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who started the church of england and why | History of the Church of England - wikipedia
The formal history of the Church of England is traditionally dated by the Church to the Gregorian mission to England by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in AD 597. As a result of Augustine 's mission, Christianity in England, from Anglican (English) perspective, came under the authority of the Pope. However, in 1534 King Henry VIII declared himself to be supreme head of the Church of England. This resulted in a schism with the Papacy. As a result of this schism, many non-Anglicans consider that the Church of England only existed from the 16th century Protestant Reformation.
However, Christianity arrived in the British Isles around AD 47 during the Roman Empire according to Gildas 's De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. Archbishop Restitutus and others are known to have attended the council of Arles in 314. Christianity developed roots in Sub-Roman Britain and later Ireland, Scotland, and Pictland. The Anglo - Saxons (Germanic pagans who progressively seized British territory) during the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries, established a small number of kingdoms and evangelisation of the Anglo - Saxons was carried out by the successors of the Gregorian mission and by Celtic missionaries from Scotland. The church in Wales remained isolated and was only brought within the jurisdiction of English bishops several centuries later.
The Church of England became the established church by an Act of Parliament in the Act of Supremacy, beginning a series of events known as the English Reformation. During the reign of Queen Mary I and King Philip, the church was fully restored under Rome in 1555. However, the pope 's authority was again explicitly rejected after the accession of Queen Elizabeth I when the Act of Supremacy 1558 was passed. Catholic and Reformed factions vied for determining the doctrines and worship of the church. This ended with the 1558 Elizabethan Settlement, which developed the understanding that the church was to be "both Catholic and Reformed ''.
According to medieval traditions, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, although stories involving Joseph of Arimathea, King Lucius, and Fagan are now usually accounted as pious forgeries. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian and Origen in the first years of the 3rd century, although the first Christian communities probably were established some decades earlier.
Three Romano - British bishops, including Restitutus, metropolitan bishop of London, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360. A number of references to the church in Roman Britain are also found in the writings of 4th century Christian fathers. Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippo 's doctrine of original sin. The first recorded Christian martyr in Britain, St Alban, is thought to have lived in the early 4th century, and his prominence in English hagiography is reflected in the number of parish churches of which he is patron.
Irish Anglicans trace their origins back to the founding saint of Irish Christianity (St Patrick) who is believed to have been a Roman Briton and pre-dated Anglo - Saxon Christianity. Anglicans also consider Celtic Christianity a forerunner of their church, since the re-establishment of Christianity in some areas of Great Britain in the 6th century came via Irish and Scottish missionaries, notably followers of St Patrick and St Columba.
Anglicans traditionally date the origins of their Church to the arrival in the Kingdom of Kent of the Gregorian mission to the pagan Anglo - Saxons led by the first Archbishop of Canterbury, St Augustine, at the end of the 6th century. Alone among the kingdoms then existing Kent was Jutish, rather than Anglian or Saxon. However, the origin of the Church in the British Isles extends farther back (see above).
Æthelberht of Kent 's queen Bertha, daughter of Charibert, one of the Merovingian kings of the Franks, had brought a chaplain (Liudhard) with her. Bertha had restored a church remaining from Roman times to the east of Canterbury and dedicated it to Saint Martin of Tours, the patronal saint of the Merovingian royal family. This church, Saint Martin 's, is the oldest church in England still in use today. Æthelberht himself, though a pagan, allowed his wife to worship God in her own way, at St Martin 's. Probably influenced by his wife, Æthelberht asked Pope Gregory I to send missionaries, and in 596 the Pope dispatched Augustine, together with a party of monks.
Augustine had served as praepositus (prior) of the monastery of Saint Andrew in Rome, founded by Gregory. His party lost heart on the way and Augustine went back to Rome from Provence and asked his superiors to abandon the mission project. The pope, however, commanded and encouraged continuation, and Augustine and his followers landed on the Island of Thanet in the spring of 597.
Æthelberht permitted the missionaries to settle and preach in his town of Canterbury, first in Saint Martin 's Church and then nearby at what later became St Augustine 's Abbey. By the end of the year he himself had been converted, and Augustine received consecration as a bishop at Arles. At Christmas 10,000 of the king 's subjects underwent baptism.
Augustine sent a report of his success to Gregory with certain questions concerning his work. In 601 Mellitus, Justus and others brought the pope 's replies, with the pallium for Augustine and a present of sacred vessels, vestments, relics, books, and the like. Gregory directed the new archbishop to ordain as soon as possible twelve suffragan bishops and to send a bishop to York, who should also have twelve suffragans. Augustine did not carry out this papal plan, nor did he establish the primatial see at London (in the Kingdom of the East Saxons) as Gregory intended, as the Londoners remained heathen. Augustine did consecrate Mellitus as bishop of London and Justus as bishop of Rochester.
Pope Gregory issued more practicable mandates concerning heathen temples and usages: he desired that temples become consecrated to Christian service and asked Augustine to transform pagan practices, so far as possible, into dedication ceremonies or feasts of martyrs, since "he who would climb to a lofty height must go up by steps, not leaps '' (letter of Gregory to Mellitus, in Bede, i, 30).
Augustine re-consecrated and rebuilt an old church at Canterbury as his cathedral and founded a monastery in connection with it. He also restored a church and founded the monastery of St Peter and St Paul outside the walls. He died before completing the monastery, but now lies buried in the Church of St Peter and St Paul.
In 616 Æthelberht of Kent died. The kingdom of Kent and those Anglo - Saxon kingdoms over which Kent had influence relapsed into heathenism for several decades. During the next 50 years Celtic missionaries evangelised the kingdom of Northumbria with an episcopal see at Lindisfarne and missionaries then proceeded to some of the other kingdoms to evangelise those also. Mercia and Sussex were among the last kingdoms to undergo Christianization.
The Synod of Whitby in 664 forms a significant watershed in that King Oswiu of Northumbria decided to follow Roman rather than Celtic practices. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain. This meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs and local bishops following Celtic ecclesiastical customs was summoned in 664 at Saint Hilda 's double monastery of Streonshalh (Streanæshalch), later called Whitby Abbey. It was presided over by King Oswiu, who did not engage in the debate but made the final ruling.
A later archbishop of Canterbury, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, reforming many aspects of the church 's administration.
As in other parts of medieval Europe, tension existed between the local monarch and the Pope about civil judicial authority over clerics, taxes and the wealth of the Church, and appointments of bishops, notably during the reigns of Henry II and John. As begun by Alfred the Great in 871 and consolidated under William the Conqueror in 1066, England became a politically unified entity at an earlier date than other European countries. One of the effects was that the units of government, both of church and state, were comparatively large. England was divided between the Province of Canterbury and the Province of York under two archbishops. At the time of the Norman Conquest, there were only 15 diocesan bishops in England, increased to 17 in the 12th century with the creation of the sees of Ely and Carlisle. This is far fewer than the numbers in France and Italy. A further four medieval dioceses in Wales came within the Province of Canterbury. Following the depredations of the Viking invasions of the 9th century, most English monasteries had ceased to function and the cathedrals were typically served by small communities of married priests. King Edgar and his Archbishop of Canterbury Dunstan instituted a major reform of cathedrals at a synod at Winchester in 970, where it was agreed that all bishops should seek to establish monasticism in their cathedrals following the Benedictine rule, with the bishop as abbot. Excavations have demonstrated that the reformed monastic cathedrals of Canterbury, Winchester, Sherborne and Worcester were rebuilt on a lavish scale in the late 10th century. However, renewed Viking attacks in the reign of Ethelred, stalled the progress of monastic revival.
In 1072, following the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror and his archbishop Lanfranc sought to complete the programme of reform. Durham and Rochester cathedrals were refounded as Benedictine monasteries, the secular cathedral of Wells was moved to monastic Bath, while the secular cathedral of Lichfield was moved to Chester, and then to monastic Coventry. Norman bishops were seeking to establish an endowment income entirely separate from that of their cathedral body, and this was inherently more difficult in a monastic cathedral, where the bishop was also titular abbot. Hence, following Lanfanc 's death in 1090, a number of bishops took advantage of the vacancy to obtain secular constitutions for their cathedrals -- Lincoln, Sarum, Chichester, Exeter and Hereford; while the major urban cathedrals of London and York always remained secular. Furthermore, when the bishops ' seats were transferred back from Coventry to Lichfield, and from Bath to Wells, these sees reverted to being secular. Bishops of monastic cathedrals, tended to find themselves embroiled in long - running legal disputes with their respective monastic bodies; and increasingly tended to reside elsewhere. The bishops of Ely and Winchester lived in London as did the Archbishop of Canterbury. The bishops of Worcester generally lived in York, while the bishops of Carlisle lived at Melbourne in Derbyshire. Monastic governance of cathedrals continued in England, Scotland and Wales throughout the medieval period; whereas elsewhere in western Europe it was found only at Monreale in Sicily and Downpatrick in Ireland.
An important aspect in the practice of medieval Christianity was the veneration of saints, and the associated pilgrimages to places where the relics of a particular saint were interred and the saint 's tradition honoured. The possession of the relics of a popular saint was a source of funds to the individual church as the faithful made donations and benefactions in the hope that they might receive spiritual aid, a blessing or a healing from the presence of the physical remains of the holy person. Among those churches to benefit in particular were: St. Alban 's Abbey, which contained the relics of England 's first Christian martyr; Ripon, with the shrine of its founder St. Wilfrid; Durham, which was built to house the body of Saints Cuthbert of Lindisfarne and Aidan; Ely, with the shrine of St. Etheldreda; Westminster Abbey, with the magnificent shrine of its founder St. Edward the Confessor; and Chichester, which held the honoured remains of St. Richard. All these saints brought pilgrims to their churches, but among them the most renowned was Thomas Becket, the late Archbishop of Canterbury, who was assassinated by henchmen of King Henry II in 1170. As a place of pilgrimage Canterbury was, in the 13th century, second only to Santiago de Compostela.
John Wycliffe (about 1320 -- 31 December 1384) was an English theologian and an early dissident against the Roman Catholic Church during the 14th century. He founded the Lollard movement, which opposed a number of practices of the Church. He was also against papal encroachments on secular power. Wycliffe was associated with statements indicating that the Church in Rome is not the head of all churches, nor did St Peter have any more powers given to him than other disciples. These statements were related to his call for a reformation of its wealth, corruption and abuses. Wycliffe, an Oxford scholar, went so far as to state that "... The Gospel by itself is a rule sufficient to rule the life of every Christian person on the earth, without any other rule. '' The Lollard movement continued with his pronouncements from pulpits even under the persecution that followed with Henry IV up to and including the early years of the reign of Henry VIII.
The first break with Rome (subsequently reversed) came when Pope Clement VII refused, over a period of years, to annul Henry 's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, not purely as a matter of principle, but also because the Pope lived in fear of Catherine 's nephew, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, as a result of events in the Italian Wars.
Henry first asked for an annulment in 1527. After various failed initiatives he stepped up the pressure on Rome, in the summer of 1529, by compiling a manuscript from ancient sources arguing that, in law, spiritual supremacy rested with the monarch and also against the legality of Papal authority. In 1531 Henry first challenged the Pope when he demanded 100,000 pounds from the clergy in exchange for a royal pardon for what he called their illegal jurisdiction. He also demanded that the clergy should recognise him as their sole protector and supreme head. The church in England recognised Henry VIII as supreme head of the Church of England on 11 February 1531. Nonetheless, he continued to seek a compromise with the Pope, but negotiations (which had started in 1530 and ended in 1532) with the papal legate Antonio Giovanni da Burgio failed. Efforts by Henry to appeal to Jewish scholarship concerning the contours of levirate marriage were unavailing as well.
In May 1532 the Church of England agreed to surrender its legislative independence and canon law to the authority of the monarch. In 1533 the Statute in Restraint of Appeals removed the right of the English clergy and laity to appeal to Rome on matters of matrimony, tithes and oblations. It also gave authority over such matters to the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. This finally allowed Thomas Cranmer, the new Archbishop of Canterbury, to issue Henry 's annulment; and upon procuring it, Henry married Anne Boleyn. Pope Clement VII excommunicated Henry VIII in 1533.
In 1534 the Act of Submission of the Clergy removed the right of all appeals to Rome, effectively ending the Pope 's influence. The first Act of Supremacy confirmed Henry by statute as the Supreme Head of the Church of England in 1536. (Due to clergy objections the contentious term "Supreme Head '' for the monarch later became "Supreme Governor of the Church of England '' -- which is the title held by the reigning monarch to the present.)
Such constitutional changes made it not only possible for Henry to have his marriage annulled but also gave him access to the considerable wealth that the Church had amassed. Thomas Cromwell, as Vicar General, launched a commission of enquiry into the nature and value of all ecclesiastical property in 1535, which culminated in the Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536 -- 1540).
Many Roman Catholics consider the separation of the Church in England from Rome in 1534 to be the true origin of the Church of England, rather than dating it from the mission of St. Augustine in AD 597. While Anglicans acknowledge that Henry VIII 's repudiation of papal authority caused the Church of England to become a separate entity, they believe that it is in continuity with the pre-Reformation Church of England. Apart from its distinct customs and liturgies (such as the Sarum rite), the organizational machinery of the Church of England was in place by the time of the Synod of Hertford in 672 -- 673, when the English bishops were first able to act as one body under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Henry 's Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533) and the Acts of Supremacy (1534) declared that the English crown was "the only Supreme Head in earth of the Church of England, called Ecclesia Anglicana, '' in order "to repress and extirpate all errors, heresies, and other enormities and abuses heretofore used in the same. '' The development of the Thirty - Nine Articles of religion and the passage of the Acts of Uniformity culminated in the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. By the end of the 17th century, the English church described itself as both Catholic and Reformed, with the English monarch as its Supreme Governor. MacCulloch commenting on this situation says that it "has never subsequently dared to define its identity decisively as Protestant or Catholic, and has decided in the end that this is a virtue rather than a handicap. ''
The English Reformation was initially driven by the dynastic goals of Henry VIII, who, in his quest for a consort who would bear him a male heir, found it expedient to replace papal authority with the supremacy of the English crown. The early legislation focused primarily on questions of temporal and spiritual supremacy. The Institution of the Christian Man (also called The Bishops ' Book) of 1537 was written by a committee of 46 divines and bishops headed by Thomas Cranmer. The purpose of the work, along with the Ten Articles of the previous year, was to implement the reforms of Henry VIII in separating from the Roman Catholic Church and reforming the Ecclesia Anglicana. "The work was a noble endeavor on the part of the bishops to promote unity, and to instruct the people in Church doctrine. '' The introduction of the Great Bible in 1538 brought a vernacular translation of the Scriptures into churches. The Dissolution of the Monasteries and the seizure of their assets by 1540 brought huge amounts of church land and property under the jurisdiction of the Crown, and ultimately into the hands of the English nobility. This simultaneously removed the greatest centres of loyalty to the pope and created vested interests which made a powerful material incentive to support a separate Christian church in England under the rule of the Crown.
By 1549, the process of reforming the ancient national church was fully spurred on by the publication of the first vernacular prayer book, the Book of Common Prayer, and the enforcement of the Acts of Uniformity, establishing English as the language of public worship. The theological justification for Anglican distinctiveness was begun by the Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, the principal author of the first prayer book, and continued by others such as Matthew Parker, Richard Hooker and Lancelot Andrewes. Cranmer had worked as a diplomat in Europe and was aware of the ideas of Reformers such as Andreas Osiander and Friedrich Myconius as well as the Roman Catholic theologian Desiderius Erasmus.
During the short reign of Edward VI, Henry 's son, Cranmer and others moved the Church of England significantly towards a more reformed position, which was reflected in the development of the second prayer book (1552) and in the Forty - Two Articles. This reform was reversed abruptly in the reign of Queen Mary, a Roman Catholic who re-established communion with Rome following her accession in 1553.
In the 16th century, religious life was an important part of the cement which held society together and formed an important basis for extending and consolidating political power. Differences in religion were likely to lead to civil unrest at the very least, with treason and foreign invasion acting as real threats. When Queen Elizabeth came to the throne in 1558, a solution was thought to have been found. To minimise bloodshed over religion in her dominions, the religious settlement between the factions of Rome and Geneva was brought about. It was compellingly articulated in the development of the 1559 Book of Common Prayer, the Thirty - Nine Articles, the Ordinal, and the two Books of Homilies. These works, issued under Archbishop Matthew Parker, were to become the basis of all subsequent Anglican doctrine and identity.
The new version of the prayer book was substantially the same as Cranmer 's earlier versions. It would become a source of great argument during the 17th century, but later revisions were not of great theological importance. The Thirty - Nine Articles were based on the earlier work of Cranmer, being modelled after the Forty - Two Articles.
The bulk of the population acceded to Elizabeth 's religious settlement with varying degrees of enthusiasm or resignation. It was imposed by law, and secured Parliamentary approval only by a narrow vote in which all the Roman Catholic bishops who were not imprisoned voted against. As well as those who continued to recognise papal supremacy, the more militant Protestants, or Puritans as they became known, opposed it. Both groups were punished and disenfranchised in various ways and cracks in the facade of religious unity in England appeared.
Despite separation from Rome, the Church of England under Henry VIII remained essentially Catholic rather than Protestant in nature. Pope Leo X had earlier awarded to Henry himself the title of fidei defensor (defender of the faith), partly on account of Henry 's attack on Lutheranism. Some Protestant - influenced changes under Henry included a limited iconoclasm, the abolition of pilgrimages, and pilgrimage shrines, chantries, and the extinction of many saints ' days. However, only minor changes in liturgy occurred during Henry 's reign, and he carried through the Six Articles of 1539 which reaffirmed the Catholic nature of the church.
All this took place, however, at a time of major religious upheaval in Western Europe associated with the Reformation; once the schism had occurred, some reform probably became inevitable.
Only under Henry 's son Edward VI (reigned 1547 -- 1553) did the first major changes in parish activity take place, including translation and thorough revision of the liturgy along more Protestant lines. The resulting Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1549 and revised in 1552, came into use by the authority of the Parliament of England.
Following the death of Edward, his half - sister the Roman Catholic Mary I (reigned 1553 -- 1558) came to the throne. She renounced the Henrician and Edwardian changes, first by repealing her brother 's reforms then by re-establishing unity with Rome. The Marian Persecutions of Protestants and dissenters took place at this time. The queen 's image after the persecutions turned into that of an almost legendary tyrant called Bloody Mary. This view of Bloody Mary was mainly due to the widespread publication of Foxe 's Book of Martyrs during her successor Elizabeth I 's reign.
Nigel Heard summarises the persecution thus: "It is now estimated that the 274 religious executions carried out during the last three years of Mary 's reign exceeded the number recorded in any Catholic country on the continent in the same period. ''
The second schism, from which the present Church of England originates, came later. Upon Mary 's death in 1558, her half - sister Elizabeth I (reigned 1558 -- 1603) came to power. Elizabeth became a determined opponent of papal control and re-introduced separatist ideas. In 1559, Parliament recognised Elizabeth as the Church 's supreme governor, with a new Act of Supremacy that also repealed the remaining anti-Protestant legislation. A new Book of Common Prayer appeared in the same year. Elizabeth presided over the "Elizabethan Settlement '', an attempt to satisfy the Puritan and Catholic forces in England within a single national Church. Elizabeth was eventually excommunicated on 25 February 1570 by Pope Pius V, finally breaking communion between Rome and the Anglican Church.
Shortly after coming to the throne, James I attempted to bring unity to the Church of England by instituting a commission consisting of scholars from all views within the Church to produce a unified and new translation of the Bible free of Calvinist and Popish influence. The project was begun in 1604 and completed in 1611 becoming de facto the Authorised Version in the Church of England and later other Anglican churches throughout the communion until the mid-20th century. The New Testament was translated from the Textus Receptus (Received Text) edition of the Greek texts, so called because most extant texts of the time were in agreement with it.
The Old Testament was translated from the Masoretic Hebrew text, while the Apocrypha was translated from the Greek Septuagint (LXX). The work was done by 47 scholars working in six committees, two based in each of the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge, and Westminster. They worked on certain parts separately; then the drafts produced by each committee were compared and revised for harmony with each other.
This translation had a profound effect on English literature. The works of famous authors such as John Milton, Herman Melville, John Dryden and William Wordsworth are deeply inspired by it.
The Authorised Version is often referred to as the King James Version, particularly in the United States. King James was not personally involved in the translation, though his authorisation was legally necessary for the translation to begin, and he set out guidelines for the translation process, such as prohibiting footnotes and ensuring that Anglican positions were recognised on various points. A dedication to James by the translators still appears at the beginning of modern editions.
For the next century, through the reigns of James I and Charles I, and culminating in the English Civil War and the protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, there were significant swings back and forth between two factions: the Puritans (and other radicals) who sought more far - reaching reform, and the more conservative churchmen who aimed to keep closer to traditional beliefs and practices. The failure of political and ecclesiastical authorities to submit to Puritan demands for more extensive reform was one of the causes of open warfare. By continental standards the level of violence over religion was not high, but the casualties included a king, Charles I and an Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud. For about a decade (1647 -- 1660), Christmas was another casualty as Parliament abolished all feasts and festivals of the Church to rid England of outward signs of Popishness. Under the Protectorate of the Commonwealth of England from 1649 to 1660, Anglicanism was disestablished, presbyterian ecclesiology was introduced as an adjunct to the Episcopal system, the Articles were replaced with a non-Presbyterian version of the Westminster Confession (1647), and the Book of Common Prayer was replaced by the Directory of Public Worship.
Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform. In the midst of the apparent triumph of Calvinism, the 17th century brought forth a Golden Age of Anglicanism. The Caroline Divines, such as Andrewes, Laud, Herbert Thorndike, Jeremy Taylor, John Cosin, Thomas Ken and others rejected Roman claims and refused to adopt the ways and beliefs of the Continental Protestants. The historic episcopate was preserved. Truth was to be found in Scripture and the bishops and archbishops, which were to be bound to the traditions of the first four centuries of the Church 's history. The role of reason in theology was affirmed.
With the Restoration of Charles II, Anglicanism too was restored in a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation, taken for granted by the Tudors, had to be abandoned. The 1662 revision of the Book of Common Prayer became the unifying text of the ruptured and repaired Church after the disaster that was the civil war.
When the new king Charles II reached the throne in 1660, he actively appointed his supporters who had resisted Cromwell to vacancies. He translated the leading supporters to the most prestigious and rewarding sees. He also considered the need to reestablish episcopal authority and to reincorporate "moderate dissenters '' in order to effect Protestant reconciliation. In some cases turnover was heavy -- he made four appointments to the diocese of Worcester in four years 1660 - 63, moving the first three up to better positions.
James II was overthrown by William of Orange in 1688, and the new king moved quickly to ease religious tensions. Many of his supporters had been Nonconformist non-Anglicans. With the Act of Toleration enacted on 24 May 1689, Nonconformists had freedom of worship. That is, those Protestants who dissented from the Church of England such as Baptists, Congregationalists and Quakers were allowed their own places of worship and their own teachers and preachers, subject to acceptance of certain oaths of allegiance. These privileges expressly did not apply to Catholics and Unitarians, and it continued the existing social and political disabilities for dissenters, including exclusion from political office. The religious settlement of 1689 shaped policy down to the 1830s. The Church of England was not only dominant in religious affairs, but it blocked outsiders from responsible positions in national and local government, business, professions and academe. In practice, the doctrine of the divine right of kings persisted Old animosities had diminished, and a new spirit of toleration was abroad. Restrictions on Nonconformists were mostly either ignored or slowly lifted. The Protestants, including the Quakers, who worked to overthrow King James II were rewarded. The Toleration Act of 1689 allowed nonconformists who have their own chapels, teachers, and preachers, censorship was relaxed. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with an Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and Roman Catholics and those Puritans who dissented from the establishment, too strong to be suppressed altogether, having to continue their existence outside the national church rather than controlling it.
The history of Anglicanism since the 17th century has been one of greater geographical and cultural expansion and diversity, accompanied by a concomitant diversity of liturgical and theological profession and practice.
At the same time as the English reformation, the Church of Ireland was separated from Rome and adopted articles of faith similar to England 's Thirty - Nine Articles. However, unlike England, the Anglican church there was never able to capture the loyalty of the majority of the population (who still adhered to Roman Catholicism). As early as 1582, the Scottish Episcopal Church was inaugurated when James VI of Scotland sought to reintroduce bishops when the Church of Scotland became fully presbyterian (see Scottish reformation). The Scottish Episcopal Church enabled the creation of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America after the American Revolution, by consecrating in Aberdeen the first American bishop, Samuel Seabury, who had been refused consecration by bishops in England, due to his inability to take the oath of allegiance to the English crown prescribed in the Order for the Consecration of Bishops. The polity and ecclesiology of the Scottish and American churches, as well as their daughter churches, thus tends to be distinct from those spawned by the English church -- reflected, for example, in their looser conception of provincial government, and their leadership by a presiding bishop or primus rather than by a metropolitan or archbishop. The names of the Scottish and American churches inspire the customary term Episcopalian for an Anglican; the term being used in these and other parts of the world. See also: American Episcopalians, Scottish Episcopalians
At the time of the English Reformation the four (now six) Welsh dioceses were all part of the Province of Canterbury and remained so until 1920 when the Church in Wales was created as a province of the Anglican Communion. The intense interest in the Christian faith which characterised the Welsh in the 18th and 19th centuries was not present in the sixteenth and most Welsh people went along with the church 's reformation more because the English government was strong enough to impose its wishes in Wales rather than out of any real conviction.
Anglicanism spread outside of the British Isles by means of emigration as well as missionary effort. The 1609 wreck of the flagship of the Virginia Company, the Sea Venture, resulted in the settlement of Bermuda by that Company. This was made official in 1612, when the town of St George 's, now the oldest surviving English settlement in the New World, was established. It is the location of St Peter 's Church, the oldest - surviving Anglican church outside the British Isles (Britain and Ireland), and the oldest surviving non-Roman Catholic church in the New World, also established in 1612. It remained part of the Church of England until 1978, when the Anglican Church of Bermuda separated. The Church of England was the state religion in Bermuda and a system of parishes was set up for the religious and political subdivision of the colony (they survive, today, as both civil and religious parishes). Bermuda, like Virginia, tended to the Royalist side during the Civil War. The conflict in Bermuda resulted in the expulsion of Independent Puritans from the island (the Eleutheran Adventurers, who settled Eleuthera, in the Bahamas). The church in Bermuda, before the Civil War, had a somewhat Presbyterian flavour, but mainstream Anglicanism was asserted afterwards (although Bermuda is also home to the oldest Presbyterian church outside the British Isles). Bermudians were required by law in the 17th century to attend Church of England services, and proscriptions similar to those in England existed on other denominations.
English missionary organisations such as USPG -- then known as the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge (SPCK) and the Church Missionary Society (CMS) were established in the 17th and 18th centuries to bring Anglican Christianity to the British colonies. By the 19th century, such missions were extended to other areas of the world. The liturgical and theological orientations of these missionary organisations were diverse. The SPG, for example, was in the 19th century influenced by the Catholic Revival in the Church of England, while the CMS was influenced by the Evangelicalism of the earlier Evangelical Revival. As a result, the piety, liturgy, and polity of the indigenous churches they established came to reflect these diverse orientations.
The Plymouth Brethren seceded from the established church in the 1820s. The church in this period was affected by the Evangelical revival and the growth of industrial towns in the Industrial Revolution. There was an expansion of the various Nonconformist churches, notably Methodism. From the 1830s the Oxford Movement became influential and occasioned the revival of Anglo - Catholicism. From 1801 the Church of England and the Church of Ireland were unified and this situation lasted until the disestablishment of the Irish church in 1871 (by the Irish Church Act, 1869).
The growth of the twin "revivals '' in 19th century Anglicanism - -- Evangelical and Catholic - -- was hugely influential. The Evangelical Revival informed important social movements such as the abolition of slavery, child welfare legislation, prohibition of alcohol, the development of public health and public education. It led to the creation of the Church Army, an evangelical and social welfare association and informed piety and liturgy, most notably in the development of Methodism.
The Catholic Revival had a more penetrating impact by transforming the liturgy of the Anglican Church, repositioning the Eucharist as the central act of worship in place of the daily offices, and reintroducing the use of vestments, ceremonial, and acts of piety (such as Eucharistic adoration) that had long been prohibited in the English church and (to a certain extent) in its daughter churches. It influenced Anglican theology, through such Oxford Movement figures as John Henry Newman, Edward Pusey, as well as the Christian socialism of Charles Gore and Frederick Maurice. Much work was done to introduce a more medieval style of church furnishing in many churches. Neo-Gothic in many different forms became the norm rather than the earlier Neo-Classical forms. Both revivals led to considerable missionary efforts in parts of the British Empire.
Patronage continued to play a central role in Church affairs. Not since Newcastle, over a century before, did a prime minister pay as much attention to church vacancies as William Ewart Gladstone. He annoyed Queen Victoria by making appointments she did not like. He worked to match the skills of candidates to the needs of specific church offices. He supported his party by favouring Liberals who would support his political positions. His counterpart, Disraeli, favoured Conservative bishops to a small extent, but took care to distribute bishoprics so as to balance various church factions. He occasionally sacrificed party advantage to choose a more qualified candidate. On most issues Disraeli and Queen Victoria were close, but they frequently clashed over church nominations because of her aversion to high churchmen.
The current form of military chaplain dates from the era of the First World War. A chaplain provides spiritual and pastoral support for service personnel, including the conduct of religious services at sea or in the field. The Army Chaplains Department was granted the prefix "Royal '' in recognition of the chaplains ' wartime service. The Chaplain General of the British Army was Bishop John Taylor Smith who held the post from 1901 to 1925.
An attempt to revise the Book of Common Prayer in 1928 was nullified by opposition in the House of Commons.
During the Second World War the head of chaplaincy in the British Army was an (Anglican) chaplain - general, the Very Revd Charles Symons (with the military rank of major - general), who was formally under the control of the Permanent Under - Secretary of State. An assistant chaplain - general was a chaplain 1st class (full colonel), and a senior chaplain was a chaplain 2nd class (lieutenant colonel).
A movement towards unification with the Methodist Church in the 1960s failed to pass through all the required stages on the Anglican side, being rejected by the General Synod in 1972. This was initiated by the Methodists and welcomed on the part of the Anglicans but full agreement on all points could not be reached.
The Church Assembly was replaced by the General Synod in 1970.
On 12 March 1994 the Church of England ordained its first female priests. On 11 July 2005 a vote was passed by the Church of England 's General Synod in York to allow women 's ordination as bishops. Both of these events were subject to opposition from some within the church who found difficulties in accepting them. Adjustments had to be made in the diocesan structure to accommodate those parishes unwilling to accept the ministry of women priests. (See women 's ordination)
The first black archbishop of the Church of England, John Sentamu, formerly of Uganda, was enthroned on 30 November 2005 as Archbishop of York.
In 2006 the Church of England at its General Synod made a public apology for the institutional role it played as a historic owner of slave plantations in Barbados and Barbuda. The Reverend Simon Bessant recounted the history of the church on the island of Barbados, West Indies, where through a charitable bequest received in 1710 by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, thousands of sugar plantation slaves had been appallingly treated and branded using red - hot irons as the property of the "society ''.
In 2010, for the first time in the history of the Church of England, more women than men were ordained as priests (290 women and 273 men).
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roller coaster destroyed in smokey and the bandit 2 | Lakewood Fairgrounds - wikipedia
Lakewood Fairgrounds, established in 1916 in Lakewood Heights, Atlanta, was built to be the home of the Southeastern Fair. The Lakewood Fairgrounds was located on 117 acres (0.47 km) of former Creek Indian land, which was situated around a 15 - acre (61,000 m) lake.
There was also a circus big top, arcade games, vendors, and a large carousel that remained on the premises until 1967. It became a popular destination for families in the spring and summer months. In the wintertime, one of the buildings was "converted into a southern anomaly: an ice skating rink. ''
Lakewood Fairgrounds 's most distinctive feature is its four Spanish colonial - style livestock exhibition halls. For over twenty years, the Lakewood Fairgrounds Antique Mall was held in the exhibition halls every second weekend of the month. Over 15,000 antique dealers were on hand for the monthly event, until the weekend of October 13 -- 15, 2006, when the Lakewood Antique Market closed its doors for good... The Fairground halls were leased for the Antiques market on as a 50 - year lease from the City of Atlanta by Ed Spivia, who promoted it until it was established as an Atlanta icon.
The main thrill ride at Lakewood Fairgrounds was the Greyhound. The Greyhound was the old wooden roller coaster that was featured in all three Smokey and the Bandit films. Designed by John A. Miller, it was in operation from 1915 to 1974. The Greyhound was out of service during the early part of the 1956 season due to a major rebuild. After 1974, it sat out of operation for a number of years while the crowds at the fair continued to dwindle around it. Then, after a final repaint, its destruction was captured on film as a scene in the film Smokey and the Bandit II.
In the ' 40s, a dirt track was built around the lake, called Lakewood Speedway and was used for various races.
On May 17, 2010, City of Atlanta Council members voted unanimously to lease 30 acres (120,000 m) to EUE / Screen Gems, which plans to build a studio complex that will include the soundstage as well as office space, a mill shop and lighting facilities.
The media production company EUE / Screen Gems has a 50 - year lease with the City of Atlanta to use Lakewood as a film and TV production studio. The company also has plans to build a 37,500 - square - foot (3,480 m) sound stage. The company is currently using the existing historic structures at Lakewood for film and TV production.
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list of songs in pitch perfect 2 riff off | Pitch Perfect 2 - wikipedia
Pitch Perfect 2 is a 2015 American musical comedy film directed and produced by Elizabeth Banks and written by Kay Cannon. It is a sequel to the 2012 film Pitch Perfect and the second installment in the Pitch Perfect film series. The film centers on the fictional Barden University Bellas, an all - female a cappella singing group, who try to beat out the German national team in a world singing championship. The film features an ensemble cast, including Anna Kendrick, Rebel Wilson, Hailee Steinfeld, Brittany Snow, Hana Mae Lee, Alexis Knapp, Ester Dean, Chrissie Fit, Kelley Jakle, and Shelley Regner, as well as Skylar Astin, Ben Platt, Adam DeVine, John Michael Higgins and Banks all reprising their roles. It was released in the United States on May 15, 2015 by Universal Pictures.
The film received generally positive reviews from critics and grossed over $287 million worldwide. It surpassed the total gross of the original film ($115.4 million) in five days, and also became the highest - grossing music comedy film of all - time, overtaking School of Rock ($131.3 million). A sequel, Pitch Perfect 3, was released on December 22, 2017.
Three years after winning the previous competition, the Barden Bellas are now led by Beca Mitchell and three - time super senior Chloe Beale. The Bellas have become ICCA champions each of these three years. However, the group becomes involved in a national scandal, dubbed Muffgate, when a wardrobe malfunction causes Fat Amy 's pants to rip in front of President Barack Obama, showing her genitals to the public since she did not wear underwear, leading to the Bellas ' suspension from the ICCAs. Beca makes a deal to allow the Bellas to be reinstated should they win the World Championship of a cappella.
Freshman Emily Junk begins her college career, hoping to follow in her mother Katherine 's footsteps by being a Bella. At orientation, she watches an a cappella performance by the Treblemakers, now led by Beca 's boyfriend Jesse Swanson. Benjamin "Benji '' Applebaum, Jesse 's best friend, overhears Emily, leading to a crush on her.
The Bellas learn that Das Sound Machine (DSM), a German powerhouse group, have replaced the Bellas on their victory tour. Additionally, Beca has started an internship at a recording studio, Residual Heat, something only Jesse knows.
Emily goes to the Bellas ' sorority house to audition for them because of their absence from the auditions. When she sings her unfinished song "Flashlight, '' she succeeds in joining the Bellas.
At a car show where the ICCA winners are due to perform, the Bellas scout their replacements, DSM, led by intimidating duo Pieter Krämer and Kommissar, who take delight in mocking the all - girl group. Later, the Bellas are invited to an exclusive riff - off against DSM. Also in attendance are the Treblemakers, Tone Hangers (a group of former Treblemakers, including Bumper), and the Green Bay Packers. The Bellas make it to the final two, but end up losing to DSM in the final round when a nervous Emily flubs an attempt to sing "Flashlight, '' her original song not from the right category ("90 's Hip - Hop Jamz '').
The next day at the warmups, the Bellas ' chances of winning end in disaster when the performance sets Cynthia Rose 's hair on fire by pyrotechnics. Even before then, John and Gail question the Bellas ' identity. In order to regain harmony and sync, Chloe takes them to a retreat led by former leader Aubrey Posen. Beca starts a heated debate with Chloe over herself being the only one thinking about life beyond the Bellas and Chloe 's obsession with winning Worlds.
To prove to her boss that she can produce music well, Beca offers Emily to produce "Flashlight '' at the studio. The group realizes that they will no longer be together and may go their separate ways after graduation, and regain harmony by singing "Cups (When I 'm Gone). '' At the studio, Emily and Beca present their song to Beca 's boss, in which he demonstrates envy for their talent and looks forward to producing with them.
The senior Bellas graduate and they all head off to Copenhagen for the World Finals, with Jesse and Benji to cheer them on. They perform a harmonized version of "Flashlight '' with Aubrey, Katherine, and other past Bellas joining in. The Bellas win the championship and repair their damaged legacy. As the senior Bellas leave Barden, they give Emily a belated proper initiation with Fat Amy showing her how to do the last tradition: christening the house by sliding down the staircase.
In a mid-credits scene, Bumper performs on The Voice, chooses Christina Aguilera as his coach and makes her uncomfortable when he gives her an oddly lengthy hug.
Green Bay Packers players Clay Matthews, David Bakhtiari, Don Barclay, Josh Sitton and T.J. Lang play themselves in cameo appearances. Also appearing as themselves are Snoop Dogg, Natalie Morales, Jake Tapper, Joe Scarborough, Mika Brzezinski, Jimmy Kimmel, Rosie O'Donnell, Rosie Perez, Nicolle Wallace, Jordan Rodgers, Christina Aguilera, Adam Levine, Blake Shelton and Pharrell Williams. Robin Roberts, C.J. Perry and Kether Donohue appear as Legacy Bellas during the finale. Additionally, President Barack Obama, First Lady Michelle Obama and Shonda Rhimes briefly appear via archive footage.
In December 2012, Skylar Astin revealed that he and Rebel Wilson have had meetings with Universal Studios about the potential sequel. In April 2013, it was confirmed that a sequel would be released in 2015. Elizabeth Banks directed the sequel, and Kay Cannon returned as screenwriter. Paul Brooks produced for Gold Circle Films, alongside Banks and Max Handelman. Deke Sharon returned as vocal producer, and has a brief cameo as a German reporter. As in the first movie, they ran a month of "a cappella boot camp '' before filming.
Anna Kendrick and Wilson returned to the cast early in 2014 to play the characters they originated in the first film. Brittany Snow reprised her character. On April 24, Chrissie Fit was added to the cast. On May 1, Hailee Steinfeld was added to the cast, playing a new member of the Barden Bellas. On May 5, Adam DeVine was reported to return in the film. On May 14, Katey Sagal was added to the cast, playing Steinfeld 's character 's mother. On May 29, Flula Borg was added to the cast. He played the leader of a European a cappella group, Das Sound Machine, that competed with the Bellas. It was confirmed on June 18, 2014 that Christopher Shepard was added to the cast. It was confirmed on June 19, 2014 that Pentatonix would play the role of a rival group to the Barden Bellas. It was later confirmed that The Filharmonic from season 4 of The Sing Off would make a cameo appearance as a rival group from the Philippines. On August 24, 2014 it was announced that Penn Masala, the all - male Hindi a cappella group from director Elizabeth Banks 's and producer Max Handelman 's alma mater The University of Pennsylvania, would be featured as a team from Southeast Asia. On June 25, Birgitte Hjort Sørensen was confirmed added to the cast.
On May 21, 2014, principal photography began at Louisiana State University (LSU) campus in Baton Rouge.
On December 3, 2014, Mark Mothersbaugh was hired to compose the music for the film. The official soundtrack was released on May 12, 2015. The special edition soundtrack was later released on August 8, 2015.
The original album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, earning 107,000 album - equivalent units (92,000 copies of traditional sales) in the week ending May 17, 2015.
The film was released on May 7, 2015 in Australia and New Zealand, and May 15 in the United States and Canada.
A still from the rehearsals for the film was revealed on May 16, 2014. The poster was released on November 18, 2014 and the trailer came out the following day. A second trailer was aired during Super Bowl XLIX on February 1, 2015.
Director Elizabeth Banks stated an additional performance by the Treblemakers was filmed specifically for the DVD release. Also included on the DVD will be deleted scenes. On May 20, 2015, it was announced that FX Networks had acquired U.S. television broadcasting rights to the film.
The Blu - ray and DVD editions of Pitch Perfect 2 were released on September 22, 2015 in the U.S. with a Target - exclusive edition containing additional bonus features being released the same day. Pitch Perfect 2 was released on 4K UHD Blu - Ray on March 10 2018.
Pitch Perfect 2 grossed $184.2 million in North America and $103.2 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $287.5 million, against an estimated gross production budget of $29 - 31 million, and the film was offered up to $8.9 million in production incentives and write - offs by the state of Louisiana. In its first five days, the film surpassed the total gross of the original ($115.4 million), and also overtook School of Rock ($131.3 million) for the highest grossing musical - comedy of all - time and the second greatest musical debut ever (behind Beauty and the Beast 's $174.8 million in 2017). Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $139.6 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
In the United States and Canada, Pitch Perfect 2 grossed $4.6 million from Thursday night showings and $27.8 million on its opening day, increasing the opening weekend projections from $40 million to $64 million. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $69.2 million, finishing first at the box office. The opening weekend gross was more than the entire North American total gross of the first film ($65 million), is the third biggest PG - 13 comedy opening of all - time (behind The Simpsons Movie 's $74 million in 2007 and Austin Powers in Goldmember 's $73 million in 2002) and the highest grossing opening ever for a musical.
Outside North America, the film opened at number one in Australia and New Zealand, earning $7.6 million and $1.2 million respectively. The film grossed $22.1 million in Australia, $27.3 million in the United Kingdom and $2.7 million in New Zealand.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 65 % based on 197 reviews, with an average rating of 6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Pitch Perfect 2 sings in sweet comedic harmony, even if it does n't hit quite as many high notes as its predecessor. '' On Metacritic, the film holds weighted average score of 63 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
On April 11, 2015, a month before the release of the Pitch Perfect 2, it was announced that Rebel Wilson would return for a third film, although she stated that she did not know if Anna Kendrick or any of the other cast members would also be reprising their roles. She added that she would be "up for a Fat Amy spin - off, '' although nothing had yet been confirmed. Director, star, and producer Elizabeth Banks acknowledged the possibility of a third film, saying, "I will say, it would be disingenuous to say that no one 's talking about a Pitch Perfect 3; the possibility of it. We are really focused on getting as many butts in seats for this one. If fans embrace it, we are going to seriously think about what the continuing journey would look like, but we do n't know what that is yet ''.
On June 10, 2015, a third film was officially confirmed, with Kay Cannon returning to write the script. Several days later it was announced both Kendrick and Wilson would reprise their roles, and later Brittany Snow was also confirmed to return. Banks returned to produce, but in June 2016 it was announced she would not be directing the film.
The film was originally slated for a July 21, 2017 release, and was later pushed back to August 4, 2017 before moving back to the July 21 slot. In May 2016 it was moved again, this time being pushed back to December 22, 2017.
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where does the southwest coast path start and finish | South West Coast path - wikipedia
Coastal scenery, much of it Heritage Coast
The South West Coast Path is England 's longest waymarked long - distance footpath and a National Trail. It stretches for 630 miles (1,014 km), running from Minehead in Somerset, along the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, to Poole Harbour in Dorset. Since it rises and falls with every river mouth, it is also one of the more challenging trails. The total height climbed has been calculated to be 114,931 ft (35,031 m), almost four times the height of Mount Everest. It has been voted ' Britain 's Best Walking route ' twice in a row by readers of the Ramblers Walk magazine, and regularly features in lists of the world 's best walks.
The final section of the path was designated as a National Trail in 1978. Many of the landscapes which the South West Coast Path crosses have special status, either as a National Park or one of the Heritage Coasts. The path passes through two World Heritage Sites: the Dorset and East Devon Coast, known as the Jurassic Coast, was designated in 2001, and the Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape in 2007.
In the 1990s it was thought that the path brought £ 15 million into the area each year, but new research in 2003 indicated that it generated around £ 300 million a year in total, which could support more than 7,500 jobs. This research also recorded that 27.6 % of visitors to the region came because of the Path, and they spent £ 136 million in a year. Local people took 23 million walks on the Path and spent a further £ 116 million, and other visitors contributed the remainder. A further study in 2005 estimated this figure to have risen to around £ 300 million. Following investment through the Rural Development Programme for England, more detailed research was undertaken in 2012, and this found the annual spend by walkers to have risen to £ 439 million which sustains 9771 full - time equivalent jobs
The path originated as a route for the Coastguard to walk from lighthouse to lighthouse patrolling for smugglers. They needed to be able to look down into every bay and cove: as a result, the path closely hugs the coast providing excellent views but rarely the most direct path between two points. The South West Coast Path is no longer used by the Coastguard but it has been transformed from a practical defence system into a resource for recreational walkers. The path is covered by England 's right - of - way laws, as amended by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, which keep historic footpaths open to the public even when they pass through private property. Sections of the path are maintained by the National Trust, which owns parts of the coast.
The path is a designated National Trail, largely funded by Natural England. It was created in stages, with its final section, Somerset and North Devon, opening in 1978. It is maintained by a dedicated South West Coast Path Team.
The South West Coast Path Association, a registered charity, exists to support the interests of users of the path. The Association was formed in 1973 and since then it has campaigned for improvements to the path and undertakes considerable fundraising to help care for and improve the path. Its services include accommodation guides and completion certificates.
The route is described here anticlockwise, from Minehead to Poole. The distance and total ascent between any two points, in either direction, can be obtained from The South West Coast Path Association Distance Reckoner. A survey carried out in 1999 and 2000 found that at that time the path had 2,473 signposts or waymarks, and included 302 bridges, 921 stiles, and 26,719 steps. In practice, any such calculation is soon out of date because of path diversions due to landslips or access changes.
Many walkers take about eight weeks to complete the path, often dividing this into sections walked over several years. In contrast, a team of six Royal Marines, taking turns in pairs to run two - hour sections, completed the path in six days in 2004 and in 2012 a runner ran the entire path in 16 days, 9 hours and 57 minutes. New records for completing the path were set on 11 May 2013, when two runners completed the trail in 14 days, 14 hours and 45 minutes and 23 April 2015, when a runner completed the trail in 14 days, 8 hours and 2 minutes. This record was however quickly broken by Mark Berry, who ran it in 11 days, 8 hours and 15 minutes. On 24 May 2016 outdoor journalist and GB ultra runner Damian Hall set a new fastest known time of 10 days, 15 hours and 18 minutes.
The South West Coast Path starts from the western side of Minehead, in Somerset, at a marker erected in 2001 and partly paid for by the South West Coast Path Association. The path follows the waterfront past the harbour to Culver Cliff before climbing up on a zigzag path through woodland. Entering the Exmoor National Park, it cuts inland past North Hill, Selworthy Beacon and Bossington Hill before regaining the cliff top at Hurlestone Point. After passing through Bossington it follows the beach to Porlock Weir and connects with the Coleridge Way.
The scenery of rocky headlands, ravines, waterfalls and towering cliffs gained the Exmoor coast recognition as a Heritage Coast in 1991. The Exmoor Coastal Heaths have been recognised as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) due to the diversity of species present. The path passes the smallest parish church in England, Culbone Church, in Culbone. The path crosses the county boundary into Devon, a few hundred yards north of the National Park Centre at County Gate.
The next big headland is Foreland Point, after which the path comes to Lynmouth with the Lynton and Lynmouth Cliff Railway linking it with Lynton on the hill above. At Lynmouth the path intersects with the Two Moors Way. The river here suffered a catastrophic flood in the 1950s. Beyond Lynton the path passes through the Valley of the Rocks, known for its herd of goats, then Duty Point and Lee Bay, then Crock Point and Woody Bay. After Highveer Rocks the path crosses the small River Heddon then skirts Trentishoe Down and Holdstone Down and climbs Great Hangman. At 1,043 feet (318 m) this is the highest point on the path. With a cliff face of 800 feet (244 m), it is described as the highest cliff on mainland Britain. The path now leaves the Exmoor National Park and enters the village of Combe Martin, which claims to have the longest village street in England (two miles (3.2 km)).
After rounding Widmouth Head, the path passes ' The Coastguard Cottages ' in Hele Bay and enters the seaside resort of Ilfracombe, with its small harbour, surrounded by cliffs. A seasonal foot passenger ferry service runs from the harbour to Lundy Island, and the Balmoral, the Waverley and pleasure boats ply to Porthcawl near Swansea. From Ilfracombe to Bideford the Tarka Trail coincides with the South West Coast Path.
The path leaves Ilfracombe through The Torrs and follows the cliff top past several small bays including Lee Bay before passing Bull Point and the Bull Point Lighthouse, into Rackham Bay. It then rounds Morte Point, passing the nearby village of Mortehoe before turning south to enter the long sandy Morte Bay which includes Woolacombe and Putsborough. Baggy Point divides Morte Bay from Croyde Bay, and the surfing mecca of Croyde and then the much larger Barnstaple or Bideford Bay, which forms part of the North Devon Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The wide expanse of Saunton Sands, which takes its name from Saunton, merges into the Braunton Burrows Site of Special Scientific Interest), the largest sand dune system (psammosere) in England and a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. It is particularly important ecologically because it includes the complete successional range of dune plant communities, with over 400 vascular plant species. The short turf communities are very rich in lichens and herbs, and the dune slacks are also rich. The many rare plants and animals include 14 with UK Biodiversity Action Plans.
From Braunton Burrows the South West Coast Path turns inland following the Braunton Canal to Braunton and then along north bank of the River Taw, following part of the route of the old Ilfracombe Branch Line, past the perimeter of the Royal Marines Base Chivenor towards Barnstaple where the new Barnstaple Western Bypass now forms the closest bridge over the Taw to the sea. After crossing medieval Barnstaple Long Bridge, the path then turns west following the disused Bideford & Instow Railway line along southern bank of the Taw past Fremington Quay and the Fremington Quay Cliffs SSSI to Instow at the joint estuary of the Rivers Taw and Torridge and the Taw - Torridge Estuary (SSSI). The ferry which used to operate at Instow ceased on the retirement of the ferryman in 2007, but since 2013 a revived ferry again runs in summer. The path goes upstream to cross the river by the 13th - century Long Bridge at Bideford, which is the site of the Bideford Railway Heritage Centre and terminus of the North Devon Railway.
The path continues north beside the Torridge Estuary, in places following the route of the Bideford, Westward Ho! and Appledore Railway, past Northam to Appledore and around the promontory past the Shell middens and a submerged forest, that dates from the Mesolithic period, off the pebble ridge to Westward Ho! (this is the only placename in the UK which includes an exclamation mark). The path then follows the coast around Clovelly Bay where several small villages including Abbotsham lie inland, because of the cliffs. The path passes the site of the Iron Age Hill fort at Peppercombe Castle and the village of Bucks Mills. Clovelly itself is a historic village with a small natural harbour. The path continues past the site of the Iron Age Hill fort at Windbury Head to Hartland Point and Hartland Quay. Hartland Point features a lighthouse and radar tower, and marks the western limit (on the English side) of the Bristol Channel with the Atlantic Ocean to the west. There is a winter helicopter service from Hartland Point to Lundy, which is visible from many points along the path between Welcombe and the Cornish border.
The path crosses into Cornwall at Marsland Mouth and continues south - westwards along this rocky coast, past Morwenstow then Higher and Lower Sharpnose Points. Beyond Sandy Mouth, the walking becomes easier through Bude, a surfing resort, and along Widemouth Bay. Returning to the cliffs, the path continues on to Crackington Haven, past Cambeak and further south (over "High Cliff '', Southern Britain 's highest sheer - drop cliff at 735 feet (224 m)), and from there to Boscastle, the scene of flooding in 2004.
Tintagel and its castle are associated with the conception of the legendary King Arthur and a 15th - century house that was later used as a post office. The path continues to Trebarwith Strand, Tregardock, then to Port Gaverne, Port Isaac, and Port Quin, three small harbours. Overlooking Port Quin is Doyden Castle, a 19th - century folly.
The scenery is now less wild, the cliffs less high. Rumps Point has Iron Age defences across its narrow neck but the path heads straight past to Pentire Head then swings eastwards again into Polzeath. The estuary of the River Camel forces a detour away from the sea to Rock and the Black Tor Ferry that takes walkers into Padstow.
From Stepper Point the path again runs along low sea cliffs to Trevone and Harlyn Bay then around Trevose Head. From here - -- weather permitting - -- the coast can be seen from Hartland in Devon to beyond St Ives in the west. The path runs southwards through Constantine Bay to Porthcothan then passes around Park Head to reach Mawgan Porth.
The long, sandy Watergate Bay leads to St Columb Porth and Newquay. A rail link with through trains to London and the North of England on summer weekends has helped the town prosper as a seaside resort which is visited by both surfers and clubbers. On the far side of the town, beyond Fistral Beach, lies the River Gannel. There are seasonal ferries to Crantock and a footbridge which is passable at low tide, otherwise there is a detour inland to use the road bridge.
The path now skirts Pentire Point West and then Kelsey Head to reach Holywell Bay, another surfing beach. After passing round Penhale and crossing Penhale Sands the path enters Perranporth, then climbs out the other side back onto a stretch of cliffs past Kligga Head to the village of St Agnes. Past St Agnes Head, a breeding ground for kittiwakes, lies the ruins of Towanroath Mine and the inlet at Chapel Porth. Next are the ruins of Wheal Charlotte mine and then Porthtowan village.
After passing Nancekuke firing ranges, the path drops into Portreath, once a busy port serving inland tin mines around Redruth. Beyond lies Carvannel Downs with Samphire Island just off the coast, and then the Reskajeage Downs better known locally as the North Cliffs. Beyond the cove at Hell 's Mouth, the path runs northwards to pass around Navax Point and Godrevy Point, offshore from which lies Godrevy Island with its lighthouse.
Turning into the wide sweep of St Ives Bay, where many walkers drop down onto the sands at low tide, the path follows the line of the sand dunes or Towans as they are known here. This area was used for explosives manufacture for many years, the sand being ideal for absorbing any accidental explosions. The Towans are interrupted by two rivers, the small Red River at the north end, and the larger River Hayle and its estuary towards the south. Although narrow, the estuary is tidal and fast flowing due to the large expanse of mud flats and docks that lie behind the Towans, so the path turns away from St Ives Bay to go round via Hayle. The water is crossed using an old railway bridge and then the old Hayle Railway is followed into the town centre then the A30 road to Griggs Quay where quieter roads bring the Path around to the west side of the tidal mud flats. Views of the birdlife can be had from Carnsew Pool at Hayle and from the area around Lelant Saltings railway station, although the official path is slightly inland on the A3074 road through Lelant village, regaining the coast by crossing golf links to reach the last of the Towans above Porth Kidney Sands.
Rising back onto low cliffs, the path rounds Carrack Gladden and enters Carbis Bay, it then follows alongside the St Ives Bay railway line into St Ives; a bustling town favoured by artists since the 19th century, which is home to the Tate St Ives art gallery and the Barbara Hepworth Museum. The path passes the east - facing Porthminster Beach and goes around "The Island '', a headland, to the north - facing Porthmeor Beach.
The coast now shows the open and ancient landscape of the Penwith district along a series of wild headlands such as Clodgy Point, Hor Point, Pen Enys Point, and Carn Naun Point. The Carracks lie just offshore, locally known as Seal Island (and seals can often be seen close to the shore opposite here), then there lies Zennor Head and Gurnard 's Head as the Path leads into Morvah, although the village proper lies inland. Portheras Cove is a relief from the many small rocky bays along this coast but the cliffs then continue beyond the iconic, disused Crowns Mine at Botallack.
From Cape Cornwall at St Just, the Path heads southwards to sandy Whitesand Bay and the village of Sennen. At the end of the sands the path turns westwards one last time to reach Land 's End. This is the most westerly point of the English mainland.
After passing Land 's End the path continues further south past Pordenack Point and Mill Bay before turning fully eastward at Gwennap Head. Beyond the tiny village of Porthgwarra lies St Levan. The next bay lies below Porthcurno. It is overlooked by the open - air Minack Theatre and is where the Eastern Cable Company 's cable came ashore, the first telegraph link with India. Climbing out of the bay the path passes the precarious Logan Rock.
The next village is Penberth, then a series of bays are separated by the headlands of Merthen Point, Boscawen Point, and Tater Du with its lighthouse built in 1965. Lamorna Cove is a favourite with artists such as S.J. "Lamorna '' Birch, who lived there in a small cottage. Then, after rounding Carn Du, the path turns northwards towards Mousehole and Penlee Point. This section of the path follows a road into Newlyn, but a diversion via Paul allows walkers to follow a quieter inland path. Newlyn has a busy fishing harbour and is again favoured by artists, known as the Newlyn School; it merges into Penzance and the path now follows the promenade through the town, passing Penzance railway station and continuing past the railway engine shed along the shore of Mount 's Bay with its views of St Michael 's Mount. This is an island at high tide but can be reached from Marazion by a causeway at low tide.
The path now turns south again, passing the village of Perranuthnoe (or Perran) and Perran Sands, then skirting inland across the neck of Cudden Point to Prussia Cove and Bessy 's Cove. A larger sandy beach is Praa Sands after which the path climbs up onto a series of cliff tops such as Trewavas Head. This area shows many signs of Cornwall 's mining history with abandoned engine houses such as Wheal Prosper close to the path.
After passing through Porthleven the path crosses the shingle bank of Loe Bar with the freshwater Loe Pool behind. At Gunwalloe more cliffs appear, leading to Poldhu Cove overlooked by the radio station on Poldhu Point, then Porth Mellin on Mullion Cove with Mullion Island offshore. Rounding Predannack Head, Vellan Head, and Rill Head (where the Spanish Armada was first sighted on 29 July 1588), the path leads to Kynance Cove and Lizard Point, the lighthouse of which has been visible for some distance. Lizard Point is the most southerly point of the British mainland.
After passing The Lizard the path turns northwards, continuing past Housel Bay and a building used by Guglielmo Marconi for radio experiments, then Bass Point with its Coastguard Station. The Lizard lifeboat station is a sheltered position in Kilcobben Cove. Passing through Cadgwith and across Kennack Sands, the path heads towards Black Head then into Coverack. Once around Lowland Point, The Manacles lie a mile offshore, a reef that has wrecked many ships. The path passes through Porthoustock and Porthallow, then around Nare Point lies Gillan Creek. This can be crossed at very low tide, but most walkers follow the lanes round the head of the creek to reach Dennis Head at the mouth of the Helford River. To cross this wider river means following it inland to Helford where there is a ferry across to Helford Passage on the north bank. Some people take a short cut from Gillan Creek to Helford by a path through Manaccan.
After following the river back through Durgan to the open waters beyond Toll Point, the path skirts Falmouth Bay along Maenporth, Swanpool and Gyllyngvase beaches before passing around the headland beneath Pendennis Castle to enter bustling Falmouth. The castle was built, along with its twin at St Mawes, to protect the deep water of Carrick Roads from attack. This natural haven is what made Falmouth such an important harbour, it being the last good shelter for ships heading westwards towards the Atlantic Ocean.
The path crosses the harbour on the St Mawes Ferry and then passes St Anthony Head and Zone Point and northwards past the village of Portscatho and around Gerrans Bay. Beyond Nare Head is Portloe in Veryan Bay. The next big headland is Dodman Point after which the coast path resumes its northwards course through Gorran Haven and the fishing harbour at Mevagissey to Pentewan where the once busy dock has silted up with sand. The path then climbs up around Black Head to reach Porthpean and then Charlestown. This was the first harbour to serve the china clay industry around St Austell and has featured in several films as it is home to a heritage fleet of sailing ships.
After passing Carlyon Bay the path comes to the much busier china - clay exporting port of Par, where it goes inland of the dock site. After passing through the village the path regains the coast at Par Sands and links with the Saints ' Way, a coast - to - coast path across Cornwall, at Polmear. It then follows the cliff tops through Polkerris and around Gribbin Head. From here to Polperro is designated as a heritage coast.
The path now passes Polridmouth (pronounced ' Pridmouth ') and Readymoney Cove to enter Fowey (' Foy '), another busy harbour but this time the deep water quays are situated up river above the town. The River Fowey is crossed on the Polruan ferry, beyond which are some steep cliffs with extensive views. Beyond Lantic Bay lies Pencarrow Head then the larger Lantivet Bay with further cliffs and small coves leading to Polperro, a fishing village which bans cars during the summer.
Beyond Polperro lies Talland Bay and Portnadler Bay, with the bird reserve of Looe Island (also known as St George 's island) off shore. The path now enters Looe, passing through Hannafore, West Looe then, after crossing the River Looe on a seven - span bridge. The path continues up onto the cliff then heads towards Millendreath then along more cliffs, running past a 60 - ft sevenfold labyrinth carved into the turf of the hillside to Seaton, Downderry, and Portwrinkle.
The long beach of Whitsand Bay has a fast - rising tide and is a military firing range so the path runs inland behind Tregantle Fort to reach Freathy and Rame Head. Beyond this lies Penlee Point and then the path turns northwards into Plymouth Sound, skirting Cawsand Bay and Mount Edgcumbe Country Park to reach the ferry at Cremyll. Beyond here lies the Hamoaze, the combined estuary of the Tamar and other rivers.
The Cremyll Ferry lands in Devon at Stonehouse, one of the Three Towns that make up the modern city of Plymouth. The path follows roads past Stonehouse Barracks and Millbay Docks to Plymouth Hoe with its views across Plymouth Sound. It then crosses Sutton Harbour by the Mayflower Steps then skirts the hill of Cattedown to cross the River Plym by the Laira Bridge to Plymstock. Passing round the edge of the tidal Hooe Lake, the path regains the countryside above Jennycliff Bay, part of the Plymouth Sound, Shores and Cliffs Site of Special Scientific Interest, and follows the cliffs past Bovisand to Wembury, Wembury Marine Centre.
From Wembury the path travels east into the South Hams district to the Warren Point Ferry, across the River Yealm, near Newton Ferrers. The River Erme near Kingston must be forded at Erme Mouth within one hour of low tide. The path then goes past Hillsea Point Rock. The view to the southwest is then over Bigbury Bay past Burgh Island and Hope Cove to the promontory known as Bolt Tail. The next 6 miles (10 km) of cliff top paths from Bolberry Down past Bolt Head and the tidal ria of Kingsbridge Estuary to Prawle Point, belong to the National Trust. The estuary is crossed using the Salcombe Ferry, from Salcombe to East Portlemouth, close to Salcombe Castle and within the South Devon Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). The path passes through the Prawle Point and Start Point Site of Special Scientific Interest which is recognised as being an important site for solitary bees and wasps, the rare cuckoo bee Nomada sexfasciata, and the Cirl bunting.
The path then continues around Lannacombe Bay to Start Point and its Lighthouse and then through Start Bay along a 3 - mile (5 km) shingle causeway between Slapton Sands and the Slapton Ley freshwater lake and nature reserve before entering the estuary of the River Dart and historic port of Dartmouth. From Dartmouth, the route uses either the Lower Ferry or Passenger Ferry to cross the river to Kingswear.
Kingswear is the terminus of the Paignton and Dartmouth Steam Railway which follows the River Dart, but the coast path climbs out of the village in the opposite direction to reach Torbay, known as "The English Riviera ''. It passes the historic harbour of Brixham and the seaside towns of Goodrington, Paignton, Torquay, Babbacombe. The coast path then passes along the wooded cliffs above Labrador Bay to reach Shaldon and the River Teign.
Crossing the river by ferry or the long Shaldon Bridge brings walkers to Teignmouth, beyond which the coast path follows the South Devon Railway sea wall to Hole Head where the Parson and Clerk rocks look out to sea. Passing beneath the railway, the path climbs up to the main road, which it follows for a few yards before turning back towards the cliff top (in stormy weather the sea wall is too dangerous and this road must be followed most of the way from Teignmouth). Entering Dawlish along a now by - passed toll road, the coast path descends back to the level of the railway which it follows to Dawlish Warren, although a slightly more landward route is necessary at high tides.
Dawlish Warren is a sand spit and nature reserve that lies at the mouth of the River Exe. The route now turns away from the coast and follows the Exe estuary past Cockwood to Starcross where the seasonal Exmouth to Starcross Ferry crosses to Exmouth. The Exe Valley Way continues beyond Starcross towards Exeter, but when the ferry is not running it is possible to catch a train from either Dawlish Warren or Starcross railway stations to Exmouth railway station.
On the eastern side of Exmouth, the coast path climbs up onto the High Land of Orcombe. This is the start of the Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site. The next town is Budleigh Salterton, beyond which lies the River Otter. The path then skirts Chiselbury Bay and Ladram Bay towards Sidmouth which sits at the mouth of the River Sid. Access to the beach is via a wooden staircase known as Jacob 's ladder. Sidmouth is surrounded by the East Devon AONB. Erosion remains a serious concern east of the mouth of the River Sid. The cliffs have been heavily eroded, threatening cliff top homes and the footpath, which passes along the tops of the cliff, around Lyme Bay, avoiding The Undercliff towards Branscombe. The path then follows Seaton Bay past Beer, with Beer Quarry Caves a man - made cave complex, resulting from the quarrying of Beer stone and Seaton before going through The Undercliff SSSI and NNR and crossing the border into Dorset shortly before reaching Lyme Regis.
Across the Dorset border, the Coast Path runs through the town of Lyme Regis where the Cobb breakwater was seen in the film The French Lieutenant 's Woman and features on the film 's poster. Further east, where it shares its route with the Monarch 's Way, the path passes by Golden Cap, the highest point on the south coast, and on through Charmouth and West Bay (near Bridport), to Burton Bradstock at the start of Chesil Beach, an 18 - mile - long (29 km) tombolo. At Abbotsbury, the path leaves Chesil beach to follow the shores of the Fleet lagoon, until it reaches the terminus of Chesil beach next to the villages of Fortuneswell and Chiswell on the Isle of Portland. The path circumnavigates the Isle of Portland, passing the lighthouses at Portland Bill and the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy in Chiswell, and returns across Chesil beach to Wyke Regis (encompassing the Rodwell Trail) and along the shores of Portland Harbour to the Nothe Fort in the resort of Weymouth.
In Weymouth the coast path runs along Weymouth Harbour and the Wey Estuary up to Radipole Lake, through the town centre to the Esplanade on the shore of Weymouth Bay, and on to Ringstead Bay, with White Nothe at its eastern end, near the village of Osmington Mills. There is an alternative route around Weymouth and Portland along the South Dorset Downs, which reduces the footpath distance by 19.25 miles (31 km). Just the loop around the Isle of Portland can be omitted, reducing the journey by 13.2 miles (21.2 km).
The coast path then heads towards the Isle of Purbeck, via Bat 's Head, Swyre Head, Durdle Door -- a natural arch which has been described as "one of Dorset 's most recognisable features '' -- and Lulworth Cove, "the most visited geological locality in Britain ''. Further east is the deserted village of Tyneham, beside Worbarrow Bay, and Kimmeridge, next to Kimmeridge Bay, with its rocky shore and wave cut platform. Between Lulworth Cove and Kimmeridge the path passes through the Lulworth Ranges, which are not always open to the public. When the ranges are in use a 12 - mile (19 km) road detour is needed.
The coast path then reaches St Alban 's Head, just to the south of the village of Worth Matravers. Between St Alban 's Head and the resort of Swanage is Durlston Country Park nature reserve. North of Swanage is the chalk Ballard Down, the eastern tip of which has been eroded to form Old Harry Rocks -- a series of stacks, arches and caves jutting into the sea between Swanage Bay and Studland Bay. This headland marks the end of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site. Behind Studland beach, an extensive system of sand dunes have formed a psammosere, stretching for miles across the Studland peninsula. The peninsula forms one shore of Poole Harbour, one of the largest natural harbours in the world. Part of Studland beach is the National Trust 's only official naturist beach. The South West Coast Path ends at South Haven Point, where there is a commemorative marker. The Sandbanks Ferry links this to the Sandbanks area of Poole on the eastern edge of the harbour.
From Plymouth to Poole the South West Coast Path forms part of the route of the E9 European Coastal Path which runs for 3,125 miles (5,000 km) from Cabo de São Vicente in Portugal to Narva - Jõesuu in Estonia. The route crosses by ferry from Roscoff to Plymouth, and beyond Poole the path follows the Bournemouth Coast Path to Milford on Sea, then the Solent Way (with an Isle of Wight option), South Downs Way, 1066 Country Walk and Saxon Shore Way to Dover, from where it returns to continental Europe. It is also part of the network of routes that form the International Appalachian Trail.
The South West Coast Path, covering such a wide area, inevitably intersects with other, more local, routes, and it connects with many other long - distance paths offering opportunities for even longer expeditions:
There are regular train services from other parts of the UK to the south west, principal destination stations being Barnstaple, Exeter, Newquay, Penzance, Plymouth and Weymouth. From these places local trains or buses connect to many points of the path. Airports at Bournemouth, Exeter and Newquay are served from a range of national and international destinations.
Using public transport for at least part of the journey means that walkers can plan walks that start and finish at different places, rather than having to circle back to their start point to collect their cars.
More than twenty railway stations give options either for short walks -- such as Dawlish to Paignton -- or for longer walks over several days. The West Somerset Railway offers steam and diesel services from Taunton to Minehead at the Somerset end of the path (using a connecting bus from Taunton railway station to Bishops Lydeard), the Swanage Railway connects Swanage to Wareham, and the Paignton and Dartmouth Steam Railway connects Kingswear and Paignton.
Long - distance bus services connect some coastal towns with railway stations:
A boat service runs down the River Fal from Truro to Falmouth, and between Swanage seafront and Poole Quay.
Many individuals or organisations use a walk on all or part of the path to raise money for charity.
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which is the last amendment in indian constitution | List of amendments of the Constitution of India - Wikipedia
As of January 2018, there have been 122 Amendment Bills (latest Goods and services Tax) and 101 Amendment acts to the Constitution of India since it was first enacted in 1950.
There are two types of amendments to the constitution which are governed by article 368.
Later however, Article 329A was struck down by the Supreme Court in case of Indira Nehru Gandhi vs Shri Raj Narain 1976 (2) SCR 347, for being in violation of basic structure.
Place land reform & other acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution
However, the Supreme Court, in Minerva Mills v. Union of India, quashed the amendments to Articles 31C and 368 as it was in contravention with the basic structure of the Constitution.
The amendment objective is to encourage economic activities of cooperatives which in turn help progress of rural India. It is expected to not only ensure autonomous and democratic functioning of cooperatives, but also the accountability of the management to the members and other stakeholders.
Amendment of articles 248, 249, 250, 268, 269, 270, 271, 286, 366, 368, Sixth Schedule, Seventh Schedule.
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why did the uk not sign the schengen agreement | Schengen Area - Wikipedia
European Commission
Council of the EU
The Schengen Area (/ ˈʃɛŋən /, / ˈʃɛŋɡən /) is an area comprising 26 European states that have officially abolished passport and all other types of border control at their mutual borders. The area mostly functions as a single jurisdiction for international travel purposes, with a common visa policy. The area is named after the Schengen Agreement. States in the Schengen Area have strengthened border controls with non-Schengen countries.
Twenty - two of the twenty - eight European Union (EU) member states participate in the Schengen Area. Of the six EU members that are not part of the Schengen Area, four -- Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, and Romania -- are legally obliged to join the area, while the other two -- the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom -- maintain opt - outs. The four European Free Trade Association (EFTA) member states, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland, are not members of the EU, but have signed agreements in association with the Schengen Agreement. Three European microstates -- Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican City -- are de facto part of the Schengen Area.
The Schengen Area has a population of over 400 million people and an area of 4,312,099 square kilometres (1,664,911 sq mi). About 1.7 million people commute to work across a European border each day, and in some regions these people constitute up to a third of the workforce. Each year, there are 1.3 billion crossings of Schengen borders in total. 57 million crossings are due to transport of goods by road, with a value of € 2.8 trillion each year. The decrease in the cost of trade due to Schengen varies from 0.42 % to 1.59 % depending on geography, trade partners, and other factors. Countries outside of the Schengen area also benefit.
Following the migration crisis, as of July 2018, Austria, Denmark, Germany, Norway, and Sweden temporarily imposed the reintroduction of border controls at some or all internal borders pursuant to Article 25 of the Schengen Borders Code, citing security threats. In consequence of the November 2015 Paris attacks and subsequent attacks in France, France declared a state of emergency, which reinstated border control at all international borders until November 2017.
The Schengen Agreement was signed on 14 June 1985 by five of the ten EEC member states in the town of Schengen, Luxembourg. The Schengen Area was established separately from the European Economic Community, when consensus could not be reached among all EC member states on the abolition of border controls.
In 1990 the Agreement was supplemented by the Schengen Convention, which proposed the abolition of internal border controls and a common visa policy. The Agreements and the rules adopted under them were entirely separate from the EC structures, and led to the creation of the Schengen Area on 26 March 1995.
As more EU member states signed the Schengen Agreement, consensus was reached on absorbing it into the procedures of the EU. The Agreement and its related conventions were incorporated into the mainstream of European Union law by the Amsterdam Treaty in 1997, which came into effect in 1999. A consequence of the Agreement being part of European law is that any amendment or regulation is made within its processes, in which the non-EU members are not participants. The UK and Ireland have maintained a Common Travel Area (CTA) since 1923, but the UK could not accept abolishing border controls and was, therefore, granted a full opt - out from the area. While not signing the Schengen Treaty, Ireland has always looked more favourably on joining but has not done so to maintain the CTA and its open border with Northern Ireland. The Nordic members required Norway and Iceland to be included, which was accepted, so a consensus could be reached.
The Schengen Area consists of 26 states, including four which are not members of the European Union (EU). Two of the non-EU members, Iceland and Norway, are part of the Nordic Passport Union and are officially classified as ' states associated with the Schengen activities of the EU '. Switzerland was allowed to participate in the same manner in 2008. Liechtenstein joined the Schengen Area on 19 December 2011. De facto, the Schengen Area also includes three European micro-states -- Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City -- that maintain open or semi-open borders with other Schengen member countries. Two EU members -- Ireland and the United Kingdom -- negotiated opt - outs from Schengen and continue to operate the Common Travel Area systematic border controls with other EU member states.
