch - king.
Trouble struck when Marty Katz was sent to New Zealand. Spending four months there, he told Miramax that the films were more likely to cost $150 million, and with Miramax unable to finance this, and with $15 million already spent, they decided to merge the two films into one. On 17 June 1998, Bob Weinstein presented a treatment of a single two - hour film version of the book. He suggested cutting Bree and the Battle of Helm 's Deep, "losing or using '' Saruman, merging Rohan and Gondor with Éowyn as Boromir 's sister, shortening Rivendell and Moria as well as having Ents prevent the Uruk - hai from kidnapping Merry and Pippin. Upset by the idea of "cutting out half the good stuff '' Jackson balked, and Miramax declared that any script or work completed by Weta Workshop was theirs. Jackson went around Hollywood for four weeks, showing a thirty - five - minute video of their work, before meeting with New Line Cinema 's Mark Ordesky. At New Line Cinema, Robert Shaye viewed the video, and then asked why they were making two films when the book was published as three volumes (this was later corrected: New Line only made this choice out of economical reasons); he wanted to make a film trilogy. Now Jackson, Walsh, and Boyens had to write three new scripts.
The expansion to three films allowed much more creative freedom, although Jackson, Walsh, and Boyens had to restructure their script accordingly. The three films do not correspond exactly to the trilogy 's three volumes, but rather represent a three - part adaptation. Jackson takes a more chronological approach to the story than did Tolkien. Frodo 's quest is the main focus, and Aragorn is the main sub-plot, and many sequences (such as Tom Bombadil) that do not contribute directly to those two plots were left out. Much effort was put into creating satisfactory conclusions and making sure exposition did not bog down the pacing. Amongst new sequences, there are also expansions on elements Tolkien kept ambiguous, such as the battles and the creatures. During shooting, the screenplays continued to evolve, in part due to contributions from cast members looking to further explore their characters. Most notable amongst these rewrites was the character Arwen, who was originally planned as a warrior princess, but reverted to her book counterpart, who remains physically inactive in the story (though she sends moral and military support).
To develop fight and sword choreography for the series, the filmmakers employed Hollywood sword - master Bob Anderson. Anderson worked directly with the talent including Viggo Mortensen and Karl Urban to develop the film 's many sword fights and stunts. Bob Anderson 's role in The Lord of the Rings series was highlighted in the film Reclaiming the Blade. This documentary on sword martial arts also featured Weta Workshop and Richard Taylor, The Lord of the Rings illustrator John Howe and actors Viggo Mortensen and Karl Urban. All discussed their roles and work on the series as related to the sword.
Jackson began storyboarding the series with Christian Rivers in August 1997 and assigned his crew to begin designing Middle - earth at the same time. Jackson hired long - time collaborator Richard Taylor to lead Weta Workshop on five major design elements: armour, weapons, prosthetics / make - up, creatures, and miniatures. In November 1997, famed Tolkien illustrators Alan Lee and John Howe joined the project. Most of the imagery in the films is based on their various illustrations. Production designer Grant Major was charged with the task of converting Lee and Howe 's designs into architecture, creating models of the sets, while Dan Hennah worked as art director, scouting locations and organising the building of sets.
Jackson 's vision of Middle - earth was described as being "Ray Harryhausen meets David Lean '' by Randy Cook. Jackson wanted a gritty realism and historical regard for the fantasy, and attempted to make the world rational and believable. For example, the New Zealand Army helped build Hobbiton months before filming began so the plants could really grow. Creatures were designed to be biologically believable, such as the enormous wings of the fell beast to help it fly. In total, 48,000 pieces of armour, 500 bows, and 10,000 arrows were created by Weta Workshop. They also created many prosthetics, such as 1,800 pairs of Hobbit feet for the lead actors, as well as many ears, noses, and heads for the cast, and around 19,000 costumes were woven and aged. Every prop was specially designed by the Art Department, taking the different scales into account.
Principal photography for all three films was conducted concurrently in many locations within New Zealand 's conservation areas and national parks. Filming took place between 11 October 1999 and 22 December 2000, a period of 438 days. Pick - up shoots were conducted annually from 2001 to 2003. The series was shot at over 150 different locations, with seven different units shooting, as well as soundstages around Wellington and Queenstown. Along with Jackson directing the whole production, other unit directors included John Mahaffie, Geoff Murphy, Fran Walsh, Barrie Osbourne, Rick Porras, and any other assistant director, producer, or writer available. Jackson monitored these units with live satellite feeds, and with the added pressure of constant script re-writes and the multiple units interpreting his envisioned result, he only got around four hours of sleep a night. Due to the remoteness of some of the locations, the crew would also bring survival kits in case helicopters could not reach the location to bring them home in time. The New Zealand Department of Conservation was criticised for approving the filming within national parks without adequate consideration of the adverse environmental effects and without public notification. The adverse effects of filming battle scenes in Tongariro National Park meant that the park later required restoration work.
The following is a list of cast members who voiced or portrayed characters appearing in the extended version of The Lord of the Rings film series.
Each film had the benefit of a full year of post-production time before its respective December release, often finishing in October -- November, with the crew immediately going to work on the next film. In this period 's later part, Jackson would move to London to supervise the scoring and continue editing, while having a computer feed for discussions to The Dorchester Hotel, and a "fat pipe '' of Internet connections from Pinewood Studios to look at the special effects. He had a video link and 5.1 surround sound to organise meetings, and listen to new music and sound effects generally wherever he was. The extended editions also had a tight schedule at the start of each year to complete special effects and music.
To avoid pressure, Jackson hired a different editor for each film. John Gilbert worked on the first film, Mike Horton and Jabez Olssen on the second and longtime Jackson collaborator Jamie Selkirk and Annie Collins on the third. Daily rushes would often last up to four hours, with scenes being done throughout 1999 -- 2002 for the rough (41⁄2 hours) assemblies of the films. In total, 1828 km (six million feet) of film was edited down to the 11 hours and 23 minutes (683 minutes) of Extended running time. This was the final area of shaping of the films, when Jackson realised that sometimes the best scripting could be redundant on screen, as he picked apart scenes every day from multiple takes.
The first film 's editing was relatively easygoing, with Jackson coming up with the concept of an Extended Edition later on, although after a screening to New Line they had to re-edit the beginning for a prologue. The Two Towers was always acknowledged by the crew as the most difficult film to make, as "it had no beginning or end '', and had the additional problem of inter-cutting storylines appropriately. Jackson even continued editing the film when that part of the schedule officially ended, resulting in some scenes, including the reforging of Andúril, Gollum 's back - story, and Saruman 's demise, being moved to The Return of the King. Later, Saruman 's demise was cut from the theatrical edition (but included in the Extended edition) when Jackson felt it was not starting the third film effectively enough. As with all parts of the third film 's post-production, editing was very chaotic. The first time Jackson actually saw the completed film was at the Wellington premiere.
Many filmed scenes remain unused, even in the Extended Editions. Promotional material for The Fellowship of the Ring contained an attack by Orcs from Moria on Lothlórien after the Fellowship leaves Moria, replaced with a more suspenseful entrance for the Fellowship. Also cut were scenes from the book, including Frodo seeing more of Middle - earth at Parth Galen and an extended Council of Elrond, and new scenes with an attack upon Frodo and Sam at the river Anduin by an Uruk - hai. The major cut to The Two Towers featured Arwen and Elrond visiting Galadriel at Lothlórien, with Arwen then leading the Elven reinforcements to Helm 's Deep. This scene, and a flashback to Arwen and Aragorn 's first meeting, was cut during a revision of the film 's plot; the Elves ' appearance was explained with a telepathic communication between Elrond and Galadriel.
Éowyn was to have a greater role in defending the refugees in the Glittering Caves from Uruk - hai intruders, while in Osgiliath, Faramir was to have a vision of Frodo becoming like Gollum, with Frodo and Sam having an extended fight sequence. Filmed for The Return of the King were two scenes present in the book; Sam using the Phial of Galadriel to pass the Watchers at Cirith Ungol, and further epilogue footage, with endings for Legolas and Gimli, Éowyn and Faramir 's wedding and Aragorn 's death and funeral. Sauron was to fight Aragorn at the Black Gate, but with Jackson deciding the scene was inappropriate, a computer - generated Troll was used instead. To give context for Wormtongue killing Saruman, and Legolas in turn killing Wormtongue, it was to be revealed Wormtongue poisoned Théodred. The final scene cut was Aragorn having his armour fitted for the Battle of the Black Gate by the trilogy 's armourers, which was the final scene filmed during principal photography. Peter Jackson has stated that he would like to include some of these unused scenes in a future "Ultimate Edition '' home video release, also including out - takes.
Howard Shore composed, orchestrated, conducted, and produced the trilogy 's music. He was hired in August 2000 and visited the set, and watched the assembly cuts of The Fellowship of the Ring and The Return of the King. In the music, Shore included many (85 to 110) leitmotifs to represent various characters, cultures, and places - the largest catalogue of leitmotives in the history of cinema, surpassing - for comparison - that of the entire Star Wars saga. For example, there are multiple leitmotifs just for the hobbits and the Shire. Although the first film had some of its score recorded in Wellington, virtually all of the trilogy 's score was recorded in Watford Town Hall and mixed at Abbey Road Studios. Jackson planned to advise the score for six weeks each year in London, though for The Two Towers he stayed for twelve. As a Beatles fan, Jackson had a photo tribute done there on the zebra crossing.
The score is primarily played by the London Philharmonic Orchestra (ranging from 93 to 120 players throughout the recording), London Voices, London Oratory School Schola boy choir, and many artists such as Ben Del Maestro, Enya, Renée Fleming, James Galway, Annie Lennox and Emilíana Torrini contributed. Even actors Billy Boyd, Viggo Mortensen, Liv Tyler, Miranda Otto (extended cuts only for the latter two), and Peter Jackson (for a single gong sound in the second film) contributed to the score. Fran Walsh and Philippa Boyens served as librettists, writing lyrics to various music and songs, which David Salo translated into Tolkien 's languages. The third film 's end song, "Into the West '', was a tribute to a young filmmaker Jackson and Walsh befriended named Cameron Duncan, who died of cancer in 2003.
Shore composed a main theme for The Fellowship rather than many different character themes, and its strength and weaknesses in volume are depicted at different points in the series. On top of that, individual themes were composed to represent different cultures. Infamously, the amount of music Shore had to write every day for the third film increased dramatically to around seven minutes. The music for the series turned out to be a success and has been voted best movie soundtrack of all time for the six years running, passing up Schindler 's list, Gladiator, Star Wars (1977), and Out of Africa respectively.
Sound technicians spent the early part of the year trying to find the right sounds. Some, such as animal sounds like those of tigers and walruses, were bought. Human voices were also used. Fran Walsh contributed to the Nazgûl scream and David Farmer the Warg howls. Other sounds were unexpected: the fell beast 's screech is taken from that of a donkey, and the mûmakil 's bellow comes from the beginning and end of a lion 's roar. In addition, ADR was used for most of the dialogue.
The technicians worked with New Zealand locals to get many of the sounds. They re-recorded sounds in abandoned tunnels for an echo - like effect in the Moria sequence. 20,000 New Zealand cricket fans provided the sound of the Uruk - hai army in The Two Towers, with Jackson acting as conductor during the innings break of a one - day international cricket match between England and New Zealand at Westpac Stadium. They spent time recording sounds in a graveyard at night, and also had construction workers drop stone blocks for the sounds of boulders firing and landing in The Return of the King. Mixing took place between August and November at "The Film Mix '', before Jackson commissioned the building of a new studio in 2003. The building, however, had not yet been fully completed when they started mixing for The Return of the King.
The first film has around 540 effect shots, the second 799, and the third 1,488 (2,730 in total). The total increases to 3,420 with the extended editions. 260 visual effect artists began work on the series, and the number doubled by The Two Towers. The crew, led by Jim Rygiel and Randy Cook, worked long hours, often overnight, to produce special effects within a short space of time. Jackson 's active imagination was a driving force. For example, several major shots of Helm 's Deep were produced within the last six weeks of post-production of The Two Towers, and the same happened again within the last six weeks on The Return of the King.
The trilogy 's online promotional trailer was first released on 27 April 2000, and set a new record for download hits, registering 1.7 million hits in the first 24 hours of its release. The trailer used a selection from the soundtrack for Braveheart and The Shawshank Redemption among other cuts. In 2001, 24 minutes of footage from the series, primarily the Moria sequence, was shown at the Cannes Film Festival, and was very well received. The showing also included an area designed to look like Middle - earth.
The Fellowship of the Ring was released 19 December 2001. It grossed $47 million in its U.S. opening weekend and made around $871 million worldwide. A preview of The Two Towers was inserted just before the end credits near the end of the film 's theatrical run. A promotional trailer was later released, containing music re-scored from the film Requiem for a Dream. The Two Towers was released 18 December 2002. It grossed $62 million in its first U.S. weekend and out - grossed its predecessor with $926 million worldwide. The promotional trailer for The Return of the King was debuted exclusively before the New Line Cinema film Secondhand Lions on 23 September 2003. Released 17 December 2003, its first U.S. weekend gross was $72 million, and became the second film (after Titanic) to gross over $1 billion worldwide.
The first two films were released on standard two - disc edition DVDs containing previews of the next film. The success of the theatrical cuts brought about four - disc Extended Editions, with new editing, added special effects and music. The extended cuts of the films and the included special features were spread over two discs, and a limited collector 's edition was also released. The Fellowship of the Ring was released on 12 November 2002, containing 30 minutes more footage, an Alan Lee painting of the Fellowship entering Moria, and the Moria Gate on the back of the sleeve; an Argonath - styled bookend was included with the Collector 's Edition. The Two Towers, released on 18 November 2003, contained 44 minutes extra footage and a Lee painting of Gandalf the White 's entrance; the Collector 's Edition contained a Sméagol statue, with a crueller - looking statue of his Gollum persona available by order for a limited time.
The Return of the King was released on 14 December 2004, having 51 minutes more footage, a Lee painting of the Grey Havens and a model of Minas Tirith for the Collector 's Edition, with Minas Morgul available by order for a limited time. The Special Extended DVD Editions also had in - sleeve maps of the Fellowship 's travels. They have also played at cinemas, most notably for a 16 December 2003 marathon screening (dubbed "Trilogy Tuesday '') culminating in a late afternoon screening of the third film. Attendees of "Trilogy Tuesday '' were given a limited edition keepsake from Sideshow Collectibles containing one random frame of film from each of the three movies. Both versions were put together in a Limited Edition "branching '' version, plus a new feature - length documentary by Costa Botes. The complete series was released in a six - disc set on 14 November 2006.
Warner Bros. released the trilogy 's theatrical versions on Blu - ray Disc in a boxed set on 6 April 2010. An extended edition Blu - ray box set was made available for pre-order from Amazon.com in March 2011 and was released on 28 June 2011. Each film 's extended Blu - ray version is identical to the extended DVD version; the total running time is longer due to added credit sequence listing the names of "Lord of the Rings fan - club members '' who contributed to the project.
In 2014, brand new Blu - ray steelbook editions of the five - disc Extended Editions were released. The first, The Fellowship of the Ring, was released on 24 March 2014. The discs are identical to those found in the previous five - disc Blu - ray set.
Unadjusted for inflation, The Lord of the Rings film series is the highest - grossing film trilogy worldwide of all time, higher even than other film franchises such as the original Star Wars trilogy and The Godfather trilogy. The film series grossed a total of $2.91 billion and also tied a record with Ben - Hur and Titanic for the total number of Academy Awards won for a single film, with The Return of the King receiving eleven Oscars.
The majority of critics have also praised the series, with Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times writing that "the trilogy will not soon, if ever, find its equal ''. Some were critical of the films ' pacing and length: "It 's a collection of spectacular set pieces without any sense of momentum driving them into one another '' according to Philadelphia Weekly.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the films received approval ratings of 91 %, 96 %, and 95 % respectively. Metacritic, based on its ratings for each film (92, 88, and 94 respectively), features the series within the top ten of the best films of the decade. As of July 2016, every film is placed in the top 200 of Metacritic 's ' Best Movies of all Time ' list. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the films an average grade of A -, A, and A+ respectively on an A+ to F scale.
The series appears in the Dallas - Fort Worth Film Critics Association 's Top 10 Films, Time magazine 's All - Time 100 Movies, and James Berardinelli 's Top 100. In 2007, USA Today named the series as the most important films of the past 25 years. Entertainment Weekly put it on its end - of - the - decade, "best - of '' list, saying, "Bringing a cherished book to the big screen? No sweat. Peter Jackson 's trilogy -- or, as we like to call it, our preciousssss -- exerted its irresistible pull, on advanced Elvish speakers and neophytes alike. '' Paste Magazine named it one of the 50 Best Movies of the Decade (2000 -- 2009), ranking it at No. 4. In another Time magazine list, the series ranks second in "Best Movies of the Decade ''. Empire magazine voted the films at # 1 on the ' 32 Greatest Film Trilogies '. In addition, six characters and their respective actors made the list of ' The 100 Greatest Movie Characters ', also compiled by Empire, with Viggo Mortensen 's portrayal of Aragorn ranking No. 15, Ian McKellen 's portrayal of Gandalf ranking No. 30, Ian Holm 's portrayal of Bilbo Baggins (shared with Martin Freeman for his portrayal of the same character in The Hobbit films) ranking No. 61, Andy Serkis ' portrayal of Gollum ranking No. 66, Sean Astin 's portrayal of Samwise Gamgee ranking No. 77, and Orlando Bloom 's portrayal of Legolas ranking No. 94.
The three films together were nominated for a total of 30 Academy Awards, of which they won 17, a record for any movie trilogy (the three nominations for The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey and The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug along with the single nomination for The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies brings the series ' total to 37 nominations). The Fellowship of the Ring earned thirteen nominations, the most of any film at the 74th Academy Awards, winning four. The Return of the King won in every category in which it was nominated, setting the current Oscar record for the highest clean sweep, and its 11 Academy Awards wins ties the record held by Ben - Hur and Titanic (though both of those films had additional nominations that they ultimately lost). The Return of the King became only the second sequel to win the Oscar for Best Picture (after The Godfather Part II) and the first and only fantasy film to receive this honor, though this has been widely perceived as an award by proxy for the entire series (the first two films were also nominated for Best Picture). No actors in any of the three films won Oscars, and Ian McKellen was the only actor in the trilogy to receive a nomination, for his work in The Fellowship of the Ring.
As well as Academy Awards, each film in the series won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, the MTV Movie Award for Best Movie, and the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film. The first and third films also won the BAFTA Award for Best Film. The soundtrack for The Two Towers did not receive a nomination because of a rule prohibiting a soundtrack including music from a previous soundtrack to be eligible for nomination. This rule was changed in time for The Return of the King to receive the Oscar for Best Music Score. The New York Film Critics Circle awarded The Return of the King its Best Picture Award at the 2003 Awards Ceremony, hosted by Andrew Johnston, chair of the organization at that time, who called it "a masterful piece of filmmaking. ''
The film series provoked both positive and negative reaction from fans and scholars of the novels, and was sometimes seen as changing parts Tolkien felt thematically necessary in terms of characters, themes, events and subtlety. Some fans of the book who disagreed with such changes have released fan edits of the films such as The Lord of the Rings: The Purist Edition, which removed many of the changes to bring them closer to the original.
Various changes to characters such as Gandalf, Aragorn, Arwen, Denethor, Faramir, Gimli, and Frodo, when considered together, were seen by some to alter the tone and themes found in the books. Several critics contend that the portrayal of women, especially Arwen, in the films is thematically faithful to (or compatible with) Tolkien 's writings despite some differences. Wayne G. Hammond, a Tolkien scholar, said of the first two films that he found them to be "travesties as adaptations... faithful only on a basic level of plot '' and that many characters had not been depicted faithfully to their appearance in the novel. Other critics have argued that Tolkien 's characters were weakened and misinterpreted by their portrayal in the films.
Changes to events (such as the Elves participating at the Battle of Helm 's Deep, Faramir taking the hobbits to Osgiliath, and the deletion of the chapter "The Scouring of the Shire '') are also seen as changing Tolkien 's themes.
Janet Brennan Croft criticized the films using Tolkien 's own terms "anticipation '' and "flattening '', which she used in critiquing a proposed film script. She contrasts Tolkien 's subtlety with Jackson 's tendency to show "too much too soon ''.
Supporters of the series assert that it is a worthy interpretation of the book and that most of the changes were necessary. Many who worked on the series are fans of the book, including Christopher Lee, who (alone among the cast) had actually met Tolkien in person, and Boyens once noted that no matter what, it is simply their interpretation of the book. Jackson once said that to simply summarize the story on screen would be a mess, and in his own words, "Sure, it 's not really The Lord of the Rings... but it could still be a pretty damn cool movie. '' Other fans also claim that, despite any changes, the films serve as a tribute to the book, appealing to those who have not yet read it, and even leading some to do so. The Movie Guide for The Encyclopedia of Arda (an online Tolkien encyclopedia) states that Jackson 's films were exceptional since filming the whole story of The Lord of the Rings was probably impossible. This notion is partially supported by a review published in 2005 that otherwise criticized a lack of "faithfulness to Tolkien 's spirit and tone. '' Douglas Kellner argues that the conservative community spirit of Tolkien 's Shire is reflected in Jackson 's films as well as the division of the Fellowship into "squabbling races ''. In a 2006 review, film theorist Kristin Thompson was critical about the fact that film studies were undertaken by literary researchers and about the frequent denigration of Jackson 's work in the collected essays.
The release of the films saw a surge of interest in The Lord of the Rings and Tolkien 's other works, vastly increasing his impact on popular culture. It was rumored that the Tolkien family became split on the series, with Christopher Tolkien and his son Simon Tolkien feuding over whether or not it was a good idea to adapt. Christopher has since denied these claims, saying, "My own position is that The Lord of the Rings is peculiarly unsuitable to transformation into visual dramatic form. The suggestions that have been made that I ' disapprove ' of the films, even to the extent of thinking ill of those with whom I may differ, are wholly without foundation. '' He added that he had never "expressed any such feeling ''. In 2012, however, he described the films as having "eviscerated '' the book, and criticized the resulting "commercialisation '' of his father 's work.
As a result of the series ' success, Peter Jackson has become a major player in the film business (sometimes called a mogul) in the mold of Steven Spielberg and George Lucas, in the process befriending some industry heavyweights like Bryan Singer and Frank Darabont. Jackson has since founded his own film production company, Wingnut Films, as well as Wingnut Interactive, a video game company. He was also finally given a chance to remake King Kong in 2005. The film was a critical and box office success, although not as successful as The Lord of the Rings series. Jackson has been called a "favourite son '' of New Zealand. In 2004, Howard Shore toured with The Lord of the Rings Symphony, playing two hours of the score. Along with the Harry Potter films, the series has renewed interest in the fantasy film genre. Tourism for New Zealand is up, possibly due to its exposure in the series, with the country 's tourism industry waking up to an audience 's familiarity.
In December 2002, The Lord of the Rings Motion Picture Trilogy: The Exhibition opened at the Te Papa museum in Wellington, New Zealand. As of 2007, the exhibition has traveled to seven other cities around the world. A musical adaptation of the book was launched in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, in 2006, but it closed after mostly poor reviews. A shortened version opened in London, United Kingdom, in the summer of 2007. The success of the films has also spawned numerous video games and many other kinds of merchandise.
The legacy of The Lord of the Rings is also that of court cases over profits from the trilogy. Sixteen cast members (Noel Appleby (de), Jed Brophy, Mark Ferguson, Ray Henwood, Bruce Hopkins, William Johnson, Nathaniel Lees, Sarah McLeod, Ian Mune, Paul Norell, Craig Parker, Robert Pollock, Martyn Sanderson, Peter Tait and Stephan Ure (de)) sued over the lack of revenue from merchandise bearing their appearance. The case was resolved out of court in 2008. The settlement came too late for Appleby, who died of cancer in 2007. Saul Zaentz also filed a lawsuit in 2004 claiming he had not been paid all of his royalties. The next year, Jackson himself sued the studio over profits from the first film, slowing development of the prequels until late 2007. The Tolkien Trust filed a lawsuit in February 2008, for violating Tolkien 's original deal over the rights that they would earn 7.5 % of the gross from any films based on his works. The Trust sought compensation of $150 million. A judge denied them this option, but allowed them to win compensation from the act of the studio ignoring the contract itself. On 8 September 2009, a settlement of this dispute between the Trust and New Line was announced, clearing a potential obstacle to the making of a new film based on The Hobbit.
Numerous video games have been released to supplement the film series. The releases include: The Two Towers, Pinball, The Return of the King, The Third Age, The Third Age (GBA), Tactics, The Battle for Middle - earth, The Battle for Middle - earth II, The Battle for Middle - earth II: The Rise of the Witch - king, The Lord of the Rings Online, Conquest, Aragorn 's Quest, War in the North, Lego The Lord of the Rings, Guardians of Middle - earth, Lego The Hobbit (video game), Middle - earth: Shadow of Mordor, and Middle - earth: Shadow of War.
Peter Jackson also directed three films based on Tolkien 's earlier 1937 novel The Hobbit. The first film, The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, was released on 12 December 2012, the second film, The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, was released on 13 December 2013, and the third film, The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies, was released on 17 December 2014. Several actors from The Lord of the Rings, including Ian McKellen, Andy Serkis, Hugo Weaving, Elijah Wood, Ian Holm (as older Bilbo), Christopher Lee, Cate Blanchett and Orlando Bloom reprised their roles.
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who is the founder of kolkata medical college | Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata - wikipedia
Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata, commonly referred to as Calcutta Medical College, formerly Medical College, Bengal, is a medical school and hospital in the city of Kolkata in the state of West Bengal, India. It was established in 1835 by William bentinck. The college imparts the degree Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) as well as specialised and post-doctoral degrees. Nursing and para-medical courses are also offered.
The British East India Company established the Indian Medical Service (IMS) as early as 1764 to look after Europeans in British India. IMS officers headed military and civilian hospitals in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras, and also accompanied the Company 's ships and army. A utilitarian approach and the need to provide expert apothecaries, compounders, and dressers in different hospitals prompted the earliest official involvement with medical education in India. These subordinate assistants would help European doctors and surgeons who looked after the health of European civilians and military employees and also reduce the company 's financial burdens by limiting the appointment of European doctors.
On 9 May 1822 the government laid down a plan for the instruction of up to twenty young Indians to fill the position of native doctors in the civil and military establishments of the Presidency of Bengal. The outcome was the establishment of "The Native Medical Institution '' (NMI) in Calcutta (21 June 1822), where medical teaching was imparted in the vernacular. Treatises on anatomy, medicine, and surgery were translated from European languages for the benefit of the students. From 1826 onwards, classes on Unani and Ayurvedic medicine were held respectively at the Calcutta madrasa and the Sanskrit college. In 1827 John Tyler, an Orientalist and the first superintendent of the NMI started lectures on Mathematics and Anatomy at the Sanskrit College. In general, the medical education provided by the colonial state at this stage involved parallel instructions in western and indigenous medical systems. Translation of western medical texts was encouraged and though dissection was not performed, clinical experience was a must. Trainee medical students had to attend different hospitals and dispensaries. Successful native doctors were absorbed into government jobs.
Towards the end of 1833 a Committee was appointed by the government of William Bentinck in Bengal to report on the state of medical education and also to suggest whether teaching of indigenous system should be discontinued. The Committee consisted of Dr John Grant as president and JCC Sutherland, CE Trevelyan, Thomas Spens, Ram Comul Sen and MJ Bramley as members. The Committee criticised the medical education imparted at the NMI for the inappropriate nature of its training and the examination system as well as for the absence of courses on practical anatomy. The Committee submitted a report on 20 October 1834, where the Anglicists ' point of view finally prevailed over the Orientalists. The Committee recommended that the state found a medical college ' for the education of the natives '. The various branches of medical science cultivated in Europe should be taught in this college. The intending candidates should possess a reading and writing knowledge of the English language, similar knowledge of Bengali and Hindustani and a proficiency in Arithmetic. This recommendation, soon followed by Macaulay 's minute and Bentinck 's resolution, sealed the fate of the school for native doctors and medical classes at the two leading oriental institutions of Calcutta. The NMI was abolished and the medical classes at the Sanskrit College and at the Madrasa were discontinued by the government order of 28 January 1835.
The proposed new college, known as the Medical College, which was established by an order of 28 January 1835 ushered in a new era in the history of medical education in India. Its stated purpose was to train native youths aged between 14 and 20 irrespective of caste and creed in the principles and practices of medical science in accordance with the mode adopted in Europe. This marked the end of official patronage of indigenous medical learning which in its turn evoked long - term reaction among the Indian practitioners of indigenous medicine and later the nationalists who strongly criticised the government for the withdrawal of patronage to the Indian system. Different sections of the Indian population responded to this newly founded system of education in different ways. Among the Hindus the Brahmins, Kayasthas, Vaidyas, were particularly enthusiastic about medical education.
The activities of the college started on 20 February 1835 with the process of admission of students. Twenty students were selected through a preliminary examination of about one hundred students. These boys had received their education either at the Hindu College, Hare School or the General Assembly 's Institution. Twenty - nine more students had already been selected. All of these 49 students were to receive a monthly stipend of Rs 7 from the government, but it was to be raised gradually. The students were to remain in the College for a period of not less than 4 years and not more than 6 years. On completion of their studies the students had to sit for a final examination. Successful candidates were to receive from the President of the Committee of education certificates of qualifications to practise surgery and medicine. They could also enter public service where they would be called ' Native Doctors ' receiving an initial pay of Rs 30 per month which would be raised to Rs 40 after 7 years and to 50 after 14 years of service.
The College was placed under the charge of a full - time Superintendent who was assisted by a European Assistant. The government was required to provide a suitable building, a library, anatomical materials and other objects necessary for the education of the students. For practical clinical experience the students had to visit the General Hospital, the Native Hospital, The Hon'ble Company 's Dispensary, the dispensaries for the Poor and the Eye Infirmary. Dr MJ Bramley was appointed Superintendent and Dr HH Goodeve and William Brooke O'Shaughnessy were appointed professors. Only one member of the staff of the Native Medical Institution, Madhusudan Gupta (an Ayurvedic practitioner trained in western medicine), was transferred to the new college.
The classes were started in an old house at the rear of the Hindu College. In May 1835, new premises were built on land donated by Mutty Lal Seal. These are the premises that the College has since occupied. During the first year of study, a series of lectures on anatomy and physiology was given. O'Shaughnessy delivered an elementary course of lectures on Chemistry from January to March 1836 and a second course from April to September. During 1837 and 1838, the staff of the College was extended and enriched by the appointment of CC Eggerton as Professor of Surgery and Clinical Surgery, Nathaniel Wallich as Professor of Botany and R O'Shaughnessy as demonstrator of Anatomy.
The year 1836 was a landmark in the history of the growth of western medicine in British India since it witnessed the first dissection of a human corpse by Indian students. Madhusudan Gupta is often given the credit of being the first person in modern India to have dissected a human body. But many accounts state that Umacharan Set, Rajkrishna De, Dwarakanath Gupta and Nabin Chandra Mitra comprised the first batch of students to take part in dissection. They passed the first examination held on 30 October 1838 and were declared fit to practise medicine and surgery. They consequently represented the first group of Indians qualified in western medicine and given government appointments as Sub-Assistant Surgeons to the hospitals at Dhaka, Murshidabad, Patna and Chittagong.
Many luminaries of Calcutta including Dwarkanath Tagore and Ram Comul Sen enthusiastically supported medical education at the CMC by instituting scholarships and prizes for brilliant students. Four students of the College were sent to England through the financial help of Dwarakanath Tagore, Professor Goodeve and partly of the government. Three of them, including Dwaraka Nath Bose, Bhola Nath Bose, and Gopal Chunder Seal passed the examination for MRCS (Member of the Royal College of Surgeons) in 1846 and returned to India to join the uncovenanted Medical Service. Soorjo Coomar Goodeve Chuckerbutty remained there, obtained the MD degree of the University College of London and became the first Indian to pass the examination for the Indian Medical Service and join the covenanted Medical Service. He also became a distinguished professor of the Medical College holding the Chair of Materia Medica from 1864 till his death in 1874.
In 1842, a Council of Education, which introduced many changes in the curriculum and system of examinations, replaced the Committee of Public Instruction. The new courses of study, based on the advice of the Royal College of Surgeons in London, were introduced in 1844, and were ultimately recognised by them, by the London University and the Society of Apothecaries in 1846. After the foundation of the University of Calcutta in 1857 and its faculty of medicine for the award of medical degrees, the courses of study were revised to a certain extent. The University conferred three medical degrees, Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery (LMS), Bachelor in Medicine (MB), and Doctor of Medicine (MD). The first Muslim medical graduate of this college was Raheem Khan in 1856.
Other changes brought about in the College aimed at fulfilling the needs of the state to supply an increased number of medical personnel for employment in the army and for combating epidemic diseases among the civilians. The government order of August 1839 instituted medical classes through the medium of Urdu and Hindustani. Lessons were imparted in Anatomy, Materia Medica, Medicine and Surgery. Dissections and teaching methods followed western principles. Fifty students were selected initially. They received a monthly allowance of Rs 5 each and had to undergo clinical training by discharging hospital duties at the Medical College Hospital, founded in 1838. In 1838, a large female (lying in) hospital started functioning under the benevolence of Mutty Lal Seal. This was followed by the opening of a large hospital in 1853, designed to accommodate 350 patients. Other hospitals were: the Eden Hospital (1881 -- 82), the Ezra Hospital (1887), the Shama Charan Laha Eye Hospital (1891) and the Prince of Wales Surgical Block, opened in March 1911. Before 1857 the number of students taking admission in the Maternity class fluctuated between 28 and 69. After 1857 the number increased slowly. At the end of their period of study the students were examined in anatomy, materia medica, surgery and medicine for the diploma of Native Doctor.
To meet the rising demand for native doctors, the Government introduced a Bengali class at the Calcutta Medical College in 1851. Proficiency in Bengali was an essential prerequisite for admission to this class. The theoretical and practical courses were almost the same as in the Hindustani class. 21 students admitted in this class were examined in 1853. Qualified students filled the ranks of the subordinate medical services as Hospital Apprentices or Vernacular Licentiates in Medicine and Surgery (VLMS) or found employment under Deputy Magistrates attached to Charitable Dispensaries and Jail Hospitals. In 1856 -- 57, the class had 88 students and the number went on increasing until it touched the figure of 635 in 1872. The students mostly belonged to the Brahmin, Kayastha and Vaidya castes.
In 1864, the Bengali class was divided into two sections: The Native Apothecary section, which trained students for government employment, and the Vernacular Licentiate section which gave instructions in medicine and surgery in order to enable the students to practise among the less affluent sections of Indians. In 1873, both these classes were transferred to a new school called the Sealdah Medical School or the Campbell Medical School. The Hindu bhadralok class, Europeans and Eurasians dominated the student population. Although during 1880 -- 1890 there was a small increase in the number of Muslim students, their proportion was very small.
A resolution of 29 June 1883 allowed the admission of women into the CMC after doing FA. Kadambini Ganguly, a Bengali Brahmo became the first woman admitted to the CMC. In 1884 the government offered scholarships of Rs 20 per month to all female students. Bidhu Mukhi Bose and Virginia Mary Mitter received these scholarships and became the first Indian women to graduate during 1888 -- 89.
The growth of the CMC as reflected in the number of students presents an interesting pattern. A period of modest rise in the number of students was followed by rapid increase from 1891 -- 92 till 1901 -- 02, and then a fall in 1906 -- 07, exactly during the period of the turmoil of the swadeshi movement in Bengal. Thereafter the increase continued unabated. The number rose from 612 in 1911 -- 12 to 1030 in 1921 -- 22. From the mid-1920s there was a downward trend which was reversed in the thirties.
An important change occurred in 1906 when the Calcutta University decided to discontinue the LMS examination held since 1861 and henceforth confer only the degrees of MB and MD. The last batch of LMS students was examined in 1911.
During the 1930s, the system of reservation of seats was introduced, based on the relative population of different classes of people. Further it was decided that of the 100 students taken, 5 were to be female candidates. Most of the female students belonged to the Anglo - Indian, Christian, Brahmo or Parsi communities. In 1940 the duration of study was reduced from 6 to 5 years, to be followed by a six - month period of Pre-Registration Clinical Assistantship. The year 1940 also saw the conversion of the Students ' Club of the CMC into the Students ' Union.
The Medical College and Hospital Building (also known as the MCH Building) is the oldest building in Medical College Kolkata.
In 1835, James Ranald Martin, Surgeon of the Native Hospital, suggested formation of a committee which would enquire into the state of the health of the city and suburbs of Calcutta. The reports of the committee contained the idea of setting up a large central hospital to be called the Fever Hospital. A subscription was collected for erection of the building and the government agreed to provide the recurring expenditure. The plans were drawn up by M / s Burn & Co. and construction was superintended by Major Fraser & Col. Forbes of Bengal Engineers.
The foundation stone was laid by James Broun - Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie, Governor - General of India on 30th Sept. 1848 in the 12th year of the reign of Queen Victoria. The new MCH hospital was opened for sick patients on 1 March 1852. There was also an OT on one side of the old MCH which was later upgraded in 1902. The diphtheria ward containing 12 beds was constructed on the roof of the old Medical College Hospital. In case any emergency tracheostomy was required there was a connecting alarm bell to the Casualty Block which would alert the medical officer on duty to rush to the ward. In 1917, Rai Baldeodas Birla Bahadur donated a sum of Rs 50,000 for the construction of the tuberculosis ward on the eastern side of the roof of the MCH building.
The building became partly unusable in the early 1990s, renovation followed. The building was restored and handed over to the college in November 2000.
Until the admission of the 2002 batch, the college was affiliated with the University of Calcutta. It is now formally affiliated to the West Bengal University of Health Sciences.
The college was ranked 15th among medical colleges in India in 2017 by Outlook India and 18th by The Week.
The college and hospital are funded and managed by Government of West Bengal.
Some of the blocks are:
The college section is situated on the north - west portion of the campus and consists of separate blocks. These are distinguished by its architectures of red - brick. The various building are:
The Administrative block with its clock - tower. It houses the Principal 's offices, the General Lecture theatre, the largest of the three, and constructed in form of a gallery. The college library is situated on the first floor. On the second floor is an examinations hall, which also doubles up as an auditorium.
The students common room and the ex-students office makes up the rest of the complex. Adjoing the building students ' canteen.
In front of the Administrative block is a small patch of lawn, sometimes referred to as "The Oval '' which is also utilised as a small play ground for the students.
The adjoining building is the Anatomy department. It has the Anatomy Lecture Theatre and a dissection hall. It also houses the hospital morgue.
The next building is the Chemistry department which houses the Chemistry Lecture Theatre and the laboratories. It also has the department of Forensic Medicine and Pharmacology.
The last building is the Pathology department. It also houses the Physiology department and the Haematology labs, the department of Preventative and Social Medicine, the Pathology department with it labs and a huge pathology museum.
Medical College Students ' Union (MCSU) is the only authorised and official representative body of the students.
Some of the several functions / festivities organized by MCSU throughout the year are:
Politics among the students of the institution has rich traditions, with scores of students participating in the Indian freedom struggle. The anti-British movements were implemented in this campus with the programmes of Bengal Provincial Students ' Federation (BPSF), the Bengal branch of All India Students ' Federation (AISF). Initial focus of student politics was on the independence of India. Many students were dismissed from their college or were gaoled during Quit India Movement in 1942. In 1947, a student of this college, Sree Dhiraranjan Sen, died on Vietnam Day (24 January) police firing. The Vietnam Students ' Association passed a resolution in its Hanoi session in memory of the Indian student martyr in March 1947.
Students politics in this campus was highly influenced by the partition of Bengal and communal riots during and after the Independence (1946 - 1947). Between 1946 and 1952, medicos of this college stood for communal harmony and worked hard in the refugee colonies. During 1952, some of the ex-students of the college, among them Bidhan Chandra Roy who later became the second Chief Minister of West Bengal, took a major responsibility in the establishment of Students ' Health Home for the welfare of students.
The students also took part in the Food Movement of 1959. On 31 August, ten students of the college were severely lathi charged by police. Junior doctors also took part in this movement. In the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s the college became a centre of leftist and then far - left politics. Students politics was highly influenced by the Naxalbari movement in early 1970s.
28 January is celebrated as the college Foundation Day. Marked in the evening with a Variety Performance presented by the students.
The foundation day is followed by three days of the college Annual Re-union which has academic and cultural programmes through the day till evening, an exhibition of painting and photographs in the common room, a tea - party in the lawn and ends with a day 's annual picnic.
The students every year celebrate the traditional Saraswati Pujo.
Aesculapia, a college cultural festival was launched in 1976. Taking its name from Asclepius the God of medicine in Greek mythology, it consisted of three days of inter-college competitive events of music, quizzes, debates, arts and drama. This festival has been replaced by another five - day festival RHAPSODY since the year 2002.
Medical College Ex-Students ' Association (MCESA) is the sole body representing the alumni of Calcutta Medical College.
Besides there are alumni associations of Calcutta Medical College in some countries like UK.
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when does university of oregon school year end | Academic term - wikipedia
An academic term (or simply "term '') is a portion of an academic year, the time during which an educational institution holds classes. The schedules adopted vary widely.
The word quadmester or quadrimester is occasionally used to mean either four months or (more commonly in modern American usage) a quarter of a year. In countries like Argentina, public universities divide the academic year into two quadrimesters (March -- July and August -- December).
In most countries, the academic year begins in late summer or early autumn and ends during the following spring or summer. In Northern Hemisphere countries, this means that the academic year lasts from August, September, or October to May, June, or July. In Southern Hemisphere countries, the academic year aligns with the calendar year, lasting from February or March to November or December. The summer may or may not be part of the term system.
In most of Australia, the primary and secondary school year lasts approximately 200 days, from late January or early February to early or mid-December, and is split into four terms:
Terms 4&1 (rolled over) and 2&3 are respectively usually deemed ' summer ' and ' winter ' respectively for purposes of sports participation and uniform standards. Australian states and territories vary their approach to Easter when determining the dates for the holiday at the end of Term 1.
The exact dates vary from year to year, as well as between states, and for public and private school. In Tasmania until and including 2012, the school year was split into three terms, the first one being the longest and including an extended Easter holiday (which was also the practice of mainland Australia until the mid-1980s). However, in 2013 Tasmania introduced a four - term year, to conform to the rest of the country. There is typically a break of two weeks mid-semester (i.e. after Term 1 and after Term 3) and a break of three weeks in the middle of the year, although this can vary between jurisdictions. In the year 2000, due to the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the state of New South Wales extended the break after Term 3 to three weeks, compensating by reducing the break in the middle of the year to two weeks.
Most Australian universities have two semesters a year, but Bond University, Deakin University, CQUniversity, Griffith University and the University of Canberra have three trimesters. Unusually, Macquarie University officially uses the word "session '' and CQUniversity uses the word "term '' in place of "semester ''. Many universities offer an optional short summer semester. One recent innovation in Australian higher education has been the establishment of the fully distance -- online Open Universities Australia (formerly Open Learning Australia) that offers continuous study opportunities of individual units of study (what are called courses in North America) that can lead to full degree qualifications.
Open Universities Australia operates four 13 - week study periods each year. Since students study only part - time and off campus these study periods mesh reasonably easily with existing university offerings based on semesters. In some cases, a "semester '' is referred to as a "Study Period '', for example by Centrelink.
The Austrian school year for primary and secondary schools is split into two terms, the first one starts on the first Monday in September in the states of Vienna, Lower Austria and Burgenland and on the second Monday of September in Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol and Vorarlberg. Most schools have holidays between the national holiday on October 26 and All Souls Day on November 2, but those are unofficial holidays not observed by all schools in Austria. Christmas holidays start on December 24 and end on the first weekday after January 6. The first term ends in Vienna and Lower Austria on the first Friday of February, in Burgenland, Carinthia, Salzburg, Tyrol and Vorarlberg on the second Friday of February and in Upper Austria and Styria on the third Friday of February.
There is a one - week break between the two terms. In the second term there are the Easter holidays, the Mayday Holiday on May 1 and the long weekends of Pentecost, Ascension and Corpus Christi. The school year ends in Vienna, Lower Austria and Burgenland on the last Friday of June, in Upper Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg, Tyrol and Vorarlberg on the first Friday in July.
The Barbadian school year is fashioned after the British system, and as such, it follows a scheduling with three terms per school year.
The long school holiday period is 9 to 10 weeks from the end of June until the first week of September.
In Brazil, due to the Law of Directives and Bases of Brazilian Education, the academic year must have 200 days, both at schools and at universities. The school year usually begins during the first week of February. There is a 2 - week / 4 - week long winter break in July. The Brazilian school year ends the first week of December, summer in Brazil.
Most schools use the 4 term system, called "Unidades '' (unities).
In Brazilian universities academic terms are defined as periods or semesters (período, semestre). The majority of academic degrees courses are 8 semesters (four years) long or 10 semesters (five years) long.
In Bangladesh, the kindergarten, elementary and schools follow the semester system. Most of the universities follow the semester system although for some particular subjects such as Law they follow a yearly system. Business schools of all public and private universities follow a semester or trimester system.
Some of the universities using a two - semester system (using "Term 1 '' and "Term 2 '' designations) include: Jessore University of Science and Technology, Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology, International Islamic University Chittagong, Khulna University, Khulna University of Engineering and Technology, Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology. Jagannath University, and Sylhet Agricultural University.
Some of the universities following a trimester system (using "Spring '', "Summer '' and "Fall '' designations) include: American International University - Bangladesh, BRAC University, East West University, Daffodil International University, North South University, Presidency University, Stamford University, Military Institute of Science and Technology, University of Information Technology and Sciences, University of Development Alternative (UODA) and United International University.
In Belgium, kindergarten, elementary and secondary schools begin on September 1 and end on June 30.
Schools also take breaks / holidays:
Universities and colleges in Belgium use the semester system, dividing the academic year in two equal parts of fourteen weeks of courses. Universities start the first semester in the third week of September, and no ' autumn break '. Colleges start one week earlier, in the second week of September, giving them right to the ' autumn break ' of one week. After 13 weeks of courses the ' Christmas break ' starts (around December 20), which is used to study for the 3 -- 4 weeks of examinations in January.
After these examinations the universities have one week of vacation, the so - called ' semestrial vacation ', while the colleges start the classes of the second semester at the end of January, immediately after the examinations, which week they reclaim with the ' spring break ' at the end of February, which the universities do not have. The universities start the second semester in the beginning of February.
Both universities and colleges have the ' Easter break ', which again is used to study for the examinations in June. After Easter, the classes start again until the end of May, followed by four weeks of examinations in June, after which three months of vacation is given. The students who failed in passing some of the courses in their curriculum in January and June, the so - called ' first session ', have to do the examinations again in the second session at the end of August.
In Cambodia the school year kindergarten sectors in public schools consists of 10 months with a two - month vacation, while in primary, and secondary sectors, it is divided into two semesters and each semester is divided into 2 quarters. The first of November is the start of the academic term. After the 1st semester, a small vacation when the school is halted and at the end of the Second Semester, a 2 - month vacation until the start of the new year. In universities, it is divided into 4 years.
Education being a provincial responsibility, there is no Canadian national standard. In Canada the school year for elementary and high school consists of 178 to 200 days, depending on jurisdiction, but several days may be deducted from this total for professional development and administrative duties, resulting in approximately 187 teaching days per year for most jurisdictions. Elementary students receive approximately 950 hours of instruction and secondary students receive approximately 1000 hours per year.
Generally in English Canada, high schools run on a two - semester arrangement, also known as fall and spring semester, the first semester starting from the day after Labour Day in September to mid-January and the second running from early February until the Thursday before the last Friday in June. The semesters are often divided into two terms each. Some schools in Canada run on a trimester system, the first running from September to January, the second from January to March or April, and the third from March or April until June. The trimester is more common in elementary and middle schools (Kindergarten - Grade 8) than in high schools (Grade 9 - Grade 12). Most of those characteristics differ in Québec, where education is, with the exception of a few school boards, given in French. By tradition, Quebec and Franco - Ontarian elementary and secondary schools will arrange timetables to ensure the school year ends before June 24, date of the St - Jean - Baptiste day celebration, a traditional holiday.
Most universities and colleges usually run from early September until the end of April or early May. Often, this winter session is split into two terms running September to December and January to April. Various forms of summer studies may be offered May to August. Some, such as University of Waterloo and Simon Fraser University, run a full tri-semester system, providing full courses during summer. There are a few school boards in Canada experimenting with year - round schooling.
In elementary school, high school, as well as in universities, Chilean education is divided into two semesters. The first one starts late February or early March and lasts until late June and the second starts in early August and finishes in mid-December; also, some universities offer a summer period from early January to mid-February but just for exceptional courses. These semesters have breaks for public festivities, such as Easter (approx. one week in April), independence commemoration (one or two weeks in September) and some public holidays like labour day, amongst others.
In the People 's Republic of China all schools including elementary, middle and high schools, colleges and universities have two semesters, the first from September to January, and the second from February or March, depending on the date of Chinese New Year, to July.
From January to February or March is the Winter break or Lunar New Year break. Summer break is normally from July to the end of August.
In Northern China, the winter break is longer and the summer break is shorter; the opposite applies in Southern China.
There are some casual holiday breaks:
In Costa Rica the school year runs for ten months. It starts in the first week of February and ends in the last week of November. There is a mid-term vacation of approximately 2 weeks in July, and most schools also observe "Easter Week '' in March or April.
In the elementary and high schools in the Czech Republic, the school year usually runs from September 1 to June 30 of the following year.
It is divided into two semesters with breaks on public holidays such as St. Vaclav (September 28), Independence day (October 28, two days break), Velvet Revolution (November 17), Christmas (7 -- 10 days break), Spring break (1 week break), Easter (three days break on Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Easter Monday) and finally Labour day (May 1) and Liberation day (May 8). After the end of school year on June 30, the Summer holidays follow till September 1 when a new school year starts. Sole exception to this is the final year at high schools, which ends with Graduation of students at the end of May.
Universities have two mid-terms. The academic year starts usually in the second half of September or in the begging of October. (It depends on university.) Bachelor 's degree is normally obtained by students after 3 years and masters after another 2 years of study. Still, there are some exceptions (e.g. medicine takes 6 years, no bachelor 's degree).
In schools in Denmark, the school year runs from August to June. In universities, the academic year runs from around September 1 to June 30, and is often divided into an autumn semester (with January set aside for exams) and a spring semester (with June set aside for exams). Since 2004, some Danish universities and faculties divide the academic year into four quarters, each of which may consist of eight weeks and an exam week, and being separated from the next quarter by a one - week break.
In Estonia, elementary and high schools begin on 1 September and end in the beginning of June. The school year is divided into quarters that last about two to three months. Summer is usually counted as a term break, although the beginning of June is still part of the fourth quarter. Universities start on the first Monday of September and usually end in the middle of May or in the beginning of June; though in reality, exam periods may continue until the end of June (e.g. University of Tartu).
In Ethiopia, almost all elementary, secondary, and college classes are conducted on a two - semester timetable. The first semester of the year is from September to late January or mid February. The second semester usually begins some two weeks after the end of the first and ends in late May or mid June.
In the elementary and secondary schools and college, the academic year is divided in semesters. The autumn semester begins in mid-August and is suspended a few days before Christmas. The classes continue after the Epiphany with the spring semester which finishes at the beginning of June.
In primary and secondary schools, the school year begins the first Monday of September, unless September 1 is on Sunday. The school year is divided into three trimesters. The first from September to January, the second from January to April, and the third is from April to June.
School Breaks Breaks are scattered throughout the school year every 6, 7 or 8 weeks and last 2 weeks each.
All Saint Break The first break is around All Saints ' Day on November 1.
Christmas Break Christmas Break starts the Saturday before Christmas.
Winter Break Winter Break dates differ of the Academia 's location, which could be in Zone A, B, or C, to avoid high traffic on the road. It usually starts in February, ends late February or early March.
Easter Break Easter Break depends on the location of Academia. It starts in April, and ends late April or early May.
End of Academic term - Summer Break In primary school, end of Acamedic term is early July. In secondary school (middle school or high school) end of Academic term is before Middle School Exam in late June, or Baccalaureat, in mid-June.
On Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, pupils have a full day of teaching from around 8: 30 a.m. until around 4: 30 p.m. On Wednesday mornings, some pupils may have supplementary classes. French pupils used to attend school on Saturdays, but the so - called "four - days week '' has been implemented since September 2008, reducing the teaching year from 936 to 864 hours (above the European average of 800 hours, but below the UK minimum of 950 hours for state schools). Additional holidays include Veterans Day on November 11, May 8, Ascension Day, May Day on May 1, and Easter Monday.
The school year in Germany begins between late July and early September, and ends from mid-June to July, with a summer break of similar length to that in the UK (only 6 weeks) but much shorter than in some other countries (with up to 3 months). The summer vacation starts in a different week by state (there are 16 federal states including Berlin, Hamburg and Bremen). The school year includes four or five shorter breaks or holidays:
Due to Germany 's federal structure, all breaks may differ depending on the state. The exact dates for the beginning and the end of school breaks are kept different state by state and changed every year. This is meant to keep holiday traffic as low as possible.
The school year is divided into two parts (September to February & February to July). There is not necessarily any break between those two parts, but pupils get a semi-year school report (it only displays their current level and is not relevant for promotion).
German universities run two semesters with the start and end dates depending on the university. The Wintersemester (WiSe), during which most students start university, often goes from 1 October till 31 March, with lectures starting around 15 October and lasting 14 weeks. There is usually a two - week break around Christmas and New Year (which is not counted in the 14 weeks). The Sommersemester (SoSe) consequently usually goes from 1 April till 30 September with lectures starting some time after Easter and lasting 12 weeks. The two lecture - free periods of 12 to 14 weeks between the semesters are for taking exams, doing internships, lab courses, and employment.
The University of Mannheim changed its schedule to conform with US standards in Fall of 2006. The semesters there are now from August 1 to January 31 (Herbst - / Wintersemester) and from February 1 to July 31 (Frühjahrs - / Sommersemester).
"Fachhochschulen '' start both semesters one month earlier than other universities.
"Berufsakademien '' have four quarters, January to March and so on. In alternating quarters the students attend the university and intern at the employer (the latter being the "Praxisphase ''). The number of lessons per week is significantly higher than at normal universities (equivalent to a full - time job) and the exams can not be during the "free time '' of the year, as that time is spent in the company. Vacation is given according to labor laws, i.e. half of 20 -- 30 days (because only half of the year is worked).
The school year in Guyana usually begins in September and ends in July of the following year. It has three terms: Christmas (First), Easter (Second) and August (Third), with two to three weeks break for Christmas and Easter and 6 to 7 weeks during the August term.
The school year in Honduras runs from the first week of February to the end of November, with a one - week break during Easter, and a week break in October. University Depending on the university, some do trimester and others in quarters. Breaks may vary.
In Hong Kong, the academic year usually runs from September 1 to mid-July for most primary and secondary schools. For senior secondary student, they usually start their academic year from mid of August or late August. Some secondary schools have two terms, but most have three terms. For universities and other tertiary institutions the academic year usually runs from September or October to April or May, sometimes with an extra summer term roughly from May to July.
Kindergartens often operate a semester (two - term) system, divided by the lengthy (e.g. two - week) break for Chinese New Year, typically in early February.
In the elementary and high schools in Hungary, the school year usually runs from September 1 to June 15 of the next year, with variation if these dates fall on Saturday or Sunday. The school year (tanév) is usually split into two semesters (félév). These semesters are also divided, with some schools holding examinations each half - semester. The first semester runs from September 1 till the middle of January and is divided by the fall vacation, which is around All Saints ' Day and lasts for a week. The second semester is closed at the end of the school year. It is divided by the Easter holiday, which usually consist of the weekend before Easter and the holiday itself. Apart from these vacations and national celebrations, a few schools have ' skiing holidays ' (síszünet), the date of which varies from the middle of January till February, though some schools hold it in December. Its length also varies from one school to another. It is made so that the students of the school who partake in the skiing camp of the school need no verification of absence. In the last school year of secondary education, the Matura examinations (school - leaving exam and entrance exam for university admissions; similar to A-level exams in the UK) are administered from May through July.
Hungarian universities run two semesters. They are typically from the first or second week of September to the middle of December (fall semester (őszi félév)) and from February to the middle of May (spring semester (tavaszi félév)). Both semesters are followed by an examination period. During the winter exam period, a break of 1 -- 2 weeks is administered between Christmas and the beginning of the new year. In addition to the break between the semesters in summer, there is typically a break including Christmas and New Year. Some universities also have a fall and an Easter vacation.
In elementary and secondary schools, the school year in some part is April to March and others June to May, while in Universities it is from July to May. There is a mid-year break during summer, usually from the end of May to the start of July in Universities and in elementary and high schools, the vacations range from the beginning of April and last up to the beginning or middle of June. There is also a winter vacation of two weeks at the beginning of the year. However, in the Eastern and southern states like West Bengal and Karnataka there will be two breaks, one for Dasara in September / October for 15 days and another for Christmas in December which ranges from 7 to 15 days. A semester system is being implemented in most of the Universities in India as directed by the University Grants Commission.
University of Calicut, Kerala University, MG University and Sri Sankara University (SCSVMV University) have reached a consensus and the other universities are also likely to introduce credit based semester system in Kerala. Delhi University also introduced this system.
For Jammu and Kashmir, the school year usually begins in mid-October or the start of November. There are two vacations in a year, Winter holidays last from the start of December till the first of March. A summer vacation usually lasts two weeks from mid-July to the end of July, the dates do vary. For schools, students move from old to the new academic year immediately after the exams for the previous year is over with a small break of a week for compilation of results.
Most schools also have an autumn break or Diwali break in August or around October / November. This is generally right before the second semester exam in September or in the middle of the second semester.
An academic year in Indonesia is divided to two terms, running from mid-July to December and January to mid-June. For universities, however, the terms are much shorter, running from September to December and February to May. Some universities provide a summer semester (called the short semester) from June to August. During president Abdurrahman Wahid 's term, schools are closed for Ramadan and a week after Eid - ul - Fitr (Idul Fitri). Some schools implement Saturday - off. Previously, academic year starts from January to December, but this rule changed in 1985.
In Iran, the academic year runs from September to June (10 months). Some universities, however, offer a limited number of courses in summer. Students have a three - month summer vacation. All schools are closed during Nowruz from march 20 till the beginning of April to celebrate the Iranian new year. The first (fall) semester begins on the first day of the Persian Calendar month of Mehr equivalent to the first day of autumn in the Northern Hemisphere and ends in January. The second (spring) semester begins in the winter and ends in June. No mid-term break exists in the academic calendar.
The primary school year runs from the beginning of September until the end of June. There are breaks for Christmas and Easter and two mid-term breaks at the end of October and mid-February. Secondary schools run from September to the end of May, but due to the Junior Certificate and Leaving Certificate exams, 3rd and 6th years respectively break at the end of June for summer holidays upon completion of the exams which end in the 3rd week of June. The academic year for schools in receipt of public funding lasts for a minimum of 167 teaching days in secondary schools and 183 days in primary schools. Third - level institutions run a much shorter calendar, generally from mid to late September, sometimes early October, to December for their first term The second term usually runs from January to mid - or late May with a break for Easter of up to a month.
The school year in Israel starts in elementary, middle, and high schools on September 1, and lasts until the end of June for elementary schools, and until June 20 for middle and high schools. There are no fixed holidays of equal length, with breaks occurring on national holidays, usually lasting two or three days. For Jews, there is a nine - day break for Sukkot (autumn); a seven - day break for Hannukah (in December); and for Passover (spring) the break is 2 -- 3 weeks long. For the Muslim population, breaks are taken for Eid al - Adha, Eid ul - Fitr and end of semester breaks.
The university academic year typically divides into two semesters which start after Sukkot (typically mid to late October) and end in June or July. Some academic institutions also enable a third semester in the summer.
The short breaks:
The school year in Israel is divided into two semesters:
Until 2011 the summer break ended on August 31, but in 2011 Israeli ministry of education decided to shorten the summer break by one week and the break now ends on August 26 as of 2012. In 2014, the old schedule was reinstated so that the summer break is back to August 31. The period between Yom Kippur and Sukkot was added as holiday to compensate for this but as of 2014, has consequently been removed.
In most Yeshivas, the year is divided into three periods (terms) called zmanim. Elul zman starts from the beginning of the Hebrew month of Elul and extends until the end of Yom Kippur. This is the shortest (approx. six weeks), but most intense semester as it comes before the High Holidays of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. Winter zman starts after Sukkot and lasts until just before Passover, a duration of five months (six in a Jewish leap year). Summer semester starts after Passover and lasts until either the middle of the month of Tammuz or Tisha B'Av, a duration of about three months. During the interim periods, which are called bein hazmanim (between the terms), students are on vacation.
In Italy, all schools start in the first half of September, even though the exact beginning date changes every year. For schools from primary schools to high schools, the academic year is split into two semesters:
Kindergartens usually follow a similar schedule.
A university academic year is slightly different because of exams. University academic year divides into:
Even though September is a free month, it is officially an exam month in all Italian universities. It means that it is possible to take exams. During every exam session (January -- February, May -- June -- July or September), students are usually allowed to take any exam of their previous carrier that they could n't pass and even a certain number of exams of the new academic year (credit limit for this last option).
In the following holidays, no lessons take place:
In Japan, most of the schools run a three - term school year (trimester system), and most universities and colleges have a semester system. The exact date of the beginning of the summer break and its duration vary across regions, but commonly the break lasts for about six weeks. The break originated to avoid the heat in summer, so elementary, middle, and high schools in Hokkaidō and Nagano Prefecture tend to have a shorter summer break than the rest of schools in Japan.
School Term 1: April 1 to late July
School Term 2: early September to late December (with a two - week - long break for New Year 's at the end of the year.)
School Term 3: early January to late March (and a brief week - long spring break.)
The graduation ceremony occurs in March, and the enrollment ceremony in early April. The Japanese public school year consists of approximately 200 days.
Some universities and colleges accept students in September or October in order to let those students from other semester systems enroll. In recent years a few colleges have begun experimenting with having two semesters instead of the traditional three with the break between two semesters in summer.
In Kenya, for K - 12 education, the calendar year starts in January and ends in November. The academic year is divided into 3 terms as follows:
April, August and December are usually school holidays.
There is no standard academic calendar for universities as each university is free to set its own calendar.
International schools tend to follow the Northern Hemisphere academic calendar.
In Lithuania, elementary and high schools begin on September 1 and end in early June.
Schools also take breaks / holidays:
In Malaysian primary and secondary schools, the school year is divided into two semesters. The first semester begins in early January and ends in late May, with a one - week mid-term break in March. After the mid-year holidays, which lasts for two weeks, the second semester begins in mid-June and ends in mid-November, with a one - week mid-term break in September. The school year ends with a six - week year - end holidays from mid-November to early January.
The school week varies by state, depending on the weekend of the state. For states with a Saturday - Sunday weekend, the school week is Monday to Friday. For states with a Friday - Saturday weekend (Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu), the school week is Sunday to Thursday; as a result, school terms begin and end a day earlier in these four states than in the rest of the country. Some schools have co-curricular activities on Saturdays.
Schools are closed on national and state public holidays. Schools are allowed to have a few special holidays without replacement for events such as school anniversary and sports day. For festivities such as Hari Raya Aidilfitri / Hari Raya Puasa, Hari Gawai, Chinese New Year and Deepavali, schools usually apply for additional holidays to allow longer breaks for students to visit relatives in their hometowns. However, every day missed exceeding the special holiday allowance would be replaced by having classes on weekends.
In Maldivians primary and secondary schools, the school year is divided into two semesters. The first semester begins in early January and ends in early June, with a one - week mid-term break. After the mid-year holidays, which lasts for two weeks, the second semester begins in mid-June and ends in mid-November, with a one - week mid-term break.
The school week is Sunday to Thursday, as a result, all schools terms begin and end same day all over the country.
The school year is split into three terms. It starts at the end of September and ends at the end of June the following year.
The school year in Mexico starts in mid-August and ends in mid-July, by law covering 200 days, usually divided into 5 terms:
Term 1 starts in mid-August and finishes in mid-October
Term 2 starts in mid-October and finishes by the second or third week in December
Term 3 starts the first week of January (after Three Kings Day) and finishes around the third week of February (Flag Day)
Term 4 starts in late February and finishes late March or early April (usually the Friday before Palm Sunday)
Term 5 starts the second Monday after Easter and finishes in early July
Summer break is 45 days. The calendar is designed by the Secretary of Public Education (Spanish: Secretaría de Educación Pública, SEP), the government department overseeing public education aln in Mexico with arrangements of the leaders of the National Educational Workers Union (Spanish: Sindicato Nacional de Trabajadores de la Educación, SNTE). All public and private elementary schools under the guidance of the dependence observe this year. In the case of universities, normally the school year starts in the last week of July and is divided in trimesters or semesters. Christmas Break is usually 3 weeks.
Education in Nepal is structured as school education and higher education. School education includes primary level of grades 1 -- 5, lower secondary and secondary levels of grades 6 -- 8 and 9 -- 10 respectively. Pre-primary level of education is available in some areas. Six years old is the prescribed age for admission into grade one. A national level School Leaving Certificate (SLC) examination is conducted at the end of grade 10. These class starts in late April and finishes early March. Summer break is usually of 1 week to 1 month and 1 month vacation is provided as festival holiday in November usually.
Grades 11 and 12 are considered as higher secondary level. Higher Secondary Education Board (HSEB) supervises higher secondary schools which are mostly under private management. Previously these grades were under the university system and were run as proficiency certificate level. Though some universities still offer these programs, the policy now is to integrate these grades into the school system. These class starts from late July and ends in April.
Higher education consists of bachelor, masters, and PhD levels. Depending upon the stream and subject, bachelors level may be of three to five years ' duration. The duration of masters level is generally two years. Some universities offer programs like M Phil and post-graduate diplomas.
Vocational education in Nepal starts after lower secondary education. Students can choose to follow a two - year curriculum leading to the "Technical School leaving Certificate ''. Universities also offers professional and technical degrees. Out of the formal track, short - term programs (1 year) focusing on skills development are also available.
The New Zealand school year runs from the beginning of February to mid-December, and since 1996, has been divided into four terms. By law, all state and state - integrated schools are required to be open for instruction for 380 half - days in a year (390 half - days for schools with only Year 8 students or below), meaning that the start and end of the school year is not nationally fixed to a particular date, as schools take different teacher - only days and provincial anniversary days off during the year. Schools can be exempted from opening the required number of half - days in some cases, such as in Christchurch in 2011 when many schools closed for up to a month after the 2011 Christchurch earthquake. The breaks between terms have fixed start and end dates, and the break length is fixed at two weeks.
In general, terms run as follows if Easter falls in early - to - mid-April:
If Easter falls in March or late in April, Term 1 usually ends in mid-April and Term 2 begins at the beginning of May. If Easter is in March, a 5 - day half - term break then exists, with school ending on Maundy Thursday and resuming on the Wednesday. The start of term two may be delayed if Anzac Day (25 April) falls on the Monday or Tuesday directly following the Easter break.
Private schools are not required to adhere to the Ministry 's term structure, but by law they may not be open for instruction on Saturday or Sunday, the ten national public holidays, the school location 's relevant anniversary day, and the Tuesday immediately following Easter Monday.
Senior secondary students (Years 11, 12, and 13) in many state schools have examination leave from mid-November, on the Thursday or Friday before the first NCEA external examinations begin. Officially, however, the term still does not end until mid-December.
The school year in Oman is divided into two semesters:
Usually there are exams at the end of each semester. Students get a number of breaks throughout the year: National Day on 18 November, New Higri year break, Prophet Mohammed birthday break, Eid Al - Fitr break and Eid Al - Adha break. As most of these breaks depend on the Higri year which is 10 days shorter than the Solar year, there is a gradual change on the date of these events in relation to the school year.
In Pakistan, the school year runs from April to March. Students have a two - month summer vacation and a two - week winter vacation. In Gilgit - Baltistan, Azad Kashmir and some areas of Balochistan, where heavy snow paralyzes life in the winter, the schools close for two months and there are two weeks of summer vacation.
Schools and universities are off on national holidays: Pakistan Day (March 23), Independence Day (August 14), Defence of Pakistan Day (September 6), the anniversaries of the birth (December 25) and death (September 11) of Quaid - e-Azam, Allama Iqbal (November 9) and the birth (July 30) and death (July 8) of Madar - e-Millat.
Labour Day (also known as May Day) is also observed in Pakistan on May 1. Both Eid festivals are also public holidays.
In the University of Engineering and Technology Lahore, the holidays are for two and half months during summer.
For the government universities, the students of bachelors are given 1 - 1.5 month of summer vacation and 1 - 1.5 weeks of winter vacations.
The Philippine school year lasts usually between nine and ten months long, and a school year must be at least 200 days as prescribed by law including examination periods. The school year begins in the first week of June and ends in the third or fourth week of March. Private schools may have a slightly shorter academic calendar either starting in the second (or third week) of June or ending earlier in March.
In most primary and secondary (junior high) schools, an academic year is usually divided into quarters for purposes of examination and reporting of marks though a few private schools adopt a trimestral system. Each quarter normally lasts for approximately seven (usually the 3rd quarter) to ten weeks (usually the 1st, 2nd and 4th quarters) but the actual length of each quarter and the months they cover varies among private schools. The fourth quarter for pupils in grade 6 is usually two to three weeks shorter than undergraduates to allow for preparation of final grades to determine who are eligible for graduation as well as to prepare for the graduation ceremonies themselves. Each quarter culminates in most schools with a quarterly examination period of three to five days.
The academic term for senior high school (grades 11 and 12) operates on a semestral basis. Semestral, Christmas, and summer breaks are scheduled at about the same time as primary and junior high school. Grade 12 pupils have a shorter second semester than grade 11 in order for the school to prepare for graduation.
In most schools, summer break usually lasts for two months, starting from the first week of April up to the last week of May. Most schools end the school year before Holy Week. Semestral break is normally set to coincide with All Saints and All Souls Day. The Christmas Break usually begins in the third week of December, and classes resume the Monday or week after New Year 's Day (unless that Monday is January 2). Commencement ceremonies are often held in late March or early April.
Exceptions to this general schedule are international schools operating in the country, which normally follow their home country 's respective school system.
For most universities and colleges, an academic year is divided into two semesters, each up to 18 weeks long except for senior students in their final semester where they end the semester two weeks earlier. Enrollment / registration in an institution is usually good for only one semester: a student who successfully registers for the first semester is not automatically enrolled to study in the second semester. The student will need to successfully complete clearance requirements and in a few cases, maintain a certain overall mark in order to progress in her university studies in the next semester. The first semester is followed by a break consisting of two to four weeks before the second semester, called the Semestral Break, which usually occurs between the second week of October to the second week of November for all universities and colleges. The Semestral Break can be two to three weeks long, and normally includes the All Saints ' and All Souls ' holidays.
Other schools such as Technological University of the Philippines -- Taguig Campus, De La Salle University and Far Eastern University -- East Asia College, and AMA Computer University operate under a trimestral system. Classes start in the fourth week of May and ends in the third week of April. Under this system, students are typically able to finish their academic studies a year earlier than those from other universities with a semestral programme. Mapúa University began using the quarterly system with eleven weeks to a term after its acquisition by the Yuchengco Group. This allows their engineering programmes to be completed a year ahead of schools running on a semestral schedule.
Moreover, starting academic year 2014 - 2015, constituent campuses in the University of the Philippines System started their school year in August to end in May and the University of Santo Tomas started the Academic Year in August and it will end in May 2015. In AY 2015 - 2016, several Philippine colleges and universities will follow the shift.
In AY 2015 - 2016, San Beda College Manila and St. Scholastica 's College Manila will start their calendar in early July 2015 and it will end in mid - to late April 2016 and it was aimed to be a transition to a full August to May Calendar in the succeeding academic years.
Also in AY 2015 - 2016, the University of Santo Tomas, will complete its shift to an August to May calendar. Ateneo de Manila University will also shift to an August to May Calendar this AY 2015 - 2016 with having a summer term in June to July before AY 2015 - 2016 starts. De La Salle University and De La Salle -- College of St. Benilde will have an August to August Calendar for the incoming AY 2015 - 2016.
In Poland, the school year begins on September 1 and ends on the first Friday after June 18. There is a Christmas break in December which lasts until after New Year 's Day. There is also a winter holiday break lasting two weeks in January or February but the exact date is different for each province and the dates usually change each year. Winter break is also the dividing line between the two semesters of the school year.
Most universities start their courses on October 1 (at some institutions late September), and the first semester (commonly referred to as the "winter term '') ends in January. The second term starts in February or March, (the "summer term '') and ends in June. Each semester is usually 15 or 16 weeks long. After each of them there is an "examination session '', when no courses are taught, which lasts up to one month. The summer break starts after the exams and lasts until the start of the next academic year. In September there is an extra examination session during which students can retake failed exams.
The school year in Portugal runs from September to June and is divided in three Terms (Períodos, in Portuguese):
During the school year there are several breaks or holidays (interrupções or férias, in Portuguese):
Universities and colleges follow a different academic year, which consists of two semesters.
The school year in Romania is divided into two semesters. From kindergarten to high school the first semester opens in early - mid September and continues until mid-late January. The second semester lasts from early February until early - mid June. Note that Some teachers might change the calendar a bit, like starting semesters and summer break one week earlier. Data as of December 7, 2017.
The school year in Russia traditionally starts on September 1 (The Knowledge Day). The school year is divided into four terms (quarters), separated by one - or two - week holidays (the first week in November, the first two weeks in January, and the last week of March). The summer holiday lasts three months: June, July, and August. Generally the school year lasts until 25 May, which is also known as The Last School - Bell day celebrated by the graduates, their families and teachers. The school graduation ceremony - Graduation Evening (Russian: выпускной вечер) - is organized on June 20 -- 25.
The academic year at universities also starts on September 1 and usually consists of 42 educational weeks and 10 weeks of holidays. It is divided into two terms (semesters). The first one (autumn semester) runs from September 1 to January 24 / 25 (21 weeks, including a 3 - to 5 - week winter exams session at the end) followed by a two - week holiday. Coincidentally January 25 is also Tatiana Day, traditionally celebrated as Russian Students Day. The second one (spring semester) runs from February 9 to June 30 or July 4 / 5 (21 weeks, including a 3 - to 5 - week summer exams session) followed by an eight - week summer holiday. Some Russian universities do not use a traditional scheme: they exclude exams sessions, and the academic year is divided in a 2: 3 ratio of 17 educational weeks (followed by a two - week holiday) and 25 educational weeks (followed by an eight - week summer holiday).
The school year coincides with the calendar year, and the first term begins on January 2 (unless it is a weekend or a Monday). The school year comprises four terms of 10 weeks each.
Terms 1 and 2 are known as Semester 1, and terms 3 and 4 as Semester 2. The first year of Junior College begins in February to accommodate the release of the O level results.
International schools in Singapore operate on a different system, often similar to the system in their home countries.
The training year in ITE is made up of two terms, commencing January and April respectively, depending on the month of intake.
At the end of each term, there will be a 4 - week break period before a new term begins.
At the end of each term, there will be a 2 - week break period before a new term begins.
Polytechnics and universities operate on a different calendar from schools. There are two semesters in a year in polytechnics.
At the end of each semester, there will be a 7 - week break period before a new semester begins.
It is to match the northern hemisphere calendar more closely.
The school year for elementary, grammar and high schools begins on September 2 (September 1 is Constitution Day) and ends June 29 of the following year. The school day starts at 8: 00 a.m. and ends at 2: 00 p.m. (time varies due to day and type of school). in most schools. It is split into two halves, with the first half ending on the last day of January.
Universities starts in second half of September or 1 October. Academic year consist of 2 semesters (winter / until December / and summer / until May /).
The school year in Slovenia for elementary and grammar schools begins on 1 September and formally ends on 31 August, although classes and exams are finished by 25 June. July and August thus constitute summer holidays. There are also four one - week breaks during the school year, occurring around All Saints Day, between Christmas and New Year, at the end of February, and around the May Day.
Universities and colleges follow a different academic year. It consists of two semesters -- the winter semester starting on 1 October, which ends around 15 January. It is followed by a one - month break, during which students take the exams for subjects they have read in the semester. The summer semester begins on 15 February and lasts until 31 May, followed by the exam period, which ends on 30 June. Students who have not passed the necessary exams have a chance to do so during the autumn exam period in September. Students and faculty are free during in July and August. New classes are held again in October.
All South African public schools have a four - term school year as determined by the national Department of Education. Each term is between 10 and 11 weeks long. The terms are roughly structured as follows:
First Term
Second Term
Third Term
Fourth Term
The academic year is approximately 200 school days in duration and runs from January to December.
Private schools follow a similar calendar, but slightly alter it according to their academic and religious needs. Some independent (private) schools have a three - term year instead (2).
The dates of the school year for coastal schools are slightly different from those for inland schools.
The National Education Department proposed a five - week - long school break in June -- July 2010 for the 2010 Soccer World Cup - hosted in South Africa - to avoid pupil and teacher absenteeism and a chaotic transport system.
South African universities have a year consisting of two semesters, with the first semester running from early February to early June, and the second semester from late July to late November. Each semester consists of twelve or thirteen teaching weeks, interrupted by a one - week short vacation, and followed by three or four weeks of examinations. In the first semester the short vacation often falls around the Easter weekend, while in the second semester it occurs in early September.
In South Korea, the school year is divided into two terms. The first term usually runs from March 2, unless it is a Friday or the weekend, to mid-July with the summer vacation from mid-July to late - August (elementary and secondary schools) and from mid-June to late August (higher education institutions). The second term usually resumes in late August and runs until mid-February. The winter break is from late December to late January. There are two weeks of school (elementary and secondary schools) in February. Then there is a two - week - break before the new academic year starts in March.
The school hours are approximately from 8: 00 am to 4: 00 pm for high school, each class lasting 50 minutes. For middle school, it is about from 8: 00am -- 3: 30pm, each class lasting 45 minutes. In Primary School, the lower grades (Grades 1 - 3) have classes around 8: 30 to 2: 00 and the upper grades (Grades 4 - 6) have classes from about 9: 00 to 3: 00. Each class lasts about 40 minutes. In high school, the older students are sometimes required to stay until 9: 00 pm or later studying on their own. For the most part, teachers rotate and the students stay in their classroom except for certain classes such as Physical Education, Music and Science labs.
There is a popular saying in Korean, 노는 토요일 (no - neun to - yo - il); it means, resting on Saturdays. From 2006 to 2011, Korean students (from elementary to secondary schools) were required to go to school on the 1st, 3rd, and 5th Saturdays of each month. Prior to 2006, students had to go to school six days a week, except for 2005, when students had one Saturday off every month. The schools normally ended at noon on Saturday, and the curriculum is mostly focused on extracurricular activities. However, Korean Ministry of Education abolished school days on the Saturdays in 2012.
The school year consists of two semesters. The fall semester begins in early September and runs till late January or early February. Summer vacation is from early July to end of August. Winter vacation typically runs from two to three weeks around the Lunar New Year. Spring semester begins following the Lantern Festival in mid February and ends in early June. Privatized institutions in Taiwan have varying academic terms.
There are some holiday breaks:
There are two semesters in the Thai academic year with an optional summer semester. From kindergarten to high school, the first semester opens in mid May and continues until the end of September. The second semester lasts from November until the end of February (or early March). The university academic year is slightly different, lasting from June to October and mid November to mid March.
The Turkish academic year begins in September and continues through to the following June. In most public educational institutions from primary to tertiary, the first semester begins in September and continues until January, and the second semester begins February and continues until June. The academic calendar and dates of mid-semester breaks may vary across private institutions.
The academic year at universities starts on September the 1st and usually consists of two semesters. The first semester runs from September the 1st to January the 24 / 25th followed by a two - week holiday. The second semester runs from February the 9th to June the 30th or July the 4 / 5th.
The English law courts terms and legal training pupillage divided the year into four terms, partly to create a predictable work schedule, but also to make allowances for harsh travel conditions and delays caused by adverse weather at a time when all English law students and many litigants had to travel to London for training or legal advice at one of the Inns of Court.
In Scotland, academic and judicial institutions traditionally organised their year into four terms:
Specific dates varied between institutions, and all except Michaelmas were determined by the date of Easter.
The school year in the United Kingdom is generally divided into three terms running from autumn to summer. For state schools, the school year consists of 195 days of which there are 190 teaching days and five INSET teacher training days. For independent schools, the school year can be as short as 175 days. The structure of the school year varies between the constituent countries of the United Kingdom with school holiday dates varying between local education authorities.
Before the mechanisation of agriculture and when more of the population lived in the rural countryside, the long summer school holiday in Britain arose in the 19th century as a result of the education authorities abandoning the battle to keep children at school through haymaking (around the start of August) and wheat harvest (around the end of August), when every available pair of hands was needed on the land.
In England and Wales, the school year generally runs from early September until late July of the following year. Most schools operate a three - term school year, each term divided in half by a week - long break known as "half term '' (although some counties, like Oxfordshire, consider these to be six separate terms instead), and are structured as follows:
There is no winter term.
The terms are separated by two holidays, each of approximately two weeks ' duration: the Christmas holidays separating the autumn term and spring term, and the Easter holidays separating the spring term and the summer term. The period between the end of one school year and the start of the next is the summer holidays, which are six to eight weeks long.
The academic year originated in the pre-industrial era when all able - bodied young people were expected to work through the period of July and August. For the purposes of education, the remainder of the year was arranged into three terms accommodating the Christian holidays of Christmas and Easter. Half - term breaks divide the 16 - to 17 - week terms.
However the long summer break has been criticised by educationalists in the post-industrialist age because it creates a break in the academic progress. Even a House of Commons Education Select Committee recommended in 1999 that schools switch to a five - term academic year, abolishing the long summer holidays. Each term would be eight weeks long with a two - week break in between terms, and a minimum four - week summer holiday, with no half terms -- the idea being that children can keep up momentum for eight weeks without a break. The proposals were introduced at a small number of schools nationally.
In 1999, the Local Government Association set up a commission to look at alternative proposals for a more balanced school year. In partnership with Local Authorities and teachers unions, they were unable to agree to a suitable alternative arrangement for terms, but by 2004 came to an agreement with the National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers for a standardised arrangement of school terms. Since 2004, around one third of English local authorities have signed up to the proposals which see a standard academic year agreed between the authorities, including slight variations on the traditional schemes, based on the following principles:
In addition the independent schools have set their own term dates with varying degrees of local and national co-ordination.
The school year in Northern Ireland generally runs from early September to late June or early July of the following year. Most schools operate a three - term school year similar to England and Wales; however, there is no half term during summer term due to the province 's longer summer holidays. The terms are structured as follows:
The terms are separated by two holidays each consisting of approximately two weeks: the Christmas holidays separating the autumn and spring terms, and the Easter holidays separating the spring and summer terms. The summer holidays in Northern Ireland last nine weeks, from the start of July until the end of August, due to the Twelfth of July bank holiday.
The school year in Scotland generally runs from middle or late August to late June or early July of the following year (usually in eastern council areas from the third Monday in August to the first Friday in July and in western council areas from the second Monday in August to the last Friday in June). Most schools operate a three - term school year, each term divided in half by a break known as ' mid-term ', lasting a week or two in October, a few days to a week in February, and a few days in May. The terms are structured as follows:
The terms are separated by two holidays each consisting of approximately two weeks: the Christmas Holidays separating the autumn and spring terms, and the Easter holidays separating the spring and summer terms. The period between the end of one school year and the start of the next is known as the summer holidays and consists of six or seven weeks.