The remaining four EU member states -- Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus and Romania -- are obliged to eventually join the Schengen Area. However, before fully implementing the Schengen rules, each state must have its preparedness assessed in four areas: air borders, visas, police cooperation, and personal data protection. This evaluation process involves a questionnaire and visits by EU experts to selected institutions and workplaces in the country under assessment.
The only land borders with border controls (not counting temporary ones) between EU / EEA members, are those of Bulgaria, Croatia and Romania (which are expected to be removed), the one at Gibraltar and those at the Channel Tunnel.
Areas that are not members of the Schengen Area but still have open borders with the area:
Notes
Although Cyprus, which joined the EU on 1 May 2004, is legally bound to join the Schengen Area, implementation has been delayed because of the Cyprus dispute. According to former Cypriot Minister of Foreign Affairs Giorgos Lillikas, "strict and full control based on Schengen will create a huge tribulation on a daily basis for the Turkish Cypriots '', and it is unclear if this control is possible before the resolution of the dispute. The British Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, which are outside the EU, will also need "other handling and mechanisms '', especially when UK leaves the EU. As of 2011 no date has been fixed for implementation of the Schengen rules by Cyprus. Cyprus has less benefit from a Schengen implementation, since it has no land border with another EU member, so air travel or around 400 kilometres (250 mi) / 12 hours sea travel is needed to the nearest one.
While Bulgaria and Romania, which joined the EU on 1 January 2007, are also legally bound to join the Schengen Area, implementation has been delayed. On 15 October 2010, Bulgaria and Romania joined SIS II for law enforcement cooperation. Bulgaria 's and Romania 's bids to join the Schengen Area were approved by the European Parliament in June 2011 but rejected by the Council of Ministers in September 2011, with the Dutch and Finnish governments citing concerns about shortcomings in anti-corruption measures and in the fight against organised crime. Although the original plan was for Schengen Area to open its air and sea borders with Bulgaria and Romania by March 2012, and land borders by July 2012, continued opposition from Germany, Finland and the Netherlands has delayed the two countries ' entry to the Schengen Area. On 4 October 2017, the "European Parliament voted for "access '' of Bulgaria and Romania to the Schengen Information System. '' Moreover, "the final political decision whether the two countries can become part of the Schengen area and stop systematic border checks with neighboring EU countries must be taken unanimously by all sides of the European Council. '' Therefore, further progress is a political issue.
While Croatia, which joined the EU on 1 July 2013, is also legally bound to eventually join the Schengen Area, implementation has been delayed. In March 2015, Croatia 's then Interior Minister Ranko Ostojić said that his country was ready to join the Schengen Area. Croatia requested that the EU conduct a technical evaluation, which took a year and a half, and started on 1 July 2015. This evaluation was positive and Croatia got access to the Schengen Information System in January 2017. On 27 June 2017, Croatia joined SIS II for law enforcement cooperation. Therefore, further progress is a political issue.
The influx of refugees and migrants from Greece through Macedonia and Serbia to Croatia and then to current Schengen member states like Slovenia, Austria and Hungary, as part of the 2015 European migrant crisis, has led some to question whether there will be the political consensus necessary for further enlargement of the Schengen Area in this atmosphere. In September 2015, Hungary threatened to veto Croatia 's accession to the Schengen Area after it allowed migrants to transit the country into Hungary.
Notes
There are territories of Schengen member states that are exempted from the Schengen Agreement. Areas located outside Europe are not part of the Schengen Area. The only areas of Schengen member states located in Europe but excluded are the Faroe Islands and Svalbard.
The French overseas departments of French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte and Réunion, and the overseas collectivity of Saint Martin are part of the European Union but do not form part of the Schengen Area. The EU 's freedom of movement provisions apply, but each territory operates its own visa regime for non-European Economic Area (EEA), non-Swiss nationals. While a visa valid for one of these territories will be valid for all, visa exemption lists differ. A Schengen visa, even one issued by France, is not valid for these territories. A visa for Sint Maarten (which is valid for travelling to the Dutch side of the island of Saint Martin) is also valid for the French side. France also has several territories which are neither part of the EU nor the Schengen Area. These are: French Polynesia, French Southern and Antarctic Lands, New Caledonia, Saint Barthélemy, Saint - Pierre and Miquelon, and Wallis and Futuna.
Only the Netherlands ' European territory is part of the Schengen Area. Six Dutch territories in the Caribbean are outside the Area. Three of these territories -- Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (collectively known as the BES islands) -- are special municipalities within the Netherlands proper. The other three -- Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten -- are autonomous countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. All islands retain their status as Overseas countries and territories and are thus not part of the European Union. The six territories have a separate visa system from the European part of the Netherlands and people travelling between these islands and the Schengen Area are subjected to full border checks, with a passport being required even for EU / Schengen citizens, including Dutch (national ID cards are not accepted).
Svalbard is part of Norway and has a special status under international law. It is not part of the Schengen Area. There is no visa regime in existence for Svalbard either for entry, residence or work, but it is difficult to visit Svalbard without travelling through the Schengen Area, although there are charter flights from Russia. Since 2011, the Norwegian government has imposed systematic border checks on individuals wishing to enter and leave Svalbard, requiring a passport or national identity card for non-Norwegian citizens. As a result, the border between Svalbard and the rest of Norway is largely treated like any other external Schengen border. A Schengen visa must be multiple entry to allow returning to Norway. There is no welfare or asylum system for immigrants on Svalbard, and people incapable of supporting themselves may be sent away.
The Danish territories of the Faroe Islands and Greenland are neither part of the European Union nor the Schengen Area, and visas to Denmark are not automatically valid in these territories. However, both of these territories lack border controls on arrivals from the Schengen Area, and the air or sea carriers are responsible for carrying out document checks before boarding, as is common for travel inside the Schengen Area. Citizens of EU / EFTA countries can travel to the Faroes and Greenland using a passport or national ID card, while citizen of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway or Sweden can use any acceptable identification (such as driving licences or bank ID cards).
The Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland were the only EU members which, prior to the 2004 enlargement, had not signed the Schengen Agreement. Both countries maintain a Common Travel Area with passport - free travel for their citizens between them and the three British Crown Dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man, that are outside the European Union. Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory and is neither part of the Schengen Area nor the Common Travel Area.
The UK declined to sign up to the Schengen Agreement, one argument being that, for an island nation, frontier controls are a better and less intrusive way to prevent illegal immigration than other measures, such as identity cards, residence permits, and registration with the police, which are appropriate for countries with "extensive and permeable land borders ''. Ireland did not sign up to the Schengen Agreement because it "would not be in the interest of Ireland to have a situation where the common travel area with Britain would be ended and Ireland would impose both exit and entry controls on persons travelling between here and Britain and, in addition, on the land frontier ''.
When Schengen was subsumed into the EU by the Treaty of Amsterdam, Ireland and the UK obtained an opt - out from the part of the treaty which was to incorporate the Schengen rules (or acquis) into EU Law. Under the relevant protocol, Ireland and the United Kingdom may request to participate in aspects of the Schengen acquis but this is subject to the approval of the Schengen states.
The UK formally requested to participate in certain provisions of the Schengen acquis -- Title III relating to Police Security and Judicial Cooperation -- in 1999, and this request was approved by the Council of the European Union on 29 May 2000. The United Kingdom 's formal participation in the previously approved areas of cooperation was put into effect by a 2004 Council decision that came into effect on 1 January 2005. Although the United Kingdom is not part of the Schengen passport - free area, it still uses the Schengen Information System, a governmental database used by European countries to store and disseminate information on individuals and property. This allows the UK to exchange information with countries that are a part of the Schengen agreement, often for the sake of liaising over law enforcement.
In contrast, while Ireland initially submitted a request to participate in the Schengen acquis in 2002, which was approved by the Council of the European Union, that decision has not yet been put into effect. In February 2010 the Irish Minister for Justice, in response to a parliamentary question, said that: "(t) he measures which will enable Ireland to meet its Schengen requirements are currently being progressed ''.
A previous 1999 report by the European Union Select Committee of the House of Lords recommended "full United Kingdom participation '' in all the various four Titles of the Schengen Implementing Convention.
On 23 June 2016, the British electorate voted for the United Kingdom to leave the European Union, and on 27 March 2017 United Kingdom formally requested such a withdrawal. It is not decided what the future state of Ireland will be, although it has been suggested that Ireland will stay in the Common Travel Area and not join the Schengen Area, because it wants to keep the lack of border control at its land border.
Three European microstates -- Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City -- can be considered as de facto within the Schengen Area. They do not have border controls with the Schengen countries that surround them, but they are not officially part of Schengen. Some national laws have the text "countries against which border control is not performed based on the Schengen Agreement and the 562 / 2006 EU regulation '', which then includes the microstates and other non-EU areas with open borders.
Liechtenstein has been a member of the Schengen Area since 2011. However, Liechtenstein does not issue visas, and recommends visitors to apply for a visa in another Schengen country, e.g. Switzerland. Liechtenstein has no border check at the Balzers heliport, so helicopters must go inside Schengen only.
The other four microstates are not party to the Schengen Agreement, can not issue Schengen visas and, with the exception of Monaco, are not part of the Schengen Area. San Marino and the Vatican City are both landlocked states surrounded by Italy. As they both have open borders, they can be considered to be de facto within the Schengen Area, meaning they are not officially in an agreement but are accessible without any border controls. San Marino and the Vatican City do not perform border checks for arrivals from outside Schengen, but these are not needed since neither of them have any airports or seaports. Helicopters are not permitted to go from outside Schengen or from a ship directly to San Marino or the Vatican City.
As of 2015, Andorra, Monaco and San Marino are negotiating an Association Agreement with the EU. Andorran ambassador to Spain Jaume Gaytán has said that he hopes that the agreement will include provisions to make the states associate members of the Schengen Agreement.
Andorra retains border controls with both France and Spain. Citizens of EU countries are required to have either their national identity cards or passports to enter Andorra, while anyone else requires a passport or equivalent. Schengen visas are accepted, but those travellers who need a visa to enter the Schengen Area need a multiple - entry visa to visit Andorra, because entering Andorra means leaving the Schengen Area. There are border controls in the other direction also, but more focused on customs control (Andorra is a tax haven with 4 % VAT).
Monaco has an open border with France. Schengen laws are administered as if it was part of EU, and Schengen visas are accepted. Both French and Monégasque authorities carry out checks at Monaco 's seaport and heliport.
San Marino has an open border with Italy, although some random checks are made by Guardia di Finanza and San Marino 's Guardia di Rocca.
Vatican City has an open border with Italy. In 2006 it showed interest in joining the Schengen agreement for closer cooperation in information sharing and similar activities covered by the Schengen Information System. Very exceptionally, Italy has allowed people to visit the Vatican City, without being accepted for an Italian visa, then being escorted by police between the airport and the Vatican, or using helicopter.
For any two countries in the Schengen area, total trade between them increases by approximately 0.1 % per year. The same amount of increase in trade is gained again for every 1 % annual increase in immigration between the countries. On average, at each border the removal of controls is equivalent to the removal of a 0.7 % tariff, and the cost savings on a trade route increase with the number of internal borders crossed. Countries outside of the Schengen area also benefit.
About 1.7 million people commute to work across a European border each day, and in some regions these people constitute up to a third of the workforce. For example, 2.1 % of the workers in Hungary work in another country, primarily Austria and Slovakia. Each year, there are 1.3 billion crossings of Schengen borders in total. 57 million crossings are due to transport of goods by road, with a value of € 2.8 trillion each year. The trade in goods is affected more strongly than trade in services, and the decrease in the cost of trade varies from 0.42 % to 1.59 % depending on geography, trade partners, and other factors.
Before the implementation of the Schengen Agreement, most borders in Europe were patrolled and a vast network of border posts existed around the continent, to check the identity and entitlement of people wishing to travel from one country to another.
Since the implementation of the Schengen rules, border posts have been closed (and often entirely removed) between participating countries; that and the pro forma borders are the subject of a photo - journalistic art project. The Schengen Borders Code requires participating states to remove all obstacles to free traffic flow at internal borders. Thus, road, rail and air passengers no longer have their identity checked by border guards when travelling between Schengen countries, although security controls by carriers are still permissible. Travellers should still bring a passport or national identity card, as one may be required.
Although travellers within the Schengen Area are no longer required to show documents at an internal border (although there have been some controversial instances when they have, and it is fairly common at major land border crossings with Switzerland), the laws of most countries still require them to carry identity documents. Thus, foreigners with a valid residence permit in a Schengen State and carrying valid documents can travel within the territory and do not need any special permission to do so. It is the obligation of everyone travelling within the area to be able to show a fully valid form of personal identification approved by other Schengen states.
According to the Schengen rules, hotels and other types of commercial accommodation must register all foreign citizens, including citizens of other Schengen states, by requiring the completion of a registration form by their own hand. This does not apply to accompanying spouses and minor children or members of travel groups. In addition, a valid identification document has to be produced to the hotel manager or staff. The Schengen rules do not require any other procedures; thus, the Schengen states are free to regulate further details on the content of the registration forms, and identity documents which are to be produced, and may also require the persons exempted from registration by Schengen laws to be registered. Enforcement of these rules varies by country.
The Schengen regulation on crossing internal borders describes the checks for foreigners done by the police at suitable places inside each country.
The European Union constitutes a customs union and a Value Added Tax area. However, not all Schengen states or all of the territory of Schengen states are part of the customs union or VAT area. Some countries therefore legally conduct customs controls targeted at illegal goods, such as drugs.
Security checks can legally be carried out at ports and airports. Also police checks can be conducted if they:
For flights within the Schengen Area (either between Schengen member states or within the same Schengen member state), law enforcement agencies, airport authorities and air carriers are only permitted to carry out security checks on passengers and may not carry out border checks. Such security checks can be conducted through the verification of the passenger 's passport or national identity card: Such a practice must only be used to verify the passenger 's identity (for commercial or transport security reasons) and not his or her immigration status. For this reason, law enforcement agencies, airport authorities and air carriers can not require air passengers flying within the Schengen Area who are third - country nationals to prove the legality of their stay by showing a valid visa or residence permit. In addition, according to European Commission guidelines, identity checks on air passengers flying within the Schengen Area should take place only either at check - in, or upon entry to the secured zone of the airport, or at the boarding gate: passengers should not be required to undergo a verification of their identity on more than one occasion before their flight within the Schengen Area. Nevertheless, the identity checks function as practical border controls anyway, and are a problem for illegal immigrants who arrive in Greece (which has no land border to another Schengen country) and want to go to some other Schengen country. The requirements as to which identity document to possess varies by country and airline. Normally a passport or EU national identity card is needed. Greece, Iceland and Malta do not share land borders with other Schengen member states.
Travellers boarding flights between Schengen countries, but have originated on a third country outside the area, are required to go through Schengen exit border checks upon departure in and Schengen entry border checks upon arrival because the route originates outside the area and the authorities at the destination would have no way of differentiating between arriving passengers who boarded in the origin and those who joined in the middle.
A Schengen state is permitted to reinstate border controls with another Schengen country for a short period where there is a serious threat to that state 's "public policy or internal security '' or when the "control of an external border is no longer ensured due to exceptional circumstances ''. When such risks arise out of foreseeable events, the state in question must notify the European Commission in advance and consult with other Schengen states.
In April 2010 Malta introduced temporary checks due to Pope Benedict XVI 's visit. It reimposed checks in 2015 in the weeks surrounding the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.
Estonia introduced temporary checks in September 2014 due to the visit of US President Barack Obama.
In response to the European migrant crisis, several countries set up enhanced border controls.
Recent internal border controls according to the information that the member states have provided to the European Commission.
Following the Tunisian Revolution of 2010 -- 11, the government of Italy gave six - month residence permits to some 25,000 Tunisian migrants. This allowed the migrants to travel freely in the Schengen Area. In response, both France and Germany threatened to impose border checks, not wanting the Tunisian refugees to enter their territory. In April 2011, for several hours, France blocked trains carrying the migrants at the French / Italian border at Ventimiglia.
At the request of France, in May 2011 the European Commissioner for Home Affairs, Cecilia Malmström proposed that more latitude would be available for the temporary re-establishment of border control in the case of strong and unexpected migratory pressure, or the failure of a state to protect the external borders of the EU.
On 25 July 2011, in delivering the European Commission 's final assessment on the measures taken by Italy and France, the Home Affairs Commissioner said, "(f) rom a formal point of view steps taken by Italian and French authorities have been in compliance with EU law. However, I regret that the spirit of the Schengen rules has not been fully respected ''. Ms. Malmström also called for a more coherent interpretation of the Schengen rules and a stronger evaluation and monitoring system for the Schengen Area.
During the migrant crisis of September 2015, Germany announced it was temporarily bringing border controls back in accordance with the provisions on temporary border controls laid down by the Schengen acquis. Such border controls appear to be an attempt to prevent disorder from making the crisis worse. Open borders appeared to have impeded Germany 's ability to provide for very large numbers of persons seeking refuge all at once. Germany signals the border controls are only temporary, and only to support an orderly flow of migration into the area.
Other countries, including Austria, Denmark, Slovenia, Hungary, Sweden and Norway have set up border controls in response to the crisis.
In December 2015, Sweden passed a temporary law that allows the government to oblige all transport companies to check that their passengers carry valid photographic identification. The new law came into effect on 21 December 2015 and is valid until 21 December 2018. The government decided that the new rules will apply from 4 January 2016 until 4 July 2016. The new law led to the mandatory train change and passage though border control at Copenhagen Airport for travellers between Copenhagen and Sweden, and with a reduction in service frequency. Sweden introduced border control from Denmark earlier (15 November 2015), but that could not stop the migrant flow, since they have the right to apply for asylum once on Swedish ground. First when the transport companies had to stop foreigners on the Danish side, asylum seekers were efficiently stopped. This caused considerable disruption to the train traffic since the railway station did not have capacity for such checks. These checks lasted until 4 May 2017, after the EU commission declared such checks not acceptable.
On 30 May 2018, when the migrant crisis border controls were still active in some countries, the European Parliament decided to condemn prolonged border checks between Schengen area member countries. But this was only a statement as the Parliament does not decide this.
During the November 2015 Paris attacks, France introduced full identity and nationality checks at its borders.
Participating countries are required to apply strict checks on travellers entering and exiting the Schengen Area. These checks are co-ordinated by the European Union 's Frontex agency, and subject to common rules. The details of border controls, surveillance and the conditions under which permission to enter into the Schengen Area may be granted are exhaustively detailed in the Schengen Borders Code.
All persons crossing external borders -- inbound or outbound -- are subject to a check by a border guard. The only exception is for regular cross-border commuters (both those with the right of free movement and third - country nationals) who are well known to the border guards: once an initial check has shown that there is no alert on record relating to them in the Schengen Information System or national databases, they can only be subject to occasional ' random ' checks, rather than systematic checks every time they cross the border.
Previously, EU, EEA and Swiss citizens, as well as their family members enjoying the right of free movement, were subject only to a ' minimum check ' when crossing external borders. This meant that their travel document was subject only to a ' rapid ' and ' straightforward ' visual inspection and an optional check against databases for lost / stolen travel documents. Consultation of the Schengen Information System and other national databases to ensure that the traveller did not represent a security, public policy or health threat was only permitted on a strictly ' non-systematic ' basis where such a threat was ' genuine ', ' present ' and ' sufficiently serious '. In contrast, other travellers were subject to a ' thorough check '.
However, in light of the terrorist attacks in Paris, during a meeting of the Council of the European Union on 20 November 2015, interior ministers from the Member States decided to ' implement immediately the necessary systematic and coordinated checks at external borders, including on individuals enjoying the right of free movement '. Amendments were made to the Schengen Border Code to introduce systematic checks of the travel documents of EU, EEA and Swiss citizens, as well as their family members enjoying the right of free movement, against relevant databases when crossing external borders. The new regime came into force on 7 April 2017.
Where carrying out systematic checks against databases would have a disproportionate impact on the flow of traffic at an external border, such checks may be relaxed if, on the basis of a risk assessment, it is determined that it would not lead to a security risk.
In ' exceptional ' and ' unforeseen ' circumstances where waiting times become excessive, external border checks can be relaxed on a temporary basis.
Border guards carry out the following procedures when checking travellers who cross external borders:
As shown by the table above, because many procedures are optional, border guards have discretion in deciding how rigorously they check travellers at external border crossing points. As a result, the length of time taken to perform checks differs between Schengen countries. Under the previous regime (whereby those with the right to freedom of movement were subject only to a ' minimum check '), an entry check for an EU, EEA or Swiss citizen took around five seconds on average in Italy, whilst in Norway, on average it took around 1 minute. The disparities in checks on third - country nationals (who are subject to a more thorough check) are even greater. For example, an entry check for an Annex II national takes around 15 seconds on average in Greece, whilst it takes three to five minutes on average in Slovakia. Similarly, an entry check for an Annex I national on average lasts around 30 -- 60 seconds in The Netherlands, whilst in Latvia, it lasts around two to five minutes on average.
After the new regime came into force on 7 April 2017, significantly longer waiting times were reported at numerous external border crossing points, especially as it was just before the Easter holiday. Travellers entering Slovenia from Croatia (which, though a European Union member state, is not yet part of the Schengen Area) had to wait several hours as Slovenian border guards systematically checked the travel documents of all travellers (including those with the right of free movement) against relevant databases. The Prime Minister of Slovenia, Miro Cerar, acknowledged that the situation was ' unacceptable '. In order to alleviate the long queues, the systematic checking of travel documents of those with the right of free movement against relevant databases was temporarily suspended from the evening of Friday 7 April 2017 until the end of the weekend. However, the following weekend, long queues re-appeared. The Prime Minister of Croatia, Andrej Plenković, criticised the situation, calling it ' unsustainable ', and expressed concern about the impact on tourism (which accounts for 18 % of Croatia 's GDP). The President of Croatia, Kolinda Grabar - Kitarović, sent a formal letter to the European Commission to voice her concern about the effect of the new regime on border checks. At a meeting held on 29 April 2017, the President of the European Commission, Jean - Claude Juncker, Cerar and Plenković agreed that, moving forward, the systematic checking of the travel documents of those with the right of free movement against relevant databases would be suspended at land border crossing points between Croatia and Slovenia if the waiting time exceeds 15 minutes (with ' targeted checks ' being carried out instead). Long queues were also reported at external border crossing points in Greece, where the leadership of the Hellenic Police (which is responsible for border checks) decided to suspend, for a period of 6 months, the systematic checking of travel documents of those with the right of free movement against relevant databases (with the exception of the Kipoi land border cossing point with Turkey, due to security concerns). Greece was particularly affected by the implementation of the new regime as Greek identity cards are not machine - readable, which meant that border guards had to enter the holder 's information manually into the computer system to check the relevant databases if a Greek citizen presented an identity card instead of a passport. Similarly, long waiting times were reported at external border crossing points in France and Spain. Finland, Hungary and Italy also issued notifications suspending systematic checks at some external border crossing points. In July 2017, Greece submitted a request to suspend the systematic checking of travel documents of those with the right of free movement against relevant databases for a further period of 18 months, due to ' infrastructure shortcomings and increased traffic at 12 airports across the country '.
When carrying out checks at external borders, border guards are, by law, required to respect the dignity of travellers (particularly in cases involving vulnerable persons) and are forbidden from discriminating against persons based on their sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation.
External border controls are located at roads crossing a border, at airports, at seaports and on board trains. Usually, there is no fence along the land border, but there are exceptions like the Ceuta border fence, and some places at the eastern border. However, surveillance camera systems, some equipped with infrared technology, are located at some more critical spots, for example at the border between Slovakia and Ukraine, where at some points there is a camera every 186 metres (203 yards).
All travellers arriving from outside the Schengen Area using their own air plane or boat, have to go directly to an airport or seaport having a border control. This is a loophole hard to check, and large - scale drug smuggling using sail boats has been found. Along the southern coast of the Schengen countries, coast guards make a substantial effort to prevent private boats from entering without permission.
At many external border crossing points, there are special lanes for EU, EEA and Swiss citizens (as well as their family members) and other lanes for all travellers regardless of nationality. At some external border crossing points, there is a third type of lane for travellers who are Annex II nationals (i.e. non-EU / EEA / Swiss citizens who are exempt from the visa requirement). Although Andorran and San Marinese citizens are not EU or EEA citizens, they are nonetheless able to use the special lanes designated for EU, EEA and Swiss citizens. British citizens will not be able to use the EU lane after Brexit as the rules stand, unless such a right are negotiated into the Brexit agreement with the EU.
The additional obligations imposed by European law on national border authorities when it comes to processing travellers who are third - country nationals (e.g. the obligation to stamp their travel documents) should not prevent the development of automated border control systems which are made available to such travellers. As shown by the examples listed above of automated border control systems which have been developed at external border crossing points of the Schengen Area, national border authorities have been able to adapt the design of their automated border control systems to allow third - country nationals to make use of them. One solution is to have a border guard physically positioned next to the automated border gates who can stamp travel documents where required: this approach has been adopted by the Finnish Border Guard at the automated border gates in Helsinki Airport, where eligible users (who are required to receive a passport stamp) include holders of Australian, Canadian, Japanese, New Zealand, South Korean and United States biometric passports, as well as by the Portuguese Serviço de Estrangeiros e Fronteiras at the automated border gates in Lisbon Airport where eligible users (who are required to receive a passport stamp) include holders of Angolan and Brazilian passports and holders of diplomatic / service passports. A similar but slightly different solution has been adopted by the Dutch Royal Marechaussee at the Privium iris recognition automated border gates at Amsterdam Schiphol Airport (where eligible users include registered EU / EEA / Swiss citizens, US citizens who are Global Entry members, and all nationals who are holders of diplomatic passports), as well as by the German Federal Police at the ABG Plus iris recognition automated border gates at Frankfurt Airport (where eligible users include registered EU / EEA / Swiss citizens and US citizens who are Global Entry members): when eligible third - country nationals use Privium / ABG Plus, after their iris is scanned and verified, a different gate opens to that for EU / EEA / Swiss citizens and the third - country national is directed to a lane which leads them to the front of the queue for manual passport checks at immigration desks, where the border officer stamps the user 's passport. Another possible solution would be to design the automated border gates to print a paper slip with an entry or exit stamp on it, as well as the traveller 's name and travel document number, whenever the user is a traveller who is subject to the requirement to have his or her travel document stamped. At the Port of Helsinki, the Finnish Border Guard has adapted the design of the automated border gates there to widen eligibility to include Russian citizens (who, as Annex I nationals, are required to have a visa) by requiring them to scan both the biodata page and the visa inside their passport, then to step into the gate for a facial image and fingerprint recognition, and after the gate opens to approach a border officer to have their passport stamped.
Sometimes, external border controls are located on non-Schengen territory, but inside the EU. For example, France operates border checks at juxtaposed controls on travellers departing the United Kingdom for the Schengen Area before they board their train or ferry at St Pancras International, Ebbsfleet International and Ashford International railway stations, as well as at the Port of Dover and Cheriton Eurotunnel terminal.
In November 2016 the European Commission proposed a system for an electronic authorisation of visa - exempt third country nationals called ETIAS (European Travel Information and Authorisation System). Under the proposal the ETIAS will be managed by the European Border and Coast Guard in cooperation with national authorities. Foreign visitors will be required to submit personal data in advance and pay a processing fee (fee is waived for children). Submitted applications will be processed automatically by checking against databases and watch lists and in case no issues appear the authorisation should be issued immediately. The authorisation request may be processed for up 72 hours in which case the applicant must be notified if the authorisation request was issued or refused or if additional information is required. In case the authorisation is refused the applicant will have the right of appeal in accordance with national law of the member state. The authorisation will be valid for five years. A travel authorisation with limited territorial validity may be issued only exceptionally. It is imagined as a system similar to the ESTA system of the United States and the ETA system of Canada. It is expected to enter into operation on 1 January 2020. The cost for developing ETIAS is estimated at € 212.1 million.
ETIAS requirements will not apply to:
In addition to visa - exempt third country nationals, the ETIAS requirements will also apply to
In addition, EU citizens who have multiple citizenship will be obliged to use a passport issued by an EU Member State for entering the Schengen area if they are to exercise their right of visa - free / ETIAS - free entry.
Schengen rules require that all carriers conveying passenger across the Schengen external border must check, before boarding, that passengers have the correct travel documents and visas required for entry. There are penalties for carriers who transport foreign nationals without correct travel documents. This works like juxtaposed controls and is more efficient than border control on arrival, since immigrants have the right to apply for asylum at passport control at ports of entry in the EU. Such applications must be done in person in the country the application is aimed at. Preventing immigrants from boarding aircraft or boats prevents them from applying for asylum.
The rules applicable to short - term entry visas into the Schengen Area are set out in EU regulations which contain two lists: a list of the nationalities (or classes of travel document holder) which require a visa for a short - term stay (the Annex I list) and a list which do not (the Annex II list).
Being listed in the visa - free list will sometimes but not always exempt the listed nationality or class from the requirement to obtain a work permit if they wish to take up employment or self - employed activity during their stay; business trips are not normally considered employment in this sense.
In accordance with the guidelines of the European Union, any Schengen visa application has to be accompanied by a payment of visa fees. The fees (processing + visa) are to be paid on the day the application is being submitted and are normally payable only in the local currency equivalent. They are not refundable regardless of the outcome of the application. However, discounted fees are provided to some groups; and are waived for pupils / students on an official school / university trip, spouses and minor children of EU nationals, and children below six years of age regardless of nationality.
A Schengen visa or a visa exemption does not entitle the traveller to enter the Schengen area, but rather allows the traveller to seek entry at the port. The Schengen Borders Code lists requirements which third - country nationals must meet to be allowed into the Schengen Area. For this purpose, a third - country national is a person who does not enjoy the right of free movement (i.e. a person who is not an EU, EEA or Swiss citizen, nor a family member of such a person who is in possession of a residence permit with the indication "family member of an EU citizen '' or "family member of an EEA or CH citizen '').
The entry requirements for third country nationals who intend to stay in the Schengen Area for not more than 90 days in any 180 - day period are as follows:
However, even if the third - country national does not fulfil the criteria for entry, admission may still be granted:
Border guards are required to stamp the travel documents of third - country nationals when they cross external borders. However, nationals of Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and Vatican City are exempt from this requirement, as are heads of state, whose visits were announced through diplomatic channels, and holders of local border traffic permits and residence permits. Certain exemptions also apply to the crews of ships and aircraft. Third - country nationals who otherwise fulfil all the criteria for admission into the Schengen area must not be denied entry for the sole reason that there is no remaining empty space in their travel document to affix a stamp; instead, the stamp should be affixed on a separate sheet of paper.
Exit stamp for air travel issued at Prague airport.
Exit stamp for rail travel, issued at Bad Schandau train station.
Exit stamp for road travel, issued at Korczowa border crossing.
Exit stamp for sea travel, issued at Helsinki port.
For stays in the Schengen Area as a whole which exceed 90 days, a third - country national will need to hold either a long - stay visa for a period no longer than a year, or a residence permit for longer periods. A long - stay visa is a national visa but is issued in accordance with a uniform format. It entitles the holder to enter the Schengen Area and remain in the issuing state for a period longer than 90 days but no more than one year. If a Schengen state wishes to allow the holder of a long - stay visa to remain there for longer than a year, the state must issue him or her with a residence permit.
The holder of a long - stay visa or a residence permit is entitled to move freely within other states which compose the Schengen Area for a period of up to three months in any half - year. Third - country nationals who are long - term residents in a Schengen state may also acquire the right to move to and settle in another Schengen state without losing their legal status and social benefits.
Asylum seekers who request international protection under the Geneva Convention from a Schengen member state are not issued a residence permit, but are instead issued, within three days of the application being lodged, an authorisation to remain on the territory of the member state while the application is pending or being examined. This means that, whilst their application for refugee status is being processed, asylum seekers are only permitted to remain in the Schengen member state where they have claimed asylum and are not entitled to move freely within other states which compose the Schengen Area. Successful applicants who have been granted international protection by a Schengen member state are issued residence permits which are valid for at least three years and renewable, whilst applicants granted subsidiary protection by a Schengen member state are issued residence permits valid for at least 1 - year and renewable, unless there are compelling reasons relating to national security or public order. Family members of beneficiaries of international or subsidiary protection from a Schengen member state are issued residence permits as well, but their validity can be shorter. Applicants who have been granted temporary protection by a Schengen member state (as well as their reunited family members) are issued residence permits valid for the entire period of temporary protection.
However, some third - country nationals are permitted to stay in the Schengen Area for more than 90 days without the need to apply for a long - stay visa. For example, France does not require citizens of Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City to apply for a long - stay visa. In addition, Article 20 (2) of the Convention implementing the Schengen Agreement allows for this ' in exceptional circumstances ' and for bilateral agreements concluded by individual signatory states with other countries before the Convention entered into force to remain applicable. As a result, for example, New Zealand citizens are permitted to stay for up to 90 days in each of the Schengen countries (Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland) which had already concluded bilateral visa exemption agreements with the New Zealand Government prior to the Convention entering into force without the need to apply for long - stay visas, but if travelling to other Schengen countries the 90 days in a 180 - day period time limit applies.
The right of entry into the EEA and Switzerland (includes all EU and EEA countries and Switzerland) without additional visa was extended to the third - country family members of EEA nationals exercising their treaty right of free movement who hold a valid residence card of their EEA host country and wish to visit any other EEA member state for a short stay up to 90 days. This is implied in Directive 2004 / 38 / EC, Article 5 (2) provided that they travel together with the EEA national or join their spouse / partner at a later date (Article 6 (2)). If the non-EEA family member has neither an EEA residence card nor a visa, but can show their family tie with the EU national by other means, then a visa must be issued at the border free of charge and entry permitted.
However, this requirement has (as of December 2008) been incorrectly transposed into Belgian, Latvian and Swedish law, and not transposed at all by Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Italy, Lithuania, Germany and Slovenia. Five member states (as of December 2008), do not follow the Directive to the effect that non-EEA family members may still face difficulties (denial of boarding the vessel by the transport company, denial to enter by border police) when travelling to those states using their residence card gained in another EU country. A visa or other document (s) may still be required.
For example, the UK interprets "residence card '' in Article 5 (2) of the Directive to mean "UK '' residence card, and ignores other cards, instead requiring an "EEA family permit '' contrary to the Directive. Showing the family tie with the EU national by other means (as mentioned above) should circumvent this. Denmark and Ireland do not prescribe that a valid residence card will exempt non-EEA family members from the visa requirement. Spain only permits residence cards from Schengen countries, therefore cards from the UK, Ireland, Bulgaria, Romania, and Cyprus are not allowed. The Spanish legislation is not in conformity with the Directive. Austria, somewhat like the UK, seems to require a permanent residence card issued by the Austrian authorities to enter without visa.
As of 6 April 2015, the non-EU family members of an EU national who are in possession of a residence card, which is issued to them under article 10 of directive 2004 / 38 / EC, are entitled to enter the UK without the need to apply for an EEA Family Permit or a Visa, only by providing their residence card at the border. However, the UK border officers would grant entry to non-EU family members if they can prove their relation to the EU national family member who would be accompanying them, by providing documents such as marriage certificate or birth certificate. Entering the UK as the holder of an Article 10 residence card
Schengen states which share an external land border with a non-EU member state are authorised by virtue of the EU Regulation 1931 / 2006 to conclude or maintain bilateral agreements with neighbouring third countries for the purpose of implementing a local border traffic regime. Such agreements define a border area which may extend to a maximum of 50 kilometres (31 mi) on either side of the border, and provide for the issuance of local border traffic permits to residents of the border area. Permits may be used to cross the EU external border within the border area, are not stamped on crossing the border and must display the holder 's name and photograph, as well as a statement that its holder is not authorised to move outside the border area and that any abuse shall be subject to penalties.
Permits are issued with a validity period of between one and five years and allow for a stay in the border area of up to three months. Permits may only be issued to lawful residents of the border area who have been resident in the border area for a minimum of one year (or longer if specified by the bilateral agreement). Applicants for a permit have to show that they have legitimate reasons to cross frequently an external land border under the local border traffic regime. Schengen states must keep a central register of the permits issued and have to provide immediate access to the relevant data to other Schengen states.
Holders of local border traffic permits are able to spend up to 3 months every time they enter the border area of the country which has issued the permit (this time limit is far more generous than the "90 days in a 180 - day period '' normally granted to third - country nationals visiting the Schengen Area).
Before the conclusion of an agreement with a neighbouring country, the Schengen state must receive approval from the European Commission, which has to confirm that the draft agreement is in conformity with the Regulation. The agreement may only be concluded if the neighbouring state grants at least reciprocal rights to EEA and Swiss nationals resident on the Schengen side of the border area, and agrees to the repatriation of individuals found to be abusing the border agreement.
As of June 2017 ten local - traffic agreements have come into force.
There are or have been plans for Lithuania -- Russia, Poland -- Belarus, Bulgaria -- Serbia and Bulgaria -- Macedonia. The agreement between Poland and Belarus had been due to enter into force by 2012, but was delayed by Belarus, with no implementation date set (as of Oct 2012).
In late 2009, Norway began issuing one - year multiple - entry visas, without the usual requirement of having family or a business partner in Norway, called Pomor - Visas, to Russians from Murmansk Oblast, and later to those from Arkhangelsk Oblast. Finland is not planning border permits, but has issued over one million regular visas for Russians in 2011, and many of them multiple - entry visas. The EU was planning to allow up to 5 - year validity on multiple - entry visas for Russians.
There is also a similar system for local border traffic permits between Spain and Morocco regarding Ceuta and Melilla. This system is older and was included in the 1991 accession treaty of Spain to the Schengen Area. In this case there are identity checks for anyone travelling to other parts of the Schengen Area (possible by boat and air only). Such checks are not the rule for other local border traffic zones.
Citizens of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia can enter the Schengen Area without a visa. On 30 November 2009, the EU Council of Ministers for Interior and Justice abolished visa requirements for citizens of the Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia, while on 8 November 2010 it did the same for Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The former took effect on 19 December 2009, while the latter on 15 December 2010.
On 4 May 2016, the European Commission proposed visa - free travel for the citizens of Kosovo. The European Commission has proposed to the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament to lift the visa requirements for the people of Kosovo by transferring Kosovo to the visa - free list for short - stays in the Schengen area. The proposal is presented together with the Commission 's positive assessment confirming that Kosovo has fulfilled the requirements of its visa liberalisation roadmap.
The European Commission launched a visa liberalisation dialogue with Kosovo on 19 January 2012. In June 2012, the Commission handed over a roadmap on visa liberalisation to the Kosovo authorities, which identified the legislation and institutional measures that Kosovo needed to adopt and implement to advance towards visa liberalisation.
Visa liberalisation negotiations between the EU and the Western Balkans (excluding Kosovo) were launched in the first half of 2008, and ended in 2009 (for Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia) and 2010 (for Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina). Before visas were fully abolished, the Western Balkan countries (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia) had signed "visa facilitation agreements '' with the Schengen states in 2008. The visa facilitation agreements were, at the time, supposed to shorten waiting periods, lower visa fees (including free visas for certain categories of travellers), and reduce paperwork. In practice, however, the new procedures turned out to be longer, more cumbersome, more expensive, and many people complained that it was easier to obtain visas before the facilitation agreements entered into force.
To counter the potentially aggravating effects of the abolition of border controls on undocumented immigration and cross-border crime, the Schengen acquis contains compensatory police and judicial measures. Chief among these is the Schengen Information System (SIS), a database operated by all EU and Schengen states and which by January 2010 contained in excess of 30 million entries and by January 2014 contained in excess of 50 million entries, according to a document published in June 2015 by the Council of the European Union. Around 1 million of the entries relate to persons, 72 % of which were not allowed to enter and stay in the Schengen area. Only 7 % of persons listed on the SIS database were missing persons.
The vast majority of data entries on the SIS, around 49 million, concern lost or stolen objects. The European Council reports that in 2013 an average of 43 stolen vehicles a day were detected by authorities using the SIS database.
A list of EU authorities with access to SIS is published annually in the Official Journal of the European Union. As at 24 June 2015, 235 authorities can use the SIS database. The SIS database is operationally managed by EU - LISA.
The Schengen Agreement also permits police officers from one participating state to follow suspects across borders both in hot pursuit and to continue observation operations, and for enhanced mutual assistance in criminal matters.
The Schengen Convention also contained measures intended to streamline extradition between participating countries however these have now been subsumed into the European Arrest Warrant system.
The legal basis for Schengen in the treaties of the European Union has been inserted in the Treaty establishing the European Community through Article 2, point 15 of the Treaty of Amsterdam. This inserted a new title named "Visas, asylum, immigration and other policies related to free movement of persons '' into the treaty, currently numbered as Title IV, and comprising articles 61 to 69. The Treaty of Lisbon substantially amends the provisions of the articles in the title, renames the title to "Area of freedom, security and justice '' and divides it into five chapters, called "General provisions '', "Policies on border checks, asylum and immigration '', "Judicial cooperation in civil matters '', "Judicial cooperation in criminal matters '', and "Police cooperation ''.
The Schengen Area originally had its legal basis outside the then European Economic Community, having been established by a sub-set of member states of the Community using two international agreements:
On being incorporated into the main body of European Union law by the Amsterdam Treaty, the Schengen Agreement and Convention were published in the Official Journal of the European Communities by a decision of the Council of Ministers. As a result, the Agreement and Convention can be amended by regulations.
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when did i'm blue da ba dee come out | Blue (Da Ba Dee) - wikipedia
"Blue (Da Ba Dee) '' is a song by Italian music group Eiffel 65. It was first released in October 1998 in Italy and became internationally successful the following year. It is the lead single of their debut album Europop. The song is the group 's most popular single, reaching number one in many countries such as Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, France, Sweden, Switzerland, New Zealand, Finland, Norway, Australia, Germany and Hungary, as well as reaching number six on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States.
In the United Kingdom, the song originally entered the top 40 purely on import sales; it was only the third single to do this. The song also received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Dance Recording at the 2001 Grammy Awards, 2 years after it was released.
"Blue '', written by Eiffel 65 lead singer Jeffrey Jey, keyboardist Maurizio Lobina, and producer Massimo Gabutti, it was know for Underground Warriors, was inspired by group member Maurizio Lobina 's composed opening piano hook. The producers of the song then came up with the idea for a dance song. Jey stated that his inspiration for the lyrics was how a person picked his lifestyle. The colour blue as the main topic of the song was picked at random, with Lobina telling him to write nonsensical lyrics. "Blue '' is one of the first hit songs to use the Auto - Tune vocal warble effect, after Cher 's "Believe '' and Kid Rock 's "Only God Knows Why ''. Lobina came up with the "da ba dee '' hook at the end of this line.
"Blue (Da Ba Dee) '' is written in the key of G minor, with the vocal range spanning from C to E ♭, and is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 128 beats per minute.
The song 's lyrics tell a story about a man who lives in a "blue world. '' It is also stated he is "blue inside and outside, '' which, along with the lyric "himself and everybody around ' cause he ai n't got nobody to listen, '' and "blue are the feelings that live inside me '' may indicate that the term blue represents his emotional state; however, the song also states that a vast variety of what he owns is also blue, including his house and his car ("a blue Corvette ''): various blue - coloured objects are also depicted on the single 's cover. The song 's hook is the sentence "I 'm blue, '' followed by a repetition of the words "da ba dee da ba daa, '' which the hook is based around.
The song received mixed reviews from critics. Entertainment Weekly positively reviewed the song, calling the song "a fleeting, feel - good foot - tapper '' and gave the song a rating of B -. PopMatters reviewer Chris Massey, in his review of Europop, described his initial reaction to the song as being "really, really bad. '' However, he later stated in the review that after many repeated listenings of the song he "loved it. ''
Rolling Stone, however, in their review of Europop, gave the song a negative review, stating that the song "blends Cher-esque vocoder vocals, trance - like synth riffs, unabashed Eurodisco beats and a baby - babble chorus so infantile it makes the Teletubbies sound like Shakespeare. '' The magazine also placed the song on their list of the "20 Most Annoying Songs, '' at No. 14.
The single, released in October 1998, was a chart - topper in many European countries. The song initially found success in France, where it debuted in August 1999 and reached number one for three weeks. It then found success in other European countries, reaching the top spot on many charts in September the same year, including Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Sweden, Norway and many other countries. It replaced "Mambo No. 5 '' by Lou Bega on many of these charts at the top spot.
The song also found success in other regions, including Oceania and North America: it reached number one in Australia, New Zealand and Canada. It became a top ten hit on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, reaching number six. It became the highest charting Italian song in the United States since Al di là by Emilio Pericoli that also peaked at six in 1962.
The song re-charted on 6 May 2013 at No. 40 in the U.K., the same week the song appeared in the film Iron Man 3.
The music video for the song was released in 1999 by the BlissCoMedia, a computer graphics company of the Bliss Corporation, known at the time the video was produced and released as "BlissMultiMedia ''. The video featured computer graphics created with 3ds Max, and has Eiffel 65 members Maurizio Lobina and Gabry Ponte trying to save Jeffrey Jey from the aliens Zorotl and Sayok6.
German singer Max Raabe and Palast Orchester covered the song for his 2001 studio album Super Hits. A cover version was released on the 2006 Crazy Frog studio album More Crazy Hits. Flo Rida sampled the chorus of "Blue (Da Ba Dee) '' in his 2009 single "Sugar ''. Michael Mind Project used a sample of "Blue (Da Ba Dee) '' in their 2012 single "Feeling So Blue ''. Sandra Lyng used a sample of the song in her single "Blue ''. American country artist Coffey Anderson used a sampling in his 2017 single "Bud Light Blue ''. Just Dance 2018 covers this song as well, said artist for this song is by Hit The Electro Beat.
The song has appeared in multiple films and television series. It was included in films such as Loser (2000), Big Fat Liar (2002), Iron Man 3 (2013), Mommy (2014), and Smurfs: The Lost Village (2017), the third instance during a flashback scene set in 1999, the year the song became popular. In television, it was used in Daria episode The F Word and in 90210 finale of season 1. On 15 March 2011 Ozone Entertainment released the song through the Rock Band Network. It is the first song on the service to incorporate the keyboard introduced in Rock Band 3. The song was also featured in an EDF Energy advertisement in 2015.
A cover version of the song that matches the video version 's length is featured in the 2017 dance rhythm game Just Dance 2018.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what are the calibers for an ar 15 | List of AR platform calibers - Wikipedia
The AR platform has become widely popular for makers of military and sporting rifles. Although the designations "AR - 10 '' and "AR - 15 '' are trademarks of Colt 's Manufacturing Company, variants of both are made by many manufacturers.
Some companies have created AR pattern rifles that depart from the standard AR - 15 and AR - 10 dimensions in order to accommodate other types of ammunition that would not fit into the those standards.
Examples include:
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who won olympic gold in men's ice hockey | List of Olympic medalists in Ice Hockey - wikipedia
Ice hockey is a sport that is contested at the Winter Olympic Games. A men 's ice hockey tournament has been held every Winter Olympics (starting in 1924); an ice hockey tournament was also held at the 1920 Summer Olympics. From 1920 to 1968, the Olympics also acted as the Ice Hockey World Championships, and the two events occurred concurrently. From 1920 until 1984, only amateur athletes were allowed to compete in the tournament, and players from the National Hockey League (NHL) were not allowed to compete. The countries that benefited most were the Soviet Bloc countries of Eastern Europe, where top athletes were state - sponsored while retaining their status as amateurs. In 1970, after a disagreement over the definition of amateur players, Canada withdrew from the tournament and did not send a team to the 1972 or 1976 Winter Olympics. In 1986, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) decided to allow professional athletes to compete in the Olympics, and starting in 1998, the NHL allowed its players to participate. Women 's ice hockey was added in 1992 and the first tournament was held at the 1998 Winter Olympics. Both events have been held at every Olympic Games since.
In women 's hockey, Canadians Jayna Hefford and Hayley Wickenheiser hold the record for total medals (five), having won four gold and one silver. Their team mate Caroline Ouellette also won four gold medals. Four other athletes have won four medals: two Canadians - Becky Kellar and Jennifer Botterill with three gold and a silver - and three Americans - Angela Ruggiero, Jenny Potter (each with one gold, two silver and one bronze) and Julie Chu (three silver and one bronze).
Eight male athletes have won four medals: Vladislav Tretiak (three gold, one silver), Igor Kravchuk (two gold, one silver, one bronze), Jiří Holík (two silver, two bronze) and five players (all from Finland), each with one silver and three bronze: Teemu Selänne, Kimmo Timonen, Saku Koivu, Jere Lehtinen, and Ville Peltonen. Six have won three gold medals: Tretiak, Anatoli Firsov, Viktor Kuzkin, Andrei Khomutov, Alexander Ragulin and Vitali Davydov.
From 1920 to 1952, teams from Canada dominated the men 's tournament, winning six gold and one silver medal. The Soviet Union began competing at the Olympics in 1956 and won nine straight Olympic medals, including seven gold. The Soviet Union broke up in 1991, and in 1992, a Unified Team composed mainly of former Soviet players won gold. Teams from Canada have won the most medals, with fifteen, including nine gold. As of the 2014 Winter Olympics, 81 medals (26 of each color) have been awarded to teams from 13 National Olympic Committees.
Individuals who have been inducted to the Hockey Hall of Fame (including announced members awaiting induction) are indicated as follows:
Individuals who have been inducted to the Hockey Hall of Fame (including announced members awaiting induction) are indicated as follows:
^ Note 1. The members of the 1920 Czechoslovakia team vary depending on the source. Karel Hartmann, Vilém Loos, Jan Palouš, Jan Peka, Karel Pešek, Josef Šroubek and Otakar Vindyš are all consistently included on team lists. However, there is a discrepancy over Karel Wälzer, Josef Loos, Karel Kotrba and Adolf Dušek. The following are the lineups based on the listings of the Czech Olympic Committee (COC), International Olympic Committee (IOC) and International Society of Olympic Historians (ISOH). This table does not list the seven that are included in every source.
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125 km long french river spanned by pont d'arc | Ardèche (river) - wikipedia
The Ardèche (Occitan: Ardecha) is a 125 - kilometre (78 mi) long river in south - central France, a right - bank tributary of the River Rhône. Its source is in the Massif Central, near the village of Astet. It flows into the Rhône near Pont - Saint - Esprit, north - west of Orange. The river gives its name to the French department of Ardèche.
The valley of the Ardèche is very scenic, in particular a 30 - kilometre (19 mi) section known as the Ardèche Gorges. The walls of the river here are limestone cliffs up to 300 metres (980 ft) high. A kayak and camping trip down the gorge is not technically difficult and is very popular in the summer. The most famous feature is a natural 60 - metre (200 ft) stone arch spanning the river known as the Pont d'Arc (arch bridge).
The source of the river lies at 1,467 metres (4,813 ft) above sea level in the Vivarais, near the Col de la Chavade, in the forest of Mazan in the commune of Astet. After the towns of Aubenas and Ruoms, it collects the Chassezac and the Beaume river, subsequently plunging into its famous gorge below Vallon - Pont - d'Arc. It flows into the Rhône (river) at Pont - Saint - Esprit.
The Ardèche flows through the following departments and communes:
The most important tributaries and subtributaries to the Ardèche River include:
The river has an average discharge of 65 cubic metres per second (2,300 cu ft / s) but experiences severe floods, called "coups de l'Ardèche '' (Blows of the Ardèche), in spring and autumn and periods of very low water in summer. During flood events in 1827, 1890, and 1924, it reached 7,800 cubic metres per second (280,000 cu ft / s) and the water level rose to a record 21.4 metres (70 ft) in the gorge.
Despite the Ardèche 's short length, the flow of the river at 65 cubic metres per second (2,300 cu ft / s) is relatively high -- higher than the Gardon at 32 cubic metres per second (1,100 cu ft / s), the Cèze (22 m3 / s), the Hérault (44 m3 / s), or the Agout (55 m3 / s) -- major rivers south of the Massif Central but much longer.
The inter-annual average flow of the Ardèche was observed and calculated over a period of 26 years at Saint - Martin d'Ardèche. It amounted to 63.4 cubic metres per second (2,240 cu ft / s) for a surface basin of 2,240 square kilometres (860 sq mi) -- i.e. the vast majority of its watershed of 2,430 square kilometres (940 sq mi). The river has seasonal fluctuations: a typical flow around the Cevennes, with high water in autumn and winter being double the normal, brings the average monthly flow at the first peak of 93 cubic metres per second (3,300 cu ft / s) in October then, after falling to 76 cubic metres per second (2,700 cu ft / s) in December, a new peak occurs from 96 to 102 cubic metres per second (3,400 to 3,600 cu ft / s) in January -- March (with a maximum in January). A rapid decline in flow rate follows ending in a dry period in July -- August resulting in a decrease of the average monthly rate to the level of 12 cubic metres per second (420 cu ft / s) in July. (See bar chart below.)
The VCN3 (minimum flow) can drop to 2.5 cubic metres per second (88 cu ft / s) in a dry year.
Floods can be extremely important (usually following storms in the Cevennes). The Qix 2 and Qix 5 are respectively 1,800 and 2,600 cubic metres per second (64,000 and 92,000 cu ft / s) which is high. QIX 10 is 3,100 cubic metres per second (110,000 cu ft / s) while QIX 20 and QIX 50 respectively rise to 3,600 and 4,300 cubic metres per second (130,000 and 150,000 cu ft / s).
The maximum instantaneous flow recorded in Saint - Martin d'Ardèche has been 4,500 cubic metres per second (160,000 cu ft / s) (two - thirds of the average flow of the Danube), while the maximum recorded daily rate was 2,506 cubic metres per second (88,500 cu ft / s).
The runoff curve number flowing into the catchment of the river is 897 millimetres (35.3 in) annually, which is very high. The specific flow (Qs) reaches 28.3 litres per second per square kilometre of the catchment.
The prefecture of Ardèche has provided a voice server since June 2005 whose objective is to regularly disseminate information messages to allow monitoring of any significant event that might trigger a civil security crisis or standby alert. Precise information on the evolution of any flood is provided.
The Ardèche receives water from the Loire river via the "La Palisse '' flood barrier and the Lake d'Issarlès. Effectively, the water is collected to feed the EDF hydroelectric plant at Montpezat - sous - Bauzon and is subsequently piped into the Fontaulière river, a tributary of the Ardèche, near the town of Aubenas.
Several ancient inscriptions about a college of nautes (Boatmen) in associated rivers have been discovered in the Gard. It is possible that the two rivers concerned are the Ardèche and the Ouvèze.
The identification of these two rivers is still pending. However, if it does involve the Ardèche river, the spellings Hentica (from 950), then Ardesca (in the Charta Vetus) have been attested.
The Ardèche is protected along almost all of its course. These protected areas are:
The Gorges de l'Ardèche (Ardèche Gorge) is located between the villages of Vallon - Pont - d'Arc and Saint - Martin - d'Ardèche. The road along the north rim of the gorge (the Corniche) offers spectacular views into the gorge and over the river.
A natural stone bridge across the river near the town of Vallon - Pont - d'Arc forms the natural to the Gorges de l'Ardèche.
This limestone cave, which is named after its discoverer, is in the Gorges de l'Ardèche. It contains early Stone Age cave paintings of great variety and expressiveness. Since the cave is not open to the public, photographs of cave paintings are displayed in an exhibition in Vallon - Pont d'Arc.
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when does it start warming up in houston | Climate of Houston - wikipedia
The climate of Houston is classified as humid subtropical. August normally ranks as the warmest month at 84.6 ° F (29.2 ° C) and January the coldest month at 53.1 ° F (11.7 ° C).
The normal annual precipitation measures 49.77 inches (1,264 mm). Occasional severe weather of Houston mostly takes the form of flooding. Supercell thunderstorms sometimes bring tornadoes to the area, most commonly during spring. Houston sometimes experiences tropical cyclones during the Atlantic hurricane season, which can bring heavy rain and significant damage to the city. The last hurricane to hit was Hurricane Harvey in 2017.
June through August in Houston is very hot and humid, often with scattered afternoon showers and thunderstorms. At George Bush Intercontinental Airport, the normal daily high temperature peaks at 95.0 ° F (35.0 ° C) on 5 -- 12 August, with a normal of 102.4 days per year at or above 90 ° F (32 ° C) and 3.5 days per year at or above 100 ° F (38 ° C). The average relative humidity ranges from over 90 percent in the morning to around 60 percent in the afternoon. Summer temperatures in Houston are very similar to average temperatures seen in tropical climates, such as in the Philippines and Central America. The value of relative humidity results in a heat index higher than the actual temperature. The highest temperature ever recorded at George Bush Intercontinental Airport was 109 ° F (43 ° C) on September 4, 2000 and on August 27, 2011. On June 29, 2013, the temperature at George Bush Intercontinental Airport reached 107 ° F (42 ° C), the highest ever recorded in June. Heat stroke can strike people who stay outdoors for long periods of time during the summer, making hydration essential for outdoor work and recreational activity. The 2014 summer season did not yield 100 + degree weather in response to the monsoon-esque rainfall during late June to August during a period where the Pacific Coast off Central America was heating up which evolved into the 2014 - 16 El Nino event - this cycle one existed between 1971 - 76 during post-El Nino cycles.
Heat and humidity in Houston make air conditioning important in day - to - day life. Most indoor workers spend the hottest part of the day in air conditioning. After World War II, air conditioning stimulated the growth of Houston, called the most air - conditioned city in the world in 1950. For construction workers, landscapers, and others who must work outdoors, there is little relief from the summer heat and humidity. Industrial workers, automobile mechanics and others who usually work in non-air conditioned indoor spaces often rely on large electric fans to provide some relief.
Autumn in Houston is warm, with temperatures averaging in the upper 60s to lower 80s ° F (20 - 28 ° C) during the day and in the 50s to lower 60s ° F (10 - 17 ° C) at night. Cool fronts that move through the region during the fall can bring rain. Hurricanes can move into the area from the Gulf of Mexico, bringing heavy rains and high winds. However, most years see little or no significant hurricane activity. Flooding most frequently occurs in October and November. Most of these flood events result from remnants of Eastern Pacific cyclones interacting with upper - level boundaries; October 2015 was the latest example of such an occurrence, wherein the remnants of Hurricane Patricia brought over 9 inches of rain to the city. The latest hurricane to reach Texas was Hurricane Harvey in August 2017.
Winters in Houston are relatively mild and temperate compared to most areas of the United States, though Houston does get much colder than places like South Florida and South Texas. Houston is more prone to extreme variation in the winter months than cities like San Diego, California or Tampa, Florida. The average high in January, the coldest month, is 62.9 ° F (17.2 ° C) and the low 43.2 ° F (6.2 ° C), George Bush Intercontinental Airport sees an average of 9.6 days per year of freezing temperatures. Cold fronts during the winter drop nighttime lows into the 30s but usually above freezing. The coldest weather of the season often includes a period about three weeks with temperatures in the low 30s to mid-40s at night. Hard freezes occur only uncommonly; however, George Bush Intercontinental Airport has recorded a freeze every winter since it opened in 1969. The coldest temperature ever recorded at George Bush Intercontinental Airport was 7 ° F (− 14 ° C) on December 23, 1989. Elsewhere, the temperature in Houston dropped to 5 ° F (− 15 ° C) on January 18, 1930.
In December, southward - moving cold fronts can bring cold rain, low wind chills, and, rarely, frozen precipitation. Early January is the coldest time of the year, with temperatures moderating slightly by February.
Spring comes with a gradual warm up from winter, lasting from March 20 through May. Temperatures are generally not hot yet, averaging from 75 -- 82 ° F (23.9 -- 27.8 ° C) in the day and 56 -- 64 ° F (13.3 -- 17.8 ° C) at night. Spring thunderstorms are common, often with spectacular lightning shows. This rainfall prompts Houston 's 10 - month - long "growing season '' to begin. April sees the return of many types of insects, including butterflies and mosquitoes, to Houston 's warm climate.
Rainfall is the most common form of precipitation in Houston. The wettest month is June, with an average of 5.93 inches (151 mm) of rain. Houston normally receives 49.77 inches (1,264 mm) of precipitation on 104.0 days annually. The most precipitation to fall in one year was 83.02 inches (2,108.7 mm) which occurred in 1979. Houston has received less than 20 inches (510 mm) of rain only once: 17.66 inches in 1917. Flash flood warnings are common all year, and due to the flat landscape, heavy rains often threaten life and property in the city. Sea breeze showers which are monsoon - like (especially during the summer months from a mesoscale convective cycle where the polar jet stream usually forms an omega block) are common throughout the Texas Gulf Coast area (from Brownsville to the Florida Peninsula) which has a similar climate to areas like Mumbai and Kolkata - locals refer to the sea breeze showers as the Gulf Coast Monsoon (also called the Gulf of Mexico or the Texas Monsoon), despite Houston being 50 feet above sea level. The sea breeze showers are also a contributor to the North American Monsoon.
Sleet, snow, and ice rarely occur during most winters. Hail can accumulate, but only in small quantities.
Houston has occasional severe weather, mostly flooding. Hurricanes that have the potential to landfall bring severe damage to the area. Seven major hurricanes have hit the Galveston and Houston areas in the past 100 years. Four have done significant damage to Houston.
Because Houston is on the Gulf of Mexico, the city has a small chance of being hit by hurricanes or tropical storms every hurricane season (June through November).
In 1837 the Racer 's Storm passed just to the south of the town, raising water levels four feet. The Great Hurricane of 1900 destroyed the nearby (and then much bigger) city of Galveston, which is situated on a barrier island 50 mi (80 km) southeast of downtown Houston. That hurricane weakened to a tropical storm by the time it reached Houston. The periphery of Hurricane Carla hit the city in 1961, causing major damage to Houston. At the time of landfall, Carla was the most powerful tropical system to hit the Texas coast in over 40 years. In 1983, the city was struck squarely by Hurricane Alicia, causing one billion dollars of damage to the city during a down period in the city 's economy.
Tropical Storm Allison dumped up to 37 inches (940 mm) of rain on parts of the city over a five - day period in 2001, and was the most destructive and costly natural disaster in Houston history prior to Hurricane Harvey. Area flooding was catastrophic and widespread. The storm completely overwhelmed the flood control system and caused 22 deaths in Houston and $6.05 billion (2006 USD) in damage. It is the only tropical storm in history to have its name retired.
Tropical Storm Erin made landfall in August 2007 with strong rains. A total of 9 inches (230 mm) of rain fell elsewhere than George Bush Intercontinental Airport on August 16, and many roads and neighborhoods were flooded. Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Texas, halted its light rail and bus services in view of the effects. Four deaths in the city were attributed to the storm. The Houston Fire Department reported 72 rescue operations.
Hurricane Ike made landfall near Galveston, Texas in September 2008. Although only a category 2 storm (out of 5), Ike brought moderate rain but high winds for an unusually long duration (upwards of nine hours). The roof of Reliant Stadium (home of the Houston Texans NFL team) was damaged and windows were blown out of several high - rise buildings in downtown Houston. Storm surge affected areas around Galveston Bay, stripping some coastal islands of homes. Devastated Galveston Island much resembled a war zone. Authorities prohibited non-emergency access to the island for many weeks. Hurricane Ike left ninety percent of people in the Houston Area without power. Never before had the city experienced such widespread or long - term power outage: no air conditioning, no refrigeration, no lights, and no phones. Day - to - day business slowed immensely. Area grocery stores were stripped bare and sold water and ice for cash by flashlight. Trucks from around the country brought in emergency supplies, especially water and ice. Most of the city was without power for a week -- some for 2 to 3 weeks.
Hurricane Harvey made landfall in Rockport, Texas on August 25, 2017. By August 30, Houston was flooded due to heavy rainfall from the hurricane.
Flooding is a recurring problem in Houston. It is especially severe in low - lying areas on the far east end of town along the San Jacinto River. The flat wetlands and paved - over coastal prairie around Houston drain slowly and easily flood. The area is drained by a network of bayous (small, slow - moving rivers, often dredged and enlarged to increase volume) and man - made drainage ditches, which are usually dry most of the year. In fall, cool fronts bring in rainstorms and flooding is not uncommon. This might flood certain low - lying intersections, but does n't generally affect citizens or the business of the city. However, occasionally very heavy thunderstorms dump so much water on the city that widespread congestion and even property damage in low - lying areas result. Tropical Storm Allison in 2001 was so severe that many parts of town that had never flooded before were flooded seriously. Interstate 10 near downtown, which is below grade, was covered by over 10 ft (3.0 m) of water. Another storm happened in June 2015 (Tropical Storm Bill) that had a similar impact on Houston, causing several highways to be closed due to the bayou overflowing; this event followed flooding from May 24 - 26. Another similar storm in April 2016 resulted in widespread, severe flooding across Houston and surrounding suburbs in an event later known as the "Tax Day Floods ''. On August 25, 2017, Hurricane Harvey flooded Houston causing severe widespread damage and at least 14 deaths.
Unlike Dallas, Houston is not in Tornado Alley, however smaller tornadoes can occur during severe weather. They are most likely to be found along frontal boundaries of an air mass during the spring months. Tornadoes in Houston usually measure a weak F1 on the older Fujita scale and cause light to moderate damage to well - constructed buildings. The strongest recorded tornado in Houston history was an F4 on November 21, 1992, part of a large outbreak of tornadoes in Harris County.
There are usually a few days of freezing (< 32 ° F (0 ° C)) temperatures each year, though the average low in January, the coldest month, is still only 43 ° F (6 ° C) or 24 ° F (− 4 ° C).
Snow falls infrequently in the Magnolia City. When it does occur, it almost invariably melts immediately on the ground with light accumulation on roofs and raised surfaces. Since 1895, it has snowed 38 times in Houston at an average of about once every 10 years, though some decades have several instances of recorded snowfall while others have only one each (e.g., the 1930s and 1950s). The last recorded snowfall in Houston was on January 16, 2018. There were more incidences of snow in the 1980s on average than any other decade recorded, but the 2000s also witnessed more frequent and record - breaking snows.
The December 21 -- 24, 2004 North American winter storm brought a white Christmas to the region. The average has the lowest recorded temperature for that month, 24 ° F (− 4 ° C).
The 2004 Christmas Eve snowstorm brought a never - before - seen white Christmas to the region. Average annual snowfall is very, very little above zero, being less than the measurable amount of 0.1 inches (2.5 mm). In descending order of frequency, the most snow has fallen in January, followed by February, December, and finally a single occurrence on March 10, 1932, which was also the lowest recorded temperature for that month, 22 ° F (− 6 ° C).
Occurrences of freezing rain, also known as ice storms, are slightly less rare than snow in Houston. Some of the most recent ice storms occurred in 1997, 2007, February 4, 2011, and January 16, 2018. An overnight event occurred from January 23, 2014 to January 24, another significant icing occurred a few days later on January 28, and a third event took place on March 4. These storms can be very disruptive since road crews are not equipped to handle such rare events over the city 's expansive size. When ice occurs, roads and schools are usually closed. The city 's Office of Emergency Management encourages driver 's to "avoid driving unless absolutely necessary... if roadways are at risk of icing. '' Typically, such ice storms affect mainly the northern / western areas of the metro, while the southern / eastern areas are left with just cold rain. The ice storm that occurred on January 16, 2018 started as cold rain for several hours before changing to wintry mix and then eventually sleet and snow, Temps started in the low - mid 30 's and quickly dropped to the 20 's in the afternoon and then the teens by the evening / overnight hours which caused all the rain to turn to ice and thickness up to 1 ' on some roads, bridges and overpasses making it one of the worst winter storms in history.
During El Niño, Houston winters are cooler and wetter than normal due to a stronger southern jet stream. Increased clouds during El Nino winters are what keep the temperatures from warming up. La Niña is where the jet stream is further north resulting in a warmer and drier winter. The chance of damage from tropical storms and hurricanes also goes up during La Niña events due to decreased Atlantic wind shear. Post-El Niño weather during the spring usually result in increased rainfall, as demonstrated with the Memorial Day 2015 and Tax Day / Memorial Day / early June 2016 flood events where the Houston Metro area (and the rest of the state) experienced a climate similar to the South Asian summer monsoon (in this case with the state of Texas where a stalled low pressure system (usually from an upper level low from the northeast Pacific Ocean which migrates east where the northern polar jet stream form the usual omega blocks) originates over the Four Corners region or the Sierra Madre Occidental / Sierra Madre Oriental mountain ranges in northern Mexico).
Houston has had a troubled past with pollution of many types. This is due to the fact that Houston has been the home for the oil and gas industry since its inception in the early 1900s when there was little environmental regulation. Harris County, where the bulk of the city has been historically located, is home to 15 Environmental Protection Agency Superfund sites, more than any other area in Texas. The list contains numerous companies, streets and waterways that have been considered hazardous to humans in various ways.
Houston is well known for its oil and petrochemical industries, which are leading contributors to the city 's economy. The industries located along the ship channel, coupled with a growing population, have caused a considerable increase in air pollution for the city each year. Houston has excessive ozone levels and is ranked among the most ozone - polluted cities in the United States. Ground - level ozone, or smog, is Houston 's predominant air pollution problem. In 2011, Houston was ranked as the 17th most polluted city in the US, according to the American Lung Association. A 2007 assessment found the following twelve air pollutants to be definite risks to health in Houston:
The State of Texas concluded that, since 2000, the Manchester neighborhood in eastern Houston had the highest annual averages of 1, 3 - Butadiene of any area in Texas. Houston 's air quality has often been compared to Los Angeles and Beijing.
Houston has introduced many programs since the 2000 federal order to reduce air pollution in the city. The most notable project was the METRORail light rail system constructed in 2004. The light rail system was designed to encourage Houstonians to utilize public transportation instead of their automobiles. To date it has had limited success and been a source of controversy and cost overruns.
Houston has also seen recent improvements to the city 's waterways. The banks of Buffalo Bayou have been cleaned of garbage and have been turned into jogging trails and parks. Since the mid-1990s, Houston has seen a great increase in wildlife along the bayou due to many successful cleaning attempts. The Port of Houston has not seen any major cleaning attempts.
See also: List of companies in Houston
See: List of colleges and universities in Houston
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what version of sql server does azure use | Microsoft Azure SQL Database - wikipedia
Microsoft Azure SQL Database (formerly SQL Azure, SQL Server Data Services, SQL Services, and Windows Azure SQL Database) is a managed cloud database (SaaS) provided as part of Microsoft Azure.
A cloud database is a database that runs on a cloud computing platform, and access to it is provided as a service. Managed database services take care of scalability, backup, and high availability of the database. Azure SQL Database is a managed database service which is different from AWS RDS which is a container service.
Microsoft Azure SQL Database includes built - in intelligence that learns app patterns and adapts to maximize performance, reliability, and data protection.
It was originally announced in 2009 and released in 2010.
Key capabilities include:
Azure SQL Database shares the SQL Server 2016 codebase. It is compatible with SQL Server 2014 and 2016 and most of the features available in SQL Server 2016 are available in Azure SQL Database. A list of incompatibilities is published by Microsoft.
2009 -- Service announced
2010 -- Service went live
2014 -- New version announced
2015 -- Elastic Pools announced
Azure SQL Database is offered either as a Standalone database or Elastic database pool, and is priced in three tiers: Basic, Standard and Premium. Each tier offers different performance levels to accommodate a variety of workloads.
The resources available for Standalone databases are expressed in terms of Database Transaction Units (DTUs) and for elastic pools in terms of elastic DTUs or eDTUs. A DTU is defined as a blended measure of CPU, memory, and data I / O and transaction log I / O in a ratio determined by an OLTP benchmark workload designed to be typical of real - world OLTP workloads.
Databases are available as Standalone databases or in database pools which allow multiple databases to share storage and compute resources.
It is also available as a limited service offering with a trial Web site or Mobile service and eligible for use with an Azure trial subscription.
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who is the most richest person in the philippines | List of Filipino millionaires - wikipedia
This is a list of Filipino billionaires from 1996 to present.
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who sings i'm the one your mother warned you about | I 'm the One Mama Warned You About - Wikipedia
"I 'm the One Mama Warned You About '' is a song written by Mickey James and Gayle Zeiler, and recorded by American country music artist Mickey Gilley. It was released in January 1985 as the second and final single from his album Too Good to Stop Now. The song reached number 10 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles chart and number 10 on the Canadian RPM Country Tracks chart in Canada.
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what is meant by pus cells in urine | Pyuria - Wikipedia
Pyuria is the condition of urine containing white blood cells or pus. Defined as the presence of 6 - 10 or more neutrophils per high power field of unspun, voided mid-stream urine. It can be a sign of a bacterial urinary tract infection. Pyuria may be present in the people with sepsis, or in older people with pneumonia.
Sterile pyuria, is urine which contains white blood cells while appearing sterile by standard culturing techniques. It is often caused by sexually transmitted infections, such as gonorrhea, or viruses which will not grow in bacterial cultures. Sterile pyuria is listed as a side effect from some medications such as paracetamol (acetaminophen). Its occurrence is also associated with certain disease processes, such as Kawasaki disease and genitourinary tuberculosis. However, there are many known causes, including systemic or infectious disease, structural and physiological reasons, intrinsic kidney pathology, or drugs.
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dalziel and pascoe secrets of the dead synopsis | List of Dalziel and Pascoe episodes - wikipedia
The following is a list of episodes of the BBC television detective drama series, Dalziel and Pascoe. 46 episodes of the series were broadcast over the course of eleven series.
Beginning with this series, the show 's theme song has been removed.
The eighth series was broadcast in the United Kingdom as four standard 90 - minute episodes, as per series one through seven. However, in Europe, the series was broadcast in a similar format to series nine through eleven, splitting the stories into two 45 - minute episodes broadcast on consecutive nights. The airdates used here are the original British dates.
The DVD release of this series contains the internationally broadcast versions of each episode, which remove twenty minutes of footage from each two - hour story, presumably to include adverts where required in international broadcast.
The DVD release of this series contains the internationally broadcast versions of each episode, which remove twenty minutes of footage from each two - hour story, presumably to include adverts where required in international broadcast.
Series eleven was filmed as a block of five episodes between January and May 2006, but the broadcast in the United Kingdom saw episodes one and two billed as series eleven and episodes three to five billed as series twelve. However, all other international broadcasts saw the episodes billed as one series. The DVD release of this series contains the internationally broadcast versions of each episode, where the two parts have been joined together to create a feature - length episode. However, these still remove twenty minutes of footage from each two - hour story, presumably to include adverts where required in international broadcast.
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what binds the asteroids to the asteroid belt between mars and jupiter | Asteroid belt - wikipedia
The asteroid belt is the circumstellar disc in the Solar System located roughly between the orbits of the planets Mars and Jupiter. It is occupied by numerous irregularly shaped bodies called asteroids or minor planets. The asteroid belt is also termed the main asteroid belt or main belt to distinguish it from other asteroid populations in the Solar System such as near - Earth asteroids and trojan asteroids. About half the mass of the belt is contained in the four largest asteroids: Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea. The total mass of the asteroid belt is approximately 4 % that of the Moon, or 22 % that of Pluto, and roughly twice that of Pluto 's moon Charon (whose diameter is 1200 km).