The modern academic calendars used in UK academia are mainly descended from the English law court / legal training pupillage four term system:
The oldest UK universities changed this terminology over time, with Cambridge dropping Trinity Term and renaming Hilary Term to Lent Term, and Oxford also dropping the original Trinity Term and renaming Easter Term as Trinity Term, thus establishing the modern, predominant three - term academic year.
Most universities now operate Autumn, Spring and Summer terms of notional ten - week lengths, although some may use different names, and terms may be of uneven length, with the autumn term usually the longest. Within individual institutions practice can vary from year to year to accommodate factors such as the changing date of Easter. Some universities also have a "reading week '' in which no teaching takes place at all, the equivalent of a school half term. At other universities "reading weeks '' are not uniform and may be in different weeks in different faculties, departments, modules or even seminar groups within the same institution. Some reading weeks cover only seminars whilst lectures continue; others suspend both for the week. In some universities - for example, the University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford, and the London School of Economics and Political Science, the Autumn, Spring and Summer terms can be referred to as Michaelmas, Lent or Hilary, and Easter or Trinity terms, respectively.
Some also overlay a "semester '' system, with the new semester beginning halfway through the second term.
A selection of current examples include:
Exceptions include the University of Buckingham where undergraduate courses do not coincide with the academic year used by universities in Britain and elsewhere. Instead, they largely coincide with the calendar year -- they typically start in January or February, with examinations in autumn.
In the United States, the K -- 12 school calendar is determined by the individual states, and in some cases by the local school district, so there is considerable variation. The academic year typically consists of two 18 - week semesters, each divided into two nine - week marking periods (or quarters) or three six - week marking periods, and constituting 170 to 186 instructional days (with an average of 180). An instructional week is five instructional days, measured Monday -- Friday at all public and most private schools; Saturday -- Wednesday or Sunday -- Thursday at Muslim private schools; and so on. Grades are usually reported per marking period, but major examinations are given per semester or per year.
The traditional start date for the school year has been the Tuesday following the first Monday in September (the day after Labor Day). Though some schools still keep this tradition, many schools now start in the last two weeks of August and some schools (especially private ones) may start as late as the end of September or the first week in October. There are also some schools, especially in the southern tier of the United States, that begin at the end of July and early August. The school year ends 40 to 42 instructional weeks after it begins.
School holidays in the United States vary by jurisdiction. They include federal, state, and local holidays, all or only some of which may be observed by an individual school district. In addition to these legal holidays, there are vacation periods of varying length. Almost all schools observe the Thanksgiving holiday, and extend it to include the day after Thanksgiving since it is a Friday. There is usually a recess of about one to two weeks during the winter holiday period at Christmas and New Year, with a spring break in March or April that is usually correlated to the holidays of Easter and usually Passover.
Many schools have additional "in - service '' days in which school is in session for only faculty and staff. These days are often used for parent -- teacher conferences on student progress, especially in primary school. In secondary school, they are usually used as staff development days. Sometimes schools do half - day in - service days in which students are dismissed early, rather than full - day holidays.
Unplanned vacations can extend the school year if they could have been prevented by school administrators, in theory if not in fact. Natural disasters and other incidents do not normally extend the school year because they could not have been prevented. Thus, if the school is closed for two weeks (10 instructional days) because the boiler has broken down, that will extend the school year by two weeks because proper maintenance could have prevented the problem, but snow storms and other forms of severe weather normally do not extend the school year because they can not be prevented. Some regions allow for up to three to five snow days, and any additional missed days can extend the school year.
Many, but not all, community colleges originated as extensions of the primary and secondary school system. Some of these colleges often continue to follow the K - 12 schedule. However, most operate under a semester based schedule. Washington state schools are standardized by the State Board of Community and Technical colleges and follow a quarter system.
Three calendar systems are used by most American colleges and universities: quarter system, semester system, and trimester system. These are ways the calendar year is organized into a formal academic year, measured September -- August or August -- August. Some schools, particularly some business schools and community colleges, use the mini-mester or mini-semester system.
The quarter system divides the calendar year into four quarters, three of which constitute a complete academic year. Quarters are typically 10 -- 12 weeks long so that three quarters amount to 30 -- 36 weeks of instruction. Approximately 20 % of universities are on the quarter system. Most colleges that use the quarter system have a fall quarter from late September to mid-December, a winter quarter from early January to mid-March, a spring quarter from late March or early April to mid-June, and an optional summer session. Notable users of the quarter system include the University of California system (excluding Berkeley, Merced, the UCLA medical school, and all of the system 's law schools), Stanford, the University of Chicago, Dartmouth College, Northwestern University, University of Washington, the University of Oregon, and DePaul University. Union College uses a modified quarter system: fall, winter, and spring terms are each eleven weeks long; there are some summer classes, but there is no official summer quarter. Because Union 's calendar makes use of just three of four quarters, the three academic terms are generally (and somewhat misleadingly to outsiders) dubbed "trimesters, '' which they are not. Another notable and somewhat unique user of the quarter system is Baylor Law School: it operates on the quarter system while the remaining colleges of Baylor University operate on the semester system.
The semester system divides the calendar year into two semesters of 16 to 18 weeks each, plus summer sessions of varying lengths. The two semesters together constitute 32 to 36 weeks of instruction, so that three academic quarters equal two academic semesters. Thus, academic credit earned in quarter hours converts to semester hours at 2⁄3 of its value, while credit earned in semester hours converts to quarter hours at 3 / 2 of its value. Put another way, 3 quarter hours is 2 semester hours. Most universities on the semester system have a fall semester from the day after Labor Day in September to mid-December, a spring / winter semester from late January to early May, and an optional summer session.
In practice, the average quarter - long course is four or five units and the average semester course is three units, so a full - time student graduating in four years would take five courses per semester and three or four courses per quarter.
Some colleges and universities have a 4 - 1 - 4 system, which divides the year into two four - month terms (September to December and February to May) as well as a single one - month term in January in which students can do independent study, study abroad, internships, activities, or focus on one or two classes. The one - month term is sometimes called a mini-mester, winter session, inter-term / interim / intersession or J - term. Examples of schools using this system include: Austin College, University of Rhode Island, Whittier College, Williams College, Bethany College in West Virginia, Berea College, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Johns Hopkins University, New College of Florida, Calvin College, Elmhurst College, Gustavus Adolphus College, Linfield College, Luther College, Oberlin College, Middlebury College, Erskine College, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Eckerd College, Wofford College, Saint Olaf College, Samford University, Miami University, Hofstra University, University of Delaware, Saint Mary 's College of California, Colby College, Chapman University, McDaniel College, Elon University, Pacific University, and Pacific Lutheran University.
Some schools have a similar format but ordered as 4 - 4 - 1, with the short term in May after the conclusion of the spring semester. The term is sometimes called either "Maymester '', a portmanteau of "May '' and "semester '', or "May Term ''. Examples of schools using this system include Wartburg College, Bates College, Chatham University, Clemson University, The College of New Jersey, Elmira College, The Ohio State University, Purdue University, Transylvania University, the University of Redlands, Emory University and Washington and Lee University 's 12 - 12 - 4 undergraduate calendar.
The trimester system evolved out of the semester system. It divides the academic year into three equal portions of 15 -- 16 weeks each. Institutions that use the trimester system include Carleton College, Knox College (Illinois), Lawrence University, and the United States Merchant Marine Academy. The fall and winter trimesters constitute an academic year of 30 -- 32 weeks. The spring / summer trimester is usually divided into a 7.5 week Spring Session followed by a 6 - week or 7.5 week Summer Session. The reduced maximum course load that accompanies the shortening from the traditional semester makes the trimester system compatible with the semester system. Academic credit is thus measured on the trimester system in semester hours; there is no such thing as a "trimester hour '' of credit.
At the University of Michigan and Brigham Young University, for example, the Fall trimester (informally still called ' semester ') operates from September through December; the Winter trimester runs from January through April; and the spring - summer trimester operates from May through August, as two half - trimesters. Most spring - summer classes either meet double - time for 7 -- 8 weeks in May and June or double - time / double - plus - time for 6 -- 8 weeks in July and August (with summer half - term classes sometimes starting in the last week of June).
The quinmester academic calendar at Park University operates with five terms per year, each lasting eight weeks (January -- March, March -- May, June -- July, August -- October, and October -- December).
A number of colleges have adopted the "one course at a time '' or "block schedule '' calendar. Academic years consist of a number of terms lasting roughly four weeks each, during which a full semester 's amount of work is completed in one and only one class. Colorado College first began their "Block Plan '' in 1970, followed by Maharishi International University in 1971, and Cornell College in 1978. Quest University in Squamish, British Columbia; Tusculum College in Tusculum, Tennessee; and The University of Montana - Western are the only other colleges operating under this academic calendar.
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where did the vikings in ireland come from | History of Ireland (800 -- 1169) - wikipedia
The history of Ireland 800 -- 1169 covers the period in the history of Ireland from the first Viking raids to the Norman invasion. The first two centuries of this period are characterised by Viking raids and the subsequent Norse settlements along the coast. Viking ports were established at Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork and Limerick, which became the first large towns in Ireland.
Ireland consisted of many semi-independent túatha, and during the entire period, attempts were made by various factions to gain political control over the whole of the island. For the first two centuries of this period, this was mainly a rivalry between putative High Kings of Ireland from the northern and southern branches of the Uí Néill. The one who came closest to being de facto king over the whole of Ireland, however, was Brian Boru, the first high king in this period not belonging to the Uí Néill.
Following Brian 's death at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014, the political situation became more complex with rivalry for high kingship from several clans and dynasties. Brian 's descendants failed to maintain a unified throne, and regional squabbling over territory led indirectly to the invasion of the Normans under Richard de Clare in 1169.
Due to the rich amount of written sources, the study of Irish history 800 -- 1169 has, to a large extent, focused on gathering, interpretation and textual criticism of these. Only recently have other sources of historical knowledge received more attention, particularly archaeology. Since the modern excavations of Dublin started in 1961, followed by similar efforts in Wexford, Waterford and Limerick, great advances have been made in the understanding of the physical character of the towns established during this period.
The first part of the period from 800 to 1014 is well - studied; the "Viking age '' has attracted the interest of historians for quite some time. The period between 1014 and 1169 has received less attention. In the words of Sean Duffy, this period
has -- historiographically speaking -- fallen between two stools. Historians of early medieval Ireland, seeking to conclude their narratives on a high note, have traditionally done so after recounting the death of the famous high - king Brian Bórama (Boru) at the battle of Clontarf in 1014. On the other hand, historians of later medieval Ireland generally choose to begin proceedings with the English invasion of the 1160s. Eleventh - and early twelfth - century Ireland has, therefore, often assumed the character of a snappy epilogue or a lengthy prologue.
In trying to interpret the history of early Ireland, one of the most frequently asked questions addressed by historians is how early it is possible to speak of an Irish nation, a natio encompassing the whole island of Ireland. Early poet - historians like Flann Mainistrech constructed a history of a monarchy of all Ireland going back to and beyond St Patrick. Only a hundred years after Mainistrech, Gerald of Wales described the Irish society in his Topographia Hibernica as utterly primitive and savage. At the beginning of modern scholarly interpretation of Irish history, Eoin MacNeill and G.H. Orpen came to opposite conclusions analyzing the same period. Orpen saw an anarchic country still in ' a tribal state '; he could see no natio, no wider community in Ireland than the tribe. MacNeill stressed the reality of the high - kingship of Ireland and the existence of many of those institutions of government which Orpen found wanting, and claimed that Irish law had a national character.
A large body of contemporary and near - contemporary material on early medieval Ireland has survived. From the titles of works mentioned in these sources, it is clear that a great deal of additional material has now been lost. The surviving materials usually exist in the form of much later copies, and it is only from comparison of the various texts that the original documents can be reconstructed.
Extant Irish annals are ultimately derived from the now - lost Chronicle of Ireland which was probably being compiled in the midlands of Ireland by around 800. All include material derived from other sources, or added at a later date. The Annals of Ulster and the Annals of Innisfallen cover most of this period, but have a gap between 1132 and 1155. The Annals of Clonmacnoise survive only in an eccentric 17th - century English translation, and the Annals of Tigernach for this period are lost with Dubhaltach Mac Fhirbhisigh 's abbreviated copy known as the Chronicon Scotorum supplying only part of the missing material. The Annals of the Four Masters are late, and include some material of doubtful origin. While the annals provide a considerable amount of information, they are generally terse, and most focus their attention on the doings of the Uí Néill and of churchmen.
In addition to the annals, a large number of genealogies survive, along with geographical and legal texts, poetry, sagas and hagiography.
In the 12th century, propaganda text like Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil and Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib were composed. Even though the historical accuracy of these accounts is dubious, the Cogad especially has had a great impact on the interpretation of Irish medieval history until recently.
At the end of the 8th century, Ireland was homogeneously Gaelic in terms of society, culture and language. People lived in rural communities, and the only larger settlements were monastic towns of varying sizes. The monasteries played an important part in society, not just with regards to religious and cultural life, but also to economy and politics. Christianization had begun in the 5th century, and by the early 9th century the island was almost entirely Christian. However, the Martyrology of Tallaght (written sometime in the 8th or 9th century) hints that paganism had not yet been fully uprooted.
Eoin MacNeill identified the "oldest certain fact in the political history of Ireland '' as the existence in late prehistory of a pentarchy, probably consisting of the cóiceda or "fifths '' of the Ulaid (Ulster), the Connachta (Connacht), the Laigin (Leinster), Mumu (Munster) and Mide (Meath), although some accounts discount Mide and split Mumu in two. This is not an accurate description of the political landscape c. 800, but when discussing the political subdivisions of Ireland at this time, it is still useful to refer to this system; if Laigin and Mide are combined as Leinster, it roughly corresponds with the modern four provinces of Ireland.
The Uí Néill, divided in two main branches known as "Northern Uí Néill '' and "Southern Uí Néill '', was the leading dynasty in Ireland. The Northern Uí Néill controlled the north - western part of Ireland, and was divided into two leading branches, the Cenél Conaill in the west and Cenél nEógain, also known as the kingdom of Ailech. Cenél nEógain had become the more powerful of the two in 789, and had expanded east and southwards, gaining control over the important monastic centre Armagh and the large sub-kingdom of Airgíalla. The traditional kingdom of Ulaid, dominated by Dál Fiatach and Dál nAraidi, was now more or less confined to the area east of the river Bann.
The central region of Mide had been dominated by what became known as the "southern Uí Néill '' since the 7th century. Until the 8th century, the Síl nÁedo Sláine (also known as the kingdom of Brega) was pre-eminent, but from 728 the western dynasty of Clann Cholmáin was dominant.
In Laigin, Uí Dúnlainge was the dominant dynasty c. 800. They were closely associated with the large monastery of Kildare. Their main rival for dominance in Leinster, the Uí Cheinnselaig had not been able to claim the title king of Leinster since 728. The Uí Cheinnselaig now controlled a territory in the south - eastern part of Leinster, and had close links to the monastery of Ferns.
The kingdom of Osraige, occupying roughly the same area as the present County Kilkenny and western County Laois, was considered part of Munster until the late ninth century, when it received an independent status under king Cerball mac Dúnlainge. Munster was dominated by the Eóganachta, centred around Cashel and with Emly as ecclesiastical centre. The Dál gCais (not yet known under this name) had defeated the Corcu Modruad in 744 and taken control over the area in present County Clare from which they would later rise to dominance, but were not yet a significant power in Munster. The Eóganachta rivalled the Uí Néill in power and influence, and claimed suzerainty over the southern part of Ireland. This claim was in part anchored within the legendary ancient division of the island in Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga, "Conn 's half '' (north) and "Mug 's half '' (south).
During the 7th century the Uí Briúin had emerged in Connacht, and since the first half of the 8th century been the dominant dynasty. Uí Briúin also influenced the kingdom of Breifne on the southern borders of the Northern Uí Néill.
The early Vikings were a group of people who originated in modern - day Denmark and Norway. In the 700s, pressure on land in Scandinavia had forced many nobles and warriors to seek land elsewhere. Some of these were younger sons, who stood to inherit nothing of their father 's estate. Noblemen with little to lose began to gather together groups of warriors and go down the coast pillaging settlements.
The first recorded Viking raid in Irish history occurred in AD 795 when Vikings, possibly from Norway looted the island of Lambay. This was followed by a raid on the coast of Brega in 798, and raids on the coast of Connacht in 807. These early Viking raids were generally small in scale and quick.
These early raids interrupted the golden age of Christian Irish culture and marked the beginning of two hundred years of intermittent warfare, with waves of Viking raiders plundering monasteries and towns throughout Ireland. Most of the early raiders came from the fjords of western Norway. They are believed to have sailed first to Shetland, then south to Orkney. The Vikings would have then sailed down the Atlantic coast of Scotland, and then over to Ireland. During these early raids the Vikings also travelled to the west coast of Ireland to the Skellig Islands located off the coast of County Kerry. The early raids on Ireland seem to have been aristocratic free enterprise, and named leaders appear in the Irish annals: Saxolb (Soxulfr) in 837, Turges (Þurgestr) in 845, Agonn (Hákon) in 847.
Áed Oirdnide of the Cenél nEógain branch of the Northern Uí Néill became King of Tara in 797, after the death of his predecessor, father - in - law and political rival Donnchad Midi. (Duncan) This followed the classic Uí Néill political arrangement, where over-kingship alternated regularly between Cenél nEógain and Clann Cholmáin of the Southern Uí Néill. During his reign he campaigned in Mide, Leinster and Ulaid to assert his authority, though unlike Donnchad (Duncan) he did not campaign in Munster.
Thomas Charles - Edwards credits Áed for "the absence of any major Viking attacks on Ireland during his reign after 798 ''. The annals gives no reference, however, to Áed at any time being involved with warfare against Viking raiders.
Áed was connected to the monastic community at Armagh, and a supporter of the familia of Patrick. His rivals for supremacy within Uí Néill, the Clann Cholmáin and the Cenél Conaill, had on the other hand supported the familia of Columba. During Áed 's reign the Columban familia, following several Viking raids against Iona, established a new monastery at Kells, a royal site in the possession of Armagh. Byrne states that "... the foundation (of Kells) marked the resolution of any remaining rivalry between the Columban and Patrician churches... ''. That the community of Columba in 817 tried to have Áed excommunicated may show that not all rivalry was resolved after all.
(Feidlimid is the king For whom a single day 's work is To take the hostages of Connacht without battle And to spoil Mide.)
Fedelmid mac Crimthainn from the Eóganacht Chaisil acceded to the kingship of Munster in 820, beginning a 130 - year domination by this branch of Eóganachta. Combining military campaigns with manipulation of ecclesiastical affairs, he embarked on a policy of aggressive expansion to counter the growth in power of the Uí Néill. Conchobar mac Donnchada (Duncan) succeeded Áed Oirdnide as Uí Néill overking in 819, and soon found himself challenged by Feidlimid, both by Feidlimid launching raids into Mide and Connacht and by him interfering (as would be the Uí Néill view) in the affairs of Armagh. Conchobar and Feidlimid met at Birr in 827 to discuss peace terms, and the very fact that "the king of Munster could force the high - king to a peace conference is indicative of Feidlimid 's growing power ''.
Conchobar was succeeded by Niall Caille in 833. With Niall, we for the first time see a reference in the annals of a Uí Néill leading an army against the Vikings; he defeated Viking raiders in Derry the same year. He sought to further expand Uí Néill influence in the south; in 835 he led an army to Leinster and installed Bran mac Fáeláin as king of Leinster, and also invaded Mide. This brought him into conflict with Feidlimid, however, and in 838 a conference (rígdál mór -- "great royal meeting '') between Niall and Feidlimid was held. This meeting did not result in any lasting peace though; in 840 Feidlimid led an army into Mide and encamped at Tara, thereby challenging the Uí Néill also in the north. In 841, however, Feidlimid was routed in battle by Niall in Leinster. His successors in the south would not be able to challenge the north again to this extent until some 150 years later.
The Viking raids on Ireland resumed in 821, and intensified during the following decades. The Vikings were beginning to establish fortified encampments, longports, along the Irish coast and overwintering in Ireland instead of retreating to Scandinavia or British bases. The first known longports were at Linn Dúachaill (Annagassan) and Duiblinn (on the River Liffey, at or near present Dublin). They were also moving further inland to attack, often using rivers such as the Shannon, and then retreating to their coastal bases. The raiding parties also increased in size, becoming regular armies -- in 837 the annals report a fleet of sixty longships on the Liffey, carrying 1.500 men, and another one of a similar size sailing up the river Boyne, making their way into the inland territories and launching attacks on the lands of Brega in the south of County Meath. In general, from 837 onward larger Viking forces hit larger targets - such as the greater monastic towns of Armagh, Glendalough, Kildare, Slane, Clonard, Clonmacnoise, and Lismore - while smaller targets such as local churches with less material to be plundered may have escaped the Vikings ' attention.
One of the first named Viking leaders was Thorgest (in Latin Turgesius). The Annals of the Four Masters connect him with attacks on Connacht, Mide and the church at Clonmacnoise in 844. He was captured and drowned in Lough Owel by Máel Sechnaill mac Maíl Ruanaid, King of Mide.
In 848 a Norse army was defeated at Sciath Nechtain by Ólchobar mac Cináeda of Munster and Lorcán mac Cellaig of Leinster. For the first time the leader of the Vikings is described as royalty from Lochlann. Máel Sechnaill, now High King, defeated another army at Forrach the same year. These victories form the background of an embassy sent to the Frankish emperor Charles the Bald, reported in the Annales Bertiniani.
In 853 Olaf, identified as a "son of the king of Lochlann '', came to Ireland. Lochlann has been understood as (a district of) present Norway; it is now considered more plausible that it refers to a Scandinavian colony in the Western Isles of Scotland. Olaf assumed leadership of the Vikings in Ireland, probably in some way shared with his kinsman Ivar, first mentioned in the Irish Annals in 857. Olaf and Ivar remained active in Ireland and around the Irish Sea for the next two decades. The descendants of Ivar, the Uí Ímair, would be an important political factor for the next two centuries.
A significant new trait from the middle of the 9th century was that the Norse now also entered alliances with various Irish rulers. Cerball mac Dúnlainge had become king of Osraige in 842. Cerball had defeated Viking raiders in 846 and 847, but from 858 he is allied with Olaf and Ivar against Máel Sechnaill, campaigning in Leinster and Munster, and in 859 also raiding Máel Sechnaill 's heartlands in Mide, though Cerball had to submit to Máel Sechnaill later the same year. These alliances were by no means permanent. In 860 Cerball was allied with Máel Sechnaill in a campaign against Áed Findliath of the Northern Uí Néill, while Olaf and Ivar has allied themselves with Áed. In 870, however, Cerball and Áed appeared as allies in Leinster.
Máel Sechnaill had more success as high king than his predecessors Niall Caille and Conchobar Donnchada (Duncan) in dealing with the south, and forced Munster into submission in 858 and as noted above, Osraige in 859. He also asserted control over Ulaid, Leinster and Connacht, and was in his obituary in the Annals of Ulster described as ri h - Erenn uile, king of all Ireland. The last years of his reign he had however experienced serious opposition from his Uí Néill kinsmen of Ailech and Brega, allied with the Norse of Dublin. Byrne notes: "Máel Sechnaill 's unprecedented success in achieving the high - kingship of all Ireland was marred by the chronic complaint of Irish politics: having united the Ulaid, Munster, Osraige, Connacht and Leinster, he was attacked at the end of his reign by a combination of Uí Néill kings. ''
Áed Findliath was king of Ailech and the leading king within the Northern Uí Néill. After the death of Máel Sechnaill he is counted in the regal lists as high king, following the established scheme where this alternated between Cenél nEógain in the north and Clann Cholmáin of Mide. His kingship was disputed though, and he did not come close to being an actual king over Ireland. He could count some successes against the Norse, however, most notably burning all the Norse longports in the north in 866. Áed seems to have used the opportunity while Olaf was involved in warfare in Pictland, presumably bringing a large contingent of the Norse forces in Ireland with him. The Vikings never managed to establish permanent settlements in the north. Ó Corráin observes: "Ironically, (Áed Findliath 's) success may have held back the economic development of the north and ultimately prevented the growth of port towns like those on the east and south coasts, on which the Leinster and Munster kings subsequently depended for much of their wealth. ''
The last report of Olaf is when he and Ivar returned to Dublin in 871 from Alba. Ivar died in 873. In his obituary, the Annals of Ulster call Ivar "king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain ''. With their disappearance, there were frequent changes of leadership among the Norse in Ireland and a great deal of internecine conflict is reported for the following decades. In 902 Máel Finnia mac Flannacain of Brega and Cerball mac Muirecáin of Leinster joined forces against Dublin, and "The heathens were driven from Ireland, i.e. from the fortress of Áth Cliath (Dublin) ''.
A group of Vikings led by Hingamund who were forced out of Ireland were given permission by the Saxons to settle in Wirral, in the north west of England. "The Three Fragments '' refers to a distinct group of settlers living among these Vikings as "Irishmen '': "Then the King, who was on the point of death, and the Queen sent messengers to the Irishmen who were among the pagans, for there were many Irish among the pagans, to say to the Irishmen, life and health to you from the King of the Saxons, who is in disease, and from his Queen, who has all authority over the Saxons, and they are certain that you are true and trusty friends to them. Therefore you should take their side; for they did not bestow any greater honour to a Saxon warror or cleric than to each warrior and cleric who came to them from Ireland, because this inimical race of pagans is equally hostile to you also. '' Further evidence of an Irish presence in Wirral comes from the name of the village of Irby in Wirral, which means "farmstead of the Irishmen '', and St Bridget 's Church, West Kirby which is known to have been founded by "Christian Vikings from Ireland ''.
Historians debate the consequences that the initial phases of Viking settlement had on scholarship and literary output. Scholarly activity, for which the Irish are famous in the early Medieval period, consisted of the writing of poetry, the production of Christian devotional texts, the development of the science of computus, and the compilation of elaborate law tracts. Patronage for scholars and scholarship came largely from Irish kings who regarded the presence of court scholars as part and parcel of the trappings of kingship, but also as a means of bolstering their own image through praise poetry that such scholars composed and performed. With the advent of the Vikings, patronage ties have been argued to have been loosened, thereby affecting directly the livelihood of Irish scholars. In addition, some kings would have turned their attention to more pressing (but also more profitable) pursuits, such as engaging in warfare or alliances with Vikings or other Irish kings, as well as tapping the economic benefits that Viking trade would have brought. While this was happening in Ireland, we observe a more pronounced presence of Irish scholars in Frankish Europe, and especially in circles associated with the Carolingian court. Commonly known as peregrini, Irish scholars such as John Scottus Eriugena and Sedulius Scottus became among the most prominent and influential in ninth - century continental Europe, studying and teaching a range of subjects, from theology to political philosophy. It is tempting to link their presence on the Continent as well as the presence of scores of other Irish learned people with the impact of the Vikings on Ireland, which may have driven such people to seek employment elsewhere. If one accepts this version of events, then the Vikings can be said to have inadvertently been one of the principal catalysts for the spread of Irish culture abroad and the subsequent foundation of Irish centres on the Continent which remained influential for centuries to come.
After having been forced to leave Dublin in 902, the descendants of Ivar, now described generically in the annals as the Uí Ímair, remained active around the Irish sea; reports tell of their activities in Pictland, Strathclyde, Northumbria and Man. In 914 a new Viking fleet appeared in Waterford Harbour, and soon the Uí Ímair followed, again taking control over Viking activities in Ireland. Ragnall arrived with a fleet in Waterford, while Sitric landed at Cenn Fuait (possibly near Leixlip) in Leinster. Niall Glúndub had followed Flann Sinna as Uí Néill overking in 916, and he marched into Munster against Ragnall, but no decisive engagement followed. The men of Leinster under Augaire mac Ailella attacked Sithric but suffered a heavy defeat in the Battle of Confey or Cenn Fuait (917). This victory allowed Sithric to re-establish Norse control over Dublin. Ragnall left Ireland again in 918, and became king of York. With Sithric in Dublin and Ragnall in York, a Dublin - York axis developed which would have influence on both England and Ireland for the next half - century.
A new and more intensive period of Viking settlement in Ireland began in 914. Between 914 and 922 the Norse established Waterford, Cork, Dublin, Wexford and Limerick. Significant excavations in Dublin and Waterford in the 20th century have unearthed much of the Viking heritage of those cities. A large amount of Viking burial stones, called the Rathdown Slabs, have been found in multiple locations across South Dublin.
The Vikings founded many other coastal towns, and after several generations of coexistence and intermarriage a group of mixed Irish and Norse ethnic background arose (often called Norse - Gaels or Hiberno - Norse). Norse influence shows in the Norse - derived names of many contemporary Irish kings (e.g. Magnus, Lochlann or Sitric), and in DNA evidence in some residents of these coastal cities to this day. A genetics paper in 2006 by Dr Brian McEvoy found that most men with Irish - Viking surnames carried typically Irish genes. This suggests that Viking settlements may have had a Scandinavian elite but with most of the inhabitants being indigenous Irish.
Niall Glúndub marched on Dublin in September 919, but Sihtric met his forces at the battle of Islandbridge or Áth Cliath and inflicted on him a decisive defeat, with Niall and numerous other Irish leaders among the casualties. Dublin was secured for the Norse, and in 920 Sitric left for York and following Ragnall 's death succeeded him as ruler there in 921. Their kinsman Gofraid assumed control of Dublin. Gofraid was active as a Viking raider and slaver, but there were signs during his reign that the Norse were not just mere Vikings any more. During a raid at Armagh in 921 Gofraid "... spared the prayerhouses... and the sick from destruction '', considerations never taken by the raiders of the previous century. Another was the intense campaigns led by Dublin in eastern Ulster from 921 to 927, which appear to have aimed at conquest in order to create a Scandinavian kingdom like the one on the eastern side of the Irish sea.
Dublin 's ambitions in Ulster were halted by a series of defeats inflicted upon the Norse by Muirchertach mac Néill, the son of Niall Glúndub. According to Benjamin Hudson, "Muirchertach was one of the most successful generals of his day and was described as the ' Hector of the Irish ' ''. In the annals, it is (Duncan) Donnchad Donn from Clann Cholmáin who is titled "high king '' after Niall however, and Muirchertach did not succeed his father as king of Ailech either until 938. Apart from his victories over the Norse, Muirchertach led campaigns forcing other provincial kingdoms into submission, most notably taking the king of Munster Cellachán Caisil captive in 941. The same year he led a fleet to the Hebrides, collecting tribute there.
When Sihtric died in 927 Gofraid left for York, trying to assume kingship there. He was driven out by Athelstan, and returned to Dublin half a year later. The Vikings of Limerick had taken Dublin in his absence. Gofraid retook the city, but the struggle between Limerick continued well after Gofraid 's death in 934. He was succeeded by his son, Amlaíb, who inflicted a decisive defeat on Limerick in 937. The same year Amlaíb went to Northumbria and allied himself with Constantine II of Scotland and Owen I of Strathclyde. Athelstan defeated this coalition at Brunanburh (937), but after Athelstan 's death in 939 Amlaíb became king of York. He was joined by a kinsman with the same name, Amlaíb son of Sihtric, known as Amlaíb Cuarán.
Congalach mac Máel Mithig, known as Cnogba, succeeded (Duncan) Donnchad Donn as Uí Néill overking in 944 (Muirchertag, who otherwise might have been the obvious successor, had been killed in 943). Congalach was king of Brega and a member of Síl nÁedo Sláine, and the first of this dynasty called "High King '' since Cináed mac Írgalaig in the early 8th century. In 944 he sacked Dublin, now ruled by Blácaire mac Gofrith. When Amlaíb Cuaran returned to Ireland the next year, he became ruler of Dublin and acted as an ally of Congalach in the struggle against Ruaidrí ua Canannáin, a rival Uí Néill claimant for High Kingship from Cenél Conaill. This alliance did not last long after Ruaidrí 's death in 950, however, and Congalach was killed in 956 in a battle against an alliance of Dublin and Leinster. He was succeeded by Domnall ua Néill, and in the following decades alliances shifted constantly between the different branches of Uí Néill, Leinster and Dublin.
In 980 Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill succeeded Domnall, and the same year he defeated the forces of Dublin at the battle of Tara. Following this victory Máel Sechnaill forced Dublin into submission, and his half - brother, Amlaíbs son Glúniairn, became ruler in Dublin.
In Munster, the influence of the Dal gCais had grown under Cennétig mac Lorcáin, and his son Mathgamain was the first non-Eóganachta ruler to be named by the annals as king of Cashel (i.e. king of Munster) in historical times. He was killed in 976, and succeeded by his brother Brian, later famously known as Brian Boru.
Brian quickly established himself as the most powerful ruler in Munster, defeating the Norse of Limerick in 977 and the Eóganachta the following year. Having gained control over Munster, he tried to extend his authority by raiding Osraige in 982 and 983, and also, according to the annals of Innisfallen, entering an alliance with the Norse of Waterford, with the intention of attacking Dublin. There was such an attack, but Brian does not seem to have been involved -- instead it was Domnall Claen of Leinster who was allied with Ivar of Waterford, and they were defeated by Glúniairn and Máel Sechnaill.
Máel Sechnaill obviously perceived Brian as a threat, and as early as 982 raided Munster and the territory of the Dal gCais. The next two decades saw more or less constant warfare between them, mostly with Leinster as their battleground. Even if Brian never defeated Máel Sechnaill in battle, Brian 's and Munster 's influence was growing at the expense of Máel Sechnaill and the Southern Uí Néill. In 997 Máel Sechnaill was forced to acknowledge Brian 's authority over the south of Ireland, and they formally divided Ireland according to the traditional scheme of Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga. In the years that followed, the two of them acted as allies in accordance with this agreement. In 999 Brian quelled a revolt against him by the men of Leinster and Dublin at the battle of Glen Mama, and only restored Sigtrygg Silkbeard as ruler of Dublin after he had formally submitted to Brian by handing over hostages.
In 1000, Brian turned against Máel Sechnaill, and by 1002 he had forced Máel Sechnaill to submit to him, and now claimed kingship over the whole of Ireland. In the following decade, there were several campaigns in the north to force the Ulaid and the Northern Uí Néill into submission as well. Even if faced with multiple rebellions, both in the north and in Leinster, by 1011 he had received submission from every major regional king in Ireland, and thus earned the recognition by historians as the first real king of Ireland. During his visit to Armagh in 1005, he had his secretary add a note to the Book of Armagh where he is proclaimed as Imperator Scottorum (emperor of the Irish). According to Bart Jaski, "This can be regarded as a claim that he ruled both the Irish and the Norse in Ireland, and may even imply suzerainty over the Gaels of Scotland ''. In his obituary in the Annals of Ulster he is styled as "over-king of the Irish of Ireland, and of the foreigners and of the Britons, the Augustus of the whole of north - west Europe ''.
In 1012, Flaithbertach Ua Néill revolted against Brian, and the following year Máel Mórda of Leinster and Sigtrygg of Dublin did too. The latter led to the famous battle of Clontarf, where Brian was killed, even if his army was victorious over Máel Mórda, Sigtrygg and their allies. Sigurd Hlodvirsson, Earl of Orkney as well as forces from Man participated on the Dublin / Leinster side, and this may, in conjunction with the propagandistic account of the battle given in the Cogad, have created the still popular myth that what took place at Clontarf Good Friday 1014 was a decisive battle where the Irish defeated Viking invaders and were liberated from oppression (Duncan) Donnchadh Ó Corráin was one of the first to publicly debunk this national myth, in his groundbreaking Ireland before the Normans from 1972:
The battle of Clontarf was not a struggle between the Irish and the Norse for the sovereignty of Ireland; neither was it a great national victory which broke the power of the Norse forever (long before Clontarf the Norse had become a minor political force in Irish affairs). In fact Clontarf was part of the internal struggle for sovereignty and was essentially the revolt of the Leinstermen against the dominance of Brian, a revolt in which their Norse allies played an important but secondary role.
Following Brian 's death, Máel Sechnaill resumed as High King, supported by Flaithbertach ua Néill. In Munster, internal strife almost immediately began between Brian 's sons Donnchad and Tadc, and Dúngal Ua Donnchada of Eóganachta also claimed the kingship of the province. Though Donnchad (Duncan) eventually was victorious, the descendants of Brian would not be able to make a real claim to kingship over Ireland again until Toirdelbach Ua Briain. In Leinster, the defeat at Clontarf and death of Máel Mórda seriously weakened the Uí Dúnlainge, and opened the way for a new Uí Cheinnselaig dominance in the region. Despite the defeat at Clontarf, Sigtrygg remained ruler of Dublin until 1036.
(Smooth - haired Conchobar, welcome! Áed, Garbith, hardy Diarmait, Donnchad, two Nialls without swift sorrow, are evidently the kings of this era.)
(Duncan) Donnchad mac Brian styled himself as ' King of Ireland ' after the death of Máel Sechnaill, but failed to gain recognition as such. A glossing of Baile In Scáil lists Flaitbertach Ua Néill as high king, but he proved unable even to control the north of Ireland. Neither was anyone else able to make a recognised claim for kingship over all of Ireland: according to Byrne, "what distinguished the great interregnum of 1022 -- 72 from other periods in Irish history is that it was recognised as such by contemporary observers ''.
Flann Mainistrech had written Ríg Themra tóebaige iar tain, a regnal poem on the Christian (Uí Néill) kings of Tara some time between 1014 and 1022. When he wrote in 1056 he evidently did not know any high king of Ireland, and instead lists a number of kings of the day: (Duncan) Conchobar, Áed, Garbith, Diarmait, Donnchad (Duncan) and two Nialls. According to Byrne, these are Conchobar Ua Maíl Schechnaill of Mide, Áed Ua Conchobair of Connacht, Garbíth Ua Cathassaig of Brega, Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó of Leinster, Donnchad (Duncan) Mac Briain of Munster, Niall mac Máel Sechnaill of Ailech and Niall mac Eochada of Ulaid.
The term rí Érenn co fressarba ("High kings with opposition '') was used from the 12th century. According to Byrne, "it could be argued that the ' high kings with opposition ' met with opposition precisely because they tried to become kings of Ireland in a real sense. They were not less successful than their predecessors, but only seemed so in the light of the teaching of the schools ''. Following a similar line of reasoning, Byrne suggests that the focus from historians on the decline of the Uí Néill in the 11th century may be a "tribute to the success of their own propaganda ''. After Brian, the previous Uí Néill monopoly of high kingship as described in poems and chronicles was anyway broken for good. The Cenél nEógain suffered from internal factions, and this allowed the Ulaid, under Niall mac Eochada, to expand their influence. Niall and Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó became allies, and effectively controlled the whole east coast of Ireland. This alliance helped to make it possible for Diarmait to take direct control of Dublin in 1052. Unlike Máel Sechnaill in 980 or Brian in 999, he was n't content with just looting the city and expelling the Hiberno - Norse ruler (Echmarcach mac Ragnaill); in an unprecedented move he assumed the kingship "of the foreigners '' (ríge Gall) himself.
There were major reforms in the Irish church during the 12th century. These reforms have been generally been interpreted as a reaction to previous secularisation, but could also be seen as a continuous development. The reforms had consequences for, and were influenced by, relations within the church as well as secular politics.
Before the 11th century the church in Ireland was monastic, with bishops residing at monasteries and without a permanent diocesan structure. The circumstances surrounding the foundation of the diocese of Dublin early in the century are obscure, but at some point during the reign of Sithric Silkbeard Dúnán became Bishop of Dublin, thus establishing the first proper diocese in Ireland. His successor Gilla Pátraic was consecrated by Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, and on that occasion Lanfranc sent letters to Toirdelbach Ua Briain and Gofraid urging reforms, in particular regarding the consecration of bishops and the abolition of simony. There is no evidence of Canterbury claiming primacy over the church in Ireland prior to this, and neither Lanfranc nor Anselm ever made direct primatial claims for Canterbury in relation to the Irish church.
Toirdelbach appears to have responded favourably to this, and convened a synod in Dublin in 1080 -- the outcome of this synod is not known. Toirdelbach may have seen cooperation with Canterbury as a way to reduce the influence from Armagh, traditionally dominated by Cenél nEógain, within the church in Ireland. Gilla Pátraic 's successors Donngus Ua hAingliu and Samuel Ua hÁingliu were also consecrated in Canterbury, and so was the first bishop of Waterford, Máel Ísu Ua hAinmire in 1096. The written request for Máel Ísu 's consecration, as preserved in Eadmer 's Historia Novorum, is subscribed by bishops from Munster, Mide, Dublin and Leinster. Gilla Espaic, the first bishop of Limerick, was however not consecrated in Canterbury, but probably by Cellach of Armagh.
The first of the four main synods associated with the church reforms of the 12th century took place in Cashel in 1101, at the instigation of Muirchertach Ua Briain. How many who actually attended this synod is not known, but some of its decrees have been preserved. There is a decree on simony, on prohibition for laymen to become airchinnig (heads of ecclesiastical establishments) and finally a decree that defines what relationships are considered to be incestuous. None of these decrees are radical, but they are generally interpreted to be in line with the Gregorian reform.
The second synod was the Synod of Rathbreasail. This synod, presided by Gilla Espaic as papal legate and attended by fifty bishops, three hundred priests and over three thousand laymen, marked the transition of the Irish church from a monastic to a diocesan and parish - based church. It established two provinces, with archbishoprics at Armagh and Cashel, and prominence given to Armagh, making Cellach the primate of the church in Ireland. Each province consisted of twelve territorial dioceses. The see of Dublin was not included, as this was under primacy from Canterbury, but a place was left open for it, in the sense that only eleven dioceses were declared under Cashel.
Gilla, Cellach and Cellach 's successor Máel Máedóc Ua Morgair, better known as St. Malachy, drove the reform process onwards. Malachy, in close cooperation with (Duncan) Donnchad Ua Cerbaill, king of Fernmag / Airgialla, established the first Irish Cistercian house at Mellifont in 1142, and also facilitated the first Augustinian community of the Arrouaisian observance. Malachy used these as agencies of monastic reform within the Irish church. Malachy resigned as archbishop of Armagh in 1136, but was appointed native papal legate to Ireland by Innocent II in 1139.
No formal attempts on getting papal approval for the structure chosen at Rathbreasail are known before Malachy sought pallia for the two incumbent archbishops at Cashel and Armagh during his trip to the Continent in 1139 / 40. This first bid was unsuccessful, but Malachy was told to reapply after he had gained the agreement of all Ireland. Before undertaking his second trip to the Continent in 1148, Malachy convened a synod at St Patrick 's Island. The main challenge must have been to reach an accommodation with Dublin, and Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, presently the most powerful king in Ireland, was eager to increase Connacht influence on the church. The solution reached was to extend the number of metropolitan sees from two to four, with Tuam and Dublin included alongside Cashel and Armagh. Malachy died on his way to meet the pope, but the message was transmitted by other means and papal approval was granted. Pope Eugene III appointed cardinal John Paparo as papal legate, and sent him to Ireland with pallia for the four archbishops.
Cardinal Paparo 's first attempt to reach Ireland was stalled when king Stephen refused him safe conduct through England unless he pledged himself to do nothing in Ireland that would injure England 's interests there. This was not acceptable for Paparo, who returned to Rome. It seems likely that this was an attempt by Stephen to prevent Paparo from bringing papal confirmation for an arrangement in Ireland that would finally extinguish Canterbury 's claims in Ireland. In 1151 he returned and this time reached Ireland, his journey being facilitated by David I of Scotland. The Synod of Kells - Mellifont was convened in 1152, with Paparo presiding as papal legate. The decrees from the synod are no longer extant, but some information is preserved through the Annals of the Four Masters and Geoffrey Keating 's Foras Feasa ar Éirinn. The main result of the synod was the official papal sanctioning of the episcopal structure as created in 1111 and refined in 1148.
The Norman invasion of Ireland was a two - stage process, which began on 1 May 1169 when a force of individual Norman knights led by Raymond Fitzgerald landed near Bannow, County Wexford. This was at the request of Dermot MacMurrough (Diarmait Mac Murchada), the ousted King of Leinster who sought their help in regaining his kingdom.
Then on 18 October 1171, Henry II landed a much bigger force in Waterford to at least ensure his continuing control over the Norman force. In the process he took Dublin and had accepted the fealty of the Irish kings and bishops by 1172, so creating the "Lordship of Ireland '', which formed part of his Angevin Empire.
Gaelic Ireland and Scotland were among the last areas of Christian Europe to give up their institution of slavery. Under Gaelic custom, prisoners of war were routinely taken as slaves. However, ironically, it was during the period that slavery was disappearing across most of western Europe that it was reaching its zenith in Ireland and Scotland; during the Viking invasions and the subsequent warring between Scandinavians and the native Irish the number of captives taken as slaves drastically increased. The Irish church was vehemently opposed to slavery, and blamed the 1169 Norman invasion on the persistence of the practice, as well as the practices of polygyny and divorce.
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where does see you later alligator come from | See You Later, Alligator - wikipedia
"See You Later, Alligator '' is the title of an iconic rock and roll song of the 1950s written and first recorded by American singer - songwriter Bobby Charles. The song was a Top Ten hit for Bill Haley and His Comets in 1956 in the U.S.
Originally entitled "Later, Alligator '', the song, based on a 12 - bar blues chord structure (141541), was written by Louisiana songwriter Robert Charles Guidry and first recorded by him under his professional name "Bobby Charles '' in 1955. His recording was released on Chess Records under the title "Later, Alligator '' as 1609 in November 1955 backed with "On Bended Knee ''. Guidry, a Cajun musician, adopted a New Orleans - influenced blues style for the recording. The melody of the song was borrowed from bluesman Guitar Slim 's "Later for You, Baby '' which was recorded in 1954. Guidry also wrote "Walking to New Orleans '', which was recorded by Fats Domino.
The song was also recorded by Roy Hall, who had written and recorded "Whole Lotta Shakin ' Goin ' On '' ten weeks before, on December 1, 1955 at a Nashville session.
The most famous recording of the song, however, was that created on December 12, 1955 by Bill Haley & His Comets at a recording session for Decca Records. Unlike most of Haley 's recordings for Decca, which were created at the Pythian Temple studio in New York City, "Alligator '' and its flip - side, "The Paper Boy (On Main Street U.S.A.) '', were recorded at the Decca Building in New York. The song was featured in Rock Around the Clock, a musical film Haley and the Comets began shooting in January 1956. Regarding the claim that Decca records released this disk on February 1, 1956 in both 45 and 78 formats, Billboard had already listed the song as debuting on 14 January 1956 on the Best Sellers in Stores chart at # 25 and on the Top 100 at # 56. The Decca single peaked at no. 6 on the Billboard and CashBox pop singles chart in 1956.
Haley 's arrangement of the song is faster - paced than Guidry 's original, and in particular the addition of a two - four beat changed the song from a rhythm and blues "shuffle '' to rock and roll. The song also has a more light - hearted beat than the original, starting out with a high - pitched, childlike voice (belonging to Haley 's lead guitarist, Franny Beecher) reciting the title of the song. The ending of the song was virtually identical to the conclusion of Haley 's earlier hit, "Shake, Rattle and Roll ''.
Bill Haley 's recording of "See You Later, Alligator '' popularized a catchphrase already in use at the time, and Princess Margaret of the United Kingdom was quoted as saying it (this is related in a biography of the Princess published in the early 1960s). It would become Haley 's third and final million - selling single, although it did not hit the top of the American charts.
Haley and the Comets re-recorded the song several more times: in 1964 for Guest Star Records, a drastically rearranged version for Mexico 's Orfeon Records in 1966, and once more in 1968 for Sweden 's Sonet Records. It was also a staple of the band 's live act. Several post-Haley incarnations of The Comets have also recorded versions of the song. Guidry, under his Bobby Charles pseudonym, re-recorded the song in the 1990s.
In Spain this song was covered by a popular group called Parchís, under the title "Hasta luego cocodrilo ''.
On Broadway, "See You Later Alligator '' was sung by Robert Britton Lyons, portraying Carl Perkins, in the musical Million Dollar Quartet, which opened in New York in April, 2010. Robert Britton Lyons also covered the song in the Million Dollar Quartet original Broadway cast recording (copyright 2010 by MDQ Merchandising, LLC).
Dr. Feelgood also recorded a version based on this original in 1986. The song was also recorded by Roy Hall and Otto Bash in 1956. Wayne Gibson with the Dynamic Sounds featuring Jimmy Page on lead guitar released the song as a single in August, 1964. Freddie and the Dreamers also recorded the song in 1964. Sha Na Na recorded the song for their syndicated TV show in 1978. Mud, The Shakers, Orion, Millie Small, James Last, Col Joye & The Joy Boys, Rood Adeo & Nighthawks at the Diner, Rock House, Horst Jankowski, and Johnny Earle have also recorded the song.
In 1967, Bob Dylan and The Band recorded a parody of the song entitled "See You Later, Allen Ginsberg, '' which was released on The Bootleg Series Vol. 11: The Basement Tapes Complete in November 2014.
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difference between agricultural land and non agricultural land | Agricultural land - wikipedia
Agricultural land is typically land devoted to agriculture, the systematic and controlled use of other forms of life -- particularly the rearing of livestock and production of crops -- to produce food for humans. It is thus generally synonymous with both farmland or cropland, as well as pasture or rangeland.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and others following its definitions, however, also use agricultural land or agricultural area as a term of art, where it means the collection of:
This sense of "agricultural land '' thus includes a great deal of land not devoted to agricultural use. The land actually under annually - replanted crops in any given year is instead said to constitute "sown land '' or "cropped land ''. "Permanent cropland '' includes forested plantations used to harvest coffee, rubber, or fruit but not tree farms or proper forests used for wood or timber. Land able to be used for farming is called "cultivable land ''. Farmland, meanwhile, is used variously in reference to all agricultural land, to all cultivable land, or just to the newly restricted sense of "arable land ''. Depending upon its use of artificial irrigation, the FAO 's "agricultural land '' may be divided into irrigated and non-irrigated land.
In the context of zoning, agricultural land or agriculturally - zoned land refers to plots that are permitted to be used for agricultural activities, without regard to its present use or even suitability. In some areas, agricultural land is protected so that it can be farmed without any threat of development. The Agricultural Land Reserve in British Columbia in Canada, for instance, requires approval from its Agricultural Land Commission before its lands can be removed or subdivided.
Under the FAO 's definitions above, agricultural land covers 38.4 % of the world 's land area as of 2011. Permanent pastures are 68.4 % of all agricultural land (26.3 % of global land area), arable land (row crops) is 28.4 % of all agricultural land (10.9 % of global land area), and permanent crops (e.g. vineyards and orchards) are 3.1 % (1.2 % of global land area).
Globally, the total amount of permanent pasture according to the FAO has been in decline since 1998, although it should be noted that this does not account for gross conversion (e.g. land extensively cleared for agriculture in some areas, while converted from agriculture to other uses elsewhere) and more detailed analyses have demonstrated this. For example, Lark et al. 2015 found that in the United States cropland increased by 2.98 million acres from 2008 - 2012 (comprising 7.34 million acres (29,700 km) converted to agriculture, and 4.36 million acres (17,600 km) converted from agriculture).
Source: Helgi Library, World Bank, FAOSTAT
The cost of Russian farmland is as little as € 1,500 - 2,000 / ha (£ 1,260 - 1,680 / ha). Farmland can be available in France for roughly € 10,000 / ha, but this is a bargain; for quality soil, realistic prices vary between € 50,000 - 100,000 / ha. Farmland has been seen to be available on the Spanish market for as little as € 10,000 / ha, but this is non-irrigated land.
The average Russian farm measures 150ha. The most prevalent crops in Russia are wheat, barley, corn, rice, sugar beet, soy beans, sunflower, potatoes and vegetables. The Krasnodar region in Russia has 86,000 ha of arable land. Russian farmers harvested roughly 85 - 90 million tonnes of wheat annually in the years around 2010. Russia exported most to Egypt, Turkey and Iran in 2012; China was a significant export market as well. The average yield from the Krasnodar region was between 4 and 5 tonnes per ha, while the Russian average was only 2t / ha. The Basic Element Group, which is a conglomerate owned by Oleg Deripaska, is one of Russia 's leading agricultural producers, and owns or manages 109,000 ha of Russian farmland, out of 90m actual and 115m total (0.12 % actual).
In 2013, Ukraine was ranked third in corn production and sixth in wheat production. It was the main supplier of corn, wheat, and rape to Europe, although it is unclear whether the internal supply from countries like France were accounted in this calculation. Ukrainian farmers achieve 60 % of the output per unit area of their North American competitors. UkrLandFarming PLC produces from 1.6 m acres corn wheat barley sugar beet and sunflowers. Until 2014, the chief Ukrainian export terminal was the Crimean port of Sebastopol.
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in what stage of adulthood does one more typically use selective optimization with compensation | Adult development - wikipedia
Adult development encompasses the changes that occur in biological and psychological domains of human life from the end of adolescence until the end of one 's life. These changes may be gradual or rapid, and can reflect positive, negative, or no change from previous levels of functioning. Changes occur at the cellular level and are partially explained by biological theories of adult development and aging. Biological changes influence psychological and interpersonal / social developmental changes, which are often described by stage theories of human development. Stage theories typically focus on "age - appropriate '' developmental tasks to be achieved at each stage. Erik Erikson and Carl Jung proposed stage theories of human development that encompass the entire life span, and emphasized the potential for positive change very late in life.
The concept of adulthood has legal and socio - cultural definitions. The legal definition of an adult is a person who has reached the age at which they are considered responsible for their own actions, and therefore legally accountable for them. This is referred to as the age of majority, which is age 18 in most cultures, although there is variation from 16 to 21. The socio - cultural definition of being an adult is based on what a culture normatively views as being the required criteria for adulthood, which in turn influences the life of individuals within that culture. This may or may not coincide with the legal definition. Current views on adult development in late life focus on the concept of successful aging, defined as "... low probability of disease and disease - related disability, high cognitive and physical functional capacity, and active engagement with life. ''
Biomedical theories hold that one can age successfully by caring for physical health and minimizing loss in function, whereas psychosocial theories posit that capitalizing upon social and cognitive resources, such as a positive attitude or social support from neighbors and friends, is key to aging successfully. Jeanne Louise Calment exemplifies successful aging as the longest living person, dying at the age of 122 years. Her long life can be attributed to her genetics (both parents lived into their 80s) and her active lifestyle and optimistic attitude. She enjoyed many hobbies and physical activities and believed that laughter contributed to her longevity. She poured olive oil on all of her food and skin, which she believed also contributed to her long life and youthful appearance.
Changes in adulthood have been described by a number of theories and metatheories, which serve as framework for adult development research.
Life span development is an overarching framework that considers individual development (ontogeny) from conception to old age. The framework considers the lifelong accumulation of developmental gains and losses, with the relative proportion of gains to losses diminishing over an individual 's lifetime. According to this theory, life span development has multiple trajectories (positive, negative, stable) and causes (biological, psychological, social, and cultural). Individual variation is a hallmark of this theory -- not all individuals develop and age at the same rate and in the same manner.
Erik Erikson developed stages of ego development that extended through childhood, adolescence and adulthood. He was trained in psychoanalysis and was highly influenced by Freud, but unlike Freud, Erikson believed that social interaction is very important to the individual 's psychosocial development. His stage theory consists of 8 stages in life from birth to old age, each of which is characterized by a specific developmental task. During each stage, one developmental task is dominant, but may be carried forward into later stages as well. According to Erikson, individuals may experience tension when advancing to new stages of development, and seek to establish equilibrium within each stage.
Michael Commons 's Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC) is an enhancement and simplification of Inhelder and Piaget 's developmental model. It offers a standard method of examining the universal pattern of development. In order for one task to be more hierarchically complex than another, the new task must meet three requirements: 1) It must be defined in terms of the lower stage actions; 2) it must coordinate the lower stage actions; 3) it must do so in a non-arbitrary way
Carl Jung, a Swis psychoanalyst, formulated four stages of development and believed that development was a function of reconciling opposing forces.
Daniel Levinson 's theory is a set of psychosocial ' seasons ' through which adults must pass as they move through early adulthood and midlife. Each of these seasons is created by the challenges of building or maintaining a life structure, by the social norms that apply to particular age groups, particularly in relation to relationships and career. The process that underlies all these stages is individuation - a movement towards balance and wholeness over time. The key stages that he discerned in early adulthood and midlife were as follows:
The ' biopsychosocial ' approach to adult development states that in order to understand human development in its fullness, biological, psychological and social levels of analysis must be included. There are a variety of biopsychosocial meta - models, but all entail a commitment to the following four premises:
Physical development in midlife and beyond include changes at the biological level (senescence) and larger organ and musculoskeletal levels. Sensory changes and degeneration begin to be common in midlife. Degeneration can include the break down of muscle, bones and joints, leading to physical ailments such as sarcopenia or arthritis.
At the sensory level, changes occur to vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell, and taste. Two common sensory changes that begin in midlife include our ability to see close objects and our ability to hear high pitches. Other developmental changes to vision might include cataracts, glaucoma, and the loss of central visual field with macular degeneration. Hearing also becomes impaired in midlife and aging adults, particularly in men. In the past 30 years, hearing impairment has doubled. Hearing aids as an aid for hearing loss still leave many individuals dissatisfied with their quality of hearing. Olfaction can co-occur with changes in sense of taste. "Olfactory dysfunction can impair quality of life and may be a marker for other deficits and illnesses '' and can also lead to decreased satisfaction in taste when eating. Losses to the sense of touch are usually noticed when there is a decline in the ability to detect a vibratory stimulus. The loss in sense of touch can harm a person 's fine motor skills such as writing and using utensils. The ability to feel painful stimuli is usually preserved in aging, but the process of decline for touch is accelerated in those with diabetes.
Physical deterioration to the body begins to increase in midlife and late life, and includes degeneration of muscle, bones, and joints. Sarcopenia, a normal developmental change, is the degeneration of muscle mass, which includes both strength and quality. This change occurs even in those who consider themselves athletes, and is accelerated by physical inactivity. Many of the contributing factors that may cause sarcopenia include neuronal and hormonal changes, inadequate nutrition, and physical inactivity. Apoptosis has also been suggested as an underlying mechanism in the progression of sarcopenia. The prevalence of sarcopenia increases as people age and is associated with the increased likelihood of disability and restricted independence among elderly people. Approaches to preventing and treating sarcopenia are being explored by researchers. A specific preventative approach includes progressive resistance training, which is safe and effective for the elderly.
Developmental changes to various organs and organ systems occur throughout life. These changes affect responses to stress and illness, and can compromise the body 's ability to cope with demand on organs. The altered functioning of the heart, lungs, and even skin in old age can be attributed to factors like cell death or endocrine hormones. There are changes to the reproductive system in midlife adults, most notably menopause for women, the permanent end of fertility. In men, hormonal changes also affect their reproductive and sexual physiology, but these changes are not as extreme as those experienced by women.
As adult bodies undergo a variety of physical changes that cause health to decline, a higher risk of contracting a variety of illnesses, both physical and mental, is possible.
Scientists have made a distinctive connection between aging and cancer. It has been shown that the majority of cancer cases occur in those over 50 years of age. This may be due to the decline in strength of the immune system as one ages or co existing conditions. There a variety of symptoms associated with cancer, commonly growths or tumors may be indicators of cancer. Radiation, chemotherapy, and in some cases, surgery, is used to treat the cancer.
Osteoarthritis is one of the most commonly experienced illnesses in adults as they age. Although there are a variety of types of arthritis they all include very similar symptoms: aching joints, stiff joints, continued joint pain, and problems moving joints.
It has been found that older age does increase the risk factor of contracting a cardiovascular disease. Hypertension and high cholesterol have also been found to increase the likelihood of acquiring a cardiovascular disease, which are also commonly found in older adults. Cardiovascular diseases include a variety of heart conditions that may induce a heart attack or other heart - related problems. Healthy eating, exercise, and avoiding smoking are usually used to prevent cardiovascular disease.
Infection occurs more easily as one ages, as the immune system starts to slow and become less effective. Aging also changes how the immune system reacts to infection, making new infections harder to detect and attack. Essentially, the immune system has a higher chance of being compromised the older one gets.
New neurons are constantly formed from stem cells in parts of the adult brain throughout adulthood, a process called adult neurogenesis. The hippocampus is the area of the brain that is most active in neurogenesis. Research shows that thousands of new neurons are produced in the hippocampus every day. The brain constantly changes and rewires itself throughout adulthood, a process known as neuroplasticity. Evidence suggests that the brain changes in response to diet, exercise, social environment, exercise, stress and toxin intake. These same external factors also influence genetic expression throughout adult life - a phenomenon known as genetic plasticity.
Dementia is characterized by persistent, multiple cognitive deficits in the domains including, but not limited to, memory, language, and visuospatial skills and can result from central nervous system dysfunction. Two forms of dementia exist: degenerative and nondegenerative. The progression of nondegenerative dementias, like head trauma and brain infections, can be slowed or halted but degenerative forms of dementia, like Parkinson 's disease, Alzheimer 's disease, and Huntington 's are irreversible and incurable.
Alzheimer 's disease (AD) was discovered in 1907 by Dr. Alois Alzheimer, a German neuropathologist and psychiatrist. Physiological abnormalities associated with AD include neurofibrillary plaques and tangles. Neuritic plaques, that target the outer regions of the cortex, consist of withering neuronal material from a protein, amyloid - beta. Neurofibrillary tangles, paired helical filaments containing over-phosphorylated tau protein, are located within the nerve cell. Early symptoms of AD include difficulty remembering names and events, while later symptoms include impaired judgment, disorientation, confusion, behavior changes, and difficulty speaking, swallowing, and walking. After initial diagnosis, a person with AD can live, on average, an additional 3 to 10 years with the disease. In 2013, it was estimated that 5.2 million Americans of all ages had AD. Environmental factors such as head trauma, high cholesterol, and type 2 diabetes can increase the likelihood of AD.
Huntington 's disease (HD) named after George Huntington is a disorder that is caused by an inherited defect in a single gene on chromosome 4, resulting in a progressive loss of mental faculties and physical control. HD affects muscle coordination (involuntary writhing) and leads to cognitive decline and psychiatric issues. Symptoms usually appear between the ages of 30 - 50 but can occur at any age, including adolescence. There is currently no cure for HD and treatments focus on managing symptoms and quality of life. Current estimates claim that 1 in 10,000 Americans have HD, however, 1 in 250,000 are at - risk of inheriting it from a parent. Most individuals with HD live 10 to 20 years after a diagnosis.
Parkinson 's disease (PD) was first described by James Parkinson in 1817. It typically affects people over the age of 50. PD is related to damaged nerve cells that produce dopamine. Common symptoms experienced by people with PD include trembling of the hands, arms, legs, jaw, or head; rigidity (stiffness in limbs and the midsection); bradykinesia; and postural instability, leading to impaired balance and / or coordination. PD can not be cured, but diagnosis and treatment can help relieve symptoms. Treatment options include medications like Carbidopa / Levodopa (L - dopa), that reduce the severity of motor symptoms in patients. Alternative treatment options include non-pharmacological therapy. Surgery (pallidotomy, thalamotomy) is often viewed as the last viable option.
Older adults represent a significant proportion of the population, and this proportion is expected to increase with time. Mental health concerns of older adults are important at treatment and support levels, as well as policy issues. The prevalence of suicide among older adults is higher than in any other age group.
Depression is one of the most common disorders that presents in old age and is comorbid with other physical and psychiatric conditions, perhaps due to the stress induced by these conditions. In older adults, depression presents as impairments already associated with age such as memory and psychomotor speed. Research indicates that higher levels of exercise can decrease the likelihood of depression in older adults even after taking into consideration factors such as chronic conditions, body mass index, and social relationships. In addition to exercise, behavioral rehabilitation and prescribed antidepressants, which is well tolerated in older adults, can be used to treat depression.
Anxiety is a relatively uncommon diagnosis in older adults and it difficult to determine its prevalence. Anxiety disorders in late life are more likely to be under - diagnosed because of medical comorbidity, cognitive decline, and changes in life circumstances that younger adults do not face. However, in the Epidemiological Catchment Area Project, researchers found that 6 - month prevalence rates for anxiety disorders were lowest for the 65 years of age and older cohort. A recent study found that the prevalence of general anxiety disorder (GAD) in adults aged 55 or older in the United States was 33.7 % with an onset before the age of 50.
ADHD is generally believed to be a children 's disorder and is not commonly studied in adults. However, ADHD in adults results in lower household incomes, less educational achievement as well as a higher risk of marital issues and substance abuse. Activities such as driving can be affected; adults who suffer from inattentiveness due to ADHD experience increased rates of car accidents. Adults with ADHD tend to be more creative, vibrant, aware of multiple activities, and are able to multitask when interested in a certain topic.
The impact of mental disorders such as schizophrenia, other forms of psychosis, and bipolar disorder in adulthood is largely mediated by the environmental context. Those in hospitals and nursing homes differ in risk for a multitude of disorders in comparison to community - dwelling older adults. Differences in how these environments treat mental illness and provide social support could help explain disparities and lead to better knowledge of how these disorders are manifested in adulthood.
Exercising four to six times a week for thirty to sixty minutes has physical and cognitive effects such as lowering blood sugar and increasing neural plasticity. Physical activity reduces loss of function by 10 % each decade after the age of 60 and active individuals drop their rate of decline in half. Cardio activities like walking promote endurance while strength, flexibility, and balance can all be improved through Tai Chi, yoga, and water aerobics. Diets containing foods with calcium, fiber, and potassium are especially important for good health while eliminating foods with high sodium or fat content. A well - balanced diet can increase resistance to disease and improve management of chronic health problems thus making nutrition an important factor for health and well - being in adulthood.
Mental stimulation and optimism are vital to health and well - being in late adulthood. Adults who participate in intellectually stimulating activities every day are more likely to maintain their cognitive faculties and are less likely to show a decline in memory abilities. Mental exercise activities such as crossword puzzles, spatial reasoning tasks, and other mentally stimulating activities can help adults increase their brain fitness. Additionally, researchers have found that optimism, community engagement, physical activity and emotional support can help older adults maintain their resiliency as they continue through their life span.
Cognitive, physical, and social losses, as well as gains, are to be expected throughout the lifespan. Older adults typically self - report having a higher sense of well - being than their younger counterparts because of their emotional self - regulation. Researchers use Selective Optimization with Compensation Theory to explain how adults compensate for changes to their mental and physical abilities, as well as their social realities. Older adults can use both internal and external resources to help cope with these changes.
The loss of loved ones and ensuing grief and bereavement are inevitable parts of life. Positive coping strategies are used when faced with emotional crises, as well as when coping with everyday mental and physical losses. Adult development comes with both gains and losses, and it is important to be aware and plan ahead for these changes in order to age successfully.
Personality change and stability occur in adulthood. For example, self - confidence, warmth, self - control, and emotional stability increase with age, whereas neuroticism and openness to experience tend to decline with age.
Two types of statistics are used to classify personality change over the life span. Rank - order change refers to a change in an individual 's personality trait relative to other individuals. Mean - level change refers to absolute change in the individual 's level of a certain trait over time.
The plaster hypothesis refers to personality traits tending to stabilize by age 30. Stability in personality throughout adulthood has been observed in longitudinal and sequential research. However, personality also changes. Research on the Big 5 Personality traits include a decrease in openness and extraversion in adulthood; an increase of agreeableness with age; peak conscientiousness in middle age; and a decrease of neuroticism late in life. The concepts of both adjustment and growth as developmental processes help reconcile the large body of evidence for personality stability and the growing body of evidence for personality change. There are normative adjustments in personality with increasing age, but personality is largely stable throughout adulthood.
According to the lifespan approach, intelligence is a multidimensional and multidirectional construct characterized by plasticity and interindividual variability. Intellectual development throughout the lifespan is characterized by decline as well as stability and improvement. Mechanics of intelligence, the basic architecture of information processing, decreases with age. Pragmatic intelligence, knowledge acquired through culture and experience, remains relatively stable with age.
The psychometric approach assesses intelligence based on scores on standardized tests such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and Stanford Binet for children. The Cognitive Structural approach measures intelligence by assessing the ways people conceptualize and solve problems, rather than by test scores.
Primary mental abilities are independent groups of factors that contribute to intelligent behavior and include word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed. Primary mental abilities decline around the age of 60 and may interfere with life functioning. Secondary mental abilities include crystallized intelligence (knowledge acquired through experience) and fluid intelligence (abilities of flexible and abstract thinking). Fluid intelligence declines steadily in adulthood while crystallized intelligence increases and remains fairly stable with age until very late in life.
A combination of friendships and family are the support system for many individuals and an integral part of their lives from young adulthood to old age.
Family relationships tend to be some of the most enduring bonds created within one 's lifetime. As adults age, their children often feel a sense of filial obligation, in which they feel obligated to care for their parents. This is particularly prominent in Asian cultures. Marital satisfaction remains high in older couples, oftentimes increasing shortly after retirement. This can be attributed to increased maturity and reduced conflict within the relationship. However, when health problems arise, the relationship can become strained. Studies of spousal caregivers of individuals with Alzheimer 's disease show marital satisfaction is significantly lower than in couples who are not afflicted. Most people will experience the loss of a family member by death within their lifetime. This life event is usually accompanied by some form of bereavement, or grief. There is no set time frame for a mourning period after a loved one passes away, rather every person experiences bereavement in a different form and manner.
Friendships, similar to family relationships, are often the support system for many individuals and a fundamental aspect of life from young adulthood to old age. Social friendships are important to emotional fulfillment, behavioral adjustment, and cognitive function. Research has shown that emotional closeness in relationships greatly increases with age even though the number of social relationships and the development of new relationships begin to decline. In young adulthood, friendships are grounded in similar aged peers with similar goals, though these relations might be more transitory. In older adulthood, friendships have been found to be much deeper and longer lasting. While small in number, the quality of relationships is generally thought to be much stronger for older adults.
Retirement, or the point in which a person stops employment entirely, is often a time of psychological distress or a time of high quality and enhanced subjective well - being for individuals. Most individuals choose to retire between the ages of 50 to 70, and researchers have examined how this transition affects subjective well - being in old age. One study examined subjective well - being in retirement as a function of marital quality, life course, and gender. Results indicated a positive correlation between well - being for married couples who retire around the same time compared to couples in which one spouse retires while the other continues to work.
Retirement communities provide for individuals who want to live independently but do not wish to maintain a home. They can maintain their autonomy while living in a community with individuals who are similar in age as well as within the same stage of life.
Assisted living facilities are housing options for older adults that provide a supportive living arrangement for people who need assistance with personal care, such as bathing or taking medications, but are not so impaired that they need 24 - hour care. These facilities provide older adults with a home - like environment and personal control while helping to meet residents ' daily routines and special needs.
Adult day care is designed to provide social support, companionship, healthcare, and other services for adult family members who may pose safety risks if left at home alone while another family member, typically a care giver, must work or otherwise leave the home. Adults who have cognitive impairments should be carefully introduced to adult day care.
Nursing home facilities provide residents with 24 - hour skilled medical or intermediate care. A nursing home is typically seen as a decision of last resort for many family members. While the patient is receiving comprehensive care, the cost of nursing homes can be very high with few insurance companies choosing to cover it.
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what is wrong with the character brick on the middle | Atticus Shaffer - wikipedia
Atticus Shaffer (born June 19, 1998) is an American actor known for portraying Brick Heck on the ABC sitcom The Middle, as well as for voicing Edgar in the film Frankenweenie (2012), Ono on the Disney Junior series The Lion Guard, and for his brief appearance in Hancock (2008).
Shaffer was born in Santa Clarita, California, the son of Ron and Debbie Shaffer. He lives in Acton, California.
Shaffer has type four osteogenesis imperfecta a condition involving a defect in type 1 collagen, which causes fragile bones. He is a Christian and has given interviews on that.
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what was the last season of once upon a time | Once Upon a Time (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the American ABC fantasy - drama Once Upon a Time was ordered on May 11, 2017. It will consist of 22 episodes, airing on Fridays, having premiered on October 6, 2017.
This season marks a significant change for the series, as it was announced at the end of the sixth season that the majority of the main cast members would not be returning for season 7. Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle will be the only ones remaining. Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were announced as new regulars in May 2017. Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar were announced as additional regulars in July 2017. In August 2017, it was announced that Mekia Cox had been promoted to series regular after initially joining the cast in July as recurring.
The storyline is softly rebooted with a main narrative led by an adult Henry Mills, set several years after last season 's events. In February 2018, it was announced the seventh season would serve as the final season of the series.
Years after the Final Battle, Henry leaves Storybrooke in search of his own story only to find himself in New Fairy Tale Land, where a conflict between Lady Tremaine and her stepdaughter Cinderella culminates in the casting of yet another curse. As Henry 's daughter tries to make him believe in the curse, the enchantress Gothel sets out to revive a cult with sinister intentions.
The seventh season finale, which will serve as the series finale, is set to broadcast on May 18, 2018.
In January 2017, while season 6 was still in production, ABC president Channing Dungey spoke of a possible "reset '' of the show 's narrative in the event that the show received a season 7 order. After much speculation, executive producers Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis later confirmed that certain characters would have their storylines wrapped up and that the back - end of the sixth season had been written with the season 7 narrative change in mind. Despite the major changes from seasons past, the showrunners have said that they do not view season 7 as a complete reboot of the show. Horowitz said: "I hesitate to use the word "reboot. '' We 're more thinking about it as a hybrid of a lot of things. We 're paying homage to the original premise, but there are certain characters who are returning and some who are not. It 's a combination of a lot of things, but what we 're trying to do is go in a new direction but stay true to the spirit of what the show has always been. ''
In July 2017, the creators announced that the series now take place in the Seattle neighborhood of Hyperion Heights, which was created under a new and darker curse. Residents of this neighborhood include displaced characters from the original and new versions of the Enchanted Forest, as well as regular people from the Land Without Magic. This differs from Storybrooke in season 1, which was an isolated town that was blocked off from real - world Maine. The initial villain is Lady Tremaine, who assumes the role of an urban developer who seeks to "gentrify the neighborhood '' and push out and separate fairy tale residents. Meanwhile, Storybrooke and various Fairy Tale Land locations still appear in the flashbacks of the season as the story bounces back and forth between the characters ' lives before and during the latest curse.
In May 2017, it was announced that Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle would be the only series regulars from season 6 to continue onto season 7. It was teased that the three would be portraying their original characters but with cursed identities, similar to the circumstances in season 1. In July, the first promo of the season revealed that Killian is now a Seattle police officer with the last name Rogers, who is living with an unexplained sense of loss. In August, it was revealed that Regina is now a bar owner named Roni, who is more dressed down and is "no longer in charge. ''
Former main cast member Jennifer Morrison has confirmed that she has agreed to return for one episode, later revealed to be the second episode of the season. Morrison announced her last filming day on July 19, 2017. On July 22, it was confirmed that Emilie de Ravin would return for the fourth episode in the seventh season.
In March 2017, Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were cast for unknown guest roles in the season six finale. During the episode, it was revealed that West was portraying an adult Henry Mills, while Fernandez portrayed his daughter, Lucy. After that episode 's airing, they were confirmed as series regulars for season 7. West will be taking over the role from Jared S. Gilmore, who has been confirmed to appear in at least the first two episodes of the season.
On July 6, 2017, it was announced that Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar would be two additional series regulars for season 7. Additionally, Adelaide Kane, Mekia Cox, and Rose Reynolds were cast in recurring roles for the upcoming season. On July 15, it was announced that Ramirez would be portraying Cinderella, albeit a different version from the one previously played by Jessy Schram for the first six seasons. On July 22 at San Diego Comic - Con, it was revealed that Anwar and Kane will be portraying Lady Tremaine and Drizella, respectively. Cox would be portraying Tiana from The Princess and the Frog, while Reynolds would be playing an alternate version of Alice, a character previously heavily featured in the spin - off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland. In August 2017, Cox was promoted to series regular.
On August 1, it was announced that Giles Matthey would return as an adult Gideon for the season 's fourth episode. The episode, also featuring Emilie de Ravin, would be centered around Rumple. On that same day, it was also announced that Emma Booth was cast in a major recurring role as the Witch, whose more specific identity would be revealed later on during the season. On August 25, Kevin Ryan announced that he would be making an appearance as a new prince in the upcoming season. On August 30, it was announced that Robin Givens had been cast as Tiana 's mother, Eudora.
On September 8, it was announced that Meegan Warner would be guest starring as an alternate version of Rapunzel, a character previously featured in one episode of season 3. It was later revealed that the character would appear in a multi-episode arc. On September 20, it was announced that former main Rebecca Mader would return for multiple episodes in the seventh season as Zelena, who will also have a cursed identity.
On October 2, it was announced that Dr. Facilier from The Princess and the Frog would make an appearance during the season, later revealed to be portrayed by Daniel Francis in the season 's fifth episode. On October 3, it was announced that flashbacks of the ninth episode would feature a "tweenage '' Anastasia, Lady Tremaine 's other biological daughter.
On November 1, it was announced that Tiera Skovbye would be recurring as an older version of Robin, the daughter of Zelena and Robin Hood. On November 2, it was announced that Nathan Parsons had been cast in a recurring role as Nick, a lawyer and potential love interest for another character. On November 3, it was announced that the show was casting for the role of Naveen from The Princess and the Frog, who will be recurring in the second half of the season. It was later revealed that the role would be played by Jeff Pierre, who will first appear in the twelfth episode of the season. On November 16, actor Chad Rook announced that he had been cast in an unknown role.
On January 23, 2018, it was announced that Kip Pardue had been cast as Chad, Zelena 's fiancé from when she was cursed as Kelly. He will make his first appearance in the seventeenth episode of the season.
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when did christianity officially begin what book is this event recorded in | History of Christianity - wikipedia
The history of Christianity concerns the Christian religion, Christendom, and the Church with its various denominations, from the 1st century to the present.
Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christianity spread to all of Europe in the Middle Ages. Christianity expanded throughout the world and became the world 's largest religion due to European colonialism. Today there are more than two billion Christians worldwide.
During its early history, Christianity grew from a 1st - century Jewish following to a religion that existed across the entire Greco - Roman world and beyond.
Early Christianity may be divided into 2 distinct phases: the apostolic period, when the first apostles were alive and led the Church, and the post-apostolic period, when an early episcopal structure developed, and persecution was periodically intense. The Roman persecution of Christians ended in AD 324 when Constantine the Great decreed tolerance for the religion. He then called the First Council of Nicaea in AD 325, beginning of the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils.
The Apostolic Church was the community led by the apostles, and to some degree, Jesus ' relatives. In his "Great Commission '', the resurrected Jesus commanded that his teachings be spread to all the world. While the historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles is disputed by critics, the Acts of the Apostles is the major primary source of information for this period. Acts gives a history of the Church from this commission in 1: 3 -- 11 to the spread of the religion among the Gentiles and the eastern Mediterranean by Paul and others.
The first Christians were essentially all ethnically Jewish or Jewish proselytes. In other words, Jesus preached to the Jewish people and called from them his first disciples, see for example Matthew 10. However, the Great Commission is specifically directed at "all nations '', and an early difficulty arose concerning the matter of Gentile (non-Jewish) converts as to whether they had to "become Jewish '' (usually referring to circumcision and adherence to dietary law), as part of becoming Christian. Circumcision in particular was considered repulsive by Greeks and Hellenists while circumcision advocates were labelled Judaisers, see Jewish background to the circumcision controversy for details. The actions of Peter, at the conversion of Cornelius the Centurion, seemed to indicate that circumcision and food laws did not apply to Gentiles, and this was agreed to at the apostolic Council of Jerusalem. Related issues are still debated today.
The doctrines of the apostles brought the Early Church into conflict with some Jewish religious authorities. This eventually led to their expulsion from the synagogues, according to one theory of the Council of Jamnia. Acts records the martyrdom of the Christian leaders, Stephen and James of Zebedee. Thus, Christianity acquired an identity distinct from Rabbinic Judaism, but this distinction was not recognised all at once by the Roman Empire, see Split of early Christianity and Judaism for details. The name "Christian '' (Greek Χριστιανός) was first applied to the disciples in Antioch, as recorded in Acts 11: 26. Some contend that the term "Christian '' was first coined as a derogatory term, meaning "little Christs '', and was meant as a mockery, a term of derision for those that followed the teachings of Jesus.
The sources for the beliefs of the apostolic community include the Gospels and New Testament epistles. The very earliest accounts of belief are contained in these texts, such as early creeds and hymns, as well as accounts of the Passion, the empty tomb, and Resurrection appearances; some of these are dated to the 30s or 40s AD, originating within the Jerusalem Church. According to a tradition recorded by Eusebius and Epiphanius, the Jerusalem church fled to Pella at the outbreak of the First Jewish -- Roman War (66 -- 73 AD).
The post-apostolic period concerns the time after the death of the apostles (roughly 100 AD) until persecutions ended with the legalisation of Christian worship under Emperors Constantine the Great and Licinius.
According to the New Testament, Christians were subject to various persecutions from the beginning. This involved even death for Christians such as Stephen (Acts 7: 59) and James, son of Zebedee (12: 2). Larger - scale persecutions followed at the hands of the authorities of the Roman Empire, beginning with the year 64, when, as reported by the Roman historian Tacitus, the Emperor Nero blamed them for that year 's Great Fire of Rome.
According to Church tradition, it was under Nero 's persecution that Peter and Paul were each martyred in Rome. Similarly, several of the New Testament writings mention persecutions and stress endurance through them.
Early Christians suffered sporadic persecutions as the result of local pagan populations putting pressure on the imperial authorities to take action against the Christians in their midst, who were thought to bring misfortune by their refusal to honour the gods. The last and most severe persecution organised by the imperial authorities was the Diocletianic Persecution, 303 -- 311.
In spite of these sometimes intense persecutions, the Christian religion continued its spread throughout the Mediterranean Basin. There is no agreement on how Christianity managed to spread so successfully prior to the Edict of Milan and the establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire. In The Rise of Christianity, Rodney Stark argues that Christianity triumphed over paganism chiefly because it improved the lives of its adherents in various ways.
Another factor was the way in which Christianity combined its promise of a general resurrection of the dead with the traditional Greek belief that true immortality depended on the survival of the body, with Christianity adding practical explanations of how this was going to actually happen at the end of the world. For Mosheim, the rapid progression of Christianity was explained by two factors: translations of the New Testament and the Apologies composed in defence of Christianity.
Edward Gibbon in his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire discusses the topic in considerable detail in his famous Chapter Fifteen, summarizing the historical causes of the early success of Christianity as follows: "(1) The inflexible, and, if we may use the expression, the intolerant zeal of the Christians, derived, it is true, from the Jewish religion, but purified from the narrow and unsocial spirit which, instead of inviting, had deterred the Gentiles from embracing the law of Moses. (2) The doctrine of a future life, improved by every additional circumstance which could give weight and efficacy to that important truth. (3) The miraculous powers ascribed to the primitive church. (4) The pure and austere morals of the Christians. (5) The union and discipline of the Christian republic, which gradually formed an independent and increasing state in the heart of the Roman empire. ''
In the post-Apostolic church, bishops emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations, and a hierarchy of clergy gradually took on the form of episkopos (overseers, in - spectors; and the origin of the term bishop) and presbyters (elders; and the origin of the term priest), and then deacons (servants). But this emerged slowly and at different times for different locations. Clement, a 1st - century bishop of Rome, refers to the leaders of the Corinthian church in his epistle to Corinthians as bishops and presbyters interchangeably. The New Testament writers also use the terms overseer and elders interchangeably and as synonyms.
Post-apostolic bishops of importance include Polycarp of Smyrna, Clement of Rome, and Ignatius of Antioch. These men reportedly knew and studied under the apostles personally and are therefore called Apostolic Fathers. Each Christian community also had presbyters, as was the case with Jewish communities, who were also ordained and assisted the bishop. As Christianity spread, especially in rural areas, the presbyters exercised more responsibilities and took distinctive shape as priests. Lastly, deacons also performed certain duties, such as tending to the poor and sick. In the 2nd century, an episcopal structure becomes more visible, and in that century this structure was supported by teaching on apostolic succession, where a bishop becomes the spiritual successor of the previous bishop in a line tracing back to the apostles themselves.
The diversity of early Christianity can be documented from the New Testament record itself. The Book of Acts admits conflicts between Hebrews and Hellenists, and Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians, and Aramaic speakers and Greek speakers. The letters of Paul, Peter, John, and Jude all testify to intra-Church conflicts over both leadership and theology. In a response to the Gnostic teaching, Irenaeus created the first document describing what is now called apostolic succession.
As Christianity spread, it acquired certain members from well - educated circles of the Hellenistic world; they sometimes became bishops, but not always. They produced two sorts of works: theological and "apologetic '', the latter being works aimed at defending the faith by using reason to refute arguments against the veracity of Christianity. These authors are known as the Church Fathers, and study of them is called patristics. Notable early Fathers include Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus of Lyons, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen of Alexandria.
Christian art only emerged relatively late, and the first known Christian images emerge from about 200 AD, though there is some literary evidence that small domestic images were used earlier. The oldest known Christian paintings are from the Roman Catacombs, dated to about AD 200, and the oldest Christian sculptures are from sarcophagi, dating to the beginning of the 3rd century.
Although many Hellenised Jews seem, as at the Dura - Europos synagogue, to have had images of religious figures, the traditional Mosaic prohibition of "graven images '' no doubt retained some effect, although never proclaimed by theologians. This early rejection of images, and the necessity to hide Christian practise from persecution, leaves us with few archaeological records regarding early Christianity and its evolution.
The New Testament itself speaks of the importance of maintaining correct (orthodox) doctrine and refuting heresies, showing the antiquity of the concern. Because of the biblical proscription against false prophets, Christianity has always been occupied with the orthodox interpretation of the faith. Indeed, one of the main roles of the bishops in the early Church was to determine and retain important correct beliefs, and refute contrarian opinions, known as heresies. As there were sometimes differing opinions among the bishops on new questions, defining orthodoxy would occupy the Church for some time.
The earliest controversies were often Christological in nature; that is, they were related to Jesus ' divinity or humanity. Docetism held that Jesus ' humanity was merely an illusion, thus denying the Incarnation (God becoming human). Arianism held that Jesus, while not merely mortal, was not eternally divine and was, therefore, of lesser status than the Father. Trinitarianism held that the Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit were all strictly one being with three hypostases or persons. Many groups held dualistic beliefs, maintaining that reality was composed into two radically opposing parts: matter, seen as evil, and spirit, seen as good. Such views gave rise to some theology of the "incarnation '' that were declared heresies. Most scholars agree that the Bible teaches that both the material and the spiritual worlds were created by God and were therefore both good.
The development of doctrine, the position of orthodoxy, and the relationship between the various opinions is a matter of continuing academic debate. Since most Christians today subscribe to the doctrines established by the Nicene Creed, modern Christian theologians tend to regard the early debates as a unified orthodox position against a minority of heretics. Other scholars, drawing upon distinctions between Jewish Christians, Pauline Christianity, and other groups such as Marcionites, argue that early Christianity was always fragmented, with contemporaneous competing beliefs.
The Biblical canon is the set of books Christians regard as divinely inspired and thus constituting the Christian Bible. Though the Early Church used the Old Testament according to the canon of the Septuagint (LXX), the apostles did not otherwise leave a defined set of new scriptures; instead the New Testament developed over time.
The writings attributed to the apostles circulated amongst the earliest Christian communities. The Pauline epistles were circulating in collected form by the end of the 1st century AD. Justin Martyr, in the early 2nd century, mentions the "memoirs of the apostles '', which Christians called "gospels '' and which were regarded as on par with the Old Testament, which was written in narrative form where "in the biblical story God is the protagonist, Satan (or evil people / powers) are the antagonists, and God 's people are the agonists ''.
A four gospel canon (the Tetramorph) was in place by the time of Irenaeus, c. 160, who refers to it directly. By the early 3rd century, Origen of Alexandria may have been using the same 27 books as in the modern New Testament, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of Hebrews, James, II Peter, II and III John, and Revelation Such works that were sometimes "spoken against '' were called Antilegomena. In contrast, the major writings and most of what is now the New Testament were Homologoumena, or universally acknowledged for a long time, since the middle of the 2nd century or before. Likewise the Muratorian fragment shows that by 200 there existed a set of Christian writings similar to the current New Testament.
In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, gave the earliest preserved list of exactly the books that would become the New Testament canon. The African Synod of Hippo, in 393, approved the New Testament, as it stands today, together with the Septuagint books, a decision that was repeated by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419). These councils were under the authority of St. Augustine, who regarded the canon as already closed. Likewise, Damasus ' commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the Bible, c. 383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West. In 405, Pope Innocent I sent a list of the sacred books to Exuperius, a Gallic bishop.
When these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, however, they were not defining something new, but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church. '' Thus, by the 4th century, there existed unanimity in the West concerning the New Testament canon, and by the 5th century the East, with a few exceptions, had come to accept the Book of Revelation and thus had come into harmony on the matter of the canon. Nonetheless, a full dogmatic articulation of the canon was not made until the 1546 Council of Trent for Roman Catholicism, the 1563 Thirty - Nine Articles for the Church of England, the 1647 Westminster Confession of Faith for Calvinism, and the 1672 Synod of Jerusalem for Greek Orthodoxy.
Galerius, who had previously been one of the leading figures in persecution, in 311 issued an edict which ended the Diocletian persecution of Christianity. After halting the persecutions of the Christians, Galerius reigned for another 2 years. He was then succeeded by an emperor with distinctively pro Christian leanings, Constantine the Great.
The Emperor Constantine I was exposed to Christianity by his mother, Helena. At the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312, Constantine commanded his troops to adorn their shields with the Christian symbol in accordance with a vision that he had had the night before. After winning the battle, Constantine was able to claim the emperorship in the West. In 313, he issued the Edict of Milan, officially legalizing Christian worship.
How much Christianity Constantine adopted at this point is difficult to discern. The Roman coins minted up to eight years subsequent to the battle still bore the images of Roman gods. Nonetheless, the accession of Constantine was a turning point for the Christian Church. After his victory, Constantine supported the Church financially, built various basilicas, granted privileges (e.g., exemption from certain taxes) to clergy, promoted Christians to some high - ranking offices, and returned property confiscated during the Great Persecution of Diocletian.
Between 324 and 330, Constantine built, virtually from scratch, a new imperial capital that came to be named for him: Constantinople. It had overtly Christian architecture, contained churches within the city walls, and had no pagan temples. In accordance with a prevailing custom, Constantine was baptised on his deathbed.
Constantine also played an active role in the leadership of the Church. In 316, he acted as a judge in a North African dispute concerning the Donatist controversy. More significantly, in 325 he summoned the Council of Nicaea, the first Ecumenical Council. Constantine thus established a precedent for the emperor as responsible to God for the spiritual health of their subjects, and thus with a duty to maintain orthodoxy. The emperor was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity.
Constantine 's son 's successor, known as Julian the Apostate, was a philosopher who upon becoming emperor renounced Christianity and embraced a Neo-platonic and mystical form of paganism shocking the Christian establishment. He began reopening pagan temples and, intent on re-establishing the prestige of the old pagan beliefs, he modified them to resemble Christian traditions such as the episcopal structure and public charity (previously unknown in Roman paganism). Julian 's short reign ended when he died while campaigning in the East.
Later Church Fathers wrote volumes of theological texts, including Augustine, Gregory Nazianzus, Cyril of Jerusalem, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome, and others. Some of these fathers, such as John Chrysostom and Athanasius, suffered exile, persecution, or martyrdom from Arian Byzantine Emperors. Many of their writings are translated into English in the compilations of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.
A popular doctrine of the 4th century was Arianism, the denial of the divinity of Christ, as propounded by Arius. Though this doctrine was condemned as heresy and eventually eliminated by the Roman Church it remained popular underground for some time. In the late 4th century Ulfilas, a Roman bishop and an Arian, was appointed as the first bishop to the Goths, the Germanic peoples in much of Europe at the borders of and within the Empire. Ulfilas spread Arian Christianity among the Goths firmly establishing the faith among many of the Germanic tribes, thus helping to keep them culturally distinct.
During this age, the first Ecumenical Councils were convened. They were mostly concerned with Christological disputes. The First Council of Nicaea (325) and the First Council of Constantinople (381) resulted in condemning Arian teachings as heresy and producing the Nicene Creed.
On 27 February 380, with the Edict of Thessalonica put forth under Theodosius I, the Roman Empire officially adopted Trinitarian Christianity as its state religion. Prior to this date, Constantius II (337 - 361) and Valens (364 -- 378) had personally favored Arian or Semi-Arian forms of Christianity, but Valens ' successor Theodosius I supported the Trinitarian doctrine as expounded in the Nicene Creed.
After its establishment, the Church adopted the same organisational boundaries as the Empire: geographical provinces, called dioceses, corresponding to imperial governmental territorial division. The bishops, who were located in major urban centres as per pre-legalisation tradition, thus oversaw each diocese. The bishop 's location was his "seat '', or "see ''. Among the sees, five came to hold special eminence: Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The prestige of most of these sees depended in part on their apostolic founders, from whom the bishops were therefore the spiritual successors. Though the bishop of Rome was still held to be the First among equals, Constantinople was second in precedence as the new capital of the empire.
Theodosius I decreed that others not believing in the preserved "faithful tradition '', such as the Trinity, were to be considered to be practicers of illegal heresy, and in 385, this resulted in the first case of capital punishment of a heretic, namely Priscillian.
During the early 5th century the School of Edessa had taught a christological perspective stating that Christ 's divine and human nature were distinct persons. A particular consequence of this perspective was that Mary could not be properly called the mother of God, but could only be considered the mother of Christ. The most widely known proponent of this viewpoint was the Patriarch of Constantinople Nestorius. Since referring to Mary as the mother of God had become popular in many parts of the Church this became a divisive issue.
The Roman Emperor Theodosius II called for the Council of Ephesus (431), with the intention of settling the issue. The councils ultimately rejected Nestorius ' view. Many churches who followed the Nestorian viewpoint broke away from the Roman Church, causing a major schism. The Nestorian churches were persecuted and many followers fled to the Sasanian Empire where they were accepted.
The Sasanian (Persian) Empire had many Christian converts early in its history tied closely to the Syriac branch of Christianity. The Empire was officially Zoroastrian and maintained a strict adherence to this faith in part to distinguish itself from the religion of the Roman Empire (originally the pagan Roman religion and then Christianity). Christianity became tolerated in the Sasanian Empire and as the Roman Empire increasingly exiled heretics during the 4th and 6th centuries, the Sasanian Christian community grew rapidly. By the end of the 5th century the Persian Church was firmly established and had become independent of the Roman Church. This church evolved into what is today known as the Church of the East.
In 451 the Council of Chalcedon was held to further clarify the christological issues surrounding Nestorianism. The council ultimately stated that Christ 's divine and human nature were separate but both part of a single entity, a viewpoint rejected by many churches who called themselves miaphysites. The resulting schism created a communion of churches, including the Armenian, Syrian, and Egyptian churches. Though efforts were made at reconciliation in the next few centuries the schism remained permanent resulting in what is today known as Oriental Orthodoxy.
Monasticism is a form of asceticism whereby one renounces worldly pursuits and goes off alone as a hermit or joins a tightly organized community. It began early in the Church as a family of similar traditions, modeled upon Scriptural examples and ideals, and with roots in certain strands of Judaism. John the Baptist is seen as an archetypical monk, and monasticism was also inspired by the organisation of the Apostolic community as recorded in Acts 2.
Eremetic monks, or hermits, live in solitude, whereas cenobitics live in communities, generally in a monastery, under a rule (or code of practice) and are governed by an abbot. Originally, all Christian monks were hermits, following the example of Anthony the Great. However, the need for some form of organised spiritual guidance lead Pachomius in 318 to organise his many followers in what was to become the first monastery. Soon, similar institutions were established throughout the Egyptian desert as well as the rest of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Women were especially attracted to the movement.
Central figures in the development of monasticism were Basil the Great in the East and, in the West, Benedict, who created the famous Rule of Saint Benedict, which would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages, and starting point for other monastic rules.
The transition into the Middle Ages was a gradual and localised process. Rural areas rose as power centres whilst urban areas declined. Although a greater number of Christians remained in the East (Greek areas), important developments were underway in the West (Latin areas) and each took on distinctive shapes.
The Bishops of Rome, the Popes, were forced to adapt to drastically changing circumstances. Maintaining only nominal allegiance to the Emperor, they were forced to negotiate balances with the "barbarian rulers '' of the former Roman provinces. In the East the Church maintained its structure and character and evolved more slowly.
The stepwise loss of Western Roman Empire dominance, replaced with foederati and Germanic kingdoms, coincided with early missionary efforts into areas not controlled by the collapsing empire. Already as early as in the 5th century, missionary activities from Roman Britain into the Celtic areas (current Scotland, Ireland and Wales) produced competing early traditions of Celtic Christianity, that was later reintegrated under the Church in Rome.
Prominent missionaries were Saints Patrick, Columba and Columbanus. The Anglo - Saxon tribes that invaded southern Britain some time after the Roman abandonment, were initially pagan, but converted to Christianity by Augustine of Canterbury on the mission of Pope Gregory the Great. Soon becoming a missionary center, missionaries such as Wilfrid, Willibrord, Lullus and Boniface would begin converting their Saxon relatives in Germania.
The largely Christian Gallo - Roman inhabitants of Gaul (modern France) were overrun by the Franks in the early 5th century. The native inhabitants were persecuted until the Frankish king Clovis I converted from paganism to Roman Catholicism in 496. Clovis insisted that his fellow nobles follow suit, strengthening his newly established kingdom by uniting the faith of the rulers with that of the ruled.
After the rise of the Frankish Kingdom and the stabilizing political conditions, the Western part of the Church increased the missionary activities, supported by the Merovingian kingdom as a means to pacify troublesome neighbor peoples. After the foundation of a church in Utrecht by Willibrord, backlashes occurred when the pagan Frisian king Radbod destroyed many Christian centres between 716 and 719. In 717, the English missionary Boniface was sent to aid Willibrord, re-establishing churches in Frisia continuing missions in Germany.
Following a series of heavy military reverses against the Muslims, the Iconoclasm emerged in the early 8th century. In the 720s the Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian banned the pictorial representation of Christ, saints, and biblical scenes. In the West, Pope Gregory III held two synods at Rome and condemned Leo 's actions. The Byzantine Iconoclast Council at Hieria in 754, ruled that holy portraits were heretical.
The movement destroyed much of the Christian church 's early artistic history. The iconoclastic movement itself was later defined as heretical in 787 under the Seventh Ecumenical council, but enjoyed a brief resurgence between 815 and 842.
The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival of literature, arts, and scriptural studies during the late 8th and 9th centuries, mostly during the reigns of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, Frankish rulers. To address the problems of illiteracy among clergy and court scribes, Charlemagne founded schools and attracted the most learned men from all of Europe to his court.
From the 6th century onward most of the monasteries in the West were of the Benedictine Order. Owing to the stricter adherence to a reformed Benedictine rule, the abbey of Cluny became the acknowledged leader of western monasticism from the later 10th century. Cluny created a large, federated order in which the administrators of subsidiary houses served as deputies of the abbot of Cluny and answered to him. The Cluniac spirit was a revitalising influence on the Norman church, at its height from the second half of the 10th centuries through the early 12th.
The next wave of monastic reform came with the Cistercian Movement. The first Cistercian abbey was founded in 1098, at Cîteaux Abbey. The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observance of the Benedictine rule, rejecting the developments of the Benedictines. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour, and especially to field - work.
Inspired by Bernard of Clairvaux, the primary builder of the Cistercians, they became the main force of technological diffusion in medieval Europe. By the end of the 12th century the Cistercian houses numbered 500, and at its height in the 15th century the order claimed to have close to 750 houses. Most of these were built in wilderness areas, and played a major part in bringing such isolated parts of Europe into economic cultivation
A third level of monastic reform was provided by the establishment of the Mendicant orders. Commonly known as friars, mendicants live under a monastic rule with traditional vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, but they emphasise preaching, missionary activity, and education, in a secluded monastery. Beginning in the 12th century, the Franciscan order was instituted by the followers of Francis of Assisi, and thereafter the Dominican order was begun by St. Dominic.
The Investiture Controversy, or Lay investiture controversy, was the most significant conflict between secular and religious powers in medieval Europe. It began as a dispute in the 11th century between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, and Pope Gregory VII concerning who would appoint bishops (investiture). The end of lay investiture threatened to undercut the power of the Empire and the ambitions of noblemen for the benefit of Church reform.
Bishops collected revenues from estates attached to their bishopric. Noblemen who held lands (fiefdoms) hereditarily passed those lands on within their family. However, because bishops had no legitimate children, when a bishop died it was the king 's right to appoint a successor. So, while a king had little recourse in preventing noblemen from acquiring powerful domains via inheritance and dynastic marriages, a king could keep careful control of lands under the domain of his bishops.
Kings would bestow bishoprics to members of noble families whose friendship he wished to secure. Furthermore, if a king left a bishopric vacant, then he collected the estates ' revenues until a bishop was appointed, when in theory he was to repay the earnings. The infrequence of this repayment was an obvious source of dispute. The Church wanted to end this lay investiture because of the potential corruption, not only from vacant sees but also from other practices such as simony. Thus, the Investiture Contest was part of the Church 's attempt to reform the episcopate and provide better pastoral care.
Pope Gregory VII issued the Dictatus Papae, which declared that the pope alone could appoint or depose bishops, or translate them to other sees. Henry IV 's rejection of the decree lead to his excommunication and a ducal revolt. Eventually Henry received absolution after dramatic public penance barefoot in Alpine snow and cloaked in a hairshirt (see Road to Canossa), though the revolt and conflict of investiture continued.
Likewise, a similar controversy occurred in England between King Henry I and St. Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, over investiture and ecclesiastical revenues collected by the king during an episcopal vacancy. The English dispute was resolved by the Concordat of London, 1107, where the king renounced his claim to invest bishops but continued to require an oath of fealty from them upon their election.
This was a partial model for the Concordat of Worms (Pactum Calixtinum), which resolved the Imperial investiture controversy with a compromise that allowed secular authorities some measure of control but granted the selection of bishops to their cathedral canons. As a symbol of the compromise, lay authorities invested bishops with their secular authority symbolised by the lance, and ecclesiastical authorities invested bishops with their spiritual authority symbolised by the ring and the staff.
The Medieval Inquisition is a series of Inquisitions (Roman Catholic Church bodies charged with suppressing heresy) from around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition (1184 -- 1230s) and later the Papal Inquisition (1230s). It was in response to movements within Europe considered apostate or heretical to Western Catholicism, in particular the Cathars and the Waldensians in southern France and northern Italy. These were the first inquisition movements of many that would follow. The inquisitions in combination with the Albigensian Crusade were fairly successful in ending heresy. Historian Thomas F. Madden has written about popular myths regarding the Inquisition.
Early evangelisation in Scandinavia was begun by Ansgar, Archbishop of Bremen, "Apostle of the North ''. Ansgar, a native of Amiens, was sent with a group of monks to Jutland Denmark in around 820 at the time of the pro-Christian Jutish king Harald Klak. The mission was only partially successful, and Ansgar returned two years later to Germany, after Harald had been driven out of his kingdom.
In 829 Ansgar went to Birka on Lake Mälaren, Sweden, with his aide friar Witmar, and a small congregation was formed in 831 which included the king 's own steward Hergeir. Conversion was slow, however, and most Scandinavian lands were only completely Christianised at the time of rulers such as Saint Canute IV of Denmark and Olaf I of Norway in the years following AD 1000.
Though by 800 Western Europe was ruled entirely by Christian kings, East and Central Europe remained an area of missionary activity. For example, in the 9th century SS. Cyril and Methodius had extensive missionary success in the region among the Slavic peoples, translating the Bible and liturgy into Slavonic. The Baptism of Kiev in 988 spread Christianity throughout Kievan Rus ', establishing Christianity among the Ukraine, Belarus and Russia.
In the 9th and 10th centuries, Christianity made great inroads into Eastern Europe, including Bulgaria and Kievan Rus '. The evangelisation, or Christianisation, of the Slavs was initiated by one of Byzantium 's most learned churchmen -- the Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople (Photius). The Byzantine emperor Michael III chose Cyril and Methodius in response to a request from Rastislav, the king of Moravia who wanted missionaries that could minister to the Moravians in their own language.
The two brothers spoke the local Slavonic vernacular and translated the Bible and many of the prayer books. As the translations prepared by them were copied by speakers of other dialects, the hybrid literary language Old Church Slavonic was created.
Methodius later went on to convert the Serbs. Some of the disciples returned to Bulgaria where they were welcomed by the Bulgarian Knyaz Boris I who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Byzantine influence in the country. In a short time the disciples of Cyril and Methodius managed to prepare and instruct the future Slavic clergy into the Glagolitic alphabet and the biblical texts.
Bulgaria was officially recognised as a patriarchate by Constantinople in 927, Serbia in 1346, and Russia in 1589. All these nations, however, had been converted long before these dates.
The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part because they used the people 's native language rather than Latin as the Roman priests did, or Greek.
When king Rastislav of Moravia asked Byzantium for teachers who could minister to the Moravians in their own language, Byzantine emperor Michael III chose two brothers, Cyril and Methodius. As their mother was a Slav from the hinterlands of Thessaloniki, the two brothers had been raised speaking the local Slavonic vernacular. Once commissioned, they immediately set about creating an alphabet, the Glagolitic alphabet. They then translated the Scripture and the liturgy into Slavonic.
This Slavic dialect became the basis of Old Church Slavonic which later evolved into Church Slavonic which is the common liturgical language still used by the Russian Orthodox Church and other Slavic Orthodox Christians. The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part because they used the people 's native language rather than Latin or Greek. In Great Moravia, Constantine and Methodius encountered Frankish missionaries from Germany, representing the western or Latin branch of the Church, and more particularly representing the Holy Roman Empire as founded by Charlemagne, and committed to linguistic, and cultural uniformity. They insisted on the use of the Latin liturgy, and they regarded Moravia and the Slavic peoples as part of their rightful mission field.
When friction developed, the brothers, unwilling to be a cause of dissension among Christians, travelled to Rome to see the Pope, seeking an agreement that would avoid quarrelling between missionaries in the field. Constantine entered a monastery in Rome, taking the name Cyril, by which he is now remembered. However, he died only a few weeks thereafter.
Pope Adrian II gave Methodius the title of Archbishop of Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia) and sent him back in 869, with jurisdiction over all of Moravia and Pannonia, and authorisation to use the Slavonic Liturgy. Soon, however, Prince Ratislav, who had originally invited the brothers to Moravia, died, and his successor did not support Methodius. In 870 the Frankish king Louis and his bishops deposed Methodius at a synod at Ratisbon, and imprisoned him for a little over two years. Pope John VIII secured his release, but instructed him to stop using the Slavonic Liturgy.
In 878, Methodius was summoned to Rome on charges of heresy and using Slavonic. This time Pope John was convinced by the arguments that Methodius made in his defence and sent him back cleared of all charges, and with permission to use Slavonic. The Carolingian bishop who succeeded him, Witching, suppressed the Slavonic Liturgy and forced the followers of Methodius into exile. Many found refuge with Knyaz Boris of Bulgaria, under whom they reorganised a Slavic - speaking Church. Meanwhile, Pope John 's successors adopted a Latin - only policy which lasted for centuries.
Bulgaria was a pagan country since its establishment in 681 until 864 when Boris I (852 -- 889) converted to Christianity. The reasons for that decision were complex; the most important factors were that Bulgaria was situated between two powerful Christian empires, Byzantium and East Francia; Christian doctrine particularly favoured the position of the monarch as God 's representative on Earth, while Boris also saw it as a way to overcome the differences between Bulgars and Slavs.
In 885 some of the disciples of Cyril and Methodius, including Clement of Ohrid, Naum of Preslav and Angelaruis, returned to Bulgaria where they were welcomed by Boris I who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Byzantine influence in the country. In a short time they managed to prepare and instruct the future Bulgarian clergy into the Glagolitic alphabet and the biblical texts. As a result of the Council of Preslav in AD 893, Bulgaria expelled its Greek clergy and proclaimed the Old Bulgarian language as the official language of the church and the state.
The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of other East Slavic peoples, most notably the Rus ', predecessors of Belarusians, Russians, and Ukrainians, as well as Rusyns. By the beginning of the 11th century most of the pagan Slavic world, including Rus ', Bulgaria and Serbia, had been converted to Byzantine Christianity. The traditional event associated with the conversion of Rus ' is the baptism of Vladimir of Kiev in 989. However, Christianity is documented to have predated this event in the city of Kiev and in Georgia. Today the Russian Orthodox Church is the largest of the Orthodox Churches.
The cracks and fissures in Christian unity which led to the East - West Schism started to become evident as early as the 4th century. Cultural, political, and linguistic differences were often mixed with the theological, leading to schism.
The transfer of the Roman capital to Constantinople inevitably brought mistrust, rivalry, and even jealousy to the relations of the two great sees, Rome and Constantinople. It was easy for Rome to be jealous of Constantinople at a time when it was rapidly losing its political prominence. Estrangement was also helped along by the German invasions in the West, which effectively weakened contacts. The rise of Islam with its conquest of most of the Mediterranean coastline (not to mention the arrival of the pagan Slavs in the Balkans at the same time) further intensified this separation by driving a physical wedge between the two worlds. The once homogenous unified world of the Mediterranean was fast vanishing. Communication between the Greek East and Latin West by the 7th century had become dangerous and practically ceased.
Two basic problems were involved: the nature of the primacy of the bishop of Rome and the theological implications of adding a clause to the Nicene Creed, known as the Filioque clause. These doctrinal issues were first openly discussed in Photius 's patriarchate.
By the 5th century, Christendom was divided into a pentarchy of five sees with Rome accorded a primacy. The four Eastern sees of the pentarchy considered this determined by canonical decision and not entailing hegemony of any one local church or patriarchate over the others. However, Rome began to interpret her primacy in terms of sovereignty, as a God - given right involving universal jurisdiction in the Church. The collegial and conciliar nature of the Church, in effect, was gradually abandoned in favour of supremacy of unlimited papal power over the entire Church. These ideas were finally given systematic expression in the West during the Gregorian Reform movement of the 11th century.
The Eastern churches viewed Rome 's understanding of the nature of episcopal power as being in direct opposition to the Church 's essentially conciliar structure and thus saw the two ecclesiologies as mutually antithetical. For them, specifically, Simon Peter 's primacy could never be the exclusive prerogative of any one bishop. All bishops must, like St. Peter, confess Jesus as the Christ and, as such, all are Peter 's successors. The churches of the East gave the Roman See primacy but not supremacy, the Pope being the first among equals but not infallible and not with absolute authority.
The other major irritant to Eastern Christendom was the Western use of the Filioque clause -- meaning "and the Son '' -- in the Nicene Creed. This too developed gradually and entered the Creed over time. The issue was the addition by the West of the Latin clause Filioque to the Creed, as in "the Holy Spirit... who proceeds from the Father and the Son '', where the original Creed, sanctioned by the councils and still used today by the Eastern Orthodox simply states "the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father. '' The Eastern Church argued that the phrase had been added unilaterally, and therefore illegitimately, since the East had never been consulted.
In the final analysis, only another ecumenical council could introduce such an alteration. Indeed, the councils, which drew up the original Creed, had expressly forbidden any subtraction or addition to the text. In addition to this ecclesiological issue, the Eastern Church also considered the Filioque clause unacceptable on dogmatic grounds. Theologically, the Latin interpolation was unacceptable since it implied that the Spirit now had two sources of origin and procession, the Father and the Son, rather than the Father alone.
In the 9th century AD, a controversy arose between Eastern (Byzantine, Greek Orthodox) and Western (Latin, Roman Catholic) Christianity that was precipitated by the opposition of the Roman Pope John VII to the appointment by the Byzantine emperor Michael III of Photius I to the position of patriarch of Constantinople. Photios was refused an apology by the pope for previous points of dispute between the East and West. Photius refused to accept the supremacy of the pope in Eastern matters or accept the Filioque clause. The Latin delegation at the council of his consecration pressed him to accept the clause in order to secure their support.
The controversy also involved Eastern and Western ecclesiastical jurisdictional rights in the Bulgarian church, as well as a doctrinal dispute over the Filioque ("and from the Son '') clause. That had been added to the Nicene Creed by the Latin church, which was later the theological breaking point in the ultimate Great East - West Schism in the 11th century.
Photius did provide concession on the issue of jurisdictional rights concerning Bulgaria and the papal legates made do with his return of Bulgaria to Rome. This concession, however, was purely nominal, as Bulgaria 's return to the Byzantine rite in 870 had already secured for it an autocephalous church. Without the consent of Boris I of Bulgaria, the papacy was unable to enforce any of its claims.
The East - West Schism, or Great Schism, separated the Church into Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) branches, i.e., Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. It was the first major division since certain groups in the East rejected the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon (see Oriental Orthodoxy), and was far more significant. Though normally dated to 1054, the East - West Schism was actually the result of an extended period of estrangement between Latin and Greek Christendom over the nature of papal primacy and certain doctrinal matters like the Filioque, but intensified by cultural and linguistic differences.
The "official '' schism in 1054 was the excommunication of Patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople, followed by his excommunication of papal legates. Attempts at reconciliation were made in 1274 (by the Second Council of Lyon) and in 1439 (by the Council of Basel), but in each case the eastern hierarchs who consented to the unions were repudiated by the Orthodox as a whole, though reconciliation was achieved between the West and what are now called the "Eastern Rite Catholic Churches ''. More recently, in 1965 the mutual excommunications were rescinded by the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople, though schism remains.
Both groups are descended from the Early Church, both acknowledge the apostolic succession of each other 's bishops, and the validity of each other 's sacraments. Though both acknowledge the primacy of the Bishop of Rome, Eastern Orthodoxy understands this as a primacy of honour with limited or no ecclesiastical authority in other dioceses.
The Orthodox East perceived the Papacy as taking on monarchical characteristics that were not in line with the church 's tradition.
The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the capture and sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Crusades against Christians in the East by Roman Catholic crusaders was not exclusive to the Mediterranean though (see also the Northern Crusades and the Battle of the Ice). The sacking of Constantinople and the Church of Holy Wisdom and establishment of the Latin Empire as a seeming attempt to supplant the Orthodox Byzantine Empire in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day.
Many in the East saw the actions of the West as a prime determining factor in the weakening of Byzantium. This led to the Empire 's eventual conquest and fall to Islam. In 2004, Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted by Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople. Many things that were stolen during this time: holy relics, riches, and many other items, are still held in various Western European cities, particularly Venice, Italy.
The Crusades were a series of military conflicts conducted by European Christians for control over the lucrative trade routes running through the Middle East, and the establishment of European, not necessarily Christian, influence in the region. However, many historians write that its purpose was for the defence of Christians and for the expansion of Christian domains. Generally, the crusades refer to the campaigns in the Holy Land against Muslim forces sponsored by the Papacy. There were other crusades against Islamic forces in southern Spain, southern Italy, and Sicily, as well as the campaigns of Teutonic knights against pagan strongholds in Northeastern Europe (see Northern Crusades). A few crusades such as the Fourth Crusade were waged within Christendom against groups that were considered heretical and schismatic (also see the Battle of the Ice and the Albigensian Crusade).
The Holy Land had been part of the Roman Empire, and thus Byzantine Empire, until the Islamic conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. Thereafter, Christians had generally been permitted to visit the sacred places in the Holy Land until 1071, when the Seljuk Turks closed Christian pilgrimages and assailed the Byzantines, defeating them at the Battle of Manzikert.
Emperor Alexius I asked for aid from Pope Urban II (1088 -- 1099) for help against Islamic aggression. He probably expected money from the pope for the hiring of mercenaries. Instead, Urban II called upon the knights of Christendom in a speech made at the Council of Clermont on 27 November 1095, combining the idea of pilgrimage to the Holy Land with that of waging a holy war against infidels.
The First Crusade captured Antioch in 1099 and then Jerusalem. The Second Crusade occurred in 1145 when Edessa was retaken by Islamic forces. Jerusalem would be held until 1187 and the Third Crusade, famous for the battles between Richard the Lionheart and Saladin. The Fourth Crusade, begun by Innocent III in 1202, intended to retake the Holy Land but was soon subverted by Venetians who used the forces to sack the Christian city of Zara.
Eventually, the crusaders arrived in Constantinople. Rather than proceed to the Holy Land the crusaders instead sacked Constantinople and other parts of Asia Minor effectively establishing the Latin Empire of Constantinople in Greece and Asia Minor. This was effectively the last crusade sponsored by the papacy, with later crusades being sponsored by individuals.
Jerusalem was held by the crusaders for nearly a century, and other strongholds in the Near East would remain in Christian possession much longer. The crusades in the Holy Land ultimately failed to establish permanent Christian kingdoms. Islamic expansion into Europe would renew and remain a threat for centuries culminating in the campaigns of Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century.
Crusades in southern Spain, southern Italy, and Sicily eventually lead to the demise of Islamic power in Europe. The Teutonic knights expanded Christian domains in Eastern Europe, and the much less frequent crusades within Christendom, such as the Albigensian Crusade, achieved their goal of maintaining doctrinal unity.
In 1337 Hesychasm -- a mystical teaching at Mount Athos came under attack from Barlaam of Calabria, an abbot in Constantinople. Barlaam propounded a more intellectual and propositional approach to the knowledge of God than the Hesychasts taught. Hesychasm is a form of constant purposeful prayer or experiential prayer, explicitly referred to as contemplation focusing on the idea of stillness and the characteristic mystical idea of light as the vehicle for knowing God.
Gregory Palamas, afterwards Archbishop of Thessalonica, defended Hesychasm. Several synods took one position or the other until in 1351 at a synod under the presidency of the Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus, Hesychast doctrine was established as the doctrine of the Orthodox Church. the theology was especially attractive in the East because it validated the use of icons as a vehicle for contemplation of divine light.
In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Empire. By this time Egypt had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries, but Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia which had recently acquired an autocephalous status; and thus Moscow called itself the Third Rome, as the cultural heir of Constantinople.
Under Ottoman rule, the Greek Orthodox Church acquired substantial power as an autonomous millet. The ecumenical patriarch was the religious and administrative ruler of the entire "Greek Orthodox nation '' (Ottoman administrative unit), which encompassed all the Eastern Orthodox subjects of the Empire.
Eastern Christians fleeing Constantinople, and the Greek manuscripts they carried with them, is one of the factors that prompted the literary renaissance in the West at about this time.
As a result of the Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, and the Fall of Constantinople, the entire Orthodox communion of the Balkans and the Near East became suddenly isolated from the West. For the next four hundred years, it would be confined within a hostile Islamic world, with which it had little in common religiously or culturally. The Russian Orthodox Church was the only part of the Orthodox communion which remained outside the control of the Ottoman Empire.
It is, in part, due to this geographical and intellectual confinement that the voice of Eastern Orthodoxy was not heard during the Reformation in 16th - century Europe. As a result, this important theological debate often seems strange and distorted to the Orthodox. They never took part in it and thus neither Reformation nor Counter-Reformation is part of their theological framework.
The new Ottoman government that conquered the Byzantine Empire followed Islamic law when dealing with the conquered Christian population. Christians were officially tolerated as People of the Book. As such, the Church 's canonical and hierarchical organisation were not significantly disrupted and its administration continued to function. One of the first things that Mehmet the Conqueror did was to allow the Church to elect a new patriarch, Gennadius Scholarius.
Because Islamic law makes no distinction between nationality and religion, all Christians, regardless of their language or nationality, were considered a single millet, or nation. The patriarch, as the highest - ranking hierarch, was thus invested with civil and religious authority and made ethnarch, head of the entire Christian Orthodox population. This meant that all Orthodox Churches within Ottoman territory were under the control of Constantinople. However, these rights and privileges, including freedom of worship and religious organisation, were often established in principle but seldom corresponded to reality. Christians were viewed as second - class citizens, and the legal protections they depended upon were subject to the whims of the Sultan and the Sublime Porte.
Under Ottoman occupation the Church could no longer bear witness to Christ. Christian missionary work among Muslims was illegal and dangerous, whereas conversion to Islam was entirely legal and permissible. Converts to Islam who returned to Orthodoxy were put to death as apostates. No new churches could be built and even the ringing of church bells was prohibited. The Hagia Sophia and the Parthenon, which had been Christian churches for nearly a millennium, were converted into mosques. Education of the clergy and the Christian population either ceased altogether or was reduced to the most rudimentary elements. Violent persecutions of Christians were common, and reached their climax in the Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek genocides.
The Orthodox Church found itself subject to the Turkish system of corruption. The patriarchal throne was frequently sold to the highest bidder, while new patriarchal investiture was accompanied by heavy payment to the government. In order to recoup their losses, patriarchs and bishops taxed the local parishes and their clergy.
Few patriarchs between the 15th and the 19th centuries died a natural death while in office. The forced abdications, exiles, hangings, drownings, and poisonings of patriarchs are well documented. The hierarchy 's positions were often dangerous as well. The hanging of patriarch Gregory V from the gate of the patriarchate on Easter Sunday 1821 was accompanied by the execution of two metropolitans and twelve bishops.
The Avignon Papacy, sometimes referred to as the Babylonian Captivity, was a period from 1309 to 1378 during which seven Popes resided in Avignon, in modern - day France. The period was one of conflict and controversy during which French Kings held considerable sway over the Papacy and rulers across Europe felt sidelined by the new French - centric papacy.
Troubles reached their peak in 1378 when, Gregory XI died while visiting Rome. A papal conclave met in Rome and elected Urban VI, an Italian. Urban soon alienated the French cardinals, and they held a second conclave electing Robert of Geneva to succeed Gregory XI, beginning the Western Schism.
The Western Schism, or Papal Schism, was a prolonged period of crisis in Latin Christendom from 1378 to 1416, when there were two or more claimants to the See of Rome and there was conflict concerning the rightful holder of the papacy. The conflict was political, rather than doctrinal, in nature.
In 1309, Pope Clement V, due to political considerations, moved to Avignon in southern France and exercised his pontificate there. For sixty - nine years popes resided in Avignon rather than Rome. This was not only an obvious source of confusion but of political animosity as the prestige and influence of city of Rome waned without a resident pontiff. Though Pope Gregory XI, a Frenchman, returned to Rome in 1378, the strife between Italian and French factions intensified, especially following his subsequent death.
In 1378 the conclave, elected an Italian from Naples, Pope Urban VI; his intransigence in office soon alienated the French cardinals, who withdrew to a conclave of their own, asserting the previous election was invalid since its decision had been made under the duress of a riotous mob. They elected one of their own, Robert of Geneva, who took the name Pope Clement VII. By 1379, he was back in the palace of popes in Avignon, while Urban VI remained in Rome.
For nearly forty years, there were two papal curias and two sets of cardinals, each electing a new pope for Rome or Avignon when death created a vacancy. Each pope lobbied for support among kings and princes who played them off against each other, changing allegiance according to political advantage. In 1409, a council was convened at Pisa to resolve the issue. The council declared both existing popes to be schismatic (Gregory XII from Rome, Benedict XIII from Avignon) and appointed a new one, Alexander V. The existing popes refused to resign and thus there were three papal claimants. Another council was convened in 1414, the Council of Constance.
In March 1415 the Pisan pope John XXIII fled from Constance in disguise. He was brought back a prisoner and deposed in May. The Roman pope, Gregory XII, resigned voluntarily in July. The Avignon pope, Benedict XIII, refused to come to Constance, nor would he consider resignation. The council deposed him in July 1417. The council in Constance elected Pope Martin V as pope in November, having finally cleared the field of popes and antipopes,.
John Wycliffe (or Wyclif) (1330 -- 1384) was an English scholar and heretic best known for denouncing the corruptions of the Church, and his sponsoring the first translation of the Bible from Latin into English. He was a precursor of the Protestant Reformation. He emphasized the supremacy of the Bible, and called for a direct relationship between man and God, without interference by priests and bishops. His followers, called Lollards, faced persecution by the Church of England. They went underground for over a century and played a role in the English Reformation.
Jan Hus (or Huss) (1369? -- 1415) a Czech theologian in Prague, was influenced by Wycliffe and spoke out against the corruptions he saw in the Church; his continued defiance led to his excommunication and condemnation by the Council of Constance, which also condemned John Wycliff. Hus was executed in 1415, but his followers organized a peasants ' war, 1419 -- 1436, that was put down by the Empire with great brutality. Hus was a forerunner of the Protestant Reformation and his memory has become a powerful symbol of Czech culture in Bohemia.
The Renaissance was a period of great cultural change and achievement, marked in Italy by a classical orientation and an increase of wealth through mercantile trade. The City of Rome, the Papacy, and the Papal States were all affected by the Renaissance. On the one hand, it was a time of great artistic patronage and architectural magnificence, where the Church pardoned such artists as Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, Bramante, Raphael, Fra Angelico, Donatello, and da Vinci. On the other hand, wealthy Italian families often secured episcopal offices, including the papacy, for their own members, some of whom were known for immorality, such as Alexander VI and Sixtus IV.
In addition to being the head of the Church, the Pope became one of Italy 's most important secular rulers, and pontiffs such as Julius II often waged campaigns to protect and expand their temporal domains. Furthermore, the popes, in a spirit of refined competition with other Italian lords, spent lavishly both on private luxuries but also on public works, repairing or building churches, bridges, and a magnificent system of aqueducts in Rome that still function today.
From 1505 to 1626, St. Peter 's Basilica, perhaps the most recognised Christian church, was built on the site of the old Constantinian basilica. It was also a time of increased contact with Greek culture, opening up new avenues of learning, especially in the fields of philosophy, poetry, classics, rhetoric, and political science, fostering a spirit of humanism -- all of which would influence the Church.
In the early 16th century, movements were begun by two theologians, Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli, that aimed to reform the Church; these reformers are distinguished from previous ones in that they considered the root of corruptions to be doctrinal (rather than simply a matter of moral weakness or lack of ecclesiastical discipline) and thus they aimed to change contemporary doctrines to accord with what they perceived to be the "true gospel. '' The word Protestant is derived from the Latin protestatio meaning declaration which refers to the letter of protestation by Lutheran princes against the decision of the Diet of Speyer in 1529, which reaffirmed the edict of the Diet of Worms against the Reformation. Since that time, the term has been used in many different senses, but most often as a general term refers to Western Christianity that is not subject to papal authority. The term "Protestant '' was not originally used by Reformation era leaders; instead, they called themselves "evangelical '', emphasising the "return to the true gospel (Greek: euangelion). ''
The beginning of the Protestant Reformation is generally identified with Martin Luther and the posting of the 95 Theses on the castle church in Wittenberg, Germany. Early protest was against corruptions such as simony, episcopal vacancies, and the sale of indulgences. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura and sola fide. The three most important traditions to emerge directly from the Protestant Reformation were the Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist, Presbyterian, etc.), and Anglican traditions, though the latter group identifies as both "Reformed '' and "Catholic '', and some subgroups reject the classification as "Protestant. ''
The Protestant Reformation may be divided into two distinct but basically simultaneous movements, the Magisterial Reformation and the Radical Reformation. The Magisterial Reformation involved the alliance of certain theological teachers (Latin: magistri) such as Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, Cranmer, etc. with secular magistrates who cooperated in the reformation of Christendom. Radical Reformers, besides forming communities outside state sanction, often employed more extreme doctrinal change, such as the rejection of tenets of the Councils of Nicaea and Chalcedon. Often the division between magisterial and radical reformers was as or more violent than the general Catholic and Protestant hostilities.
The Protestant Reformation spread almost entirely within the confines of Northern Europe, but did not take hold in certain northern areas such as Ireland and parts of Germany. By far the magisterial reformers were more successful and their changes more widespread than the radical reformers. The Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation is known as the Counter Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, which resulted in a reassertion of traditional doctrines and the emergence of new religious orders aimed at both moral reform and new missionary activity. The Counter Reformation reconverted approximately 33 % of Northern Europe to Catholicism and initiated missions in South and Central America, Africa, Asia, and even China and Japan. Protestant expansion outside of Europe occurred on a smaller scale through colonisation of North America and areas of Africa.
Martin Luther was an Augustinian friar and professor at the University of Wittenberg. In 1517, he published a list of 95 Theses, or points to be debated, concerning the illicitness of selling indulgences. Luther had a particular disdain for Aristotelian philosophy, and as he began developing his own theology, he increasingly came into conflict with Thomistic scholars, most notably Cardinal Cajetan. Soon, Luther had begun to develop his theology of justification, or process by which one is "made right '' (righteous) in the eyes of God. In Catholic theology, one is made righteous by a progressive infusion of grace accepted through faith and cooperated with through good works. Luther 's doctrine of justification differed from Catholic theology in that justification rather meant "the declaring of one to be righteous '', where God imputes the merits of Christ upon one who remains without inherent merit. In this process, good works are more of an unessential byproduct that contribute nothing to one 's own state of righteousness. Conflict between Luther and leading theologians lead to his gradual rejection of authority of the Church hierarchy. In 1520, he was condemned for heresy by the papal bull Exsurge Domine, which he burned at Wittenberg along with books of canon law.
Ulrich Zwingli was a Swiss scholar and parish priest who was likewise influential in the beginnings of the Protestant Reformation. Zwingli claimed that his theology owed nothing to Luther, and that he had developed it in 1516, before Luther 's famous protest, though his doctrine of justification was remarkably similar to that of the German friar. In 1518, Zwingli was given a post at the wealthy collegiate church of the Grossmünster in Zürich, where he would remain until his death at a relatively young age. Soon he had risen to prominence in the city, and when political tension developed between most of Switzerland and the Catholic Habsburg Emperor Charles V. In this environment, Zwingli began preaching his version of reform, with certain points as the aforementioned doctrine of justification, but others (with which Luther vehemently disagreed) such as the position that veneration of icons was actually idolatry and thus a violation of the first commandment, and the denial of the real presence in the Eucharist. Soon the city council had accepted Zwingli 's doctrines and Zurich became a focal point of more radical reforming movements, and certain admirers and followers of Zwingli pushed his message and reforms far further than even he had intended, such as rejecting infant baptism. This split between Luther and Zwingli formed the essence of the Protestant division between Lutheran and Reformed theology. Meanwhile, political tensions increased; Zwingli and the Zurich leadership imposed an economic blockade on the inner Catholic states of Switzerland, which led to a battle in which Zwingli, in full armor, was slain along with his troops.
John Calvin was a French cleric and doctor of law turned Protestant reformer. He belonged to the second generation of the Reformation, publishing his theological tome, the Institutes of the Christian Religion, in 1536 (later revised), and establishing himself as a leader of the Reformed church in Geneva, which became an "unofficial capital '' of Reformed Christianity in the second half of the 16th century. He exerted a remarkable amount of authority in the city and over the city council, such that he has (rather ignominiously) been called a "Protestant pope. '' Calvin established an eldership together with a "consistory '', where pastors and the elders established matters of religious discipline for the Genevan population. Calvin 's theology is best known for his doctrine of (double) predestination, which held that God had, from all eternity, providentially foreordained who would be saved (the elect) and likewise who would be damned (the reprobate). Predestination was not the dominant idea in Calvin 's works, but it would seemingly become so for many of his Reformed successors.
Unlike other reform movements, the English Reformation began by royal influence. Henry VIII considered himself a thoroughly Catholic King, and in 1521 he defended the papacy against Luther in a book he commissioned entitled, The Defence of the Seven Sacraments, for which Pope Leo X awarded him the title Fidei Defensor (Defender of the Faith). However, the king came into conflict with the papacy when he wished to annul his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, for which he needed papal sanction. Catherine, among many other noble relations, was the aunt of Emperor Charles V, the papacy 's most significant secular supporter. The ensuing dispute eventually lead to a break from Rome and the declaration of the King of England as head of the English Church. England would later experience periods of frenetic and eclectic reforms contrasted by periods led by staunch conservatives. Monarchs such as Edward VI, Mary I, Elizabeth I, and Archbishops of Canterbury such as Thomas Cranmer and William Laud pushed the Church of England in many directions over the course of only a few generations. What emerged was a state church that considered itself both "Reformed '' and "Catholic '' but not "Roman '' (and hesitated from the title "Protestant ''), and other "unofficial '' more radical movements such as the Puritans.
The Counter-Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, was the response of the Catholic Church to the Protestant Reformation. The essence of the Counter-Reformation was a renewed conviction in traditional practices and the upholding of Catholic doctrine as the source of ecclesiastic and moral reform, and the answer to halt the spread of Protestantism. Thus it experienced the founding of new religious orders, such as the Jesuits, the establishment of seminaries for the proper training of priests, renewed worldwide missionary activity, and the development of new yet orthodox forms of spirituality, such as that of the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality. The entire process was spearheaded by the Council of Trent, which clarified and reasserted doctrine, issued dogmatic definitions, and produced the Roman Catechism.
Though Ireland, Spain, France, and elsewhere featured significantly in the Counter-Reformation, its heart was Italy and the various popes of the time, who established the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (the list of prohibited books) and the Roman Inquisition, a system of juridical tribunals that prosecuted heresy and related offences. The Papacy of St. Pius V (1566 -- 1572) was known not only for its focus on halting heresy and worldly abuses within the Church, but also for its focus on improving popular piety in a determined effort to stem the appeal of Protestantism. Pius began his pontificate by giving large alms to the poor, charity, and hospitals, and the pontiff was known for consoling the poor and sick, and supporting missionaries. The activities of these pontiffs coincided with a rediscovery of the ancient Christian catacombs in Rome. As Diarmaid MacCulloch stated, "Just as these ancient martyrs were revealed once more, Catholics were beginning to be martyred afresh, both in mission fields overseas and in the struggle to win back Protestant northern Europe: the catacombs proved to be an inspiration for many to action and to heroism. ''
The Council of Trent (1545 -- 1563), initiated by Pope Paul III (1534 -- 1549) addressed issues of certain ecclesiastical corruptions such as simony, absenteeism, nepotism, and other abuses, as well as the reassertion of traditional practices and the dogmatic articulation of the traditional doctrines of the Church, such as the episcopal structure, clerical celibacy, the seven Sacraments, transubstantiation (the belief that during mass the consecrated bread and wine truly become the body and blood of Christ), the veneration of relics, icons, and saints (especially the Blessed Virgin Mary), the necessity of both faith and good works for salvation, the existence of purgatory and the issuance (but not the sale) of indulgences, etc. In other words, all Protestant doctrinal objections and changes were uncompromisingly rejected. The Council also fostered an interest in education for parish priests to increase pastoral care. Milan 's Archbishop Saint Charles Borromeo (1538 -- 1584) set an example by visiting the remotest parishes and instilling high standards.
Catholic missions were carried to new places beginning with the new Age of Discovery, and the Roman Catholic Church established a number of Missions in the Americas and other colonies in order to spread Christianity in the New World and to convert the indigenous peoples. At the same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier as well as other Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans and Dominicans were moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa. While some of these missions were associated with imperialism and oppression, others (notably Matteo Ricci 's Jesuit mission to China) were relatively peaceful and focused on integration rather than cultural imperialism.
The Galileo affair, in which Galileo Galilei came into conflict with the Roman Catholic Church over his support of Copernican astronomy, is often considered a defining moment in the history of the relationship between religion and science.
In 1610, Galileo published his Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new telescope. These and other discoveries exposed major difficulties with the understanding of the Heavens that had been held since antiquity, and raised new interest in radical teachings such as the heliocentric theory of Copernicus.
In reaction, many scholars maintained that the motion of the Earth and immobility of the Sun were heretical, as they contradicted some accounts given in the Bible as understood at that time. Galileo 's part in the controversies over theology, astronomy and philosophy culminated in his trial and sentencing in 1633, on a grave suspicion of heresy.
The most famous colonisation by Protestants in the New World was that of English Puritans in North America. Unlike the Spanish or French, the English colonists made surprisingly little effort to evangelise the native peoples. The Puritans, or Pilgrims, left England so that they could live in an area with Puritanism established as the exclusive civic religion. Though they had left England because of the suppression of their religious practice, most Puritans had thereafter originally settled in the Low Countries but found the licentiousness there, where the state hesitated from enforcing religious practice, as unacceptable, and thus they set out for the New World and the hopes of a Puritan utopia.
This is the period from the Industrial revolution and the French Revolution until the mid 19th century.
See the French Republican Calendar and anti-clerical measures. See also the Holy League, the Battle of Vienna, Cardinal Richelieu, and Louis XIV of France.
Revivalism refers to the Calvinist and Wesleyan revival, called the Great Awakening, in North America which saw the development of evangelical Congregationalist, Presbyterian, Baptist, and new Methodist churches.
The First Great Awakening was a wave of religious enthusiasm among Protestants in the American colonies c. 1730 -- 1740, emphasising the traditional Reformed virtues of Godly preaching, rudimentary liturgy, and a deep sense of personal guilt and redemption by Christ Jesus. Historian Sydney E. Ahlstrom saw it as part of a "great international Protestant upheaval '' that also created Pietism in Germany, the Evangelical Revival, and Methodism in England. It centred on reviving the spirituality of established congregations, and mostly affected Congregational, Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed, German Reformed, Baptist, and Methodist churches, while also spreading within the slave population. The Second Great Awakening (1800 -- 1830s), unlike the first, focused on the unchurched and sought to instil in them a deep sense of personal salvation as experienced in revival meetings. It also sparked the beginnings of groups such as the Mormons, the Restoration Movement and the Holiness movement. The Third Great Awakening began from 1857 and was most notable for taking the movement throughout the world, especially in English speaking countries. The final group to emerge from the "great awakenings '' in North America was Pentecostalism, which had its roots in the Methodist, Wesleyan, and Holiness movements, and began in 1906 on Azusa Street, in Los Angeles. Pentecostalism would later lead to the Charismatic movement.
Restorationism refers to the belief that a purer form of Christianity should be restored using the early church as a model. In many cases, restorationist groups believed that contemporary Christianity, in all its forms, had deviated from the true, original Christianity, which they then attempted to "Reconstruct '', often using the Book of Acts as a "guidebook '' of sorts. Restorationists do not usually describe themselves as "reforming '' a Christian church continuously existing from the time of Jesus, but as restoring the Church that they believe was lost at some point. "Restorationism '' is often used to describe the Stone - Campbell Restoration Movement.
The term "Restorationist '' is also used to describe the Jehovah 's Witness Movement, founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell
The term "Restorationist '' is also used to describe the Latter Day Saint movement, including The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church), the Community of Christ and numerous other Latter Day Saints sects. Latter Day Saints, also known as Mormons, believe that Joseph Smith was chosen to restore the original organization established by Jesus, now "in its fullness '', rather than to reform the church.
The history of the Church from the mid 19th century around period of the revolutions of 1848 to today.
The Russian Orthodox Church held a privileged position in the Russian Empire, expressed in the motto of the late Empire from 1833: Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Populism. Nevertheless, the Church reform of Peter I in the early 18th century had placed the Orthodox authorities under the control of the Tsar. An official (titled Ober - Procurator) appointed by the Tsar himself ran the committee which governed the Church between 1721 and 1918: the Most Holy Synod.
The Church became involved in the various campaigns of russification, and was accused of involvement in anti-Jewish pogroms. In the case of anti-Semitism and the anti-Jewish pogroms, no evidence is given of the direct participation of the Church, and many Russian Orthodox clerics, including senior hierarchs, openly defended persecuted Jews, at least from the second half of the 19th century. Also, the Church has no official position on Judaism as such.
The Bolsheviks and other Russian revolutionaries saw the Church, like the Tsarist state, as an enemy of the people.
The Russian Orthodox Church collaborated with the White Army in the Russian Civil War (see White movement) after the October Revolution. This may have further strengthened the Bolshevik animus against the church.
After the October Revolution of 7 November 1917 (25 October Old Calendar) there was a movement within the Soviet Union to unite all of the people of the world under Communist rule (see Communist International). This included the Eastern European bloc countries as well as the Balkan States. Since some of these Slavic states tied their ethnic heritage to their ethnic churches, both the peoples and their church where targeted by the Soviet. Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes lead to imprisonment.
The Soviet Union was the first state to have as an ideological objective the elimination of religion. Toward that end, the Communist regime confiscated church property, ridiculed religion, harassed believers, and propagated anti-religious atheistic propaganda in the schools. Actions toward particular religions, however, were determined by State interests, and most organised religions were never outlawed. Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers along with execution included torture being sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental hospitals. The result of state atheism was to transform the Church into a persecuted and martyred Church. In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed. This included people like the Grand Duchess Elizabeth Fyodorovna who was at this point a monastic. Along with her murder was Grand Duke Sergei Mikhailovich Romanov; the Princes Ioann Konstantinovich, Konstantin Konstantinovich, Igor Konstantinovich and Vladimir Pavlovich Paley; Grand Duke Sergei 's secretary, Fyodor Remez; and Varvara Yakovleva, a sister from the Grand Duchess Elizabeth 's convent. They were herded into the forest, pushed into an abandoned mineshaft and grenades were then hurled into the mineshaft. Her remains were buried in Jerusalem, in the Church of Maria Magdalene.
The main target of the anti-religious campaign in the 1920s and 1930s was the Russian Orthodox Church, which had the largest number of faithful. Nearly its entire clergy, and many of its believers, were shot or sent to labor camps. Theological schools were closed, and church publications were prohibited. In the period between 1927 and 1940, the number of Orthodox Churches in the Russian Republic fell from 29,584 to fewer than 500. Between 1917 and 1940, 130,000 Orthodox priests were arrested. Father Pavel Florensky was one of the New - martyrs of this particular period.
After Nazi Germany 's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. By 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. But in 1959 Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches. By 1985 fewer than 7,000 churches remained active.
In the Soviet Union, in addition to the methodical closing and destruction of churches, the charitable and social work formerly done by ecclesiastical authorities was taken over by the state. As with all private property, Church owned property was confiscated into public use. The few places of worship left to the Church were legally viewed as state property which the government permitted the church to use. After the advent of state funded universal education, the Church was not permitted to carry on educational, instructional activity for children. For adults, only training for church - related occupations was allowed. Outside of sermons during the celebration of the divine liturgy it could not instruct or evangelise to the faithful or its youth. Catechism classes, religious schools, study groups, Sunday schools and religious publications were all illegal and or banned. This persecution continued, even after the death of Stalin until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. This caused many religious tracts to be circulated as illegal literature or samizdat. Since the fall of the Soviet Union there have been many New - martyrs added as Saints from the yoke.
One of the most striking developments in modern historical Orthodoxy is the dispersion of Orthodox Christians to the West. Emigration from Greece and the Near East in the last hundred years has created a sizable Orthodox diaspora in Western Europe, North and South America, and Australia. In addition, the Bolshevik Revolution forced thousands of Russian exiles westward. As a result, Orthodoxy 's traditional frontiers have been profoundly modified. Millions of Orthodox are no longer geographically "eastern '' since they live permanently in their newly adopted countries in the West. Nonetheless, they remain Eastern Orthodox in their faith and practice.
Liberal Christianity, sometimes called liberal theology, is an umbrella term covering diverse, philosophically informed religious movements and moods within late 18th, 19th and 20th - century Christianity. The word "liberal '' in liberal Christianity does not refer to a leftist political agenda or set of beliefs, but rather to the freedom of dialectic process associated with continental philosophy and other philosophical and religious paradigms developed during the Age of Enlightenment.
Fundamentalist Christianity, is a movement that arose mainly within British and American Protestantism in the late 19th century and early 20th century in reaction to modernism and certain liberal Protestant groups that denied doctrines considered fundamental to Christianity yet still called themselves "Christian. '' Thus, fundamentalism sought to re-establish tenets that could not be denied without relinquishing a Christian identity, the "fundamentals '': inerrancy of the Bible, Sola Scriptura, the Virgin Birth of Jesus, the doctrine of substitutionary atonement, the bodily Resurrection of Jesus, and the imminent return of Jesus Christ.
The position of Christians affected by Nazism is highly complex.
Regarding the matter, historian Derek Holmes wrote, "There is no doubt that the Catholic districts, resisted the lure of National Socialism (Nazism) far better than the Protestant ones. '' Pope Pius XI declared -- Mit brennender Sorge -- that Fascist governments had hidden "pagan intentions '' and expressed the irreconcilability of the Catholic position and Totalitarian Fascist State Worship, which placed the nation above God, fundamental human rights and dignity. His declaration that "Spiritually, (Christians) are all Semites '' prompted the Nazis to give him the title "Chief Rabbi of the Christian World. ''
Catholic priests were executed in concentration camps alongside Jews; for example, 2,600 Catholic Priests were imprisoned in Dachau, and 2,000 of them were executed. A further 2,700 Polish priests were executed (a quarter of all Polish priests), and 5,350 Polish nuns were either displaced, imprisoned, or executed. Many Catholic laymen and clergy played notable roles in sheltering Jews during the Holocaust, including Pope Pius XII (1876 -- 1958). The head rabbi of Rome became a Catholic in 1945 and, in honour of the actions the Pope undertook to save Jewish lives, he took the name Eugenio (the pope 's first name). A former Israeli consul in Italy claimed: "The Catholic Church saved more Jewish lives during the war than all the other churches, religious institutions, and rescue organisations put together. ''
The relationship between Nazism and Protestantism, especially the German Lutheran Church, was complex. Though many Protestant church leaders in Germany supported the Nazis ' growing anti-Jewish activities, some, such as Dietrich Bonhoeffer (a Lutheran pastor) were strongly opposed to the Nazis. Bonhoeffer was later found guilty in the conspiracy to assassinate Hitler and executed.
On 11 October 1962, Pope John XXIII opened the Second Vatican Council, the 21st ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. The council was "pastoral '' in nature, emphasising and clarifying already defined dogma, revising liturgical practices, and providing guidance for articulating traditional Church teachings in contemporary times. The council is perhaps best known for its instructions that the Mass may be celebrated in the vernacular as well as in Latin.
Ecumenism broadly refers to movements between Christian groups to establish a degree of unity through dialogue. "Ecumenism '' is derived from Greek οἰκουμένη (oikoumene), which means "the inhabited world '', but more figuratively something like "universal oneness. '' The movement can be distinguished into Catholic and Protestant movements, with the latter characterised by a redefined ecclesiology of "denominationalism '' (which the Catholic Church, among others, rejects).
Over the last century, a number of moves have been made to reconcile the schism between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox churches. Although progress has been made, concerns over papal primacy and the independence of the smaller Orthodox churches has blocked a final resolution of the schism.
On 30 November 1894, Pope Leo XIII published the Apostolic Letter Orientalium Dignitas (On the Churches of the East) safeguarding the importance and continuance of the Eastern traditions for the whole Church. On 7 December 1965, a Joint Catholic - Orthodox Declaration of Pope Paul VI and the Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I was issued lifting the mutual excommunications of 1054.
Some of the most difficult questions in relations with the ancient Eastern Churches concern some doctrine (i.e. Filioque, Scholasticism, functional purposes of asceticism, the essence of God, Hesychasm, Fourth Crusade, establishment of the Latin Empire, Uniatism to note but a few) as well as practical matters such as the concrete exercise of the claim to papal primacy and how to ensure that ecclesiastical union would not mean mere absorption of the smaller Churches by the Latin component of the much larger Catholic Church (the most numerous single religious denomination in the world), and the stifling or abandonment of their own rich theological, liturgical and cultural heritage.
With respect to Catholic relations with Protestant communities, certain commissions were established to foster dialogue and documents have been produced aimed at identifying points of doctrinal unity, such as the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification produced with the Lutheran World Federation in 1999.
The final Great Awakening (1904 onwards) had its roots in the Holiness movement which had developed in the late 19th century. The Pentecostal revival movement began, out of a passion for more power and a greater outpouring of the Spirit. In 1902, the American evangelists Reuben Archer Torrey and Charles M. Alexander conducted meetings in Melbourne, Australia, resulting in more than 8,000 converts. News of this revival travelled fast, igniting a passion for prayer and an expectation that God would work in similar ways elsewhere.
Torrey and Alexander were involved in the beginnings of the great Welsh revival (1904) which led Jessie Penn - Lewis to witness the working of Satan during times of revival, and write her book "War on the Saints ''. In 1906, the modern Pentecostal Movement was born on Azusa Street in Los Angeles.
Another noteworthy development in 20th - century Christianity was the rise of the modern Pentecostal movement. Although its roots predate the year 1900, its actual birth is commonly attributed to the 20th century. Sprung from Methodist and Wesleyan roots, it arose out of the meetings at an urban mission on Azusa Street in Los Angeles. From there it spread around the world, carried by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there. These Pentecost - like manifestations have steadily been in evidence throughout the history of Christianity -- such as seen in the two Great Awakenings that started in the United States. However, Azusa Street is widely accepted as the fount of the modern Pentecostal movement. Pentecostalism, which in turn birthed the Charismatic movement within already established denominations, continues to be an important force in western Christianity.
In reaction to these developments, Christian fundamentalism was a movement to reject the radical influences of philosophical humanism, as this was affecting the Christian religion. Especially targeting critical approaches to the interpretation of the Bible, and trying to blockade the inroads made into their churches by atheistic scientific assumptions, the fundamentalists began to appear in various denominations as numerous independent movements of resistance to the drift away from historic Christianity. Over time, the Fundamentalist Evangelical movement has divided into two main wings, with the label Fundamentalist following one branch, while Evangelical has become the preferred banner of the more moderate movement. Although both movements primarily originated in the English - speaking world, the majority of Evangelicals now live elsewhere in the world.
Ecumenical movements within Protestantism have focused on determining a list of doctrines and practices essential to being Christian and thus extending to all groups which fulfil these basic criteria a (more or less) co-equal status, with perhaps one 's own group still retaining a "first among equal '' standing. This process involved a redefinition of the idea of "the Church '' from traditional theology. This ecclesiology, known as denominationalism, contends that each group (which fulfils the essential criteria of "being Christian '') is a sub-group of a greater "Christian Church '', itself a purely abstract concept with no direct representation, i.e., no group, or "denomination '', claims to be "the Church. '' This ecclesiology is at variance with other groups that indeed consider themselves to be "the Church. '' The "essential criteria '' generally consist of belief in the Trinity, belief that Jesus Christ is the only way to have forgiveness and eternal life, and that He died and rose again bodily.
The following links give an overview of the history of Christianity:
The following links provide quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time:
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dark is the night cold was the ground | Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground - wikipedia
"Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' is a gospel blues song written and performed by American musician Blind Willie Johnson and recorded in 1927. The song is primarily an instrumental featuring Johnson 's self - taught bottleneck slide guitar and picking style accompanied by his vocalizations of humming and moaning. It has the distinction of being one of 27 samples of music included on the Voyager Golden Record, launched into space in 1977 to represent the diversity of life on Earth. The song has been highly praised and covered by numerous musicians and is featured on the soundtracks of several films.
Born in 1897, Johnson taught himself how to play guitar and dedicated his life to blues and gospel music, playing for people on street corners and in mission halls. Columbia Records had a field unit that traveled to smaller towns to record local talent. Johnson recorded 30 songs for them at five sessions between 1927 and 1930. Among the first of these was "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground ''.
The song 's title is borrowed from a hymn that was popular in the nineteenth century American South with fasola singers. "Gethsemane '', written by English clergyman Thomas Haweis in 1792, begins with the lines "Dark was the night, cold was the ground / on which my Lord was laid. '' Music historian Mark Humphrey describes Johnson 's composition as an impressionistic rendition of "lining out '', a call - and - response style of singing hymns that is common in southern African - American churches.
"Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' is 3 minutes and 21 seconds of Johnson 's unique guitar playing in open D tuning for slide. By most accounts, Johnson substituted a knife or penknife for the bottleneck. His melancholy, gravel - throated humming of the guitar part creates the impression of "unison moaning '', a melodic style common in Baptist churches where, instead of harmonizing, a choir hums or sings the same vocal part, albeit with slight variations among its members. Although Johnson 's vocals are indiscernible, several sources indicate the subject of the song is the crucifixion of Christ.
His records were sold by the Columbia and Vocalion labels with other blues acts like Bessie Smith, whom Johnson outsold during the Depression years. In 1928, the influential blues critic Edward Abbe Niles championed Johnson in his column for The Bookman, praising his "violent, tortured, and abysmal shouts and groans, and his inspired guitar playing ''.
Johnson 's music experienced a revival in the 1960s thanks in large part to the efforts of blues guitarist Reverend Gary Davis. A highly regarded figure within the burgeoning New York folk scene, Davis gave copies of Johnson 's records to young musicians and taught them to play his songs. The Soul Stirrers, Staples Singers, Buffy Sainte - Marie and Peter, Paul & Mary all covered Johnson. In 1969, the English folk - rock band Fairport Convention released the album What We Did on Our Holidays which included a song inspired by "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' called "The Lord Is in this Place... How Dreadful Is this Place ''. A compilation album titled Dark Was the Night was released in 2009 by the Red Hot Organization, a charity that raises awareness of HIV and AIDS issues through music. The Kronos Quartet recorded an arrangement of "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' that appears on the album. The song "Excavating Rita '' by Half Man Half Biscuit on their 2011 album 90 Bisodol (Crimond) quotes the song 's title.
Singer - guitarist Jack White of The White Stripes called "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' "the greatest example of slide guitar ever recorded '' and used the song as a standard to measure such iconic rock music that followed in its wake, such as "Whole Lotta Love '' by Led Zeppelin. In 2003, John Clarke in The Times wrote that "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' was "the most intense and startling blues record ever made ''. Francis Davis, author of The History of the Blues concurs, writing "In terms of its intensity alone -- its spiritual ache -- there is nothing else from the period to compare to Johnson 's ' Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground ', on which his guitar takes the part of a preacher and his wordless voice the part of a rapt congregation. ''
Johnson 's recording of "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' was selected by the Library of Congress as a 2010 addition to the National Recording Registry, which selects recordings annually that are "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
"Dark was the Night, Cold was the Ground '' was used on the Oscar - nominated soundtrack to Pier Paolo Pasolini 's classic film, The Gospel According to St Matthew, in scenes where Judas Iscariot laments betraying Christ and a cripple asks to be healed. Ry Cooder based his soundtrack to the Palme d'Or - winning film, Paris, Texas on "Dark was the Night, Cold was the Ground '', which he has described as "the most soulful, transcendent piece in all American music. '' Wim Wenders, the director of Paris, Texas, included Blind Willie Johnson 's music and life in his 2003 documentary The Soul of a Man, produced for the PBS series "The Blues ''.
The life story of Johnson is mentioned in the episode "The Warfare of Genghis Khan '' of the TV series The West Wing and "Dark was the Night, Cold was the Ground '' plays over the closing scenes of that episode. The song was also used in the opening episode of season 4 of the Irish crime drama Love / Hate. During the ninth episode of the US drama House of Cards season two, the song is mentioned as a favorite of Frank Underwood when he visits Freddy Hayes, the owner of Freddy 's BBQ, and both realize that they share taste for Blind Willie.
In 1977 Carl Sagan and a team of researchers were tasked with collecting a representation of Earth and the human experience for sending on the Voyager probe to other life forms in the universe. They collected sounds of frogs, crickets, volcanoes, a human heartbeat, laughter, greetings in 55 languages, and 27 pieces of music on the Voyager Golden Record. "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' was included, according to Sagan, because "Johnson 's song concerns a situation he faced many times: nightfall with no place to sleep. Since humans appeared on Earth, the shroud of night has yet to fall without touching a man or woman in the same plight. ''
78 rpm records
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bubble and squeak why is it called that | Bubble and squeak - wikipedia
Bubble and squeak is a traditional English dish made with the shallow - fried leftover vegetables from a roast dinner. The main ingredients are potato and cabbage, but carrots, peas, Brussels sprouts, or any other leftover vegetables can be added. The chopped vegetables (and cold chopped meat if used) are fried in a pan together with mashed potatoes or crushed roast potatoes until the mixture is well - cooked and brown on the sides. The dish is so named because the cabbage makes bubbling and squeaking sounds during the cooking process. It is often served with cold meat from the Sunday roast, and pickles or brown sauce, or as an accompaniment to a full English breakfast.
The meat was traditionally added to the bubble and squeak itself, although nowadays it is more commonly made without meat. The earliest known recipe was in Mrs Rundell 's A New System of Domestic Cookery in 1806.
The name bubble and squeak is used primarily in England (for Scotland and Ireland see ' Similar dishes '), and it may also be understood in parts of some other Commonwealth countries and the United States.
Bubble and squeak was a popular dish during the Second World War, as it was an easy way of using leftovers during a period when most foods were subject to rationing. In more recent times, prepared frozen and tinned versions have become available.
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who danced the lead role in appalachian spring | Appalachian Spring - wikipedia
Appalachian Spring is a composition by Aaron Copland that premiered in 1944 and has achieved widespread and enduring popularity as an orchestral suite. The ballet, scored for a thirteen - member chamber orchestra, was created upon commission of choreographer and dancer Martha Graham with funds from the Coolidge Foundation. It premiered on Monday, October 30, 1944 at the Library of Congress in Washington D.C., with Martha Graham dancing the lead role. The set was designed by the American sculptor Isamu Noguchi. Copland was awarded the 1945 Pulitzer Prize for Music for his achievement.
In 1942, Martha Graham and Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge commissioned Copland to write a ballet with "an American theme ''. Copland did the bulk of the work in 1943 / 44, and the work was premiered at the Library of Congress on Oct. 30, 1944, with Graham dancing the lead role. In 1945, Copland was commissioned by conductor Artur Rodzinski to rearrange the ballet as an orchestral suite, preserving most of the music. Copland cut about 10 minutes from the original 13 - instrument score to make the suite. From the preface in the original Boosey & Hawkes publication of the suite:
The original scoring called for a chamber ensemble of thirteen instruments. The present arrangement for symphony orchestra was made by the composer in the Spring of 1945. It is a condensed version of the ballet, retaining all essential features but omitting those sections in which the interest is primarily choreographic.
The Orchestral Suite from 1945 was first recorded by Serge Koussevitzky with the Boston Symphony Orchestra. In 1954, Eugene Ormandy asked Copland to expand the orchestration for the full score of the ballet. In 1972, Boosey & Hawkes published a version of the suite fusing the structure of it with the scoring of the original ballet: double string quartet, bass, flute, clarinet, bassoon, and piano. Thus there are four versions of Appalachian Spring, dating from 1944 (13 - player complete), 1945 (orchestral suite), 1954 (orchestral complete) and 1972 (13 - player suite).
The 1944 version was recorded in 1991 by Hugh Wolff with the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra for Teldec. The 1954 version was recorded by Michael Tilson Thomas and the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra for RCA Victor in May 1999.
The original ballet and the orchestral suite were well received. The latter was credited as more important in popularizing the composer.
Copland 's inspiration arrived in the form of an Edward Deming Andrews book, The Gift to be Simple - Songs, Dances and Rituals of the American Shakers, J.J. Augustin; Republished by Dover. Copland stated that the book 's title composition jumped into him immediately upon receipt (see Winterthur archives). Originally, Copland did not have a title for the work, referring to it simply as "Ballet for Martha '' -- a title as simple and direct as the Shaker tune ' Tis the Gift to be Simple quoted in the music. Shortly before the premiere, Graham suggested Appalachian Spring, a phrase from a Hart Crane poem, "The Dance '' from a collection of poems in his book "The Bridge. ''
O Appalachian Spring! I gained the ledge; Steep, inaccessible smile that eastward bends And northward reaches in that violet wedge Of Adirondacks!
Because he composed the music without the benefit of knowing what the title was going to be, Copland was often amused when people told him he captured the beauty of the Appalachians in his music, a fact he alluded to in an interview with NPR 's Fred Calland. Little known is that the word "spring '' denotes a source of water in the Crane poem; however the poem is a journey to meet springtime.
The story tells of a spring celebration of the American pioneers of the 19th century, after building a new Pennsylvania farmhouse. Among the central characters are a bride, a groom, a pioneer woman, a preacher and his congregation. The L.A. Times provides a concise summary of the storyline in its transitions between the choreographed sequences stating:
Created in 1944, the ballet tells a simple story. A young farm couple ruminate on their lives before getting married and setting up house in the wilderness. An itinerant preacher delivers a sermon. An older pioneer woman oversees the events with sympathy and wisdom. The newlyweds muse on their future as night falls. In the course of the dance, Graham reveals the inner lives of the four principal characters -- Wife, Husbandman, Pioneer Woman and Preacher. She shows that the couple will face a future that will not be all sweetness and light, but she also draws out the private and shared emotional resources they will be able to bring to the challenges. Such is the power of Graham 's images, however, that this very particular story broadens out to become a parable about Americans conquering a new land.
The orchestral suite is divided into eight sections. Copland describes each scene thus:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The original ballet version is divided into 14 movements. The movements that do not appear in the orchestral suite occur mostly between the 7th and last movement as variations on the Shaker melody Simple Gifts (1848). The second variation provides a lyrical treatment in the low register while the third contrasts starkly in a fast staccato. The last two variations of this section use only a part of the folk tune, first an extraction treated as a pastoral variation and then as a majestic closing. In the ballet, but not the suite, there is an intermediary section that moves away from the folk tune preceding the final two variations.
Known as the "Shaker Melody '', "Shaker Song '', and the "Shaker Hymn '', the music Copland based his ending variations on was actually called Simple Gifts. This same Shaker tune was used by Sydney Carter in a widely recognized hymn entitled "Lord of the Dance ''. Copland published independent arrangements of this section for band (1958) and orchestra (1967) titled Variations on a Shaker Melody.
For many years part of the seventh movement of the orchestral suite was used as the opening music to CBS Reports.
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who's the best selling music artist of all time | List of best - selling Music artists - wikipedia
This list includes music artists with claims of 75 million or more record sales. The artists in the following tables are listed with both their claimed sales figure along with their total of certified units and are ranked in descending order, with the artist with the highest amount of claimed sales at the top. If two or more artists have the same claimed sales, they are then ranked by certified units. The claimed sales figure and the total of certified units (for each country) within the provided sources include sales of albums, singles, compilation - albums, music videos as well as downloads of singles and full - length albums. Sales figures, such as those from Soundscan, which are sometimes published by Billboard magazine, have not been included in the certified units column. As of 2017, based on both sales claims and certified units, The Beatles are considered the highest - selling band. Elvis Presley is considered the highest - selling individual artist based on sales claims and Rihanna is the highest - selling individual artist based on certified units.
All artists included on this list, which have begun charting on official albums or singles charts have their available claimed figures supported by at least 20 % in certified units. That is why Cliff Richard, Diana Ross, Scorpions, Charles Aznavour, Bing Crosby, Gloria Estefan, Deep Purple, Iron Maiden, Tom Jones, The Jackson 5, Dionne Warwick, the Spice Girls, Luciano Pavarotti, Dolly Parton, Ozzy Osbourne, Andrea Bocelli and others have not been included on this list. The more recent the artist, the higher the required percentage of certified units, so artists such as Rihanna, Taylor Swift, Flo Rida, Katy Perry, Justin Bieber, Adele, Lady Gaga, Bruno Mars and Nicki Minaj are expected to have their claimed figures supported by over 75 % in certified units. The certified units are sourced from available online databases of local music industry associations. All certified units are converted from Gold / Platinum / Diamond certification awards based on criteria provided by certifying bodies. The certified sales percentage varies according to the first year that an artist appeared in the charts.
The requirements of certified sales are designed to avoid inflated sales figures, which are frequently practiced by record companies for promotional purposes. The claimed figures are referenced from online articles created by highly reliable sources. For clarity, the sources used, say the term "records '' (singles, albums, videos) and not "albums ''. However, if all available sources for an artist or band say "albums '', such sources are only used if the certified album units of the said artist meet the required percentage amount. This list uses claimed figures that are closest to artists ' available certified units: inflated claimed figures that meet the required certified units amount but are unrealistically high, are not used.
The claimed figures are upgraded only when there is a significant progress in artists ' certified sales. In other words, the available certified sales for each artist should get relatively closer to already listed claimed figure in order for higher figures to replace the listed ones.
The certified sales of the newer artists may sometimes be higher than their listed claimed figures. This is because Recording Industry Association of America and almost all other certifying bodies count streaming towards Gold and Platinum thresholds required for Digital Single Award certification. For this reason, some singles and even albums get over certified by hundreds of thousands of units. The over certified figures, however, are often in millions of units for RIAA certifications, one such example is Rihanna 's single "We Found Love '', which is certified at nine times Platinum by the RIAA, yet during the time of the certification, it had sold 5.4 million downloads.
The certified sales for some artists / bands who have multi-disc albums can be higher than their listed claimed figures due to Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) counting each unit within set as one unit toward certification.
The Beatles
Elvis Presley
Michael Jackson
Madonna
Elton John
Led Zeppelin
Pink Floyd
Rihanna
Mariah Carey
Celine Dion
Queen
Whitney Houston
AC / DC
The Rolling Stones
Taylor Swift
Garth Brooks
Eminem
Eagles
Bruno Mars
U2
Kanye West
Justin Bieber
Katy Perry
Adele
Lady Gaga
Jay - Z
Metallica
B'z
Coldplay
Shania Twain
Nicki Minaj
Flo Rida
Ayumi Hamasaki
Van Halen
Red Hot Chili Peppers
Journey
The Black Eyed Peas
Maroon 5
Kenny G
Usher
Tupac Shakur
Robbie Williams
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where is the new double dare filmed at | Double Dare (Nickelodeon game show) - Wikipedia
Double Dare is an American television game show on which two teams compete to win cash and prizes by answering trivia questions and completing messy stunts known as physical challenges. It originally ran from 1986 to 1993. A revival ran in 2000, and a new revival began on June 25, 2018.
Hosted by Marc Summers, the program originally premiered on Nickelodeon on October 6, 1986, as its first game show. The series saw many adjustments in scheduling and titling throughout its run. Almost immediately after its debut, Double Dare had more than tripled viewership for Nickelodeon 's afternoon lineup, becoming the most - watched original daily program on cable television. The program was a major success for Nickelodeon, helping to establish the network as a major player in cable television, and to revitalize the genre of game shows for children. Double Dare remains Nickelodeon 's longest - running game show. In January 2001, TV Guide ranked the show number 29 on its list of 50 Greatest Game Shows.
A continuation for syndication premiered on February 22, 1988, later revamped as Super Sloppy Double Dare on January 22, 1989. The program also had a short run on Fox as Family Double Dare, airing from April 3 to July 23, 1988. Nickelodeon continued Family Double Dare, premiering a new version on October 6, 1990. The original series ended on February 6, 1993. The series was revived, hosted by Jason Harris, and titled Double Dare 2000; this aired from January 22 to November 10, 2000. A second revival of the series, hosted by Liza Koshy and featuring Marc Summers, premiered on June 25, 2018.
Each team on the original Double Dare and Super Sloppy Double Dare consisted of two children, while teams on Family Double Dare and Double Dare 2000 included two adults and two children. Originally, both teams wore red uniforms, but after Double Dare entered syndication in 1988, one team wore blue uniforms while the other wore red.
Each round begins with a toss - up physical challenge in which both teams compete, with the winning team receiving both initial control of the round, and money for their score. After the toss - up, the host begins asking trivia questions of the team in control. Each correct answer earns a monetary award, and allows the team to maintain control, while an incorrect answer, or failure to respond within approximately ten seconds turns control over to the opponents. However, the team can dare their opponents to answer the question, doubling its value; in response, the opponents can double dare for quadruple the original value. When the team in control is challenged to a double dare, they have to either answer or compete in a physical challenge. An incorrect answer, or not responding within approximately five seconds on a dare or double dare, awards both control and the appropriate amount of money to the team that issues it. The second round plays the same as the first, with question values doubled. On the original Double Dare and Super Sloppy Double Dare, a question was initially worth $10. On Family Double Dare and Double Dare 2000, a question was initially worth $25. On the 2018 Double Dare, a question is initially worth $50.