Ceres, the asteroid belt 's only dwarf planet, is about 950 km in diameter, whereas 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygiea have mean diameters of less than 600 km. The remaining bodies range down to the size of a dust particle. The asteroid material is so thinly distributed that numerous unmanned spacecraft have traversed it without incident. Nonetheless, collisions between large asteroids do occur, and these can produce an asteroid family whose members have similar orbital characteristics and compositions. Individual asteroids within the asteroid belt are categorized by their spectra, with most falling into three basic groups: carbonaceous (C - type), silicate (S - type), and metal - rich (M - type).
The asteroid belt formed from the primordial solar nebula as a group of planetesimals. Planetesimals are the smaller precursors of the protoplanets. Between Mars and Jupiter, however, gravitational perturbations from Jupiter imbued the protoplanets with too much orbital energy for them to accrete into a planet. Collisions became too violent, and instead of fusing together, the planetesimals and most of the protoplanets shattered. As a result, 99.9 % of the asteroid belt 's original mass was lost in the first 100 million years of the Solar System 's history. Some fragments eventually found their way into the inner Solar System, leading to meteorite impacts with the inner planets. Asteroid orbits continue to be appreciably perturbed whenever their period of revolution about the Sun forms an orbital resonance with Jupiter. At these orbital distances, a Kirkwood gap occurs as they are swept into other orbits.
Classes of small Solar System bodies in other regions are the near - Earth objects, the centaurs, the Kuiper belt objects, the scattered disc objects, the sednoids, and the Oort cloud objects.
On 22 January 2014, ESA scientists reported the detection, for the first definitive time, of water vapor on Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. The detection was made by using the far - infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory. The finding was unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to "sprout jets and plumes ''. According to one of the scientists, "The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids. ''
In 1596, Johannes Kepler predicted "Between Mars and Jupiter, I place a planet '' in his Mysterium Cosmographicum. While analyzing Tycho Brahe 's data, Kepler thought that there was too large a gap between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
In an anonymous footnote to his 1766 translation of Charles Bonnet 's Contemplation de la Nature, the astronomer Johann Daniel Titius of Wittenberg noted an apparent pattern in the layout of the planets. If one began a numerical sequence at 0, then included 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, etc., doubling each time, and added four to each number and divided by 10, this produced a remarkably close approximation to the radii of the orbits of the known planets as measured in astronomical units provided one allowed for a "missing planet '' (equivalent to 24 in the sequence) between the orbits of Mars (12) and Jupiter (48). In his footnote, Titius declared "But should the Lord Architect have left that space empty? Not at all. ''
When William Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781, the planet 's orbit matched the law almost perfectly, leading astronomers to conclude that there had to be a planet between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
On January 1, 1801, Giuseppe Piazzi, chair of astronomy at the University of Palermo, Sicily, found a tiny moving object in an orbit with exactly the radius predicted by this pattern. He dubbed it "Ceres '', after the Roman goddess of the harvest and patron of Sicily. Piazzi initially believed it to be a comet, but its lack of a coma suggested it was a planet.
Thus, the aforementioned pattern, now known as the Titius -- Bode law, predicted the semi-major axes of all eight planets of the time (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Ceres, Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus).
Fifteen months later, Heinrich Olbers discovered a second object in the same region, Pallas. Unlike the other known planets, Ceres and Pallas remained points of light even under the highest telescope magnifications instead of resolving into discs. Apart from their rapid movement, they appeared indistinguishable from stars.
Accordingly, in 1802, William Herschel suggested they be placed into a separate category, named "asteroids '', after the Greek asteroeides, meaning "star - like ''. Upon completing a series of observations of Ceres and Pallas, he concluded,
Neither the appellation of planets nor that of comets, can with any propriety of language be given to these two stars... They resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them. From this, their asteroidal appearance, if I take my name, and call them Asteroids; reserving for myself, however, the liberty of changing that name, if another, more expressive of their nature, should occur.
By 1807, further investigation revealed two new objects in the region: Juno and Vesta. The burning of Lilienthal in the Napoleonic wars, where the main body of work had been done, brought this first period of discovery to a close.
Despite Herschel 's coinage, for several decades it remained common practice to refer to these objects as planets and to prefix their names with numbers representing their date of discovery: 1 Ceres, 2 Pallas, 3 Juno, 4 Vesta. However, in 1845 astronomers detected a fifth object (5 Astraea) and, shortly thereafter, new objects were found at an accelerating rate. Counting them among the planets became increasingly cumbersome. Eventually, they were dropped from the planet list (as first suggested by Alexander von Humboldt in the early 1850s) and Herschel 's choice of nomenclature, "asteroids '', gradually came into common use.
The discovery of Neptune in 1846 led to the discrediting of the Titius -- Bode law in the eyes of scientists because its orbit was nowhere near the predicted position. To date, there is no scientific explanation for the law, and astronomers ' consensus regards it as a coincidence.
The expression "asteroid belt '' came into use in the very early 1850s, although it is hard to pinpoint who coined the term. The first English use seems to be in the 1850 translation (by E.C. Otté) of Alexander von Humboldt 's Cosmos: "(...) and the regular appearance, about the 13th of November and the 11th of August, of shooting stars, which probably form part of a belt of asteroids intersecting the Earth 's orbit and moving with planetary velocity ''. Another early appearance occurred in Robert James Mann 's A Guide to the Knowledge of the Heavens: "The orbits of the asteroids are placed in a wide belt of space, extending between the extremes of (...) ''. The American astronomer Benjamin Peirce seems to have adopted that terminology and to have been one of its promoters.
One hundred asteroids had been located by mid-1868, and in 1891 the introduction of astrophotography by Max Wolf accelerated the rate of discovery still further. A total of 1,000 asteroids had been found by 1921, 10,000 by 1981, and 100,000 by 2000. Modern asteroid survey systems now use automated means to locate new minor planets in ever - increasing quantities.
In 1802, shortly after discovering Pallas, Olbers suggested to Herschel that Ceres and Pallas were fragments of a much larger planet that once occupied the Mars -- Jupiter region, this planet having suffered an internal explosion or a cometary impact many million years before. Over time, however, this hypothesis has fallen from favor. The large amount of energy required to destroy a planet, combined with the belt 's low combined mass, which is only about 4 % of the mass of the Moon, do not support the hypothesis. Further, the significant chemical differences between the asteroids become difficult to explain if they come from the same planet. Today, most scientists accept that, rather than fragmenting from a progenitor planet, the asteroids never formed a planet at all.
In general, in the Solar System, a planetary formation is thought to have occurred via a process comparable to the long - standing nebular hypothesis: a cloud of interstellar dust and gas collapsed under the influence of gravity to form a rotating disc of material that then further condensed to form the Sun and planets. During the first few million years of the Solar System 's history, an accretion process of sticky collisions caused the clumping of small particles, which gradually increased in size. Once the clumps reached sufficient mass, they could draw in other bodies through gravitational attraction and become planetesimals. This gravitational accretion led to the formation of the planets.
Planetesimals within the region which would become the asteroid belt were too strongly perturbed by Jupiter 's gravity to form a planet. Instead, they continued to orbit the Sun as before, occasionally colliding. In regions where the average velocity of the collisions was too high, the shattering of planetesimals tended to dominate over accretion, preventing the formation of planet - sized bodies. Orbital resonances occurred where the orbital period of an object in the belt formed an integer fraction of the orbital period of Jupiter, perturbing the object into a different orbit; the region lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter contains many such orbital resonances. As Jupiter migrated inward following its formation, these resonances would have swept across the asteroid belt, dynamically exciting the region 's population and increasing their velocities relative to each other.
During the early history of the Solar System, the asteroids melted to some degree, allowing elements within them to be partially or completely differentiated by mass. Some of the progenitor bodies may even have undergone periods of explosive volcanism and formed magma oceans. However, because of the relatively small size of the bodies, the period of melting was necessarily brief (compared to the much larger planets), and had generally ended about 4.5 billion years ago, in the first tens of millions of years of formation. In August 2007, a study of zircon crystals in an Antarctic meteorite believed to have originated from 4 Vesta suggested that it, and by extension the rest of the asteroid belt, had formed rather quickly, within ten million years of the Solar System 's origin.
The asteroids are not samples of the primordial Solar System. They have undergone considerable evolution since their formation, including internal heating (in the first few tens of millions of years), surface melting from impacts, space weathering from radiation, and bombardment by micrometeorites. Although some scientists refer to the asteroids as residual planetesimals, other scientists consider them distinct.
The current asteroid belt is believed to contain only a small fraction of the mass of the primordial belt. Computer simulations suggest that the original asteroid belt may have contained the mass equivalent to the Earth. Primarily because of gravitational perturbations, most of the material was ejected from the belt within about a million years of formation, leaving behind less than 0.1 % of the original mass. Since their formation, the size distribution of the asteroid belt has remained relatively stable: there has been no significant increase or decrease in the typical dimensions of the main - belt asteroids.
The 4: 1 orbital resonance with Jupiter, at a radius 2.06 AU, can be considered the inner boundary of the asteroid belt. Perturbations by Jupiter send bodies straying there into unstable orbits. Most bodies formed within the radius of this gap were swept up by Mars (which has an aphelion at 1.67 AU) or ejected by its gravitational perturbations in the early history of the Solar System. The Hungaria asteroids lie closer to the Sun than the 4: 1 resonance, but are protected from disruption by their high inclination.
When the asteroid belt was first formed, the temperatures at a distance of 2.7 AU from the Sun formed a "snow line '' below the freezing point of water. Planetesimals formed beyond this radius were able to accumulate ice. In 2006 it was announced that a population of comets had been discovered within the asteroid belt beyond the snow line, which may have provided a source of water for Earth 's oceans. According to some models, there was insufficient outgassing of water during the Earth 's formative period to form the oceans, requiring an external source such as a cometary bombardment.
Contrary to popular imagery, the asteroid belt is mostly empty. The asteroids are spread over such a large volume that it would be improbable to reach an asteroid without aiming carefully. Nonetheless, hundreds of thousands of asteroids are currently known, and the total number ranges in the millions or more, depending on the lower size cutoff. Over 200 asteroids are known to be larger than 100 km, and a survey in the infrared wavelengths has shown that the asteroid belt has 0.7 -- 1.7 million asteroids with a diameter of 1 km or more. The apparent magnitudes of most of the known asteroids are 11 -- 19, with the median at about 16.
The total mass of the asteroid belt is estimated to be 2.8 × 10 to 3.2 × 10 kilograms, which is just 4 % of the mass of the Moon. The four largest objects, Ceres, 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygiea, account for half of the belt 's total mass, with almost one - third accounted for by Ceres alone.
The current belt consists primarily of three categories of asteroids: C - type or carbonaceous asteroids, S - type or silicate asteroids, and M - type or metallic asteroids.
Carbonaceous asteroids, as their name suggests, are carbon - rich. They dominate the asteroid belt 's outer regions. Together they comprise over 75 % of the visible asteroids. They are redder in hue than the other asteroids and have a very low albedo. Their surface composition is similar to carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. Chemically, their spectra match the primordial composition of the early Solar System, with only the lighter elements and volatiles removed.
S - type (silicate - rich) asteroids are more common toward the inner region of the belt, within 2.5 AU of the Sun. The spectra of their surfaces reveal the presence of silicates and some metal, but no significant carbonaceous compounds. This indicates that their materials have been significantly modified from their primordial composition, probably through melting and reformation. They have a relatively high albedo and form about 17 % of the total asteroid population.
M - type (metal - rich) asteroids form about 10 % of the total population; their spectra resemble that of iron - nickel. Some are believed to have formed from the metallic cores of differentiated progenitor bodies that were disrupted through collision. However, there are also some silicate compounds that can produce a similar appearance. For example, the large M - type asteroid 22 Kalliope does not appear to be primarily composed of metal. Within the asteroid belt, the number distribution of M - type asteroids peaks at a semi-major axis of about 2.7 AU. It is not yet clear whether all M - types are compositionally similar, or whether it is a label for several varieties which do not fit neatly into the main C and S classes.
One mystery of the asteroid belt is the relative rarity of V - type or basaltic asteroids. Theories of asteroid formation predict that objects the size of Vesta or larger should form crusts and mantles, which would be composed mainly of basaltic rock, resulting in more than half of all asteroids being composed either of basalt or olivine. Observations, however, suggest that 99 percent of the predicted basaltic material is missing. Until 2001, most basaltic bodies discovered in the asteroid belt were believed to originate from the asteroid Vesta (hence their name V - type). However, the discovery of the asteroid 1459 Magnya revealed a slightly different chemical composition from the other basaltic asteroids discovered until then, suggesting a different origin. This hypothesis was reinforced by the further discovery in 2007 of two asteroids in the outer belt, 7472 Kumakiri and (10537) 1991 RY 16, with a differing basaltic composition that could not have originated from Vesta. These latter two are the only V - type asteroids discovered in the outer belt to date.
The temperature of the asteroid belt varies with the distance from the Sun. For dust particles within the belt, typical temperatures range from 200 K (− 73 ° C) at 2.2 AU down to 165 K (− 108 ° C) at 3.2 AU However, due to rotation, the surface temperature of an asteroid can vary considerably as the sides are alternately exposed to solar radiation and then to the stellar background.
Several otherwise unremarkable bodies in the outer belt show cometary activity. Because their orbits can not be explained through the capture of classical comets, it is thought that many of the outer asteroids may be icy, with the ice occasionally exposed to sublimation through small impacts. Main - belt comets may have been a major source of the Earth 's oceans because the deuterium - hydrogen ratio is too low for classical comets to have been the principal source.
Most asteroids within the asteroid belt have orbital eccentricities of less than 0.4, and an inclination of less than 30 °. The orbital distribution of the asteroids reaches a maximum at an eccentricity of around 0.07 and an inclination below 4 °. Thus although a typical asteroid has a relatively circular orbit and lies near the plane of the ecliptic, some asteroid orbits can be highly eccentric or travel well outside the ecliptic plane.
Sometimes, the term main belt is used to refer only to the more compact "core '' region where the greatest concentration of bodies is found. This lies between the strong 4: 1 and 2: 1 Kirkwood gaps at 2.06 and 3.27 AU, and at orbital eccentricities less than roughly 0.33, along with orbital inclinations below about 20 °. As of 2006, this "core '' region contained 93 % of all discovered and numbered minor planets within the Solar System.
The semi-major axis of an asteroid is used to describe the dimensions of its orbit around the Sun, and its value determines the minor planet 's orbital period. In 1866, Daniel Kirkwood announced the discovery of gaps in the distances of these bodies ' orbits from the Sun. They were located in positions where their period of revolution about the Sun was an integer fraction of Jupiter 's orbital period. Kirkwood proposed that the gravitational perturbations of the planet led to the removal of asteroids from these orbits.
When the mean orbital period of an asteroid is an integer fraction of the orbital period of Jupiter, a mean - motion resonance with the gas giant is created that is sufficient to perturb an asteroid to new orbital elements. Asteroids that become located in the gap orbits (either primordially because of the migration of Jupiter 's orbit, or due to prior perturbations or collisions) are gradually nudged into different, random orbits with a larger or smaller semi-major axis.
The gaps are not seen in a simple snapshot of the locations of the asteroids at any one time because asteroid orbits are elliptical, and many asteroids still cross through the radii corresponding to the gaps. The actual spatial density of asteroids in these gaps does not differ significantly from the neighboring regions.
The main gaps occur at the 3: 1, 5: 2, 7: 3, and 2: 1 mean - motion resonances with Jupiter. An asteroid in the 3: 1 Kirkwood gap would orbit the Sun three times for each Jovian orbit, for instance. Weaker resonances occur at other semi-major axis values, with fewer asteroids found than nearby. (For example, an 8: 3 resonance for asteroids with a semi-major axis of 2.71 AU.)
The main or core population of the asteroid belt is sometimes divided into three zones, based on the most prominent Kirkwood gaps:
The asteroid belt may also be divided into the inner and outer belts, with the inner belt formed by asteroids orbiting nearer to Mars than the 3: 1 Kirkwood gap (2.5 AU), and the outer belt formed by those asteroids closer to Jupiter 's orbit. (Some authors subdivide the inner and outer belts at the 2: 1 resonance gap (3.3 AU), whereas others suggest inner, middle, and outer belts; also see diagram).
The high population of the asteroid belt makes for a very active environment, where collisions between asteroids occur frequently (on astronomical time scales). Collisions between main - belt bodies with a mean radius of 10 km are expected to occur about once every 10 million years. A collision may fragment an asteroid into numerous smaller pieces (leading to the formation of a new asteroid family). Conversely, collisions that occur at low relative speeds may also join two asteroids. After more than 4 billion years of such processes, the members of the asteroid belt now bear little resemblance to the original population.
Along with the asteroid bodies, the asteroid belt also contains bands of dust with particle radii of up to a few hundred micrometres. This fine material is produced, at least in part, from collisions between asteroids, and by the impact of micrometeorites upon the asteroids. Due to the Poynting -- Robertson effect, the pressure of solar radiation causes this dust to slowly spiral inward toward the Sun.
The combination of this fine asteroid dust, as well as ejected cometary material, produces the zodiacal light. This faint auroral glow can be viewed at night extending from the direction of the Sun along the plane of the ecliptic. Asteroid particles that produce the visible zodiacal light average about 40 μm in radius. The typical lifetimes of main - belt zodiacal cloud particles are about 700,000 years. Thus, to maintain the bands of dust, new particles must be steadily produced within the asteroid belt. It was once thought that collisions of asteroids form a major component of the zodiacal light. However, computer simulations by Nesvorný and colleagues attributed 85 percent of the zodiacal - light dust to fragmentations of Jupiter - family comets, rather than to comets and collisions between asteroids in the asteroid belt. At most 10 percent of the dust is attributed to the asteroid belt.
Some of the debris from collisions can form meteoroids that enter the Earth 's atmosphere. Of the 50,000 meteorites found on Earth to date, 99.8 percent are believed to have originated in the asteroid belt.
In 1918, the Japanese astronomer Kiyotsugu Hirayama noticed that the orbits of some of the asteroids had similar parameters, forming families or groups.
Approximately one - third of the asteroids in the asteroid belt are members of an asteroid family. These share similar orbital elements, such as semi-major axis, eccentricity, and orbital inclination as well as similar spectral features, all of which indicate a common origin in the breakup of a larger body. Graphical displays of these elements, for members of the asteroid belt, show concentrations indicating the presence of an asteroid family. There are about 20 -- 30 associations that are almost certainly asteroid families. Additional groupings have been found that are less certain. Asteroid families can be confirmed when the members display common spectral features. Smaller associations of asteroids are called groups or clusters.
Some of the most prominent families in the asteroid belt (in order of increasing semi-major axes) are the Flora, Eunoma, Koronis, Eos, and Themis families. The Flora family, one of the largest with more than 800 known members, may have formed from a collision less than a billion years ago. The largest asteroid to be a true member of a family (as opposed to an interloper in the case of Ceres with the Gefion family) is 4 Vesta. The Vesta family is believed to have formed as the result of a crater - forming impact on Vesta. Likewise, the HED meteorites may also have originated from Vesta as a result of this collision.
Three prominent bands of dust have been found within the asteroid belt. These have similar orbital inclinations as the Eos, Koronis, and Themis asteroid families, and so are possibly associated with those groupings.
Skirting the inner edge of the belt (ranging between 1.78 and 2.0 AU, with a mean semi-major axis of 1.9 AU) is the Hungaria family of minor planets. They are named after the main member, 434 Hungaria; the group contains at least 52 named asteroids. The Hungaria group is separated from the main body by the 4: 1 Kirkwood gap and their orbits have a high inclination. Some members belong to the Mars - crossing category of asteroids, and gravitational perturbations by Mars are likely a factor in reducing the total population of this group.
Another high - inclination group in the inner part of the asteroid belt is the Phocaea family. These are composed primarily of S - type asteroids, whereas the neighboring Hungaria family includes some E-types. The Phocaea family orbit between 2.25 and 2.5 AU from the Sun.
Skirting the outer edge of the asteroid belt is the Cybele group, orbiting between 3.3 and 3.5 AU. These have a 7: 4 orbital resonance with Jupiter. The Hilda family orbit between 3.5 and 4.2 AU, and have relatively circular orbits and a stable 3: 2 orbital resonance with Jupiter. There are few asteroids beyond 4.2 AU, until Jupiter 's orbit. Here the two families of Trojan asteroids can be found, which, at least for objects larger than 1 km, are approximately as numerous as the asteroids of the asteroid belt.
Some asteroid families have formed recently, in astronomical terms. The Karin Cluster apparently formed about 5.7 million years ago from a collision with a progenitor asteroid 33 km in radius. The Veritas family formed about 8.3 million years ago; evidence includes interplanetary dust recovered from ocean sediment.
More recently, the Datura cluster appears to have formed about 530 thousand years ago from a collision with a main - belt asteroid. The age estimate is based on the probability of the members having their current orbits, rather than from any physical evidence. However, this cluster may have been a source for some zodiacal dust material. Other recent cluster formations, such as the Iannini cluster (circa 1 -- 5 million years ago), may have provided additional sources of this asteroid dust.
The first spacecraft to traverse the asteroid belt was Pioneer 10, which entered the region on 16 July 1972. At the time there was some concern that the debris in the belt would pose a hazard to the spacecraft, but it has since been safely traversed by 12 spacecraft without incident. Pioneer 11, Voyagers 1 and 2 and Ulysses passed through the belt without imaging any asteroids. Galileo imaged 951 Gaspra in 1991 and 243 Ida in 1993, NEAR imaged 253 Mathilde in 1997, Cassini imaged 2685 Masursky in 2000, Stardust imaged 5535 Annefrank in 2002, New Horizons imaged 132524 APL in 2006, Rosetta imaged 2867 Šteins in September 2008 and 21 Lutetia in July 2010, and Dawn orbited Vesta between July 2011 and September 2012 and has orbited Ceres since March 2015. On its way to Jupiter, Juno traversed the asteroid belt without collecting science data. Due to the low density of materials within the belt, the odds of a probe running into an asteroid are now estimated at less than one in a billion.
Most belt asteroids imaged to date have come from brief flyby opportunities by probes headed for other targets. Only the Dawn, NEAR and Hayabusa missions have studied asteroids for a protracted period in orbit and at the surface. Dawn explored Vesta from July 2011 to September 2012 and has been orbiting Ceres since March 2015.
Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow (→) may be read as "within '' or "part of ''.
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what happened on the series finale of will and grace | The finale (Will & Grace) - wikipedia
Kevin Bacon as himself Harry Connick, Jr. as Leo Leslie Jordan as Beverley Leslie Bobby Cannavale as Vince
"The Finale '' is the twenty - third episode of American television series Will & Grace 's eighth season, which originally served as the series finale prior to the announcement of a 16 - episode ninth season revival slated for the 2017 -- 18 TV season. It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) in the United States on May 18, 2006, when it was watched by an average of eighteen million viewers, making it the most watched episode of the final two seasons of Will & Grace. In the finale, Will and Grace have a falling - out that lasts for years. They each have a child with their respective partners, and eventually reconcile when their children (Laila and Ben) meet at college. Meanwhile, Karen 's arch - enemy Beverley Leslie makes an offer to Jack which ultimately leads to Jack inheriting Beverley 's fortune.
The episode was written by series creators and executive producers David Kohan and Max Mutchnick, and directed by James Burrows. Filming took place at CBS Studio Center in Studio City, California in April 2006. The cast members took the news about the show ending well, but they became emotional as the final scene was being filmed. NBC heavily promoted the finale, and the main cast members appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show and The Today Show to bid farewell. An hour - long series retrospective, "Say Goodnight Gracie '', featuring interviews with the cast, crew, and guest stars, preceded the hour - long series finale. Since airing, the finale has received mixed reviews from television critics.
Grace Adler (Debra Messing), heavily pregnant, is having bizarre dreams of the future in which she and her gay friend and roommate Will Truman (Eric McCormack) are an old couple raising their child. In her dream, Jack McFarland (Sean Hayes) is married to actor Kevin Bacon, and Karen Walker (Megan Mullally) -- who has not aged (her explanation: "Money '') -- is now in a relationship with her maid Rosario Salazar (Shelley Morrison). In Grace 's real life, however, her relationship with Will is complicated. Grace is not sure if she wants to spend the rest of her life living with Will. When her ex-husband Marvin "Leo '' Markus (Harry Connick, Jr.) shows up and proposes to her -- unaware she is pregnant with his child -- she immediately accepts. Will feels betrayed, and stops speaking to her.
Two years later, Grace moves with Leo to Rome and lives there for a year. They then move back to New York City, where they raise their daughter, Laila. Will and Vince D'Angelo (Bobby Cannavale) have since reconciled, and are raising a son, Ben. Karen and Jack grow tired of the fact that Will and Grace are not speaking with each other, so they lure them to the same place and force them to make up. The four meet at Will and Vince 's apartment, and even though Will and Grace have a pleasant evening together, they find that too much has changed between them, and drift apart.
Meanwhile, Karen finalizes her divorce from Stan, but soon finds out that all his money was borrowed and that she will be left with nothing. When learning that Beverley Leslie (Leslie Jordan) and his "business associate '' Benji (Brian A. Setzer) have broken up, Karen plots to have Jack take Benji 's place, after Jack confesses that Beverly offered to share his entire fortune with him. When Beverly dies after being blown off a balcony from high winds, Jack inherits all of his money.
Around twenty years later, Laila meets Ben as they both move into college. Will and Grace are reunited while helping their children move into their dorm rooms, and rekindle their friendship. Laila and Ben eventually marry. Jack and Karen, meanwhile, are now living comfortably with each other and Rosario. While everyone else is older, Karen -- just like in Grace 's dream -- has not aged due to extensive plastic surgery, and she and Jack perform a duet of the song "Unforgettable ''. The show ends with Will and Grace watching ER together, reminiscing and discussing the marriage of their respective children. Feeling uplifted, the four friends gather at a bar to toast to their friendship, which then flashes back to the four as their younger selves.
Will & Grace creators and executive producers David Kohan and Max Mutchnick, who had not served as writers since the season four season finale, wrote the script for the series finale. Regarding the finale, Mutchnick stated: "We wrote about what you want to have happen with people you love. I think Will and Grace end up very fleshed out. They end up as full adults. All the things that matter in life, they end up having. '' Three years before the series finale was created, Mutchnick was asked on his opinion regarding how he would like to see the character 's story come to a conclusion, "The truth is that (Will and Grace) serve each other 's dysfunction. And the best way for their story to end is to find love. ''
The episode was shot in Studio City, California on Stage 17 at CBS Studio Center. It was filmed on April 10, 11, and 13, 2006. The make - up effects used in Grace 's dream and the scenes fifteen years into the future were done by Academy Award - winning make - up artists. Kohan and Mutchnick joined long - time director James Burrows on the set as filming began. The cast and crew tried to remain cheerful in front of the live audience between takes while the writers gathered in a room to rework lines for potentially larger laughs. However, "there were a lot of snotty, tearful faces all around the set. When we got to the very, very last scene, everybody was just a mess. We started sobbing and hugging each other, '' said Megan Mullally, who plays Karen. Eric McCormack, who portrays Will, commented that his saddest moment was "the last time I stood in Will 's kitchen. That was the most colorful position for me, standing there and stirring something. It was my pulpit, the place where I delivered my best jokes. ''
The set was already being broken down the day after filming finished. Debra Messing, who plays Grace, said it was "cordoned off like an accident scene. It was a shock to see parts of it gone already. '' Each cast member was allowed to keep their favorite souvenir from the set. Messing took the door to Grace 's office; she wanted to lean it up against the wall at her house as a piece of modern art. Sean Hayes was given a couple of pieces from Will 's apartment: "There 's a leather box that was on Will 's desk that I want to find a place for. '' Mullally chose a simple portrait from one of the walls, and McCormack took a small ceramic dog, though he said he would have taken everything if he could.
The cast members of the show took the news about the show ending well. Hayes said: "I 'm proud of being a part of something in history and I 'm proud to have been given a platform to make people laugh. '' McCormack added, "We have never taken ourselves or this show too seriously but now that it 's over I take our collective achievement very, very seriously. '' The actors were satisfied with the episode and thought the viewers would find it satisfying as well. "It 's daring and ambitious and more far - reaching than most finales go. I think people will be quite surprised, '' McCormack said. Messing added: "I think Will & Grace fans will be satisfied. Ultimately, (the episode) was done beautifully and it ties up loose ends for all of the characters in a way that 's wonderful. ''
The series finale was heavily promoted by NBC, and the main cast members appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show, The Today Show, and Live with Regis and Kelly to bid farewell. NBC devoted a two - hour block in its primetime schedule on May 18, 2006, for the Will & Grace send - off. An hour - long series retrospective, "Say Goodnight Gracie '', featuring interviews with the cast, crew, and guest stars, preceded the hour - long series finale. The retrospective was viewed by an estimated 12.7 million viewers, while the finale drew 18.43 million viewers and a Nielsen rating of 11.5 / 18, making it the most watched episode of the final two seasons of Will & Grace.
Since airing, the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics. Richard Keller of TV Squad thought the finale 's theme of Will and Grace 's connection to each other was well - presented by director James Burrows. Keller added, "While not as satisfying as, say, the Friends finale or as crushing as the Seinfeld finale, the series finale to Will & Grace did have its moments and came back to the original concept of friendship among a close group of people. There were some moments where I did laugh out loud, but they were few. '' CHUD. com 's David Oliver praised the finale for not having characters "go on wild tangents that betray who they were during the entirety of the show 's run. '' He also commented that Messing and McCormack are "affecting in their performances '' and the episode "nicely summarizes (Will and Grace 's) friendship over the course of the entire show. ''
Setting the finale in several different time periods was criticized by some critics. Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly said "we endure a swirl of confusing, unnecessary sequences, from Grace 's dream to current reality to two years later to their kids ' first day of college to their kids ' impending wedding. By the end, instead of being sad to bid adieu, we 're just relieved not to have yet another disbelief - suspending flash - forward thrust upon us. '' Jim Schembri of The Sydney Morning Herald wrote: "The time - jumping device is overused and a tad awkward but, by and large, it 's a noble finale to one of the better standard three - wall sitcoms from America. '' Amy Amatangelo of Zap2it commented that Will & Grace "is a show that spent eight seasons predicated on the lasting friendship of Will and Grace, and we 're supposed to believe that they spent over 20 years not talking to each other just because their lives went in different directions? That there is no way their friendship could have been sustained once they both found the love of their life? '' Amatangelo enjoyed Jack and Karen 's performance of "Unforgettable '', but the rest of the finale she "could have done without. ''
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who has won the afc east the most | AFC East - wikipedia
The American Football Conference -- Eastern Division or AFC East is a division of the National Football League (NFL) 's American Football Conference (AFC). There are currently four teams that reside in the division: the Buffalo Bills (based in Orchard Park, New York); the Miami Dolphins (based in Miami Gardens, Florida); the New England Patriots (based in Foxborough, Massachusetts); and the New York Jets (based in East Rutherford, New Jersey).
Since the division 's enfranchisement in 1960, with the creation of the American Football League, the division has been represented in nineteen Super Bowls and won eight of them. The most recent appearance in the Super Bowl by an AFC East team was the Patriots in Super Bowl LII.
Entering 2017 the Patriots had the most wins in the division 's history, with a record of 476 - 383 - 9, with a playoff record of 32 - 19 (5 - 4 in Super Bowls) entering the playoffs of that season. The Dolphins were second at 439 - 341 - 4 (having played 84 fewer games than their division rivals) with a playoff record of 20 - 21 (2 - 3 in Super Bowls). The Bills were at 400 - 460 - 8 with a playoff record of 14 - 15 (with two American Football League titles) and 0 - 4 in four consecutive Super Bowls. The Jets held a record of 392 - 468 - 8, with a playoff record of 12 - 13 including victory in Super Bowl III.
In 2012, the Patriots broke a tie with the Dolphins for winning the most division titles; with subsequent division titles in 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017 the Patriots have won 20 AFL / AFC East division titles to Miami 's 14. The Bills have won ten division titles, and the Jets have won four.
Two teams formerly in the division combined for ten AFL / AFC East titles -- the Houston Oilers (now the Tennessee Titans) won four division titles (and the 1960 and 1961 league titles) during the AFL era while the Baltimore -- Indianapolis Colts won six division titles (and Super Bowl V) in the 32 seasons they were in the division.
The American Football League Eastern Division was formed during the inaugural season of the American Football League in 1960, as a counterpart to the AFL Western Division. The divisional alignment consisted of the Buffalo Bills, Boston Patriots, New York Titans and Houston Oilers. The Miami Dolphins entered the AFL in 1966 as part of its Eastern division.
The division was absorbed nearly intact with the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970, but Houston was moved to the AFC Central (formerly the NFL Century Division, now the AFC North) and replaced by the closer Baltimore Colts (from the NFL Coastal Division, which became the NFC West). Despite relocating to Indianapolis, Indiana in 1984, the Colts continued to play in the AFC East until NFL expansion from 31 to 32 teams with the addition of the Houston Texans (successor club in Houston to the Oilers) and 2002 re-alignment when they were moved to the AFC South (the successor franchise to the Oilers, the Tennessee Titans, is also in the AFC South).
Although Miami is farther south than the home cities of the other three teams, all of which are in the Northeast, all four AFC East teams have historical rivalries among them, dating from their years in the AFL during the 1960s.
None of the AFC East teams currently plays within the central city of their metropolitan area:
All of the teams are or were coached by a first or second generation member of the Bill Parcells coaching tree: the Patriots have Bill Belichick; the Dolphins had Tony Sparano; the Jets had Eric Mangini (who served as an assistant with both Belichick and Parcells); and the Bills had Dick Jauron (fired on November 17, 2009), who served as an assistant with former Parcells assistant Tom Coughlin. The Jets are now coached by Todd Bowles and the Bills were coached by Rex Ryan for 31 games (the entire 2015 - 16 season, and he was fired before the last game of the 2016 - 17 season and replaced with interim Head Coach Anthony Lynn). Parcells himself coached the Patriots (1993 -- 6) and the Jets (1997 -- 9) and was Vice President of Football Operations for the Dolphins until the summer of 2010.
ESPN 's Chris Berman often calls this division the "AFC Adams '' due to its geographical similarity to the old Adams Division of the NHL, now succeeded by the Atlantic Division.
Along with the AFC (formerly AFL) West, the AFC East is the oldest NFL division in terms of creation date (1960).
Place cursor over year for division champ or Super Bowl team.
(AFC East records 1960 -- 2016 seasons) Reflects Colts & Oilers results only while in the East Division. In the sortable table below, teams can be ordered by name, number of division wins, playoff berths, or titles.
Realigned from NFL West in 1970 merger. Known as the Baltimore Colts before 1984. Realigned into the AFC South beginning with the 2002 NFL season. Realigned into the AFC Central in 1970 merger, and into the AFC South in 2002. Known as Tennessee Oilers from 1997 -- 98, and Tennessee Titans since 1999.
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who plays jimmy on the secret life of the american teenager | Shane Coffey - wikipedia
Shane Coffey (born April 7, 1987) is an American actor. He is best known for his role as Holden Strauss in Freeform 's Pretty Little Liars.
Coffey grew up in Texas, then studied theater at the University of Southern California. He is a founding member of The Casitas Group, an independent theater company started in 2008, alongside Troian Bellisario.
Coffey 's first acting part was playing Patrick for one episode on Summerland alongside Jesse McCartney.
In January 2012, Coffey joined the recurring cast of Pretty Little Liars as Holden Strauss, an old friend of Aria 's, who becomes her way of covering when she 's actually going to see Ezra Fitz.
Coffey also portrayed Jimmy Nash on The Secret Life of the American Teenager. In 2012, he wrapped on a short film called Exiles, a modern rendition of Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet with a twist.
Coffey and Troian Bellisario, Pretty Little Liars co-star, make music under the name FAMLY.
In 2013, Coffey appeared in an Audi Super Bowl commercial titled Prom.
In 2015, Coffey starred in Lord Huron - "Fool for Love '' music video.
Coffey plays a lead role in the 2016 film Sugar Mountain, directed by Richard Gray.
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how do you get a small straight in yahtzee | Yahtzee - wikipedia
Yahtzee is a dice game made by Milton Bradley (now owned by Hasbro), which was first marketed as "Yatzie '' by the National Association Service of Toledo, Ohio, in the early 1940s. Yatzie was included in a game set called "LUCK - 15 Grand Dice Games ''. It was marketed under the name of Yahtzee by game entrepreneur Edwin S. Lowe in 1956. Lowe is also responsible for introducing Bingo to the U.S. market. The game is a development of earlier dice games such as Poker Dice, Yacht and Generala. It is also similar to Yatzy, which is popular in Scandinavia.
The object of the game is to score points by rolling five dice to make certain combinations. The dice can be rolled up to three times in a turn to try to make various scoring combinations. A game consists of thirteen rounds. After each round the player chooses which scoring category is to be used for that round. Once a category has been used in the game, it can not be used again. The scoring categories have varying point values, some of which are fixed values and others where the score depends on the value of the dice. A Yahtzee is five - of - a-kind and scores 50 points; the highest of any category. The winner is the player who scores the most points.
Yahtzee was marketed by the E.S. Lowe Company from 1956 till 1973. In 1973, the Milton Bradley Company purchased the E.S. Lowe Company and assumed the rights to produce and sell Yahtzee. During Lowe 's ownership over 40 million Yahtzee games were sold worldwide. The game has maintained its popularity. According to current owner Hasbro, 50 million Yahtzee games are sold each year. A classic edition is currently being marketed by Winning Moves.
The overall concept of Yahtzee traces its roots to a number of traditional dice games. Among these is the Puerto Rican game Generala, and the English games of Poker Dice and Cheerio. Another game, Yap, shows close similarities to Yahtzee; this game was copyrighted by Robert Cissne in 1952.
The most important predecessor of Yahtzee is the dice game named "Yacht '', which is an English cousin of Generala and dates back to at least 1938. Wood classifies Yacht, and a similar three - dice game called Crag, as sequence dice games. Yahtzee is similar to Yacht in both name and content. Although Yahtzee is clearly derived from Yacht, it differed from it in a number of significant ways:
The present - day commercial Yahtzee began when toy and game entrepreneur Edwin S. Lowe filed Yahtzee as a trademark with the U.S. Patent Office on April 19, 1956. The first commercial usage of the name Yahtzee was a few weeks earlier on April 3. Lowe classified his product as a "Poker Dice Game. ''
According to Hasbro, the game was invented by an anonymous Canadian couple, who called it "The Yacht Game '' because they played it on their yacht with their friends. Later they asked Lowe if he would make up some sets to be given as gifts to their friends who enjoyed the game. Lowe perceived the possibility of marketing the game, and acquired the rights to the game from the couple in exchange for 1,000 gift sets. This story is expanded by Lowe in the 1973 book, A Toy is Born by Marvin Kaye. According to Lowe, the game did not initially do well commercially, since the rules and appeal were not easily conveyed in an advertisement. Eventually, he had the idea of organizing Yahtzee parties at which people could play the game and thereby gain a first - hand appreciation of it. The idea was successful, and enthusiasts quickly popularized the game through word of mouth.
The E.S. Lowe Company sold Yahtzee from 1956 to 1973. During Lowe 's ownership, a number of changes were made to the game 's packaging, contents, and appearance. Between 1956 and 1961, the game 's advertising slogan was changed from "The Game That Makes You Think While Having Fun '' to "The Fun Game That Makes Thinking Fun! ''
The game and its contents were copyrighted by Lowe in 1956, 1961, 1967, and 1972. In 1973, Milton Bradley purchased the E.S. Lowe Company and assumed the rights to produce and sell Yahtzee. During Lowe 's ownership over 40 million Yahtzee games were sold in America and around the globe. The game has maintained its popularity. According to current owner Hasbro, 50 million Yahtzee games are sold each year.
Over time, the Yahtzee logo has taken several forms. The original version of the logo was used throughout the entire period that the game was produced solely by the Lowe company. After 1973, the logo changed various times. This logo is found on the scorecards and the game box (es).
The game consists of a number of rounds. In each round, a player gets three rolls of the dice, although they can choose to end their turn after one or two rolls. After the first roll the player can save any dice they want and re-roll the other dice. This procedure is repeated after the second roll. The player has complete choice as to which dice to roll. They can re-roll a die for the third roll that was not rolled on the second roll.
The Yahtzee scorecard contains 13 different category boxes and in each round, after the third roll, the player must choose one of these categories. The score entered in the box depends on how well the five dice match the scoring rule for the category. Details of the scoring rules for each category are given below. As an example, one of the categories is called Three of a Kind. The scoring rule for this category means that a player only scores if at least three of the five dice are the same value. The game is completed after 13 rounds by each player, with each of the 13 boxes filled. The total score is calculated by summing all thirteen boxes, together with any bonuses.
The Yahtzee scorecard contains 13 scoring boxes divided between two sections: the upper section and the lower section.
In the upper section there are six boxes. The score in each of these boxes is determined by adding the total number of dice matching that box.
If a player scores a total of 63 or more points in these six boxes, a bonus of 35 is added to the upper section score. Although 63 points corresponds to scoring exactly three - of - a-kind for each of the six boxes, a common way to get the bonus is by scoring four - of - a-kind for some numbers so that fewer of other numbers are needed. A player can earn the bonus even if they score a "0 '' in an upper section box.
In order to gauge how well a player is doing in the upper section, they often refer to being "up '' or "down '' compared to the average of three required for each box. So that if a player scores four "sixes '' they will be "6 up ''; while if they then score just two "twos '' they will then be only "4 up ''. Similarly, if a player starts with two "twos '' they will be "2 down ''.
The lower section contains a number of poker - themed categories with specific point values:
Some players count a Yahtzee as being a valid Full House. However the official rule is that a Full House is "three of one number and two of another ''.
Small Straight and Large Straight are sometimes called by different names, either Low Straight and High Straight, Short Straight and Long Straight or Little Straight and Big Straight.
If a category is chosen but the dice do not match the requirements of the category the player scores 0 in that category. Some combinations offer the player a choice as to which category to score them under; e.g., a full house could be scored in the Full House, the Three - Of - A-Kind, or the Chance categories. The Chance category is often used for a turn that will not score well in any other category.
A Yahtzee occurs when all five dice are the same. If a player throws a Yahtzee but the Yahtzee category has already been used, special rules apply.
If the player throws a Yahtzee and has already filled the Yahtzee box with a score of 50, they score a Yahtzee bonus and get an extra 100 points. However, if they throw a Yahtzee and have filled the Yahtzee category with a score of 0, they do not get a Yahtzee bonus.
In either case they then select a category, as usual. Scoring is the same as normal except that, if the Upper Section box corresponding to the Yahtzee has been used, the Full House, Small Straight and Large Straight categories can be used to score 25, 30 or 40 (respectively) even though the dice do not meet the normal requirement for those categories. In this case the Yahtzee is said to act as a "Joker ''.
There are two alternative versions of the Joker rule used.
In the official rules the player must act in the following way.
In the simpler, alternative version of the Joker rule the player retains the free choice as to which category to use, but the Yahtzee can only be used as a Joker if the corresponding Upper Section box has been used. If the corresponding Upper Section box is unused the Yahtzee would score 0 if the Full House, Small Straight or Large Straight categories were chosen.
The original game rules released in 1956 contain a difference from the above rules. The booklet stated that additional Yahtzees must be used as Jokers in the Lower Section and did not allow for their use in the Upper Section. This rule was changed when the game was re-copyrighted in 1961.
The winner is the player with the highest total. The rules do not specify what happens in the event of a tie.
Dice shown in black are those kept from the previous roll.
Completed score card:
A detailed discussion of the optimal strategy is beyond the scope of this article but certain aspects can be considered here.
It is important to understand the probability of completing a Yahtzee. This depends on whether a particular Yahtzee is required or any Yahtzee.
The probability of completing a specific Yahtzee is shown in the following table.
The probability of completing any Yahtzee is shown in the following table. The strategy is to keep any Yahtzee, four - of - a-kind, three - of - a-kind or pair that is thrown and re-roll the others. With two pairs, either can be chosen.
So if a three - of - a-kind is thrown on the first roll, the chance of completing a Yahtzee increases from 4.60 % to 9.34 %.
This section describes the last round strategy where there is no possibility of a Yahtzee bonus (i.e. there is a score of 0 in the Yahtzee box). These are the simplest situations to analyse, although even at this late stage the strategy may vary depending on the game situation.
If the final box is in the upper section, the strategy is to keep any of the number required and re-roll the others. On average 2.11 of the number required will be gotten, scoring from 2.11 (for 1s) to 12.64 (for 6s). The distribution is as follows:
There are slightly different strategies depending on whether a player is simply just trying to get a three - of - a-kind or if they are trying to maximize their average score. Different strategies will also be required should a specific target be needed to achieve.
The strategy to maximize the chance of getting a three - of - a-kind involves keeping any three - of - a-kind that is rolled. If a three - of - a-kind is rolled then after the first throw the player should keep any other 5s and 6s, while after the second throw the player should keep any other 4s, 5s, and 6s. An example is with 22225 the player keeps 2225 and throws the other 2. If a three - of - a-kind is not rolled the player should keep any pair that is rolled and re-roll the other dice, with two pairs the player should keep the higher pair, and with no pair the player should keep the highest die. Following this strategy gives a 74.32 % chance of getting a three - of - a-kind.
This strategy does not maximize the average score since there are a few situations after the first throw, where it is better to keep other combinations. For instance after throwing 11166, keeping 11166 maximizes the chance of getting a three - of - a-kind (a guaranteed score of 15) but keeping 66 maximizes the expected average score (17.54), although it introduces a significant chance of scoring nothing. The situations where the strategy to maximize the average score differs are all after the first throw and are as follows: keep 33, 44, 55, 66 rather than 111 (or 11155, 11166), keep 4, 5 or 6 rather than 11, keep 5 or 6 rather than 22, keep 336 rather than 33. For example, with 22456 the player should keep 6 rather than 22 and with 33456 he should keep 336 not 33. If he follows the strategy to maximize the average score he will get a three - of - a-kind 71.51 % of the time and score an average of 15.19.
As with three - of - a-kind there are slightly different strategies depending on whether a player is simply trying to get a four - of - a-kind or he is trying to maximize his average score. Different strategies will also be required should he need to achieve a specific target.
The strategy to maximize his chance of getting a four - of - a-kind involves keeping any four - of - a-kind that he has. If he has a four - of - a-kind then after the first throw he will keep the other if it is a 5 and 6, while after the second throw he will keep it if it is a 4, 5 or 6. So that with 22223 he keeps 2222 and will throw the 3. If he does not have a four - of - a-kind, the player should keep any three - of - a-kind or pair that he has and re-roll the other dice. With two pairs he will keep the higher pair. With no pair he will keep the highest die. Following this strategy gives him a 29.08 % chance of getting a four - of - a-kind.
As with three - of - a-kind this strategy does not maximize the average score since there are a few situations after the first throw, where it is better to keep other combinations. For instance, after throwing 11166, keeping 111 maximizes the chance of getting a four - of - a-kind but keeping 66 maximizes the expected average score (6.20 rather than 4.18). The situations where the strategy to maximize the average score differs are all after the first throw and are as follows: keep 44, 55, 66 rather than 111, keep 4, 5 or 6 rather than 11, keep 6 rather than 22. Following the strategy to maximize the average score he will get a four - of - a-kind 27.74 % of the time and score an average of 5.61.
A player will keep a Yahtzee or Full House. A Yahtzee will score 25 under the Joker rule, even though it is not strictly a full house. he will keep any four - of - a-kind, three - of - a-kind or pairs that are thrown and re-roll the others. With two pairs he will keep both. On average he will succeed 36.61 % of the time and score an average of 9.15.
The strategy is complicated by the fact that, because of the Joker rule, the player will score 30 if he gets a Yahtzee. Clearly he keeps any Small Straight or Yahtzee that he throws. After the first throw he will keep a run of 3 or 3 out of 4 (e.g. 124) if he has one. Otherwise he will keep a 3 or 4 (or both) and a 2 or 5 if he also has a 3 or 4 (e.g. with 11245 he will keep 24 but with 11255 he will keep nothing). He will not keep just 2, 5 or 25. The only difference after the second throw is that he keeps 1111, 2222, 5555 and 6666 and will try to throw a Yahtzee unless the other die is a 3 or 4.
On average he will succeed 61.60 % of the time and score an average of 18.48.
Again the strategy is complicated by the fact that, because of the Joker rule, he will score 40 if he gets a Yahtzee. Clearly he will keep any Large Straight or Yahtzee that he throws. The best strategy is also to keep a four - of - a-kind and try to throw a Yahtzee, even after the first throw. The player should not keep a three - of - a-kind. Keep a small straight or 4 out of 5 (e.g. 1235) if he has one. Otherwise he should simply keep any 2, 3, 4 or 5 (just one of each), so that with 12256 he would keep 25.
On average he will succeed 26.53 % of the time and score an average of 10.61.
A player should keep any Yahtzee, four - of - a-kind, three - of - a-kind or pair that is thrown and re-roll the others. On average he will succeed 4.60 % of the time and score an average of 2.30.
To get the maximum average score the strategy is straightforward. After the first throw the player will keep any 5s and 6s. After the second throw he will keep any 4s, 5s, and 6s. On average he will score 23.33. Different strategies will be required when he needs to achieve a specific target.
The strategy for maximizing the expected score has been determined. The average score when using this strategy is 254.59. This average is based on calculations using the "free choice Joker rule ''.
It is important to note that the "Optimal '' strategy simply maximises the average score. It does not maximise the chances of winning a game. There are two main reasons for this.
Firstly, the Optimal strategy takes no account of any opponents. In normal gameplay a player will adjust their strategy depending on the scores of the other player or players.
Secondly, the Optimal strategy tends to give undue importance to Yahtzee bonuses. It is rare for a player without a Yahtzee bonus to beat a player with one. So, in normal gameplay, a players ' strategy is not significantly influenced by the value given for a Yahtzee bonus. Consider the situation where the Yahtzee bonus was worth a million rather than a hundred. It would not influence normal gameplay where the objective is to score more than the opponent. It would, however, affect the "Optimal '' strategy since scoring a million would have a dramatic effect on the average score. The "Optimal '' strategy would be dominated by the prospect of a Yahtzee bonus. Even with a Yahtzee bonus worth 100 the "Optimal '' strategy tends to give too much importance to Yahtzee bonuses.
Despite these limitations the "Optimal '' strategy does provide a useful guide as to the best strategy, especially in the early rounds. The "Optimal '' strategy for the first round is described in the next section. After the first round, the number of different games rapidly makes detailed analysis difficult but, in the early rounds, players generally simply adapt the first round strategy based on the boxes used. For instance if a player throws 15566 in the first round they will keep 66 but if the 6s box was used in the first round and they throw 15566 in the second round they will naturally keep 55 instead.
The following table shows the average score obtained using the Optimal strategy and the proportion of the time that zero is scored in a particular category:
The bonus is made in 68 % of games but in only 1 % of games does the player get exactly 3 - of - a-kind of each Upper Section category. In a further 5 % of games the player gets at least 3 - of - a-kind in each of these categories and 4 - of - a-kind in one or more of them. In the remaining 62 % of games, there is at least one category which scores a pair or less but the bonus is achieved by scoring one or more 4 - of - a-kind in the Upper Section. It is possible to calculate the maximum average score with different rules. When the rules are changed so that there is no Upper Section bonus the average score drops from 254.59 to 237.84, a reduction of 16.75. This compares with an average bonus score of 23.84 and shows that changes to the strategy to improve the chance of getting the bonus are to the detriment of the other scores; the average score in the other boxes drops by 7.09.
A Yahtzee is scored in about 34 % of games while a Yahtzee bonus is scored in about 8 % of games. A second Yahtzee bonus occurs about 1 % of the time while a third one is scored in about 0.1 % of games. The average number of Yahtzees thrown in a game is 0.46. This includes about 3 % of games where a Yahtzee is thrown after 0 has been scored in the Yahtzee box and although it does score something, it is not scored as a Yahtzee or Yahtzee bonus.
In about 3.7 % of games a Yahtzee is used as a Joker and scored on Full House, Small Straight or Large Straight. In most of these cases the Yahtzee box has a score of 50 and so the Yahtzee also counts as a Yahtzee bonus. In about a quarter of these cases the Yahtzee box has a score 0 and so there is no Yahtzee bonus.
Although the average score is 254.59 the Median score is 248 The Mode is 266 which occurs 1.26 % of the time. The 1st Percentile is 151 (i.e. 1 % of scores are 151 or less) while the 99th Percentile is 473 (i.e. 99 % of scores are 473 or less).
Source:
The strategy for the first round described here is based on that used by the "Optimal '' strategy. Sometimes there are two possible plays which are almost equally good. In these cases the simplest option is given, i.e. the one that follows the general rules.
Although there are 7776 different ways of throwing 5 dice, because the order of the dice is not important there are only 252 different combinations. To use the strategy described therefore requires knowing 756 different situations.
The general principle after the first and second throws is to keep the largest number of similar dice and rethrow the rest. When a player has a full house he will keep the three - of - a-kind. When you have two pairs keep the higher pair and rethrow the other three dice. If you have a large straight, keep it. If you have a small straight, keep it and re-roll the fifth die. If all the dice are different and there is no straight, keep just the 5. There are a number of exceptions to these rules. These exceptions are different for the second and third rolls.
Exceptions before the second roll:
So, before the second roll he will never keep two pairs, he will never keep a pair of 1s and he will never throw all the dice again.
Exceptions before the third roll:
So there are specific differences compared to the second roll. Now he will keep the Full House if the three - of - a-kind is 2 or 3 and keep two pairs when they are 1 and 2 or 1 and 3. He will Keep all large and small straights. He will Normally keep a pair of 1s (although 345 is still better) and keep 456 rather than 5 when all the dice are different.
In about 80 % of games a player will either have at least a 3 - of - a-kind or a straight. If he has any of the following he will put it in the appropriate Lower Section box: Yahtzee, full house, large straight, small straight. With a 4 - of - a-kind or 3 - of - a-kind he will put it in the appropriate Upper Section box. The only exception is that when he has a 3 - of - a-kind where the sum of the dice is 25 or more he should use the 3 - of - a-kind box. The 4 - of - a-kind box is never used in the first round.
In the remaining 20 % of cases he will have a poor hand: two pairs, one pair or all dice different. In these situations there is no appealing option, the choice being between using an Upper Section box and using Chance. With two pairs follow the rule for the lower of the two pairs he has. The rule depends on whether his pair (or smaller pair) is low (1, 2 or 3) or high (4, 5 or 6):
The best outcome in the first round is to throw a Yahtzee and put it in the Yahtzee box. This increases the final expected score from 254.59 to 320.84. Putting a Yahtzee of 6s in the 6s box results in an expected score of just 279.48. The second best outcome is to score 24 in the 6s box. This has a value of 268.23. Putting 56666 in the 4 - of - a-kind box has a value of 264.54.
The worst first roll is 11236 which has a value of 249.83. After the second roll the worst position is 12356 which then has a value of 244.91. The worst third roll is 23446 which has a value of 238.96 when put in the Chance box.
The highest possible score is 1,575 and involves throwing 13 Yahtzees, scoring 12 Yahtzee bonuses of 100 points each, as well as 375 in the other categories.
The 375 is achieved by scoring five aces (5), five twos (10), five threes (15), five fours (20), five fives (25), five sixes (30), the Upper Section bonus (35), five sixes scored as Three - of - a-kind (30), five sixes scored as a Four - of - a-kind (30), a Full House (25), a Small Straight (30), a Large Straight (40), a Yahtzee (50), and five sixes scored as Chance (30). The score of 1,575 requires using the "Joker '' rules for the Full House, Small Straight and Large Straight categories.
In order to score 1,575 the player must throw 13 successive Yahtzees. The probability of getting a Yahtzee, if that is your sole objective, is 4.60 % and so the probability of a player rolling 13 Yahtzees in a row (if that was their sole objective) is 4.60 % raised to the 13th power or 6982416000000000000 ♠ 4.16 × 10. The probability of scoring 1,575 (if that was your sole objective) is less than this since to score the maximum you would need at least one of each number (after the first round) to fill the Upper Section and a further three 6 Yahtzees to score 30 in the Three - of - a-kind, Four - of - a-kind and Chance categories. In about 18 % of Yahtzees the player has some choice over the dice to keep. This most frequently happens when a player rolls two pairs. This means that a player can slightly increase the chance of getting a 6 Yahtzee without reducing the chance of getting a Yahtzee.
In normal gameplay the probability of scoring 1,575 is considerably less. Using the strategy that maximizes the average score, the probability of scoring 1,575 is 6980137999999999999 ♠ 1.38 × 10.
For a player following the strategy which maximises the chance of getting a Yahtzee, the probability of scoring a particular number of Yahtzees follows a binomial distribution and is shown in the following table.
A player must throw at least 8 Yahtzees in order to score 1000. Throwing 8 Yahtzees will score 750 for the Yahtzee and Yahtzee bonuses. The 7 Yahtzees after the first throw will generally score highly, including the opportunity of using the Joker rule to score in, for instance, the Large Straight category. This means that a player throwing 8 Yahtzees will often be able to score 1,000.
In normal gameplay the probability of scoring this number of Yahtzees is considerably less. The following table shows the probability of getting certain scores using the "Optimal '' strategy.
The lowest possible score is 5. The Chance box always scores the sum of the dice, so that a minimum of 5 must be scored in that category.
The strategy that works to maximize the average expected score will under worst case conditions score a minimum of 12 points, but cautious play will guarantee a minimum score of 18.
A score of 18 will be achieved if 11223 is thrown each round and then, whatever is re-thrown, getting 11223 again after the second and third throws, scoring 2 in the 1s box, 4 in the 2s box, 3 in the 3s box and 9 for the Chance category.
Scoring the minimum of 12, when attempting to maximise the average score, is less likely than scoring the maximum of 1,575 but is theoretically possible. Suppose that in the first two rounds 12355 after each roll. This would happen if a 12355 is thrown on the first roll and then, whatever dice are re-thrown, getting the same combination again; for instance, keeping 55, rethrowing the 123, and still get 12355. The optimal strategy will use the 1s box in the first round, scoring 1, and the 2s box in the second round, scoring 2. Now suppose that for the next 3 rounds you have 11226 after each roll. Again this is possible since you may throw 11226 on the first roll and then get the same when you re-throw some of dice. The optimal strategy will use the four - of - a-kind and Yahtzees boxes in the third and fourth rounds and then the 3s box in the fifth round, scoring 0 each time. For the last 8 rounds suppose you have 11223 after each roll. You will score 0 in all the remaining categories except Chance where you will score 9, giving a total of 12.
Deluxe edition games have been sold alongside the regular issue games since the early 1960s. They all contain components that are more luxurious than standard game parts. In recent years, a number of collector issue Yahtzees have been sold as well. Some of these collector issues have dice that replace the pips with certain symbols connected to a theme, but still correspond to the numbers one to six.
Since the 1970s, Travel Yahtzee has been sold in various forms as part of Milton Bradley 's line of travel games.
Various Yahtzee console games have been sold over the years including an early version on the TI - 99 4A computer. In 1996, the game was first released to PC and Mac users by Atari. The Ultimate Yahtzee CD - ROM game contained standard Yahtzee as well as other varieties. Later, GameHouse also released an authorized special version of the game for Windows users.
There are also several electronic versions of the game such as a handheld LCD version, and a cell phone version called Yahtzee Deluxe, which feature the original rules along with Duplicate and Rainbow modes, as well as independently produced versions for the Palm OS and Pocket PC and several cellphone models. The version for the Nintendo Game Boy was licensed from Hasbro and was produced by DSI Games and Black Lantern Studios Inc. It was sold in a three pack that included Life, Payday, and Yahtzee. The game has also been released for the iPod, iPod touch and the iPhone, to be purchased through the iTunes Store, as well as Google Play. Both the iOS App and the Android App are published by Scopely. Yahtzee is available on the Xbox 360 in the Family Game Night game by Hasbro. Pogo.com released a version in 2009, and the game is also available on the Pogo Facebook site as well.
A number of related games under the Yahtzee brand have been produced. They all commonly use dice as the primary tool for gameplay, but all differ generally. The first was Triple Yahtzee, developed in 1972. The game has inspired two short - lived television game shows: 1975 's Spin - Off on CBS and 1988 's syndicated Yahtzee.
There are a large number of versions of Yahtzee which can be played online or are available to download.
There are a large number of related games. Yatzy is one of the most popular. Yatzy rules and scoring categories are somewhat different from Yahtzee:
Other related games include:
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these two major canadian cities are not provincial capitals | List of cities in Canada - wikipedia
This is a list of incorporated cities in Canada, in alphabetical order categorized by province or territory. More thorough lists of communities are available for each province.
To qualify as a city in Alberta, a sufficient population size (10,000 people or more) must be present and a majority of the buildings must be on parcels of land smaller than 7003185000000000000 ♠ 1,850 square metres. A community is not always incorporated as a city even if it meets these requirements. The urban service areas of Fort McMurray and Sherwood Park are hamlets recognized as equivalents of cities, but remain unincorporated. Nine towns are also eligible for city status but remain incorporated as towns.
Alberta has 18 cities. Chestermere is Alberta 's newest city, incorporating from town status on January 1, 2015.
Notes:
In British Columbia, a community can be incorporated as a city if its population exceeds 5,000. Once so incorporated, a city does not lose this status even if its population later declines; the once - larger City of Greenwood, for example, now has a population of just 665 people. (1)
British Columbia has 50 cities.
Notes:
A community in Manitoba may seek city status once reaching a population of 7,500. Manitoba 's newest city is Morden, which changed from town to city status on August 24, 2012.
Manitoba has 10 cities.
Notes:
New Brunswick has eight cities.
Notes:
Newfoundland and Labrador has three cities.
Notes:
As in the other two Canadian territories, the only incorporated city in the Northwest Territories is its capital, Yellowknife.
Nova Scotia no longer has any incorporated cities, as they were amalgamated into regional municipalities in the 1990s.
As in the other two Canadian territories, the only incorporated city in Nunavut is its capital, Iqaluit.
In Ontario, city status is conferred by the provincial government, generally upon the request of the incorporated municipality. A municipality may apply for city status anytime after its population surpasses 10,000. This status is not automatically conferred on a community that reaches this population target, but must be requested by the municipality and granted by the provincial Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing. Not all municipalities which reach this population target have pursued city designation. For example, Ajax, Oakville, Richmond Hill and Whitby, which all had populations greater than 100,000 in 2011, are still designated as towns. Once designated a city, however, a municipality does not lose this status even if its population later falls back below 10,000 (as, for example, Dryden). Ontario 's newest city is Markham, which changed from town to city status on July 1, 2012.
Ontario has 51 cities.
Notes:
Prince Edward Island has two cities.
Notes:
In Quebec, provincial law does not currently distinguish between towns and cities -- one designation, ville, covers both types of communities regardless of size. A ville might be informally referred to as a town or a city in English, but this is an arbitrary and subjective distinction. Quebec does, however, distinguish between villes and municipalités.
Quebec has 222 villes.
Notes: < references group
In Saskatchewan, Section 39 (1) of The Cities Act indicates a town must have a population of 5,000 or more and meet other criteria in order to incorporate as a city, although in the early 20th century several centres such as Saskatoon and Regina were granted city status despite having a smaller population. The City of Melville retains its city status despite dropping below 5,000 people in the 1990s. Kindersley has expressed an interest in applying for city status upon reaching the 5,000 milestone. Saskatchewan 's newest city is Warman, which changed from town to city status on October 24, 2012.
Saskatchewan has 16 cities.
Notes:
As in the other two Canadian territories, the only incorporated city in the Yukon is its capital, Whitehorse. Dawson was also previously incorporated as a city, but when the criteria were changed in the 1980s, its status was reduced to that of a town due to population. Through special provision, however, it is officially the town of the city of Dawson.
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how many trophies have liverpool won in total | Liverpool F.C. - Wikipedia
Liverpool Football Club (/ ˈlɪvərpuːl /) is a professional association football club based in Liverpool, Merseyside, England. They compete in the Premier League, the top tier of English football. The club has won an English record 5 European Cups, 3 UEFA Cups, 3 UEFA Super Cups, 18 League titles, 7 FA Cups, a record 8 League Cups, and 15 FA Community Shields.
The club was founded in 1892 and joined the Football League the following year. The club has played at Anfield since its formation. Liverpool established itself as a major force in both English and European football during the 1970s and 1980s when Bill Shankly and Bob Paisley led the club to 11 League titles and seven European trophies. Under the management of Rafa Benítez and captained by Steven Gerrard Liverpool became European champion for the fifth time, winning the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final against Milan in spite of being 3 -- 0 down at half time.
Liverpool was the ninth highest - earning football club in the world for 2015 -- 16, with an annual revenue of € 403.8 million, and the world 's eighth most valuable football club in 2017, valued at $1.492 billion. The club holds many long - standing rivalries, most notably the North West Derby against Manchester United and the Merseyside derby with Everton.
The club 's supporters have been involved in two major tragedies. The first was the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985, where escaping fans were pressed against a collapsing wall in the Heysel Stadium, with 39 people -- mostly Italians and Juventus fans -- dying, after which English clubs were given a five - year ban from European competition. The second was the Hillsborough disaster in 1989, where 96 Liverpool supporters died in a crush against perimeter fencing.
The team changed from red shirts and white shorts to an all - red home strip in 1964 which has been used ever since. The club 's anthem is "You 'll Never Walk Alone ''.
Liverpool F.C. was founded following a dispute between the Everton committee and John Houlding, club president and owner of the land at Anfield. After eight years at the stadium, Everton relocated to Goodison Park in 1892 and Houlding founded Liverpool F.C. to play at Anfield. Originally named "Everton F.C. and Athletic Grounds Ltd '' (Everton Athletic for short), the club became Liverpool F.C. in March 1892 and gained official recognition three months later, after The Football Association refused to recognise the club as Everton. The team won the Lancashire League in its début season, and joined the Football League Second Division at the start of the 1893 -- 94 season. After finishing in first place the club was promoted to the First Division, which it won in 1901 and again in 1906.
Liverpool reached its first FA Cup Final in 1914, losing 1 -- 0 to Burnley. It won consecutive League championships in 1922 and 1923, but did not win another trophy until the 1946 -- 47 season, when the club won the First Division for a fifth time under the control of ex-West Ham Utd centre half George Kay. Liverpool suffered its second Cup Final defeat in 1950, playing against Arsenal. The club was relegated to the Second Division in the 1953 -- 54 season. Soon after Liverpool lost 2 -- 1 to non-league Worcester City in the 1958 -- 59 FA Cup, Bill Shankly was appointed manager. Upon his arrival he released 24 players and converted a boot storage room at Anfield into a room where the coaches could discuss strategy; here, Shankly and other "Boot Room '' members Joe Fagan, Reuben Bennett, and Bob Paisley began reshaping the team.
The club was promoted back into the First Division in 1962 and won it in 1964, for the first time in 17 years. In 1965, the club won its first FA Cup. In 1966, the club won the First Division but lost to Borussia Dortmund in the European Cup Winners ' Cup final. Liverpool won both the League and the UEFA Cup during the 1972 -- 73 season, and the FA Cup again a year later. Shankly retired soon afterwards and was replaced by his assistant, Bob Paisley. In 1976, Paisley 's second season as manager, the club won another League and UEFA Cup double. The following season, the club retained the League title and won the European Cup for the first time, but it lost in the 1977 FA Cup Final. Liverpool retained the European Cup in 1978 and regained the First Division title in 1979. During Paisley 's nine seasons as manager Liverpool won 21 trophies, including three European Cups, a UEFA Cup, six League titles and three consecutive League Cups; the only domestic trophy he did not win was the FA Cup.
Paisley retired in 1983 and was replaced by his assistant, Joe Fagan. Liverpool won the League, League Cup and European Cup in Fagan 's first season, becoming the first English side to win three trophies in a season. Liverpool reached the European Cup final again in 1985, against Juventus at the Heysel Stadium. Before kick - off, Liverpool fans breached a fence which separated the two groups of supporters, and charged the Juventus fans. The resulting weight of people caused a retaining wall to collapse, killing 39 fans, mostly Italians. The incident became known as the Heysel Stadium disaster. The match was played in spite of protests by both managers, and Liverpool lost 1 -- 0 to Juventus. As a result of the tragedy, English clubs were banned from participating in European competition for five years; Liverpool received a ten - year ban, which was later reduced to six years. Fourteen Liverpool fans received convictions for involuntary manslaughter.
Fagan had announced his retirement just before the disaster and Kenny Dalglish was appointed as player - manager. During his tenure, the club won another three League Championships and two FA Cups, including a League and Cup "Double '' in the 1985 -- 86 season. Liverpool 's success was overshadowed by the Hillsborough disaster: in an FA Cup semi-final against Nottingham Forest on 15 April 1989, hundreds of Liverpool fans were crushed against perimeter fencing. Ninety - four fans died that day; the 95th victim died in hospital from his injuries four days later and the 96th died nearly four years later, without regaining consciousness. After the Hillsborough disaster there was a government review of stadium safety. The resulting Taylor Report paved the way for legislation that required top - division teams to have all - seater stadiums. The report ruled that the main reason for the disaster was overcrowding due to a failure of police control.
Liverpool was involved in the closest finish to a league season during the 1988 -- 89 season. Liverpool finished equal with Arsenal on both points and goal difference, but lost the title on total goals scored when Arsenal scored the final goal in the last minute of the season.
Dalglish cited the Hillsborough disaster and its repercussions as the reason for his resignation in 1991; he was replaced by former player Graeme Souness. Under his leadership Liverpool won the 1992 FA Cup Final, but their league performances slumped, with two consecutive sixth - place finishes, eventually resulting in his dismissal in January 1994. Souness was replaced by Roy Evans, and Liverpool went on to win the 1995 Football League Cup Final. While they made some title challenges under Evans, third - place finishes in 1996 and 1998 were the best they could manage, and so Gérard Houllier was appointed co-manager in the 1998 -- 99 season, and became the sole manager in November 1998 after Evans resigned. In 2001, Houllier 's second full season in charge, Liverpool won a "Treble '': the FA Cup, League Cup and UEFA Cup. Houllier underwent major heart surgery during the 2001 -- 02 season and Liverpool finished second in the League, behind Arsenal. They won a further League Cup in 2003, but failed to mount a title challenge in the two seasons that followed.
Houllier was replaced by Rafael Benítez at the end of the 2003 -- 04 season. Despite finishing fifth in Benítez 's first season, Liverpool won the 2004 -- 05 UEFA Champions League, beating A.C. Milan 3 -- 2 in a penalty shootout after the match ended with a score of 3 -- 3. The following season, Liverpool finished third in the Premier League and won the 2006 FA Cup Final, beating West Ham United in a penalty shootout after the match finished 3 -- 3. American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks became the owners of the club during the 2006 -- 07 season, in a deal which valued the club and its outstanding debts at £ 218.9 million. The club reached the 2007 UEFA Champions League Final against Milan, as it had in 2005, but lost 2 -- 1. During the 2008 -- 09 season Liverpool achieved 86 points, its highest Premier League points total, and finished as runners up to Manchester United.
In the 2009 -- 10 season, Liverpool finished seventh in the Premier League and failed to qualify for the Champions League. Benítez subsequently left by mutual consent and was replaced by Fulham manager Roy Hodgson. At the start of the 2010 -- 11 season Liverpool was on the verge of bankruptcy and the club 's creditors asked the High Court to allow the sale of the club, overruling the wishes of Hicks and Gillett. John W. Henry, owner of the Boston Red Sox and of Fenway Sports Group, bid successfully for the club and took ownership in October 2010. Poor results during the start of that season led to Hodgson leaving the club by mutual consent and former player and manager Kenny Dalglish taking over. In the 2011 -- 12 season, Liverpool secured a record 8th League Cup success and reached the FA Cup final, but finished in eighth position, the worst league finish in 18 years; this led to the sacking of Dalglish. He was replaced by Brendan Rodgers, whose Liverpool team in the 2013 -- 14 season mounted an unexpected title charge to finish second behind champions Manchester City and subsequently return to the Champions League, scoring 101 goals in the process, the most since the 106 scored in the 1895 -- 96 season. Following a disappointing 2014 -- 15 season, where Liverpool finished sixth in the league, and a poor start to the following campaign, Rodgers was sacked in October 2015. He was replaced by Jürgen Klopp, who in his first season at Liverpool, took the club to the finals of both the Football League Cup and UEFA Europa League, finishing as runner - up in both competitions.
For much of Liverpool 's history its home colours have been all red, but when the club was founded its kit was more like the contemporary Everton kit. The blue and white quartered shirts were used until 1894, when the club adopted the city 's colour of red. The city 's symbol of the liver bird was adopted as the club 's badge in 1901, although it was not incorporated into the kit until 1955. Liverpool continued to wear red shirts and white shorts until 1964, when manager Bill Shankly decided to change to an all red strip. Liverpool played in all red for the first time against Anderlecht, as Ian St. John recalled in his autobiography:
He (Shankly) thought the colour scheme would carry psychological impact -- red for danger, red for power. He came into the dressing room one day and threw a pair of red shorts to Ronnie Yeats. "Get into those shorts and let 's see how you look '', he said. "Christ, Ronnie, you look awesome, terrifying. You look 7ft tall. '' "Why not go the whole hog, boss? '' I suggested. "Why not wear red socks? Let 's go out all in red. '' Shankly approved and an iconic kit was born.
The Liverpool away strip has more often than not been all yellow or white shirts and black shorts, but there have been several exceptions. An all grey kit was introduced in 1987, which was used until the 1991 -- 92 centenary season, when it was replaced by a combination of green shirts and white shorts. After various colour combinations in the 1990s, including gold and navy, bright yellow, black and grey, and ecru, the club alternated between yellow and white away kits until the 2008 -- 09 season, when it re-introduced the grey kit. A third kit is designed for European away matches, though it is also worn in domestic away matches on occasions when the current away kit clashes with a team 's home kit. Between 2012 -- 15, the kits were designed by Warrior Sports, who became the club 's kit providers at the start of the 2012 -- 13 season. In February 2015, Warrior 's parent company New Balance announced it would be entering the global football market, with teams sponsored by Warrior now being outfitted by New Balance. The only other branded shirts worn by the club were made by Umbro until 1985, when they were replaced by Adidas, who produced the kits until 1996 when Reebok took over. They produced the kits for ten years before Adidas made the kits from 2006 to 2012.
Liverpool was the first English professional club to have a sponsor 's logo on its shirts, after agreeing a deal with Hitachi in 1979. Since then the club has been sponsored by Crown Paints, Candy, Carlsberg and Standard Chartered Bank. The contract with Carlsberg, which was signed in 1992, was the longest - lasting agreement in English top - flight football. The association with Carlsberg ended at the start of the 2010 -- 11 season, when Standard Chartered Bank became the club 's sponsor.
The Liverpool badge is based on the city 's liver bird, which in the past had been placed inside a shield. In 1992, to commemorate the centennial of the club, a new badge was commissioned, including a representation of the Shankly Gates. The next year twin flames were added at either side, symbolic of the Hillsborough memorial outside Anfield, where an eternal flame burns in memory of those who died in the Hillsborough disaster. In 2012, Warrior Sports ' first Liverpool kit removed the shield and gates, returning the badge to what had adorned Liverpool shirts in the 1970s; the flames were moved to the back collar of the shirt, surrounding the number 96 for the number who died at Hillsborough.
Anfield was built in 1884 on land adjacent to Stanley Park. It was originally used by Everton before the club moved to Goodison Park after a dispute over rent with Anfield owner John Houlding. Left with an empty ground, Houlding founded Liverpool in 1892 and the club has played at Anfield ever since. The capacity of the stadium at the time was 20,000, although only 100 spectators attended Liverpool 's first match at Anfield.
The Kop was built in 1906 due to the high turnout for matches and was called the Oakfield Road Embankment initially. Its first game was on 1 September 1906 when the home side beat Stoke City 1 -- 0. In 1906 the banked stand at one end of the ground was formally renamed the Spion Kop after a hill in KwaZulu - Natal. The hill was the site of the Battle of Spion Kop in the Second Boer War, where over 300 men of the Lancashire Regiment died, many of them from Liverpool. At its peak, the stand could hold 28,000 spectators and was one of the largest single - tier stands in the world. Many stadia in England had stands named after Spion Kop, but Anfield 's was the largest of them at the time; it could hold more supportersc than some entire football grounds.
Anfield could accommodate more than 60,000 supporters at its peak, and had a capacity of 55,000 until the 1990s. The Taylor Report and Premier League regulations obliged Liverpool to convert Anfield to an all - seater stadium in time for the 1993 -- 94 season, reducing the capacity to 45,276. The findings of the Taylor Report precipitated the redevelopment of the Kemlyn Road Stand, which was rebuilt in 1992, coinciding with the centenary of the club, and was known as the Centenary Stand until 2017 when it was renamed the Kenny Dalglish Stand. An extra tier was added to the Anfield Road end in 1998, which further increased the capacity of the ground but gave rise to problems when it was opened. A series of support poles and stanchions were inserted to give extra stability to the top tier of the stand after movement of the tier was reported at the start of the 1999 -- 2000 season.
Because of restrictions on expanding the capacity at Anfield, Liverpool announced plans to move to the proposed Stanley Park Stadium in May 2002. Planning permission was granted in July 2004, and in September 2006, Liverpool City Council agreed to grant Liverpool a 999 - year lease on the proposed site. Following the takeover of the club by George Gillett and Tom Hicks in February 2007, the proposed stadium was redesigned. The new design was approved by the Council in November 2007. The stadium was scheduled to open in August 2011 and would hold 60,000 spectators, with HKS, Inc. contracted to build the stadium. Construction was halted in August 2008, as Gillett and Hicks had difficulty in financing the £ 300 million needed for the development. In October 2012, BBC Sport reported that Fenway Sports Group, the new owners of Liverpool FC, had decided to redevelop their current home at Anfield stadium, rather than building a new stadium in Stanley Park. As part of the redevelopment the capacity of Anfield was to increase from 45,276 to approximately 60,000 and would cost approximately £ 150m. When construction was completed on the new Main stand the capacity of Anfield was increased to 54,074. This £ 100 million expansion added a third tier to the stand. This was all part of a £ 260 million project to improve the Anfield area. Jurgen Klopp the manager at the time described the stand as "impressive. ''
Liverpool is one of the best supported clubs in Europe. The club states that its worldwide fan base includes more than 200 officially recognised Club of the LFC Official Supporters Clubs in at least 50 countries. Notable groups include Spirit of Shankly and Reclaim The Kop. The club takes advantage of this support through its worldwide summer tours. Liverpool fans often refer to themselves as Kopites, a reference to the fans who once stood, and now sit, on the Kop at Anfield. In 2008 a group of fans decided to form a splinter club, A.F.C. Liverpool, to play matches for fans who had been priced out of watching Premier League football.
The song "You 'll Never Walk Alone '', originally from the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Carousel and later recorded by Liverpool musicians Gerry & The Pacemakers, is the club 's anthem and has been sung by the Anfield crowd since the early 1960s. It has since gained popularity among fans of other clubs around the world. The song 's title adorns the top of the Shankly Gates, which were unveiled on 2 August 1982 in memory of former manager Bill Shankly. The "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' portion of the Shankly Gates is also reproduced on the club 's crest.
The club 's supporters have been involved in two stadium disasters. The first was the 1985 Heysel Stadium disaster, in which 39 Juventus supporters were killed. They were confined to a corner by Liverpool fans who had charged in their direction; the weight of the cornered fans caused a wall to collapse. UEFA laid the blame for the incident solely on the Liverpool supporters, and banned all English clubs from European competition for five years. Liverpool was banned for an additional year, preventing it from participating in the 1990 -- 91 European Cup, even though it won the League in 1990. Twenty - seven fans were arrested on suspicion of manslaughter and were extradited to Belgium in 1987 to face trial. In 1989, after a five - month trial in Belgium, 14 Liverpool fans were given three - year sentences for involuntary manslaughter; half of the terms were suspended.
The second disaster took place during an FA Cup semi-final between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest at Hillsborough Stadium, Sheffield, on 15 April 1989. Ninety - six Liverpool fans died as a consequence of overcrowding at the Leppings Lane end, in what became known as the Hillsborough disaster. In the following days The Sun newspaper published an article entitled "The Truth '', in which it claimed that Liverpool fans had robbed the dead and had urinated on and attacked the police. Subsequent investigations proved the allegations false, leading to a boycott of the newspaper by Liverpool fans across the city and elsewhere; many still refuse to buy The Sun more than 20 years later. Many support organisations were set up in the wake of the disaster, such as the Hillsborough Justice Campaign, which represents bereaved families, survivors and supporters in their efforts to secure justice.
Liverpool 's longest - established rivalry is with fellow Merseyside and Liverpool - based team Everton, against whom the club contest the Merseyside derby. Their rivalry stems from Liverpool 's formation and the dispute with Everton officials and the then owners of Anfield. Unlike other rivalries, there is no political, geographical or religious split between Liverpool and Everton. The Merseyside derby is usually sold out. It is one of the few local derbies which do not enforce fan segregation, and hence was known as the "friendly derby ''. Since the mid-1980s, the rivalry has intensified both on and off the field and, since the inception of the Premier League in 1992, the Merseyside derby has had more players sent off than any other Premier League game. It has been referred to as "the most ill - disciplined and explosive fixture in the Premier League ''.
Liverpool 's rivalry with Manchester United is viewed as a manifestation of the cities ' competition during the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century. The two clubs alternated as champions between 1964 and 1967, and Manchester United became the first English team to win the European Cup in 1968, followed by Liverpool 's four European Cup victories. Despite the 38 league titles and eight European Cups between them the two rivals have rarely been successful at the same time -- Liverpool 's run of titles in the 1970s and 1980s coincided with Manchester United 's 26 - year title drought, and United 's success in the Premier League - era has likewise coincided with Liverpool 's ongoing drought, and the two clubs have finished first and second in the league only five times. Nonetheless, former Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson said in 2002, "My greatest challenge was knocking Liverpool right off their fucking perch '', and the last player to be transferred between the two clubs was Phil Chisnall, who moved to Liverpool from Manchester United in 1964.
As the owner of Anfield and founder of Liverpool, John Houlding was the club 's first chairman, a position he held from its founding in 1892 until 1904. John McKenna took over as chairman after Houlding 's departure. McKenna subsequently became President of the Football League. The chairmanship changed hands many times before John Smith, whose father was a shareholder of the club, took up the role in 1973. He oversaw the most successful period in Liverpool 's history before stepping down in 1990. His successor was Noel White who became chairman in 1990 In August 1991 David Moores, whose family had owned the club for more than 50 years became chairman. His uncle John Moores was also a shareholder at Liverpool and was chairman of Everton from 1961 to 1973. Moores owned 51 percent of the club, and in 2004 expressed his willingness to consider a bid for his shares in Liverpool.
Moores eventually sold the club to American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks on 6 February 2007. The deal valued the club and its outstanding debts at £ 218.9 million. The pair paid £ 5,000 per share, or £ 174.1 m for the total shareholding and £ 44.8 m to cover the club 's debts. Disagreements between Gillett and Hicks, and the fans ' lack of support for them, resulted in the pair looking to sell the club. Martin Broughton was appointed chairman of the club on 16 April 2010 to oversee its sale. In May 2010, accounts were released showing the holding company of the club to be £ 350m in debt (due to leveraged takeover) with losses of £ 55m, causing auditor KPMG to qualify its audit opinion. The group 's creditors, including the Royal Bank of Scotland, took Gillett and Hicks to court to force them to allow the board to proceed with the sale of the club, the major asset of the holding company. A High Court judge, Mr Justice Floyd, ruled in favour of the creditors and paved the way for the sale of the club to Fenway Sports Group (formerly New England Sports Ventures), although Gillett and Hicks still had the option to appeal. Liverpool was sold to Fenway Sports Group on 15 October 2010 for £ 300m.
Liverpool has been described as a global brand; a 2010 report valued the club 's trademarks and associated intellectual property at £ 141m, an increase of £ 5m on the previous year. Liverpool was given a brand rating of AA (Very Strong). In April 2010 business magazine Forbes ranked Liverpool as the sixth most valuable football team in the world, behind Manchester United, Real Madrid, Arsenal, Barcelona and Bayern Munich; they valued the club at $822 m (£ 532m), excluding debt. Accountants Deloitte ranked Liverpool eighth in the Deloitte Football Money League, which ranks the world 's football clubs in terms of revenue. Liverpool 's income in the 2009 -- 10 season was € 225.3 m.
Because of its successful history, Liverpool is often featured when football is depicted in British culture and has appeared in a number of media firsts. The club appeared in the first edition of the BBC 's Match of the Day, which screened highlights of its match against Arsenal at Anfield on 22 August 1964. The first football match to be televised in colour was between Liverpool and West Ham United, broadcast live in March 1967. Liverpool fans featured in the Pink Floyd song "Fearless '', in which they sang excerpts from "You 'll Never Walk Alone ''. To mark the club 's appearance in the 1988 FA Cup Final, Liverpool released a song known as the "Anfield Rap '', featuring John Barnes and other members of the squad.
A documentary drama on the Hillsborough disaster, written by Jimmy McGovern, was screened in 1996. It featured Christopher Eccleston as Trevor Hicks, whose story is the focus of the script. Hicks, who lost two teenage daughters in the disaster, went on to campaign for safer stadiums and helped to form the Hillsborough Families Support Group. Liverpool featured in the film The 51st State (also known as Formula 51), in which ex-hitman Felix DeSouza (Robert Carlyle) is a keen supporter of the team and the last scene takes place at a match between Liverpool and Manchester United. The club was featured in a children 's television show called Scully; the plot revolved around a young boy, Francis Scully, who tried to gain a trial match with Liverpool. The show featured prominent Liverpool players of the time such as Kenny Dalglish.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Since the establishment of the club in 1892, 45 players have been club captain of Liverpool F.C. Andrew Hannah became the first captain of the club after Liverpool separated from Everton and formed its own club. Initially Alex Raisbeck, who was club captain from 1899 to 1909, was the longest serving captain before being overtaken by Steven Gerrard who served 12 seasons as Liverpool captain starting from the 2003 -- 04 season. The present captain is Jordan Henderson, who replaced Gerrard in the 2015 -- 16 season following Gerrard 's move to LA Galaxy.
Liverpool 's first trophy was the Lancashire League, which it won in the club 's first season. In 1901, the club won its first League title, while its first success in the FA Cup was in 1965. In terms of the number of trophies won, Liverpool 's most successful decade was the 1980s, when the club won six League titles, two FA Cups, four League Cups, five Charity Shields (one shared) and two European Cups.
The club has accumulated more top - flight wins and points than any other English team. Liverpool also has the highest average league finishing position (3.3) for the 50 - year period to 2015 and second - highest average league finishing position for the period 1900 -- 1999 after Arsenal, with an average league placing of 8.7. Liverpool has won the European Cup, Europe 's premier club competition, five times, an English record and only surpassed by Real Madrid and A.C. Milan. Liverpool 's fifth European Cup win, in 2005, meant that the club was awarded the trophy permanently and was also awarded a multiple - winner badge. Liverpool has won the UEFA Cup, Europe 's secondary club competition, three times.
Especially short competitions, such as the FA Community Shield and the UEFA Super Cup, are not generally considered to contribute towards a Double or Treble.
Footnotes
Citations
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who sang the original try a little tenderness | Try a Little Tenderness - wikipedia
"Try a Little Tenderness '' is a song written by Jimmy Campbell, Reg Connelly and Harry M. Woods. It was first recorded on December 8, 1932, by the Ray Noble Orchestra (with vocals by Val Rosing). Ted Lewis (Columbia 2748 D) and Ruth Etting (Melotone 12625) had hits with it in 1933. Bing Crosby also recorded it on January 9, 1933 for Brunswick Records.
A strings - heavy instrumental version plays over the opening credits of the 1964 Stanley Kubrick film Dr. Strangelove.
A popular version in an entirely new form was recorded by soul artist Otis Redding in 1966. Redding was backed on his version by Booker T. & the M.G. 's, and Stax staff producer Isaac Hayes worked on the arrangement. Redding 's recording features a slow, soulful opening that eventually builds into a frenetic R&B conclusion, incorporating elements from the Duke Ellington -- Lee Gaines song "Just Squeeze Me (But Please Do n't Tease Me) '' as well as the words "Sock it to me ''. This version peaked at # 25 on the Billboard Hot 100. It has been named on a number of "best songs of all time '' lists, including those from the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. It is in the 204th position on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 greatest songs of all time. A live version performed in 1967 at the Monterey International Pop Festival was also recorded.
This version was heavily influential in the 1991 Irish movie The Commitments, at one point the band performing the song in the style of Otis Redding. It was also heavily sampled in the song "Otis '', recorded by rappers Jay - Z and Kanye West, from their album Watch the Throne.
In DTV, it was set to Cinderella.
Three Dog Night released a version of the song, which peaked at # 29 on the Billboard Top 100 in 1969. It is a copy of Redding 's interpretation of the song, including the coda that was added in Redding 's version.
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american film institute's list of the 10 greatest films in the genre western | AFI 's 10 Top 10 - wikipedia
AFI 's 10 Top 10 honors the ten greatest US films in ten classic film genres. Presented by the American Film Institute (AFI), the lists were unveiled on a television special broadcast by CBS on June 17, 2008. In the special, various actors and directors, among them Clint Eastwood, Quentin Tarantino, Kirk Douglas, Harrison Ford, Martin Scorsese, Steven Spielberg, George Lucas, Roman Polanski, and Jane Fonda, discussed their admiration for and personal contributions to the films cited.
The entire list of 500 nominated films is available on the American Film Institute website.
AFI defines "animated '' as a genre in which the film 's images are primarily created by computer or hand and the characters are voiced by actors.
AFI defines "courtroom drama '' as a genre of film in which a system of justice plays a critical role in the film 's narrative.
AFI defines "epic '' as a genre of large - scale films set in a cinematic interpretation of the past.
AFI defines "fantasy '' as a genre in which live - action characters inhabit imagined settings and / or experience situations that transcend the rules of the natural world.
AFI defines the "Gangster film '' as a genre that centers on organized crime or maverick criminals in a modern setting.
AFI defines "mystery '' as a genre that revolves around the solution of a crime.
AFI defines "romantic comedy '' as a genre in which the development of a romance leads to comic situations.
AFI defines "science fiction '' as a genre that marries a scientific or technological premise with imaginative speculation.
AFI defines "sports '' as a genre of films with protagonists who play athletics or other games of competition.
AFI defines "western '' as a genre of films set in the American West that embodies the spirit, the struggle, and the demise of the new frontier.
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which islamic prophet was known as the first hanif | Ḥanīf - wikipedia
Ḥanīf (Arabic: حنيف , Ḥanīf; plural: حنفاء, ḥunafā ') meaning "revert '' refers to one who, according to Islamic belief, maintained the pure monotheism of the patriarch Abraham. More specifically, in Islamic thought, they are the people who, during the pre-Islamic period or Jahiliyyah, were seen to have rejected idolatry and retained some or all of the tenets of the religion of Abraham (إبراهيم, Ibrāhīm) which was "submission to God '' in its purest form.
The term is from the Arabic root ḥ - n - f meaning "to incline, to decline '' (Lane 1893) from the Syriac root of the same meaning. The ḥanīfiyyah is the law of Ibrahim; the verb taḥannafa means "to turn away from (idolatry) ''. In the verse 3: 67 of the Quran it has also been translated as "upright person '' and outside the Quran as "to incline towards a right state or tendency ''. It appears to have been used earlier by Jews and Christians in reference to "pagans '' and applied to followers of an old Hellenized Syrian and Arabian religion and used to taunt early Muslims.
Others maintained that they followed the "religion of Ibrahim, the hanif, the Muslim (.) '' It has been theorized by Watt that the verbal term Islam, arising from the participle form of Muslim (meaning: surrendered to God), may have only arisen as an identifying descriptor for the religion in the late Medinan period.
This is a minor list of those who, per traditional Islamic belief, submitted their whole selves to God in the way of Abraham:
The four friends in Mecca from ibn Ishaq 's account:
Ḥanīf opponents of Islam from Ibn Isḥāq 's account:
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how many miles is it from columbia south carolina to atlanta georgia | Columbia, South Carolina - wikipedia
Columbia is the capital and second largest city of the U.S. state of South Carolina, with a population estimate of 134,309 as of 2016. The city serves as the county seat of Richland County, and a portion of the city extends into neighboring Lexington County. It is the center of the Columbia metropolitan statistical area, which had a population of 767,598 as of the 2010 United States Census, growing to 817,488 by July 1, 2016, according to 2015 U.S. Census estimates. The name Columbia is a poetic term used for the United States, originating from the name of Christopher Columbus.
The city is located approximately 13 miles (21 km) northwest of the geographic center of South Carolina, and is the primary city of the Midlands region of the state. It lies at the confluence of the Saluda River and the Broad River, which merge at Columbia to form the Congaree River. Columbia is home to the University of South Carolina, the state 's flagship university and the largest in the state, and is also the site of Fort Jackson, the largest United States Army installation for Basic Combat Training. Columbia is also the location of the South Carolina State House, which is the center of government for the state. In 1860, the city was the location of the South Carolina Secession Convention, which marked the departure of the first state from the Union in the events leading up to the Civil War.
At the time of European encounter, the inhabitants of the area that became Columbia were a people called the Congaree. In May 1540, a Spanish expedition led by Hernando de Soto traversed what is now Columbia while moving northward. The expedition produced the earliest written historical records of the area, which was part of the regional Cofitachequi chiefdom.
From the creation of Columbia by the South Carolina General Assembly in 1786, the site of Columbia was important to the overall development of the state. The Congarees, a frontier fort on the west bank of the Congaree River, was the head of navigation in the Santee River system. A ferry was established by the colonial government in 1754 to connect the fort with the growing settlements on the higher ground on the east bank.
Like many other significant early settlements in colonial America, Columbia is on the fall line from the Piedmont region. The fall line is the spot where a river becomes unnavigable when sailing upstream and where falling water downstream can not power a mill.
State Senator John Lewis Gervais of the town of Ninety Six introduced a bill that was approved by the legislature on March 22, 1786, to create a new state capital. There was considerable argument over the name for the new city. According to published accounts, Senator Gervais said he hoped that "in this town we should find refuge under the wings of COLUMBIA '', for that was the name which he wished it to be called. One legislator insisted on the name "Washington '', but "Columbia '' won by a vote of 11 -- 7 in the state senate.
The site was chosen as the new state capital in 1786, due to its central location in the state. The State Legislature first met there in 1790. After remaining under the direct government of the legislature for the first two decades of its existence, Columbia was incorporated as a village in 1805 and then as a city in 1854.
Columbia received a large stimulus to development when it was connected in a direct water route to Charleston by the Santee Canal. This canal connected the Santee and Cooper rivers in a 22 - mile - long (35 km) section. It was first chartered in 1786 and completed in 1800, making it one of the earliest canals in the United States. With increased railroad traffic, it ceased operation around 1850.
The commissioners designed a town of 400 blocks in a 2 - mile (3 km) square along the river. The blocks were divided into lots of 0.5 acres (2,000 m) and sold to speculators and prospective residents. Buyers had to build a house at least 30 feet (9.1 m) long and 18 feet (5.5 m) wide within three years or face an annual 5 % penalty. The perimeter streets and two through streets were 150 feet (46 m) wide. The remaining squares were divided by thoroughfares 100 feet (30 m) wide. The width was determined by the belief that dangerous and pesky mosquitoes could not fly more than 60 feet (18 m) without dying of starvation along the way. Columbians still enjoy most of the magnificent network of wide streets.
The commissioners comprised the local government until 1797 when a Commission of Streets and Markets was created by the General Assembly. Three main issues occupied most of their time: public drunkenness, gambling, and poor sanitation.
As one of the first planned cities in the United States, Columbia began to grow rapidly. Its population was nearing 1,000 shortly after the start of the 19th century.
In 1801, South Carolina College (now the University of South Carolina) was founded in Columbia. The original building survives. The city was chosen as the site of the institution in part to unite the citizens of the Upcountry and the Lowcountry and to discourage the youth from migrating to England for their higher education. At the time, South Carolina sent more young men to England than did any other state. The leaders of South Carolina wished to monitor the progress and development of the school; for many years after the founding of the university, commencement exercises were held in December while the state legislature was in session.
Columbia received its first charter as a town in 1805. An intendant and six wardens would govern the town. John Taylor, the first elected intendant, later served in both houses of the General Assembly, both houses of Congress, and eventually as governor. By 1816, there were 250 homes in the town and a population of more than one thousand. Columbia became chartered as a city in 1854, with an elected mayor and six aldermen. Two years later, Columbia had a police force consisting of a full - time chief and nine patrolmen. The city continued to grow at a rapid pace, and throughout the 1850s and 1860s Columbia was the largest inland city in the Carolinas. Railroad transportation served as a significant cause of population expansion in Columbia during this time. Rail lines that reached the city in the 1840s primarily transported cotton bales, not passengers. Cotton was the lifeblood of the Columbia community; in 1850 virtually all of the city 's commercial and economic activity was related to cotton.
"In 1830, approximately 1,500 slaves lived and worked in Columbia; this population grew to 3,300 by 1860. Some members of this large enslaved population worked in their masters ' households. Masters also frequently hired out slaves to Columbia residents and institutions, including South Carolina College. Hired - out slaves sometimes returned to their owner 's home daily; others boarded with their temporary masters. '' During this period, "legislators developed state and local statutes to restrict the movement of urban slaves in hopes of preventing rebellion. Although various decrees established curfews and prohibited slaves from meeting and from learning to read and write, such rulings were difficult to enforce. '' Indeed, "several prewar accounts note that many Columbia slaves were literate; some slaves even conducted classes to teach others to read and write. '' As well, "many slaves attended services at local Baptist, Presbyterian, and Methodist churches, yet some struggled to obtain membership in these institutions. ''
Columbia 's First Baptist Church hosted the South Carolina Secession Convention on December 17, 1860. The delegates drafted a resolution in favor of secession, 159 -- 0. Columbia 's location made it an ideal location for other conventions and meetings within the Confederacy.
On February 17, 1865, in the last months of the Civil War, much of Columbia was destroyed by fire while being occupied by Union troops under the command of General William Tecumseh Sherman. Jeff Goodwyn, mayor of Columbia, sent William B. Stanley and Thomas W. Radcliffe to surrender the city to Sherman 's troops. According to legend, Columbia 's First Baptist Church barely missed being torched by Sherman 's troops. The soldiers marched up to the church and asked the sexton if he could direct them to the First Baptist Church. The sexton directed the men to the nearby Washington Street Methodist Church; thus, the historic landmark was saved from destruction by Union soldiers, and the sexton preserved his employment at the cost of another.
Controversy surrounding the burning of the city started soon after the war ended. General Sherman blamed the high winds and retreating Confederate soldiers for firing bales of cotton, which had been stacked in the streets. General Sherman denied ordering the burning, though he did order militarily significant structures, such as the Confederate Printing Plant, destroyed. Firsthand accounts by local residents, Union soldiers, and a newspaper reporter offer a tale of revenge by Union troops for Columbia 's and South Carolina 's pivotal role in leading Southern states to secede from the Union. Today, tourists can follow the path General Sherman 's army took to enter the city and see structures or remnants of structures that survived the fire.
During Reconstruction, Columbia became the focus of considerable attention. Reporters, journalists, travelers, and tourists flocked to South Carolina 's capital city to witness a Southern state legislature whose members included former slaves. The city also made somewhat of a rebound following the devastating fire of 1865; a mild construction boom took place within the first few years of Reconstruction, and repair of railroad tracks in outlying areas created jobs for area citizens.
Following Reconstruction, the Columbia Music Festival Association (CMFA) was established in 1897, by Mayor William McB. Sloan and the aldermen of the city of Columbia. It was headquartered in the Opera House on Main Street, which was also City Hall. Its role was to book and manage concerts and events in the opera house for the city.
The first few years of the 20th century saw Columbia emerge as a regional textile manufacturing center. In 1907, Columbia had six mills in operation: Richland, Granby, Olympia, Capital City, Columbia, and Palmetto. Combined, they employed over 3,400 workers with an annual payroll of $819,000, giving the Midlands an economic boost of over $4.8 million. Columbia had no paved streets until 1908, when 17 blocks of Main Street were surfaced. There were, however, 115 publicly maintained street crossings at intersections to keep pedestrians from having to wade through a sea of mud between wooden sidewalks. As an experiment, Washington Street was once paved with wooden blocks. This proved to be the source of much local amusement when they buckled and floated away during heavy rains. The blocks were replaced with asphalt paving in 1925.
The years 1911 and 1912 were something of a construction boom for Columbia, with $2.5 million worth of construction occurring in the city. These projects included the Union Bank Building at Main and Gervais, the Palmetto National Bank, a shopping arcade, and large hotels at Main and Laurel (the Jefferson) and at Main and Wheat (the Gresham). In 1917, the city was selected as the site of Camp Jackson, a U.S. military installation which was officially classified as a "Field Artillery Replacement Depot ''. The first recruits arrived at the camp on September 1, 1917.
In 1930, Columbia was the hub of a trading area with approximately 500,000 potential customers. It had 803 retail establishments, 280 of them being food stores. There were also 58 clothing and apparel outlets, 57 restaurants and lunch rooms, 55 filling stations, 38 pharmacies, 20 furniture stores, 19 auto dealers, 11 shoe stores, nine cigar stands, five department stores and one book store. Wholesale distributors located within the city numbered 119, with one - third of them dealing in food.
In 1934, the federal courthouse at the corner of Main and Laurel streets was purchased by the city for use as City Hall. Built of granite from nearby Winnsboro, Columbia City Hall is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Designed by Alfred Built Millet, President Ulysses S. Grant 's federal architect, the building was completed in 1876. Millet, best known for his design of the Executive Office Building in Washington, D.C., had originally designed the building with a clock tower. Large cost overruns probably caused it to be left out. Copies of Mullet 's original drawings can be seen on the walls of City Hall alongside historic photos of Columbia 's beginnings. Federal offices were moved to the J. Bratton Davis United States Bankruptcy Courthouse.
Reactivated Camp Jackson became Fort Jackson in 1940, giving the military installation the permanence desired by city leaders at the time. The fort was annexed into the city in the fall of 1968, with approval from the Pentagon. In the early 1940s, shortly after the attacks on Pearl Harbor which began America 's involvement in World War II, Lt. Colonel Jimmy Doolittle and his group of now - famous pilots began training for the Doolittle Raid over Tokyo at what is now Columbia Metropolitan Airport. They trained in B - 25 Mitchell bombers, the same model as the plane that now rests at Columbia 's Owens Field in the Curtiss - Wright hangar. The area 's population continued to grow during the 1950s, having experienced a 40 percent increase from 186,844 to 260,828, with 97,433 people residing within the city limits of Columbia.
The 1940s saw the beginning of efforts to reverse Jim Crow laws and racial discrimination in Columbia. In 1945, a federal judge ruled that the city 's black teachers were entitled to equal pay to that of their white counterparts. However, in years following, the state attempted to strip many blacks of their teaching credentials. Other issues in which the blacks of the city sought equality concerned voting rights and segregation (particularly regarding public schools). On August 21, 1962, eight downtown chain stores served blacks at their lunch counters for the first time. The University of South Carolina admitted its first black students in 1963; around the same time, many vestiges of segregation began to disappear from the city, blacks attained membership on various municipal boards and commissions, and a non-discriminatory hiring policy was adopted by the city. These and other such signs of racial progress helped earn the city the 1964 All - America City Award for the second time (the first being in 1951), and a 1965 article in Newsweek magazine lauded Columbia as a city that had "liberated itself from the plague of doctrinal apartheid. ''
Historic preservation has played a significant part in shaping Columbia into the city that it is today. The historic Robert Mills House was restored in 1967, which inspired the renovation and restoration of other historic structures such as the Hampton - Preston House and homes associated with President Woodrow Wilson, Maxcy Gregg, Mary Boykin Chesnut, and noted free black Celia Mann. In the early 1970s, the University of South Carolina initiated the refurbishment of its "Horseshoe ''. Several area museums also benefited from the increased historical interest of that time, among them the Fort Jackson Museum, the McKissick Museum on the campus of the University of South Carolina, and most notably the South Carolina State Museum, which opened in 1988.
Mayor Kirkman Finlay, Jr., was the driving force behind the refurbishment of Seaboard Park, now known as Finlay Park, in the historic Congaree Vista district, as well as the compilation of the $60 million Palmetto Center package, which gave Columbia an office tower, parking garage, and the Columbia Marriott, which opened in 1983. The year 1980 saw the Columbia metropolitan population reach 410,088, and in 1990 this figure had hit approximately 470,000.
The 1990s and early 2000s saw revitalization in the downtown area. The Congaree Vista district along Gervais Street, once known as a warehouse district, became a thriving district of art galleries, shops, and restaurants. The Colonial Life Arena (formerly known as the Colonial Center) opened in 2002, and brought several big - named concerts and shows to Columbia. EdVenture, the largest children 's museum in the Southeast, opened in 2003. The Village at Sandhill shopping center opened in 2004 in Northeast Richland County. The Columbia Metropolitan Convention Center opened in 2004, and a new convention center hotel opened in September 2007. A public - private City Center Partnership has been formed to implement the downtown revitalization and boost downtown growth. Mayor Stephen K. Benjamin started his first term in July 2010, and is the first black mayor in the city 's history. Founders Park, home of USC baseball, opened in 2009. The South Carolina Gamecocks baseball team won two National Championships in 2010 and in 2011. The 2010 South Carolina Gamecocks football team, under coach Steve Spurrier, earned their first appearance in the SEC Championship. A Mast General Store was opened in 2011. The Music Farm opened a location in Columbia on Senate Street in 2014. In 2000, the Confederate battle flag was moved from the South Carolina State House to the Confederate monument. On July 10, 2015, the flag was removed from the monument. The fallout from the historic flooding in October 2015 forced the South Carolina Gamecocks football team to move their October 10 home game. Spirit Communications Park, home of the Columbia Fireflies, opened in April 2016. In 2017, the Gamecocks women 's basketball team (under coach Dawn Staley) won their first NCAA championship, and the men 's basketball team went to the Final Four for the first time.
One of Columbia 's more prominent geographical features is its fall line, the boundary between the upland Piedmont region and the Atlantic Coastal Plain, across which rivers drop as falls or rapids. Columbia grew up at the fall line of the Congaree River, which is formed by the convergence of the Broad River and the Saluda River. The Congaree was the farthest inland point of river navigation. The energy of falling water also powered Columbia 's early mills. The city has capitalized on this location which includes three rivers by christening itself "The Columbia Riverbanks Region ''. Columbia is located roughly halfway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Blue Ridge Mountains and sits at an elevation of around 292 ft (89 m).
Soils in Columbia are well drained in most cases, with grayish brown loamy sand topsoil. The subsoil may be yellowish red sandy clay loam (Orangeburg series), yellowish brown sandy clay loam (Norfolk series), or strong brown sandy clay (Marlboro series). All belong to the Ultisol soil order.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 134.9 square miles (349.5 km), of which 132.2 square miles (342.4 km) is land and 2.7 square miles (7.0 km) is water (2.01 %). Approximately 2⁄3 of Columbia 's land area, 81.2 square miles (210 km), is contained within the Fort Jackson Military Installation, much of which consists of uninhabited training grounds. The actual inhabited area for the city is slightly more than 50 square miles (130 km).
Columbia has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with mild winters, early springs, warm autumns, and very hot and humid summers. The area averages 53 nights below freezing, but extended cold or days where the temperature fails to rise above freezing are both rare. With an annual average of 5.4 days with 100 ° F (38 ° C) + and 77 days with 90 ° F (32 ° C) + temperatures, the city 's current promotional slogan describes Columbia as "Famously Hot ''. Precipitation, at 44.6 inches (1,130 mm) annually, peaks in the summer months, and is the least during spring and fall. Snowfall averages 1.5 inches (3.8 cm), but many years receive no snowfall. Like much of the southeastern U.S., the city is prone to inversions, which trap ozone and other pollutants over the area.
Official extremes in temperature have ranged from 109 ° F (43 ° C) on June 29 and 30, 2012 down to − 2 ° F (− 19 ° C), set on February 14, 1899, although a close second of − 1 ° F (− 18 ° C) was recorded on January 21, 1985, and the University of South Carolina campus reached 113 ° F (45 ° C) on June 29, 2012, establishing a new state record high.
The metropolitan statistical area of Columbia is the second - largest in South Carolina; it has a population of 817,488 according to the 2016 Census estimates.
Columbia 's metropolitan counties include:
Columbia 's suburbs and environs include:
As of the census of 2010, there were 129,272 people, 52,471 total households, and 22,638 families residing in the city. The population density was 928.6 people per square mile (358.5 / km2). There were 46,142 housing units at an average density of 368.5 per square mile (142.3 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 51.27 % Non-Hispanic White, 42.20 % Black, 2.20 % Asian, 0.25 % Native American, 0.30 % Pacific Islander, 1.50 % from other races, and 2.00 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.30 % of the population.
There were 45,666 households out of which 22.4 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.7 % were married couples living together, 17.1 % have a female householder with no husband present, and 50.4 % were nonfamilies. 38.0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 8.9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.94.
In the city, the population was spread out with 20.1 % under the age of 18, 22.9 % from 18 to 24, 30.1 % from 25 to 44, 16.6 % from 45 to 64, and 10.3 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females there were 96.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.4 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $31,141, and the median income for a family was $39,589. Males had a median income of $30,925 versus $24,679 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,853. About 17.0 % of families and 22.1 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.7 % of those under the age of 18 and 16.9 % ages 65 or older.
The Southern Baptist Convention has 241 congregations and 115,000 members. The United Methodist Church has 122 congregations and 51,000 members. The Evangelical Lutheran Church has 71 congregations and 25,400 members. The PC (USA) has 34 congregations and 15,000 members; the Presbyterian Church in America has 22 congregations and 8,000 members. The Catholic Church has 14 parishes. There are 3 Jewish synagogues. There are 3 different Islamic musjids providing places of worship for more than 600 Muslim families living in Columbia.
Columbia enjoys a diversified economy, with the major employers in the area being South Carolina state government, the Palmetto Health hospital system, Blue Cross Blue Shield of South Carolina, Palmetto GBA, and the University of South Carolina. The corporate headquarters of Fortune 1000 energy company, SCANA, are located in the Columbia suburb of Cayce. Other major employers in the Columbia area include Computer Sciences Corporation, Fort Jackson, the U.S. Army 's largest and most active initial entry training installation, Richland School District One, Humana / TriCare, and the United Parcel Service, which operates its Southeastern Regional Hub at the Columbia Metropolitan Airport. Major manufacturers such as Square D, CMC Steel, Spirax Sarco, Michelin, International Paper, Pirelli Cables, Honeywell, Westinghouse Electric, Harsco Track Tech, Trane, Intertape Polymer Group, Union Switch & Signal, FN Herstal, Solectron, and Bose Technology have facilities in the Columbia area. There are over 70 foreign affiliated companies and fourteen Fortune 500 companies in the region. The gross domestic product (GDP) of the Columbia metropolitan statistical area as of 2010 was $31.97 billion, the highest among MSAs in the state.
Several companies have their global, continental, or national headquarters in Columbia, including Colonial Life & Accident Insurance Company, the second - largest supplemental insurance company in the nation; the Ritedose Corporation, a pharmaceutical industry services company; AgFirst Farm Credit Bank, the largest bank headquartered in the state with over $30 billion in assets (the non-commercial bank is part of the Farm Credit System, the largest agricultural lending organization in the United States which was established by Congress in 1916); South State Bank, the largest commercial bank headquartered in South Carolina; Nexsen Pruet, LLC, a multi-specialty business law firm in the Carolinas; Spectrum Medical, an international medical software company; Wilbur Smith Associates, a full - service transportation and infrastructure consulting firm; and Nelson Mullins, a major national law firm. CSC 's Financial Services Group, a major provider of software and outsourcing services to the insurance industry, is headquartered in the Columbia suburb of Blythewood.
The city of Columbia has recently accomplished a number of urban redevelopment projects and has several more planned. The historic Congaree Vista, a 1,200 - acre (5 km) district running from the central business district toward the Congaree River, features a number of historic buildings that have been rehabilitated since its revitalization begun in the late 1980s. Of note is the adaptive reuse of the Confederate Printing Plant on Gervais and Huger, used to print Confederate bills during the American Civil War. The city cooperated with Publix grocery stores to preserve the look. This won Columbia an award from the International Downtown Association. The Vista district is also where the region 's convention center and anchor Hilton hotel with a Ruth 's Chris Steakhouse restaurant are located. Other notable developments under construction and recently completed include high - end condos and townhomes, hotels, and mixed - use structures.
The older buildings lining the Vista 's main thoroughfare, Gervais Street, now house art galleries, restaurants, unique shops, and professional office space. Near the end of Gervais is the South Carolina State Museum and the EdVenture Children 's Museum. Private student housing and some residential projects are going up nearby; the CanalSide development at the site of the old Central Correctional Institution, is the most high - profile. At full build - out, the development will have 750 residential units and provides access to Columbia 's waterfront. Lady Street between Huger and Assembly streets in the Vista and the Five Points neighborhood have undergone beautification projects, which mainly consisted of replacing curbs and gutters, and adding brick - paved sidewalks and angled parking.
Special revitalization efforts are being aimed at Main Street, which began seeing an exodus of department and specialty stores in the 1990s. The goal is to re-establish Main Street as a vibrant commercial and residential corridor, and the stretch of Main Street home to most businesses -- - from Gervais to Blanding streets -- - has been streetscaped in recent years. Notable developments completed in recent years along Main Street include an 18 - story, $60 million tower at the high - profile corner of Main and Gervais streets, the renovation of the 1441 Main Street office building as the new Midlands headquarters for Wells Fargo Bank (formerly Wachovia Bank), a new sanctuary for the Holy Trinity Greek Orthodox Church, the location of Mast General store in the historic Efird 's building, and the relocation of the Nickelodeon theater. A façade improvement program for the downtown business district, implemented in 2011, has resulted in the restoration and improvement of the façades of several historic Main Street shopfronts. One of the most ambitious development projects in the city 's history is currently underway which involves old state mental health campus downtown on Bull Street. Known formally as Columbia Common, this project will consist of rehabbing several historic buildings on the campus for residential, hospitality, and retail use. A new minor league baseball stadium was recently built on the campus as well.
Movies filmed in the Columbia area include The Program, Renaissance Man, Chasers, Death Sentence, A Guy Named Joe, and Accidental Love / Nailed.
The Columbia Metropolitan Convention Center, which opened in September 2004 as South Carolina 's only downtown convention center, is a 142,500 - square - foot (13,240 m), modern, state - of - the - art facility designed to host a variety of meetings and conventions. Located in the historic Congaree Vista district, this facility is close to restaurants, antique and specialty shops, art galleries, and various popular nightlife venues. The main exhibit hall contains almost 25,000 square feet (2,300 m) of space; the Columbia Ballroom over 18,000 square feet (1,700 m); and the five meeting rooms ranging in size from 1500 to 4,000 square feet (400 m) add another 15,000 square feet (1,400 m) of space. The facility is located next to the Colonial Life Arena.
Koger Center for the Arts provides Columbia with theatre, music, and dance performances that range from local acts to global acts. The facility seats 2,256 persons. The center is named for philanthropists Ira and Nancy Koger, who made a substantial donation from personal and corporate funds for construction of the $15 million center. The first performance at the Koger Center was given by the London Philharmonic Orchestra and took place on Saturday, January 14, 1989. The facility is known for hosting diverse events, from the State of the State Address to the South Carolina Body Building Championship and the South Carolina Science Fair.
Carolina Coliseum, which opened in 1968, is a 12,401 - seat facility which initially served as the home of the USC Gamecocks ' basketball teams. The arena could be easily adapted to serve other entertainment purposes, including concerts, car shows, circuses, ice shows, and other popular events. The versatility and quality of the coliseum at one time allowed the university to use the facility for performing arts events such as the Boston Pops, Chicago Symphony, Feld Ballet, and other performances by important artists. An acoustical shell and a state - of - the - art lighting system assisted the coliseum in presenting such activities. The coliseum was the home of the Columbia Inferno, an ECHL team. However, since the construction of the Colonial Life Arena in 2002, the coliseum is no longer used for basketball, but is still used as classroom space for the Schools of Journalism and Hospitality, Retail, and Sport Management.
Township Auditorium seats 3,099 capacity and is located in downtown Columbia. The Georgian Revival building was designed by the Columbia architectural firm of Lafaye and Lafaye and constructed in 1930. The Township has hosted thousands of events from concerts to conventions to wrestling matches. The auditorium was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on September 28, 2005, and has recently undergone a $12 million extensive interior and exterior renovation.
The most popular sports in Columbia are the sports programs at the University of South Carolina. Columbia also offers minor league, semi-pro, and amateur sports. In April 2017 the women 's Gamecocks basketball team won the NCAA national championship, defeating Mississippi State 67 - 55.
Columbia has also hosted the women 's U.S. Olympic Marathon Trials in 1996 and 2000 and the 2007 Junior Wildwater World Championships, which featured many European canoe and kayak racers. The Colonial Life Arena has also hosted NBA exhibition games.
Williams - Brice Stadium is the home of the USC Gamecocks ' football team and is the 24th largest college football stadium in the nation. It seats 80,250 people and is located just south of downtown Columbia. The stadium was built in 1934 with the help of federal Works Progress Administration funds, and initially seated 17,600. The original name was Carolina Stadium, but on September 9, 1972, it was renamed to honor the Williams and Brice families. Mrs. Martha Williams - Brice had left much of her estate to the university for stadium renovations and expansions. Her late husband, Thomas H. Brice, played football for the university from 1922 to 1924.
Colonial Life Arena, opened in 2002, is Columbia 's premier arena and entertainment facility. Seating 18,000 for college basketball, it is the largest arena in the state of South Carolina, and the tenth largest on - campus basketball facility in the nation, serving as the home of the men 's and women 's USC Gamecocks basketball teams. Located on the University of South Carolina campus, this facility features 41 suites, four entertainment suites, and the Frank McGuire Club, a full - service hospitality room with a capacity of 300. The facility has padded seating, a sound system, and a four - sided video scoreboard.
The $13 million Charlie W. Johnson Stadium is the home of Benedict College football and soccer. The structure was completed and dedicated in 2006 and seats 11,000 with a maximum capacity of 16,000.
The Founders Park opened in 2009. Seating 8,400 permanently for college baseball and an additional 1,000 for standing room only, it is the largest baseball stadium in the state of South Carolina, and serves as the home of the University of South Carolina Gamecocks ' baseball team. Located near Granby Park near downtown Columbia, this facility features entertainment suites, a picnic terrace, and a dining deck. The facility also features a sound system and scoreboard.
On January 6, 2015, developers broke ground on the $37 million Spirit Communications Park. The stadium is the home for the Columbia Fireflies, a Minor League Baseball team playing in the South Atlantic League. It opened in April 2016 and can seat up to 7,501 people. Columbia had been without minor league baseball since the Capital City Bombers relocated to Greenville, South Carolina, in 2004.
The region 's most popular park, Finlay Park has hosted just about everything from festivals and political rallies to road races and Easter Sunrise services. This 18 - acre (73,000 m) park has had two lives; first dedicated in 1859 as Sidney Park, named in honor of Algernon Sidney Johnson, a Columbia City Councilman, the park experienced an illustrious but short tenure. The park fell into disrepair after the Civil War and served as a site for commercial ventures until the late 20th century. In 1990, the park was reopened. It serves as the site for such events as Kids Day, The Summer Concert Series, plus many more activities. In 1992, the park was renamed Finlay Park, in honor of Kirkman Finlay, a past mayor of Columbia who had a vision to reenergize the historic Congaree Vista district, between Main Street and the river, and recreate the site that was formerly known as Sidney Park.
Memorial Park is a 4 - acre (16,000 m) tract of land in the Congaree Vista between Main Street and the river. The property is bordered by Hampton, Gadsden, Washington, and Wayne Streets and is one block south of Finlay Park. This park was created to serve as a memorial to those who served their country and presently has monuments honoring the USS Columbia warship and those that served with her during World War II, the China - Burma - India Theater Veterans of WWII, casualties of the Pearl Harbor attack of December 7, 1941, who were from South Carolina, Holocaust survivors who live in South Carolina as well as concentration camp liberators from South Carolina, and the State Vietnam War Veterans. The park was dedicated in November 1986 along with the unveiling of the South Carolina Vietnam Monument. In June 2000, the Korean War Memorial was dedicated at Memorial Park. In November 2014, Columbia native and resident of Boston, Henry Crede, gave a bronze statue and plaza in the park dedicated to his WWII comrades who served in the Navy from South Carolina.
Granby Park opened in November 1998 as a gateway to the rivers of Columbia, adding another access to the many river activities available to residents. Granby is part of the Three Rivers Greenway, a system of green spaces along the banks of the rivers in Columbia, adding another piece to the long - range plan and eventually connecting to the existing Riverfront Park. Granby is a 24 - acre (97,000 m) linear park with canoe access points, fishing spots, bridges, and 1⁄2 mile of nature trail along the banks of the Congaree River.
In the Five Points district of downtown Columbia is the park dedicated to the legacy and memory of the most celebrated civil rights leader in America, Martin Luther King Jr. Park. Formerly known as Valley Park, it was historically known to be largely restricted to Whites. Renaming the park after Martin Luther King Jr. in the late 1980s was seen as a progressive and unifying event on behalf of the city, civic groups, and local citizens. The park features a beautiful water sculpture and a community center. An integral element of the park is the Stone of Hope monument, unveiled in January 1996. Upon the monument is inscribed a portion of King 's 1964 Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech: "History is cluttered with the wreckage of nations and individuals that pursued that self - defeating path of hate. Love is the key to the solutions of the problems of the world. ''
One of Columbia 's greatest assets is Riverbanks Zoo & Garden. Riverbanks Zoo is a sanctuary for more than 2,000 animals housed in natural habitat exhibits along the Saluda River. Just across the river, the 70 - acre (280,000 m) botanical garden is devoted to gardens, woodlands, plant collections, and historic ruins. Riverbanks has been named one of America 's best zoos and the No. 1 travel attraction in the Southeast. It attracted over one million visitors in 2009.
Situated along the meandering Congaree River in central South Carolina, Congaree National Park is home to champion trees, primeval forest landscapes, and diverse plant and animal life. This 22,200 - acre (90 km) park protects the largest contiguous tract of old - growth bottomland hardwood forest remaining in the United States. The park is an international biosphere reserve. Known for its giant hardwoods and towering pines, the park 's floodplain forest includes one of the highest canopies in the world and some of the tallest trees in the eastern United States. Congaree National Park provides a sanctuary for plants and animals, a research site for scientists, and a place to walk and relax in a tranquil wilderness setting.
Sesquicentennial State Park is a 1,419 - acre (6 km) park, featuring a beautiful 30 - acre (120,000 m) lake surrounded by trails and picnic areas. The park 's proximity to downtown Columbia and three major interstate highways attracts both local residents and travelers. Sesquicentennial is often the site of family reunions and group campouts. Interpretive nature programs are a major attraction to the park. The park also contains a two - story log house, dating back to the mid 18th century, which was relocated to the park in 1969. This house is believed to be the oldest building still standing in Richland County. The park was originally built by the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s. Evidence of their craftsmanship is still present today.
In November 1996, the River Alliance proposed that a 12 - mile (19 km) linear park system be created to link people to their rivers. This was named the Three Rivers Greenway, and the $18 million estimated cost was agreed to by member governments (the cities of Cayce, Columbia, and West Columbia) with the proviso that the Alliance recommend an acceptable funding strategy.
While the funding process was underway, an existing city of Columbia site located on the Congaree River offered an opportunity to be a pilot project for the Three Rivers Greenway. The Alliance was asked to design and permit for construction by a general contractor this component. This approximately one - half - mile segment of the system was opened in November 1998. It is complete with 8 - foot (2.4 m) wide concrete pathways, vandal - proof lighting, trash receptacles, water fountains, picnic benches, overlooks, bank fishing access, canoe / kayak access, a public restroom and parking. These set the standards for the common elements in the rest of the system. Eventually, pathways will run from Granby to the Riverbanks Zoo. Boaters, sportspeople, and fisherpeople will have access to the area, and additional recreational uses are being planned along the miles of riverfront.
Running beside the historic Columbia Canal, Riverfront Park hosts a two and a half - mile trail. Spanning the canal is an old railway bridge that now is a pedestrian walkway. The park is popular for walking, running, bicycling, and fishing. Picnic tables and benches dot the walking trail. Markers are located along the trail so that visitors can measure distance. The park is part of the Palmetto Trail, a hiking and biking trail that stretches the entire length of the state, from Greenville to Charleston.
Other parks in the Columbia area include:
The city of Columbia has a council - manager form of government. The mayor and city council are elected every four years, with no term limits. Elections are held in the spring of even numbered years. Unlike other mayors in council - manager systems, the Columbia mayor has the power to veto ordinances passed by the council; vetoes can be overridden by a two - thirds majority of the council, which appoints a city manager to serve as chief administrative officer. The current mayor is Stephen K. Benjamin, who succeeded longtime mayor and fellow Democrat Bob Coble in 2010. Teresa Wilson is the current city manager.
The city council consists of six members, four from districts and two elected at - large. The city council is responsible for making policies and enacting laws, rules, and regulations in order to provide for future community and economic growth, in addition to providing the necessary support for the orderly and efficient operation of city services.
At - Large
Districts
See related article Past mayors of Columbia, South Carolina
The city 's police force is the Columbia Police Department. The chief of police answers to the city manager. Presently, the chief of police is W.H. "Skip '' Holbrook; Holbrook was sworn in on April 11, 2014.
The South Carolina Department of Corrections, headquartered in Columbia, operates several correctional facilities in Columbia. They include the Broad River Correctional Institution, the Goodman Correctional Institution, the Camille Griffin Graham Correctional Institution, the Stevenson Correctional Institution, and the Campbell Pre-Release Center. Graham houses the state 's female death row. The state of South Carolina 's execution chamber is located at Broad River. From 1990 to 1997, Broad River housed the state 's male death row.
Columbia is home to the main campus of the University of South Carolina, which was chartered in 1801 as South Carolina College and in 1906 as the University of South Carolina. The university has 350 degree programs and enrolls 31,964 students throughout fifteen degree - granting colleges and schools. It is an urban university, located in downtown Columbia.
Columbia is also home to:
Columbia is also the site of several extension campuses, including those for Erskine Theological Seminary, South University, and the University of Phoenix.
Columbia 's daily newspapers include The State and Cola Daily, and its alternative newspapers include Free Times, The Columbia Star, Carolina Panorama Newspaper, and SC Black News.
Columbia Metropolitan Magazine is a bi-monthly publication about news and events in the metropolitan area. Greater Columbia Business Monthly highlights economic development, business, education, and the arts. Q - Notes, a bi-weekly newspaper serving the LGBT community and published in Charlotte, is distributed to locations in Columbia and via home delivery.
Columbia is home to the headquarters and production facilities of South Carolina Educational Television and South Carolina Public Radio, the state 's public television and public radio networks.
Columbia has the 78th largest television market in the United States. Network affiliates include WIS (NBC), WLTX (CBS), WACH (FOX) and WOLO (ABC).
The Comet, officially the Central Midlands Regional Transit Authority, is the agency responsible for operating mass transit in the greater Columbia area including Cayce, West Columbia, Forest Acres, Arcadia Lakes, Springdale, Lexington and the St. Andrews area. COMET operates express shuttles, as well as bus service serving Columbia and its immediate suburbs. The authority was established in October 2002 after SCANA released ownership of public transportation back to the city of Columbia. Since 2003, COMET has provided transportation for more than 2 million passengers, has expanded route services, and introduced 43 new ADA accessible buses offering a safer, more comfortable means of transportation. CMRTA has also added 10 natural gas powered buses to the fleet. COMET went under a name change and rebranding project in 2013. Before then, the system was called the Columbia Metropolitan Rapid Transit Association or "CMRTA ''.
The Central Midlands Council of Governments is in the process of investigating the potential for rail transit in the region. Routes into downtown Columbia originating from Camden, Newberry, and Batesburg - Leesville are in consideration, as is a potential line between Columbia and Charlotte connecting the two mainlines of the future Southeastern High Speed Rail Corridor.
Columbia 's central location between the population centers of South Carolina has made it a transportation focal point with three interstate highways and one interstate spur.
The city and its surroundings are served by Columbia Metropolitan Airport (IATA: CAE, ICAO: KCAE, FAA LID: CAE). The airport itself is serviced by American Eagle, Delta, and United Express airlines. In addition, the city is also served by the much smaller Jim Hamilton -- L.B. Owens Airport (IATA: CUB, ICAO: KCUB, FAA LID: CUB) located in the Rosewood neighborhood. It serves as the county airport for Richland County and offers general aviation.
The city is served daily by Amtrak station, with the Silver Star trains connecting Columbia with New York City, Washington, DC, Savannah, Jacksonville, Orlando, Tampa, and Miami. The station is located at 850 Pulaski St.
Greyhound Lines formerly operated a station on Gervais Street, in the eastern part of downtown, providing Columbia with intercity bus transportation. The station relocated to 710 Buckner Road in February 2015.
MegaBus began operations in Columbia in 2015. There routes include stops in Fayetteville, North Carolina, Washington, DC, and New York City, New York. The station is located on Sumter Street.
The Sisters of Charity Providence Hospitals is sponsored by the Sisters of Charity of Saint Augustine (CSA) Health System. The non-profit organization is licensed for 304 beds and comprises four entities: Providence Hospital, Providence Heart Institute, Providence Hospital Northeast, and Providence Orthopaedic & NeuroSpine Institute. Providence Hospital, located in downtown Columbia, was founded by the Sisters of Charity of Saint Augustine in 1938. The facility offers cardiac care through Providence Heart Institute, which is considered a quality cardiac center in South Carolina. Providence Hospital Northeast is a 46 - bed community hospital established in 1999 that offers a range of medical services in surgery, emergency care, women 's and children 's services, and rehabilitation. Providence Northeast is home to Providence Orthopaedic & NeuroSpine Institute, which provides medical and surgical treatment of diseases and injuries of the bones, joints, and spine.
Palmetto Health is a South Carolina nonprofit public benefit corporation consisting of Palmetto Health Richland and Palmetto Health Baptist hospitals (2locations; 1 downtown and 1 in the Harbison area) in Columbia. Palmetto Health provides health care for nearly 70 percent of the residents of Richland County and almost 55 percent of the health care for both Richland and Lexington counties. Palmetto Health Richland is the primary teaching hospital for the University of South Carolina School of Medicine. Palmetto Health Baptist recently underwent a $40 million multi-phase modernization which included 37,000 square feet (3,400 m) of new construction and 81,000 square feet (7,500 m) of renovations. The extensive health system also operates Palmetto Health Children 's Hospital and Palmetto Health Heart Hospital, the state 's first freestanding hospital dedicated solely to heart care, which opened in January 2006. The Palmetto Health South Carolina Cancer Center offers patient services at the Palmetto Health Baptist and Palmetto Health Richland campuses; both are recognized by the American College of Surgeons Commission on Cancer as a Network Cancer Program.
Lexington Medical Center is a network of hospitals -- urgent care centers that are all located throughout Lexington County, South Carolina. There are currently six urgent care centers located in Lexington, Irmo, Batesburg - Leesville, Swansea, and Gilbert. The main hospital is in West Columbia. LMC opened in 1971 but quickly grew into a large center that has been growing every year since its opening. Currently, the main center offers an array of services from emergency treatments to the upcoming heart center.
The Wm. Jennings Bryan Dorn VA Medical Center is a 216 - bed facility, encompassing acute medical, surgical, psychiatric, and long - term care. The hospital provides primary, secondary, and some tertiary care. An affiliation is held with the University of South Carolina School of Medicine, located on the hospital grounds. A sharing agreement is in place with Moncrief Army Community Hospital at Fort Jackson and the 20th Medical Group at Shaw AFB in Sumter.
Columbia has been the recipient of several awards and achievements. In October 2009, Columbia was listed in U.S. News & World Report as one of the best places to retire, citing location and median housing price as key contributors. As of July 2013 Columbia was named one of "10 Great Cities to Live In '' by Kiplinger Magazine. Most recently, the city has been named a top mid-sized market in the nation for relocating families, as well as one of 30 communities named "America 's Most Livable Communities, '' an award given by the non-profit Partners for Livable Communities.
The city of Columbia has 5 sister cities:
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which is not part of the cosmological beliefs of hinduism | Hindu cosmology - wikipedia
In Hindu cosmology, the universe is cyclically created and destroyed. Its cosmology divides time into four epochs or Yuga, of which the current period is the Kali Yuga.
According to Hindu vedic cosmology, there is no absolute start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, the space and universe has neither start nor end, rather it is cyclical. The current universe is just the start of a present cycle preceded by an infinite number of universes and to be followed by another infinite number of universes.
The dominant theme in Puranic Hindu cosmology, state Chapman and Driver, is of cycles and repetition. There are multiple universes, each takes birth from chaos, grows, decays and dies into chaos, to be reborn again. Further, there are different and parallel realities. Brahma 's one day equals 4.32 Billion years which is a Kalpa. Each Kalpa is subdivided into four yuga (caturyuga, also called mahayuga)). These are krita (or satya), treta, dvapara and kali yugas. The current time is stated to be one of kali yuga. The starting year, length of each, or the grand total, is not consistent in the Puranas. According to Ludo Rocher, the total of four yugas is typically 4,320,000 years, off which 432,000 years is assigned to be the duration of the kali yuga.
A few Hindu texts state that the world is destroyed at the end of the kali yuga, but most Hindu texts present the alternate cyclical theory, wherein caturyugas follow each other without interruption. The numerous differences in Hindu cosmology has been used by some scholars to chronologically date the text that contain them, based on the presumption that the simpler models preceded more elaborate mythologically richer ones.
The Rigveda, composed between 1500 to 1200 BCE, presents many theories of cosmology. For example:
According to Henry White Wallis, the Rigveda and other Vedic texts are full of alternate cosmological theories and curiosity questions. For example, the hymn 1.24 of the Rigveda asks, "these stars, which are set on high, and appear at night, whither do they go in the daytime? '' and hymn 10.88 wonders, "how many fires are there, how many suns, how many dawns, how many waters? I am not posing an awkward question for you fathers; I ask you, poets, only to find out? '' To its numerous open - ended questions, the Vedic texts present a diversity of thought, in verses imbued with symbols and allegory, where in some cases forces and agencies are clothed with a distinct personality, while in other cases as nature with or without anthropomorphic activity such as forms of mythical sacrifices.
The Rigveda contains the Nasadiya sukta hymn which does not offer a cosmological theory, but asks cosmological questions about the nature of universe and how it began:
Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden; Without distinctive marks, this all was water; That which, becoming, by the void was covered; That One by force of heat came into being; Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? Whether God 's will created it, or whether He was mute; Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not; Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows, Only He knows, or perhaps He does not know.
Deborah Soifer describes the development of the concept of lokas as follows:
The concept of a loka or lokas develops in the Vedic literature. Influenced by the special connotations that a word for space might have for a nomadic people, loka in the Veda did not simply mean place or world, but had a positive valuation: it was a place or position of religious or psychological interest with a special value of function of its own. Hence, inherent in the ' loka ' concept in the earliest literature was a double aspect; that is, coexistent with spatiality was a religious or soteriological meaning, which could exist independent of a spatial notion, an ' immaterial ' significance. The most common cosmological conception of lokas in the Veda was that of the trailokya or triple world: three worlds consisting of earth, atmosphere or sky, and heaven, making up the universe. ''
The later Puranic view asserts that the Universe is created, destroyed, and re-created in an eternally repetitive series of cycles. A day of Brahma, the creator, endures for about 4,320,000 years.
In the Brahmanda Purana, there are fourteen worlds. However, other Puranas give different version of this cosmology and associated myths. In the Brahmanda version, the loka consist of seven higher ones (Vyahrtis) and seven lower ones (Pātālas), as follows:
The same 14 lokas (worlds) are described in chapter 2.5 of the Bhagavata Purana.
The Puranas genre of Indian literature, found in Hinduism and Jainism, contain a section on cosmology and cosmogony as a requirement. There are dozens of different Mahapuranas and Upapuranas, each with its own theory integrated into a proposed human history consisting of solar and lunar dynasties. Some are similar to Indo - European creation myths, while others are novel. One cosmology, shared by Hindu, Buddhist and Jain texts involves Mount Meru, with stars and sun moving around it using Dhruva (North Star) as the focal reference. According to Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, the diversity of cosmology theories in Hinduism may reflect its tendency to not reject new ideas and empirical observations as they became available, but to adapt and integrate them creatively.
The concept of multiverses is mentioned many times in Hindu Puranic literature, such as in the Bhagavata Purana:
Every universe is covered by seven layers -- earth, water, fire, air, sky, the total energy and false ego -- each ten times greater than the previous one. There are innumerable universes besides this one, and although they are unlimitedly large, they move about like atoms in You. Therefore You are called unlimited (Bhagavata Purana 6.16. 37)
Analogies to describe multiple universes also exist in the Puranic literature:
Because You are unlimited, neither the lords of heaven nor even You Yourself can ever reach the end of Your glories. The countless universes, each enveloped in its shell, are compelled by the wheel of time to wander within You, like particles of dust blowing about in the sky. The śrutis, following their method of eliminating everything separate from the Supreme, become successful by revealing You as their final conclusion (Bhagavata Purana 10.87. 41)
The layers or elements covering the universes are each ten times thicker than the one before, and all the universes clustered together appear like atoms in a huge combination (Bhagavata Purana 3.11. 41)
And who will search through the wide infinities of space to count the universes side by side, each containing its Brahma, its Vishnu, its Shiva? Who can count the Indras in them all -- those Indras side by side, who reign at once in all the innumerable worlds; those others who passed away before them; or even the Indras who succeed each other in any given line, ascending to godly kingship, one by one, and, one by one, passing away (Brahma Vaivarta Purana)
According to Carl Sagan:
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who took his brother's blessing in the bible | Jacob and Esau - wikipedia
The Book of Genesis speaks of the relationship between fraternal twins Jacob and Esau, sons of Isaac and Rebekah, focusing on Esau 's loss of his birthright to Jacob and the conflict that ensued between their descendant nations because of Jacob 's deception of their aged and blind father, Isaac, in order to receive Esau 's birthright / blessing from Isaac.
This conflict was paralleled by the affection the parents had for their favored child: "Isaac, who had a taste for wild game, loved Esau, but Rebekah loved Jacob. '' (Genesis 25: 28). Even since conception, their conflict was foreshadowed: "And the children struggled together within her; and she said, If it be so, why am I thus? And she went to enquire of the Lord. And the Lord said unto her, Two nations are in thy womb, and two manner of people shall be separated from thy bowels; and the one people shall be stronger than the other people; and the elder shall serve the younger. '' (Genesis 25: 22 -- 23)
This passage in Genesis 25: 26 is as if Jacob was seemingly trying to pull Esau back into the womb so that he could be firstborn. The grasping of the heel is also a reference to deceptive behavior.
In Genesis, Esau returned to his brother, Jacob, being famished from the fields. He begged his twin brother to give him some "red pottage '' (paralleling his nickname, Hebrew: אדום (adom, meaning "red ''). Jacob offered to give Esau a bowl of stew in exchange for his birthright (the right to be recognized as firstborn) and Esau agreed.
The birthright (bekorah) has to do with both position and inheritance. By birthright, the firstborn son inherited the leadership of the family and the judicial authority of his father. Deuteronomy 21: 17 states that he was also entitled to a double portion of the paternal inheritance.
Esau acts impulsively. As he did not value his birthright over a bowl of lentil stew, by his actions, Esau demonstrates that he does not deserve to be the one who continues Abraham 's responsibilities and rewards under God 's covenant, since he does not have the steady, thoughtful qualities which are required.
Jacob shows his wiliness as well as his greater intelligence and forethought. What he does is not quite honorable, though not illegal. The birthright benefit that he gains is at least partially valid, although he is insecure enough about it to conspire later with his mother to deceive his father so as to gain the blessing for the first - born as well.
Later, Esau marries two wives, both Hittite women, that is, locals, in violation of Abraham 's (and God 's) injunction not to take wives from among the Canaanite population. Again, one gets the sense of a headstrong person who acts impulsively, without sufficient thought (Genesis 26: 34 -- 35). His marriage is described as a vexation to both Rebekah and Isaac. Even his father, who has strong affection for him, is hurt by his act. According to Daniel J. Elazar this action alone forever rules out Esau as the bearer of patriarchal continuity. Esau could have overcome the sale of his birthright; Isaac was still prepared to give him the blessing due the firstborn. But acquiring foreign wives meant the detachment of his children from the Abrahamic line. Despite the deception on the part of Jacob and his mother to gain Isaac 's patriarchal blessing, Jacob 's vocation as Isaac 's legitimate heir in the continued founding of the Jewish people is reaffirmed. Elazar suggests that the Bible indicates that a bright, calculating person who, at times, is less than honest, is preferable as a founder over a bluff, impulsive one who can not make discriminating choices.
Pronouncing the blessing was considered to be the act formally acknowledging the firstborn as the principal heir.
In Genesis 27: 5 -- 7, Rebecca overhears Isaac tell Esau, "Bring me venison and prepare a savory food, that I may eat, and bless thee before the Lord before my death. '' Rebecca councils Jacob to pretend to be Esau, in order to obtain the blessing in his brother 's stead. He dressed himself in Esau 's best clothes and disguised himself by covering his arms in lamb skin so that if his blind father touched him, he would think Jacob his more hirsute brother. Jacob brought Isaac a dish of goat meat prepared by Rebecca to taste like venison. Isaac then bestowed the blessing (bekhorah), which confers a prophetic wish for fertility (vv. 27 -- 28) and dominion (v. 29), on Jacob before Esau 's return.
Esau is furious and vows to kill Jacob (Genesis 27: 41) as soon as their father has died. Rebekah intervenes to save her younger son Jacob from being murdered by her elder son, Esau. At Rebekah 's urging, Jacob flees to a distant land to work for his mother 's brother, Laban (Genesis 28: 5). She explains to Isaac that she has sent Jacob to find a wife among her own people.
Jacob does not immediately receive his father 's inheritance. Jacob, having fled for his life, leaves behind the wealth of Isaac 's flocks and land and tents in Esau 's hands. Jacob is forced to sleep out on the open ground and then work for wages as a servant in Laban 's household. Jacob, who had deceived his father, is in turn deceived and cheated by his relative Laban concerning Jacob 's seven years of service (lacking money for a dowry) for the hand of Laban 's daughter Rachel, receiving his older daughter Leah instead. However, despite Laban, Jacob eventually becomes so rich as to incite the envy of Laban and Laban 's sons.
Genesis 32 -- 33 tells of Jacob and Esau 's eventual meeting according to God 's commandment in Genesis 31: 3, 32: 10 after Jacob had spent more than 20 years staying with Laban in Padan - Aram. The two men prepare for their meeting like warriors about to enter into battle. Jacob divides his family into two camps such that if one is taken the other might escape (Genesis 32: 8 - 9). Jacob sends messengers to Esau, as well as gifts meant to appease him. Jacob gets the name Israel after he wrestles with the Angel of God as he is traveling to Esau. His hip is knocked out of joint but he keeps on wrestling and gains the name. After the encounter with the angel, Jacob crosses over the ford Jabbok and encounters Esau who seems initially pleased to see him (Genesis 33: 4), which attitude of favour Jacob fosters by means of his gift. Esau refuses the gift at first but Jacob humbles himself before his brother and presses him to take it, which he finally does (Genesis 33: 3, 33: 10 - 11). However, Jacob evidently does not trust his brother 's favour to continue for long so he makes excuses to avoid traveling to Mount Seir in Esau 's company (Genesis 33: 12 - 14), and he further evades Esau 's attempt to put his own men among Jacob 's bands (Genesis 33: 15 - 16), and finally completes the deception of his brother yet again by going to Succoth and then to Shalem, a city of Shechem, instead of following Esau at a distance to Seir (Genesis 33: 16 - 20). The next time Jacob and Esau meet is at the burial of their father, Isaac, in Hebron (Genesis 35: 27 - 29). The so - called reconciliation is thus only superficial and temporary.
The narrative of Esau selling his birthright to Jacob, in Genesis 25, states that Esau despised his birthright. However, it also alludes to Jacob being thrifty.
In Esau 's mother and father 's eyes, the deception may have been deserved. Rebekah later abets Jacob in receiving his father 's blessing disguised as Esau. Isaac then refuses to take Jacob 's blessing back after learning he was tricked, and does not give this blessing to Esau but, after Esau begs, gives him an inferior blessing (Genesis 27: 34 -- 40).
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is rogue one part of the star wars | Rogue One - wikipedia
Rogue One: A Star Wars Story, or simply Rogue One, is a 2016 American epic space opera film directed by Gareth Edwards. The screenplay by Chris Weitz and Tony Gilroy is from a story by John Knoll and Gary Whitta. It was produced by Lucasfilm and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the first installment of the Star Wars Anthology series, set immediately before the events of the original Star Wars film, and follows a group of rebels on a mission to steal the plans for the Death Star, the Galactic Empire 's superweapon. The cast includes Felicity Jones, Diego Luna, Ben Mendelsohn, Donnie Yen, Mads Mikkelsen, Alan Tudyk, Riz Ahmed, Jiang Wen and Forest Whitaker.
Based on an idea first pitched by Knoll, 10 years before it entered development, the film was made to be different in tone and style from the traditional Star Wars films, including omitting the customary opening crawl and transitional screen wipes. Principal photography on the film began at Elstree Studios near London in early August 2015 and wrapped in February 2016. The film then went through extensive reshoots and additional filming in mid-June 2016, with Gilroy acting as director of them. The film premiered in Los Angeles on December 10, 2016 and was released in the United States on December 16, 2016.
Rogue One received positive reviews, with praise for its acting, action sequences, score, visuals, and darker tone, although it received criticism for its underdeveloped characters, and generated controversy for its use of CGI in the recreation of specific characters and performers. The film has grossed over $1 billion worldwide, making it the 23rd highest - grossing film of all - time unadjusted for inflation, the second highest - grossing film of 2016, and the third highest - grossing film in the Star Wars franchise. It received two Academy Awards nominations for Best Sound Mixing and Best Visual Effects.
Research scientist Galen Erso and his family are in hiding on the planet Lah'mu when Imperial weapons developer Orson Krennic arrives to press him into completing the Death Star, a space station - based superweapon capable of destroying entire planets. Galen 's wife, Lyra, is killed in the confrontation while their daughter, Jyn, escapes and is rescued by rebel extremist Saw Gerrera.
Fifteen years later, cargo pilot Bodhi Rook defects from the Empire, taking a holographic message recorded by Galen to Gerrera on the desert moon Jedha. After learning about the Death Star from an agent at the trading outpost Ring of Kafrene, Rebel Alliance intelligence officer Cassian Andor frees Jyn from an Imperial labor camp at Wobani before bringing her to the Rebel leader Mon Mothma, who convinces her to find and rescue Galen so the Alliance can learn more about the Death Star. Cassian is covertly ordered to kill Galen rather than extract him.
Jyn, Cassian, and reprogrammed Imperial droid K - 2SO travel to Jedha, where the Empire is removing kyber crystals from the holy city to power the Death Star while Gerrera and his partisans are engaged in an armed insurgency against them. With the aid of blind spiritual warrior Chirrut Îmwe and his mercenary friend Baze Malbus, Jyn makes contact with Gerrera, who has been holding Rook captive. Gerrera shows her the message, in which Galen reveals he has secretly built a vulnerability into the Death Star and directs them to retrieve the schematics from an Imperial data bank on the planet Scarif.
On the Death Star, Krennic orders a low - powered test shot which destroys Jedha 's capital. Jyn and her group take Rook and flee the moon, but Gerrera remains to die with the city. Grand Moff Tarkin congratulates Krennic before using Rook 's defection and security leak as a pretext to take control of the project. Rook leads the group to Galen 's Imperial research facility on the planet Eadu, where Cassian chooses not to kill Galen. Jyn makes her presence known moments before Rebel bombers attack the facility. Galen is wounded and dies in his daughter 's arms, before she escapes with her group on board a stolen Imperial cargo shuttle. Krennic is summoned by Darth Vader to answer for the attack on Eadu. Krennic seeks his support for an audience with the Emperor, but Vader instead orders him to ensure no further breaches occur.
Jyn proposes a plan to steal the Death Star schematics using the Rebel fleet but fails to gain approval from the Alliance Council, who feel victory against the Empire is now impossible. Frustrated at their inaction, Jyn 's group lead a small squad of Rebel volunteers to raid the databank themselves. Arriving at Scarif on the stolen Imperial ship, which Rook dubs "Rogue One '', a disguised Jyn and Cassian enter the base with K - 2SO while the other Rebels attack the resident Imperial garrison as a diversion. The Rebel fleet learns of the raid from intercepted Imperial communications and deploy in support. K - 2SO sacrifices himself so Jyn and Cassian can retrieve the data. Îmwe is killed after activating the master switch to allow communication with the Rebel fleet, and Malbus dies in battle shortly afterwards. Rook is killed by a grenade after informing the Rebel fleet that it must deactivate the shield surrounding the planet to allow the transmission of the schematics. Jyn and Cassian obtain the schematics, but they are ambushed by Krennic, who is eventually shot and wounded by Cassian. Jyn transmits the schematics to the Rebel command ship. The Death Star enters orbit above Scarif, where Tarkin uses another low - power shot to destroy the compromised base, killing Krennic, Cassian, and Jyn.