After the toss - up at the start of the first round, the host explains the rules as follows:
Physical challenges are often messy stunts that a team has to perform in a specified time, usually 20 or 30 seconds, although occasionally 10 or 15 seconds. All physical challenges on Double Dare 2000 were 30 seconds in length, unless a time reduction was in play due to the Triple Dare Challenge. The team wins money and retained control for completing the stunt. Otherwise, the money and control pass to their opponents.
Many challenges have involved filling a container past a line with one of a variety of substances including water, uncooked rice, green slime, whipped cream, and milk. Others involve catching a specific number of items before time runs out. For example, during "Pies in the Pants, '' a contestant has to catch a set number of pies in a pair of oversized clown pants within the specified time limit, while their teammate launches the pies from a foot - operated catapult at the opposite end of the stage.
On the original Double Dare and Super Sloppy Double Dare, both contestants on a team competed in all physical challenges. For the 1988 version of Family Double Dare, all four members of a team competed in the challenges. On the 1990 -- 93 version of Family Double Dare and on Double Dare 2000, two members of a team competed in round one, and all four members competed in round two. All members of a team competed in physical challenges on the 2018 Double Dare.
Double Dare 2000 introduced the Triple Dare Challenge. Available only in round two, this allowed a team to make their physical challenge more difficult, increasing its value by $100, and putting a bonus prize at stake. Difficulties included reducing the time limit, adding an extra item to the stunt, or increasing the overall difficulty of the stunt. The actual modifier was not revealed unless the team decided to accept the challenge. If the team did not complete the challenge successfully, the money, prize, and control went to their opponents.
The team with the highest score at the end of round two goes on to the bonus round, the obstacle course (renamed the Slopstacle Course for Double Dare 2000). From the original Double Dare through Double Dare 2000 both teams keep all money earned, regardless of the outcome. Only the winning team on the 2018 version gets to keep their money.
The course consists of eight obstacles which have to be completed within 60 seconds. Each obstacle has an orange flag either at its end or hidden within it. One team member runs the first obstacle, then passes its flag to a partner, who then moves on to the next obstacle. The team continues to alternate in this manner until they have completed the course or until time expires. For safety reasons, team members are given helmets, elbow pads, and knee pads to wear while running the course.
Many obstacles have appeared in the course rotation, often based on body parts, food, and enlarged items found in daily life. Popular elements of the obstacle course have included The One - Ton Human Hamster Wheel, an oversized hamster wheel; Pick It, a giant human nose with a flag hidden inside; The Sundae Slide, a chocolate - covered ramp leading to a playground slide with ice cream; and Gum Drop, a gigantic gumball machine replica filled with plastic balls into which contestants would leap.
The team wins a prize for each obstacle completed, escalating in value up to a grand prize for completing the entire course. Two - person teams split the cash earnings, and both contestants receive the same prize for each obstacle. Prizes have included televisions, concert tickets, encyclopedias, electronics, gift certificates, non-motorized modes of transportation and, on the Fox Family Double Dare, cash. On the original and Super Sloppy versions, the grand prize was usually a vacation or an experience at Space Camp. All eight prizes were usually worth a total of between $3,000 and $4,000, with some episodes featuring a prize package nearing $10,000. On the Fox Family Double Dare, as well as the first season of the Nickelodeon run, the grand prize was a vehicle, making all eight prizes worth between $15,000 and $25,000. Once again, the grand prize was typically a vacation for the second season of Nickelodeon 's Family Double Dare, Double Dare 2000 and the 2018 Double Dare, with grand prize packages on the 2018 version having a value of more than $6,000.
In the mid-1980s, Nickelodeon was approached by production and consulting groups with the idea of doing a game show for children, a first for the network. Nickelodeon conducted focus groups and concluded that children enjoyed watching game shows with adults, but they did not have a game show targeted at their demographic. Dee LaDuke, Robert Mittenthal, Michael Klinghoffer, and Geoffrey Darby worked to develop a new format, basing it on a combination of trivia, truth or dare, and the board game Mouse Trap. The pilot presentation was recorded in May 1986, hosted by Darby. Double Dare was green - lighted and announced in June 1986.
Initial candidates to host the program included Soupy Sales, host of children 's variety shows in the 1950s and 1960s, and comedian Dana Carvey. After Nickelodeon determined Sales to be too old for the role, and Carvey was offered a chance to audition for Saturday Night Live, the search for a host continued. Producers viewed over 1,000 applicants from New York or Los Angeles. First attending a tryout in lieu of a friend, and later passing multiple auditions, television warm - up comedian Marc Summers was one of two finalists advancing to a final audition. Each hosted a mock game for Nickelodeon to make an ultimate decision on who would host Double Dare. The producers felt the way Summers ended the game by leading into a commercial break was more professional and he was hired for the position in the first week of September 1986. Because focus groups showed that the audience thought he was more than 10 years younger than he actually was, Summers, then 34 years old, was obligated by Nickelodeon for years to not mention his age publicly.
In need of an announcer, Double Dare producers were made aware of Philadelphia - area radio host John Harvey, known on - air as Harvey, whose Harvey in the Morning program on WIOQ had been canceled months earlier. He accepted the offer to be announcer of the program. Stage assistants also appeared on - camera on Double Dare, initially only assisting in setting up physical challenges and obstacles, but expanding the role as the series continued to sometimes interacting with Summers, demonstrating challenges, and modeling prizes. Robin Marrella and Dave Shikiar were the two permanent stage assistants when the program began.
James Fenhagen and Byron Taylor created the original stage design for Double Dare. The design for the original series ' set was inspired by a 1980s Italian postmodern design and architecture group known as the Memphis Group. Glass brick walls and yellow and pink, often in a checkerboard pattern, were prominent aspects of the set design. Highlighted by blue and yellow tile - style floors, Geoffrey Darby gave the direction for the set to look like a natatorium (swimming pool), while Robert Mittenthal feels its inspiration is derived from a bathroom. All the original Double Dare music was composed by Edd Kalehoff.
Production originated at the studios of PBS affiliate WHYY - TV in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. WHYY offered Nickelodeon their newly opened production wing to use, and Nickelodeon felt Philadelphia was a better location to initially produce Double Dare because of its lower production costs, instead of cities like New York or Los Angeles where national television production is more common. The 65 - episode first season was recorded in a 23 - day period beginning September 18, 1986. Double Dare premiered on Nickelodeon on October 6, 1986. New episodes aired weekdays at 5: 30 p.m. ET during the original series ' run on Nickelodeon. After the success of the first 65 episodes, a second 65 - episode season was ordered.
A weekend edition titled Super Sloppy Double Dare began taping in July 1987 and premiered August 2, 1987, with an initial 26 - episode run. Super Sloppy Double Dare featured gameplay identical to the original format; however, physical challenges and obstacles were designed to make a bigger mess. Viewers were encouraged to send in a postcard with their contact information and could win a prize if their card was selected, and a team performing a physical challenge completed the stunt successfully. Episodes of Super Sloppy Double Dare were taped at Unitel Studio in New York City before production moved back to WHYY - TV.
In July 1987, pilots hosted by Bruce Jenner were produced by Viacom for two possible versions of Double Dare with adult players: one pairing celebrities with contestants, and another with married couples. Neither concept advanced to a full series.
By November 1987, Fox announced they had partnered with Viacom to purchase the distribution rights for new episodes of the program in syndication. New episodes of Double Dare aired on independent stations and Fox affiliates beginning on February 22, 1988. There were 130 first - run syndication episodes in 1988.
A 13 - episode Saturday night edition titled Family Double Dare aired on Fox from April 3 to July 23, 1988. Teams on this version consisted of four family members, most often a mother, father, and two children. The budget was increased, and the prize total featured during the obstacle course was larger than that featured on the Nickelodeon series. A further 13 episodes of Family Double Dare were then ordered, but Fox canceled the series shortly before production was to begin because of "creative differences. ''
On January 5, 1989, production began on a new version of Super Sloppy Double Dare from Philadelphia at WHYY - TV, continuing in syndication. The series premiered on January 22, 1989. The second half of the series was produced at Universal Studios in Orlando, Florida, with production beginning in April 1989. This version of the show recorded in larger studios with a larger set allowed for a lower level devoted to physical challenges and obstacles with a bigger size and, typically, bigger messes. Many episodes in this part of the series featured unique and offbeat themes that questions, challenges, and sometimes wardrobe would be patterned after. Themes included a Salute to Baseball, Backwards Day, Stupid Hat Day, a Salute to Breakfast, and two Super-Slop - a-Mania episodes featuring wrestlers and personalities from the World Wrestling Federation. Another special episode saw Summers and Harvey each team with a contestant to compete against each other, with Jim J. Bullock taking over hosting duties. By the end of Super Sloppy Double Dare, the program was syndicated to 154 stations. The series left syndication on September 8, 1989.
Family Double Dare returned to Nickelodeon on August 13, 1990, first airing repeats of the Fox version. A Salute to Double Dare special aired September 2, 1990, with Summers, Harvey, and Marrella highlighting moments from Double Dare, discussing its popularity, and previewing the upcoming Family Double Dare. Nickelodeon launched its own version of Family Double Dare on weekends beginning October 6, 1990. Nickelodeon produced the series at the newly - opened Nickelodeon Studios on the Universal Studios Florida grounds in Orlando. Production began in July 1990 and ended on July 24, 1992, with 80 episodes taped over two seasons. Between the production cycles of Family Double Dare, two special episodes of Double Dare were recorded in January 1992: NBA All - Star Double Dare with National Basketball Association alumni and Super Special Double Dare with members of the casts of Clarissa Explains It All and Welcome Freshmen.
Jamie Bojanowski and Chris Miles joined Robin Marrella as stage assistants for Family Double Dare, replacing Dave Shikiar who left the series between the ending of Super Sloppy Double Dare in 1989 and the beginning of Family Double Dare in 1990 to pursue production opportunities on other programs like The Home Show and Wild & Crazy Kids. In order to spend time with his wife and his newborn son Caleb, Harvey did not announce the last season of Family Double Dare in 1992. He was replaced as announcer by Doc Holliday, an Orlando - area radio host on WXXL 's Doc & Johnny in the Morning. Harvey made a cameo appearance on the final episode of the season and the series.
Family Double Dare concluded on February 6, 1993, with a one - hour Tournament of Champions episode. The episode featured a "brains vs. brawn '' mini-tournament where the two families from the final season who answered the most questions correctly played against each other, and the two families from the final season with the fastest obstacle course times played against each other. The winners of those games competed to determine the 1993 Family Double Dare champions. Physical challenges from Double Dare appeared on Nickelodeon All - Star Challenge, a three - part special combining elements from many of Nickelodeon 's game shows, airing on October 3, 1994.
Repeats of the original Double Dare continued to air on Nickelodeon until March 15, 1991, and returned to Nickelodeon 's schedule again from June 12 to September 30, 1994. Repeats of Family Double Dare remained on the Nickelodeon schedule until January 31, 1999. At this time, development began for the revival that would become Double Dare 2000.
Double Dare has spawned versions in foreign countries throughout the world, including: Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, The Netherlands, Germany, India, and Brazil. Six episodes of the Australian version recorded for American consumption, one featuring an American team competing against an Australian team, aired on Nickelodeon during a special marathon on September 3, 1990. Repeats of all versions of Double Dare aired in various cycles on Nickelodeon Games and Sports for Kids from the network 's inception in 1999 until its closure in 2009. Since 2011, Double Dare has been incorporated into the branding of TeenNick 's classic Nickelodeon blocks The ' 90s Are All That, and its successor, NickSplat (previously known as The Splat). Episodes of Double Dare have occasionally aired in these blocks.
On December 20, 1999, Nickelodeon announced a revival of the original Double Dare show, titled Double Dare 2000. Production began on January 5, 2000, and the show broadcast its first episode later that same month on January 22, 2000, now hosted by Jason Harris with Tiffany Phillips as announcer. Additional episodes were taped in July of the same year. Eileen Braun, who worked on the original Double Dare as a production assistant and a production coordinator, was the executive producer for Double Dare 2000. Marc Summers advised on production as an executive consultant. Tia Schroeder and Will Finley worked on Double Dare 2000 as stage assistants.
Double Dare 2000 followed the Family Double Dare format with a revamped set and bigger physical challenges. It also featured the new Triple Dare Challenge option in round two, and referred to the obstacle course as the Slopstacle Course. In association with Sony and National Mobile Television, five episodes of Double Dare 2000 were produced in high - definition with a 16: 9 aspect ratio. The episodes were broadcast in a 4: 3 letterboxed format as Nickelodeon did not broadcast in high - definition until 2008. The music for Double Dare 2000, a remix of the original soundtrack, was composed by former Crack the Sky guitarist Rick Witkowski. Byron Taylor again served as set designer. The series concluded on November 10, 2000. Repeats remained on the Nickelodeon schedule until July 29, 2001.
Beginning May 21, 2012, Nickelodeon Suites Resort in Orlando produced Double Dare as a nightly live stage presentation, Double Dare Live. As part of the Studio Nick feature of the hotel, shows were performed each night exclusively for the resort 's guests. The show featured elements and updates from the various versions of Double Dare, including remixed music, physical challenges and an obstacle course similar to the TV show. Like the most recent formats of the program, eight contestants were selected to participate for the game - playing teams, while additional audience members played other physical challenges throughout the program. The production continued until Nickelodeon Suites Resort Orlando rebranded as a Holiday Inn Resort on June 1, 2016. A scaled - down version of Double Dare Live, called Double Dare Challenge, has been presented at Nickelodeon Universe in Mall of America from June 13 to September 24, 2016, and ran again from June 16 to September 30, 2017. Its current cycle began March 16, 2018, and is scheduled to run intermittently through August 26.
On July 22, 2016, special live editions of Double Dare, produced by Nickelodeon and The Splat with original host Marc Summers, took place at Fluxx nightclub during San Diego Comic - Con 2016. The event was live - streamed on The Splat 's Facebook page and included in the later anniversary special. The week of July 25, 2016, The Splat aired a Double Dare - themed week featuring episodes and moments from the series ' history, and included edited versions of the Comic - Con games. These events marked Summers ' first Nickelodeon - sponsored involvement with the brand since Double Dare 2000.
A half - hour special presentation, celebrating the 30th anniversary of the show 's premiere, the Double Dare Reunion Special, aired on November 23, 2016, on Nick at Nite, with an encore airing on The Splat. The special included vintage clips, behind - the - scenes footage, and a new game recorded at San Diego Comic - Con 2016 played by cast members from All That. Summers, announcer Harvey, and stage assistant Robin Russo (née Marrella) appeared in the special. 1.126 million viewers watched the special on Nick at Nite, outperforming all other shows on the network for the evening, and finishing as the third-most viewed of all non-sports original cable telecasts among viewers ages 18 to 34 for that day.
In 2017, Summers stated that, due to the success of the special, he was in negotiations to return to Double Dare in some form with Nickelodeon. News outlets reported in March 2018 that Nickelodeon was producing a new series of Blue 's Clues, and was in negotiations to reboot Clarissa Explains It All, two shows originally made by the network in the 1990s. Upon learning of these developments, and inspired by the success of other contemporary television revivals like Will & Grace, Summers emailed Nickelodeon executives to ask if he was going to be the person to receive "the next phone call. ''
On April 25, 2018, Nickelodeon announced a new version of Double Dare, which is the second revival of the show. The network ordered 40 episodes that recorded in Los Angeles at CBS Studio Center throughout June 2018. The series premiered on June 25. Actress and television / internet personality Liza Koshy hosts the series. Original host Marc Summers also appears on the series in an on - camera role. Along with performing traditional duties of an announcer, Summers provides commentary on the show 's physical challenges and helps introduce elements and transition the game. Summers is also one of the show 's executive producers. FremantleMedia produces the series on behalf of Nickelodeon.
The set, designed by James Pearse Connelly, bears a heavy resemblance to the original set used in the 1980s. Updates include using digital screens for displays and decoration, enhanced lighting, and a dedicated space for the obstacle course, though timing and scoring uses emulation of the original vane display - type numerals. Members of the "challenge team '' also appear as stage assistants, including Eric Pierce, Michelle Kallman, James Michael Ryan Jr., and Stad St. Fleur. Edd Kalehoff remixed and re-composed the original theme song and soundtrack for this version.
Episodes broadcast predominantly feature teams of two children competing, but some episodes have participation from teams of one child and one adult family member. An episode has also aired with teams of three siblings, and one with teams of two children with two adult family members. Some episodes feature celebrity participants, such as actors from past Nickelodeon series competing, including All That 's Jamie Lynn Spears and Josh Server, and from Kenan & Kel, Kenan Thompson and Kel Mitchell. The 2018 Kids ' Choice Sports Awards, which aired on July 20, 2018, culminated with host and basketball player Chris Paul competing against Olympic swimmer Michael Phelps in the Double Dare obstacle course, presented by Liza Koshy and Marc Summers. Because Koshy had difficulty with her voice during the taping of an episode, Summers filled in as host for the second half of a show, which aired on July 26. The first cycle of season one, airing 24 half - hour episodes, concluded on July 27.
Within a month of its premiere, Double Dare had more than tripled viewership for Nickelodeon 's afternoon schedule becoming the highest - rated original, daily program on cable. During Double Dare 's first year, the program averaged a 3.0 household Nielsen rating, with over 1 million households tuned in each week. On its February 1988 debut in syndication, the program averaged a 5.4 household Nielsen rating and a 15.4 rating among children ages 2 to 11, and was the second - highest rated syndicated program in that demographic. By January 1989, Double Dare averaged a 3.1 household Nielsen rating. The special Sunday premiere episode of Family Double Dare on Fox on April 3, 1988, scored a 4.0 household Nielsen rating, finishing 5th out of 10 programs broadcast on Fox that week helping to give Fox 's Sunday night schedule its highest ratings to that point.
When Double Dare 2000 premiered in January 2000, episodes in its first two weeks averaged household Nielsen ratings of up to 3.0, being viewed by up to 2.7 million households, and finishing in the top 25 basic cable programs each week. Double Dare 2000 often won its time slot in viewership among children ages 2 to 11.
The June premiere of the 2018 revival was watched by 1.843 million viewers, outperforming all other shows on Nickelodeon for the day, finishing as the highest - rated broadcast for teenagers ages 12 to 17. Double Dare 's premiere was Nickelodeon 's most - viewed series launch among adults 18 to 49 in more than five years. By the end of its second week, viewership for new episodes hovered around one million overall viewers.
At its peak, Double Dare was the highest - rated, live - action show for children ages 8 to 15. The show was also popular with college students, with many schools offering Double Dare fan clubs. Half of Nickelodeon 's operating profit in 1988 was due to the success of Double Dare and its syndication. On the show 's success, then - senior vice-president of Nickelodeon programming Herb Scannell said that Double Dare was like "having a hit record your first time out. Double Dare put Nick on the map. ''
Double Dare revitalized interest in the concept of a game show for children. Less than a year after the program launched, NBC had premiered I 'm Telling!, Lorimar Television had announced plans for Fun House, and Nickelodeon 's Finders Keepers began airing -- all shows based on competition between teams of children. During Double Dare 's first year on television, junior versions of established game shows including Hollywood Squares and The Cross-Wits were developed for syndication, but ultimately were not produced. Game show executive and producer Bob Boden noted that Double Dare "allowed kids to get dirty and have a good time in ways that really were not acceptable before that show ''. Double Dare remains the longest - running game show produced by Nickelodeon.
As Double Dare grew messier, a green slime substance became more commonly used in physical challenges and obstacles. Slime was originally introduced on another Nickelodeon program, You Ca n't Do That on Television. Double Dare 's high viewership led to greater visibility for Nickelodeon 's association with slime, and saw it featured in promotions for the network in the late 1980s. The substance proliferated further, including annual slimings on the Kids ' Choice Awards, a slime geyser at Nickelodeon Studios, and slime - based segments on other game shows including Wild & Crazy Kids and Figure It Out. The relationship of Nickelodeon and slime still lasts on the network.
Reviews of the show were often favorable, noting it was fun entertainment for the family. After Double Dare premiered, Kenneth R. Clark, media writer for the Chicago Tribune, observed that when contestants "squeal and make faces, it is somehow natural, wholesome and infectious, '' and said, "Double Dare is so refreshing. '' Noel Holston of the Minneapolis Star and Tribune wrote that "kids and game shows, when you think about it, go together like hot fudge and ice cream ''. The Orange County Register 's Ellen T. Klein said Double Dare is "such fast - paced, furious and messy fun '' and rated the show as "good ''. In 1988, television critic Ken Tucker cited the interaction between, and the performances of host Marc Summers and announcer Harvey as "the not - so - secret ingredients in the show 's success in drawing adult, as well as youthful, viewers ''.
Some criticism came from the feeling that the program was not educational. Others were concerned about food waste like beans and eggs in physical challenges and obstacles. In a "Cheers and Jeers '' section in 1988, TV Guide gave "jeers '' to Double Dare for "daring to push beyond the limits of good taste, '' saying it was "gross and insulting to watch. '' In 1989, television and film critic Jeffrey Lyons wrote that he "would n't dream of proclaiming that Super Sloppy Double Dare is good for your child. But what 's wrong with watching an admittedly dumb -- but hilarious -- program just for fun? ''
Andrea Graham wrote for Common Sense Media that revival series Double Dare 2000 is a "fun, action - filled game show that families can watch together -- amid all the slime are some good messages about family togetherness ''. Original host and executive consultant for Double Dare 2000 Marc Summers said that "there were issues '' with the revival. In an interview with AfterBuzz TV, he said that he felt the length of the Triple Dare Challenge took away from the game and that "if we would have done it the way we originally did it, we would have been fine, but unfortunately, it did n't happen ''.
The 2018 revival of Double Dare premiered to positive reviews, particularly for host Liza Koshy. Reality Blurred 's Andy Dehnart said that the reboot "did an excellent job of balancing the old and new, '' and praised the combination of Koshy and Marc Summers, saying she "can absolutely hold her own as host, '' and "her rapport with (Summers) felt natural and playful. '' Joel Keller of the New York Post 's Decider observed that "the show belongs to Koshy, who ad libs well and makes the kids feel at ease, '' and gave Double Dare a favorable "stream it '' rating.
Double Dare was nominated for a CableACE Award in the Game Show Special or Series category at the 1989 and 1993 ceremonies, winning the award in 1989, but losing to MTV 's Lip Service in 1993. Dana Calderwood was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing in a Children 's Series in 1989. Nickelodeon was nominated for a 1988 Golden ACE award, cable 's then - highest programming honor, for its "pro-social television, '' including Double Dare by name. In January 2001, TV Guide ranked the show number 29 on its list of 50 Greatest Game Shows.
Double Dare has been featured in a number of notable visual media since its premiere, often with one or more characters participating as contestants in homages to the series. On "Double Dare '', a 2016 episode of the 1980s - set sitcom The Goldbergs, Adam Goldberg (Sean Giambrone) tries to find the perfect partner to audition to be a contestant on Double Dare. After rejecting his friend Emmy Mirsky (Stephanie Katherine Grant), he eventually runs through a mock obstacle course at a tryout with his grandfather Albert "Pops '' Solomon (George Segal). Neither are selected to take part in the program. Benjamin Bauman and Amy Gross, real - life friends of series ' creator Adam F. Goldberg who appeared as contestants on Double Dare in 1988, cameo as producers of the show. A first - season episode of the 2013 Nickelodeon series Sanjay and Craig titled "Trouble Dare '' features the titular characters (voiced by Maulik Pancholy and Chris Hardwick), along with Sanjay 's mother and father (voiced by Grey Griffin and Kunal Nayyar), leaving their home after a bug infestation. After asking Remington Tufflips (voiced by Chris D'Elia) to stay in his trailer, and finding that the Dickson family is already occupying it, Tufflips decides which family can stay through a game of Family Double Dare hosted by himself. Harvey (voiced by himself) is concerned with how Tufflips is running the game, until Marc Summers (voiced by himself) appears and declares Sanjay 's family the winners of a night 's sleep inside the Pick It obstacle. Another Family Double Dare game is seen in the music video for rock band Good Charlotte 's 2011 single "Last Night. '' The video shows an abridged game of Family Double Dare, going through questions, physical challenges, and the obstacle course. Marc Summers appears as himself, guitarist Benji Madden appears as Harvey, and band members play contestants and stage assistants.
Double Dare has also been subject to parodies and spoofs in various forms. The October 1988 issue of Mad has a spoof of Double Dare called "Double Damp ''. Marc Summers and Harvey are lampooned as "Muck Slummers '' and "Hardly ''. The piece mocked the program 's use of food products, the dangerous nature of some stunts, and the similarity to game show Beat the Clock. Both Summers and Harvey consider being parodied in Mad a high point in their careers. A 2015 episode of the truTV sketch comedy series Friends of the People titled "Double Dare '' guest stars Marc Summers as himself, hosting "banned '' moments from Double Dare. Sketches include a contestant exploding, and another being stuck permanently inside an obstacle. "March Dadness, '' a 2012 episode of The Cleveland Show, features a flashback to a Family Double Dare - like program called Dare Squared. A young Cleveland Brown (voiced by Mike Henry) has difficulty finding an orange flag in an oversized stack of pancakes at the end of the program 's obstacle course. Marc Summers voices the frustrated host. Also, in a 2017 episode of Billy on the Street, host Billy Eichner led guest Keegan - Michael Key through an obstacle course with gun law themes titled Super Sloppy Semi-Automatic Double Dare. Eichner has cited Double Dare as a favorite show of his.
Reebok was a major sponsor of Double Dare throughout its run. Every contestant and stage crew member wore a pair of the company 's shoes. Additional corporate sponsorships and tie - ins were proposed, including Casio putting their logo on the stage clock, and a Double Dare - branded breakfast cereal, but Nickelodeon declined the offers.
From 1987 to 1995, various Double Dare live tours visited venues around the United States. Featuring a format similar to the TV show wherein members of a live local audience could participate, the tour would later incorporate aspects of What Would You Do?, another show hosted by Summers for Nickelodeon. Some events in these tours sold out arenas they were held in, with attendance of more than 20,000 spectators. The tours and events resumed in 2000 to promote Double Dare 2000.
Double Dare 's lasting popularity has led to a variety of products being made available. Pressman Toy Corporation released two traditional board games based on the show: The Double Dare home game was released in September 1987 and Wet ' N Wild Double Dare was released in March 1989. Another board game titled Double Dare: The Game was manufactured by Mattel in 2001. GameTek published a PC game in 1988, and a video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System in 1990 based on the program. Containing facts about the show, along with trivia and activities to host a home version of the game, two editions of The Double Dare Game Book were released by Parachute Press in 1988 and 1989. Based on substances referenced on Double Dare and Double Dare 2000, Mattel and Jakks Pacific manufactured a series of toy slimes called Gak and Goooze. Other toys, apparel, lunchboxes, and school supplies have been sold featuring the show 's logo and art.
Double Dare was heavily featured in the summer 2016 "Remember When '' promotion at New York concept store STORY. Their partnership with Nickelodeon offered exclusive in - store products like Double Dare T - shirts and other goods designed in the style of the program 's themes. Patrons at STORY could also participate in Double Dare experiences, like running the One - Ton Human Hamster Wheel obstacle. As well, other Double Dare - inspired products available in - store, including Keds shoes and Stance socks, were offered online through retail partner Neiman Marcus.
Four collections of Double Dare highlights and special features were released on home video by Kids Klassics on October 1, 1988, -- Double Dare: The Inside Scoop and Double Dare: The Messiest Moments. On October 17, 1989, a home party guide titled How to Throw a Double Dare Party was released by Elektra Video. Sony Wonder released Double Dare: Super Sloppiest Moments on May 31, 1994.
Collections of episodes of the original Super Sloppy Double Dare and versions of Family Double Dare were made available for purchase via digital distribution on Amazon Video and the iTunes Store throughout 2013. A DVD titled Nickelodeon Games and Sports: All - Star Collection, released by Nickelodeon for Amazon.com on April 27, 2015, features an episode of the original Super Sloppy Double Dare and Family Double Dare. Episodes of the 2018 version of Double Dare are available for purchase through many online video retailers, sold individually and in multi-episode volumes.
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who was the last person executed for treason | List of people convicted of treason - wikipedia
This is a list of people convicted of treason.
Some countries have a high constitutional hurdle to conviction for treason, while many countries have less stringent definitions.
The Republic of Hawaii government had one trial for treason after the failed 1895 Counter-Revolution in Hawaii. Those charged were found guilty, but pardoned after serving time in prison.
For the betrayal of General Stefan Rowecki to the Gestapo:
For betrayal of the Polish People 's Republic:
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the united states and the soviet union remained good friends and allies after the war. true false | Soviet Union -- United States relations - wikipedia
The relations between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922 -- 1991) succeeded the previous relations from 1776 to 1917 and predate today 's relations that began in 1992. Full diplomatic relations between the two countries were established late due to mutual hostility. During World War II, the two countries were briefly allies. At the end of the war, the first signs of post-war mistrust and hostility began to appear between the two countries, escalating into the Cold War; a period of tense hostile relations, with periods of détente.
Soviet Republics seat in the United Nations:
Baltic States as Soviet Republics:
Other Soviet Socialist Republics:
Other allies:
Status of the Baltic States during occupation:
Other allies:
Leaders of the Soviet Union and the United States from 1917 to 1991.
In 1919, after the Bolsheviks took over Russia, won a Civil War, killed the royal family, repudiated the tsarist debt, and called for a world revolution by the working class, it became a pariah nation.
U.S. hostility towards the Bolsheviks was not only due to countering the emergence of an anti-capitalist revolution. The Americans, as a result of the fear of Japanese expansion into Russian held territory and their support for the Allied - aligned Czech legion, sent a small number of troops to Northern Russia and Siberia. After Lenin came to power in the October Revolution, he withdrew Russia from World War I, allowing the Germans to reallocate troops to face the Americans and other Allied forces on the Western Front.
U.S. attempts at hindering the Bolsheviks consisted less of direct military intervention than various forms of aid directed to anti-Bolshevik groups, especially the White Army. Aid was given mostly by means of supplies and food. President Woodrow Wilson had various issues to deal with and did not want to intervene in Russia with total commitment due to Russian public opinion and the belief that many Russians were not part of the growing Red Army and in the hopes the revolution would eventually fade towards more democratic realizations. An aggressive invasion would have allied Russians together and depicted the U.S. as an invading conquering nation. Following World War I, Germany was seen as the puppeteer in the Bolshevik cause with indirect control of the Bolsheviks through German agents.
"The fact is that while Germany in a way has been using the Bolshevik element either directly through bribes of some of its leaders or as a result of the principles of government they espouse and practice, Germany is appealing to the conservative elements of Russia as their only hope against the Bolsheviks ''.
Beyond the Russian Civil War, relations were also dogged by claims of American companies receiving compensation for the nationalized industries they had invested in.
By 1922, the Soviet Union was working its way back into European favor. The United States refused formal recognition, but did open trade relations and there was active transfer of technology. The Ford Motor Company took the lead in building a truck industry and introducing tractors.
By 1933, old fears of Communist threats had faded, and the American business community, as well as newspaper editors, were calling for diplomatic recognition. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was eager for large - scale trade with Russia, and hope for some repayment on the old tsarist debts. He negotiated with the Soviets, and they promised there would be no espionage so Roosevelt used presidential authority to normalized relations in November 1933. There were few complaints about the move. However, there was no progress on the debt issue, and little additional trade. Historians Justus D. Doenecke and Mark A. Stoler note that, "Both nations were soon disillusioned by the accord. '' Many American businessmen expected a bonus in terms of large - scale trade, but it never materialized.
The Soviets had promised not to engage in spying inside the United States, but did so anyhow. Roosevelt named William Bullitt as ambassador from 1933 to 1936. Bullitt arrived in Moscow with high hopes for Soviet -- American relations, his view of the Soviet leadership soured on closer inspection. By the end of his tenure, Bullitt was openly hostile to the Soviet government. He remained an outspoken anti-communist for the rest of his life.
Before the Germans decided to invade the Soviet Union in June 1941, relations remained strained, as the Soviet invasion of Finland, Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact, Soviet invasion of the Baltic states and Joint German and Soviet invasion of Poland stirred, which resulted in Soviet Union 's expulsion from the League of Nations. Come the invasion of 1941, the Soviet Union entered a Mutual Assistance Treaty with Great Britain, and received aid from the American Lend - Lease program, relieving American - Soviet tensions, and bringing together former enemies in the fight against Nazi Germany and the Axis powers.
Though operational cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union was notably less than that between other allied powers, the United States nevertheless provided the Soviet Union with huge quantities of weapons, ships, aircraft, rolling stock, strategic materials, and food through the Lend - Lease program. The Americans and the Soviets were as much for war with Germany as for the expansion of an ideological sphere of influence. During the war, Truman stated that it did not matter to him if a German or a Russian soldier died so long as either side is losing.
The American Russian Cultural Association (Russian: Америк ′ ано -- р ′ усская культ ′ урная ассоци ′ ация) was organized in the USA in 1942 to encourage cultural ties between the Soviet Union and the United States, with Nicholas Roerich as honorary president. The group 's first annual report was issued the following year. The group does not appear to have lasted much past Nicholas Roerich 's death in 1947.
In total, the U.S. deliveries through Lend - Lease amounted to $11 billion in materials: over 400,000 jeeps and trucks; 12,000 armored vehicles (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386 of which were M3 Lees and 4,102 M4 Shermans); 11,400 aircraft (4,719 of which were Bell P - 39 Airacobras) and 1.75 million tons of food.
Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94 % coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.
The United States delivered to the Soviet Union from October 1, 1941 to May 31, 1945 the following: 427,284 trucks, 13,303 combat vehicles, 35,170 motorcycles, 2,328 ordnance service vehicles, 2,670,371 tons of petroleum products (gasoline and oil) or 57.8 percent of the High - octane aviation fuel, 4,478,116 tons of foodstuffs (canned meats, sugar, flour, salt, etc.), 1,911 steam locomotives, 66 Diesel locomotives, 9,920 flat cars, 1,000 dump cars, 120 tank cars, and 35 heavy machinery cars. Provided ordnance goods (ammunition, artillery shells, mines, assorted explosives) amounted to 53 percent of total domestic production. One item typical of many was a tire plant that was lifted bodily from the Ford Company 's River Rouge Plant and transferred to the USSR. The 1947 money value of the supplies and services amounted to about eleven billion dollars.
The end of World War II saw the resurgence of previous divisions between the two nations. The expansion of Soviet influence into Eastern Europe following Germany 's defeat worried the liberal democracies of the West, particularly the United States, which had established virtual economic and political primacy in Western Europe. The two nations promoted two opposing economic and political ideologies and the two nations competed for international influence along these lines. This protracted a geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle -- lasting from about 1947 to the period leading to the dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 26, 1991 -- is known as the Cold War.
The Soviet Union detonated its first nuclear weapon in 1949, ending the United States ' monopoly on nuclear weapons. The United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a conventional and nuclear arms race that persisted until the collapse of the Soviet Union. Andrei Gromyko was Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, and is the longest - serving foreign minister in the world.
After Germany 's defeat, the United States sought to help its Western European allies economically with the Marshall Plan. The United States extended the Marshall Plan to the Soviet Union, but under such terms, the Americans knew the Soviets would never accept, namely the acceptance of free elections, not characteristic of Stalinist communism. With its growing influence on Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union sought to counter this with the Comecon in 1949, which essentially did the same thing, though was more an economic cooperation agreement instead of a clear plan to rebuild. The United States and its Western European allies sought to strengthen their bonds and spite the Soviet Union. They accomplished this most notably through the formation of NATO which was basically a military agreement. The Soviet Union countered with the Warsaw Pact, which had similar results with the Eastern Bloc.
In December 1989, both the leaders of the United States and the Soviet Union declared the Cold War over, and in 1991, the two were partners in the Gulf War against Iraq, a longtime Soviet ally. On 31 July 1991, the START I treaty cutting the number of deployed nuclear warheads of both countries was signed by Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev and U.S. President George Bush. However, many consider the Cold War to have truly ended in late 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
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formed when groundwater mixes with gases and minerals to form a solution that dissolves rock | Cave - wikipedia
A cave is a hollow place in the ground, specifically a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. Caves form naturally by the weathering of rock and often extend deep underground. The word cave can also refer to much smaller openings such as sea caves, rock shelters, and grottos, though strictly speaking a cave is exogene, meaning it is deeper than its opening is wide, and a rock shelter is endogene. A cavern is a specific type of cave, naturally formed in soluble rock with the ability to grow speleothems.
Speleology is the science of exploration and study of all aspects of caves and the cave environment. Visiting or exploring caves for recreation may be called caving, potholing, or spelunking.
The formation and development of caves is known as speleogenesis, which can occur over the course of millions of years. Caves are formed by various geologic processes and can be variable sizes. These may involve a combination of chemical processes, erosion from water, tectonic forces, microorganisms, pressure, and atmospheric influences. Isotopic dating techniques can be applied to cave sediments, in order to determine the timescale when geologic events may have occurred to help form and shape present day caves.
It is estimated that the maximum depth of a cave can not be more than 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) due to the pressure of overlying rocks. For karst caves the maximum depth is determined on the basis of the lower limit of karst forming processes, coinciding with the base of the soluble carbonate rocks. Most caves are formed in limestone by dissolution.
Caves can be classified in various other ways as well, including active vs. relict; active caves have water flowing through them, relict caves to not, though water may be retained in them. Types of active caves include inflow caves ("into which a stream sinks ''), outflow caves ("from which a stream emerges ''), and through caves ("traversed by a stream '').
Solutional caves or karst caves are the most frequently occurring caves. Such caves form in rock that is soluble; most occur in limestone, but they can also form in other rocks including chalk, dolomite, marble, salt, and gypsum. Rock is dissolved by natural acid in groundwater that seeps through bedding planes, faults, joints, and comparable features. Over geological epochs cracks expand to become caves and cave systems.
The largest and most abundant solutional caves are located in limestone. Limestone dissolves under the action of rainwater and groundwater charged with H CO (carbonic acid) and naturally occurring organic acids. The dissolution process produces a distinctive landform known as karst, characterized by sinkholes and underground drainage. Limestone caves are often adorned with calcium carbonate formations produced through slow precipitation. These include flowstones, stalactites, stalagmites, helictites, soda straws and columns. These secondary mineral deposits in caves are called speleothems.
The portions of a solutional cave that are below the water table or the local level of the groundwater will be flooded.
Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico and nearby Carlsbad Cavern are now believed to be examples of another type of solutional cave. They were formed by H S (hydrogen sulfide) gas rising from below, where reservoirs of oil give off sulfurous fumes. This gas mixes with groundwater and forms H SO (sulfuric acid). The acid then dissolves the limestone from below, rather than from above, by acidic water percolating from the surface.
Caves formed at the same time as the surrounding rock are called primary caves.
Lava tubes are formed through volcanic activity and are the most common primary caves. As lava flows downhill, its surface cools and solidifies. Hot liquid lava continues to flow under that crust, and if most of it flows out, a hollow tube remains. Examples of such caves can be found in the Canary Islands, Jeju - do, the basaltic plains of Eastern Idaho, and other places. Kazumura Cave near Hilo, Hawaii is a remarkably long and deep lava tube; it is 65.6 km long (40.8 mi).
Lava caves include but are not limited to lava tubes. Other caves formed through volcanic activity include rift caves, lava mold caves, open vertical volcanic conduits, and inflationary caves.
Sea caves are found along coasts around the world. A special case is littoral caves, which are formed by wave action in zones of weakness in sea cliffs. Often these weaknesses are faults, but they may also be dykes or bedding - plane contacts. Some wave - cut caves are now above sea level because of later uplift. Elsewhere, in places such as Thailand 's Phang Nga Bay, solutional caves have been flooded by the sea and are now subject to littoral erosion. Sea caves are generally around 5 to 50 metres (16 to 164 ft) in length, but may exceed 300 metres (980 ft).
Corrasional or erosional caves are those that form entirely by erosion by flowing streams carrying rocks and other sediments. These can form in any type of rock, including hard rocks such as granite. Generally there must be some zone of weakness to guide the water, such as a fault or joint. A subtype of the erosional cave is the wind or aeolian cave, carved by wind - born sediments. Many caves formed initially by solutional processes often undergo a subsequent phase of erosional or vadose enlargement where active streams or rivers pass through them.
Glacier caves are formed by melting ice and flowing water within and under glaciers. The cavities are influenced by the very slow flow of the ice, which tends to collapse the caves again. Glacier caves are sometimes misidentified as "ice caves '', though this latter term is properly reserved for bedrock caves that contain year - round ice formations.
Fracture caves are formed when layers of more soluble minerals, such as gypsum, dissolve out from between layers of less soluble rock. These rocks fracture and collapse in blocks of stone.
Talus caves are formed by the openings among large boulders that have fallen down into a random heap, often at the bases of cliffs. These unstable deposits are called talus or scree, and may be subject to frequent rockfalls and landslides.
Anchialine caves are caves, usually coastal, containing a mixture of freshwater and saline water (usually sea water). They occur in many parts of the world, and often contain highly specialized and endemic fauna.
Caves are found throughout the world, but only a small portion of them have been explored and documented by cavers. The distribution of documented cave systems is widely skewed toward countries where caving has been popular for many years (such as France, Italy, Australia, the UK, the United States, etc.). As a result, explored caves are found widely in Europe, Asia, North America and Oceania, but are sparse in South America, Africa, and Antarctica.
This is a rough generalization, as large expanses of North America and Asia contain no documented caves, whereas areas such as the Madagascar dry deciduous forests and parts of Brazil contain many documented caves. As the world 's expanses of soluble bedrock are researched by cavers, the distribution of documented caves is likely to shift. For example, China, despite containing around half the world 's exposed limestone -- more than 1,000,000 square kilometres (390,000 sq mi) -- has relatively few documented caves.
Cave - inhabiting animals are often categorized as troglobites (cave - limited species), troglophiles (species that can live their entire lives in caves, but also occur in other environments), trogloxenes (species that use caves, but can not complete their life cycle fully in caves) and accidentals (animals not in one of the previous categories). Some authors use separate terminology for aquatic forms (for example, stygobites, stygophiles, and stygoxenes).
Of these animals, the troglobites are perhaps the most unusual organisms. Troglobitic species often show a number of characteristics, termed troglomorphic, associated with their adaptation to subterranean life. These characteristics may include a loss of pigment (often resulting in a pale or white coloration), a loss of eyes (or at least of optical functionality), an elongation of appendages, and an enhancement of other senses (such as the ability to sense vibrations in water). Aquatic troglobites (or stygobites), such as the endangered Alabama cave shrimp, live in bodies of water found in caves and get nutrients from detritus washed into their caves and from the feces of bats and other cave inhabitants. Other aquatic troglobites include cave fish, and cave salamanders such as the olm and the Texas blind salamander.
Cave insects such as Oligaphorura (formerly Archaphorura) schoetti are troglophiles, reaching 1.7 millimetres (0.067 in) in length. They have extensive distribution and have been studied fairly widely. Most specimens are female, but a male specimen was collected from St Cuthberts Swallet in 1969.
Bats, such as the gray bat and Mexican free - tailed bat, are trogloxenes and are often found in caves; they forage outside of the caves. Some species of cave crickets are classified as trogloxenes, because they roost in caves by day and forage above ground at night.
Because of the fragile nature of the cave ecosystem, and the fact that cave regions tend to be isolated from one another, caves harbor a number of endangered species, such as the Tooth cave spider, liphistius trapdoor spider, and the gray bat.
Caves are visited by many surface - living animals, including humans. These are usually relatively short - lived incursions, due to the lack of light and sustenance.
Cave entrances often have typical florae. For instance, in the eastern temperate United States, cave entrances are most frequently (and often densely) populated by the bulblet fern, Cystopteris bulbifera.
Throughout history, primitive peoples have made use of caves. The earliest human fossils found in caves come from a series of caves near Krugersdorp and Mokopane in South Africa. The cave sites of Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai B, Drimolen, Malapa, Cooper 's D, Gladysvale, Gondolin and Makapansgat have yielded a range of early human species dating back to between three and one million years ago, including Australopithecus africanus, Australopithecus sediba and Paranthropus robustus. However, it is not generally thought that these early humans were living in the caves, but that they were brought into the caves by carnivores that had killed them.
The first early hominid ever found in Africa, the Taung Child in 1924, was also thought for many years to come from a cave, where it had been deposited after being predated on by an eagle. However, this is now debated (Hopley et al., 2013; Am. J. Phys. Anthrop.). Caves do form in the dolomite of the Ghaap Plateau, including the Early, Middle and Later Stone Age site of Wonderwerk Cave; however, the caves that form along the escarpment 's edge, like that hypothesised for the Taung Child, are formed within a secondary limestone deposit called tufa. There is numerous evidence for other early human species inhabiting caves from at least one million years ago in different parts of the world, including Homo erectus in China at Zhoukoudian, Homo rhodesiensis in South Africa at the Cave of Hearths (Makapansgat), Homo neandertalensis and Homo heidelbergensis in Europe at Archaeological Site of Atapuerca, Homo floresiensis in Indonesia, and the Denisovans in southern Siberia.
In southern Africa, early modern humans regularly used sea caves as shelter starting about 180,000 years ago when they learned to exploit the sea for the first time (Marean et al., 2007; Nature). The oldest known site is PP13B at Pinnacle Point. This may have allowed rapid expansion of humans out of Africa and colonization of areas of the world such as Australia by 60 - 50,000 years ago. Throughout southern Africa, Australia, and Europe, early modern humans used caves and rock shelters as sites for rock art, such as those at Giants Castle. Caves such as the yaodong in China were used for shelter; other caves were used for burials (such as rock - cut tombs), or as religious sites (such as Buddhist caves). Among the known sacred caves are China 's Cave of a Thousand Buddhas and the sacred caves of Crete.
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when was the telephone first used in homes | Timeline of the telephone - wikipedia
This timeline of the telephone covers landline, radio, and cellular telephony technologies and provides many important dates in the history of the telephone.
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who are the candidates running for new jersey governor | New Jersey gubernatorial Election, 2017 - wikipedia
Murphy
Guadagno
Chris Christie Republican
Phil Murphy Democratic
The New Jersey gubernatorial election of 2017 was held on November 7, 2017. There were seven candidates. Candidates for Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey run on the same ticket and thus are elected at the same time. Incumbent Republican Governor Chris Christie, who was re-elected to a second term in 2013, was term - limited and could not run for a third consecutive term.
Primary elections took place on June 6, 2017. Kim Guadagno, Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey, won the Republican primary. Woodcliff Lake Mayor Carlos Rendo was her running mate. Phil Murphy, banker and former U.S. Ambassador to Germany, won the Democratic primary. Former State Assembly Speaker Sheila Oliver was his running mate. Seth Kaper - Dale ran as the Green Party candidate; his running mate was Lisa Durden. Pete Rohrman ran as the Libertarian Party candidate; his running mate was Karrese Laguerre. Matt Riccardi ran as the Constitution Party candidate. There were two other independent candidates on the ballot.
Polls closed at 8 pm EST. Murphy won the election, receiving 56.0 % of the vote.
Primary elections took place on June 6, 2017. New Jersey utilizes a semi-closed primary system, meaning that only registered party members may vote in primary elections. However, unaffiliated voters can change their party registration and vote in either party primary on the day of the election.
The deadline to file petitions to qualify for primary elections was April 3, 2017. Eleven contenders submitted petitions which satisfied the minimum 1,000 signatures required. On April 18, 2017, as is required by the New Jersey Election Law Enforcement Commission, the candidates ' financial disclosures, showing the sources of earned income (such as salaries) and unearned income (such as investments), were made public.
Gubernatorial primary candidates utilized what is known as the "matching funds '' program. Those who raised at least $430,000 qualified to receive two dollars in public money for every dollar they raised privately. State law mandates that any primary candidates who qualify for matching funds must participate in at least two primary debates. Candidates who choose not to seek matching funds but commit to raising and spending at least $430,000 can also participate. As of May 8, 2017, in addition to contributions from New Jerseyeans, primary candidates had received donations from 10 other states.
The first debates were held on May 9 and were hosted by Stockton University. The Republicans were the first to debate followed by the Democrats. The debates were live - streamed on Facebook, the university 's website via Livestream and on News 12 New Jersey. The live stream was also simulcasted in Spanish. The second Democratic debate was held on May 11 while the second Republican debate took place on May 18. They were co-hosted by PBS Member network NJTV and NJ Spotlight.
The Republican debates included two of the five candidates: Jack Ciattarelli and Kim Guadagno, who both qualified for matching funds. Hirsh Singh filed a lawsuit to enter the debates, claiming to have raised over $900,000 despite missing a deadline to file. His challenge was rejected by the state courts.
The Democratic debates included four of the six candidates: Jim Johnson, John Wisniewski (who both qualified for matching funds), Phil Murphy (who opted out of the matching funds program and spent enough to qualify for the debates), and Raymond Lesniak (who did not raise enough to qualify for matching funds but loaned his campaign enough money to qualify for the debates).
Hypothetical polling
Hypothetical polling
Seven candidates were on the ballot in the November general election, the lowest number in a New Jersey gubernatorial contest since six ran in 1989.
The following candidates have qualified to appear in the state - sponsored debates:
The following third - party or independent candidates qualified for the ballot but did not raise enough money to qualify for state - sponsored debates:
Complete video of the first debate, October 10, 2017
Complete video of the second debate, October 18, 2017
Hypothetical polling
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who has more fans aston villa vs birmingham city | Second City derby - wikipedia
In English football, the Second City Derby or Birmingham Derby, is the local derby between the two major clubs in the city of Birmingham -- Aston Villa and Birmingham City. It is known as the Second City Derby based on Birmingham being referred to as the second city of the United Kingdom. The two clubs are generally regarded as each other 's most fierce rivals. Although not being the most popular derby in England because of the two teams league positions, it is known as the most ferocious and passionate hence it being so well respected.
The clubs first met on 27 September 1879, when Birmingham City were called Small Heath Alliance. The game, on a pitch at Small Heath 's Muntz Street ground described by the Villa players as "only suitable for pot - holing '', finished 1 -- 0 -- recorded as "one goal and a disputed goal to nil '' -- to the home side. Villa won the first competitive game between the clubs, in the Second Round of the FA Cup at Wellington Road in 1887, by four goals to nil, and their first league encounter, in the First Division in the 1894 -- 95 season, 2 -- 1.
The two teams have engaged in several hotly contested matches. In the 1925 league game at Villa Park, with the home side 3 -- 0 ahead with eleven minutes to go, Blues scored three times in a dramatic final spell to draw the match. The following year, Aston Villa made headlines with the signing of Tom ' Pongo ' Waring, and his first appearance was for the reserves against Birmingham City 's reserves, which famously drew a crowd of 23,000. Waring scored three times in the match.
The most significant clash was the final of the 1963 League Cup, which was staged not long after Aston Villa had beaten Birmingham City 4 -- 0 in the league. Blues won 3 -- 1 on aggregate over the two - legged final to claim their first major domestic honour.
During the late 1970s to early 1980s both Villa and Blues met regularly in the First Division and both teams had some memorable successes in the fixture. In 1980 -- 81 Villa did the double over Blues and went on to win the First Division title. Blues scored a memorable 3 -- 0 victory at St Andrew 's in the first meeting following Villa 's European Cup triumph in 1982. Both teams promptly went into decline. Blues racked up a 3 -- 0 win in a relegation battle at Villa Park in March 1986 but were relegated at the end of that season. Villa would be demoted the following campaign. The next time Villa met Blues in a league fixture at Villa Park again was in the Second Division and saw a 2 -- 0 Blues victory. The reverse fixture at St Andrew 's was a 2 -- 1 Villa victory with both goals coming from Garry Thompson. The two sides would only meet again in the 1980s in cup competitions. Villa won 7 -- 0 on aggregate when they clashed twice in the 1988 -- 89 League Cup. The same season Villa also won a Full Members Cup clash 6 -- 0.
Following the creation of the Premier League, Aston Villa and Birmingham City met twice in the Second Round of the 1993 -- 94 League Cup. Villa won both matches 1 -- 0. The game at St Andrew 's was settled by a Kevin Richardson goal after his keeper Mark Bosnich had saved a penalty from John Frain to keep the game at 0 -- 0. The second leg at Villa Park was notable for a winning goal from Villa 's Dean Saunders and a red card for Blues ' Paul Tait. Villa went on to win the trophy.
Blues ' promotion to the Premier League in 2002 saw fans eagerly anticipating the first league derbies in 15 years. Blues won both derbies 3 -- 0 and 2 -- 0, respectively. Both matches saw goalkeeping errors by Villa goalkeeper Peter Enckelman, including a goal scored directly from an Olof Mellberg throw - in. Violence between both sets of fans occurred before both matches as evening kick - off times had allowed fans to get drunk over the course of the day. In March 2003, during the game at Villa Park, two Villa players were sent off, Dion Dublin for a head - butt on Blues ' Robbie Savage and Joey Guðjónsson for a reckless two - footed tackle on Matthew Upson. Trouble also took place following the game on Witton Lane outside Villa Park, where missiles were hurled at police who were attempting to keep both sets of fans apart.
The 2003 -- 04 Premiership season saw games ending in 0 -- 0 and 2 -- 2 draws. The 2 -- 2 draw saw Blues recover a two - goal deficit thanks to a 90th minute equalizer from Stern John. Both games were lunchtime kick - offs to avoid drunken behaviour, which was achieved although the games lost none of their passionate edge. The following season Blues got back to winning ways, with 2 -- 1 victory at Villa Park just before Christmas and 2 -- 0 at home in March, Villa keeper Thomas Sørensen making mistakes in both matches, though it 's debatable if his errors directly affected the respective results. In the 2005 -- 06 Premiership Season, Villa finally beat Blues in the Premiership, thanks to a Kevin Phillips goal. This was followed up by another Villa victory on 16 April 2006, Easter Sunday, with Aston Villa winning 3 -- 1 thanks to two goals from Milan Baroš and a bicycle kick from Gary Cahill. Blues were relegated in 2006 but subsequently promoted in 2007.
In November 2007, Villa won their third consecutive derby match with a 2 -- 1 victory at St Andrew 's. Former Villa defender Liam Ridgewell scored an own goal to put Villa 1 -- 0 up, Blues equalized through Mikael Forssell only for Gabby Agbonlahor to clinch it with a late header for Villa, having cleared off his own line seconds before. Violent clashes took place outside the ground after the game in which over 20 police officers were hurt. The derby on 20 April 2008 between the two sides ended in a 5 -- 1 win for Aston Villa at Villa Park, the biggest winning margin for either side in a league match for 40 years.
Villa continued their winning ways in the derby, when they won both of the meetings between the clubs in the 2009 -- 10 Premier League season. The first took place on 13 September 2009 at St Andrew 's, and ended 1 -- 0 to Aston Villa, with Agbonlahor scoring the winner in the 85th minute. Villa then went on to beat Blues 1 -- 0 at Villa Park thanks to a disputed penalty from James Milner in the 82nd minute. This was the 3rd time in 4 derbies that Villa had scored the winning goal in the final 10 minutes of the game. Villa also possess the record of six straight wins from 1987 -- 93, including five cup matches. This record was then achieved in the Premier League after Villa beat Blues 1 -- 0 on 25 April 2010, setting a record of six straight league wins from 2005 -- 10. The record was finally ended at the next derby match on 31 October 2010, which resulted in a 0 -- 0 draw at Villa Park. The return match at St Andrew 's also ended in a draw, with it finishing 1 -- 1.
In those games in October and December 2010 where Aston Villa played Birmingham City, at Villa Park (Premier League, 31 October) and St Andrew 's (League Cup, 1 December, which was the first mid-week game between the two sides since 2003) violence between the two sets of supporters and hooligan firms occurred, with many fans being arrested. In the first game, there were scenes of violence outside Villa Park and there were a small amount of arrests including a Birmingham City club chef. In the second of the two games (and larger scale violence) after Blues had beaten Villa 2 -- 1, Blues supporters came onto the pitch and confronted the visiting Villa fans, this resulted in flares, ripped out seats and other missiles being hurled by Villa fans into the Blues supporters, there were also flash points before and after the game including the attack on a Blues supporters pub by Villa hooligans, the events were described as a "warzone '' by a supporter who attended the game. Birmingham City were later fined £ 40,000 by the Football Association for failing to control their fans.
On 10 April 2011, an episode of Police Academy UK, a TV show aired on BBC Three which documents overseas police officers ' introduction to British crime and policing, was set in Birmingham and covered the violence that occurred at the game between Birmingham City and Aston Villa on 1 December 2010.
On 17 June 2011, Birmingham City manager Alex McLeish swapped Blues for Villa in a move that shocked the football world. The reaction from both sets of supporters was one of anger. Blues supporters were angry at McLeish, who guided them to only their second ever major trophy win in February 2011, for betraying them to join bitter rivals Villa, and Villa fans were un-happy with the appointment of a manager that had got Blues relegated twice in four seasons, and was perceived to play a negative style of football; that he came from Blues only served to rub salt into the wound of the board making such an unambitious and negative appointment. Several hundred Villa supporters protested with bedsheets at Villa Park when it emerged that Villa owner Randy Lerner has begun talks with McLeish. McLeish received death threats from followers of both teams following his appointment as Aston Villa manager. This controversial move only increased tension and hostility between the players, supporters and owners of both clubs even more as Blues directors threatened legal action against Villa for allegedly "tapping up '' McLeish, who resigned as Blues manager on 12 June 2011, while he was still under contract at Birmingham City. McLeish 's appointment marked the first time in history that a manager had moved directly from Birmingham City to Aston Villa. On 14 May 2012, one day after the 2011 - 12 Premier League season ended, McLeish was sacked as Villa manager after a massively disappointing one season in charge.
After being relegated in 2011, Birmingham are still yet to gain promotion back to the top flight of English football. However, since Alex McLeish was sacked as Villa manager, Villa 's poor form continued. Despite several manager changes over the next few years, after several close calls they were finally relegated at the end of the 2015 / 16 season. Earlier on in the 2015 / 16 season the two teams were drawn to play each other in the third round of the League Cup. Aston Villa ran out 1 -- 0 winners thanks to a goal from Rudy Gestede. In the 2016 - 17 season the two teams faced off in the second tier of English football for the first time since 1987. The first game at St Andrew 's ended in a 1 - 1 draw. Villa won the second match 1 - 0 with a 69 ' goal scored by Gabby Agbonlahor. The two sides faced each other again in the league during the 2017 / 18 season, producing a dismal 0 - 0 draw at St. Andrews, before Villa emphatically fortified their second city superiority with a 2 - 0 victory in front of 41,232 spectators at Villa Park. Some fans believed this game to be a coming of age for lifelong Villa fan and local lad Jack Grealish, who produced a match winning man of the match display.
As of the end of the 2010 -- 11 season, there have been 120 meetings in major competition between the two teams since the first FA Cup meeting in 1887, of which Aston Villa have won 52 and Birmingham City 38. The most goals in one game were scored in a league game on 7 July 1895, in the First Division, as Small Heath lost to Aston Villa 7 -- 3. The biggest winning margin was 6 -- 0 to Aston Villa on 9 November 1988, in a Full Members Cup fixture. The last Birmingham City league victory over Aston Villa was on 20 March 2005, when Blues won 2 -- 0 at St Andrew 's. Villa won six encounters in a row, most recently on 25 April 2010 (2005 -- 2010). The two teams drew for the first time in over six years in the next match (the first of three in the 2010 -- 11 season), with the match finishing 0 -- 0 (the other Premier League match of the season also finished as a draw). The second match of the season resulted in the first Blues win since 2005, as they beat Villa 2 -- 1 in the 2010 -- 11 League Cup Quarter Final on 1 December 2010.
Stats correct as of 16 January 2011.
The following is a list of the top goal scorers for each team in the fixture. Only players who have scored 4 or more goals feature.
Unlike, for example, the Old Firm derby, there is no shortage of players who have appeared for both clubs. Villa legend Harry Hampton transferred to Blues after the First World War and helped the club to the Second Division title. The last established first - team player to make this move was Des Bremner in 1984, though there had been loan signings and movement of youth players during this period. The most recent permanent transfer from Aston Villa to Birmingham City was that of Craig Gardner during the 2009 -- 10 season. The last player to move directly in the other direction was Chris Sutton in 2006.
Notable players who have been transferred directly between the clubs are listed below.
Former Aston Villa Manager Ron Saunders, who managed Villa to League Cup success in 1975 and again in 1977 before taking the club to its first Championship success for 70 years in 1981, also moved across to Birmingham City following his resignation in 1982.
Alex McLeish 's appointment as Aston Villa manager in June 2011 after resigning from Birmingham City five days before was the first time in history a manager has moved from Birmingham City to Aston Villa. The move shocked the football world and increased tension between the two clubs even more.
Former Birmingham City Manager Steve Bruce was appointed Villa manager in 2016.
Doug Ellis was a director of Birmingham City in the late 1960s before becoming part of a consortium which took over at Aston Villa in 1968.
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what episode does hank figure out about walt | Gliding Over All - wikipedia
"Gliding Over All '' is the eighth episode of the fifth season and the mid-season finale of the American television drama series Breaking Bad, and the 54th overall episode of the series. Written by Moira Walley - Beckett and directed by Michelle MacLaren, it aired on AMC in the United States on September 2, 2012.
The episode is named after poem 271 in Walt Whitman 's Leaves of Grass, a book which is featured prominently in the series.
With Mike 's dead body stuffed in the trunk of Walt 's car, Walt and Todd prepare a barrel of hydrofluoric acid. When Jesse arrives, Walt informs him that Mike is "gone. '' When asked by Jesse how they will deal with Mike 's nine henchmen now that they will not be receiving their hazard payments, Walt tells Jesse that he will address the issue by himself now that Mike and Jesse have left the business.
Walt meets with Lydia at a coffee shop to obtain the names of Mike 's henchmen. Suspecting that Walter will see her as a liability and kill her, Lydia proposes a partnership in which Walt expands his distribution overseas to the Czech Republic, which has a high percentage of meth users. When asked why she did n't pitch her idea to Gus, she claims that he had approved her idea before he was killed. When Walt agrees with her proposal, Lydia provides him with a list of nine names. After Lydia leaves, Walt removes his hat from the table, revealing the vial of ricin from his and Jesse 's plot to kill Gus, which he then re-hides in his house.
Gliding o'er all, through all, Through Nature, Time, and Space, As a ship on the waters advancing, The voyage of the soul -- not life alone, Death, many deaths I 'll sing.
Walt calls Todd and asks him to meet with his uncle, Jack Welker, who has ties with white supremacist gangs operating in various prisons. Meeting in a motel room, Walt enlists Jack and his men to kill Mike 's nine henchmen and their now - imprisoned lawyer Dan, insisting that they be killed simultaneously. In a period of less than two minutes and across three different prisons, the ten are killed. When Hank learns of the deaths, he is crushed and tells Walter that he yearns for a simpler job that does not involve "chasing monsters ''.
For the next few months, Walt 's meth production runs profitably and uninhibited, raking in millions of dollars. Elsewhere, Marie encourages Skyler to start repairing the family. Later, Skyler brings Walt to an enormous pile of money she has been collecting in a storage unit. After explaining to a stunned Walter that there is simply too much money to launder, Skyler pleads with him: "I want my kids back. I want my life back. Please tell me. How much is enough? How big does this pile have to be? '' Later, Walt relents and informs her that he is "out ''. Later, Walt visits Jesse. Although Jesse is fearful of Walt, the two reminisce about the simpler days of cooking meth in the RV. When his visit is over, Walt leaves behind two bags. Fearing for his safety, Jesse unzips the bags slowly, only to find them filled with cash. Relieved, Jesse tosses a gun he had been concealing earlier.
Walt Jr. (RJ Mitte) and Holly move back in with Walt and Skyler, and the family seems to be in repair. During a lunch by the pool with Hank and Marie, Hank leaves to use the bathroom. Rummaging for reading material, he finds Walt 's copy of Walt Whitman 's Leaves of Grass under some magazines in the bathroom, the same copy given to Walt by Gale Boetticher. As he thumbs through the pages of the book, Hank finds a handwritten dedication: "To my other favorite W.W. It 's an honor working with you. Fondly, G.B. '' Hank then recalls an earlier conversation, in which Walt jokingly admitted to being the "W.W. '' found in a handwritten dedication in Gale 's lab notebook. Hank becomes visibly shocked, implying that he has at last come to the realization that Walt is Heisenberg.
This episode features several nods to earlier episodes, such as the fly at the beginning of the episode, the painting Walt stares at during the planning of the prison murders (the same painting from Season 2, Episode 3), the damaged paper towel dispenser (caused by Walt punching it in Season 2, Episode 9) in the restroom of Walt 's cancer clinic, and Lydia 's telling Walt "We 're gon na make a lot of money together, '' reiterating Tuco 's quote from the first season finale. Walt tells Lydia "Learn to take yes for an answer, '' which is exactly the same advice Mike gave him in the bar (Season 4, Episode 2). Series creator Vince Gilligan saw the ending somewhat as Gale 's "poetic justice from beyond the grave. ''
It was estimated that the pile of money measured 6 ft × 3 ft × 2 ft and that Skyler would have not needed a storage unit until she had upwards of $10 million. In "Ozymandias, '' Walt tells Jack Welker that the buried pile equals $80 million; however, Gilligan expressed his doubts during an earlier podcast:
"I asked prop master Mark Hansen, and he and his guys had tried, just for their own edification, to figure out how much that would be if it was roughly a half - and - half mix of twenties and fifties, and he guessed somewhere in the vicinity of eighty million dollars -- eighty, eighty - five, ninety -- that 's a lotta dough. I do n't know, we may have erred on the side of showmanship there instead of reality, I do n't know if (Walt) could 've made that much that quickly. ''
According to Peter Gould, the episode originally featured a scene where Walt is told by his doctor that his cancer is still in remission. However, the scene was cut so that Walt 's current state would be left ambiguous.
"Gliding Over All '' was watched by 2.78 million viewers and received a 1.3 rating among viewers aged 18 -- 49.
The episode received highly positive reviews from critics. TV Fanatic 's Matt Richenthal gave it a 4.8 out of 5 star rating, stating: "' Gliding Over All ' still managed to shock, taking Walt to a place I never imagined he 'd be prior to the big reveal: contentment. Happiness. A sense of satisfaction over a job well done, an emperor who no longer needed an empire. '' Richenthal particularly liked the two "gorgeous '' montages showing the prison hits and the time lapse. Alan Sepinwall of HitFix called the episode "an absolutely gorgeous piece of work, in both the visual sense and the way it brought us to the next, final phase of Walter White 's story. ''
Michelle MacLaren was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for directing this episode.
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when is the declination of the sun moving south | Sun path - wikipedia
Sun path, sometimes also called day arc, refers to the daily and seasonal arc - like path that the Sun appears to follow across the sky as the Earth rotates and orbits the Sun. The Sun 's path affects the length of daytime experienced and amount of daylight received along a certain latitude during a given season.
The relative position of the Sun is a major factor in the heat gain of buildings and in the performance of solar energy systems. Accurate location - specific knowledge of sun path and climatic conditions is essential for economic decisions about solar collector area, orientation, landscaping, summer shading, and the cost - effective use of solar trackers.
Sun paths at any latitude and any time of the year can be determined from basic geometry. The Earth 's axis of rotation tilts about 23.5 degrees, relative to the plane of Earth 's orbit around the Sun. As the Earth orbits the Sun, this creates the 47 ° declination difference between the solstice sun paths, as well as the hemisphere - specific difference between summer and winter.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the sun path near to the winter solstice (November, December, January) rises in the southeast, transits the celestial meridian at a low angle in the south (more than 43 ° above the southern horizon in the tropics), and then sets in the southwest. It is on the south (equator) side of the house all day long. A vertical window facing south (equator side) is effective for capturing solar thermal energy. For comparison, the sun path near the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere (May, June, July) rises in the northeast, peaks out at a low angle in the north (more than halfway up from the horizon in the tropics), and then sets in the northwest. There, the north - facing window would let in plenty of solar thermal energy to the house.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the sun path near to the summer solstice (May, June, July), the Sun rises in the northeast, peaks out slightly south of overhead point (lower in the south at higher latitude), and then sets in the northwest, whereas in the Southern Hemisphere the sun path near the summer solstice (November, December, January), the Sun rises in the southeast, peaks out slightly north of overhead point (lower in the north at higher latitude), and then sets in the southwest. A simple latitude - dependent equator - side overhang can easily be designed to block 100 % of the direct solar gain from entering vertical equator - facing windows on the hottest days of the year. Roll - down exterior shade screens, interior translucent - or - opaque window quilts, drapes, shutters, movable trellises, etc. can be used for hourly, daily or seasonal sun and heat transfer control (without any active electrical air conditioning).
Everywhere around the world during the equinoxes (March 20 / 21 and September 22 / 23) except for the poles, the sun rises due east and sets due west. In the Northern Hemisphere, the equinox sun peaks in the southern half (about halfway up from the horizon at mid latitude) of the sky, while in the Southern Hemisphere, that sun peaks in the northern half of the sky. When facing the equator, the sun appears to move from left to right in the Northern Hemisphere and from right to left in the Southern Hemisphere.
The latitude (and hemisphere) - specific solar path differences are critical to effective passive solar building design. They are essential data for optimal window and overhang seasonal design. Solar designers must know the precise solar path angles for each location they design for, and how they compare to place - based seasonal heating and cooling requirements.
In the U.S., the precise location - specific altitude - and - azimuth seasonal solar path numbers are available from NOAA -- the "equator side '' of a building is south in the Northern Hemisphere, and north in the Southern Hemisphere, where the peak summer solstice solar altitude occurs on December 21.
On the equator, the sun will be straight overhead and a vertical stick will cast no shadow at solar noon on the equinoxes. On the vernal equinox, north of the subsolar point (on the equator) the vertical stick 's shadow will point a little westwards of true north (NNW) reading 336.5 ° from true north and little eastwards of true south (SSE) reading 156.5 ° from true north. On the autumnal equinox, north of the subsolar point (on the equator), the shadow will point a little eastwards of true north (NNE) reading 23.5 ° from true north (and south of the subsolar, the shadow will point a little westward of true south (SSW) reading 203.5 ° from true north).
The same stick will cast no shadow on the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere when the subsolar point is on the Tropic of Cancer 23.44 ° north of equator. Although north of 23.44 ° N the shadow will point towards true north and south of 23.44 ° N the shadow will point towards true south. The reverse occurs on the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere when the subsolar point will be on the Tropic of Capricorn 23.44 ° S and a vertical stick will cast no shadow along that point. But north of the Tropic of Capricorn solar noon shadows will point towards true north and south of the Tropic of Capricorn shadows will point towards true south.
The solar noon shadows of objects on points beyond and below subsolar points will point towards true north and true south respectively only when the solar declination has its maximum positive (δ ☉ = + 23.44 °) or maximum negative (δ ☉ = − 23.44 °) value. On the other hand, on the equinoxes when the sun is neither declined north nor south (δ ☉ = 0 °) and solar time noon shadows point NNW north of the equator and SSE south of the equator on the vernal equinox (and point NNE north of the equator and SSW south of the equator on the autumnal equinox).
North of the Arctic circle and south of the Antarctic circle, there will be at least one day a year when the sun is not above the horizon for 24 hours during the winter solstice, and at least one day when the sun is above the horizon for 24 hours during the summer solstice.
In the moderate latitudes (between the circles and tropics, where most humans live), the length of the day, solar altitude and azimuth vary from one day to the next, and from season to season. The difference between the length of a long summer day and a short winter day increases as one moves farther away from the equator.
Before the days of modern, inexpensive, 3D computer graphics, a heliodon (precisely - movable light source) was used to show the angle of the sun on a physical model of a proposed building. Today, mathematical computer models calculate location - specific solar gain (shading) and seasonal thermal performance, with the ability to rotate and animate a 3D color graphic model of a proposed building design.
Heating and cooling issues in passive solar building design can be counterintuitive. Precise performance calculations and simulations are essential to avoid reinventing the wheel and duplicating expensive experimental design errors, such as skylights that turn a building into a solar furnace in summer (see Daylighting # Sawtooth roof).
These pictures show such a perspective as follows. They show the day arcs of the Sun, the paths the Sun tracks along the celestial dome in its diurnal movement. The pictures show this for every hour on both solstice days. The longer arc is always the summer track and the shorter one the winter track. The two tracks are at a distance of 46.88 ° (2 × 23.44 °) away from each other.
In addition, some "ghost '' suns are indicated below the horizon, as much as 18 ° down. The Sun in this area causes twilight. The pictures can be used for both the northern and southern hemispheres. The observer is supposed to sit near the tree on the island in the middle of the ocean. The green arrows give the cardinal directions.
The following special cases are depicted.
Day arcs at 0 ° latitude, equator.
Day arcs at 20 ° latitude.
Day arcs at 50 ° latitude.
Day arcs at 70 ° latitude.
Day arcs at 90 ° latitude, pole.
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what is the second movie of i am number four | I Am Number Four (film) - wikipedia
I Am Number Four is a 2011 American teen science fiction action thriller film directed by D.J. Caruso and starring Alex Pettyfer, Timothy Olyphant, Teresa Palmer, Dianna Agron, and Callan McAuliffe. The screenplay, by Alfred Gough, Miles Millar, and Marti Noxon, is based on novel of the same name, one of the Lorien Legacies young adult science fiction novels.
Produced by Michael Bay, I Am Number Four was the first film production from DreamWorks Pictures to be released by Touchstone Pictures, as part of the studio 's 2009 distribution deal with Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The Hollywood Reporter estimated the budget to be between $50 million and $60 million. The film was released in both conventional and IMAX theatres on February 18, 2011, received generally negative reviews, and grossed $150 million.
John Smith is an alien from the planet Lorien. He was sent to Earth as a child with eight others to escape the invading Mogadorians, who destroyed Lorien. Here, John is protected by a Guardian, Henri, and has developed powers, including enhanced strength, speed and agility, as well as seven other powers he will develop later in life, known as legacies. He is protected by a Loric charm which protects him from all Mogadorian harm as long as he is hurt out of order. He can only be hurt after the first three loriens are killed in order.
The Mogadorians, led by the Commander, learn about the nine children and come to Earth to find them. The Lorien can only be killed in sequence; Number One through Number Nine. Three of them are already dead, with John being Number Four. Knowing this, he and Henri move from a beachside bungalow in Florida to an old farm in Paradise, Ohio, where John befriends conspiracy theorist Sam Goode and a dog which he names after Bernie Kosar. He also falls for an amateur photographer, Sarah Hart. Her ex-boyfriend, football player Mark James is a bully who torments both John and Sam.
During the Halloween Festival, Mark and his friends chase Sarah and John into the woods, where they try to beat John up. However, he uses his powers to fend them off and rescue Sarah. Sam witnesses this, which forces John to reveal his true origins. The next day, Mark 's father, the local sheriff, interrogates Henri on John 's whereabouts when his son and his friends were attacked.
Henri tells John that too many people are suspicious of them so they have to leave. John refuses because of Sarah. Meanwhile, the Mogadorians continue searching for John, while being trailed by another Garde, Number Six, who is also trying to locate Number Four. Number Six 's guardian was killed, and she realizes that the remaining six of the Garde will have to team up and fight against the Mogadorians. She knows Number Three is dead and that Number Four is being hunted.
The Mogadorians eventually locate John and manipulate two conspiracy theorists into capturing Henri. When John and Sam go to rescue him, they are attacked but manage to fend the Mogadorians off. However, Henri dies after John and Sam escape with some Lorien artefacts, including a blue rock that acts as a tracking device for other Garde. Sam 's father, a conspiracy theorist who disappeared while hunting aliens in Mexico, had another of the rocks. While Sam searches for it, John tries to say goodbye to Sarah at a party, only to discover that the Mogadorians have framed him and Henri for the murders of the conspiracy theorists. Mark sees John and calls his father, who corners John and Sarah. John saves Sarah from a fall, revealing his powers in the process, and they escape to their high school.
Meanwhile, The Commander arrives in Paradise, in a convoy of trucks. He is confronted by Mark and his father, and after injuring the sheriff, he forces Mark to show him where John is hiding. Mark takes him to the school, which he knows is Sarah 's hideout.
There, John, Sarah, and Sam are attacked by the Mogadorians, who brought two Piken to hunt the trio. They are saved by Number Six and Bernie, who is actually a shapeshifting Chimera sent by John 's biological parents to protect him. John and Number Six, who can turn invisible and can block energy attacks, continue to fight the Mogadorians. They eventually defeat them all, including the Commander.
The following day, John and Number Six unite their blue rocks and discover the location of the other four surviving Garde. John decides to let Sam come with them in hopes of finding Sam 's father. They set off to find the others so they can all protect Earth from the Mogadorians, leaving Sarah and a repentant Mark, who lies to his father about John 's whereabouts, telling him to head west since he told his father he was heading east, and returns a magic box left to John by his Dad that Henri hid that was in police evidence. John thanks Mark and promises Sarah that he will come back to Paradise to find her. While they share their goodbye kiss a hurt and slightly agitated Mark is shown, before shakes his head before waving and putting a fake smile. The video ends with John, Sam, Bernie and Number 6 driving out towards the sunset smiling and vowing to protect their new home, Earth.
The film was produced by DreamWorks and Reliance Entertainment. Film producer and director Michael Bay brought the manuscript of the young adult novel I Am Number Four to Stacey Snider and Steven Spielberg at DreamWorks. A bidding war developed for the film rights between DreamWorks and J.J. Abrams, with DreamWorks winning the rights in June 2009, with the intention of having Bay produce and possibly direct the project. The rights were purchased with the hope of attracting teenage fans of The Twilight Saga films, and the potential of establishing a film franchise, with at least six more installments planned by the book 's publisher.
Al Gough and Miles Millar, the creators of the television series Smallville, were hired to write the screenplay in August 2009. Marti Noxon, writer and producer for the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, also contributed to the screenplay. D.J. Caruso was brought on to direct in early 2010, after Bay opted to focus on directing the third film of the Transformers series. Caruso had been selected by Spielberg to direct Disturbia and Eagle Eye for DreamWorks, and had success with both films. Caruso had less than a year to prepare, shoot and edit the film, due to a worldwide release date set for Presidents Day weekend.
Chris Bender, J.C. Spink, and David Valdes executive produced the film. Steven Spielberg contributed to the film 's characters, but did not take a credit on the film. It was the first DreamWorks film to be released by Disney 's Touchstone Pictures label, as part of the 30 - picture distribution deal between DreamWorks and Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The film was also the first release for DreamWorks after the studio 's financial restructuring in 2008.
In March 2010, Alex Pettyfer was in talks to play the title character in the film, Number Four. It was later confirmed that the 21 - year - old British actor would play the lead. Sharlto Copley was going to star as Henri, Number Four 's guardian and mentor, but had to drop out due to press obligations with his film The A-Team. Copley was replaced by Timothy Olyphant. Kevin Durand plays the villain of the film, Commander, the Mogadorian who leads the hunt for the Loriens on Earth.
DreamWorks went through multiple rounds of tests to find the right actress for the female romantic lead. Dianna Agron, a star in the Fox television series Glee, won the role. She plays Sarah Hart, a girl who used to date a high school football player, but falls for Number Four and keeps his secret. Jake Abel plays the football player, Mark James, an antagonist in the film. Teresa Palmer plays the other Loric, Number Six, and 16 - year - old Australian actor Callan McAuliffe plays Sam Goode, Number Four 's best friend.
Principal photography began on May 17, 2010, using 20 locations all within the Pittsburgh metropolitan area. DreamWorks selected the area primarily due to tax incentives from the Pennsylvania Film Production Tax Credit. The film studio also had a positive experience shooting She 's Out of My League in Pittsburgh in 2008. The production was scheduled to last 12 to 13 weeks.
Cinematographer Guillermo Navarro shot the film on 35 mm, using a format known as Super 1: 85. Beaver, the former Conley Inn in Homewood, and nearby Buttermilk Falls were used as locations in the film; interior and exterior scenes were shot near a boat launch in Monaca. A spring fair scene was filmed in Deer Lakes Park in West Deer; Port Vue, North Park, New Kensington and Hyde Park were also used as locations. The setting of the film 's fictional town of Paradise, Ohio is Vandergrift, Pennsylvania, where filming took place from June to July 2010. Producers chose Vandergrift as the "hero town '' of the film because of its unique look and curved streets, laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted, the designer of New York City 's Central Park.
Franklin Regional High School in Murrysville was chosen over 50 other schools in the area, due to its proximity to nearby woods, a part of the film 's plot, and its surrounding hills. The school was also selected for its one floor layout, wide hallways, and its football stadium in front. Teachers and recent graduates appear in the film, and a set that replicates the school was built in a studio in Monroeville for filming explosion scenes. In the last few weeks of production, scenes were filmed at the 200 - year - old St. John 's Lutheran Stone Church in Lancaster Township. Additional filming took place in the Florida Keys in the beginning of the film in Big Pine Key, Florida as well as the spanning of the drive over the bridge showcases the keys 7 mile bridge.
I Am Number Four was edited by Jim Page, with Industrial Light & Magic developing the visual effects for the alien Pikens. The film was scored by former Yes guitarist Trevor Rabin.
A teaser trailer for the film was issued in late September 2010, and a full - length trailer premiered on December 8. Advertisements ran in Seventeen and Teen Vogue magazines, Disney released a promotional iPhone app in January 2011. Disney also developed a lot of Internet content to target a teen audience with their marketing campaign. A cast tour, in association with American retailer Hot Topic, and cast media appearances were scheduled to lead up to the release of the film.
I Am Number Four premiered at the Village Theatre in Los Angeles on February 9, 2011. The film was released in theaters on February 18, 2011, and was also released in the IMAX format.
The film was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on Blu - ray, DVD, and digital download on May 24, 2011. The release was produced in three different packages: a three - disc Blu - ray, DVD, and "Digital Copy '' combo pack, a single - disc Blu - ray, and a single - disc DVD. The "Digital Copy '' included with the 3 - disc version is a stand - alone disc that allows users to play the film from any location via iTunes or Windows Media Player. All releases include bloopers and the "Becoming Number 6 '' featurette, while the single - disc Blu - ray and three - disc Blu - ray, DVD, and "Digital Copy '' combo pack versions additionally include six deleted scenes with an introduction from the director. In its first three weeks of release, 316,081 Blu - ray units were sold in the US, bringing in $7,693,808. As of October 2, 2011, the standard DVD of ' I am Number Four ' has sold 767,692 copies in the United States, generating $12,571,326, and thus bringing the total gross to $166,247,931.
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 33 % approval rating and an average rating of 4.8 / 10 based on 158 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "It 's positioned as the start of a franchise, but I Am Number Four 's familiar plot and unconvincing performances add up to one noisy, derivative, and ultimately forgettable sci - fi thriller. '' Metacritic gives the film an average score of 36 out of 100 based on reviews from 30 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Empire Magazine gave the film three out of a possible five stars and said, "If you can make it through the bland schmaltz of the first half you 'll be rewarded with a spectacular blast of sustained action and the promise of even better to come. This could be the start of something great. ''
I Am Number Four grossed $55,100,437 at the North American box office and $90,778,000 overseas, for a worldwide total of $149,878,437. It topped the worldwide box office on its second weekend (February 25 -- 27, 2011) with $28,086,805.