The Rebel fleet prepares to jump to hyperspace, but many of the fleet 's ships are intercepted by Vader 's flagship. Vader boards the Rebel command ship and attempts to regain the schematics, but a small starship escapes with the plans on board. Aboard the fleeing ship, Princess Leia declares that the schematics will provide hope for the Rebellion.
Jimmy Smits, Genevieve O'Reilly, and Anthony Daniels reprise their roles from previous films as Bail Organa, Mon Mothma, and C - 3PO, respectively. James Earl Jones also reprises his role from previous films as the voice of Darth Vader, who is physically portrayed by Spencer Wilding and Daniel Naprous, replacing David Prowse who played the role in the original films. Grand Moff Tarkin and Princess Leia Organa are played by Guy Henry and Ingvild Deila, respectively, with the digital likenesses of Peter Cushing and Carrie Fisher superimposed. Henry also provides the voice for Tarkin, while archival audio of Fisher is used for Leia. Angus MacInnes and Drewe Henley are featured as Gold Leader Dutch Vander and Red Leader Garven Dreis, respectively, via unused footage from A New Hope; MacInnes returned to record new dialogue for Vander, while new dialogue for the deceased Henley was assembled from archival material. David Ankrum, who voiced Wedge Antilles in A New Hope, reprises his role in a vocal cameo. Ian McElhinney, Michael Smiley, Andy de la Tour and Tim Beckmann play General Jan Dodonna, Dr. Evazan, General Hurst Romodi and Captain Raymus Antilles, respectively. Warwick Davis plays Weeteef Cyubee, a member of Saw Gerrera 's Partisans.
Additionally, Alistair Petrie plays General Davits Draven, Ben Daniels plays General Antoc Merrick, and Valene Kane plays Lyra Erso, Jyn 's mother. Jonathan Aris, Fares Fares and Sharon Duncan - Brewster appear as Senators Nower Jebel, Vasp Vaspar, and Tynnra Pamlo, respectively. Simon Farnaby plays a member of Blue Squadron. Jordan Stephens appears as Rebel Alliance member Corporal Tonc. Nick Kellington plays Bistan, the door gunner on a U-wing during the battle on Scarif. Ian Whyte plays Moroff, a member of Saw Gerrera 's Partisans. Daniel Mays appears as Tivik. Rian Johnson and Ram Bergman, director and producer of Star Wars: The Last Jedi, respectively, cameo as two Death Star technicians. Richard Franklin plays one of the Death Star engineers.
Rogue One is the first film in the Star Wars Anthology series, a series of stand - alone spin - off films in the Star Wars franchise. Kathleen Kennedy explained that the stand - alone films would not cross over with the films of the sequel trilogy, stating:
George was so clear as to how that works. The canon that he created was the Star Wars saga. Right now, Episode VII falls within that canon. The spinoff movies, or we may come up with some other way to call those films, they exist within that vast universe that he created. There is no attempt being made to carry characters (from the stand - alone films) in and out of the saga episodes. Consequently, from the creative standpoint, it 's a roadmap that George made pretty clear.
John Knoll, visual effects supervisor for the Star Wars prequel trilogy, pitched the idea for the film 10 years before its development; after the Disney acquisition he felt as if he had to pitch it again or forever wonder "what might 've happened if I had ''. In May 2014, Disney announced that Gareth Edwards would direct the film and Gary Whitta would write the script. That October, cinematographer Greig Fraser revealed that he would work on the film. In January 2015, it was revealed that Whitta had completed his work on the script, and would no longer be with the project. Simon Kinberg was considered as a replacement. Later in the month, it was announced that Chris Weitz had signed to write the script for the film. In March 2015, the title was announced.
In July 2016, discussing whether the film would feature an opening crawl, Kennedy said, "we 're in the midst of talking about it, but I do n't think these (Anthology) films will have an opening crawl. '' Edwards said: "The idea is this film is supposed to be different than the saga films... (however,) this film is born out of a crawl. The thing that inspired this movie was a crawl and what was written in that. There 's this feeling that if we did a crawl, then it 'll create another movie. And so the honest answer is you 'll have to wait and see. '' That same month, at the 2016 Star Wars Celebration, Edwards said the title had three meanings: "a military sign '', referring to the Red Squadron from A New Hope; "the ' rogue ' one '' of the franchise, given that it is the first film to not be part of the main saga; and a description of Jyn Erso 's personality. In November 2016, Kennedy confirmed that the film would not feature an opening crawl, instead beginning in "a way that is traditional, with just the title. ''
Edwards stated that the style of the film would be similar to that of a war film, stating, "It 's the reality of war. Good guys are bad. Bad guys are good. It 's complicated, layered; a very rich scenario in which to set a movie. ''
In January 2015, The Hollywood Reporter stated that numerous actresses, including Tatiana Maslany, Rooney Mara, and Felicity Jones were being tested for the film 's lead. In February 2015, it was announced that Jones was in final talks to star in the film, while Aaron Paul and Édgar Ramírez were being eyed for the male lead role. In March 2015, Jones was officially cast. In March 2015, Deadline.com reported a rumor that Ben Mendelsohn was being considered for a lead role. The next month, TheWrap reported that Sam Claflin was being eyed for a role, while Riz Ahmed was in negotiations to join the film. In May, Mendelsohn, Ahmed, and Diego Luna were added to the cast of the film, in the lead roles. Forest Whitaker was added to the cast in June 2015. In July 2015, Jonathan Aris was cast to play Senator Jebel. Genevieve O'Reilly was cast as Mon Mothma, reprising her role from Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith. James Earl Jones was confirmed to return as the voice of Darth Vader in June 2016.
Principal photography on the film began at Elstree Studios, in Hertfordshire, on August 8, 2015. Much of the other photography was completed at or near Pinewood Studios at Buckinghamshire, UK where huge sets were built to complement scenes filmed elsewhere in the world. The film was shot using Ultra Panavision 70 lenses with Arri Alexa 65 large format digital 6K cameras.
Filming locations were used around the world. In Iceland, the crew shot in Reynisfjara, and around the mountains of Hjörleifshöfði and Hafursey at Mýrdalssandur, which were used to represent Lah'mu and Eadu. Also used were the Krafla area with its volcanic crater and around Lake Mývatn 's rock formations. The islands of Gan and Baresdhoo of the Laamu Atoll in the Maldives, as well as RAF Bovingdon, were used to represent Scarif. Wadi Rum in Jordan was used to represent Jedha. Pymmes Park in Edmonton, London was also used for location filming, and scenes set on Yavin 4 were filmed at RAF Cardington. Gareth Edwards selected the London Underground 's Canary Wharf station as a location for a chase scene in an Imperial base; the location shoot took place between midnight and 4 am, when the station was closed to the public.
The film spent a total of $265 million and received a $45 million subsidy from the United Kingdom 's film incentive program.
On February 11, 2016, Disney executives stated that the film was "virtually completed ''. Several weeks of pre-scheduled reshoots began in mid-June 2016. In August 2016, The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Tony Gilroy had spearheaded the reshoots, in lieu of Edwards, and that Gilroy would have just as much say in the final cut of the film as Edwards. Gilroy was initially brought on in order to retool the ending of the film, which was not coming together as hoped under Edwards 's direction. Fearing that Disney would require the survival of at least some of the new characters, an alternate, happier ending was conceived with characters Jyn and Cassian escaping the destruction of Scarif; when it became apparent that Disney would accept the deaths of those characters, the producers opted for the more tragic ending they had envisioned. At least some footage from the unused ending was produced and made it into early trailers.
Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) produced the film 's visual effects. ILM used CGI and digitally altered archive footage to insert Peter Cushing 's likeness over the body of actor Guy Henry. Lucasfilm secured permission from the late actor 's estate to include him in the film. The team reportedly searched through countless hours of Cushing footage in order to find suitable material to build from, then Henry provided the motion capture and voice work with the reference material augmented and mapped over his performance like a digital body mask. Cushing 's family were heavily involved with the creation and had input right down to "small, subtle adjustments ''. Cushing 's mannerisms, including his manner of speaking and facial tics, were studied by the visual effects artists and applied to the digital Tarkin. A similar process was used in the portrayal of Princess Leia; Carrie Fisher 's appearance as Leia in the first film was superimposed over Norwegian actress Ingvild Deila 's face and archival audio of Fisher saying "Hope '' was used to voice the character.
Post-production wrapped on November 28, 2016.
In March 2015, it was reported that Alexandre Desplat, who had worked with Edwards on Godzilla, would compose the score for Rogue One. Despite rumors that a contract had not been initially set in place by Lucasfilm, Desplat confirmed in an April 2016 interview that he would serve as composer for the film. Concerning the film, Desplat commented that "(Edwards and I) had a great partnership on Godzilla, and I ca n't wait to be starting with him. It will be in a few weeks from now, and it is very exciting and frightening at the same time because it 's such a legendary project. To be called to come after John Williams... it 's a great challenge for me. '' However, in September 2016, it was announced that Michael Giacchino would be replacing Desplat as composer, after the film 's reshoots altered the post-production schedule, and reportedly left Desplat no longer available.
Giacchino only had four and a half weeks to compose the music for the film, beginning almost immediately after finishing production on Doctor Strange. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly in November 2016, Giacchino stated: "It is a film that is in many ways a really great World War II movie, and I loved that about it. But it also has this huge, huge heart at the center of it, and that was the one thing I just did n't want to discount. Yes, it 's an action movie, and it 's a Star Wars film, and it has all the things that you would come to expect and love about that, but I did n't want to forget that it was also an incredibly emotional movie as well. That was what really pulled me in. ''
Giacchino incorporated John Williams ' themes from previous films into the score. The official soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records on December 16, 2016.
All music was composed by Giacchino except where noted. Giacchino, who has a history of using track titles that contain wordplay, shared his alternate list in the liner notes of the soundtrack release. These names are listed in the notes.
Rogue One premiered at the Pantages Theatre in Los Angeles on December 10, 2016. The film was released in certain European countries on December 14, 2016, and was released in North America on December 16, with China getting the film on January 6, 2017.
Promotion of Rogue One was initially delayed by the release of the film Mission: Impossible -- Rogue Nation in July 2015, because the titles are similar. Paramount Pictures registered and cleared the title with the Motion Picture Association of America in January 2015, well before Disney announced the title of its forthcoming Star Wars spinoff. Disney and Lucasfilm had to reach an agreement with Paramount over promotion in order to avoid any confusion in the public mind. Disney agreed to embargo promotion on Rogue One until after mid-2015, with the exception of a very short teaser which was screened at Star Wars Celebration in Anaheim that year.
A teaser trailer for Rogue One, released by Lucasfilm on April 7, 2016, was praised by reviewers for its portrayal of strong female characters. The Daily Telegraph described Jyn Erso 's character as "a roguish, Han Solo - style heroine '', calling the film "progressive '', while noting its painstaking faithfulness to the production design style of the original Star Wars trilogy. The Hollywood Reporter also noted the visual nods to the original trilogy, and examined the film 's possible narrative direction, considering that the outcome is to some extent already revealed in the opening crawl of A New Hope. The Atlantic writer David Sims stated that the trailer brought "back some memorable pieces of architecture, from the lumbering AT - AT walkers to the Death Star itself, not to mention the glorious 70s costuming of Star Wars. '' He added that the trailer has "the look '', blending the old with the new. The trailer was viewed close to 30 million times in its first 29 hours, at a rate of 800,000 views per hour, from Facebook and YouTube, which is 200,000 views shy of what the first teaser trailer for Star Wars: The Force Awakens was receiving in November 2014.
In June 2016, Rogue One was promoted at the Star Wars Celebration Europe III event in London. During the event, a new official poster was unveiled, which depicts a battle taking place on the tropical planet Scarif, with the Death Star looming large in a blue sky, above which is printed the tagline "A Rebellion Built on Hope ''. A second teaser trailer was also unveiled, screened exclusively for the Celebration audience, and not streamed online. This new trailer was reviewed favorably by critics; The Daily Telegraph noted that the trailer revealed new locations such as the planets Jedha and Scarif, and that its most significant revelation came in the final seconds of the teaser, with the appearance of Darth Vader, reflected in a computer screen and accompanied by his classic breathing sound effect. Variety also hailed the Vader reveal, and noted that the emphasis of the production was much more on the kinetic depiction of large battle sequences and full - on warfare, comparing it to Francis Ford Coppola 's 1979 Vietnam War epic Apocalypse Now. A showreel was also shown during the event, which featured footage from the film, cut with behind - the - scenes shots and interviews with the director and cast members. The second trailer was shown publicly during a broadcast of the 2016 Summer Olympics and received favourable media reviews; Wired stated that the trailer was "littered with nostalgic throwbacks to the original trilogy '', while Rolling Stone described the CGI landscape shots seen in the footage as "eye - poppingly gorgeous ''.
A further trailer released in October 2016 prompted The Hollywood Reporter to comment that the newly revealed footage looked like "a trailer to a different movie than the one advertised earlier '', remarking that Jyn Erso appeared to be portrayed as a more vulnerable character, and highlighting the appearance of Galen Erso as a protective father figure. Vanity Fair also commented on the emphasis given to Jyn 's relationship with her father, suggesting that Rogue One was drawing on "the Star Wars franchise 's greatest natural resource: daddy issues ''.
The film 's publicity tour began in Mexico on November 23, 2016.
In Asia, Disney focused marketing efforts on Donnie Yen, where his individual poster is used for marketing in territories including Japan, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, Hong Kong, China, Vietnam and Malaysia. The official Star Wars Facebook page of the respective Asian countries also featured clips and videos of Donnie Yen speaking various languages, greeting fans and telling them to support the film. In addition, Disney also released various versions of international trailers with more footage of Yen.
Rogue One was released on Digital HD on March 24, 2017, and by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D and DVD on April 4, 2017.
Rogue One grossed $532.2 million in the United States and Canada and $523.8 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.056 billion. On January 21, 2017, the film became Disney 's fourth of 2016 to earn $1 billion in ticket sales, joining Captain America: Civil War, Zootopia and Finding Dory. It is the second highest - grossing film of 2016, the third highest - grossing Star Wars film, and the 22nd highest - grossing film of all time, all unadjusted for inflation. It is also the third Star Wars film to gross over $1 billion worldwide, following The Phantom Menace and The Force Awakens. In the United States, it was the top - grossing film of 2016. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $319.6 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the 3rd most profitable release of 2016.
In late November 2016, box office projections for the United States and Canada had the film grossing $100 -- 150 million during its opening weekend. Disney chairman Bob Iger noted that Disney and Lucasfilm did not expect Rogue One to match The Force Awakens ' total gross of $2.1 billion, nor its $248 million opening. Pre-sale tickets for the film went on sale at 12: 01 AM EST on November 28, 2016. Within 10 minutes, ticket sale sites such as Fandango crashed, much like they had in advance of The Force Awakens the year prior. In its first 24 hours, the film had the second - highest number of pre-sale tickets ever sold, behind only The Force Awakens. Worldwide, the film was expected to gross $280 -- 350 million in its opening weekend.
In the United States, the film made $29 million from its Thursday night previews, making it the highest grossing Thursday opening of 2016. On Friday, the film earned $71.1 million, earning the 12th highest grossing opening day of all time. The film grossed $46.3 million on Saturday, securing a total of $155.1 million in its opening weekend, the third biggest debut of 2016. It topped the box office once again in its second weekend, grossing $64 million (down 58.7 %) over the three day weekend, and $96.1 million over the four day weekend. On Christmas Day, it grossed $25.9 million. It finished first at the box office again in its third weekend, grossing $49.6 million (- 22.5 %) over the three day weekend and $65.5 million over the four day weekend, becoming the seventh film of 2016 to top the box office three times, following Deadpool, Zootopia, The Jungle Book, Finding Dory, Suicide Squad, and Moana. In its fourth weekend, Sunday projections had the film grossing $22 million, besting newcomer Hidden Figures ' $21.8 million. However, final figures the following day revealed the film tallied a weekend total of $21.9 million, falling to second place behind Hidden Figures ' $22.8 million.
Rogue One received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 85 % based on 371 reviews with an average rating of 7.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Rogue One draws deep on Star Wars mythology while breaking new narrative and aesthetic ground -- and suggesting a bright blockbuster future for the franchise. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score 65 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
IGN reviewer Eric Goldman gave the film 9 / 10, saying, "Rogue One is a movie crammed with fan service, but when fan service is done this well, there 's little to complain about and much to adore. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, writing, "this spin - off / prequel has the same primitive, lived - in, emotional, loopy, let 's - put - on - a-show spirit that made us fall in love with the original trilogy. '' / Film gave Rogue One 8 / 10, writing that the film is enjoyable but does not have the emotional weight of The Force Awakens, because "no character in Rogue One was strongly compelling ''. PopMatters wrote, "Rogue One seems to enjoy spending time on a whole new batch of moons and planets we have n't seen before, reveling in the clutter and clamor of far - flung settlements where anti-Imperial sentiments fester. But the film is bogged down in engineering the complex maneuverings of spy games, dogfights, and the most sprawling Rebel - versus - Empire land battle scene since the opening of The Empire Strikes Back. '' Justin Chang, writing for the Los Angeles Times, called Rogue One "a swiftly paced, rough - and - ready entertainment. ''
The New York Times wrote, "All the pieces are there, in other words, like Lego figures in a box. The problem is that the filmmakers have n't really bothered to think of anything very interesting to do with them. A couple of 9 - year - olds on a screen - free rainy afternoon would come up with better adventures, and probably also better dialogue. '' Richard Brody of The New Yorker called the film "lobotomized and "depersonalized '', and wrote it "is n't so much a movie as a feature - length promotional film for itself; it 's a movie that is still waiting to be made. '' The Washington Post wrote "Rogue One represents an unobjectionable exercise in franchise extension. It 's fine. It 'll do. For now. ''
IndieWire 's David Ehrlich gave the film a C+ rating, calling it "a spirited but agonizingly safe attempt to expand cinema 's most holy blockbuster franchise and keep the wheels greased between proper installments (...) just a glorified excuse to retcon some sense into one of the silliest things about the original. '' While he praised the set design and visuals, calling them "gorgeous '', he criticized a lack of interesting character development and a script that felt "completely constricted by its purpose. ''
Peter Bradshaw, film critic of The Guardian says "Rogue One does n't really go rogue at any stage, and it is n't a pop culture event like The Force Awakens, in whose slipstream this appears; part of its charm resides in the eerie, almost dreamlike effect of continually producing familiar elements, reshuffled and reconfigured, a reaching back to the past and hinting at a preordained future. There are some truly spectacular cameos from much - loved personae, involving next - level digital effects -- almost creepily exact, so that watching feels at various stages like going into a time machine, back to the 80s and 70s ''.
Rogue One introduced many new characters into the Star Wars mythology, with Chirrut Îmwe, played by Donnie Yen, and K - 2SO, played by Alan Tudyk, being the most popular. Yen 's performance, in particular, was also applauded by audiences worldwide. In a poll on the official Star Wars website in May 2017, in which more 30,000 people voted, Chirrut Îmwe was voted as the most popular Rogue One character.
While much of the computer - generated imagery (CGI) received plaudits, some news organizations published criticism about certain aspects, including the visual effects (VFX) that were used to revive Peter Cushing, who died in 1994, as Grand Moff Tarkin. The Guardian 's Catherine Shoard described the "resurrection '' as a "digital indignity ''. Joseph Walsh of The Guardian raised legal and ethical issues about bringing a long - dead actor to life. However, Lucasfilm had obtained permission from Peter Cushing 's estate before deciding to use his likeness. The Washington Times 's Eric Althoff rejected the entire concept of using CGI to recreate a deceased actor: "Alas, what we get is, basically, not a simulation, but an approximation of a simulation -- a dead character portrayed by a living actor inhabiting not the character, but imitating the dead actor. ''
Some journalists also criticized the quality of the CGI that was used to represent a younger Carrie Fisher in order to portray Princess Leia at an earlier time, as well as its suitability in movie - making. Eliana Dockterman of Time wrote that "there was something particularly plastic about this version of the young Carrie Fisher -- so smooth and so perfect it could n't be real -- that pulled me out of the moment. '' Kelly Lawler of USA Today said: "... while Tarkin is merely unnerving, the Leia cameo is so jarring as to take the audience completely out of the film at its most emotional moment. Leia 's appearance was meant to help the film end on a hopeful note (quite literally, as ' hope ' is her line), but instead it ends on a weird and unsettling one. '' Michael Cavna of The Washington Post described the facial effect as feeling "distractingly artificial and nearly alien, like a plastered death mask robbed of authentic actorly effect, well beyond the usual artifice of Botox. ''
Characters from the film appeared in the second half of the animated television series Star Wars Rebels, starting with Saw Gerrera in the Season 3 mid-season one - hour special episode "Ghosts of Geonosis ''. The Imperial Death Troopers appeared in that season 's one - hour finale, "Zero Hour ''. More characters and vehicles that were first introduced in the film appear in the series ' fourth and final season, while the film 's main antagonist, Orson Krennic, is mentioned by name.
A tie - in novel to the film, Catalyst: A Rogue One Novel, was released on November 15, 2016. Written by veteran Star Wars novelist James Luceno, the story is set some years before the events of Rogue One, and provides a backstory to the 2016 film. Rogue One: A Star Wars Story was written by Alexander Freed, and was released on December 16, 2016.
Months after the film was released, Disney Lucasfilm Press published another novel titled Star Wars: Rebel Rising on May 2, 2017. Written by Beth Revis, the novel explains what happened to Jyn Erso between the time her mother died and the day when Rebel agents freed her from an Imperial labor camp, a time period that the film skips over in its opening minutes.
Months after the film was released, Marvel Comics adapted the film into a six - part comic book miniseries, which adds extra content. The miniseries ' complete collection was released on December 12, 2017.
In August 2017, IDW Publishing announced that it will make a one - shot graphic novel adaptation of the film, which was released one day after the Marvel miniseries ' collection was released. Unlike the Marvel miniseries, this graphic novel will have slightly more cartoony visuals.
A downloadable expansion pack was released for the Star Wars Battlefront reboot, titled Rogue One: Scarif, that allows players the ability to play through the various locations, characters and set pieces from the planet introduced in Rogue One. A free virtual reality mission for PlayStation 4 was also released alongside the expansion. Several characters and concepts from the film were also included in the mobile games Star Wars: Force Arena, Star Wars Commander and Star Wars: Galaxy of Heroes, all available on iOS and Android.
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what is one unit of alcohol in the uk | Unit of alcohol - wikipedia
Units of alcohol are used in the United Kingdom (UK) as a measure to quantify the actual alcoholic content within a given volume of an alcoholic beverage, in order to provide guidance on total alcohol consumption.
A number of other countries (including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the US) use the concept of a standard drink, the definition of which varies from country to country, for the same purpose. Standard drinks were referred to in the first UK guidelines (1984) that published "safe limits '' for drinking, but these were replaced by references to "alcohol units '' in the 1987 guidelines and the latter term has been used in all subsequent UK guidance.
One unit of alcohol (UK) is defined as 10 millilitres (8 grams) of pure alcohol. Typical drinks (i.e., typical quantities or servings of common alcoholic beverages) may contain 1 -- 3 units of alcohol.
Containers of alcoholic beverages sold directly to UK consumers are normally labelled to indicate the number of units of alcohol in a typical serving of the beverage (optional) and in the full container (can or bottle), as well as information about responsible drinking.
As an approximate guideline, a typical healthy adult can metabolise (break down) about one unit of alcohol per hour, although this may vary depending on sex, age, weight, health, and many other factors.
The number of UK units of alcohol in a drink can be determined by multiplying the volume of the drink (in millilitres) by its percentage ABV, and dividing by 1000.
For example, one imperial pint (568 ml) of beer at 4 % alcohol by volume (ABV) contains:
The formula uses ml ÷ 1000. This results in exactly one unit per percentage point per litre, of any alcoholic beverage.
The formula can be simplified for everyday use by expressing the serving size in centilitres and the alcohol content literally as a percentage.
Thus, a 750 ml bottle of wine at 12 % ABV contains 75 cl × 12 % = 9 units. Alternatively, the serving size in litres multiplied by the alcohol content as a number, the above example giving 0.75 × 12 = 9 units.
Both pieces of input data are usually mentioned in this form on the bottle, so is easy to retrieve.
UK alcohol companies pledged in March 2011 to implement an innovative health labelling scheme to provide more information about responsible drinking on alcohol labels and containers. This voluntary scheme is the first of its kind in Europe and has been developed in conjunction with the UK Department of Health. The pledge stated:
At the end of 2014, 101 companies had committed to the pledge labelling scheme.
There are five elements included within the overall labelling scheme, the first three being mandatory, and the last two optional:
Drinks companies had pledged to display the three mandatory items on 80 % of drinks containers on shelves in the UK off - trade by the end of December 2013. A report published in Nov 2014, confirmed that UK drinks producers had delivered on that pledge with a 79.3 % compliance with the pledge elements as measured by products on shelf. Compared with labels from 2008 on a like - for - like basis, information on Unit alcohol content had increased by 46 %; 91 % of products displayed alcohol and pregnancy warnings (18 % in 2008); and 75 % showed the Chief Medical Officers ' lower risk daily guidelines (6 % in 2008).
It is sometimes misleadingly stated that there is one unit per half - pint of beer, or small glass of wine, or single measure of spirits. However, such statements do not take into account the various strengths and volumes supplied in practice.
For example, the ABV of beer typically varies from 3.5 % to 5.5 %. A typical "medium '' glass of wine with 175 ml at 12 % ABV has 2.1 units. And spirits, although typically 35 -- 40 % ABV, have single measures of 25 ml or 35 ml (so 1 or 1.4 units) depending on location.
The misleading nature of "one unit per half - pint of beer, or small glass of wine, or single measure of spirits '' can lead to people underestimating their alcohol intake.
Most spirits sold in the United Kingdom have 40 % ABV or slightly less. In England, a single pub measure (25 ml) of a spirit contains one unit. However, a larger 35 ml measure is increasingly used (and in particular is standard in Northern Ireland), which contains 1.4 units of alcohol at 40 % ABV. Sellers of spirits by the glass must state the capacity of their standard measure in ml.
On average, it takes about one hour for the body to metabolise (break down) one unit of alcohol. However, this will vary with body weight, sex, age, personal metabolic rate, recent food intake, the type and strength of the alcohol, and medications taken. Alcohol may be metabolised more slowly if liver function is impaired.
From 1992 to 1995, the UK government advised that men should drink no more than 21 units per week, and women no more than 14. (The difference between the sexes was due to the typically lower weight and water - to - body - mass ratio of women.) The Times reported in October 2007 that these limits had been "plucked out of the air '' and had no scientific basis.
This was changed after a government study showed that many people were in effect "saving up '' their units and using them at the end of the week, a phenomenon referred to as binge drinking. Since 1995 the advice was that regular consumption of 3 -- 4 units a day for men, or 2 -- 3 units a day for women, would not pose significant health risks, but that consistently drinking four or more units a day (men), or three or more units a day (women), is not advisable.
An international study of about 6,000 men and 11,000 women for a total of 75,000 person - years found that people who reported that they drank more than a threshold value of 2 units of alcohol a day had a higher risk of fractures than non-drinkers. For example, those who drank over 3 units a day had nearly twice the risk of a hip fracture.
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when did it become law to use car seats | Child safety seat - wikipedia
A child safety seat (infant safety seat, child restraint system, child seat, baby seat, restraining car seat, car seat, etc.) is a seat designed specifically to protect children from injury or death during vehicle collisions. Most commonly these seats are purchased and installed by consumers, but car manufacturers may integrate them directly into their vehicle 's design and generally are required to provide anchors and to ensure seat belt compatibility. Many jurisdictions require children defined by age, weight, and / or height to use a government - approved child safety seat when riding in a vehicle. Child safety seats provide passive restraints and must be properly used to be effective. However, research indicates many child safety restraints are often not used properly. To tackle this negative trend, health officials and child safety experts produce child safety videos to teach proper car seat installation to parents and caregivers.
Baby car seats are legally required in many countries, including most Western developed countries, to safely transport children up to the age of 2 or more years in cars and other vehicles.
Other car seats, also known as "booster seats, '' are required until the child is large enough to use an adult seat belt. This is usually, but not always, when the child is 1.45 m (4 ft 9 in) tall. The child needs to meet five criteria before moving out of the booster seat, including the child 's seating position, shoulder belt position, lap belt position, knee position, and ability to sit properly for the length of the trip.
Generally, countries that regulate passenger safety have child safety laws that require a child to be restrained appropriately depending on their age and weight. These regulations and standards are often minimums, and with each graduation to the next kind of safety seat, there is a step down in the amount of protection a child has in a collision. Some countries, such as Australia and the United States, forbid rear - facing child seats in a front seat that has an airbag. A rear - facing infant restraint put in the front seat of a vehicle places an infant 's head close to the airbag, which can cause severe head injuries or death if the airbag deploys. Some modern cars include a switch to disable the front passenger airbag for child - supporting seat use.
In 2003, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) suggested that infants "should spend minimal time in car seats (when not a passenger in a vehicle) or other seating that maintains supine positioning '' to avoid developing positional plagiocephaly ("flat head syndrome '').
In 1990, the ISO standard ISOFIX was launched in an attempt to provide a standard for fixing car seats into different makes of car. The standard now includes a top tether; the U.S. version of this system is called LATCH. Generally, the ISOFIX system can be used with Groups 0, 0 + and 1.
In 2013, a new car seat regulation was introduced: "i - Size '' is the name of a new European safety regulation that affects car seats for children under 15 months of age. It came into effect in July 2013 and provides extra protection in several ways, most notably by providing rearward facing travel for children up to 15 months instead of 9 to 12 months, which the previous EU regulation advised.
Since the first car was manufactured and put on the market in the early 1900s, many modifications and adjustments have been implemented to protect those that drive and ride in motorized vehicles. Most restraints were put into place to protect adults without regard for young children. Though child seats were beginning to be manufactured in the early 1930s, their purpose was not the safety of children. The purpose was to act as booster seats to bring the child to a height easier for the driving parent to see them. It was not until 1962 that two designs with the purpose of protecting a child were developed independently. British inventor Jean Ames created a rear - facing child seat with a Y - shaped strap similar to today 's models. American Leonard Rivkin, of Denver Colorado, designed a forward - facing seat with a metal frame to protect the child. It is noted that seat belts for adults were not standard equipment in automobiles until the 1960s.
There are several types of car seats, which vary in the position of the child and size of the seat. The United Nations European Regional standard ECE R44 / 04 categorizes these into 4 groups: 0 - 3. Many car seats combine the larger groups 1, 2 and 3. Some new car models includes stock restraint seats by default.
Group 0 baby seats, or infant carriers, keep the baby locked up in a rear - facing position and are secured in place by a standard adult seat belt and / or an ISOFIX fitting.
Group 0 carrycots hold the baby lying on its back.
Carrycots are secured by both seat belts in the rear seat of the car. Both types have handles to allow them to be easily moved into and out of the car.
Car Seat - Middle Back Seat
Car Seat - Not in Front Seat
Carrycots or infant car beds are used for children that can not sit in a regular baby seat, such as premature infants or infants that suffer from apnea. A carrycot is a restraint system intended to accommodate and restrain the child in a supine or prone position with the child 's spine perpendicular to the median longitudinal plane of the vehicle. Carrycots are designed to distribute the restraining forces over the child 's head and body, excluding its limbs, in the event of a big crash. It must be put on the rear seat of the car. Some models can be changed to face forward after the baby has reached the weight limit which is normally about 15 - 20 kilograms.
Carrycots generally include a stomach belt and a connection to the (three points) safety belt.
' Infant carrier ' means a restraint system intended to accommodate the child in a rearward - facing semi-recumbent position. This design distributes the restraining forces over the child 's head and body, excluding its limbs, in the event of the frontal collision.
For young infants, the seat used is an infant carrier with typical weight recommendations of 5 - 20 lb. Most infant seats made in the US can now be used up to at least 22 pounds (10.0 kg) and 29 inches (74 cm), with some going up to 35 pounds (16 kg). In the past, most infant seats in the US went to 20 pounds (9.1 kg) and 26 inches (66 cm). Infant carriers are often also called "Bucket Seats '' as they resemble a bucket with a handle. Some (but not all) seats can be used with the base secured, or with the carrier strapped in alone. Some seats do not have bases. Infant carriers are mounted rear - facing and are designed to "cocoon '' against the back of the vehicle seat in the event of a collision, with the impact being absorbed in the outer shell of the restraint. Rear - facing seats are deemed the safest, and in the US children must remain in this position until they are at least 1 year of age and at least 20 pounds (9.1 kg). although it is recommended to keep them rear - facing until at least 2 years old or until they outgrow the rear - facing car seat height and weight, whichever is longer.
Group 0 + car seats commonly have a chassis permanently fixed into the car by an adult seat belt and can be placed into some form of baby transport using the integral handle if it is the specific model. Rear - facing child seats are inherently safer than forward - facing child seats because they provide more support for the child 's head in the event of a sudden deceleration. Although some parents are eager to switch to a forward - facing child seat because it seems more "grown up, '' various countries and car seat manufacturers recommend that children continue to use a rear - facing child seat for as long as physically possible
Convertible seats can be used throughout many stages. Many convertible seats will transition from a rear - facing seat, to a forward - facing seat, and some then can be used as a booster seat. Many convertible seats allow for 2.3 -- 18 kg (5 - 40 lb.) rear - facing, allowing children to be in the safer rear - facing position up to a weight of 18 kg (40 lbs).
Convertible safety seats can be installed as either rear - facing or forward - facing. There is a large selection available to choose from and weight limits, height limits, and extra features vary from seat to seat and by manufacturer. Seats with a 5 - point harness are considered safer than those with an overhead shield
Convertibles are n't considered the best choice for a newborn because the bottom harness slots are often above the shoulders of most newborns. A seat with low bottom harness slots can be used if it is desired to use a convertible from birth.
Rear - facing weight limits range from 20 to 50 lb (9.1 to 22.7 kg) depending on the manufacturer and country of origin. Forward - facing limits range from 20 to 90 lb (9.1 to 40.8 kg) depending on the seat model and the manufacturer and country of origin.
Most convertible seats in the U.S. have at least a 35 pounds (16 kg) rear - facing weight limit, most now to go to 40 pounds (18 kg), some 45 pounds (20 kg) and a few 50 pounds (23 kg). The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that children remain rear - facing until they outgrow their convertible seat, regardless of how old they are. Children can remain in a rear - facing seat until they have either outgrown the weight limit for their seat, or the top of their head is within 1 inch (25 mm) of the top of the shell of the car seat.
A permanent fixture in the car using an adult seat belt to hold it in place and a five - point baby harness to hold the infant.
It is recommended that children sit rear - facing for as long as possible. In Scandinavian countries, for example, children sit rear - facing until around 4 years old. Rear - facing car seats are significantly safer in frontal collisions, which are the most likely to cause severe injury and death. Rear - facing group 1 car seats are becoming more widespread but are still difficult to source in many countries.
A larger seat than the Group 1 design. These seats use an adult seat belt to hold the child in place.
Also known as booster seats, these position the child so that the adult seat belt is held in the correct position for safety and comfort.
Booster seats are recommended for children until they are big enough to properly use a seat belt. Seat belts are engineered for adults, and are thus too big for small children. In the United States, for children under the age of 4 and / or under 40 pounds (18 kg), a seat with a 5 - point harness is suggested instead of a booster seat.
Booster seats lift the child and allow the seat belt to sit firmly across the collar bone and chest, with the lap portion fitted to the hips. If the seat belt is not across the collar bone and the hips, it will ride across the neck and the stomach and cause internal injuries in the event of a collision.
There are two main types of boosters: high back (some of which have energy absorbing foam) and no back. A new generation of booster seats comes with rigid Isofix (Latch) connectors that secure to the vehicle 's anchors, improving the seat 's stability in the event of a collision.
The consumer group Which? is calling on manufacturers and retailers to phase out backless boosters, as it says they do n't provide enough protection in side - impact crashes and could put children at risk. So while backless booster cushions are better than using no child seat at all, they do not provide adequate protection in all circumstances.
Used for Groups I, II and III.
After reaching one year of age and 20 pounds (9.1 kg), children may travel in forward - facing seats. Most Scandinavian countries require children to sit rear - facing until at least the age of 4 years. This has contributed to Sweden having the lowest rate of children killed in traffic in international comparisons.
By law (in Canada and some US states), children need to be restrained until they are 4 - years old and 40 pounds (18 kg). After the requirement is met, they can move into a booster seat.
All child restraints have an expiration date. Seats can expire 6 years from the date of manufacture, although this can vary by manufacturer. Expiration dates are highly debated, with proponents and manufacturers claiming that older car seats can degrade over time to be less effective and that changing laws and regulations necessitate an expiration date. Opponents argue that it is simply for their legal protection and to sell more car seats, and point out that manufacturers have noted that the plastics in most car seats long outlast the expiration date. As ageing is due to temperature swings and UV - light, a seat ages faster in a car than in a cool, dark cellar.
Like motorcycle and race car helmets, child restraints are tested for use in just one crash event. This means that if the restraint is compromised in any way (with or without the child in it), owners are strongly suggested to replace it. This is due to the uncertainty with how a compromised child restraint will perform in subsequent crashes.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) provides guidance on the reuse of child restraint systems after a crash. Replacement of child restraints is recommended following a moderate or severe crash in order to ensure a continued high level of protection for child passengers. However, recent studies demonstrate that child restraints can withstand minor crash impacts without any documented degradation in subsequent performance.
A minor crash is defined by the NHTSA as one in which all of the following apply:
Crashes that meet all of these criteria are much less severe than the dynamic testing requirement for compliance with Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 213 and are highly unlikely to affect future child safety seat performance.
Child restraints are sometimes the subject of manufacturing recalls. Recalls vary in severity; sometimes the manufacturer will send an additional part for the seat, other times they will provide an entirely new seat.
The purchase of a used seat is not recommended. Due to the aforementioned concerns regarding expiry dates, crash testing, and recalls, it is often impossible to determine the history of the child restraint when it is purchased second - hand.
Children traveling by plane are safer in a child safety seat than in a parent 's arms. The FAA and the AAP recommend that all children under 40 lb use a child safety seat on a plane. Booster seats can not be used on airplanes because they do n't have shoulder belts.
Parents should not put children into safety seats with thick winter coats on. The coat will flatten in an accident and the straps will not be snug enough to keep the child safe. An alternative would be placing a coat on the child backwards after buckling the child in.
Straps on the harness should be snug on the child, parents should not be able to pinch the straps away from the shoulders of the child. The straps also need to be placed at the proper height for the child.
A study of car crash data from 16 U.S. states found that children under the age of 3 were 43 % less likely to be injured in a car crash if their car seat was fastened in the center of the back seat rather than on one side. Results were based on data from 4,790 car crashes involving children aged 3 and younger between 1998 and 2006. According to data, the center position was the safest but least used position. However, economist Steven Levitt (see below) has demonstrated that car seats do not reduce fatalities when compared to regular seat belts.
The move from having car seats in the front passenger seat to having them in the back seat, facing backwards, may make it easier for a busy, distracted parent to leave an infant in the car. Each year, between 30 and 50 infants die of heat illness and hypothermia in the United States after being left in a car.
Directive 2003 / 20 / EC of the European Parliament and the Council has mandated the use of child - restraint systems in vehicles effective May 5, 2006. Children less than 135 centimetres (53 in) tall in vehicles must be restrained by an approved child restraint system suitable for the child 's size. In practice, child restraint systems must be able to be fitted to the front, or other rows of seats. Children may not be transported using a rearward - facing child restraint system in a passenger seat protected by a front air bag, unless the air bag has been deactivated.
For a child restraint to be sold or used within any of the 56 UNECE member states it must be approved by the standards of UNECE Regulation 44 / 04, Directive 77 / 541 / EEC or any other subsequent adaptation thereto. In order to be granted ECE R44 approval the child restraint must comply with several design, construction and production conformity standards. If approval is granted the seat can display an orange label with the unique approval license number, the type of approval, the mass group approved for and the details of the manufacturer.
However, until May 9, 2008 member states may have permitted the use of child restraint systems approved in accordance with their national standards. EuroNCAP has developed a child - safety - protection rating to encourage improved designs. Points are awarded for universal child - restraint anchorages ISOFIX, the quality of warning labels and deactivation systems for front - passenger airbags.
2013: New EU I - Size regulation is introduced: "i - Size '' is the name of a new European safety regulation, UNECE Regulation 129 that affects car seats for children under 15 months of age. It came into effect in July 2013 and provides extra protection in several ways, most notably by providing rearward facing travel for children up to 15 months instead of 9 to 12 months, which the previous EU regulation advised. Read more about I - Size. This new regulation is to be phased in between 2013 and 2018 and will be run in parallel to UNECE R44 / 04 until 2018 when it completely supersedes it.
Australian laws regarding infants in motor vehicles were revised on November 9, 2009.
By law every child restraint sold in Australia must carry the Australian Standard AS / NZ1754 sticker (pictured right). Most overseas child restraints, including restraints from Europe and the USA, do not comply with these Standards and can not legally be used in Australia. This also applies for ISOFIX child restraints imported from Europe or the USA.
In Australia there are six different types (Type A to Type F) of child restraints under the mandatory standard. Note: these restraints are NOT based on weight but on HEIGHT. All car seats with the AS / NZ1754 sticker will have height markers. These markers show clearly for what height the seat is appropriate.
The six types are:
Combination Type A / B: Child restraints can also be a combination of the above types. For example, a Type A / B converter seat.
The responsibility for children under the age of 16 using restraints or safety belts correctly rests with the driver. In Queensland, penalties for drivers not ensuring that passengers under the age of 16 are properly restrained involve a fine of A $300 and three demerit points. In Victoria the penalty is a fine of A $234 and three demerit points. Possible suspension or cancellation of license may also apply.
The Israeli regulation states that a Sal Kal (he: סל קל lit. easy basket) is equal to European group 0 and group 0 + regulations
An Urban legend in Israel states that nursery homes and hospitals will not allow exit with an infant if a SalKal (infant carry one safety seat) is not presented.
NZ Transport Agency governs the rules and sets standards for the health and safety aspects with respect to child restraints in New Zealand. Their guidelines dictate the minimum legal requirements for a New Zealand vehicle from the safety perspective. The correct fitting of a car seat can protect individuals and can be a lifesaver. This page provides details on qualified seat installation processes and approved standardized marks to look out for in child restraints. The Agency trains and certifies NZTA certified child restraint technicians who are authorized to install child safety seats.
Special rules apply to children travelling in vehicles first registered (in New Zealand or elsewhere) before 1 November 1979 since these vehicles are not required to be fitted with seat belts on all seats.
All child restraints must meet the standards set by the NZ Transport Agency. There are different marks to indicate this approval from the safety perspective. Approved marks / symbols are shown in the table below:
The number after ' E ' in the ECE 44 standard indicates as to which country certifies the child restraint. Hence the number differs between countries. The EU (European Union) also has similar symbols to indicate safety standards for children travelling in a vehicle.
From September 18, 2006, All children under the age of 12 have to use some form of child car seat, unless they are taller than 135 cm (4 ft 5in).
Though there are hundreds of variations of makes and models in the world of child safety seats, the materials used in the manufacturing process are basically the same. Factories in which the seats are put together receive loads of polypropylene pellets. Foam makes up the padding of the individual seats, while vinyl and fabrics are used to make up the covers for the seats as well as the harnesses.
A safety seat increases the safety of a properly restrained child in the case of a motor vehicle accident. The safety seat includes foam padding, fabric covers, a harness, and buckles or attaching mechanisms. Labels and instructions are also attached. Every child safety seat will have an expiration date on it. The Safe Kids USA organization does not recommend using a child safety seat that is more than 6 years old. Periodically, child safety seats are recalled by manufacturers for safety reasons. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration posts a link to recent recall information at nhtsa.gov.
There are different types of child safety seats for children of different sizes and ages.
Manufacturers have quality controls to ensure seats are properly put together and packaged. However, it is not guaranteed that the included instructions are always adhered to and correctly followed. Up to 95 % of the safety seats that are installed may not be the right seat for the child, may be hooked into the vehicle loosely, may be hooked with an incompatible belt in the vehicle, may have harnesses incorrectly fastened in some way, or may be incorrectly placed in front of air bags. In 1997, six out of ten children who were killed in vehicle crashes were not correctly restrained.
Along with the problem of instructions not being followed properly, there are other hazards that can affect children involving these safety seats. A recent study attributed many cases of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) to the prolonged sitting or lying position these infants are in when putting the safety seats to use. When researchers reviewed more than 500 infant deaths, it was found that 17 of these deaths occurred while the infant was in a device such as a child safety seat. The age of the most occurring rates of death by SIDS in a child safety device was found to be under one month, having six of the 17 deaths happen in this age group. Although SIDS has been found to be a high risk regarding child safety seats, a coroner in Quebec also stated that "putting infants in car seats... causes breathing problems and should be discouraged. '' His warning came after the death of a two - month - old boy who was left to nap in a child safety seat positioned inside his crib rather than the crib itself. The death was linked to positional asphyxiation. This means that the child was in a position causing him to slowly lose his supply of oxygen. Coroner Jacques Robinson said it 's common for a baby 's head to slump forward while in a car seat that is not properly installed in a car and that can diminish a baby 's ability to take in oxygen. "The car seat is for the car, '' he said. "It 's not for a bed or sleeping. '' Robinson added, however, he has nothing against car seats when they are properly used. The coroner said that it is common for a baby 's head to "slump forward while in a car seat and that it diminishes oxygen ''.
The American Academy of Pediatrics says to "make sure the seat is at the correct angle so your infant 's head does not flop forward. Many seats have angle indicators or adjusters that can help prevent this. If your seat does not have an angle adjuster, tilt the car safety seat back by putting a rolled towel or other firm padding (such as a pool noodle) under the base near the point where the back and bottom of the vehicle seat meet. '' Safety seats come with an instruction booklet with additional information on the appropriate angle for the seat.
There has been some criticism of forward - facing child safety seats, in particular by the economist Steven D. Levitt, author of the popular book Freakonomics. In a 2005 article in the New York Times, Levitt suggests that the available data does not support the necessity of forward - facing child safety seats for children over two years old, arguing that the cheaper and simpler alternative of seat belts offers similar protection as forward - facing seats. Levitt was a guest at the TED conference in the same year, and gave a lecture making the same case. Levitt 's study and findings have been criticized and refuted by subsequent peer reviewed studies, which found child safety seats offer a considerable safety advantage over seat belts alone.
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did patrick swayze surf in the movie point break | Point Break - wikipedia
Point Break is a 1991 American action crime thriller film directed by Kathryn Bigelow, starring Patrick Swayze, Keanu Reeves, Lori Petty and Gary Busey. The title refers to the surfing term "point break, '' where a wave breaks as it hits a point of land jutting out from the coastline. Reeves stars as rookie FBI agent Johnny Utah, who is investigating a string of bank robberies possibly being committed by surfers. Johnny goes undercover to infiltrate the surfing community and develops a complex friendship with Bodhi (Swayze), the charismatic leader of a gang of surfers.
The film was a box office success upon its release, with an $83.5 million gross and a budget of $24 million, and has since gained cult status.
Former Ohio State Buckeyes quarterback and rookie FBI Agent Johnny Utah is assigned to assist experienced agent and veteran Angelo Pappas in investigating a string of bank robberies by the "Ex-Presidents '', a gang of robbers who wear face - masks depicting former US presidents Ronald Reagan, Richard Nixon, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Jimmy Carter to disguise their true identities. They raid only the cash drawers in the banks that they rob -- never going for the vault -- and are out within 90 seconds.
Pursuing Pappas 's theory that the criminals are surfers, Utah goes undercover to infiltrate the surfing community. He fabricates a personal family tragedy in order to persuade orphaned surfer Tyler Endicott to teach him to surf, after she saved him from drowning during his first attempt at surfing. Through her, he meets Bodhi, the charismatic leader of a gang of surfers consisting of Roach, Grommet, and Nathaniel. The group are initially wary of Utah, but accept him when Bodhi recognizes him as the former college football star. As he masters the art of surfing, Utah finds himself increasingly drawn to the surfers ' adrenaline - charged lifestyle, Bodhi 's philosophies, and Tyler. Following a clue retrieved by analyzing toxins found in the hair of one of the bank robbers, Utah and Pappas lead an FBI raid on another gang of surfers, resulting in the deaths of two of them. Despite their criminal records, these surfers turn out to not be the Ex-Presidents and the raid inadvertently ruins a DEA undercover operation.
Watching Bodhi 's group surfing, Utah begins to suspect that they are the "Ex-Presidents, '' noting how close a group they are and the way one of them moons everyone in the same manner one of the robbers does when leaving a bank. Utah and Pappas stake out a bank and the Ex-Presidents appear. While wearing a Reagan mask, the gang leader (implied to be Bodhi) leads Utah on a foot chase through the neighborhood, which ends when Utah causes an old knee injury to flare up again after jumping into an aqueduct. Despite having a clear shot, Utah does not shoot and the leader escapes.
At a campfire that night, it is confirmed that Bodhi and his gang are the Ex-Presidents. Tyler discovers Utah 's FBI badge and angrily terminates their relationship. Shortly afterwards, Bodhi aggressively recruits Utah into going skydiving with the group and he accepts. After the jump, Bodhi reveals that he knows Utah is an FBI agent and has arranged for his friend Rosie, a non-surfing thug, to hold Tyler hostage. Utah is thus blackmailed into participating in the Ex-Presidents last bank robbery of the summer. As a result, Grommet, along with an off - duty police officer and a bank guard -- who both attempt to foil the robbery -- are killed. Outraged by Grommet 's death, Bodhi knocks Utah out and leaves the scene.
Defying their senior officer who arrests Utah for armed robbery, Pappas and Utah head to the airport where Bodhi, Roach, and Nathaniel are about to leave for Mexico. During a shootout, Pappas and Nathaniel are killed, whereas Roach is seriously wounded. With Roach aboard, Bodhi forces Utah onto the plane at gunpoint. Once airborne and over their intended drop zone, Bodhi and Roach put on their parachutes and jump from the plane, leaving Utah to take the blame again. With no other parachutes available, Utah jumps from the plane with Bodhi 's gun and intercepts him. After landing safely, Utah 's knee gives out again, allowing Bodhi to escape Utah 's grasp. Bodhi meets with Rosie and releases Tyler, who reunites with Utah. Roach dies of his wounds, and Bodhi and Rosie leave with the money.
Nine months later, Utah tracks Bodhi at Bells Beach in Victoria, Australia, where a record storm is producing lethal waves. This is an event Bodhi had talked about experiencing, calling it the "50 - Year Storm. '' Utah attempts to bring Bodhi into custody, but Bodhi refuses. During a brawl in the surf, Utah manages to handcuff himself to Bodhi, who begs Utah to release him so he can ride the once - in - a-lifetime wave. Knowing Bodhi will not come back alive, Utah releases him, bids him farewell, and sees him step towards the wave. While the authorities watch Bodhi surf to his death, Utah walks away, throwing his FBI badge into the ocean.
Originally, Matthew Broderick, Johnny Depp, Val Kilmer and Charlie Sheen were all considered to star in Point Break playing the character Johnny Utah with Ridley Scott directing.
After acquiring the screenplay, the producers of Point Break began looking for a director. At the time, executive producer James Cameron was married to director Kathryn Bigelow, who had just completed Blue Steel and was looking for her next project.
Point Break was originally called Johnny Utah when Keanu Reeves was cast in the title role. The studio felt that this title said very little about surfing and by the time Patrick Swayze was cast, the film had been renamed Riders on the Storm after the famous rock song by The Doors. However, Jim Morrison 's lyrics had nothing to do with the film and so that title was also rejected. It was not until halfway through filming that Point Break became the film 's title because of its relevance to surfing. Reeves and Swayze had appeared together once before, in the 1986 film Youngblood.
Reeves liked the name of his character as it reminded him of star athletes like Johnny Unitas and Joe Montana. He described his character as a "total control freak and the ocean beats him up and challenges him. After a while everything becomes a game... He becomes as amoral as any criminal. He loses the difference between right and wrong. '' Swayze felt that Bodhi was a lot like him and that they both shared "that wild - man edge. ''
Two months before filming, Lori Petty, Reeves and Swayze trained with former world class professional surfer Dennis Jarvis on the Hawaiian island of Kauai. Jarvis remembers, "Patrick said he 'd been on a board a couple of times, Keanu definitely had not surfed before, and Lori had never been in the ocean in her life. '' Shooting the surfing sequences proved to be challenging for both actors with Swayze cracking four of his ribs. For many of the surfing scenes he refused to use a stunt double as he never had one for fight scenes or car chases. He also did the skydiving scenes himself and the film 's aerial jump instructor Jim Wallace found that the actor was a natural and took to it right away. The actor ended up making 55 jumps for the film. Swayze actually based aspects of his character after one of his stunt doubles, Darrick Doerner, a top big wave surfer. After learning to surf for the film, Reeves took a liking to it and took it up as a hobby.
Parts of the film were shot at Lake Powell in Utah as well as Ecola State Park and Wheeler, Oregon, and Malibu, Manhattan Beach, Santa Monica, Venice, and Fox Hills Mall in California. Although the final scene of the film is set at Bells Beach, Victoria, Australia, the scene was not filmed there. Bells Beach is a straight stretch and the beach in the film is a cove with spruce trees atop a hill. The actual location of the film was a beach called Indian Beach, in Ecola State Park, located in Cannon Beach, Oregon, USA.
On February 7, 2008, a score release for Point Break was released by La - La Land Records, featuring composer Mark Isham 's score. This edition was limited to 2,000 units and features 65 minutes of score with liner notes by Dan Goldwasser that incorporate comments from both Bigelow and Isham. It is now out of print.
Point Break was released on July 12, 1991 in 1,615 theaters, grossing $8.5 million on its opening weekend, behind Terminator 2: Judgment Day 's (directed by Bigelow 's then husband, James Cameron) second weekend and the openings of the re-issue of 101 Dalmatians and Boyz n the Hood. With a budget of $24 million, the film went on to make $43.2 million in North America and $40.3 million internationally for a worldwide total of $83.5 million.
The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 68 % rating based on 57 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1 / 10. Metacritic reports a 58 out of 100 rating based on 20 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four and wrote "Bigelow is an interesting director for this material. She is interested in the ways her characters live dangerously for philosophical reasons. They are n't men of action, but men of thought who choose action as a way of expressing their beliefs. '' In her review for The New York Times, Janet Maslin praised Reeves ' performance: "A lot of the snap comes, surprisingly, from Mr. Reeves, who displays considerable discipline and range. He moves easily between the buttoned - down demeanor that suits a police procedural story and the loose - jointed manner of his comic roles. '' Entertainment Weekly gave the film a "C + '' rating and Owen Gleiberman wrote "Point Break makes those of us who do n't spend our lives searching for the ultimate physical rush feel like second - class citizens. The film turns reckless athletic valor into a new form of aristocracy. ''
In his review for The Washington Post, Hal Hinson wrote "A lot of what Bigelow puts up on the screen bypasses the brain altogether, plugging directly into our viscera, our gut. The surfing scenes in particular are majestically powerful, even awe - inspiring. Bigelow 's picture is a feast for the eyes, but we watch movies with more than our eyes. She seduces us, then asks us to be bimbos. '' Rolling Stone magazine 's Peter Travers wrote, "Bigelow ca n't keep the film from drowning in a sea of surf - speak. But without her, Point Break would be no more than an excuse to ogle pretty boys in wet suits. ''
USA Today gave the film two out of four stars and Mike Clark wrote "Its purely visceral material (surf sounds, skydiving stunt work, a tough indoor shootout midway through) are first - rate. As for the tangibles that matter even more (script, acting, directorial control, credible relationships between characters), Break defies belief. Dramatically, it rivals the lowest surf yet this year. '' Time magazine 's Richard Corliss wrote, "So how do you rate a stunningly made film whose plot buys so blithely into macho mysticism that it threatens to turn into an endless bummer? Looks 10, Brains 3. ''
In 2006, a special edition was released on DVD (In DVD was released in May 22, 2001). Entertainment Weekly gave it a "B '' rating and wrote, "The making - of docs (at their best discussing Swayze 's extracurricular skydiving -- that really is him doing the Adios, amigo fall) will leave you hanging. '' It was first released on Blu - ray as a special "Pure Adrenaline Edition '' on July 1, 2008, but that was later discontinued. Point Break was re-released on Blu - ray by Warner Home Video on June 14, 2011.
At the 1992 MTV Movie Awards, Point Break was nominated for three awards including "Most Desirable Male '' (Keanu Reeves), "Most Desirable Male '' (Patrick Swayze), and "Best Action Sequence '' for the second jump from the plane. In it, Utah jumps out of a plane without a parachute to catch Bodhi and rescue Tyler. Utah catches up with Bodhi and holds a gun to his head. However, Bodhi refuses to pull the rip cord and Utah must decide between dropping his gun (so he can hold on and pull the rip cord) or letting the two fall to the ground. The film ultimately won "Most Desirable Male '' for Keanu Reeves.
Point Break was listed in the VH1 series I Love the 90s on the episode "1991 ''. Many celebrities, including Dominic Monaghan, Mo Rocca, Michael Ian Black, Hal Sparks, and Chris Pontius commented about the film and why it deserved to be included in the episode. Entertainment Weekly ranked Point Break as having one of the "10 Best Surfing Scenes '' in cinema.
The film inspired a piece of cult theater, Point Break Live!, in which the role of Johnny Utah is played by an audience member chosen by popular acclamation after a brief audition. The new "Keanu '' reads all of his (or her) lines from cue - cards for the duration of the show, "to capture the rawness of a Keanu Reeves performance even from those who generally think themselves incapable of acting. ''
Point Break was referenced in Hot Fuzz, where the scene of Utah emptying his magazine into the sky in frustration is watched by the lead characters and later re-enacted by Nick Frost 's character.
The scene in which Utah jumps after Bodhi without a parachute was ranked seventh in Empire magazine 's Top 10 Crazy Action Sequences. The scene was also tested by the Discovery Channel series MythBusters. It was determined that Utah and Bodhi would not have been able to free - fall for 90 seconds (as in the film), nor would they have been able to hold a conversation in mid-air. However, it was determined that, by streamlining his body, Utah could have conceivably caught up with Bodhi after jumping from the plane.
Point Break has been referenced in Marvel Cinematic Universe films twice, in The Avengers and Thor: Ragnarok, by Tony Stark calling Thor "Point Break '' in reference to his long, blond hairstyle, similar to Swayze 's character 's.
Alcon Entertainment and Warner Bros. released a remake of the film in 2015 entitled Point Break, which received mostly negative reviews.
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when does the baseball season start this year | 2018 Major League Baseball season - wikipedia
The 2018 Major League Baseball season began on March 29, 2018, and is scheduled to end on September 30. The postseason will begin on October 2. The 2018 World Series is set to begin on October 23, and a potential Game 7 is scheduled on October 31.
The 2018 MLB Draft will be held from June 4 to 6 in Secaucus, New Jersey.
The 89th Major League Baseball All - Star Game will be held on July 17 at Nationals Park, the home of the Washington Nationals.
As has been the case since 2013, all teams will play their four division opponents 19 times each for a total of 76 games. They will play six or seven games against each of the other 10 same - league opponents for a total of 66 games, and 20 inter-league games. The primary inter-league match - ups are AL East vs NL East, AL Central vs NL Central, and AL West vs NL West. Since "natural rivalry '' matchups are part of the three - year divisional rotation, the schedule format for interleague games will be different from previous years. The 20 interleague games each team will play will consist of two three - game series (one home, one away) against its natural rival (total of six games), two two - game series (one home, one away) against each team for two other opponents (total of eight games), and a single three - game series against each team for the last two (one home, one away; total of six games).
Under the new collective bargaining agreement reached in December 2016, the regular season has been extended to 187 days in order to add four additional off - days for all teams. All teams were scheduled to play Opening Day, March 29 -- the earliest domestic start of a regular season in MLB history. There will no longer be a Sunday - night game on the final Sunday before the All - Star Game. A single, nationally televised afternoon game will be played on the Thursday after the All - Star Game (which for 2018, will be played between the St. Louis Cardinals and Chicago Cubs), before all other teams return from break the next day.
The Minnesota Twins and the Cleveland Indians played a two - game series at Hiram Bithorn Stadium in San Juan, Puerto Rico on April 17 and 18, while the Los Angeles Dodgers and San Diego Padres will play a three - game series at Estadio de Béisbol Monterrey in Monterrey, Mexico from May 4 to 6. The Little League Classic game at BB&T Ballpark in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, coinciding with the Little League World Series, will return to the schedule. It will be played between the Philadelphia Phillies and the New York Mets on August 19.
Beginning in the 2018 season, MLB implemented new pace of play rules, which include limiting the amount of mound visits for each team to six visits per nine innings. Teams will receive an additional visit for every extra inning played.
Updated through May 2
The Detroit Tigers modified the Olde English D on the home jersey to match the D on the cap. This is the first major change to the Tigers ' home jersey since 1934 (not counting the hiatus in 1960).
The Cleveland Indians have confirmed this will be final season using the Chief Wahoo logo on its uniforms. It will be replaced at the start of the 2019 season.
The Oakland Athletics added a kelly green alternate jersey to commemorate the franchise 's 50th anniversary in Oakland. The uniforms are used during every Friday home game.
The Washington Nationals added a second navy blue jersey to commemorate the team 's hosting of the 2018 All - Star Game. The uniform features the script "Nationals '' in white with red trim and numerals in red with white trim.
Both the Cincinnati Reds and the Pittsburgh Pirates replaced their camouflage uniforms with new white alternate jerseys featuring olive and military green logos, letters and numbers.
The following teams will wear commemorative patches for special occasions:
"MSD '' patch in memory of the victims of the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting (March 29 - April 1)
The Astros wore gold - lettered uniforms at their home opener April 2 and April 3 to mark them winning the 2017 World Series title.
Players, managers and coaches wore # 42 on April 15, the 71st anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's debut in the majors.
The Orioles wore special caps and green uniforms on April 22, Earth Day.
The Royals will wear an alternate uniform with a crown atop the R, and a cap with a crown instead of the "KC '', on June 30 in Seattle.
The Phillies will wear their 1980s powder blue uniforms for select Thursday home games.
The Athletics and White Sox wore 1968 throwbacks April 17 to mark the 50th anniversary of the Athletics ' first season in Oakland.
The Tigers and Royals will wear Negro Leagues throwbacks May 6. The Tigers will wear the uniforms of the Detroit Stars, and the Royals will wear the uniforms of the Kansas City Monarchs.
The Marlins will wear 1993 throwbacks June 8 - 10 to mark their 25th anniversary.
The Mariners will mark the 20th anniversary of their 1998 "Turn Ahead the Clock '' promotion by wearing the uniforms from that game June 30 against Kansas City.
The Rays wore throwbacks from their inaugural season on March 31 against the Boston Red Sox. They will wear these throwbacks again on June 9 against the Seattle Mariners, June 23rd against the New York Yankees and on September 8th against the Baltimore Orioles.
This is the fifth year of the current eight - year deals with Fox Sports, ESPN and TBS. Fox will air eight weeks of baseball on Saturday Nights leading up to the 2018 Major League Baseball All - Star Game which will also air on Fox. Fox will then televise Saturday afternoon games for the last four weeks of the regular season. FS1 will televise games on Tuesday and on Saturdays both during the afternoon and night. ESPN will televise games on its flagship telecast Sunday Night Baseball as well as Monday and Wednesday Nights. TBS will televise Sunday afternoon games for the last 13 weeks of the regular season. Fox and ESPN Sunday Night Baseball telecasts will be exclusive; all other national telecasts will be subject to local blackout.
TBS will televise the American League Wild Card Game, Division Series and Championship Series. ESPN will televise the National League Wild Card. Fox Sports 1 and MLB Network will televise the National League Division Series. Fox and Fox Sports 1 will televise the National League Championship Series. The World Series will air exclusively on Fox for the 19th consecutive year.
Nine regular season games will be broadcast exclusively in the United States on Facebook Watch, beginning with the April 4 game between the New York Mets and Philadelphia Phillies.
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when did england last beat south africa in south africa | History of rugby union matches between England and South Africa - wikipedia
The national rugby union teams of England and South Africa (the Springboks) have been playing each other in Test rugby since 1906, and, by June 2018, had met in 41 Test matches. South Africa lead the series by 25 wins to 14, with 2 matches drawn. Their first meeting was on 8 December 1906, as part of the Springboks ' first tour of Europe, with the match ending in a 3 -- 3 draw. England won the most recent meeting between the teams, on 23 June 2018, 25 -- 10.
Note: Date shown in brackets indicates when the record was or last set.
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when is the irish flag flown at half mast | Half - mast - wikipedia
Half - mast or half - staff refers to a flag flying below the summit on a pole. In many countries this is seen as a symbol of respect, mourning, distress, or in some cases, a salute. Strictly speaking, flags are said to be half - mast if flown from ships, and half - staff if on land, although not all regional variations of English use "half - staff ''.
The tradition of flying the flag at half - mast began in the 17th century. According to some sources, the flag is lowered to make room for an "invisible flag of death '' flying above. However, there is disagreement about where on a flagpole a flag should be when it is at half - staff. It is often recommended that a flag at half - staff should be lowered only as much as the hoist, or width, of the flag. British flag protocol is that a flag should be flown no less than two - thirds of the way up the flagpole, with at least the height of the flag between the top of the flag and the top of the pole. It is common for the phrase to be taken literally and for a flag to be flown only halfway up a flagpole, although some authorities deprecate that practice.
When hoisting a flag that is to be displayed at half - mast, it should be raised to the finial of the pole for an instant, then lowered to half - mast. Likewise, when the flag is lowered at the end of the day, it should be hoisted to the finial for an instant, and then lowered.
The flag of Australia is flown half - mast in Australia:
The flag of Cambodia flew at half mast upon the death of King - Father Norodom Sihanouk for 7 days, from 15 -- 22 October 2012.
The term half - mast is the official term used in Canada, according to the Rules For Half - Masting the National Flag of Canada. The decision to fly the flag at half - mast on federal buildings rests with the Department of Canadian Heritage. Federally, the national flag of Canada is flown at half - mast to mark the following occasions:
Certain events are also marked by flying the national flag at half - mast on the Peace Tower at Parliament Hill. These include:
On occasion discretion can dictate the flying of the national flag at half - mast, not only on the Peace Tower, but on all federal facilities. Some examples include 11 September 2001, 11 September 2002, the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the 2005 Mayerthorpe tragedy, the death of Pope John Paul II, the 2005 London bombings, the death of Smokey Smith, the state funerals of former U.S. presidents Ronald Reagan and Gerald Ford, and the death of Jack Layton
There are, however, exceptions to the rules of half - masting in Canada: if Victoria Day or Canada Day fall during a period of half - masting, the flags are to be returned to full - mast for the duration of the day. The national flag on the Peace Tower is also hoisted to full mast if a foreign head of state or head of government is visiting the parliament. These exemptions, though, do not apply to the period of mourning for the death of a Canadian monarch. The Royal Standard of Canada also never flies at half - mast, as it is considered representative of the sovereign, who ascends to the throne automatically upon the death of his or her predecessor. Each province can make its own determination of when to fly the flag at half - mast when provincial leaders or honoured citizens pass away.
To raise a flag in this position, the flag must be flown to the top of the pole first, then brought down halfway before the flag is secured for flying. When such mourning occurs, all flags should be flown at that position or not be flown at all, with the exception of flags permanently attached to poles.
A controversy surfaced in April, 2006, when the newly elected Conservative government discontinued the practice, initiated by the previous Liberal government following the Tarnak Farm incident, of flying the flag at half - mast on all government buildings whenever a Canadian soldier was killed in action in Afghanistan. The issue divided veterans ' groups and military families, some of whom supported the return to the original tradition of using Remembrance Day to honour all soldiers killed in action, while others felt it was an appropriate way to honour the fallen and to remind the population of the costs of war. In spite of the federal government 's policy, local authorities have often decided to fly the flag at half - mast to honour fallen soldiers who were from their jurisdiction, including Toronto and Saskatchewan.
On 2 April 2008, the House of Commons voted in favour of a motion calling on the government to reinstate the former policy regarding the half - masting of the flag on federal buildings. The motion, however, was not binding and the Cabinet refused to recommend any revision in policy to the Governor General. At the same time, a federal advisory committee tabled its report on the protocol of flying the national flag at half - mast, recommending that the Peace Tower flag remain at full height on days such as the Police Officers National Memorial Day and the National Day or Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women, stating that the flag should only be half - masted on Remembrance Day. At last report, the committee 's findings had been forwarded to the House of Commons all - party heritage committee for further study.
The National Flag Law provides for a number of situations on which the flag should be flown at half - mast, and authorizes the State Council to make such executive orders:
In Finland, the official term for flying a flag at half - mast is known as suruliputus (mourning by flag (ging)). It is performed by raising the flag briefly to the top of the mast and lowering it approximately one - third of the length of the flagpole, placing the lower hoist corner at half - mast. On wall - mounted and roof - top flagpoles the middle of the flag should fly at the middle of the flagpole. When removing the flag from half - mast, it is briefly hoisted to the finial before lowering.
Traditionally, private residences and apartment houses fly the national flag at half - mast on the day of the death of a resident, when the flag is displayed at half - mast until sunset or 21: 00, whichever comes first. Flags are also flown at half - mast on the day of the burial, with the exception that the flag is to be hoisted to the finial after the inhumation takes place.
Flags are also to be flown at half - mast on the days of national mourning. Such days are the deaths of former or current Finnish presidents, as well as significant catastophical events such as the aftermath of 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, 2011 Norway attacks and significant national events such as the 2004 Konginkangas bus disaster and school shootings of Jokela and Kauhajoki.
Historically, flags were flown at half - mast on the Commemoration Day of Fallen Soldiers which takes place on the third Sunday of May. Originally, flag was raised to the finial in the morning, displayed at half - mast from 10: 00 to 14: 00, and again raised to the finial for the rest of the day. In 1995, the 50th anniversary of the end of the Second World War, the tradition of flying the flag at half - mast was discontinued and flag is displayed at the finial in a usual manner.
The French flag is flown half mast on any Day of Mourning by order of the government (for example after the Charlie Hebdo attack on 7 January 2015, the Paris attacks on 13 November 2015 and the Nice attack on 14 July 2016). Other countries have also flown the French flag at half mast because of this too. (Australia 's Sydney Harbour Bridge flew the French flag at half mast because of the Paris attacks on 13 November 2015).
Some occurrences of the French flag being flown half mast have been controversial, especially after the death of Pope John Paul II in 2005 but also in a lesser measure at the time following the death of Joseph Stalin in March 1953.
The flag of Germany and the flags of its federal states are flown at half - mast:
According to Law 851 / 1978, the only day specified on which the Greek flag is flown at half - mast is Good Friday. Also, on other national and public mourning days.
Similar rules as in China apply for Hong Kong. See Flag of Hong Kong for details. Prior to the transfer of sovereignty in 1997, the rules for flying the flag at half - mast were the same as the British ones.
The flag of India is flown at half - mast for the death of a President, Vice-President, or Prime Minister, all over India. For the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and the Chief Justice of The Supreme Court of India, it is flown in Delhi and for a Union Cabinet Minister it is flown in Delhi and the state capitals, from where he or she came. For a Minister of State, it is flown only in Delhi. For a Governor, Lt. Governor, or Chief Minister of a state or union territory, it is flown in the concerned state.
If the intimation of the death of any dignitary is received in the afternoon, the flag shall be flown at halfmast on the following day also at the place or places indicated above, provided the funeral has not taken place before sunrise on that day. On the day of the funeral of a dignitary mentioned above, the flag shall be flown at half - mast at the place of the funeral.
In the event of a halfmast day coinciding with the Republic Day, Independence Day, Mahatma Gandhi 's birthday, National Week (6 to 13 April), any other particular day of national rejoicing as may be specified by the Government of India, or, in the case of a state, on the anniversary of formation of that state, flags are not permitted to be flown at half - mast except over the building where the body of the deceased is lying until it has been removed and that flag shall be raised to the full - mast position after the body has been removed.
Observances of State mourning on the death of foreign dignitaries are governed by special instructions issued from the Ministry of Home Affairs (Home Ministry) in individual cases. However, in the event of death of either the Head of the State or Head of the Government of a foreign country, the Indian Mission accredited to that country may fly the national flag on the above - mentioned days. India observed a five - day period of National Mourning on the death of Nelson Mandela in 2013. India also declared 29 March 2015 as a day of National Mourning as a mark of respect to the former Prime Minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew.
The flag of Iran is flown at half - mast on the death of a national figure or mourning days.
The flag of Ireland is flown at half - mast on the death of a national or international figure, that is, former and current Presidents or Taoiseach, on all prominent government buildings equipped with a flag pole. The death of a prominent local figure can also be marked locally by the flag being flown at half - mast. When the national flag is flown at half - mast, no other flag should be half - masted. When a balcony in Berkeley, California, collapsed, killing six Irish people, flags were flown at half mast above all state buildings.
The flag of Israel is flown at half - mast in Israel:
The flag of Italy was flown at half - mast after the 2013 Sardinia floods on 22 November 2013.
The flag of Indonesia is or has been flown half - mast during several occasions:
The flag of Japan is flown at half - mast upon the death of the Emperor of Japan, other members of the Imperial Family, or a current or former Prime Minister, and also following national disasters such as the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. In addition to the tradition of half - mast, the national flag topped by black cloth may be flown to designate mourning. See the flag of Japan for more.
The flag of Malaysia (Jalur Gemilang) is flown at half - mast all over the country:
As a mark of respect to the passengers and crew who were on board Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 and their family members, some states had their states flag flown at half - mast. Similarly, as a mark of respect to the passengers and crew who were on board Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 and their family members, the national flag was flown at half - mast for three days and also on the national day of mourning, 22 August 2014. The 2015 Sabah earthquake had a mourning day and the flag half - mast on 8 June 2015.
The flag of Malta is flown at half - mast on government buildings by instruction of the government through the Office of the Prime Minister, for example after 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.
The flag of the Netherlands is nationally flown at half - mast:
The royal standard and other flags of the Dutch royal family are never flown at half - mast. Instead, a black pennon may be affixed to the flag in times of mourning.