The film opened at number two in the United States and Canada with a gross of $19,449,893. In its second weekend, it dropped 43.4 %, earning $11,016,126. The only other market where it has grossed over $10 million is China. It began in third place with $3.4 million, but had an increase of 91 % in its second week, topping the box office with $6.4 million. In its third week, it decreased by 21 % to $5.0 million. As of March 27, 2011, it has grossed $17,328,244.
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In 2011, screenwriter Noxon told Collider.com that plans for an imminent sequel were shelved due to the disappointing performance of the first installment at the box office.
In 2013, director Caruso was asked if there are any possibilities that The Power of Six will get a movie adaption, he replied: "There 's been some talk in the past couple of months about trying to do something because there is this audience appetite out there (...). Most of the people on Twitter that contact me from all over the world ask, "Where 's the next movie? '' I think DreamWorks is getting those too so it 'll be interesting. I do n't know if I 'd be involved, but I know they 're talking about it. ''
In a 2015 interview, James Frey, the co-author of the series, said that he hoped more movies would be made.
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when is the next marvel movie to be released | List of Marvel Cinematic Universe films - wikipedia
The Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) films are an American series of superhero films, based on characters that appear in publications by Marvel Comics. The films have been in production since 2007, and in that time Marvel Studios has produced 20 films, with 12 more in various stages of production. It is the highest - grossing film franchise of all time, having grossed over $17.3 billion at the global box office.
Kevin Feige has produced every film in the series. Avi Arad served as a producer on the first two releases, Gale Anne Hurd also produced The Incredible Hulk, Amy Pascal produced the Spider - Man films, and Stephen Broussard produced Ant - Man and the Wasp. The films are written and directed by a variety of individuals and feature large, often ensemble, casts. Many of the actors, including Robert Downey Jr., Chris Evans, Chris Hemsworth, Samuel L. Jackson, and Scarlett Johansson signed contracts to star in numerous films.
The first film in the series was Iron Man (2008), which was distributed by Paramount Pictures. Paramount also distributed Iron Man 2 (2010), Thor (2011) and Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), while Universal Pictures distributed The Incredible Hulk (2008). Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures began distributing the films with the 2012 crossover film The Avengers, which concluded Phase One of the franchise. Phase Two includes Iron Man 3 (2013), Thor: The Dark World (2013), Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), and Ant - Man (2015).
Captain America: Civil War (2016) is the first film in the franchise 's Phase Three, and is followed by Doctor Strange (2016), Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (2017), Spider - Man: Homecoming (2017), Thor: Ragnarok (2017), Black Panther (2018), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), and Ant - Man and the Wasp (2018), with Captain Marvel (2019) and an untitled Avengers film (2019) still scheduled for the phase. Sony Pictures distributes the Spider - Man films, which they continue to own, finance, and have final creative control over.
Spider - Man: Far From Home has been scheduled for 2019, alongside Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 in 2020, with an additional two untitled films also scheduled for 2020, three untitled films scheduled for 2021, and three untitled films scheduled for 2022. Feige has indicated that Marvel may abandon the phase grouping after the conclusion of Phase Three.
Billionaire industrialist Tony Stark builds himself a suit of armor after he is taken captive by a terrorist organization. Free from his captors, he decides to upgrade and don his armor in order to hunt down weapons that were sold under the table.
In April 2006, Marvel hired Jon Favreau to direct Iron Man, with the writing teams of Art Marcum and Matt Holloway and Mark Fergus and Hawk Ostby writing competing scripts. Favreau consolidated both into one script, which was then polished by John August. Robert Downey, Jr. was cast in the title role in September 2006, after growing out a goatee and working out to convince the filmmakers he was right for the part. Principal photography began on March 12, 2007, with the first few weeks spent on Stark 's captivity in Afghanistan, which was filmed in Inyo County, California. Production also occurred on the former Hughes Company soundstages in Playa Vista, Los Angeles, California, with additional filming at Edwards Air Force Base and Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada. Iron Man premiered at the Greater Union theater in George Street, Sydney, on April 14, 2008, and was released internationally on April 30, and in North America on May 2.
The film ends with a post-credits scene featuring Samuel L. Jackson as Nick Fury, who approaches Stark regarding the "Avenger Initiative ''. Favreau said that he included the scene as "a little tip of the hat for the fans... a way to sort of tee up The Avengers. '' Jackson was only on set for a day, with a skeleton crew to avoid the news of his cameo leaking. Captain America 's shield is also visible in the background of a scene; it was added by an ILM artist as a joke, and Favreau decided to leave it in the film.
After being exposed to gamma radiation that causes him to transform into the monstrous Hulk, scientist Bruce Banner goes on the run and isolates himself from his love, Betty Ross. Hunted by the military, Banner seeks to cure himself and prevent his condition from being weaponized.
In January 2006, Marvel reclaimed the film rights for the Hulk character from Universal Pictures after Universal failed to meet a deadline to develop a sequel to director Ang Lee 's 2003 film Hulk. Universal retained distribution rights for future Hulk films. Instead of moving forward with a sequel, Marvel hired Louis Leterrier to direct The Incredible Hulk, a reboot. Leterrier initially turned down the job out of respect for Lee, but later reconsidered and signed on. The script was written by Zak Penn, who drafted a treatment for the 2003 film. In April 2006, Edward Norton entered negotiations to portray Bruce Banner and rewrite Penn 's script, although Penn received sole credit for the screenplay. Production began on July 9, 2007 and filming primarily took place in Toronto, with additional filming in New York City and Rio de Janeiro. The film premiered at the Gibson Amphitheatre on June 8, 2008, and was released on June 13.
The film takes place simultaneously with the events of Iron Man 2 and Thor, the former of which is set six months after the events of Iron Man. Downey briefly reprised his role from Iron Man as Tony Stark in a cameo appearance at the end of the film. Downey said that the filmmakers "were just cross-pollinating our superheroes. It happens to be a scene where I basically approach (actor William Hurt 's character General Ross), and we may be considering going into some sort of limited partnership together. The great thing is he -- and I do n't want to give too much away -- but he 's in disrepair at the time I find him. It was really fun seeing him play this really powerful character who 's half in the bag. '' In addition, Captain America is briefly seen frozen in ice in an alternate opening of the film, included in the DVD release.
After Tony Stark reveals himself to be Iron Man, the U.S. government demands he hand over his technology. Meanwhile, a rival industrialist and a Russian scientist conspire to use his own technology against him.
Immediately following the successful release of Iron Man in May 2008, Marvel Studios announced it was developing a sequel, Iron Man 2. Favreau returned as director and Justin Theroux was hired to write the screenplay, which would be based on an original story by Favreau and Downey. In October 2008, Downey signed a new four - picture deal, that retroactively included the first film, to reprise his role and Don Cheadle was hired to replace Terrence Howard as James Rhodes. Jackson signed on to reprise his role as Nick Fury from the Iron Man post-credits sequence in up to nine films, and Scarlett Johansson was cast as the Black Widow, as part of a multi-film commitment. Principal photography began April 6, 2009, at the Pasadena Masonic Temple in Pasadena, California. The majority of filming took place at Raleigh Studios in Manhattan Beach, California. Other locations included Edwards Air Force Base, Monaco, and the Sepulveda Dam. Iron Man 2 premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California on April 26, 2010, and was released internationally between April 28 and May 7 before releasing in North America on May 7.
The film is set six months after the events of Iron Man, and takes place simultaneously with the events of The Incredible Hulk and Thor. The filmmakers continued to refer to other Marvel films by again including Captain America 's shield. Favreau explained, "We introduced Captain America 's shield briefly in one shot in the last film. So now it really was in his room, so we had to figure out how to deal with the reality that the shield was in his workshop. '' A scene toward the end of Iron Man 2 in a S.H.I.E.L.D. safe house contains several Easter eggs, ranging from footage from The Incredible Hulk displayed on a monitor to pointers on a map indicating several locales related to other Marvel films, including one pointing toward a region of Africa in reference to the Black Panther. A young Peter Parker appears as the child wearing an Iron Man mask whom Stark saves from a drone; the appearance was confirmed in June 2017 by Spider - Man actor Tom Holland, Kevin Feige and Spider - Man: Homecoming director Jon Watts. The film 's post-credits scene showed the discovery of Thor 's hammer in a crater.
Thor, crown prince of Asgard, is banished to Earth and stripped of his powers after he reignites a dormant war. As his brother, Loki, plots to take the throne for himself, Thor must prove himself worthy and reclaim his hammer Mjölnir.
Mark Protosevich was hired to develop a script for Thor in April 2006, after the rights were acquired from Sony Pictures. In August 2007 Marvel hired Matthew Vaughn to direct the film, however he exited the project in May 2008. In September 2008, Kenneth Branagh entered into negotiations to replace Vaughn. In May 2009, Chris Hemsworth was in negotiations to portray the titular character, and Tom Hiddleston was set to play his brother, Loki. Both actors were contracted to star in several films. Marvel hired the writing team of Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz to write a new script for the film, which was then rewritten by Don Payne. Production began on January 11, 2010 in Los Angeles, California, before moving to Galisteo, New Mexico in March. Thor had its world premiere on April 17, 2011 at the Event Cinemas theatre in George Street, Sydney and a U.S. premiere on May 2 at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California. The film was released internationally from April 21 to 30, and on May 6 in North America.
The film takes place simultaneously with the events of The Incredible Hulk and Iron Man 2, the latter of which is set six months after the events of Iron Man. Clark Gregg, who appeared in Iron Man and Iron Man 2 as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Phil Coulson, reprised the role in Thor. About his role in Thor he stated, "Agent Coulson was one of the guys who was n't really in the comic books, and he (had) a very kind of small role in Iron Man. And I was just very lucky that they chose to expand that character and (chose) to put him more into the universe of it. '' After signing on to appear as Clint Barton / Hawkeye in The Avengers, Jeremy Renner made a cameo appearance as the character during a scene in Thor. Branagh said that they "were always going to have a guy in a basket above the action where Thor breaks in the S.H.I.E.L.D. camp '', and that he was thrilled when the producers told him they wanted to use Renner 's Hawkeye for that role. The film ends with a post-credits scene featuring Loki, watching as Erik Selvig and Nick Fury discuss the Tesseract. The scene was directed by Joss Whedon, who directed The Avengers. Stellan Skarsgård, who played Selvig, said the scene was not included when he first read the screenplay for Thor, and that he was sent pages for the scene after agreeing to appear in The Avengers.
In 1942, Steve Rogers is deemed physically unfit to enlist in the U.S. Army and fight the German Reich in World War II. Recruited for a secret military operation, he is physically transformed into a super-soldier dubbed Captain America and must battle the Red Skull, head of a Nazi science division known as Hydra.
In April 2006, Marvel hired David Self to write the script for a Captain America film. Joe Johnston signed on to direct in November 2008, and Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely were hired to rewrite the script. In March 2010, Chris Evans was cast as Captain America and Hugo Weaving was cast as the Red Skull. Production began on June 28, 2010 in the United Kingdom, with locations in London, Caerwent, Manchester and Liverpool. The film premiered on July 19, 2011, at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California, and was released in North America on July 22, and in international markets starting July 27.
The Tesseract from the Thor post-credits scene appears as a MacGuffin in Captain America: The First Avenger. In the film, Dominic Cooper portrays a young Howard Stark, the father of Tony Stark, who hosts an early version of the Stark Expo, the fair Tony hosts in Iron Man 2. The final scene of the film includes a brief appearance by Jackson 's Nick Fury followed by a teaser trailer for Marvel 's The Avengers after the credits.
Nick Fury, the director of S.H.I.E.L.D., gathers the superheroes Iron Man, Thor, Captain America, the Hulk, Black Widow and Hawkeye to fight Thor 's brother Loki, who plots to subjugate the Earth.
Zak Penn, who wrote The Incredible Hulk, was hired to write a script for The Avengers in June 2007. In April 2010, Joss Whedon closed a deal to direct the film, and to rework Penn 's script. Marvel announced that Edward Norton would not be reprising the role of Bruce Banner / Hulk, and in July 2010, Mark Ruffalo was cast in his place. Downey, Evans, Hemsworth, Johansson, Renner, Hiddleston and Jackson reprised their respective roles from previous films. Principal photography began in April 2011 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, before moving to Cleveland, Ohio in August, and New York City in September. The premiere was held on April 11, 2012 at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California, and the film was released in North America on May 4.
Gwyneth Paltrow, who portrayed Pepper Potts in Iron Man and Iron Man 2, was included in the film at Downey 's insistence. Prior to this, Whedon had not intended the film to include supporting characters from the heroes ' individual films, commenting, "You need to separate the characters from their support systems in order to create the isolation you need for a team. '' Avi Arad said that Sony Pictures and Disney discussed incorporating the OsCorp Tower from The Amazing Spider - Man into the climax of The Avengers, but Feige said that "the deal was never close to happening. '' The supervillain Thanos appears in a mid-credits scene, portrayed by Damion Poitier.
Tony Stark faces a powerful enemy, the Mandarin, who attacks and destroys his mansion. Left to his own devices and battling posttraumatic stress disorder, Stark struggles to get to the bottom of a series of mysterious explosions.
In late 2010, Marvel and Disney announced that they were developing a third Iron Man film. In February 2011, Marvel hired Shane Black to direct Iron Man 3. Black co-wrote the film 's script with Drew Pearce. Downey, Paltrow, and Cheadle reprised their roles from Iron Man 2, while Guy Pearce and Ben Kingsley joined the cast as Aldrich Killian and Trevor Slattery, respectively. Filming began in May 2012, in North Carolina. Additional filming took place in southern Florida, China, and Los Angeles. Iron Man 3 premiered at Le Grand Rex in Paris, France on April 14, 2013 and at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California on April 24. The film was released internationally on April 25, and in the United States on May 3.
The film is set in December 2013, after the events of The Avengers. In the film Tony Stark experiences PTSD - like symptoms following the Battle of New York in The Avengers. Black explained, "that 's an anxiety response to feeling inferior to The Avengers, but also to being humbled by sights he can not possibly begin to understand or reconcile with the realities he 's used to... There 's a line in the movie about ' ever since that big guy with the hammer fell out of the sky, the rules have changed '. That 's what we 're dealing with here. '' Bruce Banner appears in a post-credits scene, with Ruffalo reprising the role. About the scene, Ruffalo said "They were about to wrap the movie and I saw Robert (Downey, Jr.) at the Academy Awards... and he said, ' What do you think about coming and doing a day? ' I said, ' Are you kidding me? Bang, let 's do it! ' We sort of spitballed that scene, then I came in and we shot for a couple of hours and laughed. ''
Thor reunites with astrophysicist Jane Foster as a series of portals, linking worlds at random, begin to appear. He discovers that Malekith and his army of Dark Elves have returned after thousands of years, and they seek a powerful weapon known as the Aether. Thor must join forces with his now - imprisoned brother Loki to stop them.
A sequel to Thor was first announced in June 2011, with Hemsworth reprising his role as Thor. Hiddleston confirmed he would return as Loki in September, and Alan Taylor signed on to direct the film in December. The film 's title was announced as Thor: The Dark World in July 2012 at the San Diego Comic - Con International, and Christopher Eccleston was cast as Malekith a month later. Production started in September 2012 in Bourne Wood, Surrey, with additional filming taking place in Iceland and London. The film premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on October 22, 2013. It was internationally released on October 30, 2013 and on November 8, 2013 in North America.
The film is set one year after the events of The Avengers. Evans briefly makes a cameo appearance in the film as Captain America when Loki shapeshifts into him while mocking Thor. Hiddleston wore the Captain America costume while standing in for Evans, before Evans came to shoot the scene. Hiddleston said, "I did an impression of Loki in the Captain America costume, and then they showed Chris (Evans) my performance on tape. It 's him doing an impression of me doing an impression of him. And it 's brilliant. '' James Gunn, the director of Guardians of the Galaxy, directed the mid-credits scene that featured the Collector, played by Benicio del Toro. Asked about shooting the scene, Gunn said, "I got the script that morning, and I did it in two hours at the end of a day of second unit shooting (for Guardians of the Galaxy). ''
Steve Rogers, now working with S.H.I.E.L.D., teams up with Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow and Sam Wilson / Falcon to expose a deep conspiracy which involves a mysterious assassin known only as the Winter Soldier.
A sequel to 2011 's Captain America: The First Avenger was announced in April 2012. Anthony and Joe Russo were hired to direct in June, and in July it was officially titled Captain America: The Winter Soldier. Evans and Jackson were set to reprise their respective roles as Captain America and Nick Fury, and Johansson would again play the Black Widow. Sebastian Stan, who portrayed Bucky Barnes in Captain America: The First Avenger, returned as the Winter Soldier. Production started in April 2013 in Manhattan Beach, California, and filming also took place in Washington, D.C. and Cleveland, Ohio. The film premiered in Los Angeles on March 13, 2014. Captain America: The Winter Soldier was released internationally on March 26 and in North America on April 4.
The film is set two years after the events of The Avengers. Stephen Strange, the alter - ego of the Marvel superhero Doctor Strange, is mentioned by name in the film by the character Jasper Sitwell. A remodeled Stark Tower from The Avengers, now known as Avengers Tower, also makes an appearance in the film. Whedon directed a post-credits scene featuring Baron Wolfgang von Strucker (Thomas Kretschmann), List (Henry Goodman), Quicksilver (Aaron Taylor - Johnson), and the Scarlet Witch (Elizabeth Olsen), who appear in Avengers: Age of Ultron. The revelation in the film that S.H.I.E.L.D. had been infiltrated by Hydra informed the final six episodes of the first season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., a television series set in the MCU.
Peter Quill / Star - Lord and a group of misfits, including Gamora, Rocket, Drax the Destroyer and Groot, fight to keep a powerful orb from the clutches of the villainous Ronan.
Nicole Perlman began writing a screenplay in 2009. Marvel Studios announced it was developing a Guardians of the Galaxy film in July 2012. The film is directed by James Gunn, based on his and Perlman 's screenplay. In February 2013, Chris Pratt was cast in the lead role, as Peter Quill / Star - Lord. The film was shot at Shepperton Studios and in London from July to October 2013, and post-production work was completed on July 7, 2014. The film premiered on July 21, 2014 in Hollywood. Guardians of the Galaxy was released in the United Kingdom on July 31, 2014, and in North America on August 1.
The film is set in 2014. Josh Brolin provides the voice and performance capture for Thanos, the supervillain who appeared in The Avengers mid-credits scene. Gunn noted that the film would be connected to Avengers: Infinity War. Several other objects of significance appear in the Collector 's museum, including a Chitauri from The Avengers and a Dark Elf from Thor: The Dark World, among other characters. About their appearances Gunn said, "There 's a lot of stuff in the Collector 's Museum. And for me, it was mostly just really fun. As a Marvel fan, giving the actual fans something that they can freeze frame on their Blu - Ray at home and just kind of pick out everything that 's in there. So there are, I mean, seriously all those boxes have something interesting in them, so it 's pretty fun. '' Ronan 's race, the Kree, were first introduced in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "T.A.H.I.T.I. ''.
Captain America, Iron Man, Thor, the Hulk, Black Widow, and Hawkeye must work together as the Avengers to defeat Ultron, a technological enemy bent on human extinction, while encountering the powerful twins Pietro and Wanda Maximoff, as well as the new entity Vision.
A sequel to The Avengers was announced by Disney in May 2012, shortly after the first film 's release. In August 2012, Joss Whedon was signed to return as writer and director. In June 2013, Downey signed a deal to reprise the role of Iron Man for the second and third Avengers films. On July 20, 2013, at San Diego Comic - Con International, Whedon announced that the subtitle of the film would be Age of Ultron. In August 2013, James Spader was announced to portray Ultron. Second unit filming began on February 11, 2014 in Johannesburg, South Africa. Principal photography began in March 2014 at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England, with additional footage filmed at Fort Bard and various other locations in the Aosta Valley region of Italy, and Seoul, South Korea. Filming was completed on August 6, 2014. Avengers: Age of Ultron had its world premiere in Los Angeles on April 13, 2015, and was released internationally beginning April 22, and on May 1 in North America.
The film confirms that the gem in Loki 's scepter is an Infinity Stone, specifically the Mind Stone, and Brolin reappears as Thanos in the mid-credit scene wielding an Infinity Gauntlet. It also features references to Vibranium and Wakanda, both connections to Black Panther, introducing both to the universe ahead of Black Panther 's solo film. Additionally, Andy Serkis portrays Ulysses Klaue in the film, traditionally a Black Panther antagonist.
Thief Scott Lang must aid his mentor Dr. Hank Pym in safeguarding the mystery of the Ant - Man technology, which allows its user to decrease in size but increase in strength, from various menaces and plot a heist to defend the Earth.
Ant - Man is directed by Peyton Reed with a screenplay written by Edgar Wright & Joe Cornish and Adam McKay & Paul Rudd, from a story by Wright & Cornish, that includes both Scott Lang and Hank Pym. Edgar Wright was initially slated to direct and write the film, but left the project in May 2014 due to creative differences. In January 2013, Feige stated that Ant - Man would be the first film in Phase Three of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. However, in October 2014, it was revealed that the film would be the last film of Phase Two. Pre-production started in October 2013, and principal photography took place from August to December 2014, in San Francisco, Fayette County, Georgia at Pinewood Atlanta, and Downtown Atlanta. In December 2013, Rudd was cast as Ant - Man, followed in January 2014 with the casting of Michael Douglas as Pym and the confirmation of Rudd as Lang. Ant - Man had its world premiere in Los Angeles on June 29, 2015, and was released in France on July 14, and in North America on July 17.
The film is set several months after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron. Scott Lang attempts to infiltrate the new Avengers headquarters in Upstate New York featured in Age of Ultron, and confronts Sam Wilson / Falcon, played by Anthony Mackie. McKay and Rudd decided to add Falcon to Ant - Man after watching Captain America: The Winter Soldier. The Russo brothers filmed the post-credit scene, which was footage from Captain America: Civil War, and features Mackie as Falcon, Chris Evans as Steve Rogers / Captain America, and Sebastian Stan as Bucky Barnes / Winter Soldier.
The Avengers become fractured into two opposing teams, one led by Captain America and another by Iron Man, after extensive collateral damage prompts politicians to pass an act regulating superhuman activity with government oversight and accountability for the Avengers while also facing against a new enemy, Helmut Zemo, who seeks revenge upon the Avengers.
By January 2014, Anthony and Joe Russo had signed on to return to direct a third Captain America installment, which they confirmed in March 2014, with Chris Evans returning as Captain America, Feige returning to produce, and Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely writing the screenplay. In October 2014, the title was officially announced as Captain America: Civil War along with the reveal that Downey would appear in the film as Tony Stark / Iron Man. The film is an adaptation from the "Civil War '' storyline in the comics. It is also the first film of Phase Three. Filming began in April 2015 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in August 2015. Captain America: Civil War had its premiere in Hollywood on April 12, 2016, was released internationally beginning April 27, and was released on May 6 in North America.
The film is set one year after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron. Captain America: Civil War introduces Tom Holland as Peter Parker / Spider - Man and Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther to the MCU, who appear in solo films in 2017 and 2018, respectively. William Hurt reprises his role as Thunderbolt Ross from The Incredible Hulk, and is now the US Secretary of State. For the mid-credits scene, in which Black Panther offers Captain America and Bucky Barnes asylum in Wakanda, Joe and Anthony Russo received input from Black Panther director Ryan Coogler on the look and design of Wakanda.
After Stephen Strange, the world 's top neurosurgeon, is involved in a car accident that ruins his career, he sets out on a journey of healing, where he encounters the Ancient One, who teaches Strange the use of Mystic Arts and to defend the Earth from mystical threats.
In June 2010, Thomas Dean Donnelly and Joshua Oppenheimer were hired to write the screenplay for a film starring the character Doctor Strange. In January 2013, Kevin Feige confirmed that Doctor Strange would be a part of their Phase Three slate of films. In June 2014, Scott Derrickson was hired to direct. In December 2014, Benedict Cumberbatch was cast in the eponymous role, and Jon Spaihts was confirmed to rewrite the script. In December 2015, C. Robert Cargill revealed he was a co-writer on the film, and the following April, revealed that Derrickson also wrote the script. Pre-production began in June 2014, with filming beginning in November 2015 in Nepal, before moving to Longcross Studios in the UK later in the month. Filming concluded in New York City in April 2016. Doctor Strange had its premiere in Hong Kong on October 13, 2016, and was released in the United Kingdom on October 25, 2016, and on November 4 in the United States.
Derrickson stated that the events of the film take "roughly '' a year, ending "up to date with the rest of the MCU ''. Doctor Strange introduces the Eye of Agamotto, a mystical relic that can manipulate time and is revealed to be an Infinity Stone at the end of the film, specifically the Time Stone. The film 's mid-credits scene features a cameo appearance by Hemsworth as Thor, meeting with Strange, which was footage from Thor: Ragnarok. The scene was directed by Ragnarok director Taika Waititi.
The Guardians of the Galaxy travel throughout the cosmos and struggle to keep their newfound family together while helping Peter Quill learn more about his true parentage and facing against new enemies.
In July 2014, Guardians of the Galaxy co-writer Nicole Perlman confirmed that Gunn would return to write and direct the sequel. Chris Pratt returns for the sequel as Peter Quill / Star - Lord, along with the other Guardians from the first film as well as additional cast members. They are joined by Pom Klementieff as Mantis, and Kurt Russell as Ego. In June 2015, the film 's title was revealed as Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Filming began in February 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in June 2016. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 premiered in Tokyo on April 10, 2017, and was released on May 5, 2017.
The film is set two - to - three months after the events of Guardians of the Galaxy, in 2014. One of the film 's post-credit sequences hints at the introduction of Adam Warlock, after Gunn originally intended for Warlock to make a full appearance in Vol. 2. He noted that Warlock could appear in future Guardians films, and is considered "a pretty important part '' of the cosmic side of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The Grandmaster, played by Jeff Goldblum, is seen dancing in the end credits, before his appearance in Thor: Ragnarok.
Peter Parker tries to balance being the hero Spider - Man with his high school life under guidance of Tony Stark as he deals with the threat of the Vulture.
On February 9, 2015, Sony Pictures and Marvel announced that Sony would be releasing a Spider - Man film co-produced by Marvel Studios president Feige and Amy Pascal, with Sony Pictures continuing to own, finance, distribute, and have final creative control of the Spider - Man films. In April 2015, Feige confirmed the character would be Peter Parker and added that Marvel had been working to add Spider - Man to the MCU since at least October 2014, when they announced their full slate of Phase Three films, saying, "Marvel does n't announce anything officially until it 's set in stone. So we went forward with that Plan A in October, with the Plan B being, if (the deal) were to happen with Sony, how it would all shift. We 've been thinking about (the Spider - Man film) as long as we 've been thinking about Phase Three. '' In June 2015, Tom Holland was cast in the role of Spider - Man and Jon Watts was hired to direct the film, and the next month, John Francis Daley & Jonathan Goldstein were hired to write the screenplay. Additional screenwriters include Watts & Christopher Ford and Chris McKenna & Erik Sommers. In April 2016, the title was revealed to be Spider - Man: Homecoming. Production began in June 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in October 2016. Spider - Man: Homecoming premiered on June 28, 2017 in Hollywood, and was released in the United Kingdom on July 5, and the United States on July 7, 2017.
The film is set several months after the events of Captain America: Civil War, which is eight years after the events of The Avengers. In April 2016, Feige confirmed that characters from previous MCU films would appear in the film, with Robert Downey Jr. confirmed to reprise his role as Tony Stark / Iron Man shortly thereafter. Favreau, Paltrow, and Evans also reprise their roles as Happy Hogan, Pepper Potts, and Steve Rogers / Captain America, respectively. The clean - up crew Damage Control appear in the film (after previously being referenced in Iron Man and Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.) ahead of an intended television series about them. Various weaponry and artifacts from previous films are referenced throughout the film that Toomes and his crew repurpose for their weapons. In Parker 's high school, one of his classes has a lesson about the Sokovia Accords, and portraits of Bruce Banner, Howard Stark and Abraham Erskine are seen within the school.
Thor, trapped on another world without Mjölnir, must survive a gladiatorial duel against the Hulk and return to Asgard in time to stop the villainous Hela and the impending Ragnarök.
In January 2014, Marvel announced that a third Thor film was in development, with Craig Kyle and Christopher L. Yost writing the screenplay, and was officially announced as Thor: Ragnarok in October 2014. By October 2015, Taika Waititi entered in negotiations to direct Thor: Ragnarok. In December 2015, Stephany Folsom was hired to rewrite the script. A year later, in January 2017, it was revealed that Eric Pearson wrote the screenplay, with Kyle, Yost and Folsom receiving story credit. Pearson, Kyle and Yost would ultimately receive screenwriting credit for the film. Hemsworth, Hiddleston, Idris Elba and Anthony Hopkins reprise their roles as Thor, Loki, Heimdall and Odin, respectively, and are joined by Cate Blanchett as Hela. Production began in July 2016 in Australia at Village Roadshow Studios, and wrapped in late October 2016. Thor: Ragnarok premiered in Los Angeles on October 10, 2017, began its international release on October 24, 2017 in the United Kingdom, and was released on November 3, 2017 in the United States.
The film is set four years after the events of Thor: The Dark World, two years after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron, and around the same time period as Captain America: Civil War and Spider - Man: Homecoming. Producer Brad Winderbaum noted that "Things happen on top of each other now in Phase Three. They 're not as interlocked as they were in Phase One. '' Mark Ruffalo and Benedict Cumberbatch appear in the film as Bruce Banner / Hulk and Doctor Stephen Strange, respectively. The film reveals that the Infinity Gauntlet first seen in Odin 's vault in Thor was a fake, while also introducing Thanos ' ship Sanctuary II in a post-credits scene.
T'Challa returns home as sovereign of the nation of Wakanda only to find his dual role of king and protector challenged by a long - time adversary in a conflict that has global consequences.
Documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey was hired to write a script for Black Panther in January 2011. In October 2014, the film was announced and Chadwick Boseman was revealed to be portraying T'Challa / Black Panther. In January 2016, Ryan Coogler was announced as director, and the following month, Joe Robert Cole was confirmed as the film 's screenwriter. In April 2016, Feige confirmed that Coogler was a co-screenwriter. Filming began in January 2017 at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in Atlanta, and concluded in April 2017. Black Panther premiered in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018, and began its international release on February 13, 2018, and was released on February 16, 2018 in the United States. The film also had a "cross-nation release '' in Africa, a first for a Disney film.
The film is set one week after the events of Captain America: Civil War. Florence Kasumba, Serkis, Martin Freeman, and John Kani reprise their roles as Ayo, Ulysses Klaue, Everett K. Ross and T'Chaka respectively from previous MCU films. The film 's post-credits scene features a cameo appearance by Sebastian Stan, reprising his role as Bucky Barnes.
The Avengers join forces with the Guardians of the Galaxy to try to stop Thanos from collecting all of the Infinity Stones.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 1. In April 2015, Marvel announced that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct the film and in May, that Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely would write the screenplay. In July 2016, Marvel revealed the title would be shortened to simply Avengers: Infinity War. Brolin reprises his role as Thanos, and is part of an ensemble cast featuring many actors who have appeared in other MCU films. Filming for Infinity War began in January 2017 in Atlanta, and lasted until July 2017. Additional filming also took place in Scotland. Avengers: Infinity War premiered in Los Angeles on April 23, 2018. It was released worldwide on April 27, 2018, with a few debuts beginning as early as April 25 in a handful of countries.
The film is set two years after the events of Captain America: Civil War. Marvel had been planting the seeds for Infinity War since their early films, by introducing the Infinity Stones as MacGuffins: the Tesseract / Space Stone in Captain America: The First Avenger, Loki 's Scepter / Mind Stone in The Avengers, the Aether / Reality Stone in Thor: The Dark World, the Orb / Power Stone in Guardians of the Galaxy, and the Eye of Agamotto / Time Stone in Doctor Strange. Additionally, Thanos is shown holding an empty Infinity Gauntlet in Avengers: Age of Ultron. The Red Skull from Captain America: The First Avenger appears in the film, played by Ross Marquand instead of Hugo Weaving, and is the keeper of the final Infinity Stone, the Soul Stone. The post-credits scene features Nick Fury transmitting a distress signal on a device, which has the insignia of Captain Marvel.
Scott Lang tries to balance his home life with his responsibilities as Ant - Man, when Hope van Dyne and Hank Pym present him with a new mission, requiring him to team up with Van Dyne as the Wasp.
Ant - Man and the Wasp was announced in October 2015. Peyton Reed confirmed that he would return to direct in November 2015, and that Paul Rudd and Evangeline Lilly would reprise their roles as Scott Lang / Ant - Man and Hope van Dyne / Wasp, respectively. In December 2015, Andrew Barrer, Gabriel Ferrari, and Rudd were confirmed to write the screenplay, with Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers revealed to have also contributed to the script in August 2017. In February 2017, Michael Douglas confirmed he would reprise his role as Hank Pym in the film. Michelle Pfeiffer was revealed as having been cast as Janet van Dyne in July 2017. Filming began in August 2017 in Atlanta with additional filming in San Francisco, and ended in November 2017. Stephen Broussard also served as a producer on the film. Ant - Man and the Wasp had its premiere in Hollywood on June 25, 2018, and was released in the United States on July 6, 2018.
The film is set two years after the events of Captain America: Civil War and before the events of Avengers: Infinity War. In the mid-credits scene, Hank Pym, Hope van Dyne and Janet van Dyne are disintegrated as a result of the events of Avengers: Infinity War.
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In June 2012, Marvel announced a 10 - disc box set titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase One -- Avengers Assembled '', for release on September 25, 2012. The box set includes all six of the Phase One films -- Iron Man, The Incredible Hulk, Iron Man 2, Thor, Captain America: The First Avenger, and Marvel 's The Avengers -- on Blu - ray and Blu - ray 3D, in a replica of Nick Fury 's briefcase from The Avengers. In August 2012, luggage company Rimowa GmbH, who developed the briefcase for The Avengers, filed suit against Marvel Studios and Buena Vista Home Entertainment in U.S. federal court, complaining that "Marvel did not obtain any license or authorization from Rimowa to make replica copies of the cases for any purpose. '' The set was delayed to early 2013 for the packaging to be redesigned. The box set, with a redesigned case, was released on April 2, 2013. In addition, the box set included a featurette on the then - upcoming Phase Two films, showing footage and concept art, as well as previously unreleased deleted scenes from all of the Phase One films.
In July 2015, Marvel announced a 13 - disc box set titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Two Collection '', for release on December 8, 2015, exclusive to Amazon.com. The box set includes all six of the Phase Two films -- Iron Man 3, Thor: The Dark World, Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Guardians of the Galaxy, Avengers: Age of Ultron, and Ant - Man -- on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D and a digital copy, in a replica of the Orb from Guardians of the Galaxy, plus a bonus disc and exclusive memorabilia. Material on the bonus disc includes all of the Marvel One - Shots with commentary, deleted scenes and pre-production creative features for each of the films, featurettes on the making of the post-credit scenes for the films, and first looks at Captain America: Civil War, Doctor Strange, and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2.
Carol Danvers becomes Captain Marvel, one of the galaxy 's strongest heroes, after the Earth is caught in the center of an intergalactic conflict between two alien worlds.
In May 2013, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Marvel had a working script for Ms. Marvel. In October 2014, Marvel announced the film would be titled Captain Marvel and feature Carol Danvers. In April 2015, Nicole Perlman and Meg LeFauve were announced as screenwriters. At the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con, Brie Larson was confirmed to play the role of Carol Danvers. In April 2017, Anna Boden and Ryan Fleck were hired to direct. That August, Geneva Robertson - Dworet was revealed to be taking over as the film 's screenwriter, replacing Perlman and LeFauve. Liz Flahive, Carly Mensch, Boden and Ryan Fleck are also credited as screenwriters on the film. Location filming occurred in January 2018, while principal photography began in March in Los Angeles and concluded in July. The film is scheduled to be released on March 8, 2019.
The film is set in the 1990s. Jackson, Djimon Hounsou, Lee Pace, and Clark Gregg reprise their roles as Nick Fury, Korath, Ronan the Accuser, and Phil Coulson, respectively, while the Skrull species are introduced to the MCU.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 2. In April 2015, it was revealed that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct the film and in May, that Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely would write the screenplay. In July 2016, Marvel revealed the title would be changed, being known simply at that time as the Untitled Avengers film. Brolin reprises his role as Thanos, and is part of an ensemble cast featuring many actors who have appeared in other MCU films. Filming began in August 2017 in Atlanta, and ended in January 2018. The film is scheduled to be released on May 3, 2019.
In December 2016, Sony Pictures scheduled a sequel to Spider - Man: Homecoming for release on July 5, 2019. A year later, Watts was confirmed to be returning to direct the film. Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers, two of the writers of the first film, returned to write the script. Holland revealed the film 's title as Spider - Man: Far From Home in late June 2018. Filming began in July 2018, in England, with filming occurring in Hertfordshire and London, and will last until December 2018.
The film is set after the untitled Avengers film.
In April 2016, Kevin Feige stated that "Guardians 3 is (one film that 's) up there '' being considered for release beyond 2019. In March 2017, Gunn stated that a third Guardians film would happen "for sure '', and the following month confirmed he would return to write and direct Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. However, in July 2018, Disney and Marvel severed ties with Gunn following the resurfacing of controversial tweets from 2008 and 2009 making light of topics such as rape and pedophilia. Filming had been set to begin in January 2019, for an expected release date in 2020.
Disney has scheduled multiple release dates for untitled Marvel Studios films. These include: May 1, July 31, and November 6, 2020; February 12, May 7, and November 5, 2021; and February 18, May 6, and July 29, 2022. In October 2016, Feige said it was a combination of knowing what films would occupy the 2020 dates and allowing some flexibility, saying, "We know what (films) we 'd like them to be for 2020. Over the years, where we 're aiming we 've been lucky enough that it 's usually been the same thing but we always leave ourselves the opportunity to bob and weave and adapt if we have to. But we know where we 're headed for 2020 and we have ideas and we 're beginning to solidify the years beyond that. '' Feige and Marvel have additional storylines planned through 2028, resulting in 20 films "on the docket that are completely different from anything that 's come before -- intentionally. ''
In October 2014, in terms of Phase Four films, Feige said, for the time being, "We 're not going to talk specifically about the story of any of those films, the plot of any of those films, what happens to any of the characters in any of those films. In fact, even to talk about any of those characters -- who will be involved in those movies -- will be a bit of a spoiler as to what may or may not happen to them in earlier movies. '' In April 2016, Feige added, "We 're only working on what 's been announced through the end of 2019. And it is still a big chess board for 2020 and beyond. '' A year later, Feige noted, "We have an idea (of what the MCU looks like post-Infinity War), and it 's gon na be very, very different '', but cautioned that Marvel would not be "actively discussing anything past untitled Avengers '' besides dating the sequel to Spider - Man: Homecoming and that James Gunn would be working on Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. He also was not sure if Marvel would continue to group the films in phases once Phase Three concluded, that "it might be a new thing ''. Feige noted Marvel hoped to reveal additional films after the release of the untitled Avengers film. A second sequel to Homecoming is also planned.
In February 2014, Feige stated that after exploring Black Widow 's past in Age of Ultron, he would like to see it explored further in a solo film. Marvel has done some development work for the potential film, including a "pretty in depth '' treatment by Nicole Perlman, and by May 2016, Feige stated that Marvel was "creatively and emotionally '' committed to creating the solo film. By January 2018, Jac Schaeffer was hired to write the script for the potential film. That July, Cate Shortland was hired to direct, with Johansson reprising her role as Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow.
By April 2018, Marvel had met with multiple screenwriters, to craft a film based on the Eternals, with a focus on the character Sersi. Feige stated that a film based on the group was "one of many many many things that we are actively beginning to have creative discussions about to see if we believe in them enough to put them on a slate. '' A month later, Matthew and Ryan Firpo were hired to write the script for the project.
In May 2013, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Marvel had a working script for Blade. In July 2015, Wesley Snipes, who played Blade in three films before the character 's rights reverted to Marvel, stated that he had discussions with Marvel to reprise the role.
On December 14, 2017, The Walt Disney Company announced a definitive agreement to acquire 21st Century Fox for $52.4 billion in stock. On July 27, 2018, shareholders for both the Walt Disney Company and 21st Century Fox agreed to a $71.3 billion deal in cash and stock. In the deal, Disney would acquire Fox 's entertainment assets, including the movie production studio, 20th Century Fox. This would give Disney the rights back to Marvel characters that Fox owns, which includes the X-Men, Deadpool, and the Fantastic Four (along with all the associated characters like Dr. Doom, Silver Surfer, etc.) allowing them to join the Marvel Cinematic Universe. At the Walt Disney Company Q3 2018 Earnings Conference Call, Walt Disney Company CEO Bob Iger said, "It gives us the opportunity to be associated with and to expand iconic movie franchises like... Marvel 's X-Men, The Fantastic Four, Deadpool... and many others. Per 21st Century Fox president Peter Rice, the merger is expected to be complete by Summer 2019.
A film based on the Runaways went through a number of iterations. Brian K. Vaughan was originally hired to write a screenplay based on the property in May 2008. In April 2010, Marvel hired Peter Sollett to direct the film, and Drew Pearce was hired to write a script in May. The following October, development on the film was put on hold, with Pearce revealing in September 2013 that the Runaways film had been shelved in favor of The Avengers, with the earliest it could release being Phase Three. In October 2014, after announcing all of Marvel 's Phase Three films without Runaways, Feige stated the project was "still an awesome script that exists in our script vault '', adding, "We 'd love to do something with Runaways some day. In our television and future film discussions, it 's always one that we talk about, because we have a solid draft there. But again, we ca n't make them all. '' In August 2016, Marvel Television announced Marvel 's Runaways from the streaming service Hulu, with the series receiving a full season order in May 2017. It premiered in November 2017.
In April 2013, Feige mentioned the Inhumans as a property out of which he was "confident '' a film would be made. Inhumans as a concept would first be introduced to the MCU in 2014 through the second season of the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. By August 2014, the studio was ready to move forward in development with the film, with a screenplay written by Joe Robert Cole. In October 2014, the film was announced for Phase Three and scheduled for release July 2019. By October 2015, Cole was no longer involved with the film and any potential drafts that he may have written would not be used. In April 2016, Inhumans was removed from the release schedule, and would no longer be a part of Phase Three. In July 2016, Feige said Inhumans would "certainly '' be a part of the discussion regarding the film ideas for 2020 and 2021, adding the following November that he was still optimistic the film could be released in Phase Four. In November 2016, Marvel Television announced the series Marvel 's Inhumans, which premiered on ABC in September 2017, after the first two episodes were screened in IMAX. The series was not intended to be a reworking of the film. ABC canceled Inhumans after one season in May 2018.
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how many types of cheque do we have | Cheque - Wikipedia
A cheque, or check (American English; see spelling differences), is a document that orders a bank to pay a specific amount of money from a person 's account to the person in whose name the cheque has been issued. The person writing the cheque, known as the drawer, has a transaction banking account (often called a current, cheque, chequing or checking account) where their money is held. The drawer writes the various details including the monetary amount, date, and a payee on the cheque, and signs it, ordering their bank, known as the drawee, to pay that person or company the amount of money stated.
Cheques are a type of bill of exchange and were developed as a way to make payments without the need to carry large amounts of money. Paper money evolved from promissory notes, another form of negotiable instrument similar to cheques in that they were originally a written order to pay the given amount to whoever had it in their possession (the "bearer '').
A cheque is a negotiable instrument instructing a financial institution to pay a specific amount of a specific currency from a specified transactional account held in the drawer 's name with that institution. Both the drawer and payee may be natural persons or legal entities. Cheques are order instruments, and are not in general payable simply to the bearer as bearer instruments are, but must be paid to the payee. In some countries, such as the US, the payee may endorse the cheque, allowing them to specify a third party to whom it should be paid.
Although forms of cheques have been in use since ancient times and at least since the 9th century, it was during the 20th century that cheques became a highly popular non-cash method for making payments and the usage of cheques peaked. By the second half of the 20th century, as cheque processing became automated, billions of cheques were issued annually; these volumes peaked in or around the early 1990s. Since then cheque usage has fallen, being partly replaced by electronic payment systems. In an increasing number of countries cheques have either become a marginal payment system or have been completely phased out.
The spellings check, checque, and cheque were used interchangeably from the 17th century until the 20th century. However, since the 19th century, the spelling cheque (from the French word chèque) has become standard for the financial instrument in the Commonwealth and Ireland, while check is used only for other meanings, thus distinguishing the two definitions in writing.
In American English, the usual spelling for both is check.
Etymological dictionaries attribute the financial meaning to come from "a check against forgery '', with the use of "check '' to mean "control '' stemming from a check in chess, a term which came into English through French, Latin, Arabic and ultimately from the Persian word "shah '' or "king ''.
The cheque had its origins in the ancient banking system, in which bankers would issue orders at the request of their customers, to pay money to identified payees. Such an order was referred to as a bill of exchange. The use of bills of exchange facilitated trade by eliminating the need for merchants to carry large quantities of currency (for example, gold) to purchase goods and services.
The ancient Romans are believed to have used an early form of cheque known as praescriptiones in the 1st century BCE.
Muslim traders are known to have used the cheque or ṣakk system since the time of Harun al - Rashid (9th century) of the Abbasid Caliphate. Transporting a paper sakk was more secure than transporting money. In the 9th century, a merchant in country A could cash a saqq drawn on his bank in country B.
In the 13th century in Venice the bill of exchange was developed as a legal device to allow international trade without the need to carry large amounts of gold and silver. Their use subsequently spread to other European countries.
In the early 1500s in the Dutch Republic, to protect large accumulations of cash, people began depositing their money with "cashiers ''. These cashiers held the money for a fee. Competition drove cashiers to offer additional services including paying money to any person bearing a written order from a depositor to do so. They kept the note as proof of payment. This concept went on to spread to England and elsewhere.
By the 17th century, bills of exchange were being used for domestic payments in England. Cheques, a type of bill of exchange, then began to evolve. Initially they were called drawn notes, because they enabled a customer to draw on the funds that he or she had in the account with a bank and required immediate payment. These were handwritten, and one of the earliest known still to be in existence was drawn on Messrs Morris and Clayton, scriveners and bankers based in the City of London, and dated 16 February 1659.
In 1717, the Bank of England pioneered the first use of a pre-printed form. These forms were printed on "cheque paper '' to prevent fraud, and customers had to attend in person and obtain a numbered form from the cashier. Once written, the cheque was brought back to the bank for settlement. The suppression of banknotes in eighteenth - century England further promoted the use of cheques.
Until about 1770, an informal exchange of cheques took place between London banks. Clerks of each bank visited all the other banks to exchange cheques, whilst keeping a tally of balances between them until they settled with each other. Daily cheque clearing began around 1770 when the bank clerks met at the Five Bells, a tavern in Lombard Street in the City of London, to exchange all their cheques in one place and settle the balances in cash. This was the first bankers ' clearing house.
In America, the Bank of New York, after its establishment by Alexander Hamilton in 1784, began issuing cheques. The oldest surviving example of a complete American chequebook from the 1790s was discovered by a family in New Jersey. The documents are in some ways similar to modern - day checks, with some data pre-printed on sheets of paper alongside black spaces for where other information could be hand - written as needed.
It is thought that the Commercial Bank of Scotland was the first bank to personalize its customers ' cheques, in 1811, by printing the name of the account holder vertically along the left - hand edge. In 1830 the Bank of England introduced books of 50, 100, and 200 forms and counterparts, bound or stitched. These cheque books became a common format for the distribution of cheques to bank customers.
In the late 19th century, several countries formalized laws regarding cheques. The UK passed the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, and India passed the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881; which both covered cheques.
In 1931 an attempt was made to simplify the international use of cheques by the Geneva Convention on the Unification of the Law Relating to Cheques. Many European and South American states as well as Japan joined the convention. However, countries including the US and members of the British Commonwealth did not participate and so it remained very difficult for cheques to be used across country borders.
In 1959 a standard for machine - readable characters (MICR) was agreed and patented in the US for use with cheques. This opened the way for the first automated reader / sorting machines for clearing cheques. As automation increased, the following years saw a dramatic change in the way in which cheques were handled and processed. Cheque volumes continued to grow; in the late 20th century, cheques were the most popular non-cash method for making payments, with billions of them processed each year. Most countries saw cheque volumes peak in the late 1980s or early 1990s, after which electronic payment methods became more popular and the use of cheques declined.
In 1969 cheque guarantee cards were introduced in several countries, allowing a retailer to confirm that a cheque would be honoured when used at a point of sale. The drawer would sign the cheque in front of the retailer, who would compare the signature to the signature on the card and then write the cheque - guarantee - card number on the back of the cheque. Such cards were generally phased out and replaced by debit cards, starting in the mid-1990s.
From the mid-1990s, many countries enacted laws to allow for cheque truncation, in which a physical cheque is converted into electronic form for transmission to the paying bank or clearing - house. This eliminates the cumbersome physical presentation and saves time and processing costs.
In 2002, the Eurocheque system was phased out and replaced with domestic clearing systems. Old eurocheques could still be used, but they were now processed by national clearing systems. At that time, a number of countries took the opportunity to phase out the use of cheques altogether. As of 2010, many countries have either phased out the use of cheques altogether or signalled that they would do so in the future.
The four main items on a cheque are
As cheque usage increased during the 19th and 20th centuries additional items were added to increase security or to make processing easier for the bank or financial institution. A signature of the drawer was required to authorize the cheque and this is the main way to authenticate the cheque. Second it became customary to write the amount in words as well as in numbers to avoid mistakes and make it harder to fraudulently alter the amount after the cheque had been written. It is not a legal requirement to write down the amount in words, although some banks will refuse to accept cheques that do not have the amount in both numbers and words.
An issue date was added, and cheques may not be valid a certain amount of time after issue. In the US and Canada a cheque is typically valid for six months after the date of issue, after which it is a stale - dated cheque, but this depends on where the cheque is drawn; in Australia this is typically fifteen months. A cheque that has an issue date in the future, a post-dated cheque, may not be able to be presented until that date has passed, writing a post dated cheque may simply be ignored or is illegal in some countries. Conversely, an antedated cheque has an issue date in the past.
A cheque number was added and cheque books were issued so that cheque numbers were sequential. This allowed for some basic fraud detection by banks and made sure one cheque was not presented twice.
In some countries such as the US, cheques contain a memo line where the purpose of the cheque can be indicated as a convenience without affecting the official parts of the cheque. In the United Kingdom this is not available and such notes are sometimes written on the reverse side of the cheque.
In the US, at the top (when cheque oriented vertically) of the reverse side of the cheque, there are usually one or more blank lines labelled something like "Endorse here ''.
Starting in the 1960s machine readable routing and account information was added to the bottom of cheques in MICR format. This allowed automated sorting and routing of cheques between banks and led to automated central clearing facilities. The information provided at the bottom of the cheque is country specific and is driven by each country 's cheque clearing system. This meant that the payee no longer had to go to the bank that issued the cheque, instead they could deposit it at their own bank or any other banks and the cheque would be routed back to the originating bank and funds transferred to their own bank account.
In the US, the bottom 5 / 8 '' of the cheque is a keep out zone reserved for MICR characters only which should not be intruded upon by handwriting. One must be especially careful of lower case descenders when filling out the signature and memo lines which are often at the bottom of the cheque in close proximity. It is advisable to treat the signature and memo lines as boundaries rather than baselines and sign above them. Intrusion into the MICR area can cause problems when the cheque runs through the clearinghouse, requiring someone to print an MICR cheque correction strip and glue it to the cheque. Many new ATMs do not use deposit envelopes and actually scan the cheque at the time it is deposited and will reject cheques due to handwriting incursion which interferes with reading the MICR. This can cause considerable inconvenience as the depositor may have to wait days for the bank to be open and may have difficulty getting to the bank even when they are open; this can delay the availability of the portion of a deposit which their bank makes available immediately as well as the balance of the deposit. Terms of service for many mobile (cell phone camera) deposits also require the MICR section to be readable. Not all of the MICR characters have been printed at the time you manually fill in the cheque as additional characters will be printed later to encode the amount; thus your sloppy signature could obscure characters that you did n't realize would later be printed there. Since MICR characters are no longer necessarily printed in magnetic ink and will be scanned by optical rather than magnetic means, the readers will be unable to distinguish pen ink from pre-printed magnetic ink; these changes allow cheques to be printed on ordinary home and office printers without requiring pre-printed cheque forms, allow ATM deposit capture, allow mobile deposits, and facilitate electronic copies of cheques.
For additional protection, a cheque can be crossed, which restricts the use of the cheque so that the funds must be paid into a bank account. The format and wording varies from country to country, but generally two parallel lines may be placed either vertically across the cheque or in the top left hand corner. In addition the words ' or bearer ' must not be used, or if pre-printed on the cheque must be crossed out on the payee line. If the cheque is crossed with the words ' Account Payee ' or similar then the cheque can only be paid into the bank account of the person initially named as the payee, thus it can not be endorsed to a different payee.
Cheques sometimes include additional documents. A page in a chequebook may consist of both the cheque itself and a stub or counterfoil -- when the cheque is written, only the cheque itself is detached, and the stub is retained in the chequebook as a record of the cheque. Alternatively, cheques may be recorded with carbon paper behind each cheque, in ledger sheets between cheques or at the back of a chequebook, or in a completely separate transaction register that comes with a chequebook.
When a cheque is mailed, a separate letter or "remittance advice '' may be attached to inform the recipient of the purpose of the cheque -- formally, which account receivable to credit the funds to. This is frequently done formally using a provided slip when paying a bill, or informally via a letter when sending an ad hoc cheque.
Parties to regular cheques generally include a drawer, the depositor writing a cheque; a drawee, the financial institution where the cheque can be presented for payment; and a payee, the entity to whom the drawer issues the cheque. The drawer drafts or draws a cheque, which is also called cutting a cheque, especially in the US. There may also be a beneficiary -- for example, in depositing a cheque with a custodian of a brokerage account, the payee will be the custodian, but the cheque may be marked "F / B / O '' ("for the benefit of '') the beneficiary.
Ultimately, there is also at least one endorsee which would typically be the financial institution servicing the payee 's account, or in some circumstances may be a third party to whom the payee owes or wishes to give money.
A payee that accepts a cheque will typically deposit it in an account at the payee 's bank, and have the bank process the cheque. In some cases, the payee will take the cheque to a branch of the drawee bank, and cash the cheque there. If a cheque is refused at the drawee bank (or the drawee bank returns the cheque to the bank that it was deposited at) because there are insufficient funds for the cheque to clear, it is said that the cheque has been dishonoured. Once a cheque is approved and all appropriate accounts involved have been credited, the cheque is stamped with some kind of cancellation mark, such as a "paid '' stamp. The cheque is now a cancelled cheque. Cancelled cheques are placed in the account holder 's file. The account holder can request a copy of a cancelled cheque as proof of a payment. This is known as the cheque clearing cycle.
Cheques can be lost or go astray within the cycle, or be delayed if further verification is needed in the case of suspected fraud. A cheque may thus bounce some time after it has been deposited.
Following concerns about the amount of time it took the Cheque and Credit Clearing Company to clear cheques, the United Kingdom Office of Fair Trading set up a working group in 2006 to look at the cheque clearing cycle. Their report said that clearing times could be improved, but that the costs associated with speeding up the cheque clearing cycle could not be justified considering the use of cheques was declining. However, they concluded the biggest problem was the unlimited time a bank could take to dishonour a cheque. To address this, changes were implemented so that the maximum time after a cheque was deposited that it could be dishonoured was six days, what was known as the "certainty of fate '' principle.
An advantage to the drawer of using cheques instead of debit card transactions, is that they know the drawer 's bank will not release the money until several days later. Paying with a cheque and making a deposit before it clears the drawer 's bank is called "kiting '' or "floating '' and is generally illegal in the US, but rarely enforced unless the drawer uses multiple chequing accounts with multiple institutions to increase the delay or to steal the funds.
Cheque usage has been declining for some years, both for point of sale transactions (for which credit cards and debit cards are increasingly preferred) and for third party payments (for example, bill payments), where the decline has been accelerated by the emergence of telephone banking and online banking. Being paper - based, cheques are costly for banks to process in comparison to electronic payments, so banks in many countries now discourage the use of cheques, either by charging for cheques or by making the alternatives more attractive to customers. In particular the handling of money transfer requires more effort and is time consuming. The cheque has to be handed over in person or sent through mail. The rise of automated teller machines (ATMs) means that small amounts of cash are often easily accessible, so that it is sometimes unnecessary to write a cheque for such amounts instead.
Alternative payment systems include:
In most European countries, cheques are now rarely used, even for third party payments. In these countries, it is standard practice for businesses to publish their bank details on invoices, to facilitate the receipt of payments by giro. Even before the introduction of online banking, it has been possible in some countries to make payments to third parties using ATMs, which may accurately and rapidly capture invoice amounts, due dates, and payee bank details via a bar code reader to reduce keying. In some countries, entering the bank account number results in the bank revealing the name of the payee as an added safeguard against fraud. In using a cheque, the onus is on the payee to initiate the payment, whereas with a giro transfer, the onus is on the payer to effect the payment (The writer of a paper cheque is pushing on a rope: he can not force money out of his own account and into the destination 's account. By writing the paper cheque, he is handing the far end of the rope to the payee, who will pull in his own good time. In contrast, giro is more akin to wire transfer, in that the payer pushes his money away towards the payee). The process is also procedurally more simple, as no cheques are ever posted, can claim to have been posted, or need banking or clearance.
In Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Scandinavia, cheques have almost completely vanished in favour of direct bank transfers and electronic payments. Direct bank transfers, using so - called giro transfers, have been standard procedure since the 1950s to send and receive regular payments like rent and wages and even mail - order invoices. In the Netherlands, Austria, and Germany, all kinds of invoices are commonly accompanied by so - called acceptgiros (Netherlands) or Überweisungsträger (German), which are essentially standardized bank transfer order forms preprinted with the payee 's account details and the amount payable. The payer fills in his account details and hands the form to a clerk at his bank, which will then transfer the money. It is also very common to allow the payee to automatically withdraw the requested amount from the payer 's account (Lastschrifteinzug (German) or Incasso (machtiging) (Netherlands)). Though similar to paying by cheque, the payee only needs the payer 's bank and account number. Since the early 1990s, this method of payment has also been available to merchants. Due to this, credit cards are rather uncommon in Germany, Austria and the Netherlands, and are mostly used to give access to credit rather than as a payment mechanism. However, debit cards are widespread in these countries, since virtually all Austrian, German and Dutch banks issue debit cards instead of simple ATM cards for use on current accounts. Acceptance of cheques has been further diminished since the late 1990s, because of the abolition of the Eurocheque. Cashing a foreign bank cheque is possible, but usually very expensive.
In Finland, banks stopped issuing personal cheques in about 1993 in favour of giro systems, which are now almost exclusively electronically initiated either via internet banking or payment machines located at banks and shopping malls. All Nordic countries have used an interconnected international giro system since the 1950s, and in Sweden, cheques are now almost totally abandoned; in Denmark, all banks stopped accepting cheques starting on January 1, 2017. Debit cards are now preferred for direct shop payments when not using cash. For large shop payments, such as car purchases, a type of cheque, a money order (Swedish: postväxel) is still used.
In Poland cheques were withdrawn from use in 2006, mainly because of lack of popularity due to the widespread adoption of credit and debit cards. Electronic payments across the European Union are now fast and inexpensive -- usually free for consumers.
In the United Kingdom, Ireland, and France, cheques are still popular, partly because cheques remain free of charge to personal customers; however, bank - to - bank transfers are increasing in popularity. Since 2001, businesses in the United Kingdom have made more electronic payments than cheque payments. Automated payments rose from 753 million in 1995 to 1.1 billion in 2001 and cheques declined in that same period of time from 1.14 to 1.1 billion payments. Most utilities in the United Kingdom charge lower prices to customers who pay by direct debit than for other payment methods, including electronic methods. The vast majority of retailers in the United Kingdom and many in France have not accepted cheques as a means of payment for several years, and cheque guarantee cards are no longer issued. For example, Shell announced in September 2005 that it would no longer accept cheques at its UK petrol stations. This was soon followed by other major fuel retailers, such as Texaco, BP, and Total. Asda announced in April 2006 that it would stop accepting cheques, initially as a trial in the London area, and Boots announced in September 2006 that it would stop accepting cheques, initially as a trial in Sussex and Surrey. Currys (and other stores in the DSGi group) and WH Smith also no longer accept cheques. Cheques are now widely predicted to become a thing of the past, or at most, a niche product used to pay private individuals or for the very large number of small service providers who are not willing to provide their bank details to customers to allow electronic payments to be made to them or do not wish to be burdened with checking their bank accounts frequently and reconciling them with amounts due (for example, music teachers, driving instructors, children 's sports lessons, small shops, schools). The UK Payments Council announced in December 2009 that cheques would be phased out by October 2018, but only if adequate alternatives were developed. They intended to perform annual checks on the progress of other payments systems and a final review of the decision would have been held in 2016. Concerns were expressed, however, by charities and older people, who are still heavy users of cheques, and replacement plans were criticized as open to fraud. It was therefore announced by the UK Payments Council in July 2011 that the cheque would not be eliminated. 432 million inter-bank cheques and credit - items worth £ 472 billion were processed in the United Kingdom in 2016 according to Payments UK. In 2017, 405 million cheques worth £ 356 billion were used for payments and acquiring cash, an average of 1.2 million cheques per day, with more than 10 million being cleared in Northern Ireland alone. The Cheque and Credit Clearing Company noted that cheques continue to be highly valued for paying tradesmen and utility bills, and play a vital role in business, clubs and societies sectors, with nine in 10 business saying that they received or made payment by cheque on a monthly basis.
In June 2014, following a successful trial in the UK by Barclays, the British government gave the go - ahead for a cheque photo plan allowing people to pay in a cheque by taking a photo of it, rather than physically depositing the paper cheque at a bank.
The US still relies heavily on cheques, due to the convenience it affords payers, and due to the absence of a high volume system for low value electronic payments.
In the US, an estimated 18.3 billion cheques were paid in 2012, with a value of $25.9 trillion.
About 70 billion cheques were written annually in the US by 2001, though around 17 million adult Americans do not have bank accounts at all. Certain companies whom a person pays with a cheque will turn it into an Automated Clearing House (ACH) or electronic transaction. Banks try to save time processing cheques by sending them electronically between banks. Cheque clearing is usually done through an electronic cheque broker, such as The Clearing House, Viewpointe LLC or the Federal Reserve Banks. Copies of the cheques are stored at a bank or the broker, for periods up to 99 years, and this is why some cheque archives have grown to 20 petabytes. The access to these archives is now worldwide, as most bank programming is now done offshore. Many utilities and most credit cards will also allow customers to pay by providing bank information and having the payee draw payment from the customer 's account (direct debit). Many people in the US still use paper money orders to pay bills or transfer money which is a unique type of cheque. They have security advantages over mailing cash, and do not require access to a bank account.
Canada 's usage of cheques is less than that of the US and is declining rapidly at the urging of the Canadian Banking Association. The Government of Canada claims it is 6.5 times more expensive to mail a cheque than to make a direct deposit. The Canadian Payments Association reported that in 2012, cheque use in Canada accounted for only 40 % of total financial transactions. The Interac system, which allows instant fund transfers via chip or magnetic strip and PIN, is widely used by merchants to the point that few brick and mortar merchants accept cheques. Many merchants accept Interac debit payments but not credit card payments, even though most Interac terminals can support credit card payments. Financial institutions also facilitate transfers between accounts within different institutions with the Email Money Transfer (EMT) service.
Cheques are still used for government payments, payroll, rent, and utility bill payments, though direct deposits and online or telephone bill payments are more widely and increasingly used.
The Canadian government began phasing out all government cheques from April 2016.
In many Asian countries cheques were never widely used and generally only used by the wealthy, with cash being used for the majority of payments. Where cheques were used they have been declining rapidly, by 2009 there was negligible consumer cheque usage in Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. This declining trend was accelerated by these developed markets advanced financial services infrastructure. Many of the developing countries in Asia have seen an increasing use of electronic payment systems, ' leap - frogging ' the less efficient chequeing system altogether.
India is one of the few countries in Asia that did have significant cheque usage. It had a long tradition of using cheques and passed laws formalising cheque usage as early as 1881. In 2009 cheques were still widely used as a means of payment in trade, and also by individuals to pay other individuals or utility bills. One of the reasons was that banks usually provided cheques for free to their individual account holders. However, cheques are now rarely accepted at point of sale in retail stores where cash and cards are payment methods of choice. Electronic payment transfer continued to gain popularity in India and like other countries this caused a subsequent reduction in volumes of cheques issued each year. In 2009 the Reserve Bank of India reported there was a five percent decline in cheque usage compared to the previous year.
In Australia, following global trends, the use of cheques continues to decline. In 1994 the value of daily cheque transactions was A $25 billion; by 2004 this had dropped to only A $5 billion, almost all of this for B2B transactions. Personal cheque use is practically non-existent thanks to the longstanding use of the EFTPOS system, BPAY, electronic transfers, and debit cards.
In New Zealand, payments by cheque have declined since the mid-1990s in favour of electronic payment methods. In 1993, cheques accounted for over half of transactions through the national banking system, with an annual average of 130 cheques per capita. By 2006 cheques lagged well behind EFTPOS (debit card) transaction and electronic credits, making up only nine per cent of transactions, an annual average of 41 cheque transaction per capita. Most retail stores no longer accept cheques; those that do often require government - issued identification or a store - issued "cheque identification card '' before they can be accepted as payment.
In addition to regular cheques, a number of variations were developed to address specific needs or address issues when using a regular cheque.
Cashier 's cheques and banker 's drafts, also known as bank cheques, banker 's cheques or treasurer 's cheques, are cheques issued against the funds of a financial institution rather than an individual account holder. Typically, the term cashier 's check is used in the US and banker 's draft is used in the UK and most of the Commonwealth. The mechanism differs slightly from country to country but in general the bank issuing the cheque or draft will allocate the funds at the point the cheque is drawn. This provides a guarantee, save for a failure of the bank, that it will be honoured. Cashier 's cheques are perceived to be as good as cash but they are still a cheque, a misconception sometimes exploited by scam artists. A lost or stolen cheque can still be stopped like any other cheque, so payment is not completely guaranteed.
When a certified cheque is drawn, the bank operating the account verifies there are currently sufficient funds in the drawer 's account to honour the cheque. Those funds are then set aside in the bank 's internal account until the cheque is cashed or returned by the payee. Thus, a certified cheque can not "bounce '', and its liquidity is similar to cash, absent failure of the bank. The bank indicates this fact by making a notation on the face of the cheque (technically called an acceptance).
A cheque used to pay wages may be referred to as a payroll cheque. Even when the use of cheques for paying wages and salaries became rare, the vocabulary "pay cheque '' still remained commonly used to describe the payment of wages and salaries. Payroll cheques issued by the military to soldiers, or by some other government entities to their employees, beneficiants, and creditors, are referred to as warrants.
Warrants look like cheques and clear through the banking system like cheques, but are not drawn against cleared funds in a deposit account. A cheque differs from a warrant in that the warrant is not necessarily payable on demand and may not be negotiable. They are often issued by government entities such as the military to pay wages or suppliers. In this case they are an instruction to the entity 's treasurer department to pay the warrant holder on demand or after a specified maturity date.
A traveller 's cheque is designed to allow the person signing it to make an unconditional payment to someone else as a result of paying the issuer for that privilege. Traveller 's cheques can usually be replaced if lost or stolen, and people frequently used them on holiday instead of cash as many businesses used to accept traveller 's cheques as currency. The use of credit or debit cards has begun to replace the traveller 's cheque as the standard for vacation money due to their convenience and additional security for the retailer. As a result, many businesses no longer accept traveller 's cheques.
A cheque sold by a post office, bank, or merchant such as a grocery store for payment in favour of a third party is referred to as a money order or postal order. These are paid for in advance when the order is drawn and are guaranteed by the institution that issues them and can only be paid to the named third party. This was a common way to send low value payments to third parties, avoiding the risks associated with sending cash by post, prior to the advent of electronic payment methods.
Oversized cheques are often used in public events such as donating money to charity or giving out prizes such as Publishers Clearing House. The cheques are commonly 18 by 36 inches (46 cm × 91 cm) in size; however, according to the Guinness Book of World Records, the largest ever is 12 by 25 metres (39 ft × 82 ft). Until recently, regardless of the size, such cheques could still be redeemed for their cash value as long as they would have the same parts as a normal cheque, although usually the oversized cheque is kept as a souvenir and a normal cheque is provided. Any bank could levy additional charges for clearing an oversized cheque. Most banks need to have the machine - readable information on the bottom of cheques read electronically, so only very limited dimensions can be allowed due to standardised equipment.
In the US some public assistance programmes such as the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children, or Aid to Families with Dependent Children make vouchers available to their beneficiaries, which are good up to a certain monetary amount for purchase of grocery items deemed eligible under the particular programme. The voucher can be deposited like any other cheque by a participating supermarket or other approved business.
The Cheques Act 1986 is the body of law governing the issuance of cheques and payment orders in Australia. Procedural and practical issues governing the clearance of cheques and payment orders are handled by Australian Payments Clearing Association (APCA).
In 1999, banks adopted a system to allow faster clearance of cheques by electronically transmitting information about cheques, this brought clearance times down from five to three days. Prior to that cheques had to be physically transported to the paying bank before processing began. If the cheque was dishonoured, it was physically returned.
All licensed banks in Australia may issue cheques in their own name. Non-banks are not permitted to issue cheques in their own name but may issue, and have drawn on them, payment orders (which functionally are no different from cheques).
In Canada, cheque sizes and types, endorsement requirements and MICR tolerances are overseen by Payments Canada.
The Cheque was introduced in India by the Bank of Hindustan, the first joint stock bank established in 1770. In 1881, the Negotiable Instruments Act (NI Act) was enacted in India, formalising the usage and characteristics of instruments like the cheque, the bill of exchange, and promissory note. The NI Act provided a legal framework for non-cash paper payment instruments in India. In 1938, the Calcutta Clearing Banks ' Association, which was the largest bankers ' association at that time, adopted clearing house.
Until 1 April 2012, cheques in India were valid for a period of six months from the date of their issue, before the Reserve Bank of India issued a notification reducing their validity to three months from the date of issue.
In Japan, cheques are called Kogitte (小切手), and are governed by Kogitte Law.
Bounced cheques are called Fuwatari Kogitte (不渡り 小切手). If an account owner bounces two cheques in six months, the bank will suspend the account for two years. If the account belongs to a public company, their stock will also be suspended from trading on the stock exchange, which can lead to bankruptcy.
Instrument - specific legislation includes the Cheques Act 1960, part of the Bills of Exchange Act 1908, which codifies aspects related to the cheque payment instrument, notably the procedures for the endorsement, presentment and payment of cheques. A 1995 amendment provided for the electronic presentment of cheques and removed the previous requirement to deliver cheques physically to the paying bank, opening the way for cheque truncation and imaging. Truncation allows for the transmission of an electronic image of all or part of the cheque to the paying bank 's branch, instead of cumbersome physical presentment. This reduced the total cheque clearance time and eliminated the costs of physically moving the cheque.
The registered banks under supervision of Reserve Bank of New Zealand provide the cheque payment services. Once banked, cheques are processed electronically together with other retail payment instruments. Homeguard v Kiwi Packaging is often cited case law regarding the banking of cheques tendered as full settlement of disputed accounts.
In the UK all cheques must now conform to and industry standard detailing layout and font ("Cheque and Credit Clearing Company (C&CCC) Standard 3 ''), be printed on a specific weight of paper (CBS1), and contain explicitly defined security features.
Since 1995, all cheque printers must be members of the Cheque Printer Accreditation Scheme (CPAS). The scheme is managed by the Cheque and Credit Clearing Company and requires that all cheques for use in the British clearing process are produced by accredited printers who have adopted stringent security standards.
The rules concerning crossed cheques are set out in Section 1 of the Cheques Act 1992 and prevent cheques being cashed by or paid into the accounts of third parties. On a crossed cheque the words "account payee only '' (or similar) are printed between two parallel vertical lines in the centre of the cheque. This makes the cheque non-transferable and is to avoid cheques being endorsed and paid into an account other than that of the named payee. Crossing cheques basically ensures that the money is paid into an account of the intended beneficiary of the cheque.
Following concerns about the amount of time it took banks to clear cheques, the United Kingdom Office of Fair Trading set up a working group in 2006 to look at the cheque clearing cycle. They produced a report recommending maximum times for the cheque clearing which were introduced in UK from November 2007. In the report the date the credit appeared on the recipient 's account (usually the day of deposit) was designated "T ''. At "T + 2 '' (two business days afterwards) the value would count for calculation of credit interest or overdraft interest on the recipient 's account. At "T + 4 '' clients would be able to withdraw funds on current accounts or at "T + 6 '' on savings accounts (though this will often happen earlier, at the bank 's discretion). "T + 6 '' is the last day that a cheque can bounce without the recipient 's permission -- this is known as "certainty of fate ''. Before the introduction of this standard (also known as 2 - 4 - 6 for current accounts and 2 - 6 - 6 for savings accounts), the only way to know the "fate '' of a cheque has been "Special Presentation '', which would normally involve a fee, where the drawee bank contacts the payee bank to see if the payee has that money at that time. "Special Presentation '' had been stated at the time of deposit.
Cheque volumes peaked in 1990 when four billion cheque payments were made. Of these, 2.5 billion were cleared through the inter-bank clearing managed by the C&CCC, the remaining 1.5 billion being in - house cheques which were either paid into the branch on which they were drawn or processed intra-bank without going through the clearings. As volumes started to fall, the challenges faced by the clearing banks were then of a different nature: how to benefit from technology improvements in a declining business environment.
Although the UK did not adopt the euro as its national currency when other European countries did in 1999, many banks began offering euro denominated accounts with chequebooks, principally to business customers. The cheques can be used to pay for certain goods and services in the UK. The same year, the C&CCC set up the euro cheque clearing system to process euro denominated cheques separately from sterling cheques in Great Britain.
The UK Payments Council from 30 June 2011 withdrew the existing Cheque Guarantee Card Scheme in the UK. This service allowed cheques to be guaranteed at point of sales up to a certain value, normally £ 50 or £ 100, when signed in front of the retailer with the additional cheque guarantee card. This was after a long period of decline in their use in favour of debit cards.
The Payments Council proposed to close the centralised cheque clearing altogether in the UK and had set a target date of 31 October 2018. However, on 12 July 2011, the Payments Council announced that after opposition from MPs, charity groups and public opinion, the cheque will remain in use and there would no longer be a reason to seek an alternative paper - initiated payment.
In the United States, cheques are referred to as checks and are governed by Article 3 of the Uniform Commercial Code, under the rubric of negotiable instruments.
In the US, the terminology for a cheque historically varied with the type of financial institution on which it is drawn. In the case of a savings and loan association it was a negotiable order of withdrawal (compare Negotiable Order of Withdrawal account); if a credit union it was a share draft. "Checks '' were associated with chartered commercial banks. However, common usage has increasingly conformed to more recent versions of Article 3, where check means any or all of these negotiable instruments. Certain types of cheques drawn on a government agency, especially payroll cheques, may be called a payroll warrant.
At the bottom of each cheque there is the routing / account number in MICR format. The ABA routing transit number is a nine - digit number in which the first four digits identifies the US Federal Reserve Bank 's cheque - processing centre. This is followed by digits 5 through 8, identifying the specific bank served by that cheque - processing centre. Digit 9 is a verification check digit, computed using a complex algorithm of the previous eight digits.
A draft in the US Uniform Commercial Code is any bill of exchange, whether payable on demand or at a later date. If payable on demand it is a "demand draft '', or if drawn on a financial institution, a cheque.
The electronic cheque or substitute cheque was formally adopted in the US in 2004 with the passing of the "Check Clearing for the 21st Century Act '' (or Check 21 Act). This allowed the creation of electronic cheques and translation (truncation) of paper cheques into electronic replacements, reducing cost and processing time.
The specification for US cheques is given by ANSI committee X9 Technical Report 2.
In Turkey, cheques are usually used for commercial transactions only, and using post-dated cheques is legally permissible.
Cheques have been a tempting target for criminals to steal money or goods from the drawer, payee or the banks. A number of measures have been introduced to combat fraud over the years. These range from things like writing a cheque so it is difficult to alter after it is drawn, to mechanisms like crossing a cheque so that it can only be paid into another bank 's account providing some traceability. However, the inherent security weaknesses of cheques as a payment method, such as having only the signature as the main authentication method and not knowing if funds will be received until the clearing cycle to complete, have made them vulnerable to a number of different types of fraud.
Taking advantage of the float period (cheque kiting) to delay the notice of non-existent funds. This often involves trying to convince a merchant or other recipient, hoping the recipient will not suspect that the cheque will not clear, giving time for the fraudster to disappear.
Sometimes, forgery is the method of choice in defrauding a bank. One form of forgery involves the use of a victim 's legitimate cheques, that have either been stolen and then cashed, or altering a cheque that has been legitimately written to the perpetrator, by adding words or digits to inflate the amount.
Since cheques include significant personal information (name, account number, signature and in some countries driver 's license number, the address or phone number of the account holder), they can be used for identity theft. The practice was discontinued as identity theft became widespread.
A dishonoured cheque can not be redeemed for its value and is worthless; they are also known as an RDI (returned deposit item), or NSF (non-sufficient funds) cheque. Cheques are usually dishonoured because the drawer 's account has been frozen or limited, or because there are insufficient funds in the drawer 's account when the cheque was redeemed. A cheque drawn on an account with insufficient funds is said to have bounced and may be called a rubber cheque. Banks will typically charge customers for issuing a dishonoured cheque, and in some jurisdictions such an act is a criminal action. A drawer may also issue a stop on a cheque, instructing the financial institution not to honour a particular cheque.
In England and Wales, they are typically returned marked "Refer to Drawer '' -- an instruction to contact the person issuing the cheque for an explanation as to why the cheque was not honoured. This wording was brought in after a bank was successfully sued for libel after returning a cheque with the phrase "Insufficient Funds '' after making an error -- the court ruled that as there were sufficient funds the statement was demonstrably false and damaging to the reputation of the person issuing the cheque. Despite the use of this revised phrase, successful libel lawsuits brought against banks by individuals remained for similar errors.
In Scotland, a cheque acts as an assignment of the amount of money to the payee. As such, if a cheque is dishonoured in Scotland, what funds are present in the bank account are "attached '' and frozen, until either sufficient funds are credited to the account to pay the cheque, the drawer recovers the cheque and hands it into the bank, or the drawer obtains a letter from the payee stating that they have no further interest in the cheque.
A cheque may also be dishonoured because it is stale or not cashed within a "void after date ''. Many cheques have an explicit notice printed on the cheque that it is void after some period of days. In the US, banks are not required by the Uniform Commercial Code to honour a stale - dated cheque, which is a cheque presented six months after it is dated.
In the United States some consumer reporting agencies such as ChexSystems, Early Warning Services, and TeleCheck have been providing cheque verification services that track how people manage their checking accounts. Banks use the agencies to screen checking account applicants. Those with low debit scores are denied checking accounts because a bank can not afford an account to be overdrawn.
In the United Kingdom, in common with other items such as Direct Debits or standing orders, dishonoured cheques can be reported on a customer 's credit file, although not individually and this does not happen universally amongst banks. Dishonoured payments from current accounts can be marked in the same manner as missed payments on the customer 's credit report.
Typically when customers pay bills with cheques (like gas or water bills), the mail will go to a "lock box '' at the post office. There a bank will pick up all the mail, sort it, open it, take the cheques and remittance advice out, process it all through electronic machinery, and post the funds to the proper accounts. In modern systems, taking advantage of the Check 21 Act, as in the US, many cheques are transformed into electronic objects and the paper is destroyed.
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who was the second prime minister of our nation | List of prime ministers of Canada by time in office - wikipedia
Prime ministers of Canada do not have a fixed term of office; instead, they may stay in office as long as their government is supported by parliament under a system of responsible government. Both the number of terms served and the length of individual terms have varied considerably since Confederation. Historically, elections have been held every three to five years, although since 2006 a government act set fixed election days every four years unless parliament is dissolved earlier by the Governor General. Prime ministers can be re-elected to serve any number of consecutive mandates, and some have served up to six terms, while several others have served for less than one full term. There are also four prime ministers who served multiple non-consecutive terms in the office.
Of the prime ministers who served less than one full term, two of them, Joe Clark and Paul Martin, had their time in office cut short by the collapse of a minority parliament and the subsequent election of the opposition party. In all other cases of short tenure, a new prime minister was put in place for the last few months of their predecessor 's mandate -- usually to try to gain support from the electorate before an election -- but were subsequently defeated by the opposition party. The preceding Prime Minister always stays in office during an election campaign, and that time is included in the total. The first day of a Prime Minister 's term is counted in the total, but the last day is not. This list is accurate as of April 9, 2018.
Liberal Party of Canada (10) Conservative Party of Canada (1) Historical conservative parties / Progressive Conservative Party of Canada (12)
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recognized the influence of the roman catholic church in france | Catholic Church in France - wikipedia
The Catholic Church in France is part of the worldwide Catholic Church in communion with the Pope in Rome. Established in the 2nd century in unbroken communion with the bishop of Rome, it is sometimes called the "eldest daughter of the church ''.
The first written records of Christians in France date from the 2nd century when Irenaeus detailed the deaths of ninety - year - old bishop Saint Pothinus of Lugdunum (Lyon) and other martyrs of the 177 AD persecution in Lyon. In 496 Remigius baptized King Clovis I, who therefore converted from paganism to Catholicism. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, forming the political and religious foundations of Christendom in Europe and establishing in earnest the French government 's long historical association with the Catholic Church. The French Revolution (1789 - 1790) was followed by heavy persecution of the Catholic Church. Laïcité, absolute neutrality of the state with respect to religious doctrine, is nowadays the official policy of the Republic of France.
Estimates of the proportion of Catholics range between 41 % and 88 % of France 's population, with the higher figure including lapsed Catholics and "Catholic atheists ''. The Catholic Church in France is organised into 98 dioceses, which in 2012 were served by 7,000 sub-75 priests. 80 to 90 priests are ordained every year, when the church would need eight times as many to compensate the number of priest deaths. Approximately 45,000 Catholic church buildings and chapels are spread out among 36,500 cities, towns, and villages in France, but a majority are no longer regularly used for mass. Notable churches of France include Notre Dame de Paris, Chartres Cathedral, Reims Cathedral, and Basilique du Sacre - Coeur, Eglise de la Madeleine, and Amiens Cathedral. Its national shrine, Lourdes, is visited by 5 million pilgrims yearly. The capital city, Paris, is a major pilgrimage site for Catholics as well.
Some of the most famous French saints include St. Thérèse of Lisieux, St. Irenaeus, St. Jean - Marie Vianney the Curé of Ars, St. Joan of Arc, St. Bernadette, Louis IX of France, St. Vincent de Paul, St. Louise de Marillac, St. Catherine Labouré and St. Bernard of Clairvaux.
According to long - standing tradition, Mary, Martha, Lazarus (Marie, Marthe and Lazare in French) and some companions, who were expelled by persecutions from the Holy Land, traversed the Mediterranean in a frail boat with neither rudder nor mast and landed at Saintes - Maries - de-la - Mer near Arles. Provençal tradition names Lazarus as the first bishop of Marseille, while Martha purportedly went on to tame a terrible beast in nearby Tarascon. Pilgrims visited their tombs at the abbey of Vézelay in Burgundy. In the Abbey of the Trinity at Vendôme, a phylactery was said to contain a tear shed by Jesus at the tomb of Lazarus. The cathedral of Autun, not far away, is dedicated to Lazarus as Saint Lazaire.
The first written records of Christians in France date from the 2nd century when Irenaeus detailed the deaths of ninety - year - old bishop Pothinus of Lugdunum (Lyon) and other martyrs of the 177 persecution in Lyon.
In 496 Remigius baptized Clovis I, who was converted from paganism to Catholicism. Clovis I, considered the founder of France, made himself the ally and protector of the papacy and his predominantly Catholic subjects.
On Christmas Day 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, forming the political and religious foundations of Christendom and establishing in earnest the French government 's longstanding historical association with the Catholic Church.
The Council of Clermont, a mixed synod of ecclesiastics and laymen led by Pope Urban II in November 1095 at Clermont - Ferrand triggered the First Crusade.
The Kingdom of France and its aristocracy were prominent players in the Crusades in general. Following the Fourth Crusade, a period known as the Frankokratia existed where French Latin Catholics took over parts of the Byzantine Empire. A Crusade also took place on French territory in the County of Toulouse (contemporary Languedoc) with the Albigensian Crusade in the 13th century, called by Pope Innocent III. This played out on local level with fighting between the Catholic White Brotherhood and the Cathar Black Brotherhood. The Cathars lost and were subsequently exterminated. In 1312, the French monarch Philip IV of France was involved in the suppression of the Knights Templar by Pope Clement V; Philip was in deep financial dept to the Templars.
The Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1377 during which seven French popes, resided in Avignon.
Prior to the French Revolution, the Catholic Church had been the official state religion of France since the conversion to Christianity of Clovis I, leading to France being called "the eldest daughter of the Church. '' The King of France was known as "His Most Christian Majesty. '' Following the Protestant Reformation, France was riven by sectarian conflict as the Huguenots and Catholics strived for supremacy in the Wars of Religion until the 1598 Edict of Nantes established a measure of religious toleration.
The French Revolution (also known as the Reign of Terror among Catholics) radically shifted power away from the Catholic Church as Church property was confiscated and the church crop tax and special clergy privileges were eliminated. With the 1790 Civil Constitution of the Clergy, the clergy became employees of the state and the Catholic Church became a subordinate arm of the secular French government. During the Reign of Terror, traditional Christian holidays were abolished and Catholic priests were brutally suppressed, locally through mass imprisonment and executions by drowning.
Napoleon Bonaparte negotiated a reconciliation with the Church through the 1801 Concordat, whereby the State would subsidize the Catholic religion (recognized as the one of the majority of the French), as well as Judaism, and the Lutheran and Calvinist branches of Protestantism. After the 1814 Bourbon Restoration, the ultra-royalist government headed by the comte de Villèle voted the 1825 Anti-Sacrilege Act, which condemned by capital punishment any stealing of consecrated Hosts. The anachronistic law was never applied and it was repealed in the first few months of the more liberal July Monarchy (1830 -- 1848).
A number of Marian apparitions are associated with France, the best known are the following;
The 1905 French law on the separation of Church and State removed the privileged status of the state religion (Roman Catholicism) and of the three other state - recognised religions (Lutheranism, Calvinism, Judaism), but left to them the use without fee of the churches that they used prior to 1905.
A notable exception is Alsace - Lorraine, which was at the time of the separation part of Germany, and where the pre-1905 status, including the Concordat, is still in force. This was negotiated in 1918 when Alsace - Lorraine was returned to France at the end of the first World War, and approved by both France and the Holy See with the Briand - Ceretti Agreement. As a consequence, although France is one of the countries in the world where State and Church are most separated, the French Head of State is paradoxically the only temporal power in the world still nominating Catholic bishops, namely the Bishop of Metz and the Archbishop of Strasbourg. They are approved by the Pope and in practice selected by him, but formally nominated by the French President following diplomatic exchanges with the Holy See through the nunciature.
During the application of the 1905 law, Emile Combes, a member of the Radical - Socialist Party, tried to strictly enforce some measures which were felt as humiliating or blasphematory by some Catholics, leading to clashes between the Congregationists and the authorities. Anti-clericalism slowly declined among the French left - wing throughout France in the twentieth century, while the question of religion and of freedom of thought seemed to have been resolved. However, it is still present as a defining trait of the left - wing, while most right - wing Frenchmen describe themselves as Catholics (although not necessarily practicing). Thus, the draft laws presented by François Mitterrand 's government in the early 1980s, concerning restrictions on the state funding of private (and in majority Catholic) schools, were countered by right - wing demonstrations headed by the then mayor of Paris, the Gaullist Jacques Chirac, who was to be his prime minister in 1986 and would succeed him in 1995 as president. In the same way, the 2004 law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools, revived the controversy twenty years later, although the dividing lines also passed through each political side due to the complexity of the subject. On this occasion, several Muslim associations have allied themselves with conservative Catholics to reject the law, while one of the consequences of the law was for Muslim college students who refused to remove their veils or "conspicuous religious symbols '' to withdraw from the public school system in favour of the private, but publicly subsidized, Catholic schools (where the law does not apply, being restricted to the public education system).
In any case, since the 1905 law on the separation of the Church and State, the prevailing public doctrine on religion is laïcité -- that is, neutrality of the state with respect to religious doctrine, and separation of the religious and the public spheres, except in Alsace - Lorraine and in some colonies. This state neutrality is conceived as a protection of religious minorities as well as the upholding of freedom of thought, which includes a right to agnosticism and atheism. Although many Catholics were at first opposed to this secular movement, most of them have since changed opinions, finding that this neutrality actually protects their faith from political interference. Only some minority traditionalist Catholic groups, such as the Society of St. Pius X, push for the return to the Ancien Régime or at least pre-separation situation, contending that France has forgotten its divine mission as a Christian country (an argument already upheld by the Ultras presenting the 1825 Anti-Sacrilege Act).
2006 Statistics from the Roman Catholic Church in France:
Within France the hierarchy consists of:
Immediately subject to the Holy See:
Other:
France is the location of one of the world 's major Catholic pilgrim centres at Lourdes.
Growing discontent with respect to the influence of the Catholic Church in education and politics led to a series of reforms during the Third Republic reducing this influence, under the protests of the Ultramontanists who supported the Vatican 's influence. Anti-clericalism was popular among Republicans, Radicals and Socialists, in part because the Church had supported the Counterrevolutionaries throughout the 19th century. After the 16 May 1877 crisis and the fall of the Ordre Moral government led by Marshall MacMahon, the Republicans voted Jules Ferry 's 1880 laws on free education (1881) and mandatory and laic education (1882), which Catholics felt was a gross violation of their rights. The 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State established state secularism in France, led to the closing of most Church schools.
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who won a gold medal in the recent commonwealth games | 2018 Commonwealth Games - Wikipedia
The 2018 Commonwealth Games, officially known as the XXI Commonwealth Games and commonly known as Gold Coast 2018, were an international multi-sport event for members of the Commonwealth that were held on the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, between 4 and 15 April 2018. It was the fifth time Australia had hosted the Commonwealth Games and the first time a major multi-sport event achieved gender equality by having an equal number of events for males and female athletes.
More than 4,400 athletes including 300 para-athletes from 71 Commonwealth Games Associations took part in the event. The Gambia which withdrew its membership from the Commonwealth of Nations and Commonwealth Games Federation in 2013, was readmitted on 31 March 2018 and participated in the event. With 275 sets of medals, the games featured 19 Commonwealth sports, including beach volleyball, para triathlon and women 's rugby sevens. These sporting events took place at 14 venues in the host city, two venues in Brisbane and one venue each in Cairns and Townsville.
These were the first Commonwealth Games to take place under the Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF) presidency of Louise Martin, CBE. The host city Gold Coast was announced at the CGF General Assembly in Basseterre, Saint Kitts, on 11 November 2011. Gold Coast became the seventh Oceanian city and the first regional city to host the Commonwealth Games. These were the eighth games to be held in Oceania and the Southern Hemisphere.
The host nation Australia topped the medal table for the fourth time in the past five Commonwealth Games, winning the most golds (80) and most medals overall (198). England and India finished second and third respectively. Vanuatu, Cook Islands, Solomon Islands, British Virgin Islands and Dominica each won their first Commonwealth Games medals.
On 22 August 2008, the Premier of Queensland, Anna Bligh, officially launched Gold Coast City 's bid to host the Commonwealth Games in 2018. On 7 April 2009, the ABC reported a land exchange deal between Gold Coast City and State of Queensland for Carrara Stadium. According to Mayor Ron Clarke, the land would aid a potential bid for the 2018 Commonwealth Games. The land exchanged would be used as the site of an aquatics centre. In the same article, Mayor Clarke raised the question of the Australian Federal Government 's commitment to a 2018 Commonwealth Games bid in light of the Government 's support for Australia 's 2018 FIFA World Cup Finals bid. On 16 April 2009, Queensland Premier Anna Bligh told reporters that a successful Commonwealth Games bid by Gold Coast City could help the tourist strip win a role in hosting the World Cup.
"Some of the infrastructure that would be built for the Commonwealth Games will be useful for Gold Coast City to get a World Cup game out of the soccer World Cup if we 're successful as a nation, '' she said. However the decision on the venues for the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups were made eleven months prior to the bid decision for the 2018 Commonwealth Games, so the potential World Cup venues had already been chosen. On 3 June 2009, Gold Coast City was confirmed as Australia 's exclusive bidder vying for the 2018 Commonwealth Games. "Should a bid proceed, Gold Coast City will have the exclusive Australian rights to bid as host city for 2018, '' Bligh stated.
"Recently I met with the president and CEO of the Australian Commonwealth Games Association and we agreed to commission a full and comprehensive feasibility study into the potential for the 2018 Commonwealth Games, '' she said. "Under the stewardship of Queensland Events new chair, Geoff Dixon, that study is now well advanced. '' On 15 March 2010, it was announced that the Queensland Government will provide initial funding of A $11 million for the 2018 Commonwealth Games bid. The Premier of Queensland has indicated the Government 's support for the bid to the Australian Commonwealth Games Association. On 31 March 2010, the Australian Commonwealth Games Association officially launched the bid to host the 2018 Commonwealth Games. In October 2011, Gold Coast City Mayor Ron Clarke stated that the games would provide a strong legacy for the city after the games have ended.
On 31 March 2010, a surprise bid was made for the 2018 Commonwealth Games by the Sri Lankan city of Hambantota. Hambantota was devastated by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, and is undergoing a major face lift. The first phase of the Port of Hambantota is nearing completion and it is funded by the government of China. The Mattala International Airport, which is the second international Airport of Sri Lanka is built close to Hambantota. A new Hambantota International Cricket Stadium had also been built, which had hosted matches in the 2011 Cricket World Cup.
On 10 November 2011, the Hambantota bidders claimed they had already secured enough votes to win the hosting rights. However, on 11 November it was officially announced Gold Coast City had won the rights to host the games.
In February 2012, Mark Peters was appointed Chief Executive Officer of the Gold Coast City 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation. The Queensland Government Minister tasked with overseeing the Games was Kate Jones.
One of the key technical aspects of Gold Coast City 's successful bid was the fact that the city had 80 percent of the planned venues in place before the bidding deadline. The vast majority of venues were located within 20 - minutes driving time of the Athletes Village in Parkwood.
Carrara Stadium, located in the suburb of Carrara, was the main venue for Athletics, the opening ceremony and the closing ceremony. The seating capacity of the stadium was temporarily increased to 40,000 for the games by the installation of a large temporary North Stand.
The Gold Coast City Convention and Exhibition Centre, located in the suburb of Broadbeach, hosted Basketball, Netball (preliminaries) and Weightlifting events, also serving as the Main Media Centre and International Broadcast centre hosting over 3000 members of the worlds press. The Broadbeach Bowls Club hosted the Bowls competition.
The Hinze Dam, located in the suburb of Advancetown, was the location for the Mountain Bike competition. A new course was constructed to meet international competition requirements and temporary spectator seating for 2,000 spectators.
The newly built Coomera Sport and Leisure Centre hosted Gymnastics and Netball (finals). The existing sound stages of the Village Roadshow Studios complex in the suburb of Oxenford hosted the sports of Boxing, Table Tennis and Squash. During Games mode the venue was enhanced to provide for the International Sporting Federation technical venue requirements and provide spectator seating of 3,000 (boxing) and 3,200 (table tennis). The Gold Coast Hockey Centre hosted the men 's and women 's Hockey events during the games. The Southport Broadwater Parklands hosted Triathlon and athletic events. The Optus aquatic centre hosted the swimming and diving events.
Robina Stadium hosted the Rugby 7s competition and upgraded to meet World Rugby standards. The Elanora / Currumbin Valley area hosted the road racing elements of the cycling programme. Coolangatta Beachfront hosted the beach volleyball event.
Brisbane, along with the Gold Coast, forms part of the South East Queensland conurbation. Track Cycling was held at the Sleeman Sports Complex in the suburb of Chandler, where a new indoor cycling velodrome (Anna Meares Velodrome) was built. The Velodrome 's seat capacity was 4,000 during the games mode.
The Shooting disciplines were held at the Belmont Shooting Centre. In Tropical North Queensland, the Cairns Convention Centre and Townsville Entertainment Centre hosted the preliminary rounds of both the men 's and women 's basketball competitions.
At a charity gala held on 4 November 2017, the medals for the games were officially unveiled. Australian Indigenous artist Delvene Cockatoo - Collins designed the medals, while they were produced by the Royal Australian Mint. The design of the medals was inspired by the coastline of Gold Coast along with Indigenous culture. Furthermore, Cockatoo - Collins mentioned, "the medal design represents soft sand lines which shift with every tide and wave, also symbolic of athletic achievement, The continual change of tide represents the evolution in athletes who are making their mark, Records are made and special moments of elation are celebrated ''. Approximately 1,500 medals were created to be distributed to the medallists and each measures approximately 63 millimetres in diameter. The medals weigh between 138 and 163 grams.
The 2018 Commonwealth Games Athletes Village was located on 59 hectares at Southport, Gold Coast. which provided accommodation and services to 6,600 athletes and officials in 1252 permanent dwellings. There are 1170 one and two bedroom apartments and 82 three bedroom townhouses which will serve as student accommodation to the nearby Griffith University. It offered services like laundry, refreshments and television and computer spaces and four residential pools. The village consisted a gym which was designed with guidance from the Australian Institute of Sport and equipment and the equipment were sponsored by Technogym. Adjoining the gym was the Athlete Recovery Area which provided services like plunge baths, including accessible baths, saunas, massage and consults from the Sports Medical personnel. The Main Dining served over 18,000 meals per day to the athletes during the games. The village also consisted of retail shops, Optus phone store, salon, bar and a games room which featured a number of arcade games, pool tables and game consoles.
The Gold Coast 2018 Queen 's Baton Relay was launched on Commonwealth Day, 13 March 2017, on the historic forecourt at Buckingham Palace, signalling the official countdown to the start of the Games. Accompanied by the Duke of Edinburgh and Prince Edward The Earl of Wessex, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II heralded the start of the relay by placing her ' message to the Commonwealth and its athletes ' into the distinctive loop - design Queen 's Baton which then set off on its journey around the globe. It traveled for 388 days, spending time in every nation and territory of the Commonwealth. The Gold Coast 2018 Queen 's Baton Relay was the longest in Commonwealth Games history. Covering 230,000 km over 388 days, the baton made its way through the six Commonwealth regions of Africa, the Americas, the Caribbean, Europe, Asia and Oceania.
The baton landed on Australian soil in December 2017 and then spent 100 days travelling through Australia, finishing its journey at the Opening Ceremony on 4 April 2018, where the message was removed from the Baton and read aloud by Charles, Prince of Wales.
During the games period, free public transportation within Queensland region was provided to ticket and accreditation holders. The free transportation services were available on local buses, train and Gold Coast light rail (G: link) services in Gold Coast and on TransLink and Qconnect bus services in Cairns and Townsville. The Gold Coast light rail system, connected a number of the key games venues including the Optus Aquatic Centre, Broadwater Parklands and the Gold Coast Convention & Exhibition Centre with the major accommodation centres of Surfers Paradise and Broadbeach and the Athletes Village at Parklands. An extension to the system was announced in October 2015, connecting the then current terminus at Gold Coast University Hospital to the railway line to Brisbane at Helensvale. The extension opened in December 2017, in time for the games.
The Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority conducted an anti-doping drive in the months prior to the games, covering around 2500 tests of Australian athletes, as well as 500 tests against international athletes. Three Australians failed drug tests in this process, along with around 20 international athletes, subject to appeal. The Commonwealth Games Federation conducted in - competition testing and, matching protocol at the Olympic Games, launched a sample storage initiative to allow for future testing of samples up to ten years later, should detection technology improve.
There were 71 nations competing at 2018 Commonwealth Games. Maldives were scheduled to participate, but in October 2016 they withdrew from the Commonwealth. The Gambia returned to the Commonwealth Games after being readmitted as a Commonwealth Games Federation member on 31 March 2018.
The regulations stated that from the 26 approved sports administered by Commonwealth Governing Bodies, a minimum of ten core sports and maximum of seventeen sports must be included in any Commonwealth Games schedule. The approved sports included the 10 core sports: athletics, badminton, boxing, hockey, lawn bowls, netball (for women), rugby sevens, squash, swimming and weightlifting. Integrated disabled competitions were also scheduled for the Games in nine sports: swimming, athletics, cycling, table tennis, powerlifting and lawn bowls. Along with these events for the first time EAD events in triathlon were held, with the medals added to the final tally for each nation. A record 38 para events were contested at these games. On 8 March 2016, beach volleyball was announced as the 18th sport.
The program was broadly similar to that of the 2014 Commonwealth Games, with the major changes being the dropping of judo, the reintroduction of basketball, the debut of women 's rugby sevens and beach volleyball.
On 7 October 2016, it was announced seven new events for women were added to the sport program, meaning there are an equal number of events for men and women. This marks the first time in history that a major multi-sport event has equality in terms of events. In total 275 events in 18 sports are being contested.
Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of medal events contested in each sport.
The opening ceremony was held at Carrara Stadium in the Gold Coast, Australia, between 20: 00 and 22: 40 AEST, on 4 April 2018. Tickets for the ceremony started at 100 Australian dollars with half price tickets available for children. The Head of the Commonwealth, Queen Elizabeth II, was represented by her son, Charles, Prince of Wales.
Following tradition, the host of the previous games, Scotland entered first, followed by the rest of the European countries competing. Following this, all countries paraded in alphabetical order from their respective regions. After the European countries entered, countries from Africa, the Americas, Asia, the Caribbean, and lastly Oceania marched in. The host nation of Australia entered last. Each nation was preceded by a placard bearer carrying a sign with the country 's name.
The closing ceremony was held at Carrara Stadium on Sunday 15th April and was produced by Jack Morton Worldwide at a cost of AU $30 million. Australian pop stars Guy Sebastian, Samantha Jade, Dami Im and The Veronicas were among the performers along with children 's entertainers, The Wiggles.
Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, declared the Games closed and passed the Commonwealth Games flag to Birmingham, England which will host the 2022 Games.
Only the top ten successful nations are displayed here.
The ranking in this table is consistent with International Olympic Committee convention in its published medal tables. By default, the table is ordered by the number of gold medals the athletes from a nation have won (in this context, a "nation '' is an entity represented by a Commonwealth Games Association). The number of silver medals is taken into consideration next and then the number of bronze medals. If nations are still tied, equal ranking is given and they are listed alphabetically by their three - letter country code. Australia tops the medal table rank with 80 gold, second England with 45 gold and third India with 26 gold.
* Host nation (Australia)
The official motto for the 2018 Commonwealth Games was "Share the Dream ''. It was chosen to highlight the dreams and experience at the games that were shared by participants of the games, ranging from athletes to volunteers and the host country Australia to the world including the Commonwealth nations.
The emblem was launched on 4 April 2013, which marked exactly five years until its opening ceremony. It was unveiled at the Southport Broadwater Parklands. It was designed by the New South Wales based brand consultancy WiteKite. The emblem of the 2018 Commonwealth Games was a silhouette of the skyline and landscape of Gold Coast, the host city of the games. Nigel Chamier OAM, who served as the Chairman of the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation till the end of the games, said that it was the result of months of market research.
Borobi was named as the mascot of the 2018 Commonwealth Games in 2016. Borobi is a blue koala, with indigenous markings on its body. The term "borobi '' means koala in the Yugambeh language, spoken by the indigenous Yugambeh people of the Gold Coast and surrounding areas.
At least 13 athletes from four countries - Cameroon, Uganda, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone - absconded during or immediately after the Games. Some missed their competitions. Athletes regularly abscond during major sporting events, and many subsequently claim asylum in their host countries. Most hold nationalities that are deemed high - risk by immigration authorities and find it impossible to get visas outside of exceptional events, such as major games.
The organising committee decided to bring in the athletes before the start of the closing ceremony. This caused an uproar on social media as, contrary to public expectations, none of the athletes were shown entering the stadium during the ceremony. Broadcast rights holders Channel 7 complained on air about the decision and concluded that, "it has n't really lived up to expectations ''. Many spectators and athletes left during the ceremony, resulting in a half - empty stadium for much of the event. Following this, the ABC claimed that Channel 7 was briefed on the closing ceremony schedule, a claim which Channel 7 later refuted.
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when did wendy's start the 4 for 4 | Wendy 's - Wikipedia
Wendy 's is an American international fast food restaurant chain founded by Dave Thomas on November 15, 1969, in Columbus, Ohio. The company moved its headquarters to Dublin, Ohio, on January 29, 2006. As of 2016, Wendy 's was the world 's third largest hamburger fast food chain with 6,500 + locations, following Burger King and McDonald 's. On April 24, 2008, the company announced a merger with Triarc Companies Inc., a publicly traded company and the parent company of Arby 's. Despite the new ownership, Wendy 's headquarters remained in Dublin. Previously, Wendy 's had rejected more than two buyout offers from Triarc. Following the merger, Triarc became known as Wendy 's / Arby 's Group, and later as The Wendy 's Company.
As of January 2, 2017, there were a total of 6,537 locations, including 330 that are company - owned. 6,207 restaurants are franchised, and 77 % of them are located in North America. While Wendy 's sets standards for exterior store appearance, food quality, and menu, individual owners have control over hours of operations, interior decor, pricing, staff uniforms, and wages.
Wendy 's menu consists primarily of hamburgers, chicken sandwiches, French fries, and beverages, including the signature Frosty, which is a soft - serve frozen dairy dessert. Since phasing out their famous "Big Classic '', the company does not have a signature sandwich, such as the Burger King Whopper or the McDonald 's Big Mac - although, by default, the "signature sandwich '' spot seems to have been filled by Dave 's 1 / 4 lb Single (introduced in 2011 as Dave 's Hot ' N Juicy as a reworking of the longstanding Wendy 's Single, shortened to simply Dave 's in 2016), a square - pattied burger made with fresh ground beef rather than round frozen patties. Wendy 's uses square hamburger patties -- which hang over the edge of a circular bun -- as its signature item.
The chain is known for its square hamburgers, sea salt fries, and the Frosty, a form of soft serve ice cream mixed with frozen starches. The idea for Wendy 's "old fashioned '' hamburgers was inspired by Dave Thomas 's trips to Kewpee Hamburgers in his home town of Kalamazoo, Michigan. The Kewpee sold square hamburgers and thick malt shakes, much like the well - known restaurant that Thomas eventually founded in Columbus, Ohio, in 1969. Square patties had corners that stuck out so that customers could easily see the quality of the meat. The Columbus location later added a Tim Hortons and was closed on March 2, 2007, after 38 years of business due to declining sales.
Thomas named the restaurant after his fourth child Melinda Lou "Wendy '' Thomas. Photographs of her were on display at the original Wendy 's restaurant until it closed. In August 1972, the first Wendy 's franchisee, L.S. Hartzog, signed an agreement for Indianapolis, Indiana. Also, in 1972, Wendy 's aired its first TV commercials that were only broadcast locally in Ohio. This series of commercials was titled "C'mon to Wendy 's '' because they stressed Wendy 's superiority through the "Quality Is Our Recipe '' slogan and featured an animated Wendy similar to the one from the corporate logo along with dancing hamburgers.
The first Canadian restaurant opened in Hamilton, Ontario in 1976. In December 1976, Wendy 's opened its 500th restaurant, located in Toronto, Ontario. In March 1978, Wendy 's opened its 1000th restaurant in Springfield, Tennessee.
Wendy 's founded the fried chicken chain Sisters Chicken in 1978 and sold it to its largest franchiser in 1987. In 1979, the first European Wendy 's opened in Munich. The same year, Wendy 's became the first fast - food chain to introduce the salad bar. Wendy 's entered the Asian market by opening its first restaurants in Japan in 1980, in Hong Kong in 1982, and in the Philippines and Singapore in 1983. In 1984, Wendy 's opened its first restaurant in South Korea.
In response to a 1986 slowdown in the chain 's performance, Wendy 's restructured its cleanliness standards, menu, and other operational details to ensure that stores met the goals and standards of the parent company so that its franchises were competitive in the market. Wendy 's closed all its outlets in Hong Kong in 1986 and in Singapore in the following year.
From 1988 to 1990, Wendy 's expanded operations globally to Mexico, New Zealand, Indonesia, Greece, Turkey, Guatemala, as well as the U.S. Naval Base in Naples, Italy. In 1988, Wendy 's expanded its bar to a full - blown buffet called the Superbar for $2.99. The Superbar had various stations: "Mexican Fiesta '', the Italian "Pasta Pasta, '' and the "Garden Spot '', salad and fruit. The Superbar was popular but difficult to maintain and thus was discontinued in 1998.
In 1989, Wendy 's opened its first restaurant in Greece at Syntagma Square being the first foreign fast - food chain in the country. After opening 12 restaurants in 3 cities, the company abandoned the Greek market in 2002. In 1996, the chain expanded in Argentina by opening 18 local restaurants. However, all of them closed only four years later due to the economic crisis in the country. In 1998, Wendy 's pulled out of South Korea by closing all its 15 restaurants and in 2000 exited from the UK, Argentina, and Hong Kong.
Garden Sensations salads were added in 2002. Wendy 's signed a franchise agreement to re-enter the Singapore market in 2009 though that agreement was short - lived; in April 2015, Wendy 's once again ceased operation in the country and closed all the restaurants. In 2011, Wendy 's returned to Japan and Argentina announcing a development agreement for 50 restaurants in the country. It also entered the Russian market for the first time with plans to open 180 restaurants over a 10 - year period.
In 2013, Wendy 's opened the first restaurant in Georgia and made a deal to open 25 restaurants in Georgia and the Republic of Azerbaijan. In 2014, Wendy 's closed all its restaurants in Russia. In September 2014, several pork based products were introduced to be on sale until early November. These included a standard pulled pork sandwich with slaw and three sauce options, a BBQ Pulled Pork Cheeseburger and cheese fries with pulled pork, cheddar cheese sauce, onions, and barbecue sauce. In May 2015, Wendy 's announced they would be expanding into India, with its first outlet located in Gurgaon.
Wendy 's is planning to sell 540 of its restaurants. The divesture is the second step in a three - step action plan to improve the brand. Other steps include new openings and remodeling of existing stores. In 2015, the brand expects to open 80 new restaurants. It will remodel 450 of its existing locations. The brand 's goal is to remodel at least 60 % of its North American locations by year - end 2020.
In September 2016, it was announced that JAE Restaurant Group had acquired 97 Wendy 's restaurants throughout the South Florida region. JAE Restaurant Group is one of the country 's largest franchisee owners. The Group owns 177 Wendy 's Restaurants. Wendy 's Co. has been looking to remodel existing stores and upgrade the curb appeal of its locations. They have been doing this by adding fireplaces, more seating options, adding WiFi and flat screen TVs, and digital menus. Wendy 's Co expects to sell 258 more restaurants during the rest of 2016. In total, they will be looking to sell $435 million of its restaurants.
Wendy 's offers two different hamburger patties, a "Junior '' 1.78 ounce (50.4 gram) patty and its "Single '' 4 ounce (113.4 gram) patty. 4 - ounce patties are sold in single, double, and triple sizes whereas the junior patties sell in single and double patties. The previous size of 2 ounces per junior patty was altered to its current size in 2007 to save on expenses from rising food costs. Originally Wendy 's had only two kinds of chicken sandwiches, fried and grilled. The spicy chicken sandwich started out as a promotional sandwich. It was later put on the menu full - time in 1996 due to its popularity and the fact that, compared to most promotional sandwiches, it was much simpler to make (it used the same condiments as the standard breaded chicken sandwich).
The Frescata line of sandwiches also went from being promotional items to main menu items. After going through several revisions, the Turkey and Swiss and the Ham and Swiss were put on the menu full - time. However, the Frescata sandwiches were discontinued in mid-December 2007. Occasionally, some Wendy 's restaurants offer a fried fish sandwich for some of its customers who desire fish instead of beef or chicken.
In 1988, Wendy 's was the first fast - food chain to create a single price - point value menu where all items listed on that menu were priced exclusively at 99 ¢. The menu was restructured in 2007 due to rising costs as the Super Value Menu with prices ranging from 99 ¢ to $2.00 USD.
In mid-2007, Wendy 's began a national debut of its new breakfast menu in its U.S. and Canadian stores. Wendy 's experimented with serving breakfast for a short time in 1985, but the endeavor was unsuccessful due to many issues. While approximately 12 Wendy 's restaurants in the U.S. and its territories have been serving breakfast since then, Wendy 's has not had a company - wide breakfast offering.
The newer breakfast menu differs slightly from the ones featured in 1985, and it is structured similarly to its lunch / dinner menu, with value meals and various sides like blended fruit. Menu items include several breakfast sandwiches served on biscuits, frescuit and Kaiser rolls, breakfast burritos, and side orders of hash browns, muffins, and cinnamon sticks. In order to avoid the same issues the original 1985 breakfast offerings faced, the new menu was designed for ease of operation, lower costs, and reduced preparation time.
In January 2016, Wendy 's announced a transition plan to source only cage - free eggs by the year 2020 in all U.S. and Canadian locations that serve breakfast.
After successful early growth of the chain, sales flattened as the company struggled to achieve brand differentiation in the highly competitive fast - food market. This situation would turn around in the mid-1980s. Starting on January 9, 1984, elderly actress Clara Peller was featured in the successful "Where 's the Beef? '' North American commercial campaign written by Cliff Freeman. Her famous line quickly entered the American pop culture (it was even used by Walter Mondale in a debate with Gary Hart in the Democratic primary election) and served to promote Wendy 's hamburgers. Peller, age 83, was dropped from the campaign in 1985 because she performed in a commercial for Prego spaghetti sauce, saying she "finally found '' the beef.
Peller was soon after replaced by Wendy 's founder Dave Thomas himself. Soft - spoken and bashful, the "Dave '' ads generally focused on Thomas praising his products and offering a commitment to quality service, although there would occasionally be "wackier '' ads as well. Thomas ultimately appeared in more than 800 commercials, more than any other company founder in television history.
After Dave Thomas ' death in 2002, Wendy 's struggled to find a new advertising campaign. After a round of conventional ads describing the food they serve, in 2004 they tried using a character they made called "Mr. Wendy '' who claimed to be the unofficial spokesperson for the chain. These proved to be extremely unsuccessful. After seven months, Wendy 's returned to an animated campaign focusing on the difference between Wendy 's square hamburgers and the round hamburgers of competitors.
Wendy 's marketing arm engages in product placement in films and television and is sometimes seen on ABC 's reality show Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, serving food to the more than 100 construction workers.
A 2007 Wendy 's commercial featured the tune from the Violent Femmes song "Blister in the Sun. '' The inclusion of the song in the commercial provoked an internal conflict between members of the Violent Femmes, which resulted in a lawsuit between bassist Brian Ritchie and lead singer Gordon Gano that ultimately led to the band disbanding in 2009 (however, they would reunite in 2013).
With their "That 's right '' ad campaign not a success, Wendy 's unveiled a new ad campaign, featuring the animated version of their mascot voiced by Luci Christian highlighting certain menu items. The new ad campaign made its debut in late January 2008, with slogans: in the USA: "It 's waaaay better than fast food. It 's Wendy 's. '' and in Canada, "It 's waaaay delicious. It 's Wendy 's. '' The company 's slogan, "you know when it 's real, '' was introduced in 2010.
In November 2010, a series of commercials aired featuring the company 's namesake, Wendy Thomas, which marked the first time she had appeared in a Wendy 's advertisement. In April 2012, Morgan Smith Goodwin began appearing as the redhead in ads with the slogan "Now that 's better. '' In 2013, social media advertising featuring Nick Lachey directed at millennials promoted the Pretzel Bacon Cheeseburger.
A 2014 campaign to promote the Tuscan Chicken on Ciabatta sandwich entitled "L'Estrella de la Toscana, '' or "Star of Tuscany '' in English was launched on television and social media. A 2014 campaign to promote the Pretzel Bacon Cheeseburger was run until November 2014 was shown to many people watching TV starting on March 18, 2014.
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the name of the separatist political party in quebec | Quebec sovereignty movement - wikipedia
The Quebec sovereignty movement (French: Mouvement souverainiste du Québec) is a political movement as well as an ideology of values, concepts and ideas that advocates independence for the Canadian province of Quebec.
Several diverse political groups coalesced in the late 1960s in the formation of the Parti Québécois, a provincial political party. Since 1968 the party has appealed for constitutional negotiations on the matter of provincial sovereignty, in addition to holding two provincial referendums on the matter. The first, which occurred in 1980, asked whether Quebecers wished to open constitutional negotiations with the federal government (and other provinces) for the intended purpose of establishing a "sovereignty - association '' pact between the province of Quebec and the rest of Canada. Approximately 60 % of Quebec 's voting public rejected the idea put forth by Parti Québécois leader René Lévesque. The matter was dropped by the party for most of the 1980s, especially after the patriation of the Canadian constitution without the consent of the Parti Québécois government, and the creation of the federal Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which enshrined the protection of the French language and French - Canadian culture in Canada. In 1995, after two failed attempts by the Mulroney government to secure Quebec 's ratification of amendments to the constitution, the Parti Québécois held a second referendum, though on this occasion the question was, albeit obliquely asked, whether one wished for the independence of the province of Quebec from the rest of Canada. The response was again in the negative, though this time by a far closer margin, with a mere 50.58 % against the proposal.
Though the Parti Québécois has long spearheaded the sovereignty movement, they are not alone. Other minority provincial political parties, such as Option nationale and Québec Solidaire, also support sovereignty, but are not always supportive of the Parti Québécois. The Quebec Liberal Party, Québec 's other primary political party, is opposed to increasing political sovereignty for the province, but has also been historically at odds, on occasion, with various Canadian federal governments. Thus, Quebec politics is effectively divided into two camps, principally opposed over the sovereignty issue. Quebec sovereignty is politically opposed to the competing ideology of Canadian federalism.
Most groups within this movement seek to gain independence through peaceful means, using negotiation - based diplomatic intervention, although fringe groups have advocated and used violent means. The overwhelming number of casualties came from attacks by the FLQ, a militant organization which perpetrated a bombing and armed robbery campaign from 1963 to 1970, culminating in the October Crisis and the death of senior government minister Pierre Laporte. Since this time all mainstream sovereignist groups have sworn off violence, while extremist nationalist groups, though in the minority, support violent actions in the name of liberating Quebec from Canadian sovereignty.
The primary mainstream political vehicle for the movement is the Parti Québécois, which has governed Quebec on multiple occasions. In 2012 it was elected to a minority government, in which its leader, Pauline Marois, became the first female Premier of Quebec. However, only eighteen months later, the PQ was defeated by the Liberal Party of Quebec in the 2014 election.
In practice, "separatist '' and "sovereignist '' are terms used to describe individuals wanting the province of Quebec to separate from Canada to become a country of its own; supporters of the movement generally prefer the latter term. The term "independentist '' is preferred by some supporters.
Justifications for Quebec 's sovereignty are historically ethno - nationalistic in character, claiming the unique culture and French - speaking majority (78 % of the provincial population) are threatened with assimilation by either the rest of Canada or, as in Metropolitan France, by Anglophone culture more generally, and that the best way to preserve language, identity and culture is via the creation of an independent political entity. Other distinguishing factors, such as religious differences (given the Catholic majority in Quebec), are also used to justify either separation or ethno - nationalist social policies advocated by the Parti Québécois.
The historical justification is that Quebec should be independent by virtue of New France having been conquered by the British in 1763 and subsequently relinquished to the British in exchange for Guadeloupe. It argues that the people of Quebec are the descendants of a conquered people who are due their national sovereignty. This perspective was popular in the 1950s and 1960s when European countries were giving up their colonies in the name of independence throughout much of Africa, the Middle East and South Asia.
Eight of the other Canadian provinces are overwhelmingly (greater than 90 %) English - speaking, while New Brunswick is officially bilingual and about one - third Francophone. Another rationale is based on resentment of anti-Quebec sentiment. With regard to the creation of the sovereignist movement, language issues were but a sub-stratum of larger cultural, social and political differences. Many scholars point to historical events as framing the cause for ongoing support for sovereignty in Quebec, while more contemporary politicians may point to the aftermath of more recent developments like the Canada Act of 1982, the Meech Lake Accord or the Charlottetown Accord. Many supporters of Quebec sovereignty often compare their situation with Catalonia in regards to Spain and Tibet in regards to the People 's Republic of China.
Tension between the francophone, Catholic population of Quebec and the largely anglophone, Protestant population of the rest of Canada has been a central theme of Canadian history, shaping the early territorial and cultural divisions of the country that persist to this day. Supporters of sovereignty for Quebec believe that the current relationship between Quebec and the rest of Canada does not reflect Quebec 's best social, political and economic development interests. Moreover, many subscribe to the notion that without appropriately recognizing that the people of Quebec are culturally distinct, Quebec will remain chronically disadvantaged in favour of the English - Canadian majority. There is also the question of whether the French language can survive within the geographic boundaries of Quebec and where French - Canadian society and culture fits into what is an increasingly multicultural country. Separatists and Independentists are generally opposed to some aspects of the federal system in Canada and do not believe it can be reformed in a way that could satisfy the needs of Quebec 's French - speaking majority. A key component in the argument in favour of overt political independence is that new legislation and a new system of governance could best secure the future development of modern Québécois culture. Additionally, there is wide - ranging debate about defence, monetary policy, currency, international - trade and relations after independence and whether a renewed federalism would give political recognition to the Quebec nation (along with the other ' founding ' peoples, including Canadian First Nations, the Inuit, and the British) could satisfy the historic disparities between these cultural "nations '' and create a more cohesive and egalitarian Canada.
Several attempts at reforming the federal system in Canada have thus far failed because of, particularly, the conflicting interests between Quebec 's representatives and the other provincial governments ' representatives. There is also a degree of resistance throughout Quebec and the rest of Canada to re-opening a constitutional debate, in part because of the nature of these failures -- not all of which were the result simply of sovereignists and federalists not getting along. To cite one case, in a recent round of constitutional reform, Elijah Harper, an aboriginal leader from Manitoba, was able to prevent ratification of the agreement in the provincial legislature, arguing that the accord did not address the interests of Canada 's aboriginal population. This was a move to recognize that other provinces represent distinct cultural entities, such as the aboriginal population in Canada 's Prairies or the people of Newfoundland (which contains significant and culturally distinct French - Canadian, English - Canadian, Irish - Canadian and Aboriginal cultures - and many more).
Perhaps the most significant basis of support for Quebec 's sovereignty movement lies in more recent political events. For practical purposes, many political pundits use the political career and efforts of René Lévesque as a marker for the beginnings of what is now considered the contemporary movement, although more broadly accepted consensus appears on the contemporary movement finding its origins in a period called the Quiet Revolution.
René Lévesque, architect of the first referendum on sovereignty, claimed a willingness to work for change in the Canadian framework after the federalist victory in the referendum of 1980. This approach was dubbed le beau risque ("the beautiful risk ''), and it led to many ministers of the Lévesque 's government to resign in protest. The 1982 patriation of the Canadian constitution did not solve the issue in the point of view of the majority of sovereignists. The constitutional amendment of 1982 was agreed to by representatives from 9 of the 10 provinces (with René Lévesque abstaining). Nonetheless, the constitution is integral to the political and legal systems used in Quebec.
There are numerous possible reasons the ' Yes ' campaign went down to defeat: The economy of Quebec suffered measurably following the election of the sovereignist Parti Québécois and continued to during the course of the campaign. The Canadian dollar lost much of its value and, during coverage of the dollar 's recovery against US currency, there were repeated citations of the referendum and political instability caused by it cited as cause for the fall. Some suggest there were promises of constitutional reform to address outstanding political issues between the province and the federal government, both before and since, without any sign of particularly greater expectation those promises would be filled to any greater or lesser degree. There remains no conclusive evidence that the sovereignty movement derives significant support today because of anything that was promised back in the 1970s.
Proponents of the sovereignty movement sometimes suggest that many people in Quebec feel "bad '' for believing the constitutional promises that the federal government and Pierre Trudeau made just before the 1980 Quebec referendum. Those were not delivered on paper or agreed upon in principle by the federal government or the other provincial governments. But, one conclusion that appears to be universal is that one event in particular -- dubbed "the night of long knives '' -- energized the sovereignist movement during the 1980s. This event involved a "back - room '' deal struck between Trudeau, representing the federal government, and all of the other provinces, save Quebec. It was here that Trudeau was able to gain agreement on the content of the constitutional amendment, while the separatist Premier René Lévesque was left out. And it may well be that a certain number of Quebecers did and may even now feel "bad '' both about the nature of that deal and how Trudeau (a Quebecer himself) went about reaching it.
Regardless of Quebec government 's refusal to approve the 1982 constitutional amendment because the promised reforms were not implemented, the amendment went into effect. To many in Quebec, the 1982 constitutional amendment without Quebec 's approval is still viewed as a historic political wound. The debate still occasionally rages within the province about the best way to heal the rift and the sovereignty movement derives some degree of support from a belief that healing should take the form of separation from Canada.
The failure of the Meech Lake Accord -- an abortive attempt to redress the above issues -- strengthened the conviction of most sovereignist politicians and led many federalist ones to place little hope in the prospect of a federal constitutional reform that would satisfy Quebec 's purported historical demands (according to proponents of the sovereignty movement). These include a constitutional recognition that Quebecers constitute a distinct society, as well as a larger degree of independence of the province towards federal policy.
The contemporary sovereignty movement is thought to have originated from the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, although the desire for an independent or autonomous French - Canadian state has periodically arisen throughout Quebec 's history, notably during the 1837 Lower Canada Rebellion. Part of Quebec 's continued historical desire for sovereignty is caused by Quebecers ' perception of a singular English - speaking voice and identity that is dominant within the parameters of Canadian identity. (This is a point contested in other parts of Canada, particularly in places such as Manitoba, which has a significant French - speaking population and where, in the 1990s, that population tried to assert francophone language rights in schools. The separatist Parti Québécois - led government of Quebec offered up comment actually taking the side of the Manitoba government, which was opposing granting those rights. Speculation persists that the Quebec government opposed this assertion of francophone identity outside of the province because of the impact it would have on the assertion of anglophone language rights within its own borders.)
For a majority of Quebec politicians, whether sovereignist or not, the problem of Quebec 's political status is considered unresolved to this day. Although Quebec independence is a political question, cultural concerns are also at the root of the desire for independence. The central cultural argument of the sovereignists is that only sovereignty can adequately ensure the survival of the French language in North America, allowing Quebecers to establish their nationality, preserve their cultural identity, and keep their collective memory alive (see Language demographics of Quebec).
It has been argued by Jeremy Webber and Robert Andrew Young that, as the office is the core of authority in the province, the secession of Quebec from Confederation would first require the abolition or transformation of the post of Lieutenant Governor of Quebec; such an amendment to the constitution of Canada could not be achieved without, according to Section 41 of the Constitution Act, 1982, the approval of the federal parliament and all other provincial legislatures in Canada. Others, such as J. Woehrling, however, have claimed that the legislative process towards Quebec 's independence would not require any prior change to the viceregal post. Young also concluded that the lieutenant governor could refuse Royal Assent to a bill that proposed to put an unclear question on sovereignty to referendum or was based on the results of a referendum that asked such a question.
In a series of letters throughout the 1990s, Stéphane Dion (the federal Intergovernmental Affairs Minister at the time) laid out an argument against sovereignty.
It has also been argued by prominent Quebecers (sovereignists and ex-sovereignists, including former Quebec premier Lucien Bouchard) that sovereignty politics has distracted Quebecers from the real economic problems of Quebec, and that sovereignty by itself can not solve those problems. In 2005 they published their position statement, "Pour un Québec lucide '', ("For a clear vision of Quebec '') which details the problems facing Quebec.
Many federalists oppose the Quebec sovereignty movement for economic and political reasons but many also oppose sovereignty on other grounds. For example, since the 1995 referendum, in regards to the declaration of Jacques Parizeau who blamed the loss on "money and the ethnic vote '', many federalists considered the sovereignty movement as an expression of ethnic nationalism.
Some arguments against sovereignty claim that the movement is illegitimate because of its Eurocentrism which alienates many among Canada 's First Nations, as well as the Inuit, and Métis peoples and their sympathizers. The sentiment is summed up by a quotation from a Mohawk from Akwsasne: "How can Quebec, with no economic base and no land base, ask to become sovereign? How can Quebec be a nation when they have no constitution? We have had a constitution since before the American revolution. '' Here the argument expresses the claim that the Mohawk nation has a more legitimate claim to distinct nationhood on the basis of traditional lands and a constitution predating confederation (and the creation of Quebec and a Québécois identity) and thus should be afforded the right of self - determination.
Similarly, the Cree have also asserted for many years that they are a separate people with the right to self - determination recognized under international law. They argue that no annexation of them or their territory to an independent Quebec should take place without their consent, and that if Quebec has the right to leave Canada then the Cree people have the right to choose to keep their territory in Canada. Cree arguments generally do not claim the right to secede from Canada; rather, the Cree see themselves as a people bound to Canada by treaty (see the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement), and as citizens of Canada. The Cree have stated that a unilateral declaration of independence by Quebec would be a violation of fundamental principles of human rights, democracy and consent. If secession were to proceed, the Cree argue that they would seek protection through the Canadian courts as well as asserting Cree jurisdiction over its people and lands.
Professor Peter Russell has said of Aboriginal peoples in Canada: "(they) are not nations that can be yanked out of Canada against their will by a provincial majority... With few exceptions (they) wish to enjoy their right to self - government within Canada, not within a sovereign Quebec. '' International human rights expert Erica - Irene Daes says the change "will leave the most marginalized and excluded of all the world 's peoples without a legal, peaceful weapon to press for genuine democracy... '' This concern is connected to the claim that if Quebec were to be considered its own autonomous nation - state then it need not honour the treaties and agreements that were formed between Aboriginal peoples and the British and French monarchies and is now maintained by the federal Canadian government. Concern for this may stem from perception of neo-colonial or eurocentric attitudes in the leadership of former premiers, such as Robert Bourassa and self - proclaimed "Conqueror of the North ''.
Additionally, those in favour Canadian federalism denounce Quebec separation as a ' Balkanization ' of Canada.
The history of the relations between French and British descendants in Canada has been marked by periodic tension. After colonizing Canada from 1608 onward, France lost it to Great Britain at the conclusion of the Seven Years ' War in 1763, in which France ceded control of New France (except for the two small islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon) to Great Britain, which returned some of France 's West Indian islands, in the Treaty of Paris.
Under British rule, French Canadians struggled to maintain their culture, notably outside of Quebec (where they became a minority) but within the province as well, as much of the province 's economy was dominated by British settlers. The cause of Québécois nationalism, which waxed and waned over two centuries, gained prominence from the 1960s onward. The use of the word "sovereignty '' and many of the ideas of this movement originated in the 1967 Mouvement Souveraineté - Association of René Lévesque. This movement ultimately gave birth to the Parti Québécois in 1968.
Sovereignty - association (French: Souveraineté - Association) is the combination of two concepts:
It was first presented in Lévesque 's political manifesto, Option Québec.
The Parti Québécois defines sovereignty as the power for a state to levy all its taxes, vote on all its laws, and sign all its treaties (as mentioned in the 1980 referendum question).
The type of association between an independent Quebec and the rest of Canada was described as a monetary and customs union as well as joint political institutions to administer the relations between the two countries. The main inspiration for this project was the then - emerging European Community. In Option Québec Lévesque expressly identified the EC as his model for forming a new relationship between sovereign Quebec and the rest of Canada, one that would loosen the political ties while preserving the economic links. The analogy, however, is counterproductive, suggesting Lévesque did not understand the nature and purpose of the European Community nor the relationship between economics and politics that continue to underpin it. Advocates of European integration had, from the outset, seen political union as a desirable and natural consequence of economic integration.
The hyphen between the words "sovereignty '' and "association '' was often stressed by Lévesque and other PQ members, to make it clear that both were inseparable. The reason stated was that if Canada decided to boycott Quebec exports after voting for independence, the new country would have to go through difficult economic times, as the barriers to trade between Canada and the United States were then very high. Quebec would have been a nation of 7 million people stuck between two impenetrable protectionist countries. In the event of having to compete against Quebec, rather than support it, Canada could easily maintain its well - established links with the United States to prosper in foreign trade.
Sovereignty - association as originally proposed would have meant that Quebec would become a politically independent state, but would maintain a formal association with Canada -- especially regarding economic affairs. It was part of the 1976 sovereignist platform which swept the Parti Québécois into power in that year 's provincial elections -- and included a promise to hold a referendum on sovereignty - association. René Lévesque developed the idea of sovereignty - association to reduce the fear that an independent Quebec would face tough economic times. In fact, this proposal did result in an increase in support for a sovereign Quebec: polls at the time showed that people were more likely to support independence if Quebec maintained an economic partnership with Canada. This line of politics led the outspoken Yvon Deschamps to proclaim that what Quebecers want is an independent Quebec inside a strong Canada, thereby comparing the sovereignist movement to a spoiled child that has everything it could desire and still wants more.
In 1979 the PQ began an aggressive effort to promote sovereignty - association by providing details of how the economic relations with the rest of Canada would include free trade between Canada and Quebec, common tariffs against imports, and a common currency. In addition, joint political institutions would be established to administer these economic arrangements. But the sovereignist cause was hurt by the refusal of many politicians (most notably the premiers of several of the other provinces) to support the idea of negotiations with an independent Quebec, contributing to the Yes side losing by a vote of 60 percent to 40 percent.
This loss laid the groundwork for the 1995 referendum, which stated that Quebec should offer a new economic and political partnership to Canada before declaring independence. An English translation of part of the Sovereignty Bill reads, "We, the people of Quebec, declare it our own will to be in full possession of all the powers of a state; to levy all our taxes, to vote on all our laws, to sign all our treaties and to exercise the highest power of all, conceiving, and controlling, by ourselves, our fundamental law. ''
This time, the sovereignists lost in a very close vote: 50.6 percent to 49.4 percent, or only 53,498 votes out of more than 4,700,000 votes cast. However, after the vote many within the sovereignist camp were very upset that the vote broke down heavily along language lines. Approximately 90 percent of English speakers and allophones (mostly immigrants and first - generations Quebecers whose native language is neither French or English) Quebecers voted against the referendum, while almost 60 percent of Francophones voted Yes. Quebec premier Jacques Parizeau, whose government supported sovereignty, attributed the defeat of the resolution to "money and ethnic votes. '' His opinion caused an outcry among English speaking Quebecers, and he resigned following the referendum.
An inquiry by the director - general of elections concluded in 2007 that at least $500,000 was spent by the federalist camp in violation of Quebec 's election laws. This law imposes a limit on campaign spending by both option camps. Parizeau 's statement was also an admission of failure by the Yes camp in getting the newly arrived Quebecers to adhere to their political option.
Accusations of an orchestrated effort of ' election engineering ' in several polling stations located in areas with large numbers of non-francophone voters, which resulted in unusually large proportions of rejected ballots, were raised following the 1995 referendum. Afterward, testimony by PQ - appointed polling clerks indicated that they were ordered by PQ - appointed overseers to reject ballots in these polling stations for frivolous reasons that were not covered in the election laws.
While opponents of sovereignty were pleased with the defeat of the referendum, most recognized that there were still deep divides within Quebec and problems with the relationship between Quebec and the rest of the country.
Sovereigntism and sovereignty are terms that refer to the modern movement in favour of the political independence of Quebec. However, the roots of Quebec 's desire for self - determination can be traced back as far as the Patriotes Rebellion, the Alliance Laurentienne of 1957, the writings of Lionel Groulx in the 1920s, the Francoeur Motion of 1917, and Honoré Mercier 's flirtation with this idea (especially in his historic speech of 1893.)
The Quiet Revolution in Quebec brought widespread change in the 1960s. Among other changes, support for Quebec independence began to form and grow in some circles. The first organization dedicated to the independence of Quebec was the Alliance Laurentienne, founded by Raymond Barbeau on January 25, 1957.
On September 10, 1960, the Rassemblement pour l'indépendance nationale (RIN) was founded, with Pierre Bourgault quickly becoming its leader. On August 9 of the same year, the Action socialiste pour l'indépendance du Québec (ASIQ) was formed by Raoul Roy. The "independence + socialism '' project of the ASIQ was a source of political ideas for the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ).
On October 31, 1962, the Comité de libération nationale and, in November of the same year, the Réseau de résistance were set up. These two groups were formed by RIN members to organize non-violent but illegal actions, such as vandalism and civil disobedience. The most extremist individuals of these groups left to form the FLQ, which, unlike all the other groups, had made the decision to resort to violence in order to reach its goal of independence for Quebec. Shortly after the November 14, 1962, Quebec general election, RIN member Marcel Chaput founded the short - lived Parti républicain du Québec.
In February 1963, the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) was founded by three Rassemblement pour l'indépendance nationale members who had met each other as part of the Réseau de résistance. They were Georges Schoeters, Raymond Villeneuve, and Gabriel Hudon.
In 1964, the RIN became a provincial political party. In 1965, the more conservative Ralliement national (RN) also became a party.
During this period, the Estates General of French Canada are organized. The stated objective of these Estates General was to consult the French - Canadian people on their constitutional future.
The historical context of the time was a period when many former European colonies, such as Cameroon, Congo, Senegal, Algeria, and Jamaica, were becoming independent. Some advocates of Quebec independence saw Quebec 's situation in a similar light; numerous activists were influenced by the writings of Frantz Fanon, Albert Memmi, and Karl Marx.
In June 1967, French president Charles de Gaulle, who had granted independence to Algeria, shouted "Vive le Québec libre! '' during a speech from the balcony of Montreal 's city hall during a state visit to Canada. In doing so, he deeply offended the federal government, and English Canadians felt he had demonstrated contempt for the sacrifice of Canadian soldiers who died on the battlefields of France in two world wars. The visit was cut short and de Gaulle left the country.
Finally, in October 1967, former Liberal cabinet minister René Lévesque left that party when it refused to discuss sovereignty at a party convention. Lévesque formed the Mouvement souveraineté - association and set about uniting pro-sovereignty forces.
He achieved that goal in October 1968 when the MSA held its only national congress in Quebec City. The RN and MSA agreed to merge to form the Parti Québécois (PQ), and later that month Pierre Bourgault, leader of the RIN, dissolved his party and invited its members to join the PQ.
Meanwhile, in 1969 the FLQ stepped up its campaign of violence, which would culminate in what would become known as the October Crisis. The group claimed responsibility for the bombing of the Montreal Stock Exchange, and in 1970 the FLQ kidnapped British Trade Commissioner James Cross and Quebec Labour Minister Pierre Laporte; Laporte was later found murdered.
Jacques Parizeau joined the party on September 19, 1969, and Jérôme Proulx of the Union Nationale joined on November 11 of the same year.
In the 1970 provincial election, the PQ won its first seven seats in the National Assembly. René Lévesque was defeated in Mont - Royal by the Liberal André Marchand.
In the 1976 election, the PQ won 71 seats -- a majority in the National Assembly. With voting turnouts high, 41.4 percent of the electorate voted for the PQ. Prior to the election, the PQ renounced its intention to implement sovereignty - association if it won power.
On August 26, 1977, the PQ passed two main laws: first, the law on the financing of political parties, which prohibits contributions by corporations and unions and set a limit on individual donations, and second, the Charter of the French Language.
On May 17 PQ Member of the National Assembly Robert Burns resigned, telling the press he was convinced that the PQ was going to lose its referendum and fail to be re-elected afterwards.
At its seventh national convention from June 1 to 3, 1979, the sovereignist adopted their strategy for the coming referendum. The PQ then began an aggressive effort to promote sovereignty - association by providing details of how the economic relations with the rest of Canada would include free trade between Canada and Quebec, common tariffs against imports, and a common currency. In addition, joint political institutions would be established to administer these economic arrangements.
Sovereignty - association was proposed to the population of Quebec in the 1980 Quebec referendum. The proposal was rejected by 60 percent of the Quebec electorate.
In September, the PQ created a national committee of Anglophones and a liaison committee with ethnic minorities.
The PQ was returned to power in the 1981 election with a stronger majority than in 1976, obtaining 49.2 per cent of the vote and winning 80 seats. However, they did not hold a referendum in their second term, and put sovereignty on hold, concentrating on their stated goal of "good government ''.
René Lévesque retired in 1985 (and died in 1987). In the 1985 election under his successor Pierre - Marc Johnson, the PQ was defeated by the Liberal Party.
The PQ returned to power in the 1994 election under Jacques Parizeau, this time with 44.75 % of the popular vote. In the intervening years, the failures of the Meech Lake Accord and Charlottetown Accord had revived support for sovereignty, which had been written off as a dead issue for much of the 1980s.
Another consequence of the failure of the Meech Lake Accord was the formation of the Bloc Québécois (BQ), a sovereignist federal political party, under the leadership of the charismatic former Progressive Conservative federal cabinet minister Lucien Bouchard. Several PC and Liberal members of the federal parliament left their parties to form the BQ. For the first time, the PQ supported pro-sovereigntist forces running in federal elections; during his lifetime Lévesque had always opposed such a move.
The Union Populaire had nominated candidates in the 1979 and 1980 federal elections, and the Parti nationaliste du Québec had nominated candidates in the 1984 election, but neither of these parties enjoyed the official support of the PQ; nor did they enjoy significant public support among Quebecers.
In the 1993 federal election, which featured the collapse of Progressive Conservative Party support, the BQ won enough seats in Parliament to become Her Majesty 's Loyal Opposition in the House of Commons.
At the Royal Commission on the Future of Quebec (also known as the Outaouais Commission) in 1995, the Marxist - Leninist Party of Canada made a presentation in which the party leader, Hardial Bains, recommended to the committee that Quebec declare itself as an independent republic.
Parizeau promptly advised the Lieutenant Governor to call a new referendum. The 1995 referendum question differed from the 1980 question in that the negotiation of an association with Canada was now optional. The open - ended wording of the question resulted in significant confusion, particularly amongst the ' Yes ' side, as to what exactly they were voting for. This was a primary motivator for the creation of the ' Clarity Act ' (see below).
The "No '' campaign won, but only by a very small margin -- 50.6 % to 49.4 %. As in the previous referendum, the English - speaking (anglophone) minority in Quebec overwhelmingly (about 90 %) rejected sovereignty, support for sovereignty was also weak among allophones (native speakers of neither English nor French) in immigrant communities and first - generation descendants. The lowest support for Yes side came from Mohawk, Cree and Inuit voters in Quebec, some first Nations chiefs asserted their right to self - determination with the Cree being particularly vocal in their right to stay territories within Canada. More than 96 % of the Inuit and Cree voted No in the referendum. However, The Innu, Attikamek, Algonquin and Abenaki nations did partially support Quebec sovereignty. In 1985, 59 per cent of Quebec 's Inuit population, 56 per cent of the Attikamek population and 49 per cent of the Montagnais population voted in favour of the Sovereignist Parti Québécois party. That year, three out of every four native reservations gave a majority to the Parti Québécois party.
By contrast almost 60 percent of francophones of all origins voted "Yes ''. (82 per cent of Quebecers are Francophone.) Later inquiries into irregularities determined that abuses had occurred on both sides: some argue that some "No '' ballots had been rejected without valid reasons, and the October 27 "No '' rally had evaded spending limitations because of out - of - province participation. An inquiry by "Le Directeur général des élections '' concluded in 2007 that the "No '' camp had exceeded the campaign spending limits by $500,000.
The Parti Québécois won re-election in the 1998 election despite losing the popular vote to Jean Charest and the Quebec Liberals. In the number of seats won by both sides, the election was almost a clone of the previous 1994 election. However, public support for sovereignty remained too low for the PQ to consider holding a second referendum during their second term. Meanwhile, the federal government passed the Clarity Act to govern the wording of any future referendum questions and the conditions under which a vote for sovereignty would be recognized as legitimate. Federal Liberal politicians stated that the ambiguous wording of the 1995 referendum question was the primary impetus in the bill 's drafting.
While opponents of sovereignty were pleased with their referendum victories, most recognized that there are still deep divides within Quebec and problems with the relationship between Quebec and the rest of Canada.
In 1999, the Parliament of Canada, at the urging of Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, passed the Clarity Act, a law that, amongst other things, set out the conditions under which the Crown - in - Council would recognize a vote by any province to leave Canada. It required a majority of eligible voters for a vote to trigger secession talks, not merely a plurality of votes. In addition the act requires a clear question of secession to initiate secession talks. Controversially, the act gave the House of Commons the power to decide whether a proposed referendum question was considered clear, and allowed it to decide whether a clear majority has expressed itself in any referendum. It is widely considered by sovereignists as an illegitimate piece of legislation, who asserted that Quebec alone had the right to determine its terms of secession. However the Supreme Court of Canada disagreed when the matter was referred to that body, ruling that the Act is constitutional and, just as Canada is divisible, so is Quebec, a ruling that has significant implications for linguistic and ethnic minorities within Quebec, the bulk of whom have traditionally opposed secession. Chrétien considered the legislation among his most significant accomplishments.
"Sovereignty - Association '' is nowadays more often referred to simply as "sovereignty ''. However, in the 1995 Quebec referendum, in which the sovereignty option was narrowly rejected, the notion of some form of economic association with the rest of Canada was still envisaged (continuing use of the Canadian dollar and military, for example) and was referred to as "Sovereignty - Partnership '' (in French Souveraineté - Partenariat). It remains a part of the PQ program and is tied to national independence in the minds of most Quebecers. This part of the PQ program has always been controversial, especially since Canadian federal politicians usually refuse the concept.
In 2003, the PQ launched the Saison des idées ("Season of ideas '') which is a public consultation aiming to gather the opinions of Quebecers on its sovereignty project. The new program and the revised sovereignty project was adopted at the 2005 Congress.
In the 2003 election, the PQ lost power to the Liberal Party. However, in early 2004, the Liberal government of Paul Martin had proved to be unpopular, and that, combined with the federal Liberal Party sponsorship scandal, contributed to a resurgence of the BQ. In the 2004 federal elections, the Bloc Québécois won 54 of Quebec 's 75 seats in the House of Commons, compared to 33 previously. However, in the 2006 federal elections the BQ lost three seats and in the 2008 federal elections lost two additional seats, bringing their total down to 49, but was still the most popular federal party in Quebec up until the 2011 Canadian federal election, when the BQ was devastated by the federalist NDP, with the Bloc at a total of four seats and the loss of official party status in the Commons (compared to the NDP 's 59 seats, Conservatives ' five seats, and the Liberals ' seven seats in Quebec).
Polling data by Angus Reid in June 2009 showed the support for Quebec separation was very weak at the time and separatism unlikely to occur in the near future. Polling data showed that 32 % of Quebecers believe that Quebec had enough sovereignty and should remain part of Canada, 28 % thought they should separate, and 30 % say they believe that Quebec does need greater sovereignty but should remain part of Canada. However the poll did reveal that a majority (79 %) of Quebecers still desired to achieve more autonomy. The number one area of autonomy that those polled had hoped for was with regard to culture at 34 %, the next highest areas of autonomy cherished were the economy at 32 %, taxation at 26 %, and immigration and the environment at 15 % each.
The 2009 Angus Reid poll also revealed some effects of the Clarity Act in which they asked two questions, one a straightforward question for a separate nation, and the other a more muddled version on separation similar to the one posed in the 1995 referendum. The data on the questions revealed as follows to the first hard line question of "Do you believe that Quebec should become a country separate from Canada? '' 34 % replied yes, 54 % said no, and 13 % were unsure. To the less clear question of "Do you agree that Quebec should become sovereign after having made a formal offer to Canada for a new economic and political partnership within a scope of the bill respecting the future of Quebec? '' support for separation increased to 40 % yes, the no vote still led with 41 %, and the unsure increased to 19 %. The most startling revelation of the poll was in the fact that only 20 % or 1 in 5 polled believed that Quebec would ever separate from Canada.
2011 was considered a watershed year for the sovereignist movement. In the aftermath of the 2011 federal election, Léger Marketing and pro-sovereignist newspaper Le Devoir conducted a poll on the question. When asked whether they would vote Yes or No in the event of a referendum, 41 % of the respondents said they would vote Yes. In 2011, the sovereignist movement splintered, with several new parties being formed by disaffected politicians, with some politicians dissatisfied with slow progress towards independence, and others hoping to put the sovereignty question on the backburner. Leadership by PQ leader Pauline Marois was divisive.
The separatist movement draws from the left and right spectrum; a sizeable minority of more conservative Quebecers supporting the PQ 's political agenda because of the sovereignty issue, despite reservations about its social democratic political agenda.
Right and Left must be interpreted within the provincial context; Liberal Party politics generally coincide with those of other liberal parties, while PQ politics are more social democratic in orientation. There is no mass conservative movement in Quebec 's political culture on the provincial level, due notably to strong government interventionism and Keynesianism shared by all parties since the 1960s (the so - called "Quebec Consensus '' since the Quiet Revolution), and the province 's Catholic heritage.
There are, of course, quite a few exceptions. Notable examples include:
Sovereignty has very little support among Quebec Anglophones, immigrant communities, and aboriginal First Nations. About 60 % of Francophones voted "Yes '' in 1995, and with the exception of weak "Yes '' support from Haitian, Arab and Latin American communities, most non-Francophones massively voted "No '' (see Demolinguistics of Quebec). The opponents of the sovereignty movement view the project as ethnically exclusive, based on its rejection by non-Francophones. This position is sometimes disputed by the PQ, which claims its goal is all - embracing and essentially civic in nature.
There is an undercurrent of feeling amongst "ethnic '' and "anglo '' voters that sometimes surfaces as a desire to separate from Quebec. This would create a new province of Canada, from the southwestern and southern portions of the province (comprising half of Montreal, parts of the Outaouais, the Eastern Townships).
This feeling is exemplified by the statement -- "If Canada is divisible, then so is Quebec '' made by federalists in 1995 or "If Quebec can separate from Canada, then we can separate from Quebec ''. In contemporary times most mainstream political parties in Quebec deny or refuse to comment on the idea that Quebec can be divided up. During the 2007 Quebec election, federalist and Liberal Party of Quebec leader Jean Charest said that "All of these things are hypothetical questions... I do not think that Quebec is divisible. And if ever we were to go there, and end up in that situation, I know the question would be asked. ''
However the Supreme Court of Canada has ruled in favour of the legality in partitioning Quebec, determining that Quebec is in fact divisible according to the same logic, legalities, and democratic tests that render Canada divisible. A panel of Quebec civil servants, at the request of the ruling Parti Québécois at the time, wrote a report arguing that International law guarantees the territorial integrity of Quebec should Quebec become an independent state.
There was a feeling amongst the Cree of Northern Quebec, that should the province separate, they would remain part of Canada, and would force the province to return to its pre-1912 boundaries, and re-establish the Ungava district of the Northwest Territories, or a new territory or province created in its place.
The other nine provinces of Canada have generally been opposed to Quebec sovereignty. Aside from marginal movements, the only major secessionist movement in English Canada has been the Maritimes Anti-Confederation movement immediately after Confederation occurred.
In general, francophones outside Quebec oppose sovereignty or any form of national recognition for Quebec, while non-francophones, particularly the anglophone minority in Montreal, also have remained opposed. After polling heavily on the subject, marketing firm president Mark Leger concluded: "These numbers surprise me, they 're so clear across the country... You look at Francophones outside Quebec, it 's the same result... Overall, outside the French in Quebec, all the other groups across the country are against this notion. '' The exact question of the November 2006 poll was, "Currently, there is a political debate on recognizing Quebec as a nation. Do you personally consider that Quebecers form a nation or not? '' Canadians from every region outside Quebec, non-Francophone Quebecers (62 per cent), Francophone Canadians outside Quebec (77 per cent) all rejected the idea.
In France, although openness and support is found on both sides of the political spectrum, the French political right has traditionally been warmer to sovereignists (like President Charles de Gaulle, who shouted his support of independence in Montreal in 1967) than the French left (like President François Mitterrand).
This used to be a paradoxical phenomenon because of the Parti Québécois and most sovereignists being to the political left and supporters of Quebec being as a province tend to be politically on the right. Michel Rocard (who became Prime Minister of the French Republic) has been one of the French Socialists that broke that so - called rule the most, maintaining a close and warm relationship with Quebec sovereignists. More recently, Ségolène Royal, a leader of the French Socialist Party, indicated support for "Quebec sovereignty '' but it was seemingly a reflexive answer to an "out of the blue '' question from a Quebec journalist in Paris. On a later visit to Quebec City she gave a more nuanced position, mentioning a Parliamentary motion recognizing the Québécois as a "nation '', but also describing 400 years of "oppression '' and resistance of francophones in Canada.
The French Foreign Office motto concerning Quebec "national question '' is "non-ingérence et non-indifférence '' ("no interference and no indifference ''), which epitomizes the official position of the French State. In other words, while the Quebec people vote to stay within Canada, France will officially support the Canadian Confederation the way it is.
Former French President Nicolas Sarkozy has stated on the record that he opposes the separation of Quebec from Canada. This changed back to the view of the French Foreign Office under Sarkozy 's successor, François Hollande.
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when did the sydney harbour bridge finished building | Sydney Harbour bridge - Wikipedia
The Sydney Harbour Bridge is a steel through arch bridge across Sydney Harbour that carries rail, vehicular, bicycle, and pedestrian traffic between the Sydney central business district (CBD) and the North Shore. The dramatic view of the bridge, the harbour, and the nearby Sydney Opera House is an iconic image of Sydney, and Australia. The bridge is nicknamed "The Coathanger '' because of its arch - based design.
Under the direction of Dr John Bradfield of the NSW Department of Public Works, the bridge was designed and built by British firm Dorman Long and Co Ltd of Middlesbrough and opened in 1932. The bridge 's design was influenced by the Hell Gate Bridge in New York City. It is the sixth longest spanning - arch bridge in the world and the tallest steel arch bridge, measuring 134 m (440 ft) from top to water level. It was also the world 's widest long - span bridge, at 48.8 m (160 ft) wide, until construction of the new Port Mann Bridge in Vancouver was completed in 2012.
The southern (CBD) end of the bridge is located at Dawes Point in The Rocks area, and the northern end at Milsons Point in the lower North Shore area. There are six original lanes of road traffic through the main roadway, plus an additional two lanes of road traffic on its eastern side, using lanes that were formerly tram tracks. Adjacent to the road traffic, a path for pedestrian use runs along the eastern side of the bridge, whilst a dedicated path for bicycle use only runs along the western side; between the main roadway and the western bicycle path are two lanes used for railway tracks, servicing the T1 North Shore Line for Sydney Trains.
The main roadway across the bridge is known as the Bradfield Highway and is about 2.4 km (1.5 mi) long, making it one of the shortest highways in Australia.
The arch is composed of two 28 - panel arch trusses; their heights vary from 18 m (59 ft) at the centre of the arch to 57 m (187 ft) at the ends next to the pylons.
The arch has a span of 504 m (1,654 ft) and its summit is 134 m (440 ft) above mean sea level; expansion of the steel structure on hot days can increase the height of the arch by 18 cm (7.1 in).
The total weight of the steelwork of the bridge, including the arch and approach spans, is 52,800 tonnes (52,000 long tons; 58,200 short tons), with the arch itself weighing 39,000 tonnes (38,000 long tons; 43,000 short tons). About 79 % of the steel was imported from England, with the rest being sourced from Newcastle. On site, the contractors (Dorman Long and Co.) set up two workshops at Milsons Point, at the site of the present day Luna Park, and fabricated the steel into the girders and other required parts.
The bridge is held together by six million Australian - made hand - driven rivets supplied by the McPherson company of Melbourne, the last being driven through the deck on 21 January 1932. The rivets were heated red - hot and inserted into the plates; the headless end was immediately rounded over with a large pneumatic rivet gun. The largest of the rivets used weighed 3.5 kg (8 lb) and was 39.5 cm (15.6 in) long. The practice of riveting large steel structures, rather than welding, was, at the time, a proven and understood construction technique, whilst structural welding had not at that stage been adequately developed for use on the bridge.
At each end of the arch stands a pair of 89 m (292 ft) high concrete pylons, faced with granite. The pylons were designed by the Scottish architect Thomas S. Tait, a partner in the architectural firm John Burnet & Partners.
Some 250 Australian, Scottish, and Italian stonemasons and their families relocated to a temporary settlement at Moruya, NSW, 300 km (186 mi) south of Sydney, where they quarried around 18,000 m (635,664 cu ft) of granite for the bridge pylons. The stonemasons cut, dressed, and numbered the blocks, which were then transported to Sydney on three ships built specifically for this purpose. The Moruya quarry was managed by John Gilmore, a Scottish stonemason who emigrated, with his young family to Australia in 1924, at the request of the project managers. The concrete used was also Australian - made and supplied from Devonport, Tasmania and shipped to Sydney on a ship named Goliath. Source: http://www.theadvocate.com.au/story/4438229/first-port-of-call-exhibition-gallery/#slide=5
Abutments at the base of the pylons are essential to support the loads from the arch and hold its span firmly in place, but the pylons themselves have no structural purpose. They were included to provide a frame for the arch panels and to give better visual balance to the bridge. The pylons were not part of the original design, and were only added to allay public concern about the structural integrity of the bridge.
Although originally added to the bridge solely for their aesthetic value, all four pylons have now been put to use. The south - eastern pylon contains a museum and tourist centre, with a 360 ° lookout at the top providing views across the harbour and city. The south - western pylon is used by the New South Wales Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) to support its CCTV cameras overlooking the bridge and the roads around that area. The two pylons on the north shore include venting chimneys for fumes from the Sydney Harbour Tunnel, with the base of the southern pylon containing the RMS maintenance shed for the bridge, and the base of the northern pylon containing the traffic management shed for tow trucks and safety vehicles used on the bridge.
In 1942 the pylons were modified to include parapets and anti-aircraft guns designed to assist in both Australia 's defence and general war effort. The top level of stonework was never removed.
There had been plans to build a bridge as early as 1815, when convict and noted architect Francis Greenway reputedly proposed to Governor Lachlan Macquarie that a bridge be built from the northern to the southern shore of the harbour. In 1825, Greenway wrote a letter to the then "The Australian '' newspaper stating that such a bridge would "give an idea of strength and magnificence that would reflect credit and glory on the colony and the Mother Country ''.
Nothing came of Greenway 's suggestions, but the idea remained alive, and many further suggestions were made during the nineteenth century. In 1840, naval architect Robert Brindley proposed that a floating bridge be built. Engineer Peter Henderson produced one of the earliest known drawings of a bridge across the harbour around 1857. A suggestion for a truss bridge was made in 1879, and in 1880 a high - level bridge estimated at $850,000 was proposed.
In 1900, the Lyne government committed to building a new Central railway station and organised a worldwide competition for the design and construction of a harbour bridge. Local engineer Norman Selfe submitted a design for a suspension bridge and won the second prize of £ 500. In 1902, when the outcome of the first competition became mired in controversy, Selfe won a second competition outright, with a design for a steel cantilever bridge. The selection board were unanimous, commenting that, "The structural lines are correct and in true proportion, and... the outline is graceful ''. However due to an economic downturn and a change of government at the 1904 NSW State election construction never began.
A unique three - span bridge was proposed in 1922 by Ernest Stowe with connections at Balls Head, Millers Point, and Balmain with a memorial tower and hub on Goat Island.
In 1914 John Bradfield was appointed "Chief Engineer of Sydney Harbour Bridge and Metropolitan Railway Construction '', and his work on the project over many years earned him the legacy as the "father '' of the bridge. Bradfield 's preference at the time was for a cantilever bridge without piers, and in 1916 the NSW Legislative Assembly passed a bill for such a construction, however it did not proceed as the Legislative Council rejected the legislation on the basis that the money would be better spent on the war effort.
Following World War I, plans to build the bridge again built momentum. Bradfield persevered with the project, fleshing out the details of the specifications and financing for his cantilever bridge proposal, and in 1921 he travelled overseas to investigate tenders. On return from his travels Bradfield decided that an arch design would also be suitable and he and officers of the NSW Department of Public Works prepared a general design for a single - arch bridge based upon New York City 's Hell Gate Bridge. In 1922 the government passed the Sydney Harbour Bridge Act No. 28, specifying the construction of a high - level cantilever or arch bridge across the harbour between Dawes Point and Milsons Point, along with construction of necessary approaches and electric railway lines, and worldwide tenders were invited for the project.
As a result of the tendering process, the government received twenty proposals from six companies; on 24 March 1924 the contract was awarded to British firm Dorman Long and Co Ltd, of Middlesbrough well known as the contractors who built the similar Tyne Bridge of Newcastle Upon Tyne, for an arch bridge at a quoted price of AU £ 4,217,721 11s 10d. The arch design was cheaper than alternative cantilever and suspension bridge proposals, and also provided greater rigidity making it better suited for the heavy loads expected.
Bradfield and his staff were ultimately to oversee the entire bridge design and building process, while Dorman Long and Co 's Consulting Engineer, Sir Ralph Freeman of Sir Douglas Fox and Partners, and his associate Mr. G.C. Imbault, carried out the detailed design and erection process of the bridge. Architects for the contractors were from the British firm John Burnet & Partners of Glasgow, Scotland.
The building of the bridge coincided with the construction of a system of underground railways in Sydney 's CBD, known today as the City Circle, and the bridge was designed with this in mind. The bridge was designed to carry six lanes of road traffic, flanked on each side by two railway tracks and a footpath. Both sets of rail tracks were linked into the underground Wynyard railway station on the south (city) side of the bridge by symmetrical ramps and tunnels. The eastern - side railway tracks were intended for use by a planned rail link to the Northern Beaches; in the interim they were used to carry trams from the North Shore into a terminal within Wynyard station, and when tram services were discontinued in 1958, they were converted into extra traffic lanes. The Bradfield Highway, which is the main roadway section of the bridge and its approaches, is named in honour of Bradfield 's contribution to the bridge.
The building of the bridge was under the management of Bradfield. Three other people heavily involved in the bridge 's design and construction were Lawrence Ennis, Edward Judge, and Sir Ralph Freeman. Ennis was the engineer - in - charge at Dorman Long and Co and the main on - site supervisor (Bradfield visited occasionally throughout the project and, in particular, at many key stages of the project, to inspect progress and make managerial decisions), Judge was chief technical engineer of Dorman Long, and Freeman was hired by the company to design the accepted model in further detail. Later a bitter disagreement broke out between Bradfield and Freeman as to who actually designed the bridge.
The official ceremony to mark the "turning of the first sod '' occurred on 28 July 1923, on the spot at Milsons Point on the north shore where two workshops to assist in building the bridge were to be constructed.
An estimated 469 buildings on the north shore, both private homes and commercial operations, were demolished to allow construction to proceed, with little or no compensation being paid. Work on the bridge itself commenced with the construction of approaches and approach spans, and by September 1926 concrete piers to support the approach spans were in place on each side of the harbour.
As construction of the approaches took place, work was also started on preparing the foundations required to support the enormous weight of the arch and loadings. Concrete and granite faced abutment towers were constructed, with the angled foundations built into their sides.
Once work had progressed sufficiently on the support structures, a giant "creeper crane '' was erected on each side of the harbour. These cranes were fitted with a cradle, and then used to hoist men and materials into position to allow for erection of the steelwork. To stabilise works while building the arches, tunnels were excavated on each shore with steel cables passed through them and then fixed to the upper sections of each half - arch to stop them collapsing as they extended outwards.
Arch construction itself began on 26 October 1928. The southern end of the bridge was worked on ahead of the northern end, to detect any errors and to help with alignment. The cranes would "creep '' along the arches as they were constructed, eventually meeting up in the middle. In less than two years, on Tuesday, 19 August 1930, the two halves of the arch touched for the first time. Workers riveted both top and bottom sections of the arch together, and the arch became self - supporting, allowing the support cables to be removed. On 20 August 1930 the joining of the arches was celebrated by flying the flags of Australia and the United Kingdom from the jibs of the creeper cranes.
Once the arch was completed, the creeper cranes were then worked back down the arches, allowing the roadway and other parts of the bridge to be constructed from the centre out. The vertical hangers were attached to the arch, and these were then joined with horizontal crossbeams. The deck for the roadway and railway were built on top of the crossbeams, with the deck itself being completed by June 1931, and the creeper cranes were dismantled. Rails for trains and trams were laid, and road was surfaced using concrete topped with asphalt. Power and telephone lines, and water, gas, and drainage pipes were also all added to the bridge in 1931.
The pylons were built atop the abutment towers, with construction advancing rapidly from July 1931. Carpenters built wooden scaffolding, with concreters and masons then setting the masonry and pouring the concrete behind it. Gangers built the steelwork in the towers, while day labourers manually cleaned the granite with wire brushes. The last stone of the north - west pylon was set in place on 15 January 1932, and the timber towers used to support the cranes were removed.
On 19 January 1932, the first test train, a steam locomotive, safely crossed the bridge. Load testing of the bridge took place in February 1932, with the four rail tracks being loaded with as many as 96 steam locomotives positioned end - to - end. The bridge underwent testing for three weeks, after which it was declared safe and ready to be opened. The construction worksheds were demolished after the bridge was completed, and the land that they were on is now occupied by Luna Park.
The standards of industrial safety during construction were poor by today 's standards. Sixteen workers died during construction, but surprisingly only two from falling off the bridge. Several more were injured from unsafe working practices undertaken whilst heating and inserting its rivets, and the deafness experienced by many of the workers in later years was blamed on the project. Henri Mallard between 1930 and 1932 produced hundreds of stills and film footage which reveal at close quarters the bravery of the workers in tough Depression - era conditions.
The total financial cost of the bridge was AU £ 6.25 million, which was not paid off in full until 1988.
The bridge was formally opened on Saturday, 19 March 1932. Amongst those who attended and gave speeches were the state Governor, Sir Philip Game, and the Minister for Public Works, Lawrence Ennis. The Labor Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, was to open the bridge by cutting a ribbon at its southern end.
However, just as Lang was about to cut the ribbon, a man in military uniform rode up on a horse, slashing the ribbon with his sword and opening the Sydney Harbour Bridge in the name of the people of New South Wales before the official ceremony began. He was promptly arrested. The ribbon was hurriedly retied and Lang performed the official opening ceremony. After he did so, there was a 21 - gun salute and an RAAF flypast. The intruder was identified as Francis de Groot. He was convicted of offensive behaviour and fined £ 5 after a psychiatric test proved he was sane, but this verdict was reversed on appeal. De Groot then successfully sued the Commissioner of Police for wrongful arrest, and was awarded an undisclosed out of court settlement. De Groot was a member of a right - wing paramilitary group called the New Guard, opposed to Lang 's leftist policies and resentful of the fact that a member of the Royal Family had not been asked to open the bridge. De Groot was not a member of the regular army but his uniform allowed him to blend in with the real cavalry. This incident was one of several involving Lang and the New Guard during that year.