For both government and public buildings, the flag of New Zealand is flown at half - mast for the following people:
In addition, it can also be flown at half - mast at the request of the Minister for Arts, Culture and Heritage. Examples of this are for the deaths of prominent New Zealanders (e.g. Sir Edmund Hillary and Te Arikinui Dame Te Atairangikaahu, the Maori Queen), and for national tragedies (e.g. the Pike River Mine disaster)
According to the Ministry of Culture and Heritage, the position is always referred to as half - mast. The flag should be at least its own height from the top of the flagpole, though the actual position will depend on the size of the flag and the length of the flagpole.
The flag of Pakistan is routinely flown at half - mast on following days:
Any other day notified by the Government. For example, on the death of Saudi king King Fahd bin Abdul Aziz, the flag was flown at half - mast for seven days (the flag of Saudi Arabia was n't at half - mast because the flag contains the Shahada). Upon the Assassination of Benazir Bhutto, the flag was ordered to be flown at half - mast for three days. On the death of Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin, spiritual leader of Dawoodi Bohra community, the flag has been ordered by Sindh Chief Minister Qaim Ali Shah, to be flown at half - mast for two days (17 and 18 January) to express solidarity with the bereaved community. In 2014, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif announced a three - day mourning period from 16 December, including flying the flag at half - mast nationwide and at all Embassies and High Commissions of Pakistan, for the attack on Army Public School in Peshawar.
The flag of the Philippines may be flown at half - mast as a sign of mourning. Upon the official announcement of the death of the President or a former President, the flag should be flown at half - mast for ten days. The flag should be flown at half - mast for seven days following the death of the Vice President, the Chief Justice, the President of the Senate or the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
The flag may also be required to fly at half - mast upon the death of other persons to be determined by the National Historical Institute, for a period less than seven days. The flag shall be flown at half - mast on all the buildings and places where the decedent was holding office, on the day of death until the day of interment of an incumbent member of the Supreme Court, the Cabinet, the Senate or the House of Representatives, and such other persons as may be determined by the National Historical Institute. Such other people determined by the National Historical Institute have included Pope John Paul II, and former U.S. President Ronald Reagan.
As per Republic Act No. 229, flags nationwide are flown at half - mast every Rizal Day on December 30 to commemorate the death of national hero José Rizal.
When flown at half - mast, the flag should be first hoisted to the peak for a moment then lowered to the half - mast position. It should be raised to the peak again before it is lowered for the day.
The flag may also be used to cover the caskets of the dead of the military, veterans of previous wars, national artists, and outstanding civilians as determined by the local government. In such cases, the flag must be placed such that the white triangle is at the head and the blue portion covers the right side of the casket. The flag should not be lowered to the grave or allowed to touch the ground, but should be solemnly folded and handed to the heirs of the deceased.
Flags must also be raised to half - mast immediately in any area recovering from natural disasters such as a typhoon or an earthquake.
The flag of Russia is flown at half - mast and (or) topped by black ribbon:
All the regional flags and the departmental ensigns are flown at half - mast on national or regional mourning days as well as the national flag. Firms and non-governmental organizations, embassies and representatives of international organizations often join the mourning. National or regional mourning usually lasts for one day.
The flag of Saudi Arabia is one of the four flags in the world that are never flown at half - mast because it shows the Shahada. The flag of Somaliland, a self - declared state internationally recognized as part of Somalia, also displays the Shahada. The flag of Iraq bears the Takbir once. The flag of Afghanistan displays the Takbir beneath the Shahada on the top. Since all four bear the concept of oneness of God, the flags are never lowered to half - mast even as a sign of mourning.
The flag of Singapore is flown at half - mast in Singapore following the deaths of an "important personage '' (such as state leaders) and during periods of national mourning. Examples include:
The flag of South Africa is flown at half - mast as a sign of mourning when ordered by the President of South Africa. Upon the official announcement of the death of the current or former President, the flag should be flown at half - mast for ten days. The flag should be flown at half - mast for seven days following the death of the Deputy President, the Chairperson of NCOP, the Speaker of the National Assembly or the Chief Justice. For example, the flag was flown at half - mast from 6 -- 15 December 2013 during the national mourning period for Nelson Mandela.
The flag was flown at half - mast during the week of national mourning following the Marikana massacre in August 2012.
The flag of South Korea (Taegeukgi) is flown at half - mast on Hyeonchungil (Korean Memorial Day).
The flag of Sri Lanka is nationally flown at half - mast on a National day of mourning.
The flag of the Republic of China is flown at half - mast on 28 February to mark the anniversary of the 28 February Incident. On 5 August 2014, Taiwan flew their flag in half - mast for three days to commemorate the victims of the Kaohsiung gas explosions and TransAsia Airways Flight 222 crash.
The flag of Thailand was flown at half - mast for 15 days to mourn for the victims of 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.
The flag of Thailand was flown at half - mast from 2 January to 15 January 2008 on the death of Princess Galyani Vadhana, the Princess of Naradhiwas.
Also from 14 October to 13 November 2016 the flag of Thailand was flown half - mast for 30 days; following the death of King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX).
The flag of Turkey is flown at half - mast throughout Turkey every 10 November, between 09: 05 and the sunset, in memory of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who died on 10 November 1938 at five past nine in the morning. At other times, the government may issue an order for the national flag to be flown at half - mast upon the death of principal figures of the Turkish political life as a mark of respect to their memory (such as Turgut Özal). When such an order is issued, all government buildings, offices, public schools and military bases are to fly their flags at half - mast. To show the sympathy of Turkish people to a foreign leader, flags are also flown at half - mast by governmental order (such as after the deaths of Yasser Arafat or Pope John Paul II). The flag at the Grand National Assembly in Ankara is never lowered to half - mast, regardless of the occasion. The flag at Anıtkabir, the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of Turkey, is only lowered to half - mast on November 10. At those times when the flag is to be flown at half - mast, it must first be raised to full height, then lowered to half - mast.
The flag of the United Arab Emirates is flown at half mast on 30 November (Martyrs ' Day) of every year from 08: 00 to 11: 30. The flag is also flown at half mast by decree of the President of the United Arab Emirates usually for three days. Each of the seven Emirs has the right to order flags to be flown at half mast in his Emirate.
The Royal Standard, the flag of the British monarch, is never flown at half - mast, because there is always a living monarch: the throne passes immediately to the successor.
There was some controversy in the United Kingdom in 1997 following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales that no flag was flying at half - mast at Buckingham Palace. Until 1997, the only flag to fly from Buckingham Palace was the Royal Standard, the official flag of the reigning British sovereign, which would only fly when the sovereign was in residence at the Palace (or, exceptionally, after the death of the sovereign, the flag of the next senior member of the Royal Family would be raised, if the new sovereign were not present); otherwise, no flag would fly.
In response to public outcry that the palace was not flying a flag at half mast, Queen Elizabeth II ordered a break with protocol, replacing the Royal Standard with the Union Flag at half - mast as soon as the Queen left the Palace to attend the Princess 's funeral at Westminster Abbey. The Royal Standard was again flown (at full hoist) on her return to the Palace. Since then, the Union Flag flies from the Palace when the Queen is not in residence, and has flown at half mast upon the deaths of members of the Royal Family, such as Princess Margaret and the Queen Mother in 2002 and other times of national mourning such as following the terrorist bombings in London on 7 July 2005.
In the UK, the correct way to fly the flag at half - mast is two - thirds between the bottom and top of the flagstaff, with at least the width of the flag between the top of the flag and the top of the pole according to the Department of Culture, Media and Sport, which decides the flying, on command of the Sovereign. The flag may be flown on a government building at half - mast on the following days:
According to the Department of Culture, Media and Sport, the correct term is Half Mast.
If a flag flying day coincides with a half - mast flag flying day (including the death of a member of the royal family), the flag is flown at full - mast unless a specific command is received from the Sovereign.
If more than one flag is flown on a half - mast day, they must all be flown at half - mast, or not at all. The flag of a foreign nation must never be flown at half - mast on UK soil unless that country has declared mourning.
At the United Nations offices in New York and Geneva, the flag of the United Nations flies at half - mast on the day after the death of a Head of State or a Head of Government of a member state, but generally not during the funeral. Other occasions are at the Secretary - General 's discretion. Other offices may follow local practice. To honor the memory of Dag Hammarskjöld the UN issued postage stamps showing its flag at half - mast.
In the United States, the usual government term for non-nautical use is "half - staff. '' While the term "half - mast '' is commonly used in place of half - staff, U.S. law and post-WW - I military tradition indicate that "half - mast '' is reserved to usage aboard a ship, where flags are typically flown from masts, and at naval ships ashore. Elsewhere ashore, flags are flown at "half - staff. '' In addition, flags are lowered to half - staff, not raised.
In the United States, the President can issue an executive order for the flag of the United States to be flown at half - staff upon the death of principal figures of the United States government and others, as a mark of respect to their memory. When such an order is issued, all government buildings, offices, public schools, and military bases are to fly their flags at half - staff. Under federal law (4 U.S.C. § 7 (f)), the flags of states, cities, localities, and pennants of societies, shall never be placed above the flag of the United States; thus, all other flags also fly at half - staff when the U.S. flag has been ordered to fly at half - staff. There is no penalty for failure to comply with the above law as to enforce such a penalty would violate the First Amendment.
Governors of U.S. states and territories are authorized by federal law to order all U.S. and state flags in their jurisdiction flown at half - staff as a mark of respect for a former or current state official who has died, or for a member of the armed forces who has died in active duty. The governor 's authority to issue the order is more restricted than the president 's, and does not include discretion to issue the order for state residents who do not meet the criteria stated. Since a governor 's executive order affects only his or her state, not the entire country, these orders are distinguished from presidential proclamations.
Under 4 U.S.C. § 7 (m) and established traditions by Presidential proclamations, the flag of the United States is to be flown at half - staff on rare occasions, in the following circumstances:
Federal law includes a Congressional request that the flag be flown at half - staff on Peace Officers Memorial Day (May 15), unless that day is also Armed Forces Day. Presidential proclamations also call for the flag to be flown at half - staff on Pearl Harbour Remembrance Day (December 7), and Patriot Day (September 11).
On October 16, 2001, President George W. Bush approved legislation requiring the United States flag to be lowered to half - staff on all Federal buildings to memorialize fallen firefighters. Pub. L. 107 -- 51 requires this action to occur annually in conjunction with observance of the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial Service. The date of the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial Service is traditionally the first Sunday in October. It is held at the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial in Emmitsburg, Maryland.
4 U.S.C. § 7 (m) was modified with new legislation signed into effect on June 29, 2007, by President Bush, requiring any federal facility within a region, which proclaims half - staff to honor a member of the U.S. Armed Forces who died on active duty, to follow the half - staff proclamation.
Apart from the lowered position of the flag of Vietnam, state mourning also warrants a black ribbon 1 / 10 the width of the flag 's width and equal to the length of the flag to be tied at the summit. Variants have the black ribbon wrapped around the flag itself, preventing it from being unfurled.
The flag of Zimbabwe is flown at half - mast at the conferment of National Hero Status to the deceased. As a first - generation republic, adjudication over such a status is currently done by the politburo of the ZANU -- PF.
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most of the world's coral reefs are in tropical water | Coral reef - wikipedia
Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals. Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine water that contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups. The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria, which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish. Unlike sea anemones, corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect the coral polyps. Most reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated water.
Often called "rainforests of the sea '', shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth. They occupy less than 0.1 % of the world 's ocean surface, about half the area of France, yet they provide a home for at least 25 % of all marine species, including fish, mollusks, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms, sponges, tunicates and other cnidarians. Paradoxically, coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients. They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas.
Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and shoreline protection. The annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US $30 -- 375 billion. However, coral reefs are fragile ecosystems, partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature. They are under threat from climate change, oceanic acidification, blast fishing, cyanide fishing for aquarium fish, sunscreen use, overuse of reef resources, and harmful land - use practices, including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution, which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algal growth.
Most of the coral reefs we can see today were formed after the last glacial period when melting ice caused the sea level to rise and flood the continental shelves. This means that most modern coral reefs are less than 10,000 years old. As communities established themselves on the shelves, the reefs grew upwards, pacing rising sea levels. Reefs that rose too slowly could become drowned reefs. They are covered by so much water that there was insufficient light. Coral reefs are found in the deep sea away from continental shelves, around oceanic islands and as atolls. The vast majority of these islands are volcanic in origin. The few exceptions have tectonic origins where plate movements have lifted the deep ocean floor on the surface.
In 1842 in his first monograph, The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, Charles Darwin set out his theory of the formation of atoll reefs, an idea he conceived during the voyage of the Beagle. He theorized uplift and subsidence of the Earth 's crust under the oceans formed the atolls. Darwin 's theory sets out a sequence of three stages in atoll formation. It starts with a fringing reef forming around an extinct volcanic island as the island and ocean floor subsides. As the subsidence continues, the fringing reef becomes a barrier reef, and ultimately an atoll reef.
Darwin 's theory starts with a volcanic island which becomes extinct
As the island and ocean floor subside, coral growth builds a fringing reef, often including a shallow lagoon between the land and the main reef.
As the subsidence continues, the fringing reef becomes a larger barrier reef further from the shore with a bigger and deeper lagoon inside.
Ultimately, the island sinks below the sea, and the barrier reef becomes an atoll enclosing an open lagoon.
Darwin predicted that underneath each lagoon would be a bed rock base, the remains of the original volcano. Subsequent drilling proved this correct. Darwin 's theory followed from his understanding that coral polyps thrive in the clean seas of the tropics where the water is agitated, but can only live within a limited depth range, starting just below low tide. Where the level of the underlying earth allows, the corals grow around the coast to form what he called fringing reefs, and can eventually grow out from the shore to become a barrier reef.
Where the bottom is rising, fringing reefs can grow around the coast, but coral raised above sea level dies and becomes white limestone. If the land subsides slowly, the fringing reefs keep pace by growing upwards on a base of older, dead coral, forming a barrier reef enclosing a lagoon between the reef and the land. A barrier reef can encircle an island, and once the island sinks below sea level a roughly circular atoll of growing coral continues to keep up with the sea level, forming a central lagoon. Barrier reefs and atolls do not usually form complete circles, but are broken in places by storms. Like sea level rise, a rapidly subsiding bottom can overwhelm coral growth, killing the coral polyps and the reef, due to what is called coral drowning. Corals that rely on zooxanthellae can drown when the water becomes too deep for their symbionts to adequately photosynthesize, due to decreased light exposure.
The two main variables determining the geomorphology, or shape, of coral reefs are the nature of the underlying substrate on which they rest, and the history of the change in sea level relative to that substrate.
The approximately 20,000 - year - old Great Barrier Reef offers an example of how coral reefs formed on continental shelves. Sea level was then 120 m (390 ft) lower than in the 21st century. As sea level rose, the water and the corals encroached on what had been hills of the Australian coastal plain. By 13,000 years ago, sea level had risen to 60 m (200 ft) lower than at present, and many hills of the coastal plains had become continental islands. As the sea level rise continued, water topped most of the continental islands. The corals could then overgrow the hills, forming the present cays and reefs. Sea level on the Great Barrier Reef has not changed significantly in the last 6,000 years, and the age of the modern living reef structure is estimated to be between 6,000 and 8,000 years. Although the Great Barrier Reef formed along a continental shelf, and not around a volcanic island, Darwin 's principles apply. Development stopped at the barrier reef stage, since Australia is not about to submerge. It formed the world 's largest barrier reef, 300 -- 1,000 m (980 -- 3,280 ft) from shore, stretching for 2,000 km (1,200 mi).
Healthy tropical coral reefs grow horizontally from 1 to 3 cm (0.39 to 1.18 in) per year, and grow vertically anywhere from 1 to 25 cm (0.39 to 9.84 in) per year; however, they grow only at depths shallower than 150 m (490 ft) because of their need for sunlight, and can not grow above sea level.
As the name implies, the bulk of coral reefs is made up of coral skeletons from mostly intact coral colonies. As other chemical elements present in corals become incorporated into the calcium carbonate deposits, aragonite is formed. However, shell fragments and the remains of calcareous algae such as the green - segmented genus Halimeda can add to the reef 's ability to withstand damage from storms and other threats. Such mixtures are visible in structures such as Eniwetok Atoll.
Since Darwin 's identification of the three classical reef formations -- the fringing reef around a volcanic island becoming a barrier reef and then an atoll -- scientists have identified further reef types. While some sources still maintain that there are only three, Thomas and Goudie list four "principal large - scale coral reef types '' -- the fringing reef, barrier reef, atoll and table reef -- while Spalding et al. list five "main types '' -- the fringing reef, barrier reef, atoll, "bank or platform reef '' and patch reef.
A fringing reef, also called a shore reef, is directly attached to a shore, or borders it with an intervening narrow, shallow channel or lagoon. It is the most common reef type. Fringing reefs follow coastlines and can be many kilometres long. They are usually less than 100 metres wide, but some are up to several hundred metres wide. Fringing reefs are initially formed immediately on the shore at the low water level and expand increasingly seawards as they grow in size. The final width depends on where the sea bed begins to drop steeply. The surface of the fringe reef always remains at the same height: just below the waterline. In older fringed reefs, whose outer regions have pushed themselves far out into the sea, the inner part is deepened by erosion and will eventually form a lagoon. Fringing reef lagoons can become over 100 metres wide and several metres deep. Like the fringing reef itself, they run parallel to the coast. The fringing reefs of the Red Sea are "some of the best developed in the world '' and occur along all its shores except off sandy bays.
Barrier reefs are separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep channel or lagoon. They resemble the later stages of a fringing reef with its lagoon, but differ from the latter mainly in size and origin. Their lagoons can be several kilometres wide and 30 to 70 metres deep. Above all, the offshore outer reef edge is not a reef that used to be by the shore and, as it grew, expanded further and further into the open sea, but is a reef that has been there from the very beginning. Like an atoll, it is thought that these reefs are formed either by the lowering of the seabed or by an increase in sea level. Since a geological process is thus needed for their formation and the formation itself takes considerably longer than that of fringing reef, barrier reefs are much rarer. The best - known and largest example of a barrier reef is the Australian Great Barrier Reef. Other major examples are the Belize Barrier Reef and the New Caledonian Barrier Reef. Barrier reefs are also found on the coasts of Providencia, Mayotte, the Gambier Islands, on the southeast coast coast of Kalimantan, on parts of the coast of Sulawesi, southeastern New Guinea and the south coast of the Louisiade Archipelago.
While the aforementioned reef types always originate along the coasts of islands or continents, platform reefs, variously called bank or table reefs, can form on the continental shelf, as well as in the open ocean, in fact anywhere where the seabed rises close enough to the surface of the ocean to enable the growth of zooxanthemic, reef - forming corals. There are several platform reefs in the southern Great Barrier Reef, the Swain and Capricorn Group on the continental shelf, about 100 -- 200 km from the coast. Some platform reefs of the northern Mascarenes are even several thousand kilometres from the mainland. Unlike fringing and barrier reefs which only extend seawards, platform reefs grown in all directions. They are very variable in size, ranging from a few hundred metres to many kilometres across. Their usual shape is oval to strongly elongated. Parts of these reefs can reach the surface and form sandbanks and small islands around which may form their own fringing reefs. In the middle of a platform reef, there may be a lagoon. Platform reefs can also be found within atolls. Here they are called patch reefs which are only a few dozen metres in diameter. Where platform reefs form on an elongated structure, e.g. an old, eroded barrier reef, they can form a linear arrangement. This is the case, for example, on the east coast of the Red Sea near Jeddah. In very old platform reefs, the inner part can be so heavily eroded that they form a pseudo-atoll. These can only be distinguished from real atolls by detailed investigation and possibly drilling holes. Some platform reefs of the Laccadives are U-shaped, due to wind and water flow.
Atolls or atoll reefs are more or less circular or continuous barrier reef extends all the way around a lagoon without a central island. They are usually formed from fringing reefs around volcanic islands. Over the course of time, the island is eroded away and sinks below the level of the sea. Atolls may also be formed by the sinking of the seabed or rising of the sea level. A ring of reefs results, which enclose a lagoon. Atolls are numerous in the South Pacific, where they usually occur in mid-ocean, for example, in the Caroline Islands, the Cook Islands, French Polynesia, the Marshall Islands and Micronesia. Many atolls are also found in the Indian Ocean, for example, in the Maldives, the Chagos Islands, the Seychelles and around Cocos Island. The Maldives consist of 26 atolls.
Coral reef ecosystems contain distinct zones that represent different kinds of habitats. Usually, three major zones are recognized: the fore reef, reef crest, and the back reef (frequently referred to as the reef lagoon).
All three zones are physically and ecologically interconnected. Reef life and oceanic processes create opportunities for exchange of seawater, sediments, nutrients, and marine life among one another.
Thus, they are integrated components of the coral reef ecosystem, each playing a role in the support of the reefs ' abundant and diverse fish assemblages.
Most coral reefs exist in shallow waters less than 50 m deep. Some inhabit tropical continental shelves where cool, nutrient rich upwelling does not occur, such as Great Barrier Reef. Others are found in the deep ocean surrounding islands or as atolls, such as in the Maldives. The reefs surrounding islands form when islands subside into the ocean, and atolls form when an island subsides below the surface of the sea.
Alternatively, Moyle and Cech distinguish six zones, though most reefs possess only some of the zones.
The reef surface is the shallowest part of the reef. It is subject to the surge and the rise and fall of tides. When waves pass over shallow areas, they shoal, as shown in the diagram at the right. This means the water is often agitated. These are the precise condition under which corals flourish. Shallowness means there is plenty of light for photosynthesis by the symbiotic zooxanthellae, and agitated water promotes the ability of coral to feed on plankton. However, other organisms must be able to withstand the robust conditions to flourish in this zone.
The off - reef floor is the shallow sea floor surrounding a reef. This zone occurs by reefs on continental shelves. Reefs around tropical islands and atolls drop abruptly to great depths, and do not have a floor. Usually sandy, the floor often supports seagrass meadows which are important foraging areas for reef fish.
The reef drop - off is, for its first 50 m, habitat for many reef fish who find shelter on the cliff face and plankton in the water nearby. The drop - off zone applies mainly to the reefs surrounding oceanic islands and atolls.
The reef face is the zone above the reef floor or the reef drop - off. This zone is often the most diverse area of the reef. Coral and calcareous algae growths provide complex habitats and areas which offer protection, such as cracks and crevices. Invertebrates and epiphytic algae provide much of the food for other organisms. A common feature on this forereef zone is spur and groove formations which serve to transport sediment downslope.
The reef flat is the sandy - bottomed flat, which can be behind the main reef, containing chunks of coral. This zone may border a lagoon and serve as a protective area, or it may lie between the reef and the shore, and in this case is a flat, rocky area. Fishes tend to prefer living in that flat, rocky area, compared to any other zone, when it is present.
The reef lagoon is an entirely enclosed region, which creates an area less affected by wave action that often contains small reef patches.
However, the "topography of coral reefs is constantly changing. Each reef is made up of irregular patches of algae, sessile invertebrates, and bare rock and sand. The size, shape and relative abundance of these patches changes from year to year in response to the various factors that favor one type of patch over another. Growing coral, for example, produces constant change in the fine structure of reefs. On a larger scale, tropical storms may knock out large sections of reef and cause boulders on sandy areas to move. ''
Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 km (109,800 sq mi), just under 0.1 % of the oceans ' surface area. The Indo - Pacific region (including the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the Pacific) account for 91.9 % of this total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3 % of that figure, while the Pacific including Australia accounts for 40.8 %. Atlantic and Caribbean coral reefs account for 7.6 %.
Although corals exist both in temperate and tropical waters, shallow - water reefs form only in a zone extending from approximately 30 ° N to 30 ° S of the equator. Tropical corals do not grow at depths of over 50 meters (160 ft). The optimum temperature for most coral reefs is 26 -- 27 ° C (79 -- 81 ° F), and few reefs exist in waters below 18 ° C (64 ° F). However, reefs in the Persian Gulf have adapted to temperatures of 13 ° C (55 ° F) in winter and 38 ° C (100 ° F) in summer. There are 37 species of scleractinian corals identified in such harsh environment around Larak Island.
Deep - water coral can exist at greater depths and colder temperatures at much higher latitudes, as far north as Norway. Although deep water corals can form reefs, very little is known about them.
Coral reefs are rare along the west coasts of the Americas and Africa, due primarily to upwelling and strong cold coastal currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas (respectively the Peru, Benguela and Canary streams). Corals are seldom found along the coastline of South Asia -- from the eastern tip of India (Chennai) to the Bangladesh and Myanmar borders -- as well as along the coasts of northeastern South America and Bangladesh, due to the freshwater release from the Amazon and Ganges Rivers respectively.
When alive, corals are colonies of small animals embedded in calcium carbonate shells. It is a mistake to think of coral as plants or rocks. Coral heads consist of accumulations of individual animals called polyps, arranged in diverse shapes. Polyps are usually tiny, but they can range in size from a pinhead to 12 inches (30 cm) across.
Reef - building or hermatypic corals live only in the photic zone (above 50 m), the depth to which sufficient sunlight penetrates the water, allowing photosynthesis to occur. Coral polyps do not photosynthesize, but have a symbiotic relationship with microscopic algae of the genus Symbiodinium, commonly referred to as zooxanthellae. These organisms live within the tissues of polyps and provide organic nutrients that nourish the polyp. Because of this relationship, coral reefs grow much faster in clear water, which admits more sunlight. Without their symbionts, coral growth would be too slow to form significant reef structures. Corals get up to 90 % of their nutrients from their symbionts.
Reefs grow as polyps and other organisms deposit calcium carbonate, the basis of coral, as a skeletal structure beneath and around themselves, pushing the coral head 's top upwards and outwards. Waves, grazing fish (such as parrotfish), sea urchins, sponges, and other forces and organisms act as bioeroders, breaking down coral skeletons into fragments that settle into spaces in the reef structure or form sandy bottoms in associated reef lagoons.
Typical shapes for coral species are named by their resemblance to wrinkled brains, cabbages, table tops, antlers, wire strands and pillars. These shapes can depend on the life history of the coral, like light exposure and wave action, and events such as breakages.
Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually. An individual polyp uses both reproductive modes within its lifetime. Corals reproduce sexually by either internal or external fertilization. The reproductive cells are found on the mesenteries, membranes that radiate inward from the layer of tissue that lines the stomach cavity. Some mature adult corals are hermaphroditic; others are exclusively male or female. A few species change sex as they grow.
Internally fertilized eggs develop in the polyp for a period ranging from days to weeks. Subsequent development produces a tiny larva, known as a planula. Externally fertilized eggs develop during synchronized spawning. Polyps simultaneously release eggs and sperm into the water en - masse. Eggs disperse over a large area. The timing of spawning depends on time of year, water temperature, and tidal and lunar cycles. Spawning is most successful when there is little variation between high and low tide. The less water movement, the better the chance for fertilization. Ideal timing occurs in the spring. Release of eggs or planula usually occurs at night, and is sometimes in phase with the lunar cycle (three to six days after a full moon). The period from release to settlement lasts only a few days, but some planulae can survive afloat for several weeks. They are vulnerable to predation and environmental conditions. The lucky few planulae which successfully attach to substrate next confront competition for food and space.
There are eight clades of Symbiodinium phylotypes. Most research has been completed on the Symbiodinium clades A -- D. Each one of the eight contributes their own benefits as well as less compatible attributes to the survival of their coral hosts. Each photosynthetic organism has a specific level of sensitivity to photodamage of compounds needed for survival, such as proteins. Rates of regeneration and replication determine the organism 's ability to survive. Phylotype A is found more in the shallow regions of marine waters. It is able to produce mycosporine - like amino acids that are UV resistant, using a derivative of glycerin to absorb the UV radiation and allowing them to become more receptive to warmer water temperatures. In the event of UV or thermal damage, if and when repair occurs, it will increase the likelihood of survival of the host and symbiont. This leads to the idea that, evolutionarily, clade A is more UV resistant and thermally resistant than the other clades.
Clades B and C are found more frequently in the deeper water regions, which may explain the higher susceptibility to increased temperatures. Terrestrial plants that receive less sunlight because they are found in the undergrowth can be analogized to clades B, C, and D. Since clades B through D are found at deeper depths, they require an elevated light absorption rate to be able to synthesize as much energy. With elevated absorption rates at UV wavelengths, the deeper occurring phylotypes are more prone to coral bleaching versus the more shallow clades.
Clade D has been observed to be high temperature - tolerant, and as a result it has a higher rate of survival than clades B and C during modern bleaching events.
Corals are the most prodigious reef - builders. However many other organisms living in the reef community also contribute skeletal calcium carbonate in the same manner as corals. These include coralline algae and some sponges. Reefs are always built by the combined efforts of these different phyla, with different organisms having been the predominant reef - builders in different geological periods.
Coralline algae are important contributors to reef structure. Although their mineral deposition - rates are much slower than corals, they are more tolerant of rough wave - action, and so help to create a protective crust over those parts of the reef subjected to the greatest forces by waves, such as the reef front facing the open ocean. They also strengthen the reef structure by depositing limestone in sheets over the reef surface.
"Sclerosponge '' is the descriptive name for all Porifera (sponges) that build reefs. In the early Cambrian period, Archaeocyatha sponges were the world 's first reef - building organisms, and sponges were the only reef - builders until the Ordovician. Sclerosponges still assist corals building modern reefs, but like coralline algae are much slower - growing than corals and their contribution is (usually) minor.
In the northern Pacific Ocean cloud sponges still create deep - water mineral - structures without corals, although the structures are not recognizable from the surface like tropical reefs. They are the only extant organisms known to build reef - like structures in cold water.
Brain coral
Staghorn coral
Spiral wire coral
Pillar coral
Mushroom coral
Maze coral
Black coral
Fluorescent coral
Corraline algae Mesophyllum sp.
Encrusting corraline algae
coralline algae Corallina officinalis
Recent oceanographic research has brought to light the reality of this paradox by confirming that the oligotrophy of the ocean euphotic zone persists right up to the swell - battered reef crest. When you approach the reef edges and atolls from the quasidesert of the open sea, the near absence of living matter suddenly becomes a plethora of life, without transition. So why is there something rather than nothing, and more precisely, where do the necessary nutrients for the functioning of this extraordinary coral reef machine come from? ''
In The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, published in 1842, Darwin described how coral reefs were found in some areas of the tropical seas but not others, with no obvious cause. The largest and strongest corals grew in parts of the reef exposed to the most violent surf and corals were weakened or absent where loose sediment accumulated.
Tropical waters contain few nutrients yet a coral reef can flourish like an "oasis in the desert ''. This has given rise to the ecosystem conundrum, sometimes called "Darwin 's paradox '': "How can such high production flourish in such nutrient poor conditions? ''
Coral reefs cover less than 0.1 % of the surface of the world 's ocean, about half the land area of France, yet they support over one - quarter of all marine species. This diversity results in complex food webs, with large predator fish eating smaller forage fish that eat yet smaller zooplankton and so on. However, all food webs eventually depend on plants, which are the primary producers. Coral reefs ' primary productivity is very high, typically producing 5 -- 10 grams of carbon per square meter per day (gC m day) biomass.
One reason for the unusual clarity of tropical waters is they are deficient in nutrients and drifting plankton. Further, the sun shines year - round in the tropics, warming the surface layer, making it less dense than subsurface layers. The warmer water is separated from deeper, cooler water by a stable thermocline, where the temperature makes a rapid change. This keeps the warm surface waters floating above the cooler deeper waters. In most parts of the ocean, there is little exchange between these layers. Organisms that die in aquatic environments generally sink to the bottom, where they decompose, which releases nutrients in the form of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). These nutrients are necessary for plant growth, but in the tropics, they do not directly return to the surface.
Plants form the base of the food chain and need sunlight and nutrients to grow. In the ocean, these plants are mainly microscopic phytoplankton which drift in the water column. They need sunlight for photosynthesis, which powers carbon fixation, so they are found only relatively near the surface, but they also need nutrients. Phytoplankton rapidly use nutrients in the surface waters, and in the tropics, these nutrients are not usually replaced because of the thermocline.
Around coral reefs, lagoons fill in with material eroded from the reef and the island. They become havens for marine life, providing protection from waves and storms.
Most importantly, reefs recycle nutrients, which happens much less in the open ocean. In coral reefs and lagoons, producers include phytoplankton, as well as seaweed and coralline algae, especially small types called turf algae, which pass nutrients to corals. The phytoplankton are eaten by fish and crustaceans, who also pass nutrients along the food web. Recycling ensures fewer nutrients are needed overall to support the community.
Coral reefs support many symbiotic relationships. One of particular importance is the relationship many corals have with a type of photosynthetic algae called zooxanthellae. These single - celled dinoflagellates live in the tissues of many types of cnidarians, including corals, and help provide energy to their host in the form of glucose, glycerol, and amino acids. Zooxanthellae can provide up to 90 % of a coral 's energy requirements. In return, as an example of mutualism, the corals shelter the zooxanthellae, averaging one million for every cubic centimeter of coral, and provide a constant supply of the carbon dioxide they need for photosynthesis.
Corals also absorb nutrients, including inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus, directly from water. Many corals extend their tentacles at night to catch zooplankton that brush them when the water is agitated. Zooplankton provide the polyp with nitrogen, and the polyp shares some of the nitrogen with the zooxanthellae, which also require this element. The varying pigments in different species of zooxanthellae give them an overall brown or golden - brown appearance, and give brown corals their colors. Other pigments such as reds, blues, greens, etc. come from colored proteins made by the coral animals. Coral which loses a large fraction of its zooxanthellae becomes white (or sometimes pastel shades in corals that are richly pigmented with their own colorful proteins) and is said to be bleached, a condition which, unless corrected, can kill the coral.
Sponges are another key: they live in crevices in the coral reefs. They are efficient filter feeders, and in the Red Sea they consume about 60 % of the phytoplankton that drifts by. The sponges eventually excrete nutrients in a form the corals can use.
The roughness of coral surfaces is the key to coral survival in agitated waters. Normally, a boundary layer of still water surrounds a submerged object, which acts as a barrier. Waves breaking on the extremely rough edges of corals disrupt the boundary layer, allowing the corals access to passing nutrients. Turbulent water thereby promotes reef growth and branching. Without the nutritional gains brought by rough coral surfaces, even the most effective recycling would leave corals wanting in nutrients.
Studies have shown that deep nutrient - rich water entering coral reefs through isolated events may have significant effects on temperature and nutrient systems. This water movement disrupts the relatively stable thermocline that usually exists between warm shallow water to deeper colder water. Leichter et al. (2006) found that temperature regimes on coral reefs in the Bahamas and Florida were highly variable with temporal scales of minutes to seasons and spatial scales across depths.
Water can be moved through coral reefs in various ways, including current rings, surface waves, internal waves and tidal changes. Movement is generally created by tides and wind. As tides interact with varying bathymetry and wind mixes with surface water, internal waves are created. An internal wave is a gravity wave that moves along density stratification within the ocean. When a water parcel encounters a different density it will oscillate and create internal waves. While internal waves generally have a lower frequency than surface waves, they often form as a single wave that breaks into multiple waves as it hits a slope and moves upward. This vertical break up of internal waves causes significant diapycnal mixing and turbulence. Internal waves can act as nutrient pumps, bringing plankton and cool nutrient - rich water up to the surface.
The irregular structure characteristic of coral reef bathymetry may enhance mixing and produce pockets of cooler water and variable nutrient content. Arrival of cool, nutrient - rich water from depths due to internal waves and tidal bores has been linked to growth rates of suspension feeders and benthic algae as well as plankton and larval organisms. Leichter et al. proposed that the seaweed Codium isthmocladum reacts to deep water nutrient sources due to their tissues having different concentrations of nutrients dependent upon depth. Wolanski and Hamner noted aggregations of eggs, larval organisms and plankton on reefs in response to deep water intrusions. Similarly, as internal waves and bores move vertically, surface - dwelling larval organisms are carried toward the shore. This has significant biological importance to cascading effects of food chains in coral reef ecosystems and may provide yet another key to unlocking "Darwin 's Paradox ''.
Cyanobacteria provide soluble nitrates for the reef via nitrogen fixation.
Coral reefs also often depend on surrounding habitats, such as seagrass meadows and mangrove forests, for nutrients. Seagrass and mangroves supply dead plants and animals which are rich in nitrogen and also serve to feed fish and animals from the reef by supplying wood and vegetation. Reefs, in turn, protect mangroves and seagrass from waves and produce sediment in which the mangroves and seagrass can root.
Coral reefs form some of the world 's most productive ecosystems, providing complex and varied marine habitats that support a wide range of other organisms. Fringing reefs just below low tide level have a mutually beneficial relationship with mangrove forests at high tide level and sea grass meadows in between: the reefs protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or erode the sediments in which they are rooted, while the mangroves and sea grass protect the coral from large influxes of silt, fresh water and pollutants. This level of variety in the environment benefits many coral reef animals, which, for example, may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding.
Reefs are home to a large variety of animals, including fish, seabirds, sponges, cnidarians (which includes some types of corals and jellyfish), worms, crustaceans (including shrimp, cleaner shrimp, spiny lobsters and crabs), mollusks (including cephalopods), echinoderms (including starfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers), sea squirts, sea turtles and sea snakes. Aside from humans, mammals are rare on coral reefs, with visiting cetaceans such as dolphins being the main exception. A few of these varied species feed directly on corals, while others graze on algae on the reef. Reef biomass is positively related to species diversity.
The same hideouts in a reef may be regularly inhabited by different species at different times of day. Nighttime predators such as cardinalfish and squirrelfish hide during the day, while damselfish, surgeonfish, triggerfish, wrasses and parrotfish hide from eels and sharks.
Reefs are chronically at risk of algal encroachment. Overfishing and excess nutrient supply from onshore can enable algae to outcompete and kill the coral. Increased nutrient levels can be a result of sewage or chemical fertilizer runoff from nearby coastal developments. Runoff can carry nitrogen and phosphorus which promote excess algae growth. Algae can sometimes out - compete the coral for space. The algae can then smother the coral by decreasing the oxygen supply available to the reef. Decreased oxygen levels can slow down coral 's calcification rates weakening the coral and leaving it more susceptible to disease and degradation. In surveys done around largely uninhabited US Pacific islands, algae inhabit a large percentage of surveyed coral locations. The algal population consists of turf algae, coralline algae, and macro algae. Some sea urchins (such as Diadema antillarum,...) eat these algae and could thus decrease the risk of algal encroachment.
Sponges are essential for the functioning of the coral reef 's ecosystem. Algae and corals in coral reefs produce organic material. This is filtered through sponges which convert this organic material into small particles which in turn are absorbed by algae and corals.
Over 4,000 species of fish inhabit coral reefs. The reasons for this diversity remain unclear. Hypotheses include the "lottery '', in which the first (lucky winner) recruit to a territory is typically able to defend it against latecomers, "competition '', in which adults compete for territory, and less - competitive species must be able to survive in poorer habitat, and "predation '', in which population size is a function of postsettlement piscivore mortality. Healthy reefs can produce up to 35 tons of fish per square kilometer each year, but damaged reefs produce much less.
Sea urchins, Dotidae and sea slugs eat seaweed. Some species of sea urchins, such as Diadema antillarum, can play a pivotal part in preventing algae from overrunning reefs. In Hawaii, researchers are even investigating the use of native collector urchins, Tripneustes gratilla, for their potential as biocontrol agents to mitigate the spread of invasive algae species on coral reefs. Nudibranchia and sea anemones eat sponges.
A number of invertebrates, collectively called "cryptofauna, '' inhabit the coral skeletal substrate itself, either boring into the skeletons (through the process of bioerosion) or living in pre-existing voids and crevices. Those animals boring into the rock include sponges, bivalve mollusks, and sipunculans. Those settling on the reef include many other species, particularly crustaceans and polychaete worms.
Coral reef systems provide important habitats for seabird species, some endangered. For example, Midway Atoll in Hawaii supports nearly three million seabirds, including two - thirds (1.5 million) of the global population of Laysan albatross, and one - third of the global population of black - footed albatross. Each seabird species has specific sites on the atoll where they nest. Altogether, 17 species of seabirds live on Midway. The short - tailed albatross is the rarest, with fewer than 2,200 surviving after excessive feather hunting in the late 19th century.
Sea snakes feed exclusively on fish and their eggs. Marine birds, such as herons, gannets, pelicans and boobies, feed on reef fish. Some land - based reptiles intermittently associate with reefs, such as monitor lizards, the marine crocodile and semiaquatic snakes, such as Laticauda colubrina. Sea turtles, particularly hawksbill sea turtles, feed on sponges.
Schooling reef fish
Caribbean reef squid
Banded coral shrimp
Whitetip reef shark
Green turtle
Giant clam
Soft coral, cup coral, sponges and ascidians
Banded sea krait
The shell of Latiaxis wormaldi, a coral snail
Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and coastline protection. The global economic value of coral reefs has been estimated to be between US $29.8 billion and $375 billion per year. Coral reefs protect shorelines by absorbing wave energy, and many small islands would not exist without their reefs to protect them. According to the environmental group World Wide Fund for Nature, the economic cost over a 25 - year period of destroying one kilometer of coral reef is somewhere between $137,000 and $1,200,000. About six million tons of fish are taken each year from coral reefs. Well - managed coral reefs have an annual yield of 15 tons of seafood on average per square kilometer. Southeast Asia 's coral reef fisheries alone yield about $2.4 billion annually from seafood.
To improve the management of coastal coral reefs, another environmental group, the World Resources Institute (WRI) developed and published tools for calculating the value of coral reef - related tourism, shoreline protection and fisheries, partnering with five Caribbean countries. As of April 2011, published working papers covered St. Lucia, Tobago, Belize, and the Dominican Republic, with a paper for Jamaica in preparation. The WRI was also "making sure that the study results support improved coastal policies and management planning ''. The Belize study estimated the value of reef and mangrove services at $395 -- 559 million annually.
Bermuda 's coral reefs provide economic benefits to the Island worth on average $722 million per year, based on six key ecosystem services, according to Sarkis et al (2010).
Coral reefs are dying around the world. In particular, coral mining, agricultural and urban runoff, pollution (organic and inorganic), overfishing, blast fishing, disease, and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are localized threats to coral ecosystems. Broader threats are sea temperature rise, sea level rise and pH changes from ocean acidification, all associated with greenhouse gas emissions. A 2014 study lists factors such as population explosion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas, global warming and invasive species among the main reasons that have put reefs in danger of extinction.
A study released in April 2013 has shown that air pollution can also stunt the growth of coral reefs; researchers from Australia, Panama and the UK used coral records (between 1880 and 2000) from the western Caribbean to show the threat of factors such as coal - burning and volcanic eruptions. Pollutants, such as Tributyltin, a biocide released into water from in anti-fouling paint can be toxic to corals.
In 2011, researchers suggested that "extant marine invertebrates face the same synergistic effects of multiple stressors '' that occurred during the end - Permian extinction, and that genera "with poorly buffered respiratory physiology and calcareous shells '', such as corals, were particularly vulnerable.
Rock coral on seamounts across the ocean are under fire from bottom trawling. Reportedly up to 50 % of the catch is rock coral, and the practice transforms coral structures to rubble. With it taking years to regrow, these coral communities are disappearing faster than they can sustain themselves.
Another cause for the death of coral reefs is bioerosion. Various fishes graze corals, dead or alive and change the morphology of coral reefs making them more susceptible to other physical and chemical threats. It has been generally observed that only the algae growing on dead corals is eaten and the live ones are not. However, this act still destroys the top layer of coral substrate and makes it harder for the reefs to sustain.
In El Niño - year 2010, preliminary reports show global coral bleaching reached its worst level since another El Niño year, 1998, when 16 % of the world 's reefs died as a result of increased water temperature. In Indonesia 's Aceh province, surveys showed some 80 % of bleached corals died. Scientists do not yet understand the long - term impacts of coral bleaching, but they do know that bleaching leaves corals vulnerable to disease, stunts their growth, and affects their reproduction, while severe bleaching kills them. In July, Malaysia closed several dive sites where virtually all the corals were damaged by bleaching.
To find answers for these problems, researchers study the various factors that impact reefs. The list includes the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink, atmospheric changes, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, viruses, impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far - flung reefs, pollutants, algal blooms and others. Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas. Coral reefs with one type of zooxanthellae are more prone to bleaching than are reefs with another, more hardy, species.
General estimates show approximately 10 % of the world 's coral reefs are dead. About 60 % of the world 's reefs are at risk due to destructive, human - related activities. The threat to the health of reefs is particularly high in Southeast Asia, where 95 % of reefs are at risk from local threats. By the 2030s, 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change; by 2050, all coral reefs will be in danger.
Current research is showing that ecotourism in the Great Barrier Reef is contributing to coral disease, and that chemicals in sunscreens may contribute to the impact of viruses on zooxanthellae.
Some scientists, including those associated with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, posit that US coral reefs are likely to disappear within a few decades as a result of global warming.
Marine protected areas (MPAs) have become increasingly prominent for reef management. MPAs promote responsible fishery management and habitat protection. Much like national parks and wildlife refuges, and to varying degrees, MPAs restrict potentially damaging activities. MPAs encompass both social and biological objectives, including reef restoration, aesthetics, biodiversity, and economic benefits. However, there are very few MPAs that have actually made a substantial difference. Research in Indonesia, Philippines and Papua New Guinea shows that there is no significant difference between an MPA site and an unprotected site. Conflicts surrounding MPAs involve lack of participation, clashing views of the government and fisheries, effectiveness of the area, and funding. In some situations, as in the Phoenix Islands Protected Area, MPAs can also provide revenue, potentially equal to the income they would have generated without controls, as Kiribati did for its Phoenix Islands.
According to the Caribbean Coral Reefs - Status Report 1970 - 2012 made by the IUCN. States that; stopping overfishing especially key fishes to coral reef like parrotfish, coastal zone management which reduce human pressure on reef, (for example restricting the coastal settlement, development and tourism in coastal reef) and controlling pollution specially sewage wastage, may not only reduce coral declining but also reverse it and may let to coral reef more adaptable to changes relates to climate and acidification. The report shows that healthier reef in the Caribbean are those with large population of parrotfish in countries which protect these key fishes and sea urchins, banning fish trap and Spearfishing creating "resilient reefs ''.
To help combat ocean acidification, some laws are in place to reduce greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. The Clean Water Act puts pressure on state government agencies to monitor and limit runoff of pollutants that can cause ocean acidification. Stormwater surge preventions are also in place, as well as coastal buffers between agricultural land and the coastline. This act also ensures that delicate watershed ecosystems are intact, such as wetlands. The Clean Water Act is funded by the federal government, and is monitored by various watershed groups. Many land use laws aim to reduce CO emissions by limiting deforestation. Deforestation causes erosion, which releases a large amount of carbon stored in the soil, which then flows into the ocean, contributing to ocean acidification. Incentives are used to reduce miles traveled by vehicles, which reduces the carbon emissions into the atmosphere, thereby reducing the amount of dissolved CO in the ocean. State and federal governments also control coastal erosion, which releases stored carbon in the soil into the ocean, increasing ocean acidification. High - end satellite technology is increasingly being employed to monitor coral reef conditions.
Biosphere reserve, marine park, national monument and world heritage status can protect reefs. For example, Belize 's barrier reef, Sian Ka'an, the Galapagos islands, Great Barrier Reef, Henderson Island, Palau and Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument are world heritage sites.
In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, and is the subject of much legislation, including a biodiversity action plan. They have compiled a Coral Reef Resilience Action Plan. This detailed action plan consists of numerous adaptive management strategies, including reducing our carbon footprint, which would ultimately reduce the amount of ocean acidification in the oceans surrounding the Great Barrier Reef. An extensive public awareness plan is also in place to provide education on the "rainforests of the sea '' and how people can reduce carbon emissions, thereby reducing ocean acidification.
Inhabitants of Ahus Island, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, have followed a generations - old practice of restricting fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. Their cultural traditions allow line fishing, but no net or spear fishing. The result is both the biomass and individual fish sizes are significantly larger than in places where fishing is unrestricted.
Coral aquaculture, also known as coral farming or coral gardening, is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring coral reefs, which have been declining around the world.
The "gardening '' process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying. Coral seeds are grown in nurseries, then replanted on the reef. Coral is farmed by coral farmers who live locally to the reefs and farm for reef conservation or for income.
Efforts to expand the size and number of coral reefs generally involve supplying substrate to allow more corals to find a home. Substrate materials include discarded vehicle tires, scuttled ships, subway cars, and formed concrete, such as reef balls. Reefs also grow unaided on marine structures such as oil rigs. In large restoration projects, propagated hermatypic coral on substrate can be secured with metal pins, superglue or milliput. Needle and thread can also attach A-hermatype coral to substrate.
A substrate for growing corals referred to as Biorock is produced by running low voltage electrical currents through seawater to crystallize dissolved minerals onto steel structures. The resultant white carbonate (aragonite) is the same mineral that makes up natural coral reefs. Corals rapidly colonize and grow at accelerated rates on these coated structures. The electrical currents also accelerate formation and growth of both chemical limestone rock and the skeletons of corals and other shell - bearing organisms. The vicinity of the anode and cathode provides a high - pH environment which inhibits the growth of competitive filamentous and fleshy algae. The increased growth rates fully depend on the accretion activity.
During accretion, the settled corals display an increased growth rate, size and density, but after the process is complete, growth rate and density return to levels comparable to natural growth, and are about the same size or slightly smaller.
One case study with coral reef restoration was conducted on the island of Oahu in Hawaii. The University of Hawaii has come up with a Coral Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program to help relocate and restore coral reefs in Hawaii. A boat channel on the island of Oahu to the Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology was overcrowded with coral reefs. Also, many areas of coral reef patches in the channel had been damaged from past dredging in the channel.
Dredging covers the existing corals with sand, and their larvae can not build and thrive on sand; they can only build on to existing reefs. Because of this, the University of Hawaii decided to relocate some of the coral reef to a different transplant site. They transplanted them with the help of the United States Army divers, to a relocation site relatively close to the channel. They observed very little, if any, damage occurred to any of the colonies while they were being transported, and no mortality of coral reefs has been observed on the new transplant site, but they will be continuing to monitor the new transplant site to see how potential environmental impacts (i.e. ocean acidification) will harm the overall reef mortality rate. While trying to attach the coral to the new transplant site, they found the coral placed on hard rock is growing considerably well, and coral was even growing on the wires that attached the transplant corals to the transplant site.
This gives new hope to future research on coral reef transplant sites. As a result of this coral restoration project, no environmental effects were seen from the transplantation process, no recreational activities were decreased, and no scenic areas were affected by the project. This is a great example that coral transplantation and restoration can work and thrive under the right conditions, which means there may be hope for other damaged coral reefs.
Another possibility for coral restoration is gene therapy: Through inoculating coral with genetically modified bacteria, or naturally - occurring heat - tolerant varieties of coral symbiotes, it may be possible to grow corals that are more resistant to climate change and other threats.
Hawaiian coral reefs smothered by the spread of invasive algae were managed with a two prong approach: First, divers manually removed invasive algae, with the support of super-sucker barges. Second, grazing pressure on the algae needed to be increased to prevent the regrowth of the invasive algae, once the majority of the algae had been cleaned off the coral.
Researchers found that native collector urchins were reasonable candidate grazers for algae biocontrol, to extirpate the remaining invasive algae from the reef.
Throughout Earth 's history, from a few thousand years after hard skeletons were developed by marine organisms, there were almost always reefs. The times of maximum development were in the Middle Cambrian (513 -- 501 Ma), Devonian (416 -- 359 Ma) and Carboniferous (359 -- 299 Ma), owing to order Rugosa extinct corals, and Late Cretaceous (100 -- 66 Ma) and all Neogene (23 Ma -- present), owing to order Scleractinia corals.
Not all reefs in the past were formed by corals: those in the Early Cambrian (542 -- 513 Ma) resulted from calcareous algae and archaeocyathids (small animals with conical shape, probably related to sponges) and in the Late Cretaceous (100 -- 66 Ma), when there also existed reefs formed by a group of bivalves called rudists; one of the valves formed the main conical structure and the other, much smaller valve acted as a cap.
Measurements of the oxygen isotopic composition of the aragonitic skeleton of coral reefs, such as Porites, can indicate changes in the sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity conditions of the ocean during the growth of the coral. This technique is often used by climate scientists to infer the paleoclimate of a region.
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who owns the staples center in los angeles | Staples Center - wikipedia
Staples Center, officially stylized as STAPLES Center, is a multi-purpose arena in Downtown Los Angeles. Adjacent to the L.A. Live development, it is located next to the Los Angeles Convention Center complex along Figueroa Street. The arena opened on October 17, 1999, and is one of the major sporting facilities in the Greater Los Angeles Area.
It is owned and operated by the Mercinda L.A. Arena Company and Anschutz Entertainment Group. The arena is home to the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League (NHL), the Los Angeles Lakers and the Los Angeles Clippers of the National Basketball Association (NBA), and the Los Angeles Sparks of the Women 's National Basketball Association (WNBA). The Los Angeles Avengers of the Arena Football League (AFL) and the Los Angeles D - Fenders of the NBA D - League were also tenants; the Avengers were folded in 2009, and the D - Fenders moved to the Lakers ' practice facility at the Toyota Sports Center in El Segundo, California for the 2011 -- 12 season. Staples Center is also host to over 250 events and nearly 4 million guests each year. It is the only arena in the NBA shared by two teams, as well as one of only two North American professional sports venues to host two teams from the same league; MetLife Stadium, the home of the National Football League 's New York Giants and New York Jets, is the other. The Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park will host both the Los Angeles Chargers and Los Angeles Rams beginning in 2020. Staples Center will host the basketball competitions at the 2028 Summer Olympics.
Staples Center measures 950,000 square feet (88,257.9 m) of total space, with a 94 - foot (28.7 m) by 200 - foot (61.0 m) arena floor. It stands 150 feet (45.7 m) tall. The arena seats up to 19,067 for basketball, 18,340 for ice hockey, and around 20,000 for concerts or other sporting events. Two - thirds of the arena 's seating, including 2,500 club seats, are in the lower bowl. There are also 160 luxury suites, including 15 event suites, on three levels between the lower and upper bowls. The arena 's attendance record is held by the fight between World WBA Welterweight Champion, Antonio Margarito and Shane Mosley with a crowd of 20,820 set on January 25, 2009.
Outside the arena at the Star Plaza are statues of Wayne Gretzky and Magic Johnson, although both played at The Forum, where the Kings, Lakers and Sparks previously played. A third statue of boxer Oscar De La Hoya was unveiled outside Staples Center on December 1, 2008. On April 20, 2010 a fourth statue of the late long time Lakers broadcaster Chick Hearn, behind a Laker desk with a chair for fans to sit down for a picture, was unveiled. A fifth statue of the Laker legend Jerry West dribbling was unveiled on February 17, 2011. A sixth statue of Lakers player Kareem Abdul - Jabbar was unveiled on November 16, 2012. A seventh statue of former Kings ' Hall of Fame left wing Luc Robitaille was unveiled on March 7, 2015. An eighth statue of Lakers center Shaquille O'Neal was unveiled on March 24, 2017. On January 13, 2018 a ninth statue, of legendary Kings announcer Bob Miller, was unveiled. A tenth statue of Laker legend Elgin Baylor was unveiled on April 6, 2018.
On January 15, 2018, in the aftermath of an NBA basketball game between the Houston Rockets and the Los Angeles Clippers, point guard Chris Paul made the best of playing in Staples Center for 6 years by utilizing a secret tunnel (connecting the away team 's locker room to the backdoor of the Clipper 's locker room) to confront former Clipper teammates Austin Rivers and Blake Griffin. He was joined with teammates such as Trevor Ariza, James Harden, and Gerald Green to confront the opponents, which only resulted in verbal altercations.
The Staples Center has been referred to as "the deal that almost was n't ''
Long before construction of the Staples Center broke ground, plans for the arena were negotiated between elected city officials, and real estate developers Ed Roski of Majestic Realty and Philip Anschutz. They had acquired the hockey team the Los Angeles Kings in 1995 and were in the beginning of 1996 looking for a new home for their team, which then played at the Forum in Inglewood.
Majestic Realty Co. in conjunction with AEG were scouring the Los Angeles area for available land to develop an arena when they were approached by Steve Soboroff, then president of LA Recreation and Parks Commission. Mr. Soboroff requested that they consider building the arena in downtown Los Angeles adjacent to the convention center. The proposal intrigued Roski and Anschutz and soon a plan to develop the arena, the current Staples Center, was devised.
Months of negotiations ensued between Philip Anschutz and city officials with Ed Roski and John Semcken of Majestic Realty Co. spearheading the negotiations for the real estate developers. The negotiations grew contentious at times and the real estate developers threatened to pull out altogether on more than one occasion. The main opposition came from Councilman Joel Wachs, opposed utilizing public funds to subsidizing the proposed project and councilwoman Rita Walters, who objected parts of it.
Ultimately, the developers and city leaders reached an agreement and in 1997, construction broke ground and Staples Center opened a year later. It was financed privately at a cost of US $375 million and is named for the office - supply company Staples, Inc., which was one of the center 's corporate sponsors that paid for naming rights. The arena opened on October 17, 1999, with a Bruce Springsteen & The E Street Band concert as its inaugural event.
On October 21, 2009, Staples Center celebrated its 10th anniversary. To commemorate the occasion, the venue 's official web site nominated 25 of the arena 's greatest moments from its first ten years with fans voting on the top ten.
During the late summer of 2010, modifications were made to the arena, including refurbished locker rooms for the Clippers, Kings, and Lakers and the installation of a new high - definition center - hung video scoreboard, replacing the original one that had been in place since the building opened in 1998. The Panasonic Live 4HD scoreboard was officially unveiled on September 22, as AEG and Staples Center executives, as well as player representatives from the Clippers (Craig Smith), Kings (Matt Greene), and Lakers (Sasha Vujacic) were on hand for the presentation.
The venue opened in 1998 as the home of the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Clippers (NBA), and Los Angeles Kings of the NHL. The Los Angeles Sparks of the WNBA joined in 2001, while the Los Angeles D - Fenders of the NBA D - League joined in 2006. It became home to the Los Angeles Avengers of the Arena Football League in 2000 until the team 's discontinuation in 2009.
Since its opening day, the Staples Center has hosted seven NBA Finals series with the Lakers, the 2012 and 2014 Stanley Cup Finals, three WNBA Finals, the 2002 U.S. Figure Skating Championships, the 52nd and 62nd NHL All - Star game, three NBA All - Star Games (2004, 2011 and 2018), the Pacific - 10 Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament (from 2002 -- 12), the WTA Tour Championships (from 2002 -- 05), UFC 60 in 2006, UFC 104 in 2009, UFC 184 in 2015, UFC 227 in 2018, the 2009 World Figure Skating Championships, the Summer X Games indoor competitions (from 2003 -- 13), and several HBO Championship Boxing matches.
On January 22, 2006, Los Angeles Lakers player Kobe Bryant scored a career - high 81 points in the Staples Center against the Toronto Raptors, the second - highest number of points scored in a single game in NBA history, second only to Wilt Chamberlain 's 100 - point performance. Of the team 's five NBA championships since moving to the venue, the Lakers have celebrated their 2000 and 2010 victories at Staples Center with series - winning victories at home.
Prior to the 2006 -- 07 NBA season, the lighting inside Staples Center was modified for Lakers games. The lights were focused only on the court itself (hence the promotional Lights Out campaign), reminiscent of the Lakers ' early years at The Forum. Initial fan reaction was positive, and has been a fixture on home games since. The Daktronics see - through shot - clock was first installed prior to the 2008 -- 09 NBA season. The Clippers adopted the new see through shot clock prior to the 2010 -- 11 NBA season. For Sparks games, the court used is named after Sparks player Lisa Leslie, and was officially named prior to the 2009 home opener against the Shock on June 6, 2009.
The Los Angeles Kings, of the NHL hosted the 2010 NHL Entry Draft at the arena in June 2010. The Stanley Cup Finals were held at the arena for the first time in 2012. The Kings hosted the New Jersey Devils in games 3, 4, and ultimately defeated the Devils in game 6 by a final score of 6 - 1. The Kings became the first team to win the Stanley Cup on home ice since 2007.
During the spring of 2012, NHL 's Kings, along with NBA 's Lakers and Clippers reached the post-season, making it the first time the arena would host three playoff teams.
The Lakers unveiled a new hardwood court before their preseason game on October 13, 2012. Taking a cue from soccer clubs, the primary center court logo was adorned with 16 stars, representing the 16 championships the Lakers franchise has won.
Staples Center has hosted the following championship events:
The Staples Center will host the basketball competition at the 2028 Summer Olympics. It will host men 's preliminaries as well as the men 's and women 's basketball finals.
The January 24, 2000 Episode of WCW Monday Nitro was held in the Staples Center.
The 2000 Democratic National Convention was held there.
The inaugural Latin Grammy Awards was hosted at Staples Center in 2000. The annual Grammy Awards have been held at Staples Center since 2000, with the exception of 2003 and 2018.
After his death in 2009, Michael Jackson 's memorial service was held at Staples Center.
In 2013 and 2016, Staples Center hosted the grand finals of the Worlds Championship of the video game League of Legends.
Staples Center was named Best w Major Concert Venue for 1998 and Arena of the Year for 1999, 2000 and 2001 by Pollstar Magazine and has been nominated each year since 2000.
In February 2013, PETA named Staples Center the most "vegetarian - friendly '' arena in the NBA.
Staples Center is only a part of a 4,000,000 - square - foot (371,612.2 m) development by Anschutz Entertainment Group (AEG) adjoining Staples Center and the Los Angeles Convention Center. The development, known as L.A. Live, broke ground on September 15, 2005. L.A. Live is designed to offer entertainment, retail and residential programming in the downtown Los Angeles area.
Staples Center as seen from Microsoft Square
Satellite view of Staples Center prior to the L.A. Live development
Staples Center during a Los Angeles Kings game
The red carpet under the tent leading to Staples Center for the 54th Grammy Awards
Inside Staples Center during a Los Angeles Kings game.
Inside Staples Center in a Los Angeles Lakers game set up.
Inside Staples Center before a Los Angeles Kings game.
Inside Staples Center before a Los Angeles Lakers game.
A packed Staples Center during a Los Angeles Clippers game.
Inside Staples Center during WWE SummerSlam 2009
Note: During the Olympic Games, venues that have naming rights sold may not use their name during the Olympic Games.
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what type of switch is a computer power button | Switch - wikipedia
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can "make '' or "break '' an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The mechanism of a switch removes or restores the conducting path in a circuit when it is operated. It may be operated manually, for example, a light switch or a keyboard button, may be operated by a moving object such as a door, or may be operated by some sensing element for pressure, temperature or flow. A switch will have one or more sets of contacts, which may operate simultaneously, sequentially, or alternately. Switches in high - powered circuits must operate rapidly to prevent destructive arcing, and may include special features to assist in rapidly interrupting a heavy current. Multiple forms of actuators are used for operation by hand or to sense position, level, temperature or flow. Special types are used, for example, for control of machinery, to reverse electric motors, or to sense liquid level. Many specialized forms exist. A common use is control of lighting, where multiple switches may be wired into one circuit to allow convenient control of light fixtures.
By analogy with the devices that select one or more possible paths for electric currents, devices that route information in a computer network are also called "switches '' - these are usually more complicated than simple electromechanical toggles or pushbutton devices, and operate without direct human interaction.
The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either "closed '' meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or "open '', meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is nonconducting. The mechanism actuating the transition between these two states (open or closed) are usually (there are other types of actions) either an "alternate action '' (flip the switch for continuous "on '' or "off '') or "momentary '' (push for "on '' and release for "off '') type.
A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch. Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another workpiece. Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system. For example, a thermostat is a temperature - operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be padlocked if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent electric shock.
An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no limits on voltage or current rating. It would have zero rise time and fall time during state changes, and would change state without "bouncing '' between on and off positions.
Practical switches fall short of this ideal; they have resistance, limits on the current and voltage they can handle, finite switching time, etc. The ideal switch is often used in circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved, but this can lead to a less accurate solution. Theoretical treatment of the effects of non-ideal properties is required in the design of large networks of switches, as for example used in telephone exchanges.
In the simplest case, a switch has two conductive pieces, often metal, called contacts, connected to an external circuit, that touch to complete (make) the circuit, and separate to open (break) the circuit. The contact material is chosen for its resistance to corrosion, because most metals form insulating oxides that would prevent the switch from working. Contact materials are also chosen on the basis of electrical conductivity, hardness (resistance to abrasive wear), mechanical strength, low cost and low toxicity.
Sometimes the contacts are plated with noble metals. They may be designed to wipe against each other to clean off any contamination. Nonmetallic conductors, such as conductive plastic, are sometimes used. To prevent the formation of insulating oxides, a minimum wetting current may be specified for a given switch design.
In electronics, switches are classified according to the arrangement of their contacts. A pair of contacts is said to be "closed '' when current can flow from one to the other. When the contacts are separated by an insulating air gap, they are said to be "open '', and no current can flow between them at normal voltages. The terms "make '' for closure of contacts and "break '' for opening of contacts are also widely used.
The terms pole and throw are also used to describe switch contact variations. The number of "poles '' is the number of electrically separate switches which are controlled by a single physical actuator. For example, a "2 - pole '' switch has two separate, parallel sets of contacts that open and close in unison via the same mechanism. The number of "throws '' is the number of separate wiring path choices other than "open '' that the switch can adopt for each pole. A single - throw switch has one pair of contacts that can either be closed or open. A double - throw switch has a contact that can be connected to either of two other contacts, a triple - throw has a contact which can be connected to one of three other contacts, etc.
In a switch where the contacts remain in one state unless actuated, such as a push - button switch, the contacts can either be normally open (abbreviated "n.o. '' or "no '') until closed by operation of the switch, or normally closed ("n.c. '' or "nc '') and opened by the switch action. A switch with both types of contact is called a changeover switch or double - throw switch. These may be "make - before - break '' ("MBB '' or shorting) which momentarily connects both circuits, or may be "break - before - make '' ("BBM '' or non-shorting) which interrupts one circuit before closing the other.
These terms have given rise to abbreviations for the types of switch which are used in the electronics industry such as "single - pole, single - throw '' (SPST) (the simplest type, "on or off '') or "single - pole, double - throw '' (SPDT), connecting either of two terminals to the common terminal. In electrical power wiring (i.e., house and building wiring by electricians), names generally involve the suffix "- way ''; however, these terms differ between British English and American English (i.e., the terms two way and three way are used with different meanings).
Form A
Form B
Form C
Switches with larger numbers of poles or throws can be described by replacing the "S '' or "D '' with a number (e.g. 3PST, SP4T, etc.) or in some cases the letter "T '' (for "triple '') or "Q '' (for "quadruple ''). In the rest of this article the terms SPST, SPDT and intermediate will be used to avoid the ambiguity.
Contact bounce (also called chatter) is a common problem with mechanical switches and relays. Switch and relay contacts are usually made of springy metals. When the contacts strike together, their momentum and elasticity act together to cause them to bounce apart one or more times before making steady contact. The result is a rapidly pulsed electric current instead of a clean transition from zero to full current. The effect is usually unimportant in power circuits, but causes problems in some analogue and logic circuits that respond fast enough to misinterpret the on ‐ off pulses as a data stream.
The effects of contact bounce can be eliminated by use of mercury - wetted contacts, but these are now infrequently used because of the hazard of mercury release. Alternatively, contact circuit voltages can be low - pass filtered to reduce or eliminate multiple pulses from appearing. In digital systems, multiple samples of the contact state can be taken at a low rate and examined for a steady sequence, so that contacts can settle before the contact level is considered reliable and acted upon. Bounce in SPDT switch contacts signals can be filtered out using a SR flip - flop (latch) or Schmitt trigger. All of these methods are referred to as ' debouncing '.
By analogy, the term "debounce '' has arisen in the software development industry to describe rate - limiting or throttling the frequency of a method 's execution.
When the power being switched is sufficiently large, the electron flow across opening switch contacts is sufficient to ionize the air molecules across the tiny gap between the contacts as the switch is opened, forming a gas plasma, also known as an electric arc. The plasma is of low resistance and is able to sustain power flow, even with the separation distance between the switch contacts steadily increasing. The plasma is also very hot and is capable of eroding the metal surfaces of the switch contacts. Electric current arcing causes significant degradation of the contacts and also significant electromagnetic interference (EMI), requiring the use of arc suppression methods.
Where the voltage is sufficiently high, an arc can also form as the switch is closed and the contacts approach. If the voltage potential is sufficient to exceed the breakdown voltage of the air separating the contacts, an arc forms which is sustained until the switch closes completely and the switch surfaces make contact.
In either case, the standard method for minimizing arc formation and preventing contact damage is to use a fast - moving switch mechanism, typically using a spring - operated tipping - point mechanism to assure quick motion of switch contacts, regardless of the speed at which the switch control is operated by the user. Movement of the switch control lever applies tension to a spring until a tipping point is reached, and the contacts suddenly snap open or closed as the spring tension is released.
As the power being switched increases, other methods are used to minimize or prevent arc formation. A plasma is hot and will rise due to convection air currents. The arc can be quenched with a series of non-conductive blades spanning the distance between switch contacts, and as the arc rises, its length increases as it forms ridges rising into the spaces between the blades, until the arc is too long to stay sustained and is extinguished. A puffer may be used to blow a sudden high velocity burst of gas across the switch contacts, which rapidly extends the length of the arc to extinguish it quickly.
Extremely large switches in excess of 100,000 ‐ watt capacity often have switch contacts surrounded by something other than air to more rapidly extinguish the arc. For example, the switch contacts may operate in a vacuum, immersed in mineral oil, or in sulfur hexafluoride.
In AC power service, the current periodically passes through zero; this effect makes it harder to sustain an arc on opening. Manufacturers may rate switches with lower voltage or current rating when used in DC circuits.
When a switch is designed to switch significant power, the transitional state of the switch as well as the ability to withstand continuous operating currents must be considered. When a switch is in the on state, its resistance is near zero and very little power is dropped in the contacts; when a switch is in the off state, its resistance is extremely high and even less power is dropped in the contacts. However, when the switch is flicked, the resistance must pass through a state where a quarter of the load 's rated power (or worse if the load is not purely resistive) is briefly dropped in the switch.
For this reason, power switches intended to interrupt a load current have spring mechanisms to make sure the transition between on and off is as short as possible regardless of the speed at which the user moves the rocker.
Power switches usually come in two types. A momentary on ‐ off switch (such as on a laser pointer) usually takes the form of a button and only closes the circuit when the button is depressed. A regular on ‐ off switch (such as on a flashlight) has a constant on - off feature. Dual - action switches incorporate both of these features.
When a strongly inductive load such as an electric motor is switched off, the current can not drop instantaneously to zero; a spark will jump across the opening contacts. Switches for inductive loads must be rated to handle these cases. The spark will cause electromagnetic interference if not suppressed; a snubber network of a resistor and capacitor in series will quell the spark.
When turned on, an incandescent lamp draws a large inrush current of about ten times the steady - state current; as the filament heats up, its resistance rises and the current decreases to a steady - state value. A switch designed for an incandescent lamp load can withstand this inrush current.
Wetting current is the minimum current needing to flow through a mechanical switch while it is operated to break through any film of oxidation that may have been deposited on the switch contacts. The film of oxidation occurs often in areas with high humidity. Providing a sufficient amount of wetting current is a crucial step in designing systems that use delicate switches with small contact pressure as sensor inputs. Failing to do this might result in switches remaining electrically "open '' due to contact oxidation.
The moving part that applies the operating force to the contacts is called the actuator, and may be a toggle or dolly, a rocker, a push - button or any type of mechanical linkage (see photo).
A switch normally maintains its set position once operated. A biased switch contains a mechanism that springs it into another position when released by an operator. The momentary push - button switch is a type of biased switch. The most common type is a "push - to - make '' (or normally - open or NO) switch, which makes contact when the button is pressed and breaks when the button is released. Each key of a computer keyboard, for example, is a normally - open "push - to - make '' switch. A "push - to - break '' (or normally - closed or NC) switch, on the other hand, breaks contact when the button is pressed and makes contact when it is released. An example of a push - to - break switch is a button used to release a door held closed by an electromagnet. The interior lamp of a household refrigerator is controlled by a switch that is held open when the door is closed.
A rotary switch operates with a twisting motion of the operating handle with at least two positions. One or more positions of the switch may be momentary (biased with a spring), requiring the operator to hold the switch in the position. Other positions may have a detent to hold the position when released. A rotary switch may have multiple levels or "decks '' in order to allow it to control multiple circuits.
One form of rotary switch consists of a spindle or "rotor '' that has a contact arm or "spoke '' which projects from its surface like a cam. It has an array of terminals, arranged in a circle around the rotor, each of which serves as a contact for the "spoke '' through which any one of a number of different electrical circuits can be connected to the rotor. The switch is layered to allow the use of multiple poles, each layer is equivalent to one pole. Usually such a switch has a detent mechanism so it "clicks '' from one active position to another rather than stalls in an intermediate position. Thus a rotary switch provides greater pole and throw capabilities than simpler switches do.
Other types use a cam mechanism to operate multiple independent sets of contacts.
Rotary switches were used as channel selectors on television receivers until the early 1970s, as range selectors on electrical metering equipment, as band selectors on multi-band radios and other similar purposes. In industry, rotary switches are used for control of measuring instruments, switchgear, or in control circuits. For example, a radio controlled overhead crane may have a large multi-circuit rotary switch to transfer hard - wired control signals from the local manual controls in the cab to the outputs of the remote control receiver.
A toggle switch is a class of electrical switches that are manually actuated by a mechanical lever, handle, or rocking mechanism.
Toggle switches are available in many different styles and sizes, and are used in numerous applications. Many are designed to provide the simultaneous actuation of multiple sets of electrical contacts, or the control of large amounts of electric current or mains voltages.
The word "toggle '' is a reference to a kind of mechanism or joint consisting of two arms, which are almost in line with each other, connected with an elbow - like pivot. However, the phrase "toggle switch '' is applied to a switch with a short handle and a positive snap - action, whether it actually contains a toggle mechanism or not. Similarly, a switch where a definitive click is heard, is called a "positive on - off switch ''. A very common use of this type of switch is to switch lights or other electrical equipment on or off. Multiple toggle switches may be mechanically interlocked to prevent forbidden combinations.
In some contexts, particularly computing, a toggle switch, or the action of toggling, is understood in the different sense of a mechanical or software switch that alternates between two states each time it is activated, regardless of mechanical construction. For example, the caps lock key on a computer causes all letters to be generated in capitals after it is pressed once; pressing it again reverts to lower - case letters.