A similar ribbon - cutting ceremony on the bridge 's northern side by North Sydney 's mayor, Alderman Primrose, was carried out without incident. It was later discovered that Primrose was also a New Guard member but his role in and knowledge of the de Groot incident, if any, are unclear. The pair of golden scissors used in the ribbon cutting ceremonies on both sides of the bridge was also used to cut the ribbon at the dedication of the Bayonne Bridge, which had opened in Bayonne, New Jersey, close to New York City, the year before.
Despite the bridge opening in the midst of the Great Depression, opening celebrations were organised by the Citizens of Sydney Organising Committee, an influential body of prominent men and politicians that formed in 1931 under the chairmanship of the Lord Mayor to oversee the festivities. The celebrations included an array of decorated floats, a procession of passenger ships sailing below the bridge, and a Venetian Carnival. A message from a primary school in Tottenham, 515 km (320 mi) away in rural New South Wales, arrived at the bridge on the day and was presented at the opening ceremony. It had been carried all the way from Tottenham to the bridge by relays of school children, with the final relay being run by two children from the nearby Fort Street Boys ' and Girls ' schools. After the official ceremonies, the public was allowed to walk across the bridge on the deck, something that would not be repeated until the 50th anniversary celebrations. Estimates suggest that between 300,000 and one million people took part in the opening festivities, a phenomenal number given that the entire population of Sydney at the time was estimated to be 1,256,000.
There had also been numerous preparatory arrangements. On 14 March 1932, three postage stamps were issued to commemorate the imminent opening of the bridge. Several songs were composed for the occasion.
The bridge itself was regarded as a triumph over Depression times, earning the nickname "the Iron Lung '', as it kept many Depression - era workers employed.
In 2010, the average daily traffic included 204 trains, 160,435 vehicles and 1650 bicycles.
From the Sydney CBD side, motor vehicle access to the bridge is normally via Grosvenor Street, Clarence Street, Kent Street, the Cahill Expressway, or the Western Distributor. Drivers on the northern side will find themselves on the Warringah Freeway, though it is easy to turn off the freeway to drive westwards into North Sydney or eastwards to Neutral Bay and beyond upon arrival on the northern side.
The bridge originally only had four wider traffic lanes occupying the central space which now has six, as photos taken soon after the opening clearly show. In 1958 tram services across the bridge were withdrawn and the tracks replaced by two extra road lanes; these lanes are now the leftmost southbound lanes on the bridge and are still clearly distinguishable from the other six road lanes. Lanes 7 and 8 now connect the bridge to the elevated Cahill Expressway that carries traffic to the Eastern Distributor.
In 1988, work began to build a tunnel to complement the bridge. It was determined that the bridge could no longer support the increased traffic flow of the 1980s. The Sydney Harbour Tunnel was completed in August 1992. It is intended for use only by motor vehicles.
The Bradfield Highway is designated as a Travelling Stock Route which means that it is permissible to herd livestock across the bridge, but only between midnight and dawn, and after giving notice of intention to do so. In practice, owing to the high - density urban nature of modern Sydney, and the relocation of abattoirs and markets, this has not taken place for approximately half a century.
The bridge is equipped for tidal flow operation, permitting the direction of traffic flow on the bridge to be altered to better suit the morning and evening rush hours ' traffic patterns.
The bridge has eight lanes in total, numbered one to eight from west to east. Lanes three, four and five are reversible. One and two always flow north. Six, seven, and eight always flow south. The default is four each way. For the morning rush hour, the lane changes on the bridge also require changes to the Warringah Freeway, with its inner western reversible carriageway directing traffic to the bridge lane numbers three and four southbound.
The bridge has a series of overhead gantries which indicate the direction of flow for each traffic lane. A green arrow pointing down to a traffic lane means the lane is open. A flashing red "X '' indicates the lane is closing, but is not yet in use for traffic travelling in the other direction. A static red "X '' means the lane is in use for oncoming traffic. This arrangement was introduced in the 1990s, replacing a slow operation where lane markers were manually moved to mark the centre median.
It is possible to see odd arrangements of flow during night periods when maintenance occurs, which may involve completely closing some lanes. Normally this is done between midnight and dawn, because of the enormous traffic demands placed on the bridge outside these hours.
The vehicular traffic lanes on the bridge are operated as a toll road. As of 27 January 2009 there is a variable tolling system for all vehicles headed into the CBD (southbound). The toll paid is dependent on the time of day in which the vehicle passes through the toll plaza. The toll varies from a minimum value of $2.50 to a maximum value of $4. There is no toll for northbound traffic (though taxis travelling north may charge passengers the toll in anticipation of the toll the taxi must pay on the return journey). There are toll plazas at the northern and southern ends. The two eastern lanes (which continue over the Cahill Expressway at the southern end of the bridge) have their tollbooths at the northern end, while the other southbound lanes (for CBD traffic) are serviced by tollbooths at the southern end of the bridge. There is a bridge - long median strip between lanes 6 and 7 to separate traffic which has already paid the toll (at the northern end) from other southbound traffic (which must pay the toll at the southern end).
The toll was originally placed on travel across the bridge, in both directions, to recoup the cost of its construction. This cost was recovered in the 1980s, but the toll has been kept (indeed increased) by the state government 's Roads and Traffic Authority to recoup the costs of the Sydney Harbour Tunnel.
After the decision to build the Sydney Harbour Tunnel was made in the early 1980s, the toll was increased (from 20 cents to $1, then to $1.50, and finally to $2 by the time the tunnel opened) to pay for its construction. The tunnel also had an initial toll of $2 southbound. After the increase to $1, the concrete barrier on the bridge separating the Bradfield Highway from the Cahill Expressway was increased in height, because of the large numbers of drivers crossing it illegally from lane 6 to 7, to avoid the toll. The toll for all southbound vehicles was increased to $3 in March 2004.
Originally it cost a car or motorcycle six pence to cross, a horse and rider being three pence. Use of the bridge by bicycle riders (provided that they use the cycleway) and by pedestrians is free. Later governments capped the fee for motorcycles at one - quarter of the passenger - vehicle cost, but now it is again the same as the cost for a passenger vehicle, although quarterly flat - fee passes are available which are much cheaper for frequent users.
In July 2008 a new electronic tolling system called e-TAG was introduced. The Sydney Harbour Tunnel was converted to this new tolling system while the Sydney Harbour Bridge itself had several cash lanes. The electronic system as of 12 January 2009 has now replaced all booths with E-tag lanes. In January 2017 work commenced to remove the southern toll booths.
The pedestrian - only footway is located on the east side of the bridge. Access from the northern side involves climbing an easily spotted flight of stairs, located on the east side of the bridge at Broughton St, Kirribilli. Pedestrian access on the southern side is more complicated, but signposts in the Rocks area now direct pedestrians to the long and sheltered flight of stairs that leads to the bridge 's southern end. These stairs are located near Gloucester Street and Cumberland Street.
The bridge can also be approached from the south by accessing Cahill Walk, which runs along the Cahill Expressway. Pedestrians can access this walkway from the east end of Circular Quay by a flight of stairs or a lift. Alternatively it can be accessed from the Botanic Gardens.
The bike - only cycleway is located on the western side of the bridge. Access from the northern side involves carrying or pushing a bicycle up a staircase, consisting of 55 steps, located on the western side of the bridge at Burton St, Milsons Point. A wide smooth concrete strip in the centre of the stairs permits cycles to be wheeled up and down from the bridge deck whilst the rider is dismounted. A campaign to eliminate the steps on this popular cycling route to the CBD has been running since at least 2008. On 7 December 2016 the NSW Roads Minister Duncan Gay confirmed that the northern stairway would be replaced with a A $ 20 million ramp alleviating the needs for cyclists to dismount. At the same time the NSW Government announced plans to upgrade the southern ramp at a projected cost of A $ 20 million. Both projects are expected to completed by late 2020. Access to the cycleway on the southern side is via the northern end of the Kent Street cycleway and / or Upper Fort Street in The Rocks.
The bridge lies between Milsons Point and Wynyard railway stations, located on the north and south shores respectively, with two tracks running along the western side of the bridge. These tracks are part of the North Shore railway line.
In 1958 tram services across the bridge were withdrawn and the tracks they had used were removed and replaced by two extra road lanes; these lanes are now the leftmost southbound lanes on the bridge and are still clearly distinguishable from the other six road lanes. The original ramp that took the trams into their terminus at the underground Wynyard railway station is still visible at the southern end of the main walkway under lanes 7 and 8, although the tunnels have been converted into a car park and firing range.
The Sydney Harbour Bridge requires constant inspections and other maintenance work to keep it safe for the public, and to protect from corrosion. Among the trades employed on the bridge are painters, ironworkers, boilermakers, fitters, electricians, plasterers, carpenters, plumbers, and riggers.
The most noticeable maintenance work on the bridge involves painting. The steelwork of the bridge that needs to be painted is a combined 485,000 m (120 acres), the equivalent of sixty football fields. Each coat on the bridge requires some 30,000 L (6,600 imp gal) of paint. A special fast - drying paint is used, so that any paint drops have dried before reaching the vehicles or bridge surface. One notable identity from previous bridge - painting crews is Australian comedian and actor Paul Hogan, who worked as a bridge painter before rising to media fame in the 1970s.
In 2003 the Roads & Traffic Authority began completely repainting the southern approach spans of the bridge. This involved removing the old lead - based paint, and repainting the 90,000 m (22 acres) of steel below the deck. Workers operated from self - contained platforms below the deck, with each platform having an air extraction system to filter airborne particles. An abrasive blasting was used, with the lead waste collected and safely removed from the site for disposal.
Between December 2006 and March 2010 the bridge was subject to works designed to ensure its longevity. The work included some strengthening.
Since 2013, two grit - blasting robots specially developed with the University of Technology, Sydney have been employed to help with the paint stripping operation on the bridge. The robots, nicknamed Rosie and Sandy, are intended to reduce workers ' potential exposure to dangerous lead paint and asbestos and the blasting equipment which has enough force to cut through clothes and skin.
Even during its construction, the bridge was such a prominent feature of Sydney that it would attract tourist interest. One of the ongoing tourist attractions of the bridge has been the south - east pylon, which is accessed via the pedestrian walkway across the bridge, and then a climb to the top of the pylon of about 200 steps.
Not long after the bridge 's opening, commencing in 1934, Archer Whitford first converted this pylon into a tourist destination. He installed a number of attractions, including a café, a camera obscura, an Aboriginal museum, a "Mother 's Nook '' where visitors could write letters, and a "pashometer ''. The main attraction was the viewing platform, where "charming attendants '' assisted visitors to use the telescopes available, and a copper cladding (still present) over the granite guard rails identified the suburbs and landmarks of Sydney at the time.
The outbreak of World War II in 1939 saw tourist activities on the bridge cease, as the military took over the four pylons and modified them to include parapets and anti-aircraft guns.
In 1948 Yvonne Rentoul opened the "All Australian Exhibition '' in the pylon. This contained dioramas, and displays about Australian perspectives on subjects such as farming, sport, transport, mining, and the armed forces. An orientation table was installed at the viewing platform, along with a wall guide and binoculars. The owner kept several white cats in a rooftop cattery, which also served as an attraction, and there was a souvenir shop and postal outlet. Rentoul 's lease expired in 1971, and the pylon and its lookout remained closed to the public for over a decade.
The pylon was reopened in 1982, with a new exhibition celebrating the bridge 's 50th anniversary. In 1987 a "Bicentennial Exhibition '' was opened to mark the 200th anniversary of European settlement in Australia in 1988.
The pylon was closed from April to November 2000 for the Roads & Traffic Authority and BridgeClimb to create a new exhibition called "Proud Arch ''. The exhibition focussed on Bradfield, and included a glass direction finder on the observation level, and various important heritage items.
The pylon again closed for four weeks in 2003 for the installation of an exhibit called "Dangerous Works '', highlighting the dangerous conditions experienced by the original construction workers on the bridge, and two stained glass feature windows in memory of the workers.
In 1950s and 1960s there were occasional newspaper reports of climbers who had made illegal arch traversals of the bridge, invariably by night. In 1973 Philippe Petit walked across a wire between the two pylons at the southern end of the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Since 1998, BridgeClimb has made it possible for tourists to legally climb the southern half of the bridge. Tours run throughout the day, from dawn to night, and are only cancelled for electrical storms or high wind.
Groups of climbers are provided with protective clothing appropriate to the prevailing weather conditions, and are given an orientation briefing before climbing. During the climb, attendees are secured to the bridge by a wire lifeline. Each climb begins on the eastern side of the bridge and ascends to the top. At the summit, the group crosses to the western side of the arch for the descent. Each climb takes three - and - a-half - hours, including the preparations.
In December 2006, BridgeClimb launched an alternative to climbing the upper arches of the bridge. The Discovery Climb allows climbers to ascend the lower chord of the bridge and view its internal structure. From the apex of the lower chord, climbers ascend a staircase to a platform at the summit.
Since the opening, the bridge has been the focal point of much tourism and national pride.
In 1982 the bridge celebrated the 50th anniversary of its opening. For the first time since its opening in 1932, the bridge was closed to most vehicles with the exception of vintage vehicles, and pedestrians were allowed full access for the day. The celebrations were attended by Edward Judge, who represented Dorman Long.
Australia 's bicentennial celebrations on 26 January 1988 attracted large crowds in the bridge 's vicinity as merrymakers flocked to the foreshores to view the events on the harbour. The highlight was the biggest parade of sail ever held in Sydney, square - riggers from all over the world, surrounded by hundreds of smaller craft of every description, passing majestically under the Sydney Harbour Bridge. The day 's festivities culminated in a fireworks display in which the bridge was the focal point of the finale, with fireworks streaming from the arch and roadway. This was to become the pattern for later firework displays.
The Harbour Bridge is an integral part of the Sydney New Year 's Eve celebrations, generally being used in spectacular ways during the fireworks displays at 21: 00 and midnight. In recent times, the bridge has included a ropelight display on a framework in the centre of the eastern arch, which is used to complement the fireworks. As the scaffolding and framework are clearly visible for some weeks before the event, revealing the outline of the design, there is much speculation as to how the effect is to be realised.
During the millennium celebrations in 2000, the Sydney Harbour Bridge was lit up with the word "Eternity '', as a tribute to the legacy of Arthur Stace a Sydney artist who for many years inscribed that word on pavements in chalk in beautiful copperplate writing despite the fact that he was illiterate.
The effects have been as follows:
The numbers for the New Year 's Eve countdown also appear on the eastern side of the Bridge pylons.
In May 2000 the bridge was closed to vehicular access for a day to allow a special reconciliation march -- the "Walk for Reconciliation '' -- to take place. This was part of a response to an Aboriginal Stolen Generations inquiry, which found widespread suffering had taken place amongst Australian Aboriginal children forcibly placed into the care of white parents in a little - publicised state government scheme. Between 200,000 and 300,000 people were estimated to have walked the bridge in a symbolic gesture of crossing a divide.
During the Sydney 2000 Olympics in September and October 2000, the bridge was adorned with the Olympic Rings. It was included in the Olympic torch 's route to the Olympic stadium. The men 's and women 's Olympic marathon events likewise included the bridge as part of their route to the Olympic stadium. A fireworks display at the end of the closing ceremony ended at the bridge. The east - facing side of the bridge has been used several times since as a framework from which to hang static fireworks, especially during the elaborate New Year 's Eve displays.
In 2005 Mark Webber drove a Williams - BMW Formula One car across the bridge.
In 2007, the 75th anniversary of its opening was commemorated with an exhibition at the Museum of Sydney, called "Bridging Sydney ''. An initiative of the Historic Houses Trust, the exhibition featured dramatic photographs and paintings with rare and previously unseen alternative bridge and tunnel proposals, plans and sketches.
On 18 March 2007, the Sydney Harbour Bridge celebrated its 75th anniversary. The occasion was marked with a ribbon - cutting ceremony by the governor, Marie Bashir and the premier of New South Wales, Morris Iemma. The bridge was subsequently open to the public to walk southward from Milsons Point or North Sydney. Several major roads, mainly in the CBD, were closed for the day. An Aboriginal smoking ceremony was held at 19: 00.
Approximately 250,000 people (50,000 more than were registered) took part in the event. Bright yellow souvenir caps were distributed to walkers. A series of speakers placed at intervals along the bridge formed a sound installation. Each group of speakers broadcast sound and music from a particular era (e.g. King Edward VIII 's abdication speech; Gough Whitlam 's speech at Parliament House in 1975), the overall effect being that the soundscape would "flow '' through history as walkers proceeded along the bridge. A light - show began after sunset and continued late into the night, the bridge being bathed in constantly changing, multi-coloured lighting, designed to highlight structural features of the bridge. In the evening the bright yellow caps were replaced by orange caps with a small, bright LED attached. The bridge was closed to walkers at about 20: 30.
On 25 October 2009 turf was laid across the eight lanes of bitumen, and 6,000 people celebrated a picnic on the bridge accompanied by live music. The event was repeated in 2010. Although originally scheduled again in 2011, this event was moved to Bondi Beach due to traffic concerns about the prolonged closing of the bridge.
On 19 March 2012 the 80th anniversary of the Sydney Harbour Bridge was celebrated with a picnic dedicated to the stories of people with personal connections to the bridge. In addition, Google dedicated its Google Doodle on the 19th to the event. The proposal to upgrade the bridge tolling equipment was announced by the NSW Roads Minister Duncan Gay.
There the proud arch Colossus like bestride Yon glittering streams and bound the strafing tide.
I open this bridge in the name of His Majesty the King and all the decent citizens of NSW.
To get on in Australia, you must make two observations. Say, "You have the most beautiful bridge in the world '' and "They tell me you trounced England again in the cricket. '' The first statement will be a lie. Sydney Bridge (sic) is big, utilitarian and the symbol of Australia, like the Statue of Liberty or the Eiffel Tower. But it is very ugly. No Australian will admit this.
... in a gesture of anomalous exhilaration, at the worst time of the depression Sydney opened its Harbour Bridge, one of the talismanic structures of the earth, and by far the most striking thing ever built in Australia. At that moment, I think, contemporary Sydney began, perhaps definitive Sydney.
... you can see it from every corner of the city, creeping into frame from the oddest angles, like an uncle who wants to get into every snapshot. From a distance it has a kind of gallant restraint, majestic but not assertive, but up close it is all might. It soars above you, so high that you could pass a ten - storey building beneath it, and looks like the heaviest thing on earth. Everything that is in it -- the stone blocks in its four towers, the latticework of girders, the metal plates, the six - million rivets (with heads like halved apples) -- is the biggest of its type you have ever seen... This is a great bridge.
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when did the tampa bay bucs win the superbowl | Super Bowl XXXVII - wikipedia
Super Bowl XXXVII was an American football game between the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Oakland Raiders and the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2002 season. The Buccaneers defeated the Raiders by the score of 48 -- 21, tied with Super Bowl XXXV for the seventh largest Super Bowl margin of victory, and winning their first ever Super Bowl. The game, played on January 26, 2003 at Qualcomm Stadium in San Diego, California, was the sixth Super Bowl to be held a week after the conference championship games (XVII, XXV, XXVIII, XXXIV, and XXXVI). It was also the last Super Bowl played in the month of January.
This was the first Super Bowl in which the league 's number one - ranked offense (Raiders) faced the league 's number one - ranked defense (Buccaneers). The game sometimes is referred to as the "Gruden Bowl '', because the primary storyline surrounding the game revolved around Jon Gruden. Gruden was the Raiders ' head coach from 1998 to 2001, and then became the Buccaneers coach in 2002. Tampa Bay, "Gruden 's new team '', made their first Super Bowl appearance in team history after posting a 12 -- 4 regular season record. Oakland, "Gruden 's old team '', advanced to their fifth Super Bowl after an 11 -- 5 regular season. Super Bowl XXXVII is also referred to as the "Pirate Bowl '', due to both teams ' pirate - themed names.
The Raiders came into the game as four - point favorites. However, the Tampa Bay defense dominated the contest. Oakland quarterback Rich Gannon threw a Super Bowl record five interceptions, three of which were returned for touchdowns. The Buccaneers also sacked Gannon five times, and scored 34 consecutive points to build a 34 -- 3 lead late in the third quarter. Tampa Bay safety Dexter Jackson, who had two of those interceptions and returned them for 34 yards, was named Super Bowl MVP. Jackson became only the second safety and third defensive back named Super Bowl MVP.
Super Bowl XXXVII was originally awarded to San Francisco on October 15, 1997 by the NFL owners at a league meeting in Washington, D.C. The 49ers had recently announced plans for a new stadium, and were awarded the Super Bowl contingent on its completion. However, the stadium plans had stalled by the fall of 1998 and the NFL reopened the bidding for the game. San Diego, which had lost out on Super Bowl XXXVI, announced its interest. The city was awarded the game during the May 26, 1999 meeting at Atlanta. Miami was the only other city in consideration. It was the last Super Bowl played in California until Super Bowl 50 at Levi 's Stadium in Santa Clara. It was the also the final Super Bowl at Qualcomm Stadium before the Chargers relocated to Los Angeles in 2017.
Later in 2003, California would host the Stanley Cup Finals with the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim hosting games 3, 4, and 6, making it only the second time that the same state hosted both the Super Bowl and the Stanley Cup Finals in the same year, following California itself ten years earlier, when the Los Angeles Kings went to the Finals four months after Pasadena hosted Super Bowl XXVII. It was then succeeded by itself again in 2016 when Super Bowl 50 took place in San Francisco and the San Jose Sharks made the Stanley Cup Finals.
After moving back to Oakland, California in 1995, the Raiders suffered sub-par seasons, including a 4 -- 12 record in 1997. Under Gruden 's leadership, the Raiders improved to 8 -- 8 in both 1998 and 1999. The team was further boosted in 1999 with the signing of veteran quarterback Rich Gannon. With Gannon as quarterback, the team jumped to the fifth - best offense in the league.
The Raiders won the AFC West in 2000 with a 12 -- 4 record and the best rushing offense in the league. However, they lost the AFC Championship Game to the eventual Super Bowl XXXV champion Baltimore Ravens, 16 -- 3. After signing veteran Pro Bowl wide receiver Jerry Rice and defensive tackle Trace Armstrong, the team repeated as AFC West champions in 2001, but were eliminated in the AFC Divisional Game by the eventual Super Bowl XXXVI champion New England Patriots in what became known as the "Tuck Rule Game '', in which a potential game - ending fumble recovery by the Raiders was overturned by instant replay.
Raiders owner Al Davis was known to have the lowest salaries for coaches in the league, and Gruden was no exception. Instead of paying a high salary for Gruden, Davis opted to trade the rights for Gruden to the Buccaneers in exchange for four draft picks, in a deal similar to what Patriots owner Robert Kraft made with the New York Jets to get head coach Bill Belichick in 2000. The Buccaneers ended up giving two first - round picks, two second - round picks and $8 million to the Raiders to get Gruden. Tampa Bay was desperate to have someone rebuild their offense so it would complement their powerful defense in an attempt to win the Super Bowl.
For most of their history, the Buccaneers were regarded as losers, making the playoffs only three times in their first 20 seasons. But that changed when the team hired Tony Dungy as head coach in 1996. Dungy, along with his defensive coordinator Monte Kiffin, rebuilt the defense around a core group of players, such as defensive lineman Warren Sapp, linebacker Derrick Brooks, and defensive backs Ronde Barber and John Lynch. By 1997, Tampa Bay ranked 3rd in the league in total yards allowed, 2nd in 1998, and 3rd in 2000.
With one of the best defenses in the league, Dungy helped guide the Buccaneers to four playoff appearances in his six years as the team 's head coach. But the team always had one of the worst offenses in the league, and this was a major factor in their playoff losses. Thus, Dungy was fired and replaced by Gruden.
Still, even Gruden had trouble getting the offense in sync during his first year as Tampa Bay 's head coach. In 2002, the Buccaneers ranked 25th in the league in total yards gained (5,222). Quarterback Brad Johnson made the Pro Bowl, completing 281 out of 451 passes for 3,049 yards, 22 touchdowns, and only 6 interceptions. Running back Michael Pittman led the team in rushing with 718 yards and one touchdown, and caught 59 passes for 477 yards. Pro Bowl fullback Mike Alstott had 548 rushing yards and 5 touchdowns, and also had 35 receptions for 242 yards and 2 touchdowns. Wide receiver Keyshawn Johnson led the team with 76 receptions for 1,088 yards and 5 touchdowns, while wide receiver Keenan McCardell had 61 receptions for 670 yards and 6 touchdowns.
However, the Buccaneers ' defense was still the strength of the team, leading the NFL in total defense (252.8 yards per game), pass defense (155.6 yards per game), points allowed (12.3 points per game), passing touchdowns allowed (10), interceptions (31), and opponent passer rating (48.4). Brooks, Lynch, Sapp, and defensive end Simeon Rice all had Pro Bowl years. Brooks led the team with 87 tackles and excelled at pass coverage, recording 5 interceptions, 218 return yards, and 2 touchdowns, plus 1 fumble return and 1 on a lateral from Sapp after a Sapp interception for a total of 4 touchdowns (an NFL record for a linebacker). The defense as a whole had nine total touchdowns during the regular season and playoffs. Rice led the team with 15.5 sacks. Sapp recorded 7.5 sacks and 2 interceptions. Cornerback Brian Kelly was also a big asset, leading the team with 8 interceptions.
Despite the loss of Gruden in 2002, the Raiders under their new coach Bill Callahan still managed to earn a share of the AFC 's best record at 11 -- 5. The offense led the league in total passing yards (4,689) and ranked second in total yards gained (6,451).
Gannon had a Pro Bowl season, completing 418 out of 618 passes for 4,689 yards, 26 touchdowns, and with 10 interceptions. His 418 completions and his 10 games with over 300 passing yards were both NFL records. He also ran 50 times for 156 yards and 3 touchdowns. Rice, who was already the NFL 's all - time leader in nearly every receiving record after 17 seasons, had a Pro Bowl season for the 13th time in his career with 92 receptions for 1,211 yards and 7 touchdowns. Gannon 's other weapons in passing game were 15 - year veteran receiver Tim Brown (81 receptions for 930 yards and 2 touchdowns) and young receiver Jerry Porter (51 receptions for 688 yards and 9 touchdowns). Multi-talented running back Charlie Garner was the team 's leading rusher with 962 yards and 7 touchdowns, while also leading all NFL running backs in receiving with 91 receptions for 941 yards and another 4 touchdowns. Running back Tyrone Wheatley was also a big contributor with 419 rushing yards and 71 receiving yards, while fullback Zack Crockett provided both of them with solid blocking and scored 8 touchdowns. Up front, their offensive line was led by 2 Pro Bowlers, guard Lincoln Kennedy and center Barret Robbins.
The Raiders ' weakness was primarily on their defense, which ranked 25th in the league in passing yards allowed (3,787) and 12th in total yards (5,240). But veteran Pro Bowl safety Rod Woodson recorded 8 interceptions (which led the league) for 225 yards and 2 touchdowns. Up front, their line was anchored by defensive tackle Rod Coleman, who led the team with 11 sacks. Behind him, the team had a solid veteran linebacker, Bill Romanowski, who was playing in his 5th Super Bowl (after winning 2 championships with the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowls XXIII and XXIV, and 2 while playing for the Denver Broncos in Super Bowls XXXII and XXXIII). Defensive back Tory James was also a big contributor with 4 interceptions.
The second - seeded Buccaneers defeated the fourth - seeded San Francisco 49ers, 31 -- 6, and the top - seeded Philadelphia Eagles on the road, 27 -- 10, in the playoffs, to make the Super Bowl for the first time in franchise history. Meanwhile, the top - seeded Raiders were victorious against the fourth - seeded New York Jets, 30 -- 10, and the second - seeded Tennessee Titans, 41 -- 24. The Raiders won against the Titans through Gannon 's pass - oriented offense.
The Raiders entered the game favored to win in their first Super Bowl in 19 years. They were also the first franchise to appear in the Super Bowl in four different decades (1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 2000s; the 1990s was the only decade that they did n't appear in the Super Bowl). However, much of the media hype surrounded the Gruden trade prior to the season. This forced league commissioner Paul Tagliabue to issue a statement that he might ban all future trades for coaches involving draft choices because it might compromise the draft.
A distraction for the Raiders was that starting center Barret Robbins went missing for most of the week leading up to the Super Bowl, and ended up in a San Diego hospital the night before the game after suffering a manic episode. Backup Adam Treu (a former Pro Bowl - er) replaced Robbins.
The game was broadcast in the United States by ABC with Al Michaels handling the play - by - play duties and color commentator John Madden, who became the first person to announce Super Bowls on different networks in consecutive years, having called Super Bowl XXXVI on Fox and then moving to ABC after Pat Summerall retired.
The NFC improved to 6 -- 0 on Super Bowls broadcast on ABC. Melissa Stark and Lynn Swann served as sideline reporters. Chris Berman from Disney - owned corporate sibling ESPN hosted all the events. Berman was joined by fellow ESPN analyst Steve Young, Baltimore Ravens head coach Brian Billick, and New York Giants defensive end Michael Strahan.
The Super Bowl was the first of three major professional sports championship series ABC broadcast in 2003, as they would also broadcast the Stanley Cup Finals and the NBA Finals. Both the Super Bowl and the Stanley Cup Finals were hosted by Berman (who co-hosted the Stanley Cup Finals with John Saunders) and took place in the state of California. The state of California had representation in both finals series. Gary Thorne, Bill Clement, and John Davidson mentioned all of these when they called the Stanley Cup Finals.
Before the game, a show called "Santana and Friends '' performed on the field. Carlos Santana was joined by Beyoncé and Michelle Branch and sang truncated versions of "Oye Como Va '', "The Game of Love '', and "Foo Foo. '' ABC also aired a pre-game parking lot performance featuring Bonnie Raitt, Goo Goo Dolls and Michael Bublé prior to the Santana and Friends segment.
In a nod to what the New England Patriots did the previous year in Super Bowl XXXVI, both teams were introduced as a team, rather than individually by offensive and defensive starters, after highlights of their seasons were simulcast on the video boards in the stadium and on television. This has become a regular tradition starting with this Super Bowl.
Celine Dion then sang "God Bless America '' which is sung for the only time in the Super Bowl, and later the Dixie Chicks sang the national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. F / A-18 Super Hornets of the United States Navy performed a flyover.
To honor the 30th anniversary of the 17 -- 0 undefeated, perfect season of the 1972 Miami Dolphins, the following members of that team appeared during the coin toss ceremony: Don Shula, Bob Griese, Larry Csonka, Larry Little, Jim Langer, Nick Buoniconti, Paul Warfield.
Memorable television commercials that aired during the game included the "Terry Tate: Office Linebacker '' Reebok ad and the Budweiser Zebra Referee. ADBOWL ranked FedEx 's "Castaway '' as the best commercial of the year.
Shania Twain, No Doubt, and Sting were featured during the halftime show, which was sponsored by AT&T Wireless. Twain sang her hits "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' and "Up! ''.
No Doubt then sang their hit "Just a Girl '' with lead singer Gwen Stefani ad - libbing lines like "I 'm just a girl at the Super Bowl! '' The show concluded with Sting performing "Message in a Bottle '', with Stefani joining in midway through.
NBC provided counter-programming against the halftime show, airing a live segment of "Weekend Update '' from the comedy -- variety show Saturday Night Live featuring Jimmy Fallon and Tina Fey.
Bon Jovi appeared as part of the post-game ceremonies, performing "It 's My Life '' prior to the Vince Lombardi Trophy presentation and "Everyday '' afterwards (most of the latter performance was not shown on ABC because the network cut to commercials).
The Raiders had a great chance to score a touchdown early in the game after cornerback Charles Woodson intercepted Buccaneers quarterback Brad Johnson 's pass on the third play of the game and returned it 12 yards to the Tampa Bay 36 - yard line. However, six plays later, Tampa Bay defensive end Simeon Rice sacked Raiders quarterback Rich Gannon on third down, forcing Oakland to settle for kicker Sebastian Janikowski 's 40 - yard field goal to give them a 3 -- 0 lead.
Buccaneers kick returner Aaron Stecker returned the ensuing kickoff 27 yards to the 29 - yard line, then appeared to fumble the ball. Although the officials initially ruled that the ball was recovered by Oakland 's Eric Johnson, the play was reviewed by instant replay and the fumble was overturned, and thus Tampa Bay retained possession. It showed that both of Stecker 's knees were down and the ball did n't come loose until it hit the ground. Gruden and Stecker appeared upset at having to use a challenge so early in a game, when they both believed Stecker was clearly down.
On the first play of the drive, Brad Johnson completed an 11 - yard pass to wide receiver Joe Jurevicius. Johnson 's next 2 passes were incomplete, but he then completed a 23 - yard pass to Jurevicius on third down to advance the ball to the Oakland 37 - yard line. Running back Michael Pittman then rushed for a 23 - yard gain to the 13 - yard line. However, on the next 3 plays, the Raiders defense limited the Buccaneers to a pair of incompletions and a 1 - yard run. Argentine kicker Martín Gramática then made a 31 - yard field goal to tie the game, 3 -- 3.
Later in the half, a 17 - yard punt return by Raiders defensive back Darrien Gordon gave Oakland the ball at their own 49 - yard line. Gannon then threw an 8 - yard pass to running back Charlie Garner to reach the Tampa Bay 43 - yard line. However, on third down, Buccaneers safety Dexter Jackson intercepted Gannon 's pass at the 40 - yard line and returned it 9 - yards to near midfield. Then nine plays after the turnover, Gramatica kicked his second field goal from 43 yards to give Tampa Bay a 6 -- 3 lead.
Jackson intercepted another pass on the Raiders ' next drive and returned it 25 yards to Oakland 's 45 - yard line, making Jackson the first player ever to record two interceptions in the first half of the Super Bowl. However, the Buccaneers were unable to take advantage of the turnover and were forced to punt. Fortunately for Tampa Bay, they got a big assist from their punter Tom Tupa, who managed to pin Oakland all the way back at their own 11 - yard line with his punt. The Raiders could not move the ball either, losing 1 yard on 3 plays with their ensuing drive. Tampa Bay punt returner Karl Williams then returned Shane Lechler 's punt 25 yards, giving the Buccaneers great field position at Oakland 's 27 - yard line. Aided with Pittman 's gains of 6 and 19 yards, the Buccaneers scored their first touchdown on a 2 - yard run from fullback Mike Alstott, increasing their lead to 13 -- 3. Then with 3: 45 left in the half, Tampa Bay drove 77 yards, assisted by a pair of catches by Alstott for 28 total yards. Johnson finished the drive with a 5 - yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Keenan McCardell to give the Buccaneers a 20 -- 3 halftime lead.
Tampa Bay continued to dominate the game for most of the third quarter. The Buccaneers forced the Raiders to punt on the opening drive of the second half. Next, Tampa Bay marched 89 yards on a 14 - play drive that took 7: 52 off the clock, and ended with Johnson 's 8 - yard touchdown pass to McCardell to increase their lead to 27 -- 3. Then on the second play of Oakland 's ensuing drive, Buccaneers defensive back Dwight Smith intercepted Gannon 's pass and returned it 44 yards for a touchdown, making the score 34 -- 3.
After giving up 34 points, Oakland finally managed to drive 82 yards down the field and score on a 39 - yard touchdown pass from Gannon to wide receiver Jerry Porter. Although he was initially ruled as being out of bounds when he caught the ball, it was determined that Porter had both feet in the end zone. The two - point conversion failed, so the Raiders were still down 34 -- 9.
The Raiders ' touchdown seemed to fire up their defense, who forced the Buccaneers to a fourth down on their ensuing possession. Oakland linebacker Tim Johnson then blocked Tupa 's punt, and linebacker Eric Johnson returned the ball 13 yards for a touchdown. Another two - point conversion for Oakland failed, but Tampa Bay 's lead was cut to 34 -- 15.
Tampa Bay responded by moving the ball to the Oakland 9 - yard line on their ensuing drive, featuring a 24 - yard run by Pittman, but they came up empty after Tupa fumbled the snap on a field goal attempt. A few plays later, Gannon threw a 48 - yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Jerry Rice with 6: 06 left in the game, cutting the Raiders deficit to 34 -- 21. The two - point conversion failed when Jerry Porter caught the ball but landed out of bounds. Though there was contact with a defender, the officials deemed the contact incidental rather than a force - out, and therefore that part of the play was non-reviewable.
In an attempt to prevent a Raiders comeback, the Buccaneers managed to run the clock down to 2: 44 on their ensuing drive before being forced to punt. Then on third and 18 from the Oakland 29 - yard line, Tampa Bay linebacker Derrick Brooks intercepted a pass from Gannon and returned it 44 yards for a touchdown, giving the Buccaneers a 41 -- 21 lead with only 1: 18 left, and leading Buccaneers radio announcer Gene Deckerhoff to make his famous call of "The dagger 's in, we 're gon na win the Super Bowl! ''. A few plays later, with the Raiders now playing for pride, Dwight Smith intercepted a tipped pass and returned it 50 yards for a touchdown with only two seconds remaining. Gramatica kicked the extra point, and the Buccaneers were up 48 -- 21. Raiders defensive tackle Chris Cooper returned Gramatica 's kickoff 6 yards before being tackled by Jack Golden, ending the game. The Buccaneers won their first - ever Super Bowl with a 48 - 21 victory. Gannon said after the game that his performance was "nightmarish ''.
at Qualcomm Stadium, San Diego, California
Tampa Bay dominated Oakland, outgaining them in total yards (365 to 269), rushing yards (150 to 19), first downs (24 to 11), offensive plays (76 to 60), and forced turnovers (5 to 1). As many sports fans and writers predicted, Gruden 's prior knowledge of the Raiders was a major factor. The most damaging piece of evidence is NFL Films footage of Tampa Bay defensive back John Lynch telling his teammates during the game that almost all of the plays ran by Oakland 's offense were plays that Gruden (who that week even played the part of "Rich Gannon '' by playing QB with the scout - team offense) specifically told them to look out for. Better still for the Buccaneers was that Oakland had n't changed their audible - calling signals that Gruden himself had installed, thus tipping off plays repeatedly.
Johnson finished the game with 18 out of 34 completions for 215 yards and 2 touchdowns, with 1 interception, along with 10 rushing yards. Pittman was the top rusher of the game with 129 yards. Alstott was the game 's second leading rusher with 15 yards and a touchdown, and had 5 receptions for 43 yards. Wide receiver Keyshawn Johnson was the Buccaneers ' leading receiver with 6 catches for 69 yards. Smith recorded 2 interceptions, 94 return yards, and 2 touchdowns. He also added another 23 yards on a kickoff return.
Gannon finished the game 24 out of 44 for 272 yards and 2 touchdowns, but was intercepted a Super Bowl record 5 times. Garner was their leading rusher, but with only 10 yards, and caught 7 passes for 51 yards. Rice was the Raiders ' leading receiver of the game with 5 catches for 77 yards and a touchdown. He became the first player to score touchdowns with two different teams in Super Bowls (Ricky Proehl and Muhsin Muhammad have since joined him). Wide receiver Marcus Knight returned 8 kickoffs for 143 yards.
Jerry Rice and Bill Romanowski joined Gene Upshaw as the only players to appear in Super Bowls in three different decades. Rice played in Super Bowls XXIII, XXIV, and XXIX. Romanowski played in Super Bowls XXIII, XXIV, XXXII, and XXXIII; the Raiders ' loss prevented Romanowski from joining Charles Haley as the only NFL players at that time to earn 5 Super Bowl rings (Haley was also with the 49ers for Super Bowls XXIII and XXIV, and later earned rings when the Dallas Cowboys won Super Bowls XXVII, XXVIII, and XXX). The Raiders became the first team to appear in Super Bowls under four different head coaches. John Rauch coached them in Super Bowl II, John Madden (who himself called Super Bowl XXXVII on ABC), coached them in Super Bowl XI and Tom Flores coached them in Super Bowl XV and XVIII.
The teams combined for the most second half points in a Super Bowl with 46 (28 for Tampa Bay and 18 for Oakland) and the third most total points in a game with 69, tying Dallas and Buffalo who combined for 69 points in Super Bowl XXVII.
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XXXVII, Super Bowl XXXVII Play Finder TB, Super Bowl XXXVII Play Finder Oak, Super Bowl XXXVII Play by Play
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted
Source:
Hall of Fame ‡
In Oakland, after the Raiders ' loss, riots broke out on the streets of East Oakland. Twelve cars were set on fire and four hundred police officers had to be sent to the streets.
The Tampa Tribune published a book by several staff writers called Pewter Power, about the Buccaneers ' winning season.
Both teams entered a period of decline after the Super Bowl. Neither made the playoffs the next season as Tampa Bay finished 7 -- 9 and Oakland finished 4 -- 12. Furthermore, Tampa Bay finished 5 -- 11 in 2004, becoming the first Super Bowl winning team to follow up with consecutive losing seasons. To date, the Buccaneers have yet to win another postseason game, while the Raiders went 14 seasons without having a winning season and / or qualifying the playoffs, and have also not won a playoff game since.
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how many wind turbines are there in the united states | Wind power in the United States - wikipedia
Wind power in the United States is a branch of the energy industry that has expanded quickly over the latest several years. For calendar year 2016, wind power in the United States amounted to 226.5 terawatt - hours, or 5.55 % of all generated electrical energy.
As of January 2017, the U.S. nameplate generating capacity for wind power was 82,183 megawatts (MW). This capacity is exceeded only by China and the European Union. Thus far, wind power 's largest growth in capacity was in 2012, when 11,895 MW of wind power was installed, representing 26.5 % of new power capacity.
In 2016, Nebraska became the eighteenth state to have installed over 1,000 MW of wind power capacity. Texas, with over 20,000 MW of capacity, had the most installed wind power capacity of any U.S. state at the end of 2016. Texas also had more under construction than any other state currently has installed. The state generating the highest percentage of energy from wind power is Iowa. North Dakota has the most per capita wind generation. The Alta Wind Energy Center in California is the largest wind farm in the United States with a capacity of 1548 MW. GE Energy is the largest domestic wind turbine manufacturer.
The first municipal use of multiple wind - electric turbines in the USA may have been a five turbine system in Pettibone, North Dakota in 1940. These were commercial Wincharger units on guyed towers.
In 1980 the world 's first wind farm, consisting of twenty 30 kW wind turbines was installed at Crotched Mountain, in New Hampshire.
From 1974 through the mid-1980s the United States government worked with industry to advance the technology and enable large commercial wind turbines. A series of NASA wind turbines were developed under a program to create a utility - scale wind turbine industry in the U.S., with funding from the National Science Foundation and later the United States Department of Energy (DOE). A total of 13 experimental wind turbines were put into operation, in four major wind turbine designs. This research and development program pioneered many of the multi-megawatt turbine technologies in use today, including: steel tube towers, variable - speed generators, composite blade materials, partial - span pitch control, as well as aerodynamic, structural, and acoustic engineering design capabilities.
Later, in the 1980s, California provided tax rebates for wind power. These rebates funded the first major use of wind power for utility electric power. These machines, gathered in large wind parks such as at Altamont Pass would be considered small and un-economic by modern wind power development standards. In 1985 half of the world 's wind energy was generated at Altamont Pass. By the end of 1986 about 6,700 wind turbines, mostly less than 100 kW, had been installed at Altamont, at a cost of about $1 billion, and generated about 550 million kWh / year.
The U.S., as of 2017, has over 82 GW of installed wind power capacity. Only China has more installed capacity.
The five states with the most wind capacity installed at the start of 2017 were:
Fourteen states now have 10 percent or more of their generation coming from wind power. Most of these are in the central plains. These states include North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Texas, Maine, Vermont, Oregon, and Idaho.
The top five states according to percentage of generation by wind in 2016 were:
Ten of the largest wind farms in the United States are:
A 2012 report by a clean energy consulting group concluded that new wind farms can produce electric power in the 5 - 8 cents per kWh range, making wind power cost - competitive with fossil fuels in many areas. As of 2013, the US Energy Information Administration estimates the "levelized cost '' of wind energy from new installations as 7 to 10 cents per kWh, depending on the geographic area, but cautioned that levelized costs of non-dispatchable sources such as wind should be compared to the avoided energy cost rather than the levelized cost of dispatchable sources such as natural gas, or baseload sources such as coal or geothermal. In 2015, a Koch - funded institute of Utah State University stated that the cost of wind energy is higher than most cost estimates calculate. Renewable portfolio standards require renewable energy to exist (most of them intermittent such as wind and solar), but at the expense of utilities and consumers. The production tax credit makes wind power cheaper for utilities and consumers, but at the expense of taxpayers. The American Wind Energy Association has criticized the study of lacking comparison with pollution and subsidies incurred by other electric power sources, and for counting transmission as a cost rather than a benefit.
Wind power has increased dramatically over the past years. In 2010, however, newly installed generating capacity was about half of the previous year due to various factors, including the financial crisis, and recession. In 2013 there was a 92 % reduction in newly installed generating capacity compared to 2012, due to the late extension of the PTC The graph at left shows the growth in installed wind generation capacity in the United States based on data from the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. In 2008, installed capacity in the U.S. increased by 50 % over the prior year. The world average growth rate that year was 28.8 %.
By 2014, the wind industry in the USA was able to produce more power at lower cost by using taller wind turbines with longer blades, capturing the faster winds at higher elevations. This opened up new opportunities and in Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio, the price of power from wind turbines built 300 feet to 400 feet above the ground competed with conventional fossil fuels like coal. Prices had fallen to about 4 cents per kilowatt - hour in some cases and utilities had been increasing the amount of wind energy in their portfolio, saying it is their cheapest option. For power contracts made in the year 2014, the average price of wind power fell to 2.5 ¢ / kWh.
The capacity factor is the ratio of power actually produced divided by the nameplate capacity of the turbines. The overall average capacity factor for wind generation in the US increased from 31.7 % in 2008, to 32.3 % in 2013.
According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, the contiguous United States has the potential for 10,459 GW of onshore wind power. The capacity could generate 37 petawatt - hours (PW h) annually, an amount nine times larger than current total U.S. electricity consumption. The U.S. also has large wind resources in Alaska, and Hawaii.
In addition to the large onshore wind resources, the U.S. has large offshore wind power potential, with another NREL report released in September 2010 showing that the U.S. has 4,150 GW of potential offshore wind power nameplate capacity, an amount 4 times that of the country 's 2008 installed capacity from all sources, of 1,010 GW.
The U.S. Department of Energy 's 2008 report 20 % Wind Energy by 2030 envisioned that wind power could supply 20 % of all U.S. electric power, which included a contribution of 4 % to the nation 's total electric power from offshore wind power. In order to achieve this, however, significant advances in cost, performance and reliability are needed, based on a 2011 report from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government, supported by the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future. Obtaining 20 % from wind requires about 305 GW of wind turbines, an increase of 16 GW / year after 2018, or an average increase of 14.6 % / year, and transmission line improvements. Analysts estimate around 25 GW of added US wind power in 2016 - 18, depending on the Clean Power Plan and PTC extensions. After the current PTC phase - out in 2021, additional wind power capacity is expected to be around 5 GW per year.
In 2015, electric power generation from wind power was 10 percent or more in twelve U.S. states: Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Minnesota, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, and South Dakota, Vermont, and Texas. Iowa, South Dakota, and Kansas each had more than 20 percent of their electric power generation come from wind. Twenty states now have more than five percent of their generation coming from wind.
In 2016 Texas surpassed the 20,000 MW mark by adding over 1800 MW of generating capacity. In 2011, Texas had become the first state to surpass the 10,000 MW mark.
In July 2008, Texas approved a $4.93 billion expansion of the state 's electric grid to bring wind energy to its major cities from western areas of the state. Transmission companies will recoup the cost of constructing the new power lines, expected to be completed in 2013, from fees estimated at $4 per month for residential customers. A lack of transmission capacity forced wind turbines to be shut down at times and reduced wind power generation in Texas by 17 % in 2009.
The Roscoe Wind Farm in Roscoe, Texas, Texas 's largest wind farm with 627 wind turbines and a total installed capacity of 781.5 MW, surpassed the nearby 735.5 MW Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center. It is located about 200 miles (320 km) west of Fort Worth and the wind farm area spans parts of four Texas counties.
Wind power in California has doubled in capacity since 2002. With a total of nearly 4,000 megawatts installed, as of the end of 2011, wind energy now supplies about 5 % of California 's total electric power needs, or enough to power more than 400,000 households. The amount varies greatly from day to day. In 2011, 921.3 megawatts were installed. Most of that activity occurred in the Tehachapi area of Kern County, with some big projects in Solano, Contra Costa and Riverside counties as well. After 2014, California ranked second nationwide in terms of capacity, behind Texas with a capacity of 5,917 MW.
Large portions of California 's wind output, are located in three primary regions: Altamont Pass Wind Farm (east of San Francisco); Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm (south east of Bakersfield), and San Gorgonio Pass Wind Farm (near Palm Springs, east of Los Angeles). The giant new Alta Wind Energy Center, is also located within the Tehachapi Pass region.
More than 35 percent of the electric power generated in Iowa now comes from wind power. Iowa had over 6900 megawatts (MW) of generation capacity at the end of 2016. Electrical energy generated in Iowa by wind in 2014 amounted to over 16 million Megawatt - hours. Since Iowa adopted a renewable energy standard in 1983, the wind power industry has generated over $10 billion in investment. The second concrete wind turbine tower to be built in the U.S., and also the country 's tallest (377 feet) at the time built, is in Adams county. The tower was completed in the spring of 2016.
Oklahoma has one of the best resources in the United States. Bergey Windpower, a leading manufacturer of small wind turbines is located in Oklahoma. Programs leading to careers in the wind power industry are provided at tech schools, community colleges and universities in Oklahoma. The Oklahoma Wind Power Initiative supports the development of wind power in the state.
Wind power has been supported by a renewable portfolio standard, passed in 2007, and strengthened in 2009, which requires 10 % renewable energy from electric companies by 2010 and 25 % by 2025. Illinois has the potential for installing up to an estimated 249,882 MW of wind generation capacity at a hub height of 80 meters.
In 2012, Kansas saw a large number of wind projects completed making it among the largest and fastest growing wind energy markets. At the end of 2014 the total capacity sits at 2,967 MW. Kansas has high potential capacity for wind power, second behind Texas. The most recent estimates are that Kansas has a potential for 950 GW of wind power capacity. Kansas could generate 3,900 TW h of electric power each year, which represents more than all the electric power generated from coal, natural gas and nuclear combined in the United States in 2011.
Since 2005 many turbine manufacturing leaders have opened U.S. facilities; of the top 10 global manufacturers in 2007, seven -- Vestas, GE Energy, Gamesa, Suzlon, Siemens, Acciona, and Nordex -- have an American manufacturing presence. REpower is another manufacturer with notable usage in the United States.
Plans for 30 new manufacturing facilities were announced in 2008, and the wind industry expects to see a continued shift towards domestic manufacturing in the coming years. In total, 70 manufacturing facilities have begun production, been expanded, or announced since January 2007.
As of April 2009, over 100 companies are producing components for wind turbines, employing thousands of workers in the manufacture of parts as varied as towers, composite blades, bearings and gears. Many existing companies in traditional manufacturing states have retooled to enter the wind industry. Their manufacturing facilities are spread across 40 states, employing workers from the Southeast to the Steel Belt, to the Great Plains and on to the Pacific Northwest.
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is working with six leading wind turbine manufacturers towards achieving 20 % wind power in the United States by 2030. The DOE announced the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with GE Energy, Siemens Power Generation, Vestas Wind Systems, Clipper Windpower, Suzlon Energy, and Gamesa Corporation. Under the MOU, the DOE and the six manufacturers will collaborate to gather and exchange information relating to five major areas: research and development related to turbine reliability and operability; siting strategies for wind power facilities; standards development for turbine certification and universal interconnection of wind turbines; manufacturing advances in design, process automation, and fabrication techniques; and workforce development.
In 2014, GE had 60 %, Siemens had 26 %, and Vestas had 12 % of US market share. Combined, they had 98 %. Most new turbines were designed for low wind. The turbine manufacturers compete with each other and cause decreasing turbine prices.
The DOE 's National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) has announced a number of wind technology projects, including a new state - of - the - art wind turbine blade test facility to be built in Ingleside, Texas. The Texas - NREL Large Blade Research and Test Facility will be capable of testing blades as long as 70 meters (230 feet). It will be built and operated through a partnership among NREL, DOE, and a state consortium led by University of Houston, with the university owning and operating the facility 's buildings, DOE funding up to $2 million in capital costs, and NREL providing technical and operational assistance. The blade test facility is estimated to cost between $12 million and $15 million and should be completed by 2010. Located on the Gulf Coast, the Texas facility will complement a similar facility that is being built on the coast of Massachusetts.
NREL has also recently signed agreements with Siemens Power Generation and First Wind, a wind power developer. Siemens is launching a new research and development facility in nearby Boulder, Colorado, and has agreed to locate and test a commercial - scale wind turbine at NREL 's National Wind Technology Center (NWTC). First Wind (formerly called UPC Wind Partners, LLC) owns and operates the 30 - megawatt Kaheawa Wind Power farm in West Maui, Hawaii, and has agreed to let the NWTC establish a Remote Research Affiliate Partner Site at the facility. The Maui satellite of NWTC will collaborate with First Wind on studies to develop advanced wind energy technologies, including energy storage and integration of renewable electric power into Maui 's electrical grid.
In 2010, the DOE awarded $60 million for a study of transmission requirements. Beginning in 2006, the DOE is required to provide a transmission congestion report once every three years.
Recent U.S. policy has generally been to provide an inflation - adjusted federal production tax credit (PTC) of $15 per MW h (in 1995 dollars) generated for the first ten years of operation for wind energy sold. As of 2015, the credit was $23 per MW h. Renewable portfolio standards mandating a certain percentage of electric power sales come from renewable energy sources, which are in place in about half of the states, also have boosted the development of the wind industry.
Each time Congress has allowed the production tax credit has expired, wind power development has slowed as investors wait for the credit to be restored. Each year it is renewed development has expanded. The tax credit expired at the end of 2012, bringing wind power development activity to a near halt. A short term, one year policy was enacted at the beginning of 2013 which provides a tax credit to projects under construction by the end of 2013 and completed before the end of 2014. The PTC was first introduced in 1992. When it was allowed to expire, development dropped 93 %, 73 %, and 77 % the following year.
The Energy Information Administration has reported that wind power received the largest share of direct federal subsidies and support in fiscal year 2013 (the latest year for which statistics are available), accounting for 37 % ($5.936 billion) of total electric power related subsidies. Almost three - quarters of wind energy subsidies in that year were direct expenditures and largely resulted from the ARRA programs. These figures do not include subsidies and supports from other levels of government.
The development of wind power in the United States has been supported primarily through a production tax credit (PTC), which pays producers on the amount of electric power produced. On January 1, 2013 the production tax credit was extended for another year.
In late 2015 authorities provided an extension of the Production Tax Credit. The extension phases out the credit over a period of five years. The 30 percent wind and solar tax credit will extend through 2019 and then taper to 10 percent in 2022.
The average price of Power purchase agreements was $23.5 / MWh in 2014. Operating expenses were estimated to $10 / MWh.
There is competition for wind farms among farmers in places like Iowa or ranchers in Colorado. Farmers, with no investment on their part, typically receive $3,000 -- 5,000 per year in royalties from the local utility for siting a single, large, advanced - design wind turbine.
Landscape and ecological issues may be significant for some wind farm proposals, and environmental issues are a consideration in site selection.
Worldwide experience has shown that community consultation and direct involvement of the general public in wind farm projects has helped to increase community approval, and some wind farms overseas have become tourist attractions, like the Ten Mile Lagoon wind farm.
Offshore development is hindered by relatively high cost compared to onshore facilities. Several projects are under development with some at advanced stages of development. The United States, though, has very large offshore wind energy resources due to strong, consistent winds off the long U.S. coastline.
The 2011 NREL report, Large - Scale Offshore Wind Power in the United States, analyzes the current state of the offshore wind energy industry. According to the report, offshore wind resource development would help the country to achieve 20 % of its electric power from wind by 2030 and to revitalize the manufacturing sector. Offshore wind could supply 54 gigawatts of capacity to the nation 's electrical grid, thereby increasing energy security. It could also generate an estimated $200 billion in new economic activity and create thousands of permanent jobs. NREL 's report concludes that "the development of the nation 's offshore wind resources can provide many potential benefits, and that offshore wind energy could play a vital role in future U.S. energy markets ''.
Coastal residents have opposed offshore wind farms because of fears about impacts on marine life, the environment, electric power rates, aesthetics, and recreation such as fishing and boating. However, residents also cite improved electric power rates, air quality, and job creation as positive impacts they would expect from wind farms. Because the bases of offshore turbines function as artificial reefs, studies have shown that after the initial disturbance of construction, local fish and shellfish are positively affected. Because wind turbines can be positioned at some distance from shore, impacts to recreation and fishing can be managed by careful planning of wind farm locations.
Five exploratory leases for wind power production on the Outer Continental Shelf offshore from New Jersey and Delaware were issued in June 2009 by the Secretary of the Interior. The leases authorize data gathering activities, allowing for the construction of meteorological towers on the Outer Continental Shelf from six to 18 miles (29 km) offshore. Four areas are being considered. On February 7, 2011, Salazar and Stephen Chu announced a national strategy to have offshore wind power of 10 GW in 2020, and 54 GW in 2030.
Projects are under development in areas of the East Coast, Great Lakes, and Gulf coast.
Rhode Island and Massachusetts state officials picked Deepwater Wind to build a $1.5 - billion, 385 - megawatt wind farm in federal waters off Block Island. The 100 - turbine project could provide 1.3 terawatt - hours (TW h) of electric power per year -- 15 percent of all electric power used in the state of Rhode Island. In 2009, Deepwater signed an agreement with National Grid to sell the power from a $200 - million, 30 - MW wind farm off Block Island, at an initial price of 24.4 ¢ / kW h. Construction of the Block Island Wind Farm, a five turbine project began in April 2015.
Cape Wind started development around 2002, but faced opposition and eventually ceased before being realized. The floating VolturnUS operated in a Maine river in 2013.
To promote wind power in New Jersey, in 2007 the state awarded a $4.4 million contract to conduct an 18 - month Ocean / Wind Power Ecological Baseline Study, becoming the first state to sponsor an ocean and wind power study before allowing renewable energy developers to study and build off its shores. The study focused on a designated area off the coast to determine the current distribution, abundance and migratory patterns of avian species, fish, marine resources and sea turtle use of the existing ecological resources. The results of the study were released in June 2010. The study concluded that the effects of developing offshore windfarms would be negligible.
In 2008, new federal rules greatly expanded the territory offshore wind parks can be built. Previously, projects were only allowed in shallow state waters within 3 nautical miles (5.6 km) of shore. The edge of U.S. territory is about 200 nautical miles (370 km) out. Increased distance from the coast diminishes their visibility. Waters off the coast of the United States are deeper than in Europe, requiring different designs.
Atlantic Wind Connection is a proposed electrical transmission backbone to be built off the Atlantic Coast of the United States to serve off - shore wind farms. The transmission line, proposed by Trans - Elect Development Company, would deliver power ashore in southern Virginia, Delaware, southern New Jersey and northern New Jersey. As a first of its kind project, it poses significant risks of encountering unexpected technological challenges and cost overruns. Such an offshore backbone is an element in the national electric power strategy. Bechtel has been selected as the EPC contractor and Alstom as technical advisor for the first phase of the development for the project. Google and Good Energies, an investment firm, are the major investors in the $5 billion project.
Winds in the Central plains region of the U.S. are variable on both short (minutes) and long (days) time scales. Variations in wind speed result in variations in power output from wind farms, which poses difficulties incorporating wind power into an integrated power system. Wind turbines are driven by boundary layer winds, those that occur near the surface of the earth, at around 300 feet. Boundary layer winds are controlled by wind in the higher free atmosphere and have turbulence due to interaction with surface features such as trees, hills, and buildings. Short term or high frequency variations are due to this turbulence in the boundary layer.
Long term variations are due to the passage of transient waves in the atmosphere, with a characteristic time scale of several days. The transient waves that influence wind in the Central U.S. are large scale and this results in the power output from wind farms in the region being somewhat correlated and not entirely independent. Large scale distribution of wind farms significantly reduce short term variability, limiting the relative standard deviation of the capacity factor to about 45 %. The correlation is highest in summer and lowest in winter.
The US federal government has jurisdiction to prevent bird and bat deaths by wind turbines, under the Endangered Species Act, the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, and the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act. Under the 2009 Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, the Interior Department could issue permits to allow "non-purposeful take '' for activities where eagle deaths were considered unavoidable; however, as of December 2013, no take permits had been issued to wind energy developers.
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service has published voluntary guidelines for design and siting of wind turbines to minimize bird and bat deaths. Interim guidelines were published in 2003, and the latest version in 2012. The document recognizes that even the best management practices may not prevent wind turbine bird deaths in violation of federal law, but stated: "However, if a violation occurs the Service will consider a developer 's documented efforts to communicate with the Service and adhere to the Guidelines. ''
In 2013, the Obama administration was accused of having a double standard to protect the wind industry from Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act prosecutions, while vigorously pursuing violations by oil companies and owners of power lines. The administration refused to divulge the number of raptor deaths reported to it by wind companies, saying that to do so would reveal trade secrets. The government also ordered federal law enforcement field agents not to pursue bird - death prosecutions against wind companies without prior approval from Washington. The policy was said to be an environmental trade - off to promote renewable energy.
In November 2013, the federal government obtained its first criminal conviction of a wind power operator for killing protected birds in violation of the 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty Act. Duke Energy plead guilty, and was fined $1 million, for the deaths of 160 birds, including 14 golden eagles, at two wind farms in Wyoming. The Justice Department charged that Duke had designed and sited the turbines knowing that they would kill birds; Duke noted that it had self - reported the bird deaths, and that US Fish and Wildlife Service guidelines for reducing bird deaths by wind turbines had not been issued when the turbines were built. After they were charged, Duke implemented a radar detection system, at a cost of $600,000 per year, designed to turn off turbines when approached by large birds; the company noted that the system was working, as no golden eagle deaths had been observed in more than a year of operation since the radar was installed.
In December 2013 the US Fish and Wildlife Service announced that it would issue 30 - year permits to wind energy projects to allow for eagle deaths; previously, permits had been available for only 5 years, but none were issued to wind projects. Under the 30 - year permits, wind power developers would be required to report eagle deaths, and the permits would be reviewed every 5 years. The measure was intended to remove what was seen as legal uncertainty discouraging wind energy investments. The government said that an environmental review was not needed for the change, because it was only an administrative change. The new regulation was welcomed by the American Wind Energy Association, which said that wind power caused less than two percent of human - caused eagle fatalities, and pointed out that the rules would require extensive mitigation and monitoring of eagle deaths. The extension of eagle taking permits from 5 to 30 years was opposed by a number of conservation groups, including the American Bird Conservancy, the Nature Conservancy, the Sierra Club, the Audubon Society, and the Humane Society of the United States.
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beavis and butthead werewolves of highland full episode | Werewolves of Highland - wikipedia
"Werewolves of Highland '' is the first episode of season 8 and 201st episode overall of the American animated television series Beavis and Butt - Head. It is notable for being the first episode of the series ' revival after its initial cancellation in 1997. It aired alongside "Crying '' on October 27, 2011, on MTV.
Beavis and Butt - Head watch Twilight at a theater, which gives them the idea to become undead so that ladies will find them appealing. Later in class, Butt - Head asks David Van Driessen how to become undead. He tells them that they must be bitten by one, which prompts the duo to leave class and look for a member of the undead. The duo eventually find a crazy old homeless guy (Henry) who they mistake for a werewolf due to his long white hair and beard, and his large canine teeth. Beavis and Butt - Head ask him to bite them. The man asks for a dollar, but Butt - Head gives him a piece of gum instead, and he bites them numerous times. The elderly fellow is afflicted with hepatitis C, infecting both Beavis and Butt - Head with it when he bites them. The duo are later seen at home, feeling poorly, their sickly - pale skin sporting a slew of bite marks and bruises, but they believe that they have become werewolves. While the boys are hanging out in town, two young beauties find them and take them to the hospital, even though the duo thought the girls were going to take them on a date. At the hospital, it is discovered that Beavis and Butt - Head not only contracted hepatitis C, but hepatitis A, hepatitis B, gonorrhea, gangrene, MRSA and staph, surprising the doctor that they are still alive. As the nurse attempts to insert catheters, they start giggling at her touching their penises, despite being in a deep coma, with Butt - Head uttering the word: "Deep... ''.
This episode was created in response to the cultural phenomenon with vampires in movies and TV shows.
Mike Judge mentioned that he wanted the new episodes to be topical, starting with this episode, but there 's no instance where the series acknowledges its 14 - year gap. As of this episode, the hand - drawn animation process has also been updated and is in high - definition, but produced in the 4: 3 aspect ratio, unlike most HD programs which are typically produced in 16: 9. However, archive footage was used for featured video segments due to being broadcast in both 1080i and 480i.
During the first video segment Beavis utters the word "fire '' a total of 7 times within 28 seconds, with Butt - Head saying it once as well, as a reference to the writers ' ban on using the word "fire '' which was set in place during the first run after the series was associated with a fire that resulted in the death of a two - year - old in 1993.
The episode was seen by 3,286,000 viewers in its initial airing.
IGN commented that the episode was one of the show 's funniest episodes, stating "It would appear that Mike Judge 's comedy senses have only sharpened over years '' and also said "with a pilot this solid, and the promise of some great TV (and perhaps another movie) down the pipe, it 's safe to assume Mike Judge 's cult fame will continue for decades to come ''. HitFix states "Beavis and Butt - Head are who they 've always been, for ill or (comedically) for good. I 'm glad to have them back '' when reviewing this episode and "Crying ''. Assignment X called the episode "reckless, silly and on target ''.
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who sings the rock and roll song dream on | List of songs recorded by Elvis Presley - wikipedia
This is a list of the songs recorded by Elvis Presley between his first demos at the Sun Studios in 1953 and his final concert on June 26, 1977 at the Market Square Arena in Indianapolis, Indiana.
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who played the bond girl in dr no | Ursula Andress - wikipedia
Ursula Andress (born 19 March 1936) is a Swiss film and television actress, former model and sex symbol, who has appeared in American, British and Italian films. She is best known for her breakthrough role as Bond girl Honey Ryder in the first James Bond film, Dr. No. She later starred as Vesper Lynd in the James Bond film Casino Royale. Her other films include Fun in Acapulco, She, The 10th Victim, The Blue Max, Perfect Friday, The Sensuous Nurse, The Mountain of the Cannibal God, The Fifth Musketeer and Clash of the Titans.
Andress, the third of six children, was born in Ostermundigen, Canton of Bern, Switzerland to Anna, a landscape gardener, and Rolf Andress, a German diplomat who was expelled from Switzerland for political reasons. He disappeared during World War II. She has a brother and four sisters.
At 18, Andress left Switzerland and went to Rome, Italy where she had walk - on parts in three Italian films. Within a year she came to California and was signed to a contract with Paramount Pictures, but the contract resulted in no acting roles due to her inability to learn English at the time.
Andress became famous as Honey Ryder, a shell diver and James Bond 's woman of desire in Dr. No (1962), the first Bond movie. In what became an iconic moment in cinematic and fashion history, she rose out of the Caribbean Sea in a white bikini sporting a large diving knife on her hip. Due to her heavy Swiss - German accent, the character 's voice was provided by Nikki van der Zyl, while the calypso was sung by Diana Coupland. The scene made Andress a "quintessential '' Bond girl. Andress later said that she owed her career to that white bikini: "This bikini made me into a success. As a result of starring in Dr. No as the first Bond girl, I was given the freedom to take my pick of future roles and to become financially independent. '' The bikini she wore in the film sold at auction in 2001 for £ 41,125 ($59,755). In 2003, in a UK Survey by Channel 4, her entrance in Dr. No was voted # 1 in "the 100 Greatest Sexy Moments ''. Andress won the Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year in 1964 for her appearance in the film.
Andress co-starred with Elvis Presley in the 1963 musical film Fun in Acapulco, with Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin in 4 for Texas (1963), opposite Marcello Mastroianni in The 10th Victim (1965), alongside John Richardson in She (1965), and as the countess in The Blue Max (1966). She also appeared in the Bond satire Casino Royale (1967) as Vesper Lynd, an occasional spy who persuades Evelyn Tremble, played by Peter Sellers, to carry out a mission. Later, she worked with fellow former Bond girls Claudine Auger in Anyone Can Play (1968), Barbara Bach in Stateline Motel (1975), and Luciana Paluzzi in The Sensuous Nurse (1975).
In 1965, she posed nude for Playboy; it would be the first of seven times she was pictured in the magazine over the next fifteen years. When asked why she had agreed to do the Playboy shoot, Andress replied coolly, "Because I 'm beautiful. '' She went on to appear nude or semi-nude in nearly all of her film roles between 1969 and 1979, earning her the nickname "Ursula Undress. ''
Other films from this period of her career include the West African diamond - searching adventure The Southern Star (1969) with George Seagal, the crime caper Perfect Friday (1970) with Stanley Baker and David Warner, the western Red Sun (1972) with Charles Bronson and Alain Delon, as Joséphine de Beauharnais in the swashbuckling spoof The Loves and Times of Scaramouche (1976) with Michael Sarrazin, the cult favorite Slave of the Cannibal God (1978) with Stacey Keach, and as Louise de La Vallière in The Fifth Musketeer (1979) with Beau Bridges.
She played Aphrodite in 1981 's Clash of the Titans, where she worked with Laurence Olivier. During the making of the film, Andress linked up with leading man Harry Hamlin, who became the father of her child. In 1982, she portrayed Mabel Dodge in the adventure - drama film Red Bells. On television, she participated in the 1986 Emmy - winning miniseries Peter the Great, and joined the cast of the primetime soap opera Falcon Crest for a three - episode arc in 1988 as an exotic foreigner who assists David Selby in retrieving Dana Sparks from a white slave ring.
Since the beginning of the 1990s, her acting appearances have been rare. In 1995, Andress was chosen by Empire magazine as one of the "100 Sexiest Stars in film history. '' Her last role to date was playing "Madonna '' in the low - budget 2005 Swiss feature Die Vogelpredigt oder Das Schreien der Mönche (de) (English title: The Bird Preachers).
Andress dated film icon James Dean shortly before his death in 1955. That same year, she began an affair with actor / director John Derek, a married father - of - two who walked out on his wife, Pati Behrs, and their family to be with 19 - year - old Andress. They wed in 1957 in Las Vegas, but separated in 1963 and officially divorced in 1966. Andress was in a relationship with American actor Harry Hamlin after meeting on the set of Clash of the Titans in 1979. She gave birth to their son, Dimitri Hamlin, on 19 May 1980. Although an engagement was announced, the couple never married. In 1983, Hamlin broke up with her.
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what dies it mean to be insulin resistant | Insulin resistance - wikipedia
Insulin resistance (IR) is a pathological condition in which cells fail to respond normally to the hormone insulin. The body produces insulin when glucose starts to be released into the bloodstream from the digestion of carbohydrates in the diet. Normally this insulin response triggers glucose being taken into body cells, to be used for energy, and inhibits the body from using fat for energy. The concentration of glucose in the blood decreases as a result, staying within the normal range even when a large amount of carbohydrates is consumed. When the body produces insulin under conditions of insulin resistance, the cells are resistant to the insulin and are unable to use it as effectively, leading to high blood sugar. Beta cells in the pancreas subsequently increase their production of insulin, further contributing to a high blood insulin level. This often remains undetected and can contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults. Although this type of chronic insulin resistance is harmful, during acute illness it is actually a well - evolved protective mechanism. Recent investigations have revealed that insulin resistance helps to conserve the brain 's glucose supply by preventing muscles from taking up excessive glucose. In theory, insulin resistance should even be strengthened under harsh metabolic conditions such as pregnancy, during which the expanding fetal brain demands more glucose.
People who develop type 2 diabetes usually pass through earlier stages of insulin resistance and prediabetes, although those often go undiagnosed. Insulin resistance is a syndrome (a set of signs and symptoms) resulting from reduced insulin activity; it is also part of a larger constellation of symptoms called the metabolic syndrome.
Insulin resistance may also develop in patients who have recently experienced abdominal or bariatric procedures. This acute form of insulin resistance that may result post-operatively tends to increase over the short term, with sensitivity to insulin typically returning to patients after about five days.
These depend on poorly understood variations in individual biology and consequently may not be found with all people diagnosed with insulin resistance.
Several associated risk factors include the following:
Insulin resistance implies that the body 's cells (primarily muscle) lose sensitivity to insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas to promote glucose utilization. At the molecular level, a cell senses insulin through insulin receptors, with the signal propagating through a cascade of molecules collectively known as PI3K / Akt / mTOR signaling pathway. Recent studies suggested that the pathway may operate as a bistable switch under physiologic conditions for certain types of cells, and insulin response may well be a threshold phenomenon. The pathway 's sensitivity to insulin may be blunted by many factors such as free fatty acids, causing insulin resistance. From a broader perspective, however, sensitivity tuning (including sensitivity reduction) is a common practice for an organism to adapt to the changing environment or metabolic conditions. Pregnancy, for example, is a prominent change of metabolic conditions, under which the mother has to reduce her muscles ' insulin sensitivity to spare more glucose for the brains (the mother 's brain and the fetal brain). This can be achieved through raising the response threshold (i.e., postponing the onset of sensitivity) by secreting placental growth factor to interfere with the interaction between insulin receptor substrate (IRS) and PI3K, which is the essence of the so - called adjustable threshold hypothesis of insulin resistance.
It is well known that insulin resistance commonly coexists with obesity. Dietary fat has long been implicated as a driver of insulin resistance. Studies on animals have observed significant insulin resistance in rats after just 3 weeks on a high - fat diet (59 % fat, 20 % carb.) Large quantities of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated omega - 6 fats all appear to be harmful to rats to some degree, compared to large amounts of starch, but saturated fat appears to be the most effective at producing IR. This is partly caused by direct effects of a high - fat diet on blood markers, but, more significantly, ad libitum high - fat diet has the tendency to result in caloric intake that is far in excess of animals ' energy needs, resulting in rapid weight gain. In humans, statistical evidence is more equivocal. Being insensitive to insulin is still positively correlated with fat intake, and negatively correlated with dietary fiber intake, but both these factors are also correlated with excess body weight.
The effect of dietary fat is largely or completely overridden if the high - fat diet is modified to contain nontrivial quantities (in excess of 5 -- 10 % of total fat intake) of polyunsaturated omega - 3 fatty acids. This protective effect is most established with regard to the so - called "marine long - chain omega - 3 fatty acids '', EPA and DHA, found in algae, krill and fish oil; evidence in favor of other omega - 3 fatty acids, in particular, the most common vegetable - based omega - 3 fatty acid, ALA, also exists, but it is more limited; some studies find ALA effective only among people with insufficient long - chain omega - 3 intake, and some studies fail to find any effect at all (ALA may be converted partially into EPA and DHA by the human body, but the conversion rate is thought to be 10 % or less, depending on diet and gender). The effect is thought to explain relatively low incidence of IR, type 2 diabetes, and obesity in polar foragers such as Alaskan Eskimos consuming their ancestral diet (which is very high in fat, but contains substantial amounts of omega - 3), however, it is not strong enough to prevent IR in the typical modern Western diet. Unlike their omega - 6 counterparts (which may be produced cheaply from a variety of sources, such as corn and soybeans), major sources of omega - 3 fatty acids remain relatively rare and expensive. Consequently, the recommended average intake of omega - 3 for adult men in the United States is only 1.6 grams / day, or less than 2 % of total fat; currently, the average consumption of omega - 3 in the United States is approximately 1.3 grams / day, almost all of it in the form of ALA; EPA and DHA contributed less than 0.1 grams / day.
Elevated levels of free fatty acids and triglycerides in the blood stream and tissues have been found in many studies to contribute to diminished insulin sensitivity. Triglyceride levels are driven by a variety of dietary factors. They are correlated with excess body weight. They tend to rise due to overeating and fall during fat loss. At constant energy intake, triglyceride levels are correlated positively with trans fat intake and strongly inversely correlated with omega - 3 intake. High - carbohydrate, low - fat diets were found by many studies to result in elevated triglycerides, in part due to higher production of VLDL from fructose and sucrose, and in part because increased carbohydrate intake tends to displace some omega - 3 fatty acids from the diet.
Several recent authors have suggested that the intake of simple sugars, and particularly fructose, is also a factor that contributes to insulin resistance. Fructose is metabolized by the liver into triglycerides, and, as mentioned above, tends to raise their levels in the blood stream. Therefore, it may contribute to insulin resistance through the same mechanisms as dietary fat. Just like fat, high levels of fructose and / or sucrose induce insulin resistance in rats, and, just as with fat, this insulin resistance is ameliorated by fish oil supplementation. One study observed that a low - fat diet high in simple sugars (but not in complex carbohydrates and starches) significantly stimulates fatty acid synthesis, primarily of the saturated fatty acid palmitate, therefore, paradoxically, resulting in the plasma fatty acid pattern that is similar to that produced by a high - saturated - fat diet. It should be pointed out that virtually all evidence of deleterious effects of simple sugars so far is limited to their concentrated formulations and sweetened beverages. In particular, very little is known about the effects of simple sugars in whole fruits and vegetables. If anything, epidemiological studies suggest that their high consumption is associated with somewhat lower risk of IR and / or metabolic syndrome.
Yet another proposed mechanism involves the phenomenon known as leptin resistance. Leptin is a hormone that regulates long - term energy balance in many mammals. An important role of leptin is long - term inhibition of appetite in response to formation of body fat. This mechanism is known to be disrupted in many obese individuals: even though their leptin levels are commonly elevated, this does not result in reduction of appetite and caloric intake. Leptin resistance may be triggered in rats by ad libitum consumption of energy - dense, highly palatable foods over a period of several days. Chronic consumption of fructose in rats ultimately results in leptin resistance (however, this has only been demonstrated in a diet in which fructose provided 60 % of calories; consumption by humans in a typical Western diet is much lower.) Once leptin signalling has been disrupted, the individual becomes prone to further overeating, weight gain, and insulin resistance.
As elevated blood glucose levels are the primary stimulus for insulin secretion and production, habitually excessive carbohydrate intake is another likely contributor. This serves as a major motivation behind the low - carb family of diets. Furthermore, carbohydrates are not equally absorbed (for example, the blood glucose level response to a fixed quantity of carbohydrates in baked potatoes is about twice the response to the same quantity of carbohydrates in pumpernickel bread). Integrated blood glucose response to a fixed quantity of carbohydrates in a meal is known as glycemic index (GI). Some diets are based on this concept, assuming that consumption of low - GI food is less likely to result in insulin resistance and obesity, however, small to moderate amounts of simple sugars (i.e., sucrose, fructose, and glucose) in the typical developed - world diet seem to not have a causative effect on the development of insulin resistance.
Once established, insulin resistance would result in increased circulating levels of insulin. Since insulin is the primary hormonal signal for energy storage into fat cells, which tend to retain their sensitivity in the face of hepatic and skeletal muscle resistance, IR stimulates the formation of new fatty tissue and accelerates weight gain.
Another possible explanation is that both insulin resistance and obesity often have the same cause, systematic overeating, which has the potential to lead to insulin resistance and obesity due to repeated administration of excess levels of glucose, which stimulate insulin secretion; excess levels of fructose, which raise triglyceride levels in the bloodstream; and fats, which may be absorbed easily by the adipose cells, and tend to end up as fatty tissue in a hypercaloric diet. Some scholars go as far as to claim that neither insulin resistance, nor obesity really are metabolic disorders per se, but simply adaptive responses to sustained caloric surplus, intended to protect bodily organs from lipotoxicity (unsafe levels of lipids in the bloodstream and tissues): "Obesity should therefore not be regarded as a pathology or disease, but rather as the normal, physiologic response to sustained caloric surplus... As a consequence of the high level of lipid accumulation in insulin target tissues including skeletal muscle and liver, it has been suggested that exclusion of glucose from lipid - laden cells is a compensatory defense against further accumulation of lipogenic substrate. ''
Fast food meals typically possess several characteristics, all of which have independently been linked to IR: they are energy - dense, palatable, and cheap, increasing risk of overeating and leptin resistance; simultaneously, they are high in dietary fat and fructose, and low in omega - 3 and fiber; and they usually have high glycemic indices. Consumption of fast food has been proposed as a fundamental factor behind the metabolic syndrome epidemic and all its constituents.
An American study has shown that glucosamine (often prescribed for joint problems) may cause insulin resistance. Other studies, however, could not confirm a significant effect on blood glucose or insulin resistance.
Studies show that high levels of cortisol within the bloodstream from the digestion of animal protein may contribute to the development of insulin resistance. Several studies conclude that high uric acid levels, apart from other contributing factors, by itself may be a significant cause of insulin resistance.
Vitamin D deficiency also is associated with insulin resistance.
Sedentary lifestyle increases the likelihood of development of insulin resistance. It has been estimated that each 500 kcal / week increment in physical activity related energy expenditure, reduces the lifetime risk of type 2 diabetes by 9 %. A different study found that vigorous exercise at least once a week reduced the risk of type 2 diabetes in women by 33 %.
Protease inhibitors found in HIV drugs are linked to insulin resistance.
At the cellular level, much of the variance in insulin sensitivity between untrained, non-diabetic humans may be explained by two mechanisms: differences in phospholipid profiles of skeletal muscle cell membranes, and in intramyocellular lipid (ICML) stores within these cells. High levels of lipids in the bloodstream have the potential to result in accumulation of triglycerides and their derivatives within muscle cells, which activate proteins Kinase C - ε and C - θ, ultimately reducing the glucose uptake at any given level of insulin. This mechanism is quite fast - acting and may induce insulin resistance within days or even hours in response to a large lipid influx. Draining the intracellular reserves, on the other hand, is more challenging: moderate caloric restriction alone, even over a period of several months, appears to be ineffective, and it must be combined with physical exercise to have any effect.
In the long term, diet has the potential to change the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated phospholipids in cell membranes, correspondingly changing cell membrane fluidity; full impact of such changes is not fully understood, but it is known that the percentage of polyunsaturated phospholipids is strongly inversely correlated with insulin resistance. It is hypothesized that increasing cell membrane fluidity by increasing PUFA concentration might result in an enhanced number of insulin receptors, an increased affinity of insulin to its receptors, and a reduced insulin resistance, and vice versa.
Many stressing factors may lead to increased cortisol in the bloodstream. Cortisol counteracts insulin, contributes to hyperglycemia - causing hepatic gluconeogenesis, and inhibits the peripheral utilization of glucose, which eventually leads to insulin resistance. It does this by decreasing the translocation of glucose transporters (especially GLUT4) to the cell membrane.
Although inflammation often is caused by cortisol, inflammation by itself also seems to be implicated in causing insulin resistance. Mice without JNK1 - signaling do not develop insulin resistance under dietary conditions that normally produce it. Recent study have found out the specific role of the MLK family of protein in the activation of JNK during obesity and insulin resistance.
Rare type 2 diabetes cases sometimes use high levels of exogenous insulin. As short - term overdosing of insulin causes short - term insulin resistance, it has been hypothesized that chronic high dosing contributes to more permanent insulin resistance.
At a molecular level, insulin resistance has been proposed to be a reaction to excess nutrition by superoxide dismutase in cell mitochondria that acts as an antioxidant defense mechanism. This link seems to exist under diverse causes of insulin resistance. It also is based on the finding that insulin resistance may be reversed rapidly by exposing cells to mitochondrial uncouplers, electron transport chain inhibitors, or mitochondrial superoxide dismutase mimetics.