Switches can be designed to respond to any type of mechanical stimulus: for example, vibration (the trembler switch), tilt, air pressure, fluid level (a float switch), the turning of a key (key switch), linear or rotary movement (a limit switch or microswitch), or presence of a magnetic field (the reed switch). Many switches are operated automatically by changes in some environmental condition or by motion of machinery. A limit switch is used, for example, in machine tools to interlock operation with the proper position of tools. In heating or cooling systems a sail switch ensures that air flow is adequate in a duct. Pressure switches respond to fluid pressure.
The mercury switch consists of a drop of mercury inside a glass bulb with two or more contacts. The two contacts pass through the glass, and are connected by the mercury when the bulb is tilted to make the mercury roll on to them.
This type of switch performs much better than the ball tilt switch, as the liquid metal connection is unaffected by dirt, debris and oxidation, it wets the contacts ensuring a very low resistance bounce - free connection, and movement and vibration do not produce a poor contact. These types can be used for precision works.
It can also be used where arcing is dangerous (such as in the presence of explosive vapour) as the entire unit is sealed.
Knife switches consist of a flat metal blade, hinged at one end, with an insulating handle for operation, and a fixed contact. When the switch is closed, current flows through the hinged pivot and blade and through the fixed contact. Such switches are usually not enclosed. The knife and contacts are typically formed of copper, steel, or brass, depending on the application. Fixed contacts may be backed up with a spring. Several parallel blades can be operated at the same time by one handle. The parts may be mounted on an insulating base with terminals for wiring, or may be directly bolted to an insulated switch board in a large assembly. Since the electrical contacts are exposed, the switch is used only where people can not accidentally come in contact with the switch or where the voltage is so low as to not present a hazard.
Knife switches are made in many sizes from miniature switches to large devices used to carry thousands of amperes. In electrical transmission and distribution, gang - operated switches are used in circuits up to the highest voltages.
The disadvantages of the knife switch are the slow opening speed and the proximity of the operator to exposed live parts. Metal - enclosed safety disconnect switches are used for isolation of circuits in industrial power distribution. Sometimes spring - loaded auxiliary blades are fitted which momentarily carry the full current during opening, then quickly part to rapidly extinguish the arc.
A footswitch is a rugged switch which is operated by foot pressure. An example of use is in the control of a machine tool, allowing the operator to have both hands free to manipulate the workpiece. The foot control of an electric guitar is also a footswitch.
A DPDT switch has six connections, but since polarity reversal is a very common usage of DPDT switches, some variations of the DPDT switch are internally wired specifically for polarity reversal. These crossover switches only have four terminals rather than six. Two of the terminals are inputs and two are outputs. When connected to a battery or other DC source, the 4 - way switch selects from either normal or reversed polarity. Such switches can also be used as intermediate switches in a multiway switching system for control of lamps by more than two switches.
In building wiring, light switches are installed at convenient locations to control lighting and occasionally other circuits. By use of multiple - pole switches, multiway switching control of a lamp can be obtained from two or more places, such as the ends of a corridor or stairwell. A wireless light switch allows remote control of lamps for convenience; some lamps include a touch switch which electronically controls the lamp if touched anywhere. In public buildings several types of vandal resistant switches are used to prevent unauthorized use.
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Solid - state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching -- often a silicon - controlled rectifier or triac.
The analogue switch uses two MOSFET transistors in a transmission gate arrangement as a switch that works much like a relay, with some advantages and several limitations compared to an electromechanical relay.
The power transistor (s) in a switching voltage regulator, such as a power supply unit, are used like a switch to alternately let power flow and block power from flowing.
Many people use metonymy to call a variety of devices "switches '' that conceptually connect or disconnect signals and communication paths between electrical devices, analogous to the way mechanical switches connect and disconnect paths for electrons to flow between two conductors. Early telephone systems used an automatically operated Strowger switch to connect telephone callers; telephone exchanges contain one or more crossbar switches today.
Since the advent of digital logic in the 1950s, the term switch has spread to a variety of digital active devices such as transistors and logic gates whose function is to change their output state between two logic levels or connect different signal lines, and even computers, network switches, whose function is to provide connections between different ports in a computer network. The term ' switched ' is also applied to telecommunications networks, and signifies a network that is circuit switched, providing dedicated circuits for communication between end nodes, such as the public switched telephone network. The common feature of all these usages is they refer to devices that control a binary state: they are either on or off, closed or open, connected or not connected.
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timeline of key events of the french revolution | Timeline of the French Revolution - wikipedia
The following is a timeline of the French Revolution.
, French bankers and businessmen agree to loan the state 75 million, on the condition that the Estates General will have full powers to reform the system.
Louis XVI in 1777
The King opens the meeting of the Estates - General (May 5, 1789)
Cartoon showing the Third Estate carrying the weight of the clergy and the nobility (1789)
Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, who proposed that the Third Estate become the National Assembly (June 10, 1789)
Jean Sylvain Bailly, leader of the Third Estate (1789)
The Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789), by Couder
German soldiers of the King 's guard skirmish with the Gardes - Française in Paris (July 12, 1789)
The storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)
Parade of the heads of the governor of the Bastille and the Provost of Paris merchants (July 14, 1789)
Storming of the city hall of Strasbourg (July 19, 1789)
Jean - Paul Marat
Meeting of the National Assembly (February 4, 1790)
Fête de la Fédération (July 14, 1790)
The comte de Mirabeau (1791)
Lafayette in 1791
The King and his family are recognized and arrested at Varennes (June 21, 1791)
The king is forced to wear a Phrygian cap and drink a toast to the Nation (June 20, 1792)
Sans - Culottes take possession of the Tuileries Palace and massacre the Swiss Guards (August 10, 1792)
Massacre of prisoners in Paris prisons (September 2 -- 7, 1792)
French victory over the Prussians at the Battle of Valmy (September 29, 1792)
The execution of Louis XVI (January 21, 1793)
The Revolutionary Tribunal at work in 1793
Georges Danton
Camille Desmoulins
Maximilien Robespierre
Louis de Saint - Just
Lazare Carnot
Stage of the Festival of the Supreme Being (June 8, 1794)
The poet André Chenier and other victims of the Terror await judgement at the Conciergerie (July 25, 1794)
French victory at the Battle of Fleurus (June 26, 1794)
The Convention rises against Robespierre (July 27, 1794)
The execution of Robespierre (July 28, 1794)
Two Muscadins in Paris (1795)
Paul Barras in the ceremonial dress of a French Director
General Bonaparte defeats the Austrians at the Battle of Lodi (May 10, 1796)
The capture of François de Charette, the royalist leader in the Vendée (February 23, 1796)
Failed uprising at the Grenelle military camp by Montagnards and followers of Babeuf (9 September 1796)
General Bonaparte leads his soldiers across a bridge at the Battle of Arcole (November 15 -- 17, 1796)
General Bonaparte by David (1797)
Bonaparte defeats Austrians at the Battle of Rivoli (January 14, 1797)
Republican coup d'état of September 4, 1797. Arrest of General Pichegru and other royalist leaders of the legislature by the army at the Tuileries Palace.
General Pichegru, leader of the royalist party
The French Army under General Berthier enters Rome (February 10, 1798)
General Bonaparte at the Battle of the Pyramids (July 21, 1798)
The French fleet is defeated by Admiral Nelson at the Battle of the Nile (August 1, 1798)
General Bonapartre visits a plague hospital in Jaffa (March 31, 1799). Antoine - Jean Gros, Louvre Museum
Pope Pius VI was moved to France as a prisoner of the Directory (April 10, 1799)
General André Masséna forced the Russians out of Switzerland (September 26, 1799)
General Jourdan, leader of the Jacobins in the army
The royalist general Louis de Frotté commanded a new rebellion against Paris in the west of France
The French army under General Masséna wins a decisive victory over the Austrians and Russians at the Second Battle of Zürich (September 24 -- 25, 1799)
The British Admiral Sir Sidney Smith sends Bonaparte a packet of French newspapers, letting him know of events in Paris. Bonaparte promptly leaves his army in Egypt and sails for France. (August 23, 1799)
Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès proposed the coup d'état, but was left out of the final government
The Director Paul Barras was persuaded not to oppose Bonaparte 's coup d'état
Lucien Bonaparte, 24 years old, was elected President of the Council of Five Hundred, and aided Bonaparte 's coup d'état
Joseph Fouché, Minister of Police, assured that the police would not interfere in Bonaparte 's seizure of power
Bonaparte confronts the deputies of the Council of Five Hundred (November 10, 1799)
Bonaparte as First Consul (1804), by Antoine Gros, Musée de la Légion d'honneur, Paris
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what is the meaning of bc and ad | Anno Domini - wikipedia
The terms anno Domini (AD) and before Christ (BC) are used to label or number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means "in the year of the Lord '', but is often presented using "our Lord '' instead of "the Lord '', taken from the full original phrase "anno Domini nostri Jesu Christi '', which translates to "in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ ''.
This calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with AD counting years from the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of the era. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor, but was not widely used until after 800.
The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today. For decades, it has been the unofficial global standard, adopted in the pragmatic interests of international communication, transportation, and commercial integration, and recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations.
Traditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the "AD '' abbreviation before the year number. However, BC is placed after the year number (for example: AD 2018, but 68 BC), which also preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in "fourth century AD '' or "second millennium AD '' (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions). Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death, i.e., after the death of Jesus. However, this would mean that the approximate 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would neither be included in the BC nor the AD time scales.
Terminology that is viewed by some as being more neutral and inclusive of non-Christian people is to call this the Current or Common Era (abbreviated as CE), with the preceding years referred to as Before the Common or Current Era (BCE). Astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years.
The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was immediately followed by the first year of his table, AD 532. When he devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year -- he himself stated that the "present year '' was "the consulship of Probus Junior '', which was 525 years "since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ ''. Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus ' Incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred. "However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad, year of the world, or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify the underlying date. ''
Bonnie J. Blackburn and Leofranc Holford - Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or Incarnation. Among the sources of confusion are:
It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesus 's birth. Two major theories are that Dionysius based his calculation on the Gospel of Luke, which states that Jesus was "about thirty years old '' shortly after "the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar '', and hence subtracted thirty years from that date, or that Dionysius counted back 532 years from the first year of his new table. It is convenient to initiate a calendar not from the very day of an event but from the beginning of a cycle which occurs in close proximity. For example, the Islamic calendar begins not from the date of the Hijra, but rather weeks prior, on the first occurrence of the month of Muharram (corresponding to 16 July 622).
It has also been speculated by Georges Declercq that Dionysius ' desire to replace Diocletian years with a calendar based on the incarnation of Christ was intended to prevent people from believing the imminent end of the world. At the time, it was believed by some that the Resurrection and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the world based on information in the Old Testament. It was believed that, based on the Anno Mundi calendar, Jesus was born in the year 5500 (or 5500 years after the world was created) with the year 6000 of the Anno Mundi calendar marking the end of the world. Anno Mundi 6000 (approximately AD 500) was thus equated with the resurrection and the end of the world but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius.
The Anglo - Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used Anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731. In this same history, he also used another Latin term, ante vero incarnationis dominicae tempus anno sexagesimo ("in fact in the 60th year before the time of the Lord 's incarnation ''), equivalent to the English "before Christ '', to identify years before the first year of this era. Both Dionysius and Bede regarded Anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus, but "the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch was identified with Christ 's conception, i.e., the Annunciation on March 25 '' (Annunciation style).
On the continent of Europe, Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century. Its endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing the use of the epoch and spreading it throughout the Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the system 's prevalence. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, popes continued to date documents according to regnal years for some time, but usage of AD gradually became more common in Roman Catholic countries from the 11th to the 14th centuries. In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. Eastern Orthodox countries only began to adopt AD instead of the Byzantine calendar in 1700 when Russia did so, with others adopting it in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Although Anno Domini was in widespread use by the 9th century, the term "Before Christ '' (or its equivalent) did not become common until much later. Bede the Venerable used the expression "anno igitur ante incarnationem Dominicam '' (so in the year before the Incarnation of the Lord) twice. "Anno an xpi nativitate '' (in the year before the birth of Christ) is found in 1474 in a work by a German monk. In 1627, the French Jesuit theologian Denis Pétau (Dionysius Petavius in Latin), with his work De doctrina temporum, popularized the usage ante Christum (Latin for "Before Christ '') to mark years prior to AD.
When the reckoning from Jesus ' incarnation began replacing the previous dating systems in western Europe, various people chose different Christian feast days to begin the year: Christmas, Annunciation, or Easter. Thus, depending on the time and place, the year number changed on different days in the year, which created slightly different styles in chronology:
With these various styles, the same day could, in some cases, be dated in 1099, 1100 or 1101.
The date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, but most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 BC and 4 BC. The historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating, but the date is estimated through two different approaches - one by analyzing references to known historical events mentioned in the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, and the second by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus.
During the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used various systems to count years. Systems in use included consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating.
Although the last non-imperial consul, Basilius, was appointed in 541 by Emperor Justinian I, later emperors through Constans II (641 -- 668) were appointed consuls on the first 1 January after their accession. All of these emperors, except Justinian, used imperial post-consular years for the years of their reign, along with their regnal years. Long unused, this practice was not formally abolished until Novell XCIV of the law code of Leo VI did so in 888.
Another calculation had been developed by the Alexandrian monk Annianus around the year AD 400, placing the Annunciation on 25 March AD 9 (Julian) -- eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius was to imply. Although this incarnation was popular during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, years numbered from it, an Era of Incarnation, were exclusively used and are yet used, in Ethiopia. This accounts for the seven - or eight - year discrepancy between the Gregorian and Ethiopian calendars. Byzantine chroniclers like Maximus the Confessor, George Syncellus, and Theophanes dated their years from Annianus ' creation of the world. This era, called Anno Mundi, "year of the world '' (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, began its first year on 25 March 5492 BC. Later Byzantine chroniclers used Anno Mundi years from 1 September 5509 BC, the Byzantine Era. No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant throughout the Christian world. Eusebius of Caesarea in his Chronicle used an era beginning with the birth of Abraham, dated in 2016 BC (AD 1 = 2017 Anno Abrahami).
Spain and Portugal continued to date by the Era of the Caesars or Spanish Era, which began counting from 38 BC, well into the Middle Ages. In 1422, Portugal became the last Catholic country to adopt the Anno Domini system.
The Era of Martyrs, which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284, who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians, was used by the Church of Alexandria and is still used, officially, by the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic churches. It was also used by the Ethiopian church. Another system was to date from the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in some medieval manuscripts.
Alternative names for the Anno Domini era include vulgaris aerae (found 1615 in Latin), "Vulgar Era '' (in English, as early as 1635), "Christian Era '' (in English, in 1652), "Common Era '' (in English, 1708), and "Current Era ''. Since 1856, the alternative abbreviations CE and BCE, (sometimes written C.E. and B.C.E.) are sometimes used in place of AD and BC.
The "Common / Current Era '' ("CE '') terminology is often preferred by those who desire a term that does not explicitly make religious references. For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B.C.E. / C.E.... do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C. / A.D. '' Upon its foundation, the Republic of China adopted the Minguo Era, but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was 西元 ("xī yuán '', "Western Era ''). Later, in 1949, the People 's Republic of China adopted 公元 (gōngyuán, "Common Era '') for all purposes domestic and foreign.
In the AD year numbering system, whether applied to the Julian or Gregorian calendars, AD 1 is preceded by 1 BC. There is no year "0 '' between them, so a new century begins in a year which has "01 '' as the final digits (e.g., 1801, 1901, 2001). New millennia likewise are considered to have begun in 1001 and 2001. This is at odds with the much more common conception that centuries and millennia begin when the trailing digits are zeroes (1800, 1900, 2000, etc.); for example, the worldwide celebration of the new millennium took place on New Year 's Eve 1999, when the year number ticked over to 2000.
For computational reasons, astronomical year numbering and the ISO 8601 standard designate years so that AD 1 = year 1, 1 BC = year 0, 2 BC = year − 1, etc. In common usage, ancient dates are expressed in the Julian calendar, but ISO 8601 uses the Gregorian calendar and astronomers may use a variety of time scales depending on the application. Thus dates using the year 0 or negative years may require further investigation before being converted to BC or AD.
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total number of atomic power plants in india | Nuclear power in India - Wikipedia
Nuclear power is the fifth - largest source of electricity in India after coal, gas, hydroelectricity and wind power. As of March 2018, India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation in 7 nuclear power plants, having a total installed capacity of 6,780 MW. Nuclear power produced a total of 35 TWh of electricity in 2017. 6 more reactors are under construction with a combined generation capacity of 4,300 MW.
In October 2010, India drew up a plan to reach a nuclear power capacity of 63 GW in 2032, but after the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan people around proposed Indian nuclear power plant sites have launched protests, raising questions about atomic energy as a clean and safe alternative to fossil fuels. There have been mass protests against the French - backed 9,900 MW Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and the Russian - backed 2,000 MW Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu. The state government of West Bengal state has also refused permission to a proposed 6,000 MW facility near the town of Haripur that intended to host six Russian reactors. A Public Interest Litigation (PIL) has also been filed against the government 's civil nuclear programme at the Supreme Court.
The capacity factor of Indian reactors was at 79 % in the year 2011 - 12 compared to 71 % in 2010 - 11. Nine out of twenty Indian reactors recorded 97 % capacity factor during 2011 - 12. With the imported uranium from France, the 220 MW Kakrapar 2 PHWR reactors recorded 99 % capacity factor during 2011 - 12. The Availability factor for the year 2011 - 12 was at 89 %.
India has been making advances in the field of thorium - based fuels, working to design and develop a prototype for an atomic reactor using thorium and low - enriched uranium, a key part of India 's three stage nuclear power programme. The country has also recently re-initiated its involvement in the LENR research activities, in addition to supporting work done in the fusion power area through the ITER initiative.
As early as 1901, the Geological Survey of India (GSI) had recognised India as potentially having significant deposits of radioactive ores, including pitchblende, uranium and thorianite. In the ensuing 50 years, however, little to no effort was made to exploit those resources. During the 1920s and 1930s, Indian scientists maintained close links to their counterparts in Europe and the United States, and were well aware of the latest developments in physics. Several Indian physicists, notably Daulat Singh Kothari, Meghnad Saha, Homi J. Bhabha and R.S. Krishnan, conducted pioneering research in nuclear physics in Europe during the 1930s.
By 1939, Meghnad Saha, the Palit Professor of Physics at the University of Calcutta, had recognised the significance of the discovery of nuclear fission, and had begun to conduct various experiments in his laboratory related to nuclear physics. In 1940, he incorporated nuclear physics into the university 's post-graduate curriculum. In the same year, the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust sanctioned funds for installing a cyclotron at the University of Calcutta, but various difficulties likely related to the war delayed the project. In 1944, Homi J. Bhabha, a distinguished nuclear physicist who had established a research school at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, wrote a letter to his distant cousin J.R.D. Tata, the chairman of the Tata Group. He requested funds to establish a research institute of fundamental physics, "with special reference to cosmic rays and nuclear physics. '' The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) was inaugurated in Mumbai the following year.
Following the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in August 1945, R.S. Krishnan, a nuclear physicist who had studied under Norman Feather and John Cockroft, and who recognised the massive energy - generating potential of uranium, observed, "If the tremendous energy released from atomic explosions is made available to drive machinery, etc., it will bring about an industrial revolution of a far - reaching character. '' He further noted, however, the difficulties in harnessing nuclear power for peaceful usage, "... a great deal more research work is needed before atomic power can be put to industrial use. ''
In March 1946, the Board of Scientific and Industrial Research (BSIR), under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), set up an Atomic Research Committee under Bhabha 's leadership to explore India 's atomic energy resources and to suggest ways to develop and harness them, along with establishing contacts with similar organisations in other nations. At the same time, the University of Travancore 's research council met to discuss Travancore 's future industrial development. Among other matters, the council made recommendations for developing the state 's resources of monazite, a valuable thorium ore, and ilmenite, with regard to their applications in atomic energy. The council suggested the project could be undertaken by an all - India programme. This was followed by the deputation of Bhabha and Sir Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar, the Director of the CSIR, to Travancore in April 1947 and the establishment of a working relationship with the kingdom 's dewan, Sir C.P. Ramaswami Iyer.
Early in 1947, plans were made to establish a Uranium Unit under the Geological Survey of India, to focus on identifying and developing resources of uranium - bearing minerals. In June 1947, two months before Indian independence, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, then Minister for Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the Interim Government of India, established an Advisory Board for Research in Atomic Energy. Chaired by Bhabha and placed under the CSIR, the Advisory Board included Saha, Bhatnagar and several other distinguished scientists, notably Sir K.S. Krishnan, the co-discoverer of the Raman effect, geologist Darashaw Nosherwan Wadia and Nazir Ahmed, a student of Ernest Rutherford. A Joint Committee comprising the above scientists and three representatives of the Travancore government was set up to determine how best to utilise Travancore 's resources of monazite. Following the independence and partition of India, Travancore briefly declared itself independent before acceding to the new Dominion of India in 1949 after a period of intense negotiations, while Ahmad departed for Pakistan, where he would eventually head that nation 's atomic energy agency.
On 23 March 1948, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru introduced the Atomic Energy Bill in the Indian Parliament, and it was subsequently passed as the Indian Atomic Energy Act. Modelled on the British Atomic Energy Act 1946, the Act granted sweeping powers to the central government over nuclear science and research, including surveying for atomic minerals, the development of such mineral resources on an industrial scale, conducting research regarding the scientific and technical problems connected with developing atomic energy for peaceful purposes, the training and education of the necessary personnel and the fostering of fundamental research in the nuclear sciences in Indian laboratories, institutes and universities. Around the same time, the Government of West Bengal sanctioned the construction of a nuclear physics institute under the University of Calcutta; the cornerstone was laid in May 1948, and the institute was inaugurated on 11 January 1950 by Irène Joliot - Curie.
With effect from 1 June 1948, the Advisory Board for Research in Atomic Energy, together with its parent organisation the CSIR, was folded into the new Department of Scientific Research and placed directly under the Prime Minister. On 3 August 1948, the Atomic Energy Commission of India (AEC) was established and made separate from the Department of Scientific Research, with Bhabha as its first chairman. In January 1949, the AEC met to formulate a uniform under - and post-graduate university syllabus for theoretical and fundamental physics and chemistry, to guarantee sufficient numbers of nuclear scientists and to ensure they would receive consistent levels of training and education. In the same year, the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was designated by the CSIR as the hub for all major nuclear science research projects. In 1950, the government announced it would purchase all available stocks of uranium and beryllium minerals and ores, and declared large rewards for any significant discoveries of the same. On 3 January 1954, the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) was established by the Atomic Energy Commission to consolidate all nuclear reactor research and technology - related developments; on 3 August, the Atomic Energy Commission and all its subordinate agencies, including the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and the nuclear research institute at Calcutta University, were transferred to the new Department of Atomic Energy and placed under the direct charge of the Prime Minister 's Office. In May 1956, construction began at Trombay on a uranium metal plant and a fuel element fabrication facility for the research reactors; the uranium plant came into operation in January 1959, followed by the fuel element facility in February 1960. The AEET (renamed the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967, after Bhabha 's death) was formally inaugurated by Nehru in January 1957. With the expanding scope of Indian nuclear research, the 1948 Atomic Energy Act was amended in 1961, and was passed as the new Atomic Energy Act, coming into force in September 1962.
At a meeting of the Atomic Energy Commission on 15 March 1955, the decision was made to construct a small nuclear reactor at Trombay. The reactor would be used for training personnel for the operation of future reactors and for research, including experiments in nuclear physics, studying the effects of irradiation and the production of isotopes for medical, agricultural and industrial research. In October 1955, an agreement was signed by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority and the Indian Department of Atomic Energy, under which Britain would supply uranium fuel elements for a pool - type reactor to be designed by India. The agreement further ensured the "close cooperation and mutual assistance between the Department and the Authority in the promotion and development of the peaceful uses of atomic energy, '' and provided for future design and collaboration in the construction of a high flux reactor at a later date. Named Apsara, the reactor was housed in a 100 x 50 x 70 concrete building. India 's and Asia 's first nuclear reactor, Apsara reached criticality at 3: 45 p.m on 4 August 1956 and was inaugurated by Prime Minister Nehru on 20 January 1957.
In April 1955, the Canadian government under Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent offered to assist in building an NRX - type reactor for India under the Colombo Plan, of which both India and Canada were then members. Prime Minister St. Laurent expressed hopes the reactor would serve India well in the development of peaceful atomic research and development. On behalf of the Indian government, Nehru formally accepted the offer that September, stating the reactor would be made available to any accredited foreign scientists, including those from other Colombo Plan member states. On 28 April 1956, Nehru and the Canadian High Commissioner to India Escott Reid signed an agreement for a "Canada - India Colombo Plan Atomic Reactor Project. '' Under the terms of the agreement, Canada would provide a 40 MW CIRUS reactor for solely research purposes, including the initial manufacture and engineering of the reactor, and would also provide technical expertise, including training Indian personnel in its operation. India would supply the reactor site and foundation, and would also pay all "internal '' costs, including the construction of the reactor complex, the costs of local labour and any shipping and insurance fees. Under Article II of the agreement, India would make the reactor facilities available to other Colombo Plan nations. Article III stipulated that the "reactor and any products resulting from its use will be employed for peaceful purposes only; '' at the time, however, there were no effective safeguards to ensure this clause. A further agreement was made with the United States government to supply 21 tons of heavy water for the reactor. Construction of the reactor began later in 1956, with Indian technical personnel sent to Chalk River for training. CIRUS was completed in early 1960 and after achieving criticality in July 1960, was inaugurated by Nehru in January 1961. Construction of a third research reactor, ZERLINA (Zero Energy Reactor for Lattice Investigations and New Assemblies) began at Trombay in 1958; ZERLINA was also commissioned in 1961.
In September 1955, the question of building a commercial nuclear power station was raised in Parliament. Shortly after the world 's first commercial nuclear power plant came online at Obninsk in the Soviet Union, the Soviets invited a number of Indian experts to visit it; the United States concurrently offered training in atomic energy to Indian technical and scientific personnel. In August 1957, members of the Gujarat Chamber of Commerce in Ahmedabad (then in Bombay State) requested an atomic power station for their city, by which time the Indian government was actively considering the construction of at least "one or more large Atomic Power Stations to generate electricity. '' By November 1958, the Atomic Energy Commission had recommended construction of two nuclear power stations, each consisting of two units and able to generate 500 MW of power, for a total generating capacity of 1000 MW; the government decided that a minimum of 250 MW of electricity generated from nuclear reactors would be incorporated into the Third Five Year Plan (1961 - 1966).
In February 1960, it was decided the first power plant would be erected in Western India, with locations in Rajasthan, near Delhi and near Madras noted for future commercial reactors. In September, the Punjab government requested a nuclear power station for their state. On 11 October 1960, the Indian government issued a global tender for India 's first nuclear power station near Tarapur, Maharashtra and consisting of two reactors, each generating around 150 MW of electricity and to be commissioned in 1965. In August 1961, the Indian and Canadian governments agreed to conduct a joint study on building a Canada - India nuclear power plant in Rajasthan; the reactor would be based on the CANDU reactor at Douglas Point and would generate 200 MW of energy. By this time, seven responses to India 's global tender for the Tarapur power station had been received: three from the United States, two from the UK and one each from France and Canada.
The agreement for India 's first nuclear power plant at Rajasthan, RAPP - 1, was signed in 1963, followed by RAPP - 2 in 1966. These reactors contained rigid safeguards to ensure they would not be used for a military programme. RAPP - 1 began operation in 1972. Due to technical problems the reactor had to be downrated from 200 MW to 100 MW. The technical and design information were given free of charge by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited to India. The United States and Canada terminated their assistance after the detonation of India 's first nuclear explosion in 1974.
After successful commissioning of Kudankulam units 1 & 2, an agreement was made with Russia in June 2017 for the units 5 & 6 (2 x 1000 MW) with an estimated cost of INR 250 million (3.85 million US $) per MW. Earlier, India had also entered in to an agreement with Russia in October 2016 for the units 3 & 4 (2 x 1000 MW) with an estimated cost of INR 200 million (3.08 million US $) per MW.
India 's domestic uranium reserves are small and the country is dependent on uranium imports to fuel its nuclear power industry. Since early 1990s, Russia has been a major supplier of nuclear fuel to India. Due to dwindling domestic uranium reserves, electricity generation from nuclear power in India declined by 12.83 % from 2006 to 2008. Following a waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) in September 2008 which allowed it to commence international nuclear trade, India has signed bilateral deals on civilian nuclear energy technology cooperation with several other countries, including France, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and South Korea. India has also uranium supply agreements with Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Argentina and Namibia. An Indian private company won a uranium exploration contract in Niger.
In March 2011 large deposits of uranium have been discovered in the Tummalapalle belt and in the Bhima basin at Gogi in Karnataka by the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) of India. The Tummalapalle belt uranium reserves promises to be one of the world 's top 20 uranium reserves discoveries. 44,000 tonnes of natural uranium have been discovered in the belt so far, which is estimated to have three times that amount. The natural uranium deposits of the Bhima basin has better grade of natural uranium ore, even though it is smaller than the Tummalapalle belt.
In recent years, India has shown increased interest in thorium fuels and fuel cycles because of large deposits of thorium (518,000 tonnes) in the form of monazite in beach sands as compared to very modest reserves of low - grade uranium (92,000 tonnes).
As of 2016, India has signed civil nuclear agreements with 14 countries: Argentina, Australia, Canada, Czech Republic, France, Japan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Namibia, Russia, South Korea, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Vietnam. The 48 - nation NSG granted a waiver to India on 6 September 2008 allowing it to access civilian nuclear technology and fuel from other countries. India the only known country with nuclear weapons which is not a party to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) but is still allowed to carry out nuclear commerce with the rest of the world.
The nuclear agreement with USA led to India issuing a Letter of Intent for purchasing 10,000 MW from the USA. However, liability concerns and a few other issues are preventing further progress on the issue. Experts say that India 's nuclear liability law discourages foreign nuclear companies. This law gives accident victims the right to seek damages from plant suppliers in the event of a mishap. It has "deterred foreign players like General Electric and Westinghouse Electric, a US - based unit of Toshiba, with companies asking for further clarification on compensation liability for private operators ''.
Russia has an ongoing agreement of 1988 vintage with India regarding establishing of two VVER 1000 MW reactors (water - cooled water - moderated light water power reactors) at Koodankulam in Tamil Nadu. A 2008 agreement caters for provision of an additional four third generation VVER - 1200 reactors of capacity 1170 MW each. Russia has assisted in India 's efforts to design a nuclear plant for its nuclear submarine. In 2009, the Russians stated that Russia would not agree to curbs on export of sensitive technology to India. A new accord signed in Dec 2009 with Russia gives India freedom to proceed with the closed fuel cycle, which includes mining, preparation of the fuel for use in reactors, and reprocessing of spent fuel.
After the Nuclear Suppliers Group agreed to allow nuclear exports to India, France was the first country to sign a civilian nuclear agreement with India, on 30 September 2008. During the December 2010 visit of the French President Nicolas Sarkozy to India, framework agreements were signed for the setting up two third - generation EPR reactors of 1650 MW each at Jaitapur, Maharashtra by the French company Areva. The deal caters for the first set of two of six planned reactors and the supply of nuclear fuel for 25 years. The contract and pricing is yet to be finalised. Construction is unlikely to start before 2014 because of regulatory issues and difficulty in sourcing major components from Japan due to India not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
India and Mongolia signed a crucial civil nuclear agreement on 15 June 2009 for supply of Uranium to India, during Prime Minister Manmohan Singh 's visit to Mongolia making it the fifth nation in the world to seal a civil nuclear pact with India. The MoU on "development of cooperation in the field of peaceful uses of radioactive minerals and nuclear energy '' was signed by senior officials in the department of atomic energy of the two countries.
On 2 September 2009, India and Namibia signed five agreements, including one on civil nuclear energy which allows for supply of uranium from the African country. This was signed during President Hifikepunye Pohamba 's five - day visit to India in May 2009. Namibia is the fifth largest producer of uranium in the world. The Indo - Namibian agreement in peaceful uses of nuclear energy allows for supply of uranium and setting up of nuclear reactors.
On 14 October 2009, India and Argentina signed an agreement in New Delhi on civil nuclear cooperation and nine other pacts to establish strategic partnership. According to official sources, the agreement was signed by Vivek Katju, Secretary in the Ministry of External Affairs and Argentine foreign minister Jorge Talana. Taking into consideration their respective capabilities and experience in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, both India and Argentina have agreed to encourage and support scientific, technical and commercial cooperation for mutual benefit in this field.
The Prime Ministers of India and Canada signed a civil nuclear cooperation agreement in Toronto on 28 June 2010 which when all steps are taken, will provide access for Canada 's nuclear industry to India 's expanding nuclear market and also fuel for India 's reactors. Canada is one of the world 's largest exporters of uranium and Canada 's heavy water nuclear technology is marketed abroad with CANDU - type units operating in India, Pakistan, Argentina, South Korea, Romania and China. On 6 November 2012, India and Canada finalised their 2010 nuclear export agreement, opening the way for Canada to begin uranium exports to India.
On 16 April 2011, India and Kazakhstan signed an inter-governmental agreement for Cooperation in Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, that envisages a legal framework for supply of fuel, construction and operation of atomic power plants, exploration and joint mining of uranium, exchange of scientific and research information, reactor safety mechanisms and use of radiation technologies for healthcare. PM Manmohan Singh visited Astana where a deal was signed. After the talks, the Kazakh President Nazarbaev announced that his country would supply India with 2100 tonnes of uranium and was ready to do more. India and Kazakhstan already have civil nuclear cooperation since January 2009 when Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) and Kazakh nuclear company KazAtomProm signed an MoU during the visit of Nazarbaev to Delhi. Under the contract, KazAtomProm supplies uranium which is used by Indian reactors.
South Korea became the latest country to sign a nuclear agreement with India after it got the waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers ' Group (NSG) in 2008. On 25 July 2011 India and South Korea signed a nuclear agreement, which will allow South Korea with a legal foundation to participate in India 's nuclear expansion programme, and to bid for constructing nuclear power plants in India.
In 2014, India and Australia signed a civil nuclear agreement which allows the export of uranium to India. This was signed in New Delhi during Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott 's meeting with the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 4 September 2014. Australia is the third largest producer of uranium in the world. The agreement allows supply of uranium for peaceful generation of power for civil use in India.
India 's Prime Minister Narendra Modi and UK Prime Minister David Cameron signed Civil Nuclear Agreement on 12 Nov, 2015.
In November 2016 Japan signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with India. Japanese nuclear plant builders saw this as potential lifeline given that domestic orders had ended following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, and India is proposing to build about 20 new reactors over the next decade.
As of 2009, India envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from 2.8 % to 9 % within 25 years. By 2020, India 's installed nuclear power generation capacity is expected to increase to 20 GW. As of 2009, India stands 9th in the world in terms of number of operational nuclear power reactors. Indigenous atomic reactors include TAPS - 3, and - 4, both of which are 540 MW reactors.
The Indian nuclear power industry is expected to undergo a significant expansion in the coming years, in part due to the passing of the U.S. - India Civil Nuclear Agreement. This agreement will allow India to carry out trade of nuclear fuel and technologies with other countries and significantly enhance its power generation capacity. When the agreement goes through, India is expected to generate an additional 25 GW of nuclear power by 2020, bringing total estimated nuclear power generation to 45 GW.
Risks related to nuclear power generation prompted Indian legislators to enact the 2010 Nuclear Liability Act which stipulates that nuclear suppliers, contractors and operators must bear financial responsibility in case of an accident. The legislation addresses key issues such as nuclear radiation and safety regulations, operational control and maintenance management of nuclear power plants, compensation in the event of a radiation - leak accident, disaster clean - up costs, operator responsibility and supplier liability. A nuclear accident like the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster would have dire economic consequences in heavily populated India as did the 1984 Union Carbide Bhopal disaster, considered among the world 's worst industrial disasters.
India has already been using imported enriched uranium for light - water reactors that are currently under IAEA safeguards, but it has developed other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle to support its reactors. Development of select technologies has been strongly affected by limited imports. Use of heavy water reactors has been particularly attractive for the nation because it allows Uranium to be burnt with little to no enrichment capabilities. India has also done a great amount of work in the development of a thorium centred fuel cycle. While uranium deposits in the nation are limited there are much greater reserves of thorium and it could provide hundreds of times the energy with the same mass of fuel. The fact that thorium can theoretically be utilised in heavy water reactors has tied the development of the two. A prototype reactor that would burn Uranium - Plutonium fuel while irradiating a thorium blanket is under construction at Kalpakkam by BHAVINI.
Uranium used for the weapons programme has been separated from the power programme, using uranium from indigenous reserves. This domestic reserve of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium (approx 1 % of global uranium reserves) is large enough to supply all of India 's commercial and military reactors as well as supply all the needs of India 's nuclear weapons arsenal. Currently, India 's nuclear power reactors consume, at most, 478 tonnes of uranium per year. Even if India were quadruple its nuclear power output (and reactor base) to 20 GW by 2020, nuclear power generation would only consume 2000 tonnes of uranium per annum. Based on India 's known commercially viable reserves of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium, this represents a 40 -- 50 years uranium supply for India 's nuclear power reactors (note with reprocessing and breeder reactor technology, this supply could be stretched out many times over). Furthermore, the uranium requirements of India 's Nuclear Arsenal are only a fifteenth (1 / 15) of that required for power generation (approx. 32 tonnes), meaning that India 's domestic fissile material supply is more than enough to meet all needs for it strategic nuclear arsenal. Therefore, India has sufficient uranium resources to meet its strategic and power requirements for the foreseeable future.
Former Indian President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam stated while he was in office that "energy independence is India 's first and highest priority. India has to go for nuclear power generation in a big way using thorium - based reactors. Thorium, a non fissile material is available in abundance in our country. '' India has vast thorium reserves and quite limited uranium reserves.
The long - term goal of India 's nuclear program has been to develop an advanced heavy - water thorium cycle. The first stage of this employs the pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWR) fueled by natural uranium, and light water reactors, which produce plutonium incidentally to their prime purpose of electricity generation. The second stage uses fast neutron reactors burning the plutonium with the blanket around the core having uranium as well as thorium, so that further plutonium (ideally high - fissile Pu) is produced as well as U-233. The Atomic and Molecular Data Unit (AMD) has identified almost 12 million tonnes of monazite resources (typically with 6 - 7 % thorium). In stage 3, Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWR) would burn thorium - plutonium fuels in such a manner that breeds U-233 which can eventually be used as a self - sustaining fissile driver for a fleet of breeding AHWRs. An alternative stage 3 is molten salt breeder reactors (MSBR), which are believed to be another possible option for eventual large - scale deployment.
In June 2014, Kudankulam - 1 became the single largest power generating unit in India (1000 MWe).
Currently, twenty - two nuclear power reactors have a total install capacity of 6,780 MW (3.5 % of total installed base).
Note: Some sites may be abandoned if not found technically feasible or due to strategic, geopolitical, international and domestic issues.
The details of the nuclear power generation capacity in the country are given below:
Following the March 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan, populations around proposed Indian NPP sites have launched protests that had found resonance around the country. There have been mass protests against the French - backed 9,900 MW Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and the Russian - backed 2,000 MW Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu. The Government of West Bengal initially refused permission to a proposed 6,000 MW facility near the town of Haripur that intended to host 6 Russian reactors. But now it 's possible for Bengal to have its first nuclear power plant at Haripur despite resistance.
A Public - interest litigation (PIL) has also been filed against the government 's civil nuclear program at the Supreme Court. The PIL specifically asks for the "staying of all proposed nuclear power plants till satisfactory safety measures and cost - benefit analyses are completed by independent agencies ''. But the Supreme Court said it was not an expert in the nuclear field to issue a direction to the government on the nuclear liability issue.
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where is the gum wall in seattle washington | Gum wall - Wikipedia
The Market Theater Gum Wall is a brick wall covered in used chewing gum, in an alleyway in downtown Seattle. It is located in Post Alley under Pike Place Market. Similar to Bubblegum Alley in San Luis Obispo, California, the Market Theater Gum Wall is a local landmark. Parts of the wall can be covered several inches thick, 15 feet high for 50 feet.
The wall is by the box office for the Market Theater, and the tradition began around 1993 when patrons of Unexpected Productions ' Seattle Theatresports stuck gum to the wall and placed coins in the gum blobs. Theater workers scraped the gum away twice, but eventually gave up after market officials deemed the gum wall a tourist attraction around 1999. Some people created small works of art out of gum.
It was named one of the top 5 germiest tourist attractions in 2009, second to the Blarney Stone. It is the location of the start of a ghost tour, and it is a popular site with wedding photographers.
A scene for the 2009 Jennifer Aniston film Love Happens was shot at the wall in 2008.
On November 3, 2015, it was announced by the Pike Place Market Preservation & Development Authority that for the first time in 20 years the gum wall would be receiving a total scrub down for maintenance and steam cleaning, to prevent further erosion of the bricks on the walls from the sugar in the gum. Work began on November 10 and took 130 hours to complete, with over 2,350 pounds (1,070 kg) of gum removed and disposed of. After the cleaning was finished on November 13, gum began to be re-added to the wall; among the first additions were memorials to the November 2015 Paris attacks.
Coordinates: 47 ° 36 ′ 29.8794 '' N 122 ° 20 ′ 25.0254 '' W / 47.608299833 ° N 122.340284833 ° W / 47.608299833; - 122.340284833
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who was the first european to visit australia | History of Australia - Wikipedia
The History of Australia refers to the history of the area and people of the Commonwealth of Australia and its preceding Indigenous and colonial societies. Aboriginal Australians arrived on the Australian mainland by sea from Maritime Southeast Asia between 40,000 and 70,000 years ago. The artistic, musical and spiritual traditions they established are among the longest surviving such traditions in human history.
The first known landing in Australia by Europeans was by Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon in 1606. Twenty - nine other Dutch navigators explored the western and southern coasts in the 17th century, and dubbed the continent New Holland. Macassan trepangers visited Australia 's northern coasts after 1720, possibly earlier. Other European explorers followed until, in 1770, Lieutenant James Cook charted the east coast of Australia for Great Britain and returned with accounts favouring colonisation at Botany Bay (now in Sydney), New South Wales.
A First Fleet of British ships arrived at Botany Bay in January 1788 to establish a penal colony, the first colony on the Australian mainland. In the century that followed, the British established other colonies on the continent, and European explorers ventured into its interior. Indigenous Australians were greatly weakened and their numbers diminished by introduced diseases and conflict with the colonists during this period.
Gold rushes and agricultural industries brought prosperity. Autonomous parliamentary democracies began to be established throughout the six British colonies from the mid-19th century. The colonies voted by referendum to unite in a federation in 1901, and modern Australia came into being. Australia fought on the side of Britain in the two world wars and became a long - standing ally of the United States when threatened by Imperial Japan during World War II. Trade with Asia increased and a post-war immigration program received more than 6.5 million migrants from every continent. Supported by immigration of people from more than 200 countries since the end of World War II, the population increased to more than 23 million by 2014, and sustains the world 's 12th largest national economy.
The ancestors of Indigenous Australians are believed to have arrived in Australia 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, and possibly as early as 70,000 years ago. They developed a hunter - gatherer lifestyle, established enduring spiritual and artistic traditions and used stone technologies. At the time of first European contact, it has been estimated the existing population was at least 350,000, while recent archaeological finds suggest that a population of 750,000 could have been sustained.
There is considerable archaeological discussion as to the route taken by the first colonisers. People appear to have arrived by sea during a period of glaciation, when New Guinea and Tasmania were joined to the continent. The journey still required sea travel however, making them amongst the world 's earlier mariners. Scott Cane wrote in 2013 that the first wave may have been prompted by the eruption of Mount Toba. If they arrived around 70,000 years ago, they could have crossed the water from Timor, when the sea level was low; but if they came later, around 50,000 years ago, a more likely route would be through the Moluccas to New Guinea. Given that the likely landfall regions have been under around 50 metres of water for the last 15,000 years, it is unlikely that the timing will ever be established with certainty.
The earliest known human remains were found at Lake Mungo, a dry lake in the southwest of New South Wales. Remains found at Mungo suggest one of the world 's oldest known cremations, thus indicating early evidence for religious ritual among humans. According to Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land. It remains a prominent feature of Australian Aboriginal art. Aboriginal art is believed to be the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world. Evidence of Aboriginal art can be traced back at least 30,000 years and is found throughout Australia (notably at Uluru and Kakadu National Park in the Northern Territory, and also at Ku - ring - gai Chase National Park in Sydney). In terms of age and abundance, cave art in Australia is comparable to that of Lascaux and Altamira in Europe.
Manning Clark wrote that the ancestors of the Aborigines were slow to reach Tasmania, probably owing to an ice barrier existing across the South East of the continent. The Aborigines, he noted, did not develop agriculture, probably owing to a lack of seed bearing plants and animals suitable for domestication. Thus, the population remained low. Clark considered that the three potential pre-European colonising powers and traders of East Asia -- the Hindu - Buddhists of southern India, the Muslims of Northern India and the Chinese -- each petered out in their southward advance and did not attempt a settlement across the straits separating Indonesia from Australia. But trepang fisherman did reach the north coast, which they called "Marege '' or "land of the trepang ''. For centuries, Makassan trade flourished with Aborigines on Australia 's north coast, particularly with the Yolngu people of northeast Arnhem Land.
The greatest population density for Aborigines developed in the southern and eastern regions, the River Murray valley in particular. Aborigines lived and used resources on the continent sustainably, agreeing to cease hunting and gathering at particular times to give populations and resources the chance to replenish. The arrival of Australia 's first people nevertheless affected the continent significantly, and, along with climate change, may have contributed to the extinction of Australia 's megafauna. The practice of firestick farming amongst northern Aborigines to increase the abundance of plants that attracted animals, transformed dry rainforest into savanna. The introduction of the dingo by Aboriginal people around 3,000 -- 4,000 years ago may, along with human hunting, have contributed to the extinction of the thylacine, Tasmanian devil, and Tasmanian native - hen from mainland Australia.
One genetic study in 2012 by Irina Pugach and colleagues at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology has suggested that about 4,000 years before the First Fleet landed, some Indian explorers settled in Australia and assimilated into the local population in roughly 2217 BC.
Despite considerable cultural continuity, life was not without significant changes. Some 10 -- 12,000 years ago, Tasmania became isolated from the mainland, and some stone technologies failed to reach the Tasmanian people (such as the hafting of stone tools and the use of the Boomerang). The land was not always kind; Aboriginal people of southeastern Australia endured "more than a dozen volcanic eruptions... (including) Mount Gambier, a mere 1,400 years ago ''. In southeastern Australia, near present - day Lake Condah, semi-permanent villages of beehive shaped shelters of stone developed, near bountiful food supplies.
The early wave of European observers like William Dampier described the hunter - gatherer lifestyle of the Aborigines of the West Coast as arduous and "miserable ''. Lieutenant James Cook on the other hand, speculated in his journal that the "Natives of New Holland '' (the East Coast Aborigines whom he encountered) might in fact be far happier than Europeans. Watkin Tench, of the First Fleet, wrote of an admiration for the Aborigines of Botany Bay (Sydney) as good - natured and good - humoured people, though he also reported violent hostility between the Eora and Cammeraygal peoples, and noted violent domestic altercations between his friend Bennelong and his wife Barangaroo. Settlers of the 19th century like Edward Curr observed that Aborigines "suffered less and enjoyed life more than the majority of civilized men ''. Historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote that the material standard of living for Aborigines was generally high, higher than that of many Europeans living at the time of the Dutch discovery of Australia.
By 1788, the population existed as 250 individual nations, many of which were in alliance with one another, and within each nation there existed several clans, from as few as five or six to as many as 30 or 40. Each nation had its own language and a few had multiple, thus over 250 languages existed, around 200 of which are now extinct. "Intricate kinship rules ordered the social relations of the people and diplomatic messengers and meeting rituals smoothed relations between groups '', keeping group fighting, sorcery and domestic disputes to a minimum.
Permanent European settlers arrived at Sydney in 1788 and came to control most of the continent by end of the 19th century. Bastions of largely unaltered Aboriginal societies survived, particularly in Northern and Western Australia into the 20th century, until finally, a group of Pintupi people of the Gibson Desert became the last people to be contacted by outsider ways in 1984. While much knowledge was lost, Aboriginal art, music and culture, often scorned by Europeans during the initial phases of contact, survived and in time came to be celebrated by the wider Australian community.
The first known landing in Australia by Europeans was by Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon in 1606. Twenty - nine other Dutch navigators explored the western and southern coasts in the 17th century, and dubbed the continent New Holland. Macassan trepangers visited Australia 's northern coasts after 1720, possibly earlier. Other European explorers followed until navigator Lieutenant James Cook claimed the east coast of Australia for Britain in 1770, without conducting negotiations with the existing inhabitants, though before his departure, the President of the Royal Society, one of the voyage 's sponsors, wrote that the people of any lands he might discover were
' the natural, and in the strictest sense of the word, the legal possessors of the several Regions they inhabit. No European Nation has a right to occupy any part of their country, or settle among them without their voluntary consent. Conquest over such people can give no just title: because they could never be the aggressors. '
Cook returned with accounts favouring colonisation at Botany Bay (now in Sydney), New South Wales.
The first governor, Arthur Phillip, was instructed explicitly to establish friendship and good relations with the Aborigines, and interactions between the early newcomers and the ancient landowners varied considerably throughout the colonial period -- from the curiosity displayed by the early interlocutors Bennelong and Bungaree of Sydney to the outright hostility of Pemulwuy and Windradyne of the Sydney region and Yagan around Perth. Bennelong and a companion became the first Australians to sail to Europe, where they met King George III. Bungaree accompanied the explorer Matthew Flinders on the first circumnavigation of Australia. Pemulwuy was accused of the first killing of a white settler in 1790, and Windradyne resisted early British expansion beyond the Blue Mountains.
According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey, in Australia during the colonial period: "In a thousand isolated places there were occasional shootings and spearings. Even worse, smallpox, measles, influenza and other new diseases swept from one Aboriginal camp to another... The main conqueror of Aborigines was to be disease and its ally, demoralisation ''.
Conflict in the Hawkesbury Nepean river district near the settlement at Sydney continued from 1795 -- 1816, including Pemulwuy 's War (1795 -- 1802), Tedbury 's War (1808 -- 1809) and the Nepean War (1814 -- 1816), as well as the interwar violence of the 1804 -- 1805 Conflict. It was fought using mostly guerrilla - warfare tactics; however, several conventional battles also took place. The wars resulted in the defeat of the Hawkesbury and Nepean Indigenous clans who were subsequently dispossessed of their lands.
Even before the arrival of European settlers in local districts beyond coastal New South Wales, Eurasian disease often preceded them. A smallpox epidemic was recorded near Sydney in 1789, which wiped out about half the Aborigines around Sydney. Opinion is divided as to the source of the smallpox. Some researchers argue that the smallpox was acquired through contact with Indonesian fishermen in the far north and then spread across the continent, reaching the Sydney area in 1789. Other research by Craig Mear, Michael Bennett, and Christopher Warren argues that, despite controversy, it is highly likely that the 1789 outbreak of smallpox was a deliberate act by British marines when they ran out of ammunition and needed to expand the settlement out to Parramatta. Smallpox then spread well beyond the then limits of European settlement, including much of southeastern Australia, reappearing in 1829 -- 30, killing 40 -- 60 percent of the Aboriginal population.
The impact of Europeans was profoundly disruptive to Aboriginal life and, though the extent of violence is debated, there was considerable conflict on the frontier. At the same time, some settlers were quite aware they were usurping the Aborigines place in Australia. In 1845, settler Charles Griffiths sought to justify this, writing; "The question comes to this; which has the better right -- the savage, born in a country, which he runs over but can scarcely be said to occupy... or the civilized man, who comes to introduce into this... unproductive country, the industry which supports life. ''
From the 1960s, Australian writers began to re-assess European assumptions about Aboriginal Australia -- with works including Alan Moorehead 's The Fatal Impact (1966) and Geoffrey Blainey 's landmark history Triumph of the Nomads (1975). In 1968, anthropologist W.E.H. Stanner described the lack of historical accounts of relations between Europeans and Aborigines as "the great Australian silence ''. Historian Henry Reynolds argues that there was a "historical neglect '' of the Aborigines by historians until the late 1960s. Early commentaries often tended to describe Aborigines as doomed to extinction following the arrival of Europeans. William Westgarth 's 1864 book on the colony of Victoria observed: "the case of the Aborigines of Victoria confirms... it would seem almost an immutable law of nature that such inferior dark races should disappear. '' However, by the early 1970s historians like Lyndall Ryan, Henry Reynolds and Raymond Evans were trying to document and estimate the conflict and human toll on the frontier.
Many events illustrate violence and resistance as Aborigines sought to protect their lands from invasion and as settlers and pastoralists attempted to establish their presence. In May 1804, at Risdon Cove, Van Diemen 's Land, perhaps 60 Aborigines were killed when they approached the town. The British established a new outpost in Van Diemen 's Land (Tasmania) in 1803. Although Tasmanian history is amongst the most contested by modern historians, conflict between colonists and Aborigines was referred to in some contemporary accounts as the Black War. The combined effects of disease, dispossession, intermarriage and conflict saw a collapse of the Aboriginal population of Tasmania from a few thousand people when the British arrived, to a few hundred by the 1830s. Estimates of how many people were killed during the period begin at around 300, though verification of the true figure is now impossible. In 1830 Governor Sir George Arthur sent an armed party (the Black Line) to push the Big River and Oyster Bay tribes out of the British settled districts. The effort failed and George Augustus Robinson proposed to set out unarmed to mediate with the remaining tribespeople in 1833. With the assistance of Truganini as guide and translator, Robinson convinced remaining tribesmen to surrender to an isolated new settlement at Flinders Island, where most later died of disease.
In 1838, at least twenty - eight Aborigines were murdered at the Myall Creek in New South Wales, resulting in the unprecedented conviction and hanging of six white and one African convict settlers by the colonial courts. Aborigines also attacked white settlers -- in 1838 fourteen Europeans were killed at Broken River in Port Phillip District, by Aborigines of the Ovens River, almost certainly in revenge for the illicit use of Aboriginal women. Captain Hutton of Port Phillip District once told Chief Protector of Aborigines George Augustus Robinson that "if a member of a tribe offend, destroy the whole ''. Queensland 's Colonial Secretary A.H. Palmer wrote in 1884 "the nature of the blacks was so treacherous that they were only guided by fear -- in fact it was only possible to rule... the Australian Aboriginal... by brute force ''. The most recent massacre of Aborigines was at Coniston in the Northern Territory in 1928. There are numerous other massacre sites in Australia, although supporting documentation varies.
From the 1830s, colonial governments established the now controversial offices of the Protector of Aborigines in an effort to avoid mistreatment of Indigenous peoples and conduct government policy towards them. Christian churches in Australia sought to convert Aborigines, and were often used by government to carry out welfare and assimilation policies. Colonial churchmen such as Sydney 's first Catholic archbishop, John Polding strongly advocated for Aboriginal rights and dignity and prominent Aboriginal activist Noel Pearson (born 1965), who was raised at a Lutheran mission in Cape York, has written that Christian missions throughout Australia 's colonial history "provided a haven from the hell of life on the Australian frontier while at the same time facilitating colonisation ''.
The Caledon Bay crisis of 1932 -- 34 was one of the last incidents of violent interaction on the ' frontier ' of indigenous and non-indigenous Australia, which began when the spearing of Japanese poachers who had been molesting Yolngu women was followed by the killing of a policeman. As the crisis unfolded, national opinion swung behind the Aboriginal people involved, and the first appeal on behalf of an Indigenous Australian to the High Court of Australia was launched. Following the crisis, the anthropologist Donald Thomson was dispatched by the government to live among the Yolngu. Elsewhere around this time, activists like Sir Douglas Nicholls were commencing their campaigns for Aboriginal rights within the established Australian political system and the age of frontier conflict closed.
Frontier encounters in Australia were not universally negative. Positive accounts of Aboriginal customs and encounters are also recorded in the journals of early European explorers, who often relied on Aboriginal guides and assistance: Charles Sturt employed Aboriginal envoys to explore the Murray - Darling; the lone survivor of the Burke and Wills expedition was nursed by local Aborigines, and the famous Aboriginal explorer Jackey Jackey loyally accompanied his ill - fated friend Edmund Kennedy to Cape York. Respectful studies were conducted by such as Walter Baldwin Spencer and Frank Gillen in their renowned anthropological study The Native Tribes of Central Australia (1899); and by Donald Thomson of Arnhem Land (c. 1935 -- 1943). In inland Australia, the skills of Aboriginal stockmen became highly regarded and in the 20th century, Aboriginal stockmen like Vincent Lingiari became national figures in their campaigns for better pay and improved working conditions.
The removal of indigenous children, by which mixed - race children of Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent were removed from their families by Australian Federal and State government agencies and church missions, was a policy actively conducted in the period between approximately 1905 and 1969. The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission argued that these removals constituted attempted genocide and had a major impact on the Indigenous population. Such interpretations of Aboriginal history are disputed by a few historians such as Keith Windschuttle as being exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological reasons. This debate is part of what is known within Australia as the History Wars.
Although a theory of Portuguese discovery in the 1520s exists, it lacks definitive evidence. The Dutch East India Company ship, Duyfken, led by Willem Janszoon, made the first documented European landing in Australia in 1606. That same year, a Spanish expedition sailing in nearby waters and led by Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós had landed in the New Hebrides and, believing them to be the fabled southern continent, named the land "Austrialia del Espiritu Santo '' (Southern Land of the Holy Spirit), in honour of his queen Margaret of Austria, the wife of Philip III of Spain. Later that year, Queirós ' deputy Luís Vaz de Torres sailed to the north of Australia through Torres Strait, along New Guinea 's southern coast.
The Dutch, following shipping routes to the Dutch East Indies, or in search of gold, spices or Christian converts, proceeded to contribute a great deal to Europe 's knowledge of Australia 's coast. In 1616, Dirk Hartog, sailing off course, en route from the Cape of Good Hope to Batavia, landed on an island off Shark Bay, West Australia. In 1622 -- 23 the Leeuwin made the first recorded rounding of the south west corner of the continent, and gave her name to Cape Leeuwin.
In 1627 the south coast of Australia was accidentally discovered by François Thijssen and named ' t Land van Pieter Nuyts, in honour of the highest ranking passenger, Pieter Nuyts, extraordinary Councillor of India. In 1628 a squadron of Dutch ships was sent by the Governor - General of the Dutch East Indies Pieter de Carpentier to explore the northern coast. These ships made extensive examinations, particularly in the Gulf of Carpentaria, named in honour of de Carpentier.
Abel Tasman 's voyage of 1642 was the first known European expedition to reach Van Diemen 's Land (later Tasmania) and New Zealand, and to sight Fiji. On his second voyage of 1644, he also contributed significantly to the mapping of Australia proper, making observations on the land and people of the north coast below New Guinea.
A map of the world inlaid into the floor of the Burgerzaal ("Burger 's Hall '') of the new Amsterdam Stadhuis ("Town Hall '') in 1655 revealed the extent of Dutch charts of much of Australia 's coast. Based on the 1648 map by Joan Blaeu, Nova et Accuratissima Terrarum Orbis Tabula, it incorporated Tasman 's discoveries, subsequently reproduced in the map, Archipelagus Orientalis sive Asiaticus published in the Kurfürsten Atlas (Atlas of the Great Elector).
In 1664 the French geographer, Melchisédech Thévenot, published a map of New Holland in Relations de Divers Voyages Curieux. Thévenot divided the continent in two, between Nova Hollandia to the west and Terre Australe to the east. Emanuel Bowen reproduced Thevenot 's map in his Complete System of Geography (London, 1747), re-titling it A Complete Map of the Southern Continent and adding three inscriptions promoting the benefits of exploring and colonising the country. One inscription said:
It is impossible to conceive a Country that promises fairer from its Situation than this of TERRA AUSTRALIS, no longer incognita, as this Map demonstrates, but the Southern Continent Discovered. It lies precisely in the richest climates of the World... and therefore whoever perfectly discovers and settles it will become infalliably possessed of Territories as Rich, as fruitful, and as capable of Improvement, as any that have hitherto been found out, either in the East Indies or the West.
Bowen 's map was re-published in John Campbell 's editions of John Harris ' Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca, or Voyages and Travels (1744 -- 1748, 1764). This book recommended exploration of the east coast of New Holland, with a view to a British colonisation, by way of Abel Tasman 's route to Van Diemen 's Land.
Although various proposals for colonisation were made, notably by Pierre Purry from 1717 to 1744, none was officially attempted. Indigenous Australians were less able to trade with Europeans than were the peoples of India, the East Indies, China, and Japan. The Dutch East India Company concluded that there was "no good to be done there ''. They turned down Purry 's scheme with the comment that, "There is no prospect of use or benefit to the Company in it, but rather very certain and heavy costs ''.
With the exception of further Dutch visits to the west, however, Australia remained largely unvisited by Europeans until the first British explorations. John Callander put forward a proposal in 1766 for Britain to found a colony of banished convicts in the South Sea or in Terra Australis to enable the mother country to exploit the riches of those regions. He said: "this world must present us with many things entirely new, as hitherto we have had little more knowledge of it, than if it had lain in another planet ''.
In 1769, Lieutenant James Cook in command of the HMS Endeavour, travelled to Tahiti to observe and record the transit of Venus. Cook also carried secret Admiralty instructions to locate the supposed Southern Continent: "There is reason to imagine that a continent, or land of great extent, may be found to the southward of the track of former navigators. '' This continent was not found, a disappointment to Alexander Dalrymple and his fellow members of the Royal Society who had urged the Admiralty to undertake this mission. Cook decided to survey the east coast of New Holland, the only major part of that continent that had not been charted by Dutch navigators.
On 19 April 1770, the Endeavour sighted the east coast of Australia and ten days later landed at Botany Bay. Cook charted the coast to its northern extent and, along with the ship 's naturalist, Joseph Banks, who subsequently reported favourably on the possibilities of establishing a colony at Botany Bay. Cook formally took possession of the east coast of New Holland on 21 / 22 August 1770, and noted in his journal that he could "land no more upon this Eastern coast of New Holland, and on the Western side I can make no new discovery the honour of which belongs to the Dutch Navigators and as such they may lay Claim to it as their property (italicised words crossed out in the original) but the Eastern Coast from the Latitude of 38 South down to this place I am confident was never seen or viseted by any European before us and therefore by the same Rule belongs to great Brittan (italicised words crossed out in the original).
In 1772, a French expedition led by Louis Aleno de St Aloüarn, became the first Europeans to formally claim sovereignty over the west coast of Australia, but no attempt was made to follow this with colonisation. The ambition of Sweden 's King Gustav III to establish a colony for his country at the Swan River in 1786 remained stillborn. It was not until 1788 that economic, technological and political conditions in Great Britain made it possible and worthwhile for that country to make the large effort of sending the First Fleet to New South Wales.
Seventeen years after Cook 's landfall on the east coast of Australia, the British government decided to establish a colony at Botany Bay. The American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 1783) saw Britain lose most of its North American colonies and consider establishing replacement territories. In 1779 Sir Joseph Banks, the eminent scientist who had accompanied James Cook on his 1770 voyage, recommended Botany Bay as a suitable site for settlement, saying that "it was not to be doubted that a Tract of Land such as New Holland, which was larger than the whole of Europe, would furnish Matter of advantageous Return ''. Under Banks ' guidance, the American Loyalist James Matra, who had also travelled with Cook, produced "A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales '' (23 August 1783), proposing the establishment of a colony composed of American Loyalists, Chinese and South Sea Islanders (but not convicts).
Matra reasoned that the country was suitable for plantations of sugar, cotton and tobacco; New Zealand timber and hemp or flax could prove valuable commodities; it could form a base for Pacific trade; and it could be a suitable compensation for displaced American Loyalists. Following an interview with Secretary of State Lord Sydney in 1784, Matra amended his proposal to include convicts as settlers, considering that this would benefit both "Economy to the Publick, & Humanity to the Individual ''.
Matra 's plan provided the original blueprint for settlement. Records show the government was considering it in 1784. The London newspapers announced in November 1784 that: "A plan has been presented to the (Prime) Minister, and is now before the Cabinet, for instituting a new colony in New Holland. In this vast tract of land... every sort of produce and improvement of which the various soils of the earth are capable, may be expected ''. The Government also incorporated the settlement of Norfolk Island into their plan, with its attractions of timber and flax, proposed by Banks ' Royal Society colleagues, Sir John Call and Sir George Young.
At the same time, humanitarians and reformers were campaigning in Britain against the appalling conditions in British prisons and hulks. In 1777 prison reformer John Howard wrote The State of Prisons in England and Wales, exposing the harsh conditions of the prison system to "genteel society ''. Penal transportation was already well - established as a central plank of English criminal law and until the American Revolution about a thousand criminals per year were sent to Maryland and Virginia. It served as a powerful deterrent to law - breaking. According to historian David Hill, "Europeans knew little about the geography of the globe '' and to "convicts in England, transportation to Botany Bay was a frightening prospect ''. Echoing John Callander, he said Australia "might as well have been another planet ''.
In 1933, Sir Ernest Scott, stated the traditional view of the reasons for colonisation: "It is clear that the only consideration which weighed seriously with the Pitt Government was the immediately pressing and practical one of finding a suitable place for a convict settlement ''. In the early 1960s, historian Geoffrey Blainey questioned the traditional view of foundation purely as a convict dumping ground. His book The Tyranny of Distance suggested ensuring supplies of flax and timber after the loss of the American colonies may have also been motivations, and Norfolk Island was the key to the British decision. A number of historians responded and debate brought to light a large amount of additional source material on the reasons for settlement. This has most recently been set out and discussed by Professor Alan Frost.
The decision to settle was taken when it seemed the outbreak of civil war in the Netherlands might precipitate a war in which Britain would be again confronted with the alliance of the three naval Powers, France, Holland and Spain, which had brought her to defeat in 1783. Under these circumstances, the strategic advantages of a colony in New South Wales described in James Matra 's proposal were attractive. Matra wrote that such a settlement could facilitate attacks upon the Spanish in South America and the Philippines, and against the Dutch East Indies. In 1790, during the Nootka Crisis, plans were made for naval expeditions against Spain 's possessions in the Americas and the Philippines, in which New South Wales was assigned the role of a base for "refreshment, communication and retreat ''. On subsequent occasions into the early 19th century when war threatened or broke out between Britain and Spain, these plans were revived and only the short length of the period of hostilities in each case prevented them from being put into effect.
Georg Forster, who had sailed under Lieutenant James Cook in the voyage of the Resolution (1772 -- 1775), wrote in 1786 on the future prospects of the British colony: "New Holland, an island of enormous extent or it might be said, a third continent, is the future homeland of a new civilized society which, however mean its beginning may seem to be, nevertheless promises within a short time to become very important. '' And the merchant adventurer and would - be coloniser of southwestern Australia under the Swedish flag, William Bolts, said to the Swedish Ambassador in Paris, Erik von Staël in December 1789, that the British had founded at Botany Bay, "a settlement which in time will become of the greatest importance to the Commerce of the Globe ''.
The territory claimed by Britain included all of Australia eastward of the meridian of 135 ° East and all the islands in the Pacific Ocean between the latitudes of Cape York and the southern tip of Van Diemen 's Land (Tasmania). The western limit of 135 ° East was set at the meridian dividing New Holland from Terra Australis shown on Emanuel Bowen 's Complete Map of the Southern Continent, published in John Campbell 's editions of John Harris ' Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca, or Voyages and Travels (1744 -- 1748, and 1764). It was a vast claim which elicited excitement at the time: the Dutch translator of First Fleet officer and author Watkin Tench 's A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay wrote: "a single province which, beyond all doubt, is the largest on the whole surface of the earth. From their definition it covers, in its greatest extent from East to West, virtually a fourth of the whole circumference of the Globe. '' Spanish naval commander Alessandro Malaspina, who visited Sydney in March -- April 1793 reported to his government that: "The transportation of the convicts constituted the means and not the object of the enterprise. The extension of dominion, mercantile speculations and the discovery of mines were the real object. '' Frenchman François Péron, of the Baudin expedition visited Sydney in 1802 and reported to the French Government: "How can it be conceived that such a monstrous invasion was accomplished, with no complaint in Europe to protest against it? How can it be conceived that Spain, who had previously raised so many objections opposing the occupation of the Malouines (Falkland Islands), meekly allowed a formidable empire to arise to facing her richest possessions, an empire which must either invade or liberate them? ''
The colony included the current islands of New Zealand. In 1817, the British government withdrew the extensive territorial claim over the South Pacific. In practice, the governors ' writ had been shown not to run in the islands of the South Pacific. The Church Missionary Society had concerns over atrocities committed against the natives of the South Sea Islands, and the ineffectiveness of the New South Wales government to deal with the lawlessness. As a result, on 27 June 1817, Parliament passed an Act for the more effectual Punishment of Murders and Manslaughters committed in Places not within His Majesty 's Dominions, which described Tahiti, New Zealand and other islands of the South Pacific as being not within His Majesty 's dominions.
The British colony of New South Wales was established with the arrival of the First Fleet of 11 vessels under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip in January 1788. It consisted of over a thousand settlers, including 778 convicts (192 women and 586 men). A few days after arrival at Botany Bay the fleet moved to the more suitable Port Jackson where a settlement was established at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788. This date later became Australia 's national day, Australia Day. The colony was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Philip described as being, ' with out exception the finest Harbour in the World (...) Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security '.
Governor Phillip was vested with complete authority over the inhabitants of the colony. Enlightened for his Age, Phillip 's personal intent was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony. Phillip and several of his officers -- most notably Watkin Tench -- left behind journals and accounts of which tell of immense hardships during the first years of settlement. Often Phillip 's officers despaired for the future of New South Wales. Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were scarce. Between 1788 and 1792 about 3546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney -- many "professional criminals '' with few of the skills required for the establishment of a colony. Many new arrivals were also sick or unfit for work and the conditions of healthy convicts only deteriorated with hard labour and poor sustenance in the settlement. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790 and the Second Fleet which finally arrived in June 1790 had lost a quarter of its ' passengers ' through sickness, while the condition of the convicts of the Third Fleet appalled Phillip. From 1791 however, the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies.
Phillip sent exploratory missions in search of better soils, fixed on the Parramatta region as a promising area for expansion, and moved many of the convicts from late 1788 to establish a small township, which became the main centre of the colony 's economic life. This left Sydney Cove only as an important port and focus of social life. Poor equipment and unfamiliar soils and climate continued to hamper the expansion of farming from Farm Cove to Parramatta and Toongabbie, but a building program, assisted by convict labour, advanced steadily. Between 1788 and 1792, convicts and their gaolers made up the majority of the population -- but after this, a population of emancipated convicts began to grow who could be granted land and these people pioneered a non-government private sector economy and were later joined by soldiers whose military service had expired -- and finally, free settlers who began arriving from Britain. Governor Phillip departed the colony for England on 11 December 1792, with the new settlement having survived near starvation and immense isolation for four years. On 16 February 1793 the first free settlers arrived. The settlers: Thomas Rose, with his wife and four children, Edward Powell, Thomas Webb, Joseph Webb, and Frederick Meredith.
After the founding of the colony of New South Wales in 1788, Australia was divided into an eastern half, named New South Wales, under the administration of the colonial government in Sydney, and a western half named New Holland. The western boundary of 135 ° East of Greenwich was based on the Complete Map of the Southern Continent, published in Emanuel Bowen 's Complete System of Geography (London 1747), and reproduced in John Campbell 's editions of John Harris ' Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca, or Voyages and Travels (1744 -- 48, and 1764). Bowen 's map was based on one by Melchisédech Thévenot and published in Relations des Divers Voyages (1663), which apparently divided New Holland in the west from Terra Australis in the east by a latitude staff situated at 135 ° East. This division, reproduced in Bowen 's map, provided a convenient western boundary for the British claim because, as Watkin Tench subsequently commented in A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay, "By this partition, it may be fairly presumed, that every source of future litigation between the Dutch and us, will be for ever cut off, as the discoveries of English navigators only are comprized in this territory ''. Thévenot said he copied his map from the one engraved in the floor of the Amsterdam Town Hall, but in that map there was no dividing line between New Holland and Terra Australis. Thévenot 's map was actually copied from Joan Blaeu 's map, Archipelagus Orientalis sive Asiaticus, published in 1659 in the Kurfürsten Atlas (Atlas of the Great Elector); this map was a part of Blaeu 's world map of 1648, Nova et Accuratissima Terrarum Orbis Tabula, which first showed the land revealed by Abel Tasman 's 1642 voyage as Hollandia Nova and which served as the basis for the Amsterdam Town Hall pavement map. Longitude 135 ° East reflected the line of division between the claims of Spain and Portugal established in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which had formed the basis of many subsequent claims to colonial territory. An Historical Narrative of the Discovery of New Holland and New South Wales, published in November 1786, contained "A General Chart of New Holland, including New South Wales & Botany Bay, with The Adjacent Countries, and New Discovered Islands '', which showed all the territory claimed under the jurisdiction of the Governor of New South Wales.
Romantic descriptions of the beauty, mild climate, and fertile soil of Norfolk Island in the South Pacific led the British government to establish a subsidiary settlement of the New South Wales colony there in 1788. It was hoped that the giant Norfolk Island pine trees and flax plants growing wild on the island might provide the basis for a local industry which, particularly in the case of flax, would provide an alternative source of supply to Russia for an article which was essential for making cordage and sails for the ships of the British navy. However, the island had no safe harbour, which led the colony to be abandoned and the settlers evacuated to Tasmania in 1807. The island was subsequently re-settled as a penal settlement in 1824.
In 1798, George Bass and Matthew Flinders circumnavigated Van Diemen 's Land, proving that it was an island. In 1802, Flinders successfully circumnavigated Australia for the first time.
Van Diemen 's Land, now known as Tasmania, was settled in 1803, following a failed attempt to settle at Sullivan Bay in what is now Victoria. Other British settlements followed, at various points around the continent, many of them unsuccessful. The East India Trade Committee recommended in 1823 that a settlement be established on the coast of northern Australia to forestall the Dutch, and Captain J.J.G. Bremer, RN, was commissioned to form a settlement between Bathurst Island and the Cobourg Peninsula. Bremer fixed the site of his settlement at Fort Dundas on Melville Island in 1824 and, because this was well to the west of the boundary proclaimed in 1788, proclaimed British sovereignty over all the territory as far west as longitude 129 ° East.