Recent research and experimentation has uncovered a non-obesity related connection to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. It has long been observed that patients who have had some kinds of bariatric surgery have increased insulin sensitivity and even remission of type 2 diabetes. It was discovered that diabetic / insulin resistant non-obese rats whose duodenum has been removed surgically, also experienced increased insulin sensitivity and remission of type 2 diabetes. This suggested similar surgery in humans, and early reports in prominent medical journals are that the same effect is seen in humans, at least the small number who have participated in the experimental surgical program. The speculation is, that some substance is produced in the mucosa of that initial portion of the small intestine that signals body cells to become insulin resistant. If the producing tissue is removed, the signal ceases and body cells revert to normal insulin sensitivity. No such substance has been found as yet, and the existence of such a substance remains speculative.
Insulin resistance is associated with PCOS.
Hepatitis C also makes people three to four times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance. In addition, "people with Hepatitis C who develop diabetes probably have susceptible insulin - producing cells, and probably would get it anyway, but much later in life. The extra insulin resistance caused by Hepatitis C apparently brings on diabetes at age 35 or 40, instead of 65 or 70. ''
One of insulin 's functions is to regulate delivery of glucose into cells to provide them with energy. Insulin resistant cells can not take in glucose, amino acids and fatty acids. Thus, glucose, fatty acids and amino acids ' leak ' out of the cells. A decrease in insulin / glucagon ratio inhibits glycolysis which in turn decreases energy production. The resulting increase in blood glucose may raise levels outside the normal range and cause adverse health effects, depending on dietary conditions. Certain cell types such as fat and muscle cells require insulin to absorb glucose. When these cells fail to respond adequately to circulating insulin, blood glucose levels rise. The liver helps regulate glucose levels by reducing its secretion of glucose in the presence of insulin. This normal reduction in the liver 's glucose production may not occur in people with insulin resistance.
Insulin resistance in muscle and fat cells reduces glucose uptake (and also local storage of glucose as glycogen and triglycerides, respectively), whereas insulin resistance in liver cells results in reduced glycogen synthesis and storage and also a failure to suppress glucose production and release into the blood. Insulin resistance normally refers to reduced glucose - lowering effects of insulin. However, other functions of insulin can also be affected. For example, insulin resistance in fat cells reduces the normal effects of insulin on lipids and results in reduced uptake of circulating lipids and increased hydrolysis of stored triglycerides. Increased mobilization of stored lipids in these cells elevates free fatty acids in the blood plasma. Elevated blood fatty - acid concentrations (associated with insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus Type 2), reduced muscle glucose uptake, and increased liver glucose production all contribute to elevated blood glucose levels. High plasma levels of insulin and glucose due to insulin resistance are a major component of the metabolic syndrome. If insulin resistance exists, more insulin needs to be secreted by the pancreas. If this compensatory increase does not occur, blood glucose concentrations increase and type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults occurs.
Any food or drink containing glucose (or the digestible carbohydrates that contain it, such as sucrose, starch, etc.) causes blood glucose levels to increase. In normal metabolism, the elevated blood glucose level instructs beta (β) cells in the Islets of Langerhans, located in the pancreas, to release insulin into the blood. The insulin, in turn, makes insulin - sensitive tissues in the body (primarily skeletal muscle cells, adipose tissue, and liver) absorb glucose, and thereby lower the blood glucose level. The beta cells reduce insulin output as the blood glucose level falls, allowing blood glucose to settle at a constant of approximately 5 mmol / L (mM) (90 mg / dL). In an insulin - resistant person, normal levels of insulin do not have the same effect in controlling blood glucose levels. During the compensated phase on insulin resistance, insulin levels are higher, and blood glucose levels are still maintained. If compensatory insulin secretion fails, then either fasting (impaired fasting glucose) or postprandial (impaired glucose tolerance) glucose concentrations increase. Eventually, type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes occurs when glucose levels become higher throughout the day as the resistance increases and compensatory insulin secretion fails. The elevated insulin levels also have additional effects (see insulin) that cause further abnormal biological effects throughout the body.
The most common type of insulin resistance is associated with overweight and obesity in a condition known as the metabolic syndrome. Insulin resistance often progresses to full Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults. This often is seen when hyperglycemia develops after a meal, when pancreatic β - cells are unable to produce sufficient insulin to maintain normal blood sugar levels (euglycemia) in the face of insulin resistance. The inability of the β - cells to produce sufficient insulin in a condition of hyperglycemia is what characterizes the transition from insulin resistance to T2DM.
Various disease states make body tissues more resistant to the actions of insulin. Examples include infection (mediated by the cytokine TNFα) and acidosis. Recent research is investigating the roles of adipokines (the cytokines produced by adipose tissue) in insulin resistance. Certain drugs also may be associated with insulin resistance (e.g., glucocorticoids).
The presence of insulin leads to a kind of insulin resistance; every time a cell is exposed to insulin, the production of GLUT4 (Glucose transporter type 4) on the membrane of the cell decreases somewhat. In the presence of a higher than usual level of insulin (generally caused by insulin resistance), this down - regulation acts as a kind of positive feedback, increasing the need for insulin. Exercise reverses this process in muscle tissue, but if it is left unchecked, it may contribute to insulin resistance.
Elevated blood levels of glucose -- regardless of cause -- lead to increased glycation of proteins with changes, only a few of which are understood in any detail, in protein function throughout the body.
Insulin resistance often is found in people with visceral adiposity (i.e., a high degree of fatty tissue within the abdomen -- as distinct from subcutaneous adiposity or fat between the skin and the muscle wall, especially elsewhere on the body, such as hips or thighs), hypertension, hyperglycemia, and dyslipidemia involving elevated triglycerides, small dense low - density lipoprotein (sdLDL) particles, and decreased HDL cholesterol levels. With respect to visceral adiposity, a great deal of evidence suggests two strong links with insulin resistance. First, unlike subcutaneous adipose tissue, visceral adipose cells produce significant amounts of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor - alpha (TNF - a), and Interleukins - 1 and − 6, etc. In numerous experimental models, these proinflammatory cytokines disrupt normal insulin action in fat and muscle cells, and may be a major factor in causing the whole - body insulin resistance observed in patients with visceral adiposity. Much of the attention on production of proinflammatory cytokines has focused on the IKK - beta / NF - kappa - B pathway, a protein network that enhances transcription of inflammatory markers and mediators that may cause insulin resistance. Second, visceral adiposity is related to an accumulation of fat in the liver, a condition known as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The result of NAFLD is an excessive release of free fatty acids into the bloodstream (due to increased lipolysis), and an increase in hepatic glycogenolysis and hepatic glucose production, both of which have the effect of exacerbating peripheral insulin resistance and increasing the likelihood of Type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Also, insulin resistance often is associated with a hypercoagulable state (impaired fibrinolysis) and increased inflammatory cytokine levels.
A fasting serum insulin level greater than 25 mIU / L or 174 pmol / L is considered insulin resistance. The same levels apply three hours after the last meal.
During a glucose tolerance test, which may be used to diagnose diabetes mellitus, a fasting patient takes a 75 gram oral dose of glucose. Then blood glucose levels are measured over the following two hours.
Interpretation is based on WHO guidelines. After two hours a glycemia less than 7.8 mmol / L (140 mg / dL) is considered normal, a glycemia of between 7.8 and 11.0 mmol / L (140 to 197 mg / dL) is considered as impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), and a glycemia of greater than or equal to 11.1 mmol / L (200 mg / dL) is considered diabetes mellitus.
An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) may be normal or mildly abnormal in simple insulin resistance. Often, there are raised glucose levels in the early measurements, reflecting the loss of a postprandial peak (after the meal) in insulin production. Extension of the testing (for several more hours) may reveal a hypoglycemic "dip, '' that is a result of an overshoot in insulin production after the failure of the physiologic postprandial insulin response.
The gold standard for investigating and quantifying insulin resistance is the "hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp, '' so - called because it measures the amount of glucose necessary to compensate for an increased insulin level without causing hypoglycemia. It is a type of glucose clamp technique. The test rarely is performed in clinical care, but is used in medical research, for example, to assess the effects of different medications. The rate of glucose infusion commonly is referred to in diabetes literature as the GINF value.
The procedure takes about two hours. Through a peripheral vein, insulin is infused at 10 -- 120 mU per m per minute. In order to compensate for the insulin infusion, glucose 20 % is infused to maintain blood sugar levels between 5 and 5.5 mmol / L. The rate of glucose infusion is determined by checking the blood sugar levels every five to ten minutes.
The rate of glucose infusion during the last thirty minutes of the test determines insulin sensitivity. If high levels (7.5 mg / min or higher) are required, the patient is insulin - sensitive. Very low levels (4.0 mg / min or lower) indicate that the body is resistant to insulin action. Levels between 4.0 and 7.5 mg / min are not definitive, and suggest "impaired glucose tolerance, '' an early sign of insulin resistance.
This basic technique may be enhanced significantly by the use of glucose tracers. Glucose may be labeled with either stable or radioactive atoms. Commonly used tracers are 3 - H glucose (radioactive), 6, 6 H - glucose (stable) and 1 - C Glucose (stable). Prior to beginning the hyperinsulinemic period, a 3h tracer infusion enables one to determine the basal rate of glucose production. During the clamp, the plasma tracer concentrations enable the calculation of whole - body insulin - stimulated glucose metabolism, as well as the production of glucose by the body (i.e., endogenous glucose production).
Another measure of insulin resistance is the modified insulin suppression test developed by Gerald Reaven at Stanford University. The test correlates well with the euglycemic clamp, with less operator - dependent error. This test has been used to advance the large body of research relating to the metabolic syndrome.
Patients initially receive 25 μg of octreotide (Sandostatin) in 5 mL of normal saline over 3 to 5 minutes via intravenous infusion (IV) as an initial bolus, and then, are infused continuously with an intravenous infusion of somatostatin (0.27 μg / m / min) to suppress endogenous insulin and glucose secretion. Next, insulin and 20 % glucose are infused at rates of 32 and 267 mg / m / min, respectively. Blood glucose is checked at zero, 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes, and thereafter, every 10 minutes for the last half - hour of the test. These last four values are averaged to determine the steady - state plasma glucose level (SSPG). Subjects with an SSPG greater than 150 mg / dL are considered to be insulin - resistant.
Given the complicated nature of the "clamp '' technique (and the potential dangers of hypoglycemia in some patients), alternatives have been sought to simplify the measurement of insulin resistance. The first was the Homeostatic Model Assessment (HOMA), and a more recent method is the Quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (QUICKI). Both employ fasting insulin and glucose levels to calculate insulin resistance, and both correlate reasonably with the results of clamping studies. Wallace et al. point out that QUICKI is the logarithm of the value from one of the HOMA equations.
The primary treatment for insulin resistance is exercise and weight loss. Research shows that a low - carbohydrate diet may help. Both metformin and thiazolidinediones improve insulin resistance, but only are approved therapies for type 2 diabetes, not for insulin resistance. By contrast, growth hormone replacement therapy may be associated with increased insulin resistance.
Metformin has become one of the more commonly prescribed medications for insulin resistance. Unfortunately, Metformin also masks Vitamin B12 deficiency, so accompanying sub-lingual Vitamin B12 tablets are recommended.
Insulin resistance is often associated with abnormalities in lipids particularly high blood triglycerides and low high density lipoprotein.
The Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) showed that exercise and diet were nearly twice as effective as metformin at reducing the risk of progressing to type 2 diabetes. However, the participants in the DPP trial regained about 40 % of the weight that they had lost at the end of 2.8 years, resulting in a similar incidence of diabetes development in both the lifestyle intervention and the control arms of the trial. One 2009 study found that carbohydrate deficit after exercise, but not energy deficit, contributed to insulin sensitivity increase.
Resistant starch from high - amylose corn, amylomaize, has been shown to reduce insulin resistance in healthy individuals, in individuals with insulin resistance, and in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Animal studies demonstrate that it can not reverse damage already done by high glucose levels, but that it reduces insulin resistance and reduces the development of further damage.
Some types of polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega - 3) may moderate the progression of insulin resistance into type 2 diabetes, however, omega - 3 fatty acids appear to have limited ability to reverse insulin resistance, and they cease to be efficacious once type 2 diabetes is established.
Caffeine intake limits insulin action, but not enough to increase blood - sugar levels in healthy persons. People who already have type 2 diabetes may see a small increase in levels if they take 2 or 2 - 1 / 2 cups of coffee per day.
The concept that insulin resistance may be the underlying cause of diabetes mellitus type 2 was first advanced by Professor Wilhelm Falta and published in Vienna in 1931, and confirmed as contributory by Sir Harold Percival Himsworth of the University College Hospital Medical Centre in London in 1936, however, type 2 diabetes does not occur unless there is concurrent failure of compensatory insulin secretion.
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what happened to the kid from home alone | Macaulay Culkin - wikipedia
Macaulay Carson Culkin (born August 26, 1980) is an American actor. He became famous as a child actor for his role as Kevin McCallister in the family comedy Home Alone (1990) and its sequel Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992). He is also known for his roles in Uncle Buck (1989), My Girl (1991), The Good Son (1993), The Pagemaster (1994), Richie Rich (1994), Party Monster (2003), and the music video for Michael Jackson 's "Black or White ''. At the height of his fame, he was regarded as the most successful child actor since Shirley Temple. Culkin ranked at number two on VH1 's list of the "100 Greatest Kid - Stars '' and E! 's list of the "50 Greatest Child Stars ''.
Culkin was born in New York City. His father, Christopher Cornelius "Kit '' Culkin, is a former actor known for his productions on Broadway and is the brother of actress Bonnie Bedelia. His mother is Patricia Brentrup, who never married Culkin. He was raised Roman Catholic, and attended a Catholic school (St. Joseph 's School of Yorkville) for five years before moving on to Professional Children 's School. He also studied ballet at the School of American Ballet. Macaulay Carson Culkin was named after Thomas Babington Macaulay. He was given the middle name Carson so he would then be named after Kit Carson of the old west. Culkin was the third of seven children, five boys and two girls: Shane (born 1976), Dakota (1979 -- 2008), Kieran (born 1982), Quinn (born 1984), Christian (born 1987), and Rory (born 1989). During Culkin 's early childhood, the family lived in a small apartment; his mother was a telephone operator and his father worked as a sacristan at a local Catholic church.
Culkin began acting at the age of four. Early roles saw him appearing in a stage production of Bach Babies at the New York Philharmonic. He continued appearing in roles on stage, television, and films throughout the 1980s. Notable parts in this period included an episode of the popular action series The Equalizer, in which he played a kidnapping victim, and in the TV movie The Midnight Hour. In 1989, he starred in Uncle Buck with John Candy.
Culkin rose to international fame with his lead role as Kevin McCallister in the blockbuster film Home Alone (1990), where he was reunited with Uncle Buck writer and director John Hughes and Uncle Buck co-star John Candy. He reprised the role of Kevin in the 1992 sequel Home Alone 2: Lost in New York. Culkin also starred in a Saturday morning cartoon entitled Wish Kid and hosted Saturday Night Live in late 1991. Despite the huge success of Uncle Buck, Home Alone, Home Alone 2: Lost in New York and My Girl, other films Culkin acted in, such as The Good Son, only did reasonably well (although he was nominated for MTV Movie Award in the category for Best Villain for his performance in the film). Getting Even with Dad, The Pagemaster, and Richie Rich, all released in 1994, were only mildly successful at the box office. He also appeared, while a student at the School of American Ballet, in a filmed version of The Nutcracker as the title role in 1993, which was staged by Peter Martins from the 1954 George Balanchine New York City Ballet version of the work. He appeared in the 1998 music video for the song "Sunday '' by the rock band Sonic Youth.
After several years of inactivity, Culkin returned to acting, in 2000, with a role in the play Madame Melville, which was staged in London 's West End. In the spring of 2003, he made a guest appearance on the NBC sitcom Will & Grace. His role as Karen Walker 's deceptively immature divorce lawyer won him favorable reviews. Culkin headed back into motion pictures in 2003 with Party Monster, in which he played a role very different from those he was known for; that of party promoter Michael Alig, a drug user and murderer. He quickly followed that with a supporting part in Saved!, as a cynical wheelchair - using, non-Christian student in a conservative Christian high school. Though Saved! only had modest success at the box office, Culkin received positive reviews for his role in the film and its implications for a career as an adult actor. Culkin began doing voice - over work, with appearances in Seth Green 's Robot Chicken. In 2006, he published an experimental, semi-autobiographical novel, Junior, which featured details about Culkin 's stardom and his shaky relationship with his father. Culkin starred in Sex and Breakfast, a dark comedy written and directed by Miles Brandman. Alexis Dziena, Kuno Becker and Eliza Dushku also star in this story of a couple whose therapist recommends they engage in group sex. Shooting for the film, Culkin 's first since Saved!, took place in September 2006. The film opened in Los Angeles on November 30, 2007 and was released on DVD on January 22, 2008 by First Look Pictures. Culkin 's next project was a role in the thirteen - episode NBC television series Kings as Andrew Cross.
In 2009, Culkin appeared in a UK - based commercial for Aviva Insurance (formerly Norwich Union) to help promote their company 's rebranding. Culkin stared into the camera stating, "Remember me. '' On August 17, 2009, Culkin made a brief cameo appearance on WWE Raw at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri, following a "falls count anywhere '' match between Hornswoggle and Chavo Guerrero, in which Guerrero was defeated by the classic Home Alone gag of rigging a swinging paint can to hit him upon opening a door. Culkin appeared in the doorway and said, "That 's not funny. '' In February 2010, Culkin appeared in an episode of Poppy de Villeneuve 's online series for The New York Times, The Park. On March 7 of the same year, he appeared alongside actors Matthew Broderick, Molly Ringwald, Judd Nelson, Ally Sheedy, Anthony Michael Hall, and Jon Cryer in a tribute to the late John Hughes. In April 2011, Culkin was featured in musician Adam Green 's experimental film The Wrong Ferarri, which was entirely shot on an iPhone. In the same month, he also appeared in the music video for "Stamp Your Name On It '' performed by Green 's former bandmate Jack Dishel / Only Son. In September 2012, he appeared in a video on YouTube explaining how he turned his apartment in New York into a painting workshop.
In 2013, Culkin directed and co-produced a short called "Macaulay Culkin Eating a Slice of Pizza '' co-starring Phoebe Kreutz.
In July 2016, Culkin had joined the meerkats Aleksandr and Sergei in Compare the Meerkat 's new ad.
In December 2013, a viral video of Culkin eating a cheese pizza was uploaded to YouTube. He was parodying Andy Warhol consuming a Burger King Whopper in Jørgen Leth 's documentary 66 Scenes from America. Culkin was promoting the debut of his New York - based, pizza - themed comedy rock band the Pizza Underground. Their tour began in Brooklyn on January 24, 2014. In late May 2014, Culkin stormed off stage at Rock City during his kazoo solo after fans began booing and throwing pints of beer at the band. They subsequently cancelled the remaining U.K. shows, though they claimed the cancellation had nothing to do with the Rock City performance.
On July 10, 2016, Culkin revealed that the Pizza Underground is splitting up and their next album will be the last.
Culkin stated in a May 27, 2004, interview on Larry King Live that he tends to refrain from disclosing aspects of his personal life, though he discussed his life as a child actor, the conflict in his family life (including his estrangement from his father), and how he retired from acting at age 14. Culkin married actress Rachel Miner in 1998, but the couple separated in 2000 and divorced in 2002.
Culkin began dating actress Mila Kunis in May 2002. By 2006, he was residing in New York, and Kunis was in Los Angeles. On January 3, 2011, Kunis 's publicist confirmed reports that Culkin and Kunis had ended their relationship several months previously, saying, "The split was amicable, and they remain close friends. ''
Culkin has been dating former All My Children actress Jordan Lane Price since November 2013. Since 2013, Culkin lives in Paris.
On September 17, 2004, Culkin was arrested in Oklahoma City for the possession of 17.3 grams (0.61 oz) of marijuana and two controlled substances, 16.5 milligrams (0.25 grains) of Alprazolam and 32 milligrams (0.5 gr) of Clonazepam, for which he was briefly jailed, then released on a $4,000 bail. After being arraigned in court for misdemeanor drug offenses, he pleaded not guilty at the trial (October 15, 2004, to June 9, 2005), then later reversed the plea to guilty. He received three one - year suspended prison sentences and was ordered to pay $540 in fees.
Around the time of the first Home Alone movie, Culkin became close friends with pop singer Michael Jackson, making an appearance in Jackson 's "Black or White '' music video. After sexual abuse allegations involving Michael Jackson, Culkin spoke at Jackson 's trial, and reported he had slept in Jackson 's bedroom on countless occasions but also stated that Jackson 's bedroom was arranged over two stories and that Jackson had never sexually molested him or touched him in improper ways. Culkin referred to the allegations as "absolutely ridiculous. '' Culkin attended Jackson 's burial on September 3, 2009.
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mechanism of action of valproic acid in epilepsy | Valproate - wikipedia
Valproate (VPA), and its valproic acid, sodium valproate, and valproate semisodium forms, are medications primarily used to treat epilepsy and bipolar disorder and to prevent migraine headaches. It is useful for the prevention of seizures in those with absence seizures, partial seizures, and generalized seizures. It can be given intravenously or by mouth. Long and short acting formulation of tablets exist.
Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, sleepiness, and a dry mouth. Serious side effects can include liver problems and regular monitoring of liver function tests is therefore recommended. Other serious risks include pancreatitis and an increased suicide risk. It is known to cause serious abnormalities in the baby if taken during pregnancy. Because of this it is not typically recommended in women of childbearing age who have migraines.
It is unclear exactly how valproate works. Proposed mechanisms include affecting GABA levels, blocking voltage - gated sodium channels, and inhibiting histone deacetylases. Valproic acid is a branched short - chain fatty acid (SCFA) made from valeric acid.
Valproate was first made in 1881 and it came into medical use in 1962. Valproate is included in the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. It is available as a generic medication. The wholesale cost in the developing world is between 0.14 and 0.52 USD per day. In the United States, it costs roughly $0.90 USD per day. It is marketed under the brand names Depakote and Epilim among others.
Valproic acid (VPA) is an organic weak acid. The conjugate base is valproate. The sodium salt of the acid is sodium valproate and a coordination complex of the two is known as divalproex sodium.
It is used primarily to treat epilepsy and bipolar disorder. It is also used to prevent migraine headaches.
Valproate has a broad spectrum of anticonvulsant activity, although it is primarily used as a first - line treatment for tonic - clonic seizures, absence seizures and myoclonic seizures and as a second - line treatment for partial seizures and infantile spasms. It has also been successfully given intravenously to treat status epilepticus.
Valproate products are also used to treat manic or mixed episodes of bipolar disorder.
A 2016 systematic review compared the efficacy of valproate as an add - on for people with schizophrenia:
Valproic acid may have efficacy in controlling the symptoms of the dopamine dysregulation syndrome that arise from the treatment of Parkinson 's disease with dopamine receptor agonists.
Valproate is also used to prevent migraine headaches. Because this medication can be potentially harmful to the fetus, valproate should be considered for women of childbearing potential only after the risks have been discussed.
The medication has been tested in the treatment of AIDS and cancer, owing to its histone deacetylase - inhibiting effects.
Most common adverse effects include:
Serious adverse effects include:
Valproic acid has a black box warning for hepatotoxicity, pancreatitis, and fetal abnormalities.
There is evidence that valproic acid may cause premature growth plate ossification in children and adolescents, resulting in decreased height. Valproic acid can also cause mydriasis, a dilation of the pupils. There is evidence that shows valproic acid may increase the chance of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in women with epilepsy or bipolar disorder. Studies have shown this risk of PCOS is higher in women with epilepsy compared to those with bipolar disorder.
Valproate causes birth defects; exposure during pregnancy is associated with about three times as many major abnormalities as usual, mainly spina bifida with the risks being related to the strength of medication used and use of more than one drug. More rarely, with several other defects, possibly including a "valproate syndrome ''. Characteristics of this valproate syndrome include facial features that tend to evolve with age, including a triangle - shaped forehead, tall forehead with bifrontal narrowing, epicanthic folds, medial deficiency of eyebrows, flat nasal bridge, broad nasal root, anteverted nares, shallow philtrum, long upper lip and thin vermillion borders, thick lower lip and small downturned mouth. While developmental delay is usually associated with altered physical characteristics (dysmorphic features), this is not always the case.
Children of mothers taking valproate during pregnancy are at risk for lower IQs. Maternal valproate use during pregnancy has been associated with a significantly higher probability of autism in the offspring. A 2005 study found rates of autism among children exposed to sodium valproate before birth in the cohort studied were 8.9 %. The normal incidence for autism in the general population is estimated at less than one percent. A 2009 study found that the 3 - year - old children of pregnant women taking valproate had an IQ nine points lower than that of a well - matched control group. However, further research in older children and adults is needed.
Sodium valproate has been associated with the rare condition paroxysmal tonic upgaze of childhood, also known as Ouvrier -- Billson syndrome, from childhood or fetal exposure. This condition resolved after discontinuing valproate therapy.
Women who intend to become pregnant should switch to a different medication if possible, or decrease their dose of valproate. Women who become pregnant while taking valproate should be warned that it causes birth defects and cognitive impairment in the newborn, especially at high doses (although valproate is sometimes the only drug that can control seizures, and seizures in pregnancy could have even worse consequences.) Studies have shown that taking folic acid can reduce the risk of congenital neural tube defects.
Valproate in elderly people with dementia caused increased sleepiness. More people stopped the medication for this reason. Additional side effects of weight loss and decreased food intake was also associated in one half of people who become sleepy.
Contraindications include:
Valproate inhibits CYP2C9, glucuronyl transferase, and epoxide hydrolase and is highly protein bound and hence may interact with drugs that are substrates for any of these enzymes or are highly protein bound themselves. It may also potentiate the CNS depressant effects of alcohol. It should not be given in conjunction with other antiepileptics due to the potential for reduced clearance of other antiepileptics (including carbamazepine, lamotrigine, phenytoin and phenobarbitone) and itself. It may also interact with:
Excessive amounts of valproic acid can result in sleepiness, tremor, stupor, respiratory depression, coma, metabolic acidosis, and death. In general, serum or plasma valproic acid concentrations are in a range of 20 -- 100 mg / l during controlled therapy, but may reach 150 -- 1500 mg / l following acute poisoning. Monitoring of the serum level is often accomplished using commercial immunoassay techniques, although some laboratories employ gas or liquid chromatography. In contrast to other antiepileptic drugs, at present there is little favorable evidence for salivary therapeutic drug monitoring. Salivary levels of valproic acid correlate poorly with serum levels, partly due to valproate 's weak acid property (pKa of 4.9).
In severe intoxication, hemoperfusion or hemofiltration can be an effective means of hastening elimination of the drug from the body. Supportive therapy should be given to all patients experiencing an overdose and urine output should be monitored. Supplemental L - carnitine is indicated in patients having an acute overdose and also prophylactically in high risk patients. Acetyl - L - carnitine lowers hyperammonemia less markedly than L - carnitine.
Although the mechanism of action of valproate is not fully understood, traditionally, its anticonvulsant effect has been attributed to the blockade of voltage - gated sodium channels and increased brain levels of gamma - aminobutyric acid (GABA). The GABAergic effect is also believed to contribute towards the anti-manic properties of valproate. In animals, sodium valproate raises cerebral and cerebellar levels of the inhibitory synaptic neurotransmitter, GABA, possibly by inhibiting GABA degradative enzymes, such as GABA transaminase, succinate - semialdehyde dehydrogenase and by inhibiting the re-uptake of GABA by neuronal cells.
Prevention of neurotransmitter - induced hyperexcitability of nerve cells, via Kv7. 2 channel and AKAP5, may also contribute to its mechanism. Also, it has been shown to protect against a seizure - induced reduction in phosphatidylinositol (3, 4, 5) - trisphosphate (PIP3) as a potential therapeutic mechanism.
It also has histone deacetylase - inhibiting effects. The inhibition of histone deacetylase, by promoting more transcriptionally active chromatin structures, likely presents the epigenetic mechanism for regulation of many of the neuroprotective effects attributed to valproic acid. Intermediate molecules mediating these effects include VEGF, BDNF, and GDNF.
Valproic acid has been found to be an antagonist of the androgen and progesterone receptors, and hence as a nonsteroidal antiandrogen and antiprogestogen, at concentrations much lower than therapeutic serum levels. In addition, the drug has been identified as a potent aromatase inhibitor, and suppresses estrogen concentrations. These actions are likely to be involved in the reproductive endocrine disturbances seen with valproic acid treatment.
Valproic acid has been found to directly stimulate androgen biosynthesis in the gonads via inhibition of histone deacetylases and has been associated with hyperandrogenism in women and increased 4 - androstenedione levels in men. High rates of polycystic ovary syndrome and menstrual disorders have also been observed in women treated with valproic acid.
The vast majority of valproate metabolism occurs in the liver. In adult patients taking valproate alone, 30 -- 50 % of an administered dose is excreted in urine as a glucuronide conjugate. The other major pathway in the metabolism of valproate is mitochondrial beta - oxidation, which typically accounts for over 40 % of an administered dose. Typically, less than 20 % of an administered dose is eliminated by other oxidative mechanisms. Less than 3 % of an administered dose of valproate is excreted unchanged (i.e., as valproate) in urine.
Valproate is known to be metabolized by the Cytochrome P450 enzymes: CYP2A6, CYP2B6, CYP2C9, and CYP3A5. It is also known to be metabolized by the UDP - glucuronosyltransferase enzymes: UGT1A3, UGT1A4, UGT1A6, UGT1A8, UGT1A9, UGT1A10, UGT2B7, and UGT2B15. Some of the known metabolites of valproate by these enzymes and uncharacterized enzymes include: 2 - ene - valproic acid, 3Z - ene - valproic acid, 3E - ene - valproic acid, 4 - ene - valproic acid, valproic acid β - O - glucuronide, 3 - oxovalproic acid, 3 - hydroxyvalproic acid, 4 - hydroxyvalproic acid, 5 - hydroxyvalproic acid, and valproyl - CoA, among others.
Valproic acid is a branched short - chain fatty acid and a derivative of valeric acid.
Valproic acid was first synthesized in 1882 by Beverly S. Burton as an analogue of valeric acid, found naturally in valerian. Valproic acid is a carboxylic acid, a clear liquid at room temperature. For many decades, its only use was in laboratories as a "metabolically inert '' solvent for organic compounds. In 1962, the French researcher Pierre Eymard serendipitously discovered the anticonvulsant properties of valproic acid while using it as a vehicle for a number of other compounds that were being screened for antiseizure activity. He found it prevented pentylenetetrazol - induced convulsions in laboratory rats. It was approved as an antiepileptic drug in 1967 in France and has become the most widely prescribed antiepileptic drug worldwide. Valproic acid has also been used for migraine prophylaxis and bipolar disorder.
It is available as a generic medication. The wholesale cost in the developing world is between $0.14 and $0.52 USD per day. In the European Union, end - user costs are less than 0.60 EUR for an average daily dose in Germany. In the United States, it costs about $0.90 USD per day.
Valproate exists in two main molecular variants: sodium valproate and valproic acid without sodium (often implied by simply valproate). A mixture between these two is termed semisodium valproate. It is unclear whether there is any difference in efficacy between these variants, except from the fact that about 10 % more of sodium valproate is needed than valproic acid without sodium to compensate for the sodium itself.
Branded products include:
All the above formulations are Pharmac - subsidised.
In much of Europe, Dépakine and Depakine Chrono (tablets) are equivalent to Epilim and Epilim Chrono above.
Depalept and Depalept Chrono (extended release tablets) are equivalent to Epilim and Epilim Chrono above. Manufactured and distributed by Sanofi - Aventis.
As of 2016 it is also registered for 45 phase II clinical trials (some completed) for various cancers.
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high court of judicature at hyderabad for the state of telangana | High Court of Judicature at Hyderabad - Wikipedia
The High Court of Judicature at Hyderabad for the State of Telangana and the State of Andhra Pradesh is the common High Court of the Indian states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Its chief engineer was Nawab Khan Bahadur Mirza Akbar Baig. High Court of Andhra Pradesh, as it was known earlier, was set up on 5 November 1956 under the State Reorganization Act 1956. The Andhra Pradesh High Court was renamed as High court of Judicature at Hyderabad in view of bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh state. From 2 June 2014, after the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 came into force, it has been renamed and serves as a common high court for both the states. A separate high court has to be established for Andhra Pradesh. After a separate High Court for Andhra Pradesh is established, High Court of Judicature at Hyderabad shall remain the High Court for Telangana state.
The seat of the high court is in the administrative capital, Hyderabad and has a sanctioned judge strength of 49.
The State of Andhra Pradesh was formed in 1956 by the separation of the merger of the Andhra State which was formed in year 1953 from erstwhile Madras state and the Telangana area of the Hyderabad State which was acceded by Government of India on 17 September 1948 from the Nizam 's rule.
The High Court stands on the south bank of the River Musi. This is one of the finest buildings in the city, built in red and white stones in Saracenic style, by Nizam VII Mir Osman Ali Khan the ruler of the princely state of Hyderabad
The plan of the High Court was drawn up by Shankar Lal of Jaipur and the local engineer who executed the design was Mehar Ali Fazil. The construction started on 15 April 1915 and was completed on 31 March 1919. On 20 April 1920 the High Court building was inaugurated by Nizam VII Mir Osman Ali Khan.
While digging the foundation for the High Court, ruins of the Qutb Shahi Palaces, namely Hina Mahal and Nadi Mahal were unearthed. The High Court looks beautiful and impressive from the Naya Pul Bridge at sunset.
After its construction, a silver model of the High Court with a silver key was presented to the Nizam VII Mir Osman Ali Khan by the Judiciary during the Silver Jubilee Celebrations in 1936. The facsimile of the buildings was perfectly carved in a thick sheet of silver weighing about 300 kg. The model is now in the Nizam 's Museum in Purani Haveli.
The main building of the High Court was constructed in the year 1919 by the then Nizam 's Government accommodating Six Judges besides accommodation for the Office Staff, record rooms and Advocates ' Hall.
When the High Court of Andhra Pradesh was formed in 1956 as a consequence of States Reorganisation Act, the Judges strength was increased to 12. The existing accommodation at that time was only inadequate to meet the requirements of the larger High Court and so the additional building was constructed in 1958 - 59. The entire office rooms, record rooms, chambers of advocates (42 in all) and the rooms for law officers were located in this building. The record rooms, Officer rooms in the main building were modified to provide chambers and Court Hall accommodation for 14 Judges.
By 1970, the institution of cases of the High Court has gone up to 35,000 as against 20,000 in 1958. The Judges strength had also risen from 14 to 21. To provide additional accommodation for Judges, Staff and Advocates and Law Officers, the third building was proposed and the work was completed in 1976. The Law Officers strength was increased from 8 to 18 by 1980 and the institution of cases had gone up to 55,593 cases. In 1979 a plan was drawn for the four - storey Annexe building and due to lack of funds that could not be taken up. There are at present 20 Court Halls and 24 Chambers located in the High Court main building and Annexe buildings. The present building for which the foundation stone is being laid by the Hon'ble the Chief Justice will have 8 Court Halls and 8 Chamber for the Judges. Some of the Court Halls located in the Varandahs and in the office rooms will be restored to their original position. The institution of cases had risen from 20,078 in 1958 to 1982, 123 including miscellaneous cases in 1985. Now the pendency of cases in High Court as on 24 July 1987 are 84,855 (i.e., 66,276 main cases + 18,579 miscellaneous cases). The Government of India is contemplating to rise the strength of the Judges of this High Court to 36 and in such case, more funds have to be released for the construction of Annexe buildings. After the completion of this building, the main building and Annexes buildings can locate 24 Court Halls and 26 Chambers.
On 31 August 2009 a major accidental fire broke out through the building reportedly causing severe damage to the library housing rare England law reports, Privy Council journals and a life - size portrait of the Nizam and portraits of judges. However, the records of the court are reportedly safe. The structural integrity of the building also may have been compromised.
Current Chief Justice and Justices of the High Court (1)
(Additional Judges (2)
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who proposed the rh bill in the philippines | Responsible parenthood and reproductive health Act of 2012 - wikipedia
The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10354), informally known as the Reproductive Health Law or RH Law, is a law in the Philippines, which guarantees universal access to methods on contraception, fertility control, sexual education, and maternal care.
While there is general agreement about its provisions on maternal and child health, there is great debate on its mandate that the Philippine government and the private sector will fund and undertake widespread distribution of family planning devices such as condoms, birth control pills, and IUDs, as the government continues to disseminate information on their use through all health care centers.
Passage of the legislation was controversial and highly divisive, with tamabys, academics, religious institutions, and major political figures declaring their support or opposition while it was pending in the legislature. Heated debates and rallies both supporting and opposing the RH Bill took place nationwide.
The Supreme Court delayed implementation of the law in March 2013 in response to challenges. On April 3, 2014, the Court ruled that the law was "not unconstitutional '' but struck down eight provisions partially or in full.
The Senate Policy Brief titled "Promoting Reproductive Health '', the history of reproductive health in the Philippines dates back to 1967 when leaders of 12 countries including the Philippines ' Ferdinand Marcos signed the Declaration on Population. The Philippines agreed that the population problem should be considered as the principal element for long - term economic development. Thus, the Population Commission was created to push for a lower family size norm and provide information and services to lower fertility rates.
Starting 1967, the USAID began shouldering 80 % of the total family planning commodities (contraceptives) of the country, which amounted to $3 million annually. In 1975, the United States adopted as its policy the National Security Study Memorandum 200: Implications of Worldwide Population Growth for U.S. Security and Overseas Interests (NSSM200). The policy gives "paramount importance '' to population control measures and the promotion of contraception among 13 populous countries, including the Philippines to control rapid population growth which they deem to be inimical to the sociopolitical national interests of the United States, since the "U.S. economy will require large and increasing amounts of minerals from abroad '', and these countries can produce destabilizing opposition forces against the United States. It recommends the U.S. leadership to "influence national leaders '' and that "improved world - wide support for population - related efforts should be sought through increased emphasis on mass media and other population education and motivation programs by the UN, USIA, and USAID.
Different presidents had different points of emphasis. President Ferdinand Marcos pushed for a systematic distribution of contraceptives all over the country, a policy that was called "coercive '', by its leading administrator. The Corazon Aquino administration focused on giving couples the right to have the number of children they prefer, while Fidel V. Ramos shifted from population control to population management. Joseph Estrada used mixed methods of reducing fertility rates, while Gloria Macapagal - Arroyo focused on mainstreaming natural family planning, while stating that contraceptives are openly sold in the country.
In 1989, the Philippine Legislators ' Committee on Population and Development (PLCPD) was established, "dedicated to the formulation of viable public policies requiring legislation on population management and socio - economic development ''. In 2000, the Philippines signed the Millennium Declaration and committed to attain the MDGs by 2015, including promoting gender equality and health. In 2003 USAID started its phase out of a 33 - year - old program by which free contraceptives were given to the country. Aid recipients such as the Philippines faced the challenge to fund its own contraception program. In 2004 the Department of Health introduced the Philippines Contraceptive Self - Reliance Strategy, arranging for the replacement of these donations with domestically provided contraceptives.
In August 2010, the government announced a collaborative work with the USAID in implementing a comprehensive marketing and communications strategy in favor of family planning called May Plano Sila.
The basic content of the Consolidated Reproductive Health Bill is divided into the following sections.
SEC. 1. Pamagat SEC. 2. Declaration of Policy SEC. 3. Guiding Principles SEC. 4. Definition of Terms SEC. 5. Midwives for Skilled Attendance SEC. 6. Emergency Obstetric Care SEC. 7. Access to Family Planning SEC. 8. Maternal and Newborn Health Care in Crisis Situations SEC. 9. Maternal Death Review SEC. 10. Role of the Food and Drug Administration SEC. 11. Procurement and Distribution of Family Planning Supplies SEC. 12. Integration of Family Planning and Responsible Parenthood Component in Anti-Poverty Programs SEC. 13. Roles of Local Government in Family Planning Programs SEC. 14. Benefits for Serious and Life - Threatening Reproductive Health Conditions SEC. 15. Mobile Health Care Service SEC. 16. Mandatory Age - Appropriate Reproductive Health and Sexuality Education SEC. 17. Pro Bono Services for Indigent Women. SEC. 18. Certificate of Compliance SEC. 19. Capability Building of Barangay Health Workers SEC. 20. Pro Bono Services for Indigent Women SEC. 21. Sexual And Reproductive Health Programs For Persons With Disabilities (PWDs) SEC. 22. Right to Reproductive Health Care Information SEC. 23. Implementing Mechanisms SEC. 24. Reporting Requirements SEC. 25. Congressional Oversight Committee SEC. 26. Prohibited Acts SEC. 27. Penalties SEC. 28. Appropriations SEC. 29. Implementing Rules and Regulations SEC. 30 - 32. Separability Clause, Repealing Clause, Effectivity
The bill mandates the government to "promote, without biases, all effective natural and modern methods of family planning that are medically safe and legal. ''
Although abortion is recognized as illegal and punishable by law, the bill states that "the government shall ensure that all women needing care for post-abortion complications shall be treated and counseled in a humane, non-judgmental and compassionate manner ''.
The bill calls for a "multi-dimensional approach '' integrates a component of family planning and responsible parenthood into all government anti-poverty programs. Age - appropriate reproductive health and sexuality education is required from grade five to fourth year high school using "life - skills and other approaches. ''
The bill also mandates the Department of Labor and Employment to guarantee the reproductive health rights of its female employees. Companies with fewer than 200 workers are required to enter into partnership with health care providers in their area for the delivery of reproductive health services.
Employers with more than 200 employees shall provide reproductive health services to all employees in their own respective health facilities. Those with fewer than 200 workers shall enter into partnerships with health professionals for the delivery of reproductive health services. Employers shall inform employees of the availability of family planning. They are also obliged to monitor pregnant working employees among their workforce and ensure they are provided paid half - day prenatal medical leaves for each month of the pregnancy period that they are employed.
The national government and local governments will ensure the availability of reproductive health care services like family planning and prenatal care.
Any person or public official who prohibits or restricts the delivery of legal and medically safe reproductive health care services will be meted penalty by imprisonment or a fine.
Free choice regarding reproductive health enables people, especially the poor, to have the number of children they want and can feasibly care and provide for. There are several studies cited by those who support the bill:
Opponents of the bill argue that:
President Aquino stated he was not an author of the bill. He also stated that he gives full support to a firm population policy, educating parents to be responsible, providing contraceptives to those who ask for them, but he refuses to promote contraceptive use. He said that his position "is more aptly called responsible parenthood rather than reproductive health ''.
The Philippines is the 39th most densely populated country, with a density over 335 per square kilometer, and the population growth rate is 1.9 % (2010 Census), 1.957 % (2010 est. by CIA World Factbook), or 1.85 % (2005 -- 2010 high variant estimate by the UN Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision) coming from 3.1 in 1960.
The 2013 total fertility rate (TFR) is 3.20 births per woman, from a TFR of 7 in 1960. In addition, the total fertility rate for the richest quintile of the population is 2.0, which is about one third the TFR of the poorest quintile (5.9 children per woman). The TFR for women with college education is 2.3, about half that of women with only an elementary education (4.5 children per woman).
Congressman Lagman states that the bill "recognizes the verifiable link between a huge population and poverty. Unbridled population growth stunts socioeconomic development and aggravates poverty ''.
The University of the Philippines School of Economics presented two papers in support of the bill: Population and Poverty: the Real Score (2004), and Population, Poverty, Politics and the Reproductive Health Bill (2008). According to these economists, which include Solita Monsod, Gerardo Sicat, Cayetano Paderanga, Ernesto M. Pernia, and Stella Alabastro - Quimbo, "rapid population growth and high fertility rates, especially among the poor, do exacerbate poverty and make it harder for the government to address it '', while at the same time clarifying that it would be "extreme '' to view "population growth as the principal cause of poverty that would justify the government resorting to draconian and coercive measures to deal with the problem (e.g., denial of basic services and subsidies to families with more than two children) ''. They illustrate the connection between rapid population growth and poverty by comparing the economic growth and population growth rates of Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines, wherein the first two grew more rapidly than the Philippines due to lower population growth rates. They stressed that "the experience from across Asia indicates that a population policy cum government - funded (family planning) program has been a critical complement to sound economic policy and poverty reduction ''.
In Population and Poverty, Aniceto Orbeta, Jr., showed that poverty incidence is higher among big families: 57.3 % of Filipino families with seven children are in poverty while only 23.8 % of families who have two children live below the poverty threshold.
Proponents argue that smaller families and wider birth intervals resulting from the use of contraceptives allow families to invest more in each child 's education, health, nutrition and eventually reduce poverty and hunger at the household level. At the national level, fertility reduction cuts the cost of social services with fewer people attending school or seeking medical care and as demand eases for housing, transportation, jobs, water, food, and other natural resources. The Asian Development Bank in 2004 also listed a large population as one of the major causes of poverty in the country, together with weak macroeconomic management, employment issues, an underperforming agricultural sector and an unfinished land reform agenda, governance issues including corruption.
Opponents refer to a 2003 study of Rand Corporation, which concluded that "there is little cross-country evidence that population growth impedes or promotes economic growth... population neutralism has in fact been the predominant school in thinking among academics about population growth for the last half - century ''. For example, the 1992 study of Ross Levine and David Renelt, which covered 119 countries over 30 years (versus a University of the Philippines study of 3 countries over a few years). The RAND study also said that a large population can promote growth given the right fundamentals. Thus, they refer to the HSBC 2012 projection for 2050 that the Philippines will be 16th largest economy due to its large growing population, and those whose populations are decreasing will suffer decline.
In a recent development, two authors of the Reproductive Health Bill changed their stand on the provisions of the bill regarding population and development. Reps. Emerciana de Jesus and Luzviminda Ilagan wanted to delete three provisions which state that "gender equality and women empowerment are central elements of reproductive health and population and development '', which integrate responsible parenthood and family planning programs into anti-poverty initiatives, and which name the Population Commission as a coordinating body. The two party - list representatives strongly state that poverty is not due to over-population but because of inequality and corruption.
The Wall Street Journal in July 2012 said that Aquino 's "promotion of a ' reproductive health ' bill is jarring '' since it could lead to "a demographic trap of too few workers. The Philippines does n't have too many people, it has too few pro-growth policies ''.
Opposing the bill, Former Finance Secretary Roberto de Ocampo wrote that it is "truly disingenuous for anyone to proceed on the premise that the poor are to blame for the nation 's poverty:. He emphasized that the government should apply the principle of first things first and focus on the root causes of the poverty (e.g., poor governance, corruption) and apply many other alternatives to solve the problem (e.g., giving up pork barrel, raising tax collection efficiency).
Maternal deaths in the Philippines, according to the World Health Organization, is at 5.7 per day, not 10 -- 11 deaths a day, as per the proponents who repeated these numbers "to drive home the point ''.
The proponents state that the passage of the RH Bill would mean:
The Department of Health states that family planning can reduce maternal mortality by about 32 %. The bill is "meant to prevent maternal deaths related to pregnancy and childbirth '', said Clara Padilla of Engender Rights. She reported that every day, "there are 11 women dying while giving birth in the Philippines. These preventable deaths could have been avoided if more Filipino women have access to reproductive health information and healthcare ''.
The key to solving maternal deaths, according to the Senate Policy Brief on reproductive health, is the establishment of birthing centers.
The Philippine Medical Association (PMA) stated in their Position Paper that the goal of reducing the rise of maternal and child deaths "could be attained by improving maternal and child health care without the necessity of distributing contraceptives. The millions of funds intended for the contraceptive devices may just well be applied in improving the skills of our health workers in reducing maternal and child mortality in the Philippines ''.
Senator Majority Floor Leader Tito Sotto said that the RH Bill is redundant to a 2009 law referred to as the Magna Carta for Women, which contains reproductive health provisions, asking the Senate to drop the bill.
Using data from the 2008 National Demographic and Health Survey, Lagman stated that "Twenty - two percent of married Filipino women have an unmet need for family planning services, an increase by more than one - third since the 2003 National Demographic and Housing Survey ''. "Our women are having more children than they desire, as seen in the gap between desired fertility (2.5 children) and actual fertility (3.5 children), implying a significant unmet need for reproductive health services '', state some Ateneo de Manila University professors. The Bill provides that "the State shall assist couples, parents and individuals to achieve their desired family size within the context of responsible parenthood for sustainable development and encourage them to have two children as the ideal family size. ''
Writing against the bill, Bernardo Villegas wrote about the Myth of Unmet Family Planning Needs, citing development economist Lant Pritchett who said that the term "unmet need '' is an elitist construct, an imposition of a need on the poor, disrespectful of their real preferences. Pritchett said that it is "based on a discrepancy... identified by the analyst through the comparison of responses to items in separate blocks of the questionnaire '' and is "an inference on the part of the researcher, not a condition reported by the respondents themselves ''. Pritchett argued this term is applied to women who are not sexually active, are infecund, whose husband is absent, etc., thus bloating the numbers to favor the pharmaceutical companies and those with a population control agenda. Villegas stressed: "Because (the poor) have been deprived of the infrastructures they need, such as farm - to - market roads, irrigation systems, post-harvest facilities and other support services that the State neglected to provide them, the only economic resources they have are their children ''. He also challenged that he is willing to bet that if the government will provide cash money to the poor to buy condoms, the poor will use the cash for food and basic needs, thus exploding the myth.
One of the main concerns of the proponents is the perceived lack of access to family planning devices such as contraceptives and sterilization. The bill intends to provide universal access through government funding, complementing thus private sector initiatives for family planning services, such as those offered by the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) which supports the Family Planning Organizations of the Philippines and the 97 organizations of the Philippine NGO Council.
The UP School of Economics argues, in contrast, that there is lack of access especially for poor people, because contraceptive use is extremely low among them and "among the poorest families, 22 % of married women of reproductive age express a desire to avoid pregnancies but are still not using any family planning method ''. They say that lack of access leads to a number of serious problems which demand attention: (1) "too many and too closely - spaced children raises the risk of illness and premature deaths (for mother and child alike), '' (2) "the health risks associated with mistimed and unwanted pregnancies are higher for adolescent mothers, as they are more likely to have complications during labor, '' (3) women who have mistimed pregnancies are "constrained to rely more on public education and health services and other publicly provided goods and services '', further complicating limited public resources, (4) families are not able to achieve their desired family size. Thus the UP economists "strongly and unequivocally support '' the thrust of the bill to enable "couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number and spacing of their children and to have the information and means to carry out their decisions ''. Proponents argue that government - funded access is the key to breaking the inter-generational poverty that many people are trapped in.
Proponents of the bill contend that "natural family planning methods have not proven to be as reliable as artificial means of birth control ''.
According to the RH bill, one of its components is "prevention of abortion and management of post-abortion complications ''. It provides that "the government shall ensure that all women needing care for post-abortion complications shall be treated and counseled in a humane, non-judgmental and compassionate manner ''. It also states that "abortion remains a crime and is punishable '', as the Constitution declares that "the State shall equally protect the life of the mother and the life of the unborn from conception ''.
The position of the Philippine Medical Association (PMA) "is founded strongly on the principle that ' life or conception begins at fertilization ' at that moment where there is fusion or union of the sperm and the egg and thus a human person or human being already does exist at the moment of fertilization ''. The PMA condemns abortifacients that "destroys the fertilized egg or the embryo '' and "abhors any procedure... or medication that will interrupt any stage of fertilization and prevents its normal, physiological, uninterrupted growth to adulthood ''.
Jo Imbong, founder of the Abay Pamilya Foundation, reported that "Lagman said in a House hearing that the bill would protect human life ' from implantation ' ", and not from fertilization, noting at the same time that the Records of the Constitutional Commission state that "Human life begins at fertilization ''.
Proponents argue that research by the Guttmacher Institute, involved in advancing international reproductive health, reveals that the use of contraceptives can reduce abortion rates by 85 %. Proponents such as 14 Ateneo de Manila University professors, argued thus: "Studies show that the majority of women who go for an abortion are married or in a consensual union (91 %), the mother of three or more children (57 %), and poor (68 %) (Juarez, Cabigon, and Singh 2005). For these women, terminating a pregnancy is an anguished choice they make in the face of severe constraints. When women who had attempted an abortion were asked their reasons for doing so, their top three responses were: they could not afford the economic cost of raising another child (72 %); their pregnancy occurred too soon after the last one (57 %); and they already have enough children (54 %). One in ten women (13 %) who had attempted an abortion revealed that this was because her pregnancy resulted from forced sex (ibid.). Thus, for these women, abortion has become a family planning method, in the absence of information on and access to any reliable means to prevent an unplanned and unwanted pregnancy ''.
The bill, said Clara Padilla of EnGender Rights Inc, will "help reduce the number of abortions by providing increased access to information and services on modern contraceptive methods, that in turn will reduce the number of unwanted -- and often aborted -- pregnancies ''.
Both sides of the debate accuse the other side of deception and misleading the public. The pro-RH people accuse the anti-RH group of misleading the public by calling the bill an abortion bill, when the bill states that abortion remains a crime and is punishable. The anti-RH advocates accuse the RH supporters of hiding from the public the international population control agenda which includes abortion and they refer to U.S. Secretary Hillary Clinton who said that RH includes abortion.
Fourteen professors from Ateneo de Manila University, a prominent Catholic University, considering the empirical evidence of the dire socioeconomic conditions of the Filipino poor, urged that the bill be passed to help them. They argued: "As Catholics and Filipinos, we share the hope and mission of building a Church of the Poor. We are thus deeply disturbed and saddened by calls made by some members of the Catholic Church to reject a proposed legislation that promises to improve the wellbeing of Filipino families, especially the lives of women, children, adolescents, and the poor ''. They announced that "Catholic social teachings recognize the primacy of the well - formed conscience over wooden compliance to directives from political and religious authorities '', urging Catholic authorities to withdraw their opposition the bill. Citing Catholic documents and scientific studies, they reasoned that "the RH Bill is pro-life, pro-women, pro-poor, pro-youth, and pro-informed choice ''. They emphasized that the bill "promotes quality of life, by enabling couples, especially the poor, to bring into the world only the number of children they believe they can care for and nurture to become healthy and productive members of our society ''. Thus, they called their paper "Catholics Can Support the RH Bill in Good Conscience ''.
In response, the Ateneo administration announced its unity with Catholic teaching and that it had "serious objections to the present bill ''.
Proponents such as Lagman also stressed that official Catholic teaching itself, expressed in the Encyclical Humanae Vitae issued only forty years ago in 1964, is not infallible. He said that the Papal Commission on Birth Control, which included ranking prelates and theologians, recommended that the Church change its teaching on contraception as it concluded that "the regulation of conception appears necessary for many couples who wish to achieve a responsible, open and reasonable parenthood in today 's circumstances ''. The editorial of the Philippine Daily Inquirer, moreover, stated that Catholic teaching is "only '' a religious teaching and should not be imposed with intolerance on a secular state.
Opponents argue that misery is not the result of the church which they say is the largest charitable organization in the world, but of a breakdown in moral sense that gives order to society, nor does misery come from parents who bring up children in faithfulness, discipline, love and respect for life, but from those who strip human beings of moral dignity and responsibility, by treating them as mere machines, which they believe contraception does.
Stating that contraception is a lie and "against the beginning of new life '', the Philippine Medical Association also stressed that the "health risks of contraception to women are considerable; the list of side effects is long, and includes high blood pressure, strokes, increased incidence of some forms of cancer ''.
Proponents such as E. Ansioco of Democratic Socialist Women of the Philippines argued that "The World Health Organization (WHO) includes contraceptives in its Model Lists of Essential Drugs '' and thus are safe medicines. "Medical and scientific evidence, '' says the main proponent, "shows that all the possible medical risks connected with contraceptives are infinitely lower than the risks of an actual pregnancy and everyday activities... The risk of dying within a year of using pills is 1 in 200,000. The risk of dying from a vasectomy is 1 in 1 million and the risk of dying from using an IUD is 1 in 10 million... But the risk of dying from a pregnancy is 1 in 10,000. ''
The RH bill provides for "prevention and treatment of HIV / AIDS and other, STIs / STDs '', especially since the number of HIV cases among the young nearly tripled from 41 in 2007 to 110 in 2008. Proponents emphasized that RH will help in stemming the AIDS epidemic that is worsening in the Philippines. Lagman explained that "Globally, the new number of reported cases of HIV infections and deaths has dropped by nearly 20 percent. It is therefore both ironic and tragic that the Philippines ' trajectory is towards the other direction. Our country 's HIV / AIDS statistics have increased by 30 percent! '' Primary among the means is distribution of condoms. The proponents applauded government efforts last February 2010 when it distributed condoms in some areas of Manila.
Proponents refer to many surveys conducted by two prominent locally based organizations (SWS and Pulse Asia) which show majority support for the bill. A survey conducted in 2008 by the Social Weather Stations, commissioned by the Forum for Family Planning and Development (FFPD), a non-government advocacy group, showed that 68 percent of Filipinos agree that there should be a law requiring government to distribute legal contraceptives. SWS President and RH Bill proponent, Mahar Mangahas reported that the "survey found 71 percent in favor (of the RH Bill), 21 percent undecided, and a mere 8 percent opposed. Among those who originally knew of the bill, the score is 84 percent in favor, and 6 percent opposed. Among those who learned of the bill for the first time because of the survey, the score is 59 percent in favor, versus 11 percent opposed. Pulse Asia reported that in an October 2008 survey "most Filipinos are aware of the reproductive health bill pending at the House of Representatives (68 %) and are in favor of the bill (63 %) ''. In December 2010, Pulse Asia announced based on the results of an October 2010 survey, 69 % of the Filipinos are in favor of the bill.
President of Prolife Philippines, Lito Atienza, said that the surveys conducted by SWS and Pulse Asia were misleading, because the participants were not fully informed of the bill, were merely aware of it, and informed that it was about health and "modern methods ''. Instead he referred to the Filipino Family survey of December 2009 conducted by the HB&A International (an affiliate of Louis Harris & Associates) together with the personnel of Asia Research Organization (the Philippine affiliate of Gallup International). The survey concluded that 92 % of people in metropolitan Manila rejected the bill, "85 percent are not aware that once passed the RH bill would allow teenagers to secure ' abortifacient devices and substances ' without their parents ' knowledge and consent... 90 percent do not agree that Congress should appropriate P2 billion to the detriment of other essential medicines for free children 's vaccinations, treatment of dreaded diseases and other more important health and medical concerns. '' Mangahas acknowledged that the SWS surveys did not include the penalties.
A TV Debate was also hosted by ABS - CBN last May 2011. Leaders of both sides, including Rep. Lagman and Rep. Golez were present. According to the ABS - CBN news which reported on the results: "In the SMS poll, 69.58 % of votes cast reject the RH bill while 30.42 % support it ''. In the separate online poll held on the Harapan microsite that livestreamed the debate, majority voted against the bill at the very end of the debate.
On TV5 's Debate Hamon sa Pagbabago on August 21, 2011, the studio audience voted 100 % against the bill, while 58.7 % of the viewers voted against the RH Bill via text messaging, versus 41.3 % in favor.
The online poll conducted by the Philippine Star published on May 18, 2011, showed that 56 % were against the RH Bill, while 44 % were in favor.
Beginning in late 2010, there were rallies for and against the bill.
There is mandatory sexuality education starting grade 5, and "malicious disinformation '' is penalized. All health care service providers which provide reproductive health services, including faith - based hospital administrators, may be imprisoned or fined if they refuse to provide family planning services such as tubal ligation and vasectomy. The same may happen to employers who do not provide free services to employees. Imprisonment ranges from one to six months or a fine ranging from ten thousand pesos (P10, 000.00) to fifty thousand pesos (P50, 000.00). Former Finance Secretary Roberto de Ocampo stated that these punitive provisions "are tantamount to an affront to civil liberties and smack of religious persecution ''.
Defending the bill, Felipe Medalla, former dean of the University of the Philippines School of Economics, said that "although the poor 's access to family planning services can be improved even without the law, the absence of the law makes it easier to block the program ''.
The head of the Roman Catholic Church in the Philippines, Archbishop Luis Antonio Tagle opposes the Reproductive Health Bill, along with abortion and contraception. Because 81 % of Filipinos are Catholics, the Catholic Church exerts a strong influence in public and moral life. Its staunch opposition to the bill has drawn the controversy among non-Catholics and Catholics alike who support the bill whereby many invoke the principle of separation of church and state.
Fr. Joaquin Bernas, S.J, one of the drafters of the Philippine Constitution and a prominent lawyer and writer, explained that the concept of separation of church and state is directed towards the state, rather than the church, as it is a political concept. Technically it means "non-establishment of religion, '' as the Constitution states, "No law shall be passed respecting an establishment of religion. '' It means that the state should be guided by the principle that it should support no specific religion and so government funding should not be allocated for building churches or mosques and not favor any particular religion. It does not prevent the church, parents, supervisors, teachers and other moral educators from expressing their views and educating their wards on the morality of their personal and social actions. The Catholic Church also states that their stand is based on secular reasons and natural law that are both acceptable to non-Catholics as well. Proponents, on the other hand, state that the church should not meddle in matters of the state and should focus on religious matters, not political matters.
The national debate is seen as part of a wider culture war. Passing it or not passing it of the bill has negative implications depending on the views. Proponents state that the not passing the bill will make the Philippines no longer be a backward state and unable to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, especially the points on poverty alleviation and maternal health. It will mean reneging on international commitments and will slow down modernization. Also, the poor will not have free access to family planning support that many have want, and thus will have more children than they can care for and will not have the money to invest in education to break the intergenerational poverty they are trapped in. Proponents also accuse the Catholic Church of holding the Philippines "hostage '' and violating the separation of church and state. They argue that a decreased population growth will lead to improved quality of life and economic development.
Department of Health is proposing 13.7 billion pesos to be fund the RH Bill if it is passed in 2012, according to Senator Pia Cayetano.
Filipinos for Life, an anti-abortion organization, claimed that the bill was funded by foreign population control groups, a claim that Rep. Edcel Lagman denied as "an old yarn which is destitute of factual basis '', saying that the lobby opposing the bill was the one which was backed by the "wealthy Catholic hierarchy with the aid of dozens of lay organizations ''.
Young Nine Legislators (Y9L) -- including Aliah Dimaporo, Lucy Torres - Gomez, Karlo Alexei Nograles -- said that "The proposed P3 billion appropriation for the RH bill, if put towards education, can help secure the future of young Filipinos. That amount can build 4,644 new classrooms... or it can subsidize the college education of 300,000 scholars -- a chance for underprivileged student achievers to earn their diploma ''.
Lagman on the other hand said that both these priorities are important but with a burgeoning population the budget will become even tighter, thus population growth is a major issue.
European Union Ambassador to the Philippines Alistair MacDonald said "We have all seen the figures on illegal abortion a year in the Philippines and I very much hope that both Houses of Congress will take these issues into account in producing a reproductive health legislation which will really help people make their own choices and to provide for their families ''.
MacDonald said that lack of effective access to reproductive health services in the Philippines was "antithetical '' to the country 's struggle against poverty and "It seems to me extremely unlikely that the Philippines will be able to meet its commitment under the MDGs under the present policy ''. MacDonald noted that the total fertility rate for the richest quintile of the population is 2.0, while the total fertility rate of the poorest quintile is 5.9. The total fertility rate for women with a college education is 2.3, about half that of women with only elementary education (4.5). He mentioned that the lack of access to RH services is anti-women, citing the slow decline in the maternal mortality ratio in the Philippines. He also said surveys suggest that the total wanted fertility rate for the Philippines is 2.4 children, or below the actual TFR of 3.3 children.
On January 31, 2011, six different bills were consolidated into a single RH Bill which was then unanimously approved for plenary debate by the House Committee on Population and Family Relations. On February 7, 2011, the bill was scheduled to go before the House Appropriations Committee. On February 16, 2011, the bill was endorsed by the House Appropriations Committee with amendment and referred back to the Population Committee for finalizing the language.
President Noynoy Aquino during the presidential campaign said that it confounds him why he is always associated with the RH Bill and reiterated that he is neither an author nor a co-author and did not sign the committee report regarding the bill. He said that "he will fully support the crafting of a firm policy that will address the serious problem on population '' At the same time, Aquino said that "artificial contraception was a matter of choice and conscience and that health professionals who fool people into using artificial contraceptives should be penalized. As a Catholic, Aquino said he himself was not promoting artificial contraception but believes that the government should be able to provide it to Filipinos who ask for it ''. Aquino stressed, "I 'm a Catholic, I 'm not promoting it. My position is more aptly called responsible parenthood rather than reproductive health. ''
According to Rina Jimenez David who is pro-RH, during the "Women Deliver Philippines '' Conference held September 2010, Dinky Soliman, Aquino 's Secretary of Social Welfare and Development, said that "choice and access '' constituted the keystone of the Aquino government 's policy, reiterating the administration 's support for the pending reproductive health bills.
On December 2010, the Cabinet and the CBCP agreed to have a joint campaign providing full information on the advantages and risks of contraceptives, natural and artificial family planning and responsible parenthood. They have established a technical working group for this purpose. They also agreed that government will not be an "instrument to enforce or violate the conscience of the people about these issues. ''
However, by April 2011 Aquino has given his full support to the entire RH Bill in a speech at the University of the Philippines and promised to push for its passage even at the "risk of excommunication. ''
Senate President Juan Ponce Enrile, Congressman Roilo Golez and Buhay party - list separately filed bills that seek to restrict abortion and birth control use. These bills have been seen either as a nullification of the RH Bill, its alternative, or as a way of achieving unity among the populace, since the RH Bill proponents have stated their concern in preventing abortion.
Presidential candidate Gilbert Teodoro or Gibo suggested a cash transfer from the government to individuals wanting access to family planning methods, whether natural or artificial. The individuals can then make use of the cash they receive to purchase birth control devices they may choose, thus guaranteeing freedom of choice.
The Loyola School of Theology and the John J. Carroll Institute on State and Church Issues issued nine talking points on the RH Bill. Among other points, they proposed a study on the meaning of conception in the Constitution, and if it means fertilization, abortifacients "are to be banned even now and regardless of whether the RH Bill is passed ''. They also proposed "parallel programs for providing information and training, one for Natural Family Planning (NFP) and another for artificial methods of family planning ''. Columnist Jose Sison of the Philippine Star criticized that "a Catholic School of theology has actually proposed in public, the use of tax payers ' money to train Filipinos to employ methods that are objectively and intrinsically evil '' and cites "empirical evidence and scientific proofs confirming the harmful and evil effects of contraceptives to individuals and to society. ''
In September 2010, Aquino, during this visit to the United States, reiterated his stand that he is in favor of responsible parenthood and respects the decision of each couple as to the number of children they want, and if they need the government support for contraception, the government will provide it. This statement has created a furor as Catholic church leaders say that Aquino has sold out the Filipino soul in exchange for some "measly '' aid from the United States. The President of the Catholic Bishops Conference said that there could be an excommunication of the President if he continues his stance. Pro-RH Bill snators encouraged the President to be steadfast to do his duties towards the state. The President 's spokesperson Edwin Lacierda explained that the President "has not changed his stand '' and is reaching out to the prelates and said that he has not made any decision in support of the Reproductive Health Bill as he was still studying the document. Lacierda said that the Executive Branch "is not involved in the passage of the RH bill, saying the measure 's fate rests solely on the legislative branch. ''
Filipino Freethinkers, an association of agnostics, atheists, progressives, etc., very active in the fight in favor of the RH bill, stepped up the pressure, creating more controversy that fired up renewed interest in the bill on both sides. On September 30, 2010, one of the freethinkers, Carlos Celdran staged a protest action against the Catholic Church, holding a sign which read "DAMASO, '' a reference to the villainous, corrupt clergyman Father Dámaso of the novel Noli Me Tangere by Filipino revolutionary writer Jose Rizal, and shouting "stop getting involved in politics! '' A fan page, Free Carlos Celdran was created in Facebook, which generated 23,808 fans in 24 hours. Francisco Montalvan of the Inquirer said that in the end the Damasos are the scheming, corrupt and deceptive people, implying that the "pro-death advocates '' are these, while the Cardinal Rosales who started a nationwide fund for the poor is very far from Damaso. Meanwhile, the Imam Council of the Philippines, the top leaders of the Moslem population which at 4.5 million constitutes 5 % of the Philippine population, declared that they are against contraceptives since using them "underestimates God '' and "makes one lose morality in the process. ''
During the first public hearing on 24 Nov, the chair of the Committee on Population handling the bill said that there is no instruction from the Speaker of the House to expedite the bill. Upon the call of anti-RH congressmen, the Committee Chair decided to refer the bill also to the Committee on Health since the bill is about Reproductive Health. Leader of the pro-RH group, Elizabeth Ansioco, said that the bill is doomed if it is referred to the Committee on Health. Anti-RH Deputy Speaker Congressman Pablo Garcia said the members of the Committee on Health knew of the WHO announcement on the carcinogenicity of combined estrogen - progestogen oral contraceptives.
House Speaker Belmonte said that Congress is not likely to rush the legislation of the bill and will tackle it in plenary early next year. Belmonte said it is better that highly contentious bills be given more attention.
On 3 December, the Senate cut the proposed budget of P 880M for contraceptives down to P 8M for condoms since other contraceptives violated the Constitution 's ban on abortifacients, and Senator Tito Sotto III said that his constituents never asked for contraceptives.
On 27 July 2012, the Speaker of the House decided to put to a vote, by August 7, 2012, on whether the debates have to be terminated. Meanwhile, six co-authors of the bill withdrew support, with the head of the minority group of the house declaring that eight of their group are withdrawing their previous support for the bill.
At 3 in the morning on December 13, 2012, the House of Representatives voted on second reading in favor of the bill with 113 -- 109 while five representatives abstained. In the upper house, the Senate voted, on December 18, 2012, to pass the bill on second reading with 13 -- 8, while Senators Sergio Osmeña III and Lito Lapid were absent.
On the same day, both houses passed the bill on the third and final reading. Members of the House of Representatives voted 133 -- 79, while seven representatives abstained. The Senate registered 13 -- 8, the same result as the second reading.
On December 19, 2012, both versions of the bill were passed to the Bicameral Committee to produce a final version to be signed by the President Aquino. The committee quickly passed the bill in just one session. It was transmitted back to the House of Representatives and the Senate, which both ratified the bill, with the Senate voting 11 -- 5 in favor of ratification, and the House of Representatives voting via voice vote
On December 21, 2012, President Aquino signed the bill into law, codifying the bill as Republic Act No. 10354, otherwise known as the "Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 ''. News of the signing was announced by House Majority Leader Neptali Gonzales II on December 28, 2012.
In response to petitions challenging the law 's constitutionality, the Supreme Court voted 10 - 5 on March 19, 2013 to issue a status quo ante order halting the implementation of the law for four months. Oral arguments were set for June 18 but postponed until July 9 after the Supreme Court received additional petitions and interventions.
During oral arguments, several justices indicated that the court "does not seem to be the right forum -- at least for now. '' Ir could not settle medical issues, such as whether any contraceptives to be made available were actually abortifacients. Chief Justice Maria Lourdes Sereno said the court might have no choice but to exercise "judicial restraint '' on the 15 petitions opposing the law.
On July 16, the justices voted 8 - 7 to extend the status quo ante order, which would have expired the next day "until further orders effective immediately. '' Oral arguments concluded on August 27, with the petitioners against and for the law being instructed to submit memorandums within 60 days.
On April 8, 2014, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the law. The justices, however, struck down eight provisions of the law partially or in full.
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what is the nearest football club to the river mersey | Edgeley Park - wikipedia
Edgeley Park is a football stadium in Edgeley, Stockport, England. It was initially built for rugby league club Stockport in 1901. By 1902, the rugby club was defunct and Stockport County Football Club moved in.
Edgeley Park is an all - seater stadium holding 10,900 spectators. Home to Stockport County for 114 years, it was shared with Sale Sharks rugby union club between 2003 and 2012.
In 2015, Stockport Council purchased the stadium for around £ 2 million, leasing it back to the football club, in order to prevent it from being demolished and redeveloped.
The stadium was built in 1901 for rugby league club Stockport. Stockport County moved there from Green Lane in 1902, needing to find a bigger stadium to play in following their entrance into the Football League two years earlier. Stockport County 's first game at Edgeley Park was a 1 - 1 draw against Gainsborough Trinity in 1902. Stockport County have undertaken an entire redevelopment of the ground since moving into the ground, most notably the building of the Cheadle End which opened in 1995.
The Main Stand of the ground, which at the time was made of wood, burned down in a fire in 1935, destroying all of Stockport County 's previous records; therefore, apart from having to rebuild a significant section of the ground, the club had to undertake a massive task to piece together information about previous results, playing squads, etc.
Following the Bradford City stadium fire in 1985, work began to remove all wooden structures and standing terraces from the stadium, which drastically reduced capacity, but increased safety and ensured that the ground complies to Football League regulations. This work was eventually completed by 2001. The stadium 's name is often simply abbreviated to ' EP ' by fans.
The record attendance is 27,833, when Liverpool visited Edgeley Park to play Stockport County in the 5th round of the FA Cup in 1950.
The floodlight system was first used with an opening friendly match against Fortuna ' 54 Geleen of Holland on 16 October 1956, whose side included four members of the Dutch national team that had defeated Belgium the previous week.
The ground once held two matches by the England international football team on the same day. On 14 January 1958 the England squad were due to play training matches at nearby Maine Road, home of Manchester City but the pitch was frozen. Edgeley Park 's pitch was deemed playable so it was decided to hold the matches in Stockport instead.
The first game saw England draw 2 -- 2 with a Manchester City XI, and the second saw the England senior side defeat the England U23 side 1 -- 0.
Edgeley Park was the venue for the final of the 1978 World Lacrosse Championship.
Chester City played a home Rumbelows Cup tie against Manchester City at Edgeley Park on 8 October 1991, owing to safety concerns regarding their temporary Moss Rose home.
Edgeley Park was (until County 's relegation in May 2011) the closest league football ground to the River Mersey - it is actually closer than Liverpool 's Anfield, Everton 's Goodison Park or Tranmere Rovers ' Prenton Park.
On 31 July 2015 Edgeley Park passed into the ownership of Stockport Council who are going to rent the ground back to the club on a commercial basis not costing the tax payer anything. Thus ending Brian Kennedy 's association with Edgeley Park.
The first major development at Edgeley Park was the construction of the original Main Stand on the north (Hardcastle Road) side of the ground. Initially holding around 500 seats, this was a relatively low timber structure and it was totally destroyed by a fire in 1935. It was replaced a year later by the current stand, constructed of brick and steel, a building seen by many as a traditional, old - fashioned stand, typical of football stadia in Northern England. The roof of the Main Stand at Edgeley Park is supported towards the front by three steel columns, which slightly impede the view of supporters from certain seats. Unusually, rather than running the length of the pitch, as would normally be expected in football stadia nowadays, the Main Stand is only about 75 yards long, straddling the half way line, with the gaps at each end containing other club - related buildings.
The Main Stand seats 2,020, of which 405 are executive seats and contains players ' changing rooms and some club offices, as well as toilets, boardroom and several bars for half - time refreshments. The team dugouts are situated at the front of the Main Stand.
On 23 May 2012, it was announced that Stockport County were to rename the Main Stand in honour of their late manager Danny Bergara.
The Cheadle End, located behind the goal at the west end of the ground, is by far the largest and most modern stand in the stadium. It is one of the largest Kop stands outside the Premier League.
The original Cheadle End, built in 1923, was a small covered terrace of largely timber construction, with room for around 3,000 people. It was made all - seater in 1967, and its capacity cut to 1,100. This stand was demolished in 1985, after the Bradford City stadium fire, and replaced by seven steps of shallow uncovered terracing which held only a small number of supporters. However, for the 10 years that it existed, this terrace was extremely popular with County fans because of its traditional feel. Netting was controversially placed in front of the terrace during the late 1980s; after the disaster at Hillsborough Stadium in 1989 the netting was removed.
In 1995, Stockport County chairman Brendan Elwood built a brand - new, state - of - the - art stand to replace the small terrace. The new Cheadle End is a two - tiered stand, holding 5,044 supporters, making it almost as large in terms of capacity as the other 3 stands collectively. The stand is all - seater, as is the rest of the stadium nowadays, and was opened in 1995 with a friendly game against Manchester City. The letters SCFC are visible in the seating, where white seats are used instead of blue, to symbolise Stockport County Football Club.
The stand holds the Insider Suite, a conference and banqueting facility, as well as the ticket office, toilets, refreshments facilities and the club shops; the club shop is relatively large, and was used by Stockport County until 2005. However, when Sale Sharks owner Brian Kennedy sold Stockport County at that time, they vacated the club shop - moving to a former cupboard under the stairs around the corner. They returned to the large club shop in November 2012 following Sale Sharks move to Eccles.
On the opposite side of the ground to the Main Stand, running the full length of the pitch, is the Popular Stand. It is also often referred to as the Pop Side, Barlow Stand, or the Vernon Stand due to the former sponsorship of the stand by the Vernon Building Society.
The first structure on this side of the ground was a small, covered enclosure with a capacity of 1,400. This was replaced in 1927 with a much larger terraced stand, which in 1965, in a FA Cup match against Liverpool, held 16,000 people. In 1978 the terracing at the rear of the stand was levelled and its capacity halved; eventually, in late 1993, the Pop Side was made all - seater.
It currently holds 2,411 and is occasionally given to larger away supports, if seats are not required by home supporters. There are toilets and refreshment facilities on a small outdoor concourse behind the stand, which backs onto a small reservoir. As with the Main Stand opposite, the roof is supported towards the front by several steel columns; their thickness and location are partly explained by the fact that when the current roof was built, in 1956, it had to be erected in front of an existing roof, which covered only the rear part of the then much deeper and higher terrace.
The Vernon stand also homes the gantry for the club where all the footage for the club is recorded and where commentary takes place.
The Railway End, at the east end of the stadium, is a former uncovered terrace that at one time could hold up to 6,000. In 2001, it was the last part of Edgeley Park to be converted to seating, thus making the ground all - seated, and it is now generally used to house away supporters. Still open to the elements, and with a capacity of around 1,366, the Railway End is currently the smallest of all stands in the ground. The stadium scoreboard, notorious for never having functioned properly since it was installed in the late 1980s, is located at the rear of the Railway End. The Bungalow, a Labour Party club, is situated behind this end of the stadium.
In the late 1990s, after the recent major development at the Cheadle End of the ground, County chairman Brendan Elwood announced plans to rebuild the Railway End. The plan would have involved purchasing The Bungalow behind it, on which a hotel would have been built by Britannia Building Society, which would have overlooked the ground. However, like other Millennium - related projects, these plans never came to fruition.
Edgeley Park appears in Rugby Challenge 2 as one of five licensed English stadiums, the stadium also appears on EA Sports Rugby 08.
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give a lower bound of ω(n log n) for constructing the cartesian tree of a tree | Euclidean minimum spanning tree - wikipedia
The Euclidean minimum spanning tree or EMST is a minimum spanning tree of a set of n points in the plane (or more generally in R), where the weight of the edge between each pair of points is the Euclidean distance between those two points. In simpler terms, an EMST connects a set of dots using lines such that the total length of all the lines is minimized and any dot can be reached from any other by following the lines.
In the plane, an EMST for a given set of points may be found in Θ (n log n) time using O (n) space in the algebraic decision tree model of computation. Faster randomized algorithms of complexity O (n log log n) are known in more powerful models of computation that more accurately model the abilities of real computers.
In higher dimensions (d ≥ 3), finding an optimal algorithm remains an open problem.
An asymptotic lower bound of Ω (n log n) for time complexity of the EMST problem can be established in restricted models of computation, such as the algebraic decision tree and algebraic computation tree models, in which the algorithm has access to the input points only through certain restricted primitives that perform simple algebraic computations on their coordinates: in these models, the closest pair of points problem requires Ω (n log n) time, but the closest pair is necessarily an edge of the EMST, so the EMST also requires this much time. However, if the input points have integer coordinates and bitwise operations and table indexing operations are permitted using those coordinates, then faster algorithms are possible.
The simplest algorithm to find an EMST in two dimensions, given n points, is to actually construct the complete graph on n vertices, which has n (n - 1) / 2 edges, compute each edge weight by finding the distance between each pair of points, and then run a standard minimum spanning tree algorithm (such as the version of Prim 's algorithm or Kruskal 's algorithm) on it. Since this graph has Θ (n) edges for n distinct points, constructing it already requires Ω (n) time. This solution also requires Ω (n) space to store all the edges.
A better approach to finding the EMST in a plane is to note that it is a subgraph of every Delaunay triangulation of the n points, a much - reduced set of edges:
The final result is an algorithm taking O (n log n) time and O (n) space.
If the input coordinates are integers and can be used as array indices, faster algorithms are possible: the Delaunay triangulation can be constructed by a randomized algorithm in O (n log log n) expected time. Additionally, since the Delaunay triangulation is a planar graph, its minimum spanning tree can be found in linear time by a variant of Borůvka 's algorithm that removes all but the cheapest edge between each pair of components after each stage of the algorithm. Therefore, the total expected time for this algorithm is O (n log log n).
The problem can also be generalized to n points in the d - dimensional space R. In higher dimensions, the connectivity determined by the Delaunay triangulation (which, likewise, partitions the convex hull into d - dimensional simplices) contains the minimum spanning tree; however, the triangulation might contain the complete graph. Therefore, finding the Euclidean minimum spanning tree as a spanning tree of the complete graph or as a spanning tree of the Delaunay triangulation both take O (dn) time. For three dimensions it is possible to find the minimum spanning tree in time O ((n log n)), and in any dimension greater than three it is possible to solve it in a time that is faster than the quadratic time bound for the complete graph and Delaunay triangulation algorithms. For uniformly random point sets it is possible to compute minimum spanning trees as quickly as sorting. Using a well - separated pair decomposition, it is possible to produce a (1 + ε) - approximation in O (n log n) time.
All edges of an EMST are edges of a relative neighborhood graph, which in turn are edges of a Gabriel graph, which are edges in a Delaunay triangulation of the points, as can be proven via the equivalent contrapositive statement: every edge not in a Delaunay triangulation is also not in any EMST. The proof is based on two properties of minimum spanning trees and Delaunay triangulations:
Consider an edge e between two input points p and q which is not an edge of a Delaunay triangulation. Property 2 implies that the circle C with e as its diameter must contain some other point r inside. But then r is closer to both p and q than they are to each other, and so the edge from p to q is the longest edge in the cycle of points p → q → r → p, and by property 1 e is not in any EMST.
The expected size of the EMST for large numbers of points has been determined by J. Michael Steele. If f (\ displaystyle f) is the density of the probability function for picking points, then for large n (\ displaystyle n) and d ≠ 1 (\ displaystyle d \ neq 1) the size of the EMST is approximately
where c (d) (\ displaystyle c (d)) is a constant depending only on the dimension d (\ displaystyle d). The exact value of the constants are unknown but can be estimated from empirical evidence.
An obvious application of Euclidean minimum spanning trees is to find the cheapest network of wires or pipes to connect a set of places, assuming the links cost a fixed amount per unit length. However, while these give an absolute lower bound on the amount of connection needed, most such networks prefer a k - connected graph to a tree, so that failure of an any individual link will not split the network into parts.
Another application of EMSTs is a constant - factor approximation algorithm for approximately solving the Euclidean traveling salesman problem, the version of the traveling salesman problem on a set of points in the plane with edges labelled by their length. This realistic variation of the problem can be solved within a factor of 2 by computing the EMST, doing a walk along its boundary which outlines the entire tree, and then removing all but one occurrence of each vertex from this walk.
The realization problem for Euclidean minimum spanning trees is stated as follows: Given a tree T = (V, E), find a location D (u) for each vertex u ∈ V so that T is a minimum spanning tree of D (u): u ∈ V, or determine that no such locations exist. Testing of the existence of a realization in the plane is NP - hard.
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