The new boundary included Melville and Bathurst Islands, and the adjacent mainland. In 1826, the British claim was extended to the whole Australian continent when Major Edmund Lockyer established a settlement on King George Sound (the basis of the later town of Albany), but the eastern border of Western Australia remained unchanged at longitude 129 ° East. In 1824, a penal colony was established near the mouth of the Brisbane River (the basis of the later colony of Queensland). In 1829, the Swan River Colony and its capital of Perth were founded on the west coast proper and also assumed control of King George Sound. Initially a free colony, Western Australia later accepted British convicts, because of an acute labour shortage.
The colony of South Australia was settled in 1836, with its western and eastern boundaries set at 132 ° and 141 ° East of Greenwich, and to the north at latitude 26 ° South. The western and eastern boundary points were chosen as they marked the extent of coastline first surveyed by Matthew Flinders in 1802 (Nicolas Baudin 's priority being ignored). The northern boundary was set at the parallel of latitude 26 ° South by the British Parliament because that was considered to be the limit of effective control of territory that could be exercised by a settlement founded on the shores of Gulf St Vincent; the South Australian Company had proposed the parallel of 20 ° South, later reduced to the Tropic of Capricorn (the parallel of latitude 23 ° 37 ′ South).
Between 1788 and 1868, approximately 161,700 convicts (of whom 25,000 were women) were transported to the Australian colonies of New South Wales, Van Diemen 's land and Western Australia. Historian Lloyd Robson has estimated that perhaps two - thirds were thieves from working class towns, particularly from the Midlands and north of England. The majority were repeat offenders. Whether transportation managed to achieve its goal of reforming or not, some convicts were able to leave the prison system in Australia; after 1801 they could gain "tickets of leave '' for good behaviour and be assigned to work for free men for wages. A few went on to have successful lives as emancipists, having been pardoned at the end of their sentence. Female convicts had fewer opportunities.
Some convicts, particularly Irish convicts, had been transported to Australia for political crimes or social rebellion, so authorities were consequently suspicious of the Irish and restricted the practice of Catholicism in Australia. The Irish led Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804 served to increase suspicions and repression. Church of England clergy meanwhile worked closely with the governors and Richard Johnson, chaplain to the First Fleet was charged by Governor Arthur Phillip, with improving "public morality '' in the colony and was also heavily involved in health and education. The Reverend Samuel Marsden (1765 -- 1838) had magisterial duties, and so was equated with the authorities by the convicts, becoming known as the ' flogging parson ' for the severity of his punishments.
The New South Wales Corps was formed in England in 1789 as a permanent regiment to relieve the marines who had accompanied the First Fleet. Officers of the Corps soon became involved in the corrupt and lucrative rum trade in the colony. In the Rum Rebellion of 1808, the Corps, working closely with the newly established wool trader John Macarthur, staged the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history, deposing Governor William Bligh and instigating a brief period of military rule in the colony prior to the arrival from Britain of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810.
Macquarie served as the last autocratic Governor of New South Wales, from 1810 to 1821 and had a leading role in the social and economic development of New South Wales which saw it transition from a penal colony to a budding free society. He established public works, a bank, churches, and charitable institutions and sought good relations with the Aborigines. In 1813 he sent Blaxland, Wentworth and Lawson across the Blue Mountains, where they found the great plains of the interior. Central, however to Macquarie 's policy was his treatment of the emancipists, whom he decreed should be treated as social equals to free - settlers in the colony. Against opposition, he appointed emancipists to key government positions including Francis Greenway as colonial architect and William Redfern as a magistrate. London judged his public works to be too expensive and society was scandalised by his treatment of emancipists. Egalitarianism would come to be considered a central virtue among Australians.
The first five Governors of New South Wales realised the urgent need to encourage free settlers, but the British government remained largely indifferent. As early as 1790, Governor Arthur Phillip wrote: "Your lordship will see by my... letters the little progress we have been able to make in cultivating the lands... At present this settlement only affords one person that I can employ in cultivating the lands... '' It was not until the 1820s that numbers of free settlers began to arrive and government schemes began to be introduced to encourage free settlers. Philanthropists Caroline Chisholm and John Dunmore Lang developed their own migration schemes. Land grants of crown land were made by Governors, and settlement schemes such as those of Edward Gibbon Wakefield carried some weight in encouraging migrants to make the long voyage to Australia, as opposed to the United States or Canada.
Early colonial administrations were anxious to address the gender imbalance in the population brought about by the importation of large numbers of convict men. Between 1788 and 1792, around 3546 male to 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney. Women came to play an important role in education and welfare during colonial times. Governor Macquarie 's wife, Elizabeth Macquarie took an interest in convict women 's welfare. Her contemporary Elizabeth Macarthur was noted for her ' feminine strength ' in assisting the establishment of the Australian merino wool industry during her husband John Macarthur 's enforced absence from the colony following the Rum Rebellion. The Catholic Sisters of Charity arrived in 1838 and set about pastoral care in a women 's prison, visiting hospitals and schools and establishing employment for convict women. The sisters went on to establish hospitals in four of the eastern states, beginning with St Vincent 's Hospital, Sydney in 1857 as a free hospital for all people, but especially for the poor. Caroline Chisholm (1808 -- 1877) established a migrant women 's shelter and worked for women 's welfare in the colonies in the 1840s. Her humanitarian efforts later won her fame in England and great influence in achieving support for families in the colony. Sydney 's first Catholic Bishop, John Bede Polding founded an Australian order of nuns -- the Sisters of the Good Samaritan -- in 1857 to work in education and social work. The Sisters of St Joseph, were founded in South Australia by Saint Mary MacKillop and Fr Julian Tenison Woods in 1867. MacKillop travelled throughout Australasia and established schools, convents and charitable institutions. She was canonised by Benedict XVI in 2010, becoming the first Australian to be so honoured by the Catholic Church.
From the 1820s, increasing numbers of squatters occupied land beyond the fringes of European settlement. Often running sheep on large stations with relatively few overheads, squatters could make considerable profits. By 1834, nearly 2 million kilograms of wool were being exported to Britain from Australia. By 1850, barely 2,000 squatters had gained 30 million hectares of land, and they formed a powerful and "respectable '' interest group in several colonies.
In 1835, the British Colonial Office issued the Proclamation of Governor Bourke reinforcing the notion that the land belonged to no one prior to the British Crown taking possession of it and quashing any likelihood of treaties with Aboriginal peoples, including that signed by John Batman. Its publication meant that from then, all people found occupying land without the authority of the government would be considered illegal trespassers.
Separate settlements and later, colonies, were created from parts of New South Wales: South Australia in 1836, New Zealand in 1840, Port Phillip District in 1834, later becoming the colony of Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859. The Northern Territory was founded in 1863 as part of South Australia. The transportation of convicts to Australia was phased out between 1840 and 1868.
Massive areas of land were cleared for agriculture and various other purposes in the first 100 years of European settlement. In addition to the obvious impacts this early clearing of land and importation of hard - hoofed animals had on the ecology of particular regions, it severely affected indigenous Australians, by reducing the resources they relied on for food, shelter and other essentials. This progressively forced them into smaller areas and reduced their numbers as the majority died of newly introduced diseases and lack of resources. Indigenous resistance against the settlers was widespread, and prolonged fighting between 1788 and the 1920s led to the deaths of at least 20,000 indigenous people and between 2,000 and 2,500 Europeans. During the mid-late 19th century, many indigenous Australians in south eastern Australia were relocated, often forcibly, to reserves and missions. The nature of many of these institutions enabled disease to spread quickly and many were closed as their populations fell.
A group in Britain led by Edward Gibbon Wakefield sought to start a colony based on free settlement rather than convict labour. In 1831 the South Australian Land Company was formed amid a campaign for a royal charter which would provide for the establishment of a privately financed "free '' colony in Australia.
While New South Wales, Tasmania and (although not initially) Western Australia were established as convict settlements, the founders of South Australia had a vision of a colony with political and religious freedoms, together with opportunities for wealth through business and pastoral investments. The South Australia Act 1834, passed by the British Government to establish the colony, reflected these desires and included a promise of representative government when the population reached 50,000 people. South Australia thus became the only colony authorised by an Act of Parliament, and which was intended to be developed at no cost to the British government. Transportation of convicts was forbidden, and ' poor Emigrants ', assisted by an Emigration Fund, were required to bring their families with them. Significantly, the Letters Patent enabling the South Australia Act 1834 included a guarantee of the rights of ' any Aboriginal Natives ' and their descendants to lands they ' now actually occupied or enjoyed '.
In 1836, two ships of the South Australia Land Company left to establish the first settlement on Kangaroo Island. The foundation of South Australia is now generally commemorated as Governor John Hindmarsh 's Proclamation of the new Province at Glenelg, on the mainland, on 28 December 1836. From 1843 to 1851, the Governor ruled with the assistance of an appointed Executive Council of paid officials. Land development and settlement was the basis of the Wakefield vision, so land law and regulations governing it were fundamental to the foundation of the Province and allowed for land to be bought at a uniform price per acre (regardless of quality), with auctions for land desired by more than one buyer, and leases made available on unused land. Proceeds from land were to fund the Emigration Fund to assist poor settlers to come as tradesmen and labourers. Agitation for representative government quickly emerged. Most other colonies had been founded by Governors with near total authority, but in South Australia, power was initially divided between the Governor and the Resident Commissioner, so that government could not interfere with the business affairs or freedom of religion of the settlers. By 1851 the colony was experimenting with a partially elected council.
In 1798 -- 99 George Bass and Matthew Flinders set out from Sydney in a sloop and circumnavigated Tasmania, thus proving it to be an island. In 1801 -- 02 Matthew Flinders in HMS Investigator led the first circumnavigation of Australia. Aboard ship was the Aboriginal explorer Bungaree, of the Sydney district, who became the first person born on the Australian continent to circumnavigate the Australian continent. Previously, the famous Bennelong and a companion had become the first people born in the area of New South Wales to sail for Europe, when, in 1792 they accompanied Governor Phillip to England and were presented to King George III.
In 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth succeeded in crossing the formidable barrier of forested gulleys and sheer cliffs presented by the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney. At Mount Blaxland they looked out over "enough grass to support the stock of the colony for thirty years '', and expansion of the British settlement into the interior could begin.
In 1824 the Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane, commissioned Hamilton Hume and former Royal Navy Captain William Hovell to lead an expedition to find new grazing land in the south of the colony, and also to find an answer to the mystery of where New South Wales ' western rivers flowed. Over 16 weeks in 1824 -- 25, Hume and Hovell journeyed to Port Phillip and back. They made many important discoveries including the Murray River (which they named the Hume), many of its tributaries, and good agricultural and grazing lands between Gunning, New South Wales and Corio Bay, Port Phillip.
Charles Sturt led an expedition along the Macquarie River in 1828 and discovered the Darling River. A theory had developed that the inland rivers of New South Wales were draining into an inland sea. Leading a second expedition in 1829, Sturt followed the Murrumbidgee River into a ' broad and noble river ', the Murray River, which he named after Sir George Murray, secretary of state for the colonies. His party then followed this river to its junction with the Darling River, facing two threatening encounters with local Aboriginal people along the way. Sturt continued down river on to Lake Alexandrina, where the Murray meets the sea in South Australia. Suffering greatly, the party had to row hundreds of kilometres back upstream for the return journey.
Surveyor General Sir Thomas Mitchell conducted a series of expeditions from the 1830s to ' fill in the gaps ' left by these previous expeditions. He was meticulous in seeking to record the original Aboriginal place names around the colony, for which reason the majority of place names to this day retain their Aboriginal titles.
The Polish scientist / explorer Count Paul Edmund Strzelecki conducted surveying work in the Australian Alps in 1839 and became the first European to ascend Australia 's highest peak, which he named Mount Kosciuszko in honour of the Polish patriot Tadeusz Kościuszko.
European explorers made their last great, often arduous and sometimes tragic expeditions into the interior of Australia during the second half of the 19th century -- some with the official sponsorship of the colonial authorities and others commissioned by private investors. By 1850, large areas of the inland were still unknown to Europeans. Trailblazers like Edmund Kennedy and the Prussian naturalist Ludwig Leichhardt, had met tragic ends attempting to fill in the gaps during the 1840s, but explorers remained ambitious to discover new lands for agriculture or answer scientific enquiries. Surveyors also acted as explorers and the colonies sent out expeditions to discover the best routes for lines of communication. The size of expeditions varied considerably from small parties of just two or three to large, well - equipped teams led by gentlemen explorers assisted by smiths, carpenters, labourers and Aboriginal guides accompanied by horses, camels or bullocks.
In 1860, the ill - fated Burke and Wills led the first north - south crossing of the continent from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Lacking bushcraft and unwilling to learn from the local Aboriginal people, Burke and Wills died in 1861, having returned from the Gulf to their rendezvous point at Coopers Creek only to discover the rest of their party had departed the location only a matter of hours previously. Though an impressive feat of navigation, the expedition was an organisational disaster which continues to fascinate the Australian public.
In 1862, John McDouall Stuart succeeded in traversing Central Australia from south to north. His expedition mapped out the route which was later followed by the Australian Overland Telegraph Line.
Uluru and Kata Tjuta were first mapped by Europeans in 1872 during the expeditionary period made possible by the construction of the Australian Overland Telegraph Line. In separate expeditions, Ernest Giles and William Gosse were the first European explorers to this area. While exploring the area in 1872, Giles sighted Kata Tjuta from a location near Kings Canyon and called it Mount Olga, while the following year Gosse observed Uluru and named it Ayers Rock, in honour of the Chief Secretary of South Australia, Sir Henry Ayers. These barren desert lands of Central Australia disappointed the Europeans as unpromising for pastoral expansion, but would later come to be appreciated as emblematic of Australia.
The discovery of gold in Australia is traditionally attributed to Edward Hammond Hargraves, near Bathurst, New South Wales, in February 1851. Traces of gold had nevertheless been found in Australia as early as 1823 by surveyor James McBrien. As by English law all minerals belonged to the Crown, there was at first, "little to stimulate a search for really rich goldfields in a colony prospering under a pastoral economy ''. Richard Broome also argues that the California Gold Rush at first overawed the Australian finds, until "the news of Mount Alexander reached England in May 1852, followed shortly by six ships carrying eight tons of gold ''.
The gold rushes brought many immigrants to Australia from the British Isles, continental Europe, North America and China. The Colony of Victoria 's population grew rapidly, from 76,000 in 1850 to 530,000 by 1859. Discontent arose amongst diggers almost immediately, particularly on the crowded Victorian fields. The causes of this were the colonial government 's administration of the diggings and the gold licence system. Following a number of protests and petitions for reform, violence erupted at Ballarat in late 1854.
Early on the morning of Sunday 3 December 1854, British soldiers and Police attacked a stockade built on the Eureka lead holding some of the aggrieved diggers. In a short fight, at least 30 miners were killed and an unknown number wounded. O'Brien lists 5 soldiers of the 12th and 40th Regiments killed and 12 wounded. Blinded by his fear of agitation with democratic overtones, local Commissioner Robert Rede had felt "it was absolutely necessary that a blow should be struck '' against the miners.
But a few months later, a Royal commission made sweeping changes to the administration of Victoria 's goldfields. Its recommendations included the abolition of the licence, reforms to the police force and voting rights for miners holding a Miner 's Right. The Eureka Flag that was used to represent the Ballarat miners has been seriously considered by some as an alternative to the Australian flag, because of its controversial association with democratic developments.
In the 1890s, visiting author Mark Twain characterised the battle at Eureka as "The finest thing in Australasian history. It was a revolution - small in size, but great politically; it was a strike for liberty, a struggle for principle, a stand against injustice and oppression... it is another instance of a victory won by a lost battle. ''
Alternatively, in 1999, the Premier of New South Wales, Bob Carr, dismissed the Eureka Stockade as a "protest without consequence ''. During the 2004 Australian federal election, Deputy Prime Minister John Anderson stated his view that "I think people have tried to make too much of the Eureka Stockade... trying to give it a credibility and standing that it probably does n't enjoy. ''
Melbourne Trades Hall was opened in 1859 with Trades and Labour Councils and Trades Halls opening in all cities and most regional towns in the following forty years. During the 1880s Trade unions developed among shearers, miners, and stevedores (wharf workers), but soon spread to cover almost all blue - collar jobs. Shortages of labour led to high wages for a prosperous skilled working class, whose unions demanded and got an eight - hour day and other benefits unheard of in Europe.
Australia gained a reputation as "the working man 's paradise ''. Some employers tried to undercut the unions by importing Chinese labour. This produced a reaction which led to all the colonies restricting Chinese and other Asian immigration. This led to the enactment of the White Australia Policy. The "Australian compact '', based around centralised industrial arbitration, a degree of government assistance particularly for primary industries, and White Australia, was to continue for many years before gradually dissolving in the second half of the 20th century.
New South Wales in 1855 was the first colony to gain responsible government, managing most of its own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire. Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia followed in 1856; Queensland, from its foundation in 1859; and Western Australia, in 1890. The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs, defence and international shipping.
The gold era led to a long period of prosperity, sometimes called "the long boom ''. This was fed by British investment and the continued growth of the pastoral and mining industries, in addition to the growth of efficient transport by rail, river and sea. By 1891, the sheep population of Australia was estimated at 100 million. Gold production had declined since the 1850s, but in the same year was still worth £ 5.2 million. Eventually the economic expansion ended; the 1890s were a period of economic depression, felt most strongly in Victoria, and its capital Melbourne.
During the boom, Melbourne had reputedly become the richest city in the world,
The late 19th century had however, seen a great growth in the cities of south eastern Australia. Australia 's population (not including Aborigines, who were excluded from census calculations) in 1900 was 3.7 million, almost 1 million of whom lived in Melbourne and Sydney. More than two - thirds of the population overall lived in cities and towns by the close of the century, making "Australia one of the most urbanised societies in the western world ''.
Bushrangers, originally referred to runaway convicts in the early years of the British settlement of Australia who had the survival skills necessary to use the Australian bush as a refuge to hide from the authorities. The term "bushranger '' then evolved to refer to those who abandoned social rights and privileges to take up "robbery under arms '' as a way of life, using the bush as their base. These bushrangers were roughly analogous to British "highwaymen '' and American "Old West outlaws '', and their crimes often included robbing small - town banks or coach services.
More than 2,000 bushrangers are believed to have roamed the Australian countryside, beginning with the convict bolters and ending after Ned Kelly 's last stand at Glenrowan.
Bold Jack Donahue is recorded as the last convict bushranger. He was reported in newspapers around 1827 as being responsible for an outbreak of bushranging on the road between Sydney and Windsor. Throughout the 1820s he was regarded as the most notorious bushranger in the colony. Leading a band of escaped convicts, Donahue became central to Australian folklore as the Wild Colonial Boy.
Bushranging was common on the mainland, but Van Diemen 's Land (Tasmania) produced the most violent and serious outbreaks of convict bushrangers. Hundreds of convicts were at large in the bush, farms were abandoned and martial law was proclaimed. Indigenous outlaw Musquito defied colonial law and led attacks on settlers.
The bushrangers ' heyday was the Gold Rush years of the 1850s and 1860s.
There was much bushranging activity in the Lachlan Valley, around Forbes, Yass and Cowra in New South Wales. Frank Gardiner, John Gilbert and Ben Hall led the most notorious gangs of the period. Other active bushrangers included Dan Morgan, based in the Murray River, and Captain Thunderbolt, killed outside Uralla.
The increasing push of settlement, increased police efficiency, improvements in rail transport and communications technology, such as telegraphy, made it increasingly difficult for bushrangers to evade capture.
Among the last bushrangers were the Kelly Gang, led by Ned Kelly, who were captured at Glenrowan in 1880, two years after they were outlawed. Kelly was born in Victoria to an Irish convict father, and as a young man he clashed with the Victoria Police. Following an incident at his home in 1878, police parties searched for him in the bush. After he killed three policemen, the colony proclaimed Kelly and his gang wanted outlaws.
A final violent confrontation with police took place at Glenrowan on 28 June 1880. Kelly, dressed in home - made plate metal armour and helmet, was captured and sent to jail. He was hanged for murder at Old Melbourne Gaol in November 1880. His daring and notoriety made him an iconic figure in Australian history, folklore, literature, art and film.
Some bushrangers, most notably Ned Kelly in his Jerilderie Letter, and in his final raid on Glenrowan, explicitly represented themselves as political rebels. Attitudes to Kelly, by far the most well - known bushranger, exemplify the ambivalent views of Australians regarding bushranging.
Traditional Aboriginal society had been governed by councils of elders and a corporate decision making process, but the first European - style governments established after 1788 were autocratic and run by appointed governors -- although English law was transplanted into the Australian colonies by virtue of the doctrine of reception, thus notions of the rights and processes established by the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689 were brought from Britain by the colonists. Agitation for representative government began soon after the settlement of the colonies.
The oldest legislative body in Australia, the New South Wales Legislative Council, was created in 1825 as an appointed body to advise the Governor of New South Wales. William Wentworth established the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia 's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government for New South Wales. The reformist attorney general, John Plunkett, sought to apply Enlightenment principles to governance in the colony, pursuing the establishment of equality before the law, first by extending jury rights to emancipists, then by extending legal protections to convicts, assigned servants and Aborigines. Plunkett twice charged the colonist perpetrators of the Myall Creek massacre of Aborigines with murder, resulting in a conviction and his landmark Church Act of 1836 disestablished the Church of England and established legal equality between Anglicans, Catholics, Presbyterians and later Methodists.
In 1840, the Adelaide City Council and the Sydney City Council were established. Men who possessed 1,000 pounds worth of property were able to stand for election and wealthy landowners were permitted up to four votes each in elections. Australia 's first parliamentary elections were conducted for the New South Wales Legislative Council in 1843, again with voting rights (for males only) tied to property ownership or financial capacity. Voter rights were extended further in New South Wales in 1850 and elections for legislative councils were held in the colonies of Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.
By the mid-19th century, there was a strong desire for representative and responsible government in the colonies of Australia, fed by the democratic spirit of the goldfields evident at the Eureka Stockade and the ideas of the great reform movements sweeping Europe, the United States and the British Empire. The end of convict transportation accelerated reform in the 1840s and 1850s. The Australian Colonies Government Act (1850) was a landmark development which granted representative constitutions to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania and the colonies enthusiastically set about writing constitutions which produced democratically progressive parliaments -- though the constitutions generally maintained the role of the colonial upper houses as representative of social and economic "interests '' and all established constitutional monarchies with the British monarch as the symbolic head of state.
In 1855, limited self - government was granted by London to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. An innovative secret ballot was introduced in Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia in 1856, in which the government supplied voting paper containing the names of candidates and voters could select in private. This system was adopted around the world, becoming known as the "Australian Ballot ''. 1855 also saw the granting of the right to vote to all male British subjects 21 years or over in South Australia. This right was extended to Victoria in 1857 and New South Wales the following year. The other colonies followed until, in 1896, Tasmania became the last colony to grant universal male suffrage.
Propertied women in the colony of South Australia were granted the vote in local elections (but not parliamentary elections) in 1861. Henrietta Dugdale formed the first Australian women 's suffrage society in Melbourne in 1884. Women became eligible to vote for the Parliament of South Australia in 1895. This was the first legislation in the world permitting women also to stand for election to political office and, in 1897, Catherine Helen Spence became the first female political candidate for political office, unsuccessfully standing for election as a delegate to the Federal Convention on Australian Federation. Western Australia granted voting rights to women in 1899.
Legally, indigenous Australian males generally gained the right to vote during this period when Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania and South Australia gave voting rights to all male British subjects over 21. Only Queensland and Western Australia barred Aboriginal people from voting. Thus, Aboriginal men and women voted in some jurisdictions for the first Commonwealth Parliament in 1901. Early federal parliamentary reform and judicial interpretation however sought to limit Aboriginal voting in practice -- a situation which endured until rights activists began campaigning in the 1940s.
Though the various parliaments of Australia have been constantly evolving, the key foundations for elected parliamentary government have maintained an historical continuity in Australia from the 1850s into the 21st century.
By the late 1880s, a majority of people living in the Australian colonies were native born, although over 90 per cent were of British and Irish heritage. Historian Don Gibb suggests that bushranger Ned Kelly represented one dimension of the emerging attitudes of the native born population. Identifying strongly with family and mates, Kelly was opposed to what he regarded as oppression by Police and powerful Squatters. Almost mirroring the Australian stereotype later defined by historian Russel Ward, Kelly became "a skilled bushman, adept with guns, horses and fists and winning admiration from his peers in the district ''. Journalist Vance Palmer suggested although Kelly came to typify "the rebellious persona of the country for later generations, (he really) belonged... to another period ''.
The origins of distinctly Australian painting is often associated with this period and the Heidelberg School of the 1880s -- 1890s. Artists such as Arthur Streeton, Frederick McCubbin and Tom Roberts applied themselves to recreating in their art a truer sense of light and colour as seen in Australian landscape. Like the European Impressionists, they painted in the open air. These artists found inspiration in the unique light and colour which characterises the Australian bush. Their most recognised work involves scenes of pastoral and wild Australia, featuring the vibrant, even harsh colours of Australian summers.
Australian literature was equally developing a distinct voice. The classic Australian writers Henry Lawson, Banjo Paterson, Miles Franklin, Norman Lindsay, Steele Rudd, Mary Gilmore, CJ Dennis and Dorothea Mackellar were all forged by -- and indeed helped to forge -- this period of growing national identity. Views of Australia at times conflicted -- Lawson and Paterson contributed a series of verses to The Bulletin magazine in which they engaged in a literary debate about the nature of life in Australia: Lawson (a republican socialist) derided Paterson as a romantic, while Paterson (a country born city lawyer) thought Lawson full of doom and gloom. Paterson wrote the lyrics of the much - loved folksong Waltzing Matilda in 1895. The song has often been suggested as Australia 's national anthem and Advance Australia Fair, the Australian national anthem since the late 1970s, itself was written in 1887. Dennis wrote of laconic heroes in the Australian vernacular, while McKellar rejected a love of England 's pleasant pastures in favour of what she termed a "Sunburnt Country '' in her iconic poem: My Country (1903).
A common theme throughout the nationalist art, music and writing of the late 19th century was the romantic rural or bush myth, ironically produced by one of the most urbanised societies in the world. Paterson 's well known poem Clancy of the Overflow, written in 1889, evokes the romantic myth. While bush ballads evidenced distinctively Australian popular medium of music and of literature, Australian artists of a more classical mould -- such as the opera singer Dame Nellie Melba, and painters John Peter Russell and Rupert Bunny -- prefigured the 20th - century expatriate Australians who knew little of ' stockyard and rails ' but would travel abroad to influence Western art and culture.
Despite suspicion from some sections of the colonial community (especially in smaller colonies) about the value of nationhood, improvements in inter-colonial transport and communication, including the linking of Perth to the south eastern cities by telegraph in 1877, helped break down inter-colonial rivalries.
Amid calls from London for the establishment of an intercolonial Australian army, and with the various colonies independently constructing railway lines, New South Wales Premier Henry Parkes addressed a rural audience in his 1889 Tenterfield Oration, stating that the time had come to form a national executive government: "Australia (now has) a population of three and a half millions, and the American people numbered only between three and four millions when they formed the great commonwealth of the United States. The numbers were about the same, and surely what the Americans had done by war, the Australians could bring about in peace, without breaking the ties that held them to the mother country. ''
Though Parkes would not live to see it, his vision would be achieved within a little over a decade, and he is remembered as the "father of federation ''. Increasing nationalism, a growing sense of national identity, improvements in transport and communications, as well as fears about immigration and defence all combined to encourage the movement, spurred on by organisations like the Australian Natives ' Association. Despite the growing calls for unification, loyalties to the British Empire remained strong. At a Federation Conference banquet in 1890, Henry Parkes spoke of blood - kinship linking the colonies to Britain and a "race '' for whom "the purpose of settling new countries has never had its equal on the face of the earth ''
In 1890, representatives of the six colonies and New Zealand had met in Melbourne and called for the union of the colonies and for the colonial legislatures to nominate representatives to attend a constitutional convention. The following year, the 1891 National Australasian Convention was held in Sydney, with all the future states and New Zealand represented. A draft Constitutional Bill was produced by the Constitution Committee, chiefly drafted by Samuel Griffith, with Inglis Clark and Charles Kingston, as well as the assistance of Edmund Barton. The delegates returned to their parliaments with the Bill, but progress was slow, as Australia faced its 1890s economic Depression. Nevertheless, by 1895 five of the colonies elected representatives for a second Convention, which was conducted in Adelaide, Sydney and Melbourne over the space of a year, allowing time for consultation. The Constitution Committee this time appointed Barton, Richard O'Connor and John Downer to draft a Bill and after much debate, New South Wales, South Australia and Tasmania adopted the Bill to be put to their voters. Queensland and Western Australia later moved to do the same, though New Zealand did not participate in the Convention.
In July 1898, the Bill was put to a series of referenda in four colonies, but New South Wales rejected the proposal. In 1899, a second referendum put an amended Bill to the voters of the four colonies and Queensland, and the Bill was endorsed.
In March 1900, delegates were dispatched to London, where approval for the Bill was sought from the Imperial Parliament. The Bill was put to the House of Commons and passed on 5 July 1900 and, soon after, was signed into law by Queen Victoria. Lord Hopetoun was dispatched from London, tasked with appointing an interim Cabinet to oversee the foundation of the Commonwealth and conduct of the first elections.
There was a more radical vision for a separate Australia by some colonists, including writer Henry Lawson, trade unionist William Lane and as found in the pages of the Sydney Bulletin. But by the end of 1899, and after much colonial debate, the citizens of five of the six Australian colonies had voted in referendums in favour of a constitution to form a Federation. Western Australia voted to join in July 1900. The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act was passed by the British parliament on 5 July 1900 and given Royal Assent by Queen Victoria on 9 July 1900.
The Commonwealth of Australia came into being when the Federal Constitution was proclaimed by the Governor - General, Lord Hopetoun, on 1 January 1901. From that point a system of federalism in Australia came into operation, entailing the establishment of an entirely new national government (the Commonwealth government) and an ongoing division of powers between that government and the States. The first Federal elections were held in March 1901 and resulted in a narrow plurality for the Protectionist Party over the Free Trade Party with the Australian Labor Party (ALP) polling third. Labor declared it would offer support to the party which offered concessions and Edmund Barton 's Protectionists formed a government, with Alfred Deakin as Attorney - General.
Barton promised to "create a high court,... and an efficient federal public service... He proposed to extend conciliation and arbitration, create a uniform railway gauge between the eastern capitals, to introduce female federal franchise, to establish a... system of old age pensions. '' He also promised to introduce legislation to safeguard "White Australia '' from any influx of Asian or Pacific Island labour.
The Labor Party (the spelling "Labour '' was dropped in 1912) had been established in the 1890s, after the failure of the Maritime and Shearer 's strikes. Its strength was in the Australian Trade Union movement "which grew from a membership of just under 100,000 in 1901 to more than half a million in 1914 ''. The platform of the ALP was democratic socialist. As noted by the historian Ross McMullin, "In the national sphere Labor had taken the Protectionists as far in the direction of progressive legislation as possible. '' In New South Wales, Frank McDonnell dominated the agitation for the early closing of shops, which was achieved with the passage of the Factories and Shops Act of 1900, while also securing the extension of the grammar school scholarship system. In Western Australia, Forrest introduced a conciliation and arbitration bill in 1900 which brought trade unions into the state 's social fabric for the first time. In addition, WA Labor scored another victory with the passage of legislation which extended workers ' compensation. Under the premierships of Storey and Dooley in New South Wales, various reforms were carried out such as the establishment of the Rural Bank and the elimination of high school fees.
The Labor Party 's rising support at elections, together with its formation of federal government in 1904 under Chris Watson, and again in 1908, helped to unify competing conservative, free market and liberal anti-socialists into the Commonwealth Liberal Party in 1909. Although this party dissolved in 1916, a successor to its version of "liberalism '' in Australia which in some respects comprises an alliance of Millsian liberals and Burkian conservatives united in support for individualism and opposition to socialism can be found in the modern Liberal Party. To represent rural interests, the Country Party (today 's National Party) was founded in 1913 in Western Australia, and nationally in 1920, from a number of state - based farmer 's parties.
The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 was one of the first laws passed by the new Australian parliament. This centrepiece of the ' White Australia Policy ' aimed to restrict immigration from Asia (especially China), where the population was vastly greater and the standard of living vastly lower and was similar to measures taken in other settler societies such as the United States, Canada and New Zealand. It found strong support in the national parliament, arguments ranging from economic protection to simple racism. The law permitted a dictation test in any European language to be used to in effect exclude non - "white '' immigrants. While the law allowed for the use of any European language, the English version was standardised and became known as the "Stewart '' test after the Federal MP Stewart Parnaby who originally penned the exam. The Labor Party wanted to protect "white '' jobs and pushed for clearer restrictions. A few politicians spoke of the need to avoid hysterical treatment of the question. MP Bruce Smith said he had "no desire to see low - class Indians, Chinamen or Japanese... swarming into this country... But there is obligation... not (to) unnecessarily offend the educated classes of those nations ''. Donald Cameron, a member from Tasmania, expressed a rare note of dissension in the parliament, saying that no race on earth had been "treated in a more shameful manner than have the Chinese... ''. Outside parliament, Australia 's first Catholic cardinal, Patrick Francis Moran was politically active and denounced anti-Chinese legislation as "unchristian ''. The popular press mocked the cardinal 's position and the small European population of Australia generally supported the legislation and remained fearful of being overwhelmed by an influx of non-British migrants from the vastly different cultures of the highly populated empires to Australia 's north.
The law passed both houses of Parliament and remained a central feature of Australia 's immigration laws until abandoned in the 1950s. In the 1930s, the Lyons government unsuccessfully attempted to exclude Egon Erwin Kisch, a German Czechoslovakian communist author from entering Australia, by means of a ' dictation test ' in Scottish Gaelic. The High Court of Australia ruled that Scottish Gaelic was not a European language within the meaning of the Immigration Act (1901 -- 25). Concerns emerged that the law could be used for such political purposes.
Before 1901, units of soldiers from all six Australian colonies had been active as part of British forces in the Boer War. When the British government asked for more troops from Australia in early 1902, the Australian government obliged with a national contingent. Some 16,500 men had volunteered for service by the war 's end in June 1902. But Australians soon felt vulnerable closer to home. The Anglo - Japanese Alliance of 1902 "allowed the Royal Navy to withdraw its capital ships from the Pacific by 1907. Australians saw themselves in time of war a lonely, sparsely populated outpost. '' The impressive visit of the US Navy 's Great White Fleet in 1908 emphasised to the government the value of an Australian navy. The Defence Act of 1909 reinforced the importance of Australian defence, and in February 1910, Lord Kitchener provided further advice on a defence scheme based on conscription. By 1913, the battlecruiser Australia led the fledgling Royal Australian Navy. Historian Bill Gammage estimates that on the eve of war, Australia had 200,000 men "under arms of some sort ''.
Historian Humphrey McQueen has it that working and living conditions for Australia 's working classes in the early 20th century were of "frugal comfort ''. While the establishment of the Court of Conciliation and Arbitration for industrial disputes was divisive, it was an acknowledgement of the need to set Industrial awards, where all wage earners in one industry enjoyed the same conditions of employment and wages. The Harvester Judgment of 1907 recognised the concept of a basic wage and in 1908 the Federal government also began an old age pension scheme. Together with the White Australia Policy and pioneering social policy, these developments have since been dubbed the Australian settlement. As a result of them, the new Commonwealth gained recognition as a laboratory for social experimentation and positive liberalism.
Catastrophic droughts plagued some regions in the late 1890s and early 20th century and together with a growing rabbit plague, created great hardship in the rural area of Australia. Despite this, a number of writers "imagined a time when Australia would outstrip Britain in wealth and importance, when its open spaces would support rolling acres of farms and factories to match those of the United States. Some estimated the future population at 100 million, 200 million or more ''. Amongst these was E.J. Brady, whose 1918 book Australia Unlimited described Australia 's inland as ripe for development and settlement, "destined one day to pulsate with life ''.
With the encouragement of Queensland, in 1884, a British protectorate had been proclaimed over the southern coast of New Guinea and its adjacent islands. British New Guinea, was annexed outright in 1888. The possession was placed under the authority of the newly federated Commonwealth of Australia in 1902 and with passage of the Papua Act of 1905, British New Guinea became the Australian Territory of Papua, with formal Australian administration beginning in 1906.
The world war marked a decisive moment in the history of Australia, remember to this day for the ANZAC story of the Army 's sacrifices at Gallipoli, and the coming - of - age of a young nation.
The declaration of war by King George V in August 1914 automatically involved all of Britain 's colonies and dominions. Prime Minister Andrew Fisher probably expressed the views of most Australians when during the election campaign of late July he said "Turn your eyes to the European situation, and give the kindest feelings towards the mother country... I sincerely hope that international arbitration will avail before Europe is convulsed in the greatest war of all time... But should the worst happen... Australians will stand beside our own to help and defend her to the last man and the last shilling. ''
More than 416,000 Australian men volunteered to fight during the First World War between 1914 and 1918 from a total national population of 4.9 million. Historian Lloyd Robson estimates this as between one third and one half of the eligible male population. The Sydney Morning Herald referred to the outbreak of war as Australia 's "Baptism of Fire ''. 8,141 men were killed in 8 months of fighting at Gallipoli, on the Turkish coast. After the Australian Imperial Forces (AIF) was withdrawn in late 1915, and enlarged to five divisions, most were moved to France to serve under British command.
Some forces remained in the Mid-East, including members of the Light Horse Regiment. Light horsemen of the 4th and 12th Regiments captured heavily fortified Beersheba from Turk forces by means of a cavalry charge at full gallop on 31 October 1917. One of the last great cavalry charges in history, the attack opened a way for the allies to outflank the Gaza - Beersheba Line and drive the Ottomans back into Palestine.
The AIF 's first experience of warfare on the Western Front was also the most costly single encounter in Australian military history. In July 1916, at Fromelles, in a diversionary attack during the Battle of the Somme, the AIF suffered 5,533 killed or wounded in 24 hours. Sixteen months later, the five Australian divisions became the Australian Corps, first under the command of General Birdwood, and later the Australian General Sir John Monash. Two bitterly fought and divisive conscription referendums were held in Australia in 1916 and 1917. Both failed, and Australia 's army remained a volunteer force.
John Monash was appointed corps commander of the Australian forces in May 1918 and led some significant attacks in the final stages of the war. British Field Marshal Montgomery later called him "the best general on the western front in Europe ''. Monash made the protection of infantry a priority and sought to fully integrate all the new technologies of warfare in both the planning and execution of battles, thus he wrote that infantry should not be sacrificed needlessly to enemy bayonets and machine guns -- but rather should "advance under the maximum possible protection of the maximum possible array of mechanical resources, in the form of guns, machine - guns, tanks, mortars and aeroplanes ''. His first operation at the relatively small Battle of Hamel demonstrated the validity of his approach and later actions before the Hindenburg Line in 1918 confirmed it. Monash was knighted in the field of battle by King George V following the 8 August advance during the Battle of Amiens. General Erich Ludendorff, the German commander, later wrote of 8 August 1918 as "the black day of the German Army... The 8th of August put the decline of (German) fighting power beyond all doubt ''. Amiens, fought between 8 and 11 August 1918, marked the beginning of the allied advance that culminated in the 11 November Armistice ended the war.
Over 60,000 Australians had died during the conflict and 160,000 were wounded, a high proportion of the 330,000 who had fought overseas.
While the Gallipoli campaign was a total failure militarily and 8100 Australians died, its memory was all - important. Gallipoli transformed the Australian mind and became an iconic element of the Australian identity and the founding moment of nationhood. Australia 's annual holiday to remember its war dead is held on ANZAC Day, 25 April, each year, the date of the first landings at Gallipoli in 1915. The choice of date is often mystifying to non-Australians; it was after all, an allied invasion that ended in military defeat. Bill Gammage has suggested that the choice of 25 April has always meant much to Australians because at Gallipoli, "the great machines of modern war were few enough to allow ordinary citizens to show what they could do ''. In France, between 1916 and 1918, "where almost seven times as many (Australians) died... the guns showed cruelly, how little individuals mattered ''.
In 1919, Prime Minister Billy Hughes and former Prime Minister Joseph Cook took Australia 's seat at the Versailles peace conference. Hughes ' signing of the Treaty of Versailles was the first time Australia had signed an international treaty. Hughes demanded heavy reparations from Germany and frequently clashed with US President Woodrow Wilson. At one point Hughes declared: "I speak for 60,000 (Australian) dead ''. He went on to ask of Wilson; "How many do you speak for? ''
Hughes demanded that Australia have independent representation within the newly formed League of Nations and was the most prominent opponent of the inclusion of the Japanese racial equality proposal, which as a result of lobbying by him and others was not included in the final Treaty, deeply offending Japan. Hughes was concerned by the rise of Japan. Within months of the declaration of the European War in 1914; Japan, Australia and New Zealand seized all German possessions in the South West Pacific. Though Japan occupied German possessions with the blessings of the British, Hughes was alarmed by this policy. In 1919 at the Peace Conference the Dominion leaders argued their case to keep their occupied German possessions and these territories were given as "Class C Mandates '' to the respective Dominions. Japan obtained control over the South Pacific Mandate, north of the equator. German New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and Nauru were assigned to Australia as League of Nations Mandates: in the category of territories "formerly governed (by the Central Powers) and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world ''. Thus, the Territory of New Guinea came under Australian administration.
After the war, Prime Minister Billy Hughes led a new conservative force, the Nationalist Party, formed from the old Liberal party and breakaway elements of Labor (of which he was the most prominent), after the deep and bitter split over Conscription. An estimated 12,000 Australians died as a result of the Spanish flu pandemic of 1919, almost certainly brought home by returning soldiers.
The success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia posed a threat in the eyes of many Australians, although to a small group of socialists, it was an inspiration. The Communist Party of Australia was formed in 1920 and, though remaining electorally insignificant, it obtained some influence in the trade union movement and was banned during World War II for its support for the Hitler - Stalin Pact and the Menzies Government unsuccessfully tried to ban it again during the Korean War. Despite splits, the party remained active until its dissolution at the end of the Cold War.
The Country Party (today 's National Party) formed in 1920 to promulgate its version of agrarianism, which it called "Countrymindedness ''. The goal was to enhance the status of the graziers (operators of big sheep ranches) and small farmers, and secure subsidies for them. Enduring longer than any other major party save the Labor party, it has generally operated in Coalition with the Liberal Party (since the 1940s), becoming a major party of government in Australia -- particularly in Queensland.
Other significant after - effects of the war included ongoing industrial unrest, which included the 1923 Victorian Police strike. Industrial disputes characterised the 1920s in Australia. Other major strikes occurred on the waterfront, in the coalmining and timber industries in the late 1920s. The union movement had established the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) in 1927 in response to the Nationalist government 's efforts to change working conditions and reduce the power of the unions.
The consumerism, entertainment culture, and new technologies that characterised the 1920s in the United States were also found in Australia. Prohibition was not implemented in Australia, though anti-alcohol forces were successful in having hotels closed after 6 pm, and closed altogether in a few city suburbs.
The fledgling film industry declined through the decade, over 2 million Australians attending cinemas weekly at 1250 venues. A Royal Commission in 1927 failed to assist and the industry that had begun so brightly with the release of the world 's first feature film, The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), atrophied until its revival in the 1970s.
Stanley Bruce became Prime Minister in 1923, when members of the Nationalist Party Government voted to remove W.M. Hughes. Speaking in early 1925, Bruce summed up the priorities and optimism of many Australians, saying that "men, money and markets accurately defined the essential requirements of Australia '' and that he was seeking such from Britain. The migration campaign of the 1920s, operated by the Development and Migration Commission, brought almost 300,000 Britons to Australia, although schemes to settle migrants and returned soldiers "on the land '' were generally not a success. "The new irrigation areas in Western Australia and the Dawson Valley of Queensland proved disastrous ''
In Australia, the costs of major investment had traditionally been met by state and Federal governments and heavy borrowing from overseas was made by the governments in the 1920s. A Loan Council was set up in 1928 to co-ordinate loans, three - quarters of which came from overseas. Despite Imperial Preference, a balance of trade was not successfully achieved with Britain. "In the five years from 1924... to... 1928, Australia bought 43.4 % of its imports from Britain and sold 38.7 % of its exports. Wheat and wool made up more than two - thirds of all Australian exports '', a dangerous reliance on just two export commodities.
Australia embraced the new technologies of transport and communication. Coastal sailing ships were finally abandoned in favour of steam, and improvements in rail and motor transport heralded dramatic changes in work and leisure. In 1918 there were 50,000 cars and lorries in the whole of Australia. By 1929 there were 500,000. The stage coach company Cobb and Co, established in 1853, finally closed in 1924. In 1920, the Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Service (to become the Australian airline Qantas) was established. The Reverend John Flynn, founded the Royal Flying Doctor Service, the world 's first air ambulance in 1928. Daredevil pilot, Sir Charles Kingsford Smith pushed the new flying machines to the limit, completing a round Australia circuit in 1927 and in 1928 traversed the Pacific Ocean, via Hawaii and Fiji from the US to Australia in the aircraft Southern Cross. He went on to global fame and a series of aviation records before vanishing on a night flight to Singapore in 1935.
Australia achieved independent Sovereign Nation status after World War I, under the Statute of Westminster. This formalised the Balfour Declaration of 1926, a report resulting from the 1926 Imperial Conference of British Empire leaders in London, which defined Dominions of the British empire in the following way: "They are autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations. ''
However, Australia did not ratify the Statute of Westminster until 1942. According to historian Frank Crowley, this was because Australians had little interest in redefining their relationship with Britain until the crisis of World War II.
The Australia Act 1986 removed any remaining links between the British Parliament and the Australian states.
From 1 February 1927 until 12 June 1931, the Northern Territory was divided up as North Australia and Central Australia at latitude 20 ° S. New South Wales has had one further territory surrendered, namely Jervis Bay Territory comprising 6,677 hectares, in 1915. The external territories were added: Norfolk Island (1914); Ashmore Island, Cartier Islands (1931); the Australian Antarctic Territory transferred from Britain (1933); Heard Island, McDonald Islands, and Macquarie Island transferred to Australia from Britain (1947).
The Federal Capital Territory (FCT) was formed from New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of Canberra (Melbourne was the seat of government from 1901 to 1927). The FCT was renamed the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) in 1938. The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911.
Australia was deeply affected by the Great Depression of the 1930s, particularly due to its heavy dependence on exports, especially primary products such as wool and wheat. Exposed by continuous borrowing to fund capital works in the 1920s, the Australian and state governments were "already far from secure in 1927, when most economic indicators took a turn for the worse. Australia 's dependence of exports left her extraordinarily vulnerable to world market fluctuations '', according to economic historian Geoff Spenceley. Debt by the state of New South Wales accounted for almost half of Australia 's accumulated debt by December 1927. The situation caused alarm amongst a few politicians and economists, notably Edward Shann of the University of Western Australia, but most political, union and business leaders were reluctant to admit to serious problems. In 1926, Australian Finance magazine described loans as occurring with a "disconcerting frequency '' unrivalled in the British Empire: "It may be a loan to pay off maturing loans or a loan to pay the interest on existing loans, or a loan to repay temporary loans from the bankers... '' Thus, well before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the Australian economy was already facing significant difficulties. As the economy slowed in 1927, so did manufacturing and the country slipped into recession as profits slumped and unemployment rose.
At elections held in October 1929, the Labor Party was swept into power in a landslide victory; Stanley Bruce, the former Prime Minister, lost his own seat. The new Prime Minister, James Scullin, and his largely inexperienced government were almost immediately faced with a series of crises. Hamstrung by their lack of control of the Senate, a lack of control over the banking system and divisions within their party over how best to deal with the situation, the government was forced to accept solutions that eventually split the party, as it had in 1917. Some gravitated to New South Wales Premier Lang, others to Prime Minister Scullin.
Various "plans '' to resolve the crisis were suggested; Sir Otto Niemeyer, a representative of the English banks who visited in mid-1930, proposed a deflationary plan, involving cuts to government spending and wages. Treasurer Ted Theodore proposed a mildly inflationary plan, while the Labor Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, proposed a radical plan which repudiated overseas debt. The "Premier 's Plan '' finally accepted by federal and state governments in June 1931, followed the deflationary model advocated by Niemeyer and included a reduction of 20 per cent in government spending, a reduction in bank interest rates and an increase in taxation. In March 1931, Lang announced that interest due in London would not be paid and the Federal government stepped in to meet the debt. In May, the Government Savings Bank of New South Wales was forced to close. The Melbourne Premiers ' Conference agreed to cut wages and pensions as part of a severe deflationary policy but Lang renounced the plan. The grand opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 1932 provided little respite to the growing crisis straining the young federation. With multimillion - pound debts mounting, public demonstrations and move and counter-move by Lang and then Scullin, then Lyons federal governments, the Governor of New South Wales, Philip Game, had been examining Lang 's instruction not to pay money into the Federal Treasury. Game judged it was illegal. Lang refused to withdraw his order and, on 13 May, he was dismissed by Governor Game. At June elections, Lang Labor 's seats collapsed.
May 1931 had seen the creation of a new conservative political force, the United Australia Party formed by breakaway members of the Labor Party combining with the Nationalist Party. At Federal elections in December 1931, the United Australia Party, led by former Labor member Joseph Lyons, easily won office. They remained in power until September 1940. The Lyons government has often been credited with steering recovery from the depression, although just how much of this was owed to their policies remains contentious. Stuart Macintyre also points out that although Australian GDP grew from £ 386.9 million to £ 485.9 million between 1931 -- 32 and 1938 -- 39, real domestic product per head of population was still "but a few shillings greater in 1938 -- 39 (£ 70.12), than it had been in 1920 -- 21 (£ 70.04).
Australia recovered relatively quickly from the financial downturn of 1929 -- 1930, with recovery beginning around 1932. The Prime Minister, Joseph Lyons, favoured the tough economic measures of the Premiers ' Plan, pursued an orthodox fiscal policy and refused to accept the proposals of the Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, to default on overseas debt repayments. According to author Anne Henderson of the Sydney Institute, Lyons held a steadfast belief in "the need to balance budgets, lower costs to business and restore confidence '' and the Lyons period gave Australia "stability and eventual growth '' between the drama of the Depression and the outbreak of the Second World War. A lowering of wages was enforced and industry tariff protections maintained, which together with cheaper raw materials during the 1930s saw a shift from agriculture to manufacturing as the chief employer of the Australian economy -- a shift which was consolidated by increased investment by the commonwealth government into defence and armaments manufacture. Lyons saw restoration of Australia 's exports as the key to economic recovery.
There is debate over the extent reached by unemployment in Australia, often cited as peaking at 29 per cent in 1932. "Trade Union figures are the most often quoted, but the people who were there... regard the figures as wildly understating the extent of unemployment '' wrote historian Wendy Lowenstein in her collection of oral histories of the Depression. However, David Potts argues that "over the last thirty years... historians of the period have either uncritically accepted that figure (29 % in the peak year 1932) including rounding it up to ' a third ', or they have passionately argued that a third is far too low. '' Potts himself though suggested a peak national figure of 25 per cent unemployed. Measurement is difficult in part because there was great variation, geographically, by age and by gender, in the level of unemployment. Statistics collected by historian Peter Spearritt show 17.8 per cent of men and 7.9 per cent of women unemployed in 1933 in the comfortable Sydney suburb of Woollahra. (This is not to say that 81.9 per cent of women were working but that 7.9 per cent of the women interested / looking for work were unable to find it, a much lower figure than maybe first thought, as many women stayed home and were not in the job force in those years, especially if they were unable to find work.)
In the working class suburb of Paddington, 41.3 per cent of men and 20.7 per cent of women were listed as unemployed. Geoffrey Spenceley stated that apart from variation between men and women, unemployment was also much higher in some industries, such as the building and construction industry, and comparatively low in the public administrative and professional sectors. In country areas, worst hit were small farmers in the wheat belts as far afield as north - east Victoria and Western Australia, who saw more and more of their income absorbed by interest payments.
Extraordinary sporting successes did something to alleviate the spirits of Australians during the economic downturn. In a Sheffield Shield cricket match at the Sydney Cricket Ground in 1930, Don Bradman, a young New South Welshman of just 21 years of age wrote his name into the record books by smashing the previous highest batting score in first - class cricket with 452 runs not out in just 415 minutes. The rising star 's world beating cricketing exploits were to provide Australians with much needed joy through the emerging Great Depression in Australia and post-World War II recovery. Between 1929 and 1931 the racehorse Phar Lap dominated Australia 's racing industry, at one stage winning fourteen races in a row. Famous victories included the 1930 Melbourne Cup, following an assassination attempt and carrying 9 stone 12 pounds weight. Phar Lap sailed for the United States in 1931, going on to win North America 's richest race, the Agua Caliente Handicap in 1932. Soon after, on the cusp of US success, Phar Lap developed suspicious symptoms and died. Theories swirled that the champion race horse had been poisoned and a devoted Australian public went into shock. The 1938 British Empire Games were held in Sydney from 5 -- 12 February, timed to coincide with Sydney 's sesqui - centenary (150 years since the foundation of British settlement in Australia).
Until the late 1930s, defence was not a significant issue for Australians. At the 1937 elections, both political parties advocated increased defence spending, in the context of increased Japanese aggression in China and Germany 's aggression in Europe. There was a difference in opinion over how the defence spending should be allocated however. The United Australia Party government emphasised co-operation with Britain in "a policy of imperial defence ''. The lynchpin of this was the British naval base at Singapore and the Royal Navy battle fleet "which, it was hoped, would use it in time of need ''. Defence spending in the inter-war years reflected this priority. In the period 1921 -- 1936 totalled £ 40 million on the Royal Australian Navy, £ 20 million on the Australian Army and £ 6 million on the Royal Australian Air Force (established in 1921, the "youngest '' of the three services). In 1939, the Navy, which included two heavy cruisers and four light cruisers, was the service best equipped for war.
Fearing Japanese intentions in the Pacific, Menzies established independent embassies in Tokyo and Washington to receive independent advice about developments. Gavin Long argues that the Labor opposition urged greater national self - reliance through a buildup of manufacturing and more emphasis on the Army and RAAF, as Chief of the General Staff, John Lavarack also advocated. In November 1936, Labor leader John Curtin said "The dependence of Australia upon the competence, let alone the readiness, of British statesmen to send forces to our aid is too dangerous a hazard upon which to found Australia 's defence policy. '' According to John Robertson, "some British leaders had also realised that their country could not fight Japan and Germany at the same time. '' But "this was never discussed candidly at... meeting (s) of Australian and British defence planners '', such as the 1937 Imperial Conference.
By September 1939 the Australian Army numbered 3,000 regulars. A recruiting campaign in late 1938, led by Major - General Thomas Blamey increased the reserve militia to almost 80,000. The first division raised for war was designated the 6th Division, of the 2nd AIF, there being 5 Militia Divisions on paper and a 1st AIF in the First World War.
On 3 September 1939, the Prime Minister, Robert Menzies, made a national radio broadcast: "My fellow Australians. It is my melancholy duty to inform you, officially, that, in consequence of the persistence by Germany in her invasion of Poland, Great Britain has declared war upon her, and that, as a result, Australia is also at war. ''
Thus began Australia 's involvement in the six - year global conflict. Australians were to fight in an extraordinary variety of locations, from withstanding the advance of Hitler 's Panzers in the Siege of Tobruk; to turning back the advance of the Imperial Japanese Army in the New Guinea Campaign. From bomber missions over Europe and Mediterranean naval engagements, to facing Japanese mini-sub raids on Sydney Harbour and devastating air raids on the city of Darwin.
The recruitment of a volunteer military force for service at home and abroad was announced, the 2nd Australian Imperial Force and a citizen militia organised for local defence. Troubled by Britain 's failure to increase defences at Singapore, Menzies was cautious in committing troops to Europe. By the end of June 1940, France, Norway, Denmark and the Low Countries had fallen to Nazi Germany. Britain stood alone with its dominions. Menzies called for "all - out war '', increasing federal powers and introducing conscription. Menzies ' minority government came to rely on just two independents after the 1940 election
In January 1941, Menzies flew to Britain to discuss the weakness of Singapore 's defences. Arriving in London during The Blitz, Menzies was invited into Winston Churchill 's British War Cabinet for the duration of his visit. Returning to Australia, with the threat of Japan imminent and with the Australian army suffering badly in the Greek and Crete campaigns, Menzies re-approached the Labor Party to form a War Cabinet. Unable to secure their support, and with an unworkable parliamentary majority, Menzies resigned as Prime Minister. The Coalition held office for another month, before the independents switched allegiance and John Curtin was sworn in as Prime Minister. Eight weeks later, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor.
From 1940 to 1941, Australian forces played prominent roles in the fighting in the Mediterranean theatre, including Operation Compass, the Siege of Tobruk, the Greek campaign, the Battle of Crete, the Syria -- Lebanon Campaign and the Second Battle of El Alamein.
A garrison of around 14,000 Australian soldiers, commanded by Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead was besieged in Tobruk, Libya by the German - Italian army of General Erwin Rommel between April and August 1941. The Nazi propagandist Lord Haw Haw derided the defenders as ' rats ', a term the soldiers adopted as an ironic compliment: "The Rats of Tobruk ''. Vital in the defence of Egypt and the Suez Canal, the Siege saw the advance of the German army halted for the first time and provided a morale boost for the British Commonwealth, which was then standing alone against Hitler.
The war came closer to home when HMAS Sydney was lost with all hands in battle with the German raider Kormoran in November 1941.
With most of Australia 's best forces committed to fight against Hitler in the Middle East, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, the US naval base in Hawaii, on 8 December 1941 (eastern Australia time). The British battleship HMS Prince of Wales and battlecruiser HMS Repulse sent to defend Singapore were sunk soon afterwards. Australia was ill - prepared for an attack, lacking armaments, modern fighter aircraft, heavy bombers, and aircraft carriers. While demanding reinforcements from Churchill, on 27 December 1941 Curtin published an historic announcement: "The Australian Government... regards the Pacific struggle as primarily one in which the United States and Australia must have the fullest say in the direction of the democracies ' fighting plan. Without inhibitions of any kind, I make it clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom. ''
British Malaya quickly collapsed, shocking the Australian nation. British, Indian and Australian troops made a disorganised last stand at Singapore, before surrendering on 15 February 1942. Around 15,000 Australian soldiers became prisoners of war. Curtin predicted that the "battle for Australia '' would now follow. On 19 February, Darwin suffered a devastating air raid, the first time the Australian mainland had ever been attacked by enemy forces. Over the following 19 months, Australia was attacked from the air almost 100 times.
Two battle - hardened Australian divisions were already steaming from the Middle East for Singapore. Churchill wanted them diverted to Burma, but Curtin refused, and anxiously awaited their return to Australia. US President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered his commander in the Philippines, General Douglas MacArthur, to formulate a Pacific defence plan with Australia in March 1942. Curtin agreed to place Australian forces under the command of General MacArthur, who became "Supreme Commander of the South West Pacific ''. Curtin had thus presided over a fundamental shift in Australia 's foreign policy. MacArthur moved his headquarters to Melbourne in March 1942 and American troops began massing in Australia. In late May 1942, Japanese midget submarines sank an accommodation vessel in a daring raid on Sydney Harbour. On 8 June 1942, two Japanese submarines briefly shelled Sydney 's eastern suburbs and the city of Newcastle.
In an effort to isolate Australia, the Japanese planned a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby, in the Australian Territory of New Guinea. In May 1942, the US Navy engaged the Japanese in the Battle of the Coral Sea and halted the attack. The Battle of Midway in June effectively defeated the Japanese navy and the Japanese army launched a land assault on Moresby from the north. Between July and November 1942, Australian forces repulsed Japanese attempts on the city by way of the Kokoda Track, in the highlands of New Guinea. The Battle of Milne Bay in August 1942 was the first Allied defeat of Japanese land forces.
Meanwhile, in North Africa, the Axis Powers had driven Allies back into Egypt. A turning point came between July and November 1942, when Australia 's 9th Division played a crucial role in some of the heaviest fighting of the First and Second Battle of El Alamein, which turned the North Africa Campaign in favour of the Allies.
The Battle of Buna -- Gona, between November 1942 and January 1943, set the tone for the bitter final stages of the New Guinea campaign, which persisted into 1945. The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943 -- 44 were the single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces. On 14 May 1943, the Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, though clearly marked as a medical vessel, was sunk by Japanese raiders off the Queensland coast, killing 268, including all but one of the nursing staff, further enraging popular opinion against Japan.
Australian prisoners of war were at this time suffering severe ill - treatment in the Pacific Theatre. In 1943, 2,815 Australian Pows died constructing Japan 's Burma - Thailand Railway In 1944, the Japanese inflicted the Sandakan Death March on 2,000 Australian and British prisoners of war -- only 6 survived. This was the single worst war crime perpetrated against Australians in war.
MacArthur largely excluded Australian forces from the main push north into the Philippines and Japan. It was left to Australia to lead amphibious assaults against Japanese bases in Borneo. Curtin suffered from ill health from the strains of office and died weeks before the war ended, replaced by Ben Chifley.
Of Australia 's wartime population of seven million, almost one million men and women served in a branch of the services during the six years of warfare. By war 's end, gross enlistments totalled 727,200 men and women in the Australian Army (of whom 557,800 served overseas), 216,900 in the RAAF and 48,900 in the RAN. Over 39,700 were killed or died as prisoners - of - war, about 8,000 of whom died as prisoners of the Japanese.
While the Australian civilian population suffered less at the hands of the Axis powers than did other Allied nations in Asia and Europe, Australia nevertheless came under direct attack by Japanese naval forces and aerial bombardments, particularly through 1942 and 1943, resulting in hundreds of fatalities and fuelling fear of Japanese invasion. Axis naval activity in Australian waters also brought the war close to home for Australians. Austerity measures, rationing and labour controls measures were all implemented to assist the war effort. Australian civilians dug air raid shelters, trained in civil defence and first aid, and Australian ports and cities were equipped with anti aircraft and sea defences.
The Australian economy was markedly affected by World War II. Expenditure on war reached 37 per cent of GDP by 1943 -- 44, compared to 4 per cent expenditure in 1939 -- 1940. Total war expenditure was £ 2,949 million between 1939 and 1945.
Although the peak of army enlistments occurred in June -- July 1940, when over 70,000 enlisted, it was the Curtin Labor Government, formed in October 1941, that was largely responsible for "a complete revision of the whole Australian economic, domestic and industrial life ''. Rationing of fuel, clothing and some food was introduced, (although less severely than in Britain) Christmas holidays curtailed, "brown outs '' introduced and some public transport reduced. From December 1941, the Government evacuated all women and children from Darwin and northern Australia, and over 10,000 refugees arrived from South East Asia as Japan advanced. In January 1942, the Manpower Directorate was set up "to ensure the organisation of Australians in the best possible way to meet all defence requirements. '' Minister for War Organisation of Industry, John Dedman introduced a degree of austerity and government control previously unknown, to such an extent that he was nicknamed "the man who killed Father Christmas ''.
In May 1942 uniform tax laws were introduced in Australia, as state governments relinquished their control over income taxation, "The significance of this decision was greater than any other... made throughout the war, as it added extensive powers to the Federal Government and greatly reduced the financial autonomy of the states. ''
Manufacturing grew significantly because of the war. "In 1939 there were only three Australian firms producing machine tools, but by 1943 there were more than one hundred doing so. '' From having few front line aircraft in 1939, the RAAF had become the fourth largest allied Air force by 1945. A number of aircraft were built under licence in Australia before the war 's end, notably the Beaufort and Beaufighter, although the majority of aircraft were from Britain and later, the US. The Boomerang fighter, designed and built in four months of 1942, emphasised the desperate state Australia found itself in as the Japanese advanced.
Australia also created, virtually from nothing, a significant female workforce engaged in direct war production. Between 1939 and 1944 the number of women working in factories rose from 171,000 to 286,000. Dame Enid Lyons, widow of former Prime Minister Joseph Lyons, became the first woman elected to the House of Representatives in 1943, joining the Robert Menzies ' new centre - right Liberal Party of Australia, formed in 1945. At the same election, Dorothy Tangney became the first woman elected to the Senate.
Politically, Robert Menzies and the Liberal Party of Australia dominated much of the immediate post war era, defeating the Labor government of Ben Chifley in 1949, in part over a Labor proposal to nationalise banks and following a crippling coal strike led by the Australian Communist Party. Menzies became the country 's longest - serving Prime Minister and the Liberal party, in coalition with the rural based Country Party, won every federal election until 1972.
As in the United States in the early 1950s, allegations of communist influence in society saw tensions emerge in politics. Refugees from Soviet dominated Eastern Europe immigrated to Australia, while to Australia 's north, Mao Zedong 's Communist Party of China won the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and in June 1950, Communist North Korea invaded South Korea. The Menzies government responded to a United States led United Nations Security Council request for military aid for South Korea and diverted forces from occupied Japan to begin Australia 's involvement in the Korean War. After fighting to a bitter standstill, the UN and North Korea signed a ceasefire agreement in July 1953. Australian forces had participated in such major battles as Kapyong and Maryang San. 17,000 Australians had served and casualties amounted to more than 1,500, of whom 339 were killed.
During the course of the Korean War, the Liberal Government attempted to ban the Communist Party of Australia, first by legislation in 1950 and later by referendum, in 1951. While both attempts were unsuccessful, further international events such as the defection of minor Soviet Embassy official Vladimir Petrov, added to a sense of impending threat that politically favoured Menzies ' Liberal - CP government, as the Labor Party split over concerns about the influence of the Communist Party over the trade union movement. The tensions led to another bitter split and the emergence of the breakaway Democratic Labor Party (DLP). The DLP remained an influential political force, often holding the balance of power in the Senate, until 1974. Its preferences supported the Liberal and Country Party. The Labor party was led by H.V. Evatt after Chifley 's death in 1951. Evatt had served as President of the United Nations General Assembly during 1948 -- 49 and helped draft the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Evatt retired in 1960 amid signs of mental ill - health, and Arthur Calwell succeeded him as leader, with a young Gough Whitlam as his deputy.
Menzies presided over a period of sustained economic boom and the beginnings of sweeping social change -- with the arrivals of rock and roll music and television in the 1950s. In 1958, Australian country music singer Slim Dusty, who would become the musical embodiment of rural Australia, had Australia 's first international music chart hit with his bush ballad "Pub With No Beer '', while rock and roller Johnny O'Keefe 's "Wild One '' became the first local recording to reach the national charts, peaking at No. 20. Before sleeping through the 1960s Australian cinema produced little of its own content in the 1950s, but British and Hollywood studios produced a string of successful epics from Australian literature, featuring home grown stars Chips Rafferty and Peter Finch.
Menzies remained a staunch supporter of links to the monarchy and Commonwealth of Nations and formalised an alliance with the United States, but also launched post-war trade with Japan, beginning a growth of Australian exports of coal, iron ore and mineral resources that would steadily climb until Japan became Australia 's largest trading partner.
When Menzies retired in 1965, he was replaced as Liberal leader and Prime Minister by Harold Holt. Holt drowned while swimming at a surf beach in December 1967 and was replaced by John Gorton (1968 -- 1971) and then by William McMahon (1971 -- 1972).
Following World War II, the Chifley Labor government instigated a massive program of European immigration. In 1945, Minister for Immigration, Arthur Calwell wrote "If the experience of the Pacific War has taught us one thing, it surely is that seven million Australians can not hold three million square miles of this earth 's surface indefinitely. '' All political parties shared the view that the country must "populate or perish ''. Calwell stated a preference for ten British immigrants for each one from other countries; however, the numbers of British migrants fell short of what was expected, despite government assistance.
Migration brought large numbers of southern and central Europeans to Australia for the first time. A 1958 government leaflet assured readers that unskilled non-British migrants were needed for "labour on rugged projects... work which is not generally acceptable to Australians or British workers ''. The Australian economy stood in sharp contrast to war - ravaged Europe, and newly arrived migrants found employment in a booming manufacturing industry and government assisted programs such as the Snowy Mountains Scheme. This hydroelectricity and irrigation complex in south - east Australia consisted of sixteen major dams and seven power stations constructed between 1949 and 1974. It remains the largest engineering project undertaken in Australia. Necessitating the employment of 100,000 people from over 30 countries, to many it denotes the birth of multicultural Australia.
Some 4.2 million immigrants arrived between 1945 and 1985, about 40 per cent of whom came from Britain and Ireland. The 1957 novel They 're a Weird Mob was a popular account of an Italian migrating to Australia, although written by Australian - born author John O'Grady. The Australian population reached 10 million in 1959.
In May 1958, the Menzies Government passed the Migration Act 1958 which replaced the Immigration Restriction Act 's arbitrarily applied dictation test with an entry permit system, that reflected economic and skills criteria. Further changes in the 1960s effectively ended the White Australia Policy. It legally ended in 1973.
Australia enjoyed significant growth in prosperity in the 1950s and 1960s, with increases in both living standards and in leisure time. The manufacturing industry, previously playing a minor part in an economy dominated by primary production, greatly expanded. The first Holden motor car came out of General Motors - Holden 's Fisherman 's Bend factory in November 1948. Car ownership rapidly increased -- from 130 owners in every 1,000 in 1949 to 271 owners in every 1,000 by 1961. By the early 1960s, four competitors to Holden had set up Australian factories, employing between 80,000 and 100,000 workers, "at least four - fifths of them migrants ''.
In the 1960s, about 60 per cent of Australian manufacturing was protected by tariffs. Pressure from business interests and the union movement ensured these remained high. Historian Geoffrey Bolton suggests that this high tariff protection of the 1960s caused some industries to "lapse into lethargy '', neglecting research and development and the search for new markets. The CSIRO was expected to fulfil research and development.
Prices for wool and wheat remained high, with wool the mainstay of Australia 's exports. Sheep numbers grew from 113 million in 1950 to 171 million in 1965. Wool production increased from 518,000 to 819,000 tonnes in the same period. Wheat, wool and minerals ensured a healthy balance of trade between 1950 and 1966.
The great housing boom of the post war period saw rapid growth in the suburbs of the major Australian cities. By the 1966 census, only 14 per cent lived in rural Australia, down from 31 per cent in 1933, and only 8 per cent lived on farms. Virtual full employment meant high standards of living and dramatic increases in home ownership, and by the sixties, Australia had the most equitable spread of income in the world. By the beginning of the sixties, an Australia - wide McNair survey estimated that 94 % of homes had a fridge, 50 % a telephone, 55 % a television, 60 % a washing machine, and 73 % a vacuum cleaner. In addition, most households had now acquired a car. According to one study, "In 1946, there was one car for every 14 Australians; by 1960, it was one to 3.5. The vast majority of families had access to a car. ''
Car ownership flourished during the postwar period, with 1970 / 1971 census data estimating that 96.4 per cent of Australian households in the early Seventies owned at least one car. However, not all felt the rapid suburban growth was desirable. Distinguished Architect and designer Robin Boyd, a critic of Australia 's built surroundings, described Australia as "' the constant sponge lying in the Pacific ', following the fashions of overseas and lacking confidence in home - produced, original ideas ''. In 1956, dadaist comedian Barry Humphries performed the character of Edna Everage as a parody of a house - proud housewife of staid 1950s Melbourne suburbia (the character only later morphed into a critique of self - obsessed celebrity culture). It was the first of many of his satirical stage and screen creations based around quirky Australian characters: Sandy Stone, a morose elderly suburbanite, Barry McKenzie a naive Australian expat in London and Sir Les Patterson, a vulgar parody of a Whitlam - era politician.
Some writers defended suburban life, however. Journalist Craig Macgregor saw suburban life as a "... solution to the needs of migrants... '' Hugh Stretton argued that "plenty of dreary lives are indeed lived in the suburbs... but most of them might well be worse in other surroundings ''. Historian Peter Cuffley has recalled life for a child in a new outer suburb of Melbourne as having a kind of joyous excitement. "Our imaginations saved us from finding life too humdrum, as did the wild freedom of being able to roam far and wide in different kinds of (neighbouring) bushland... Children in the suburbs found space in backyards, streets and lanes, playgrounds and reserves... ''
In 1954, the Menzies Government formally announced the introduction of the new two - tiered TV system -- a government - funded service run by the ABC, and two commercial services in Sydney and Melbourne, with the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne being a major driving force behind the introduction of television to Australia. Colour TV began broadcasting in 1975.
In the early 1950s, the Menzies government saw Australia as part of a "triple alliance '' in concert with both the US and traditional ally Britain. At first, "the Australian leadership opted for a consistently pro-British line in diplomacy '', while at the same time looking for opportunities to involve the US in South East Asia. Thus, the government committed military forces to the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency and hosted British nuclear tests after 1952. Australia was also the only Commonwealth country to offer support to the British during the Suez Crisis.
Menzies oversaw an effusive welcome to Queen Elizabeth II on the first visit to Australia by a reigning monarch, in 1954. He made the following remarks during a light - hearted speech to an American audience in New York, while on his way to attend her coronation in 1953: "We in Australia, of course, are British, if I may say so, to the boot heels... but we stand together -- our people stand together -- till the crack of doom. ''
However, as British influence declined in South East Asia, the US alliance came to have greater significance for Australian leaders and the Australian economy. British investment in Australia remained significant until the late 1970s, but trade with Britain declined through the 1950s and 1960s. In the late 1950s the Australian Army began to re-equip using US military equipment. In 1962, the US established a naval communications station at North West Cape, the first of several built over the next decade. Most significantly, in 1962, Australian Army advisors were sent to help train South Vietnamese forces, in a developing conflict in which the British had no part.
According to diplomat Alan Renouf, the dominant theme in Australia 's foreign policy under Australia 's Liberal -- Country Party governments of the 1950s and 1960s was anti-communism. Another former diplomat, Gregory Clark, suggested that it was specifically a fear of China that drove Australian foreign policy decisions for twenty years. The ANZUS security treaty, which had been signed in 1951, had its origins in Australia 's and New Zealand 's fears of a rearmed Japan. Its obligations on the US, Australia and New Zealand are vague, but its influence on Australian foreign policy thinking, at times has been significant. The SEATO treaty, signed only three years later, clearly demonstrated Australia 's position as a US ally in the emerging Cold War.
As Britain struggled to enter the Common Market in the 1960s, Australia saw that its historic ties with the mother country were rapidly fraying. Canberra was alarmed but kept a low profile not wanting to alienate London. Queen Elizabeth II was one of the few remaining links; she tried to reassure all the members that the Commonwealth family was joining forces with the Europeans, and that the new links would not replace the old ties based on historical attachments, which were too sacred to break. Historian Ben Pimlott argues that she was mistaken, for joining Europe, "constituted the most decisive step yet in the progress of severance of familial ties between Britain and its former Empire... It reduced the remaining links to sentimental and cultural ones, and legal niceties. '' Inside Australia, the implications of British entry into Europe in 1973:
By 1965, Australia had increased the size of the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV), and in April the Government made a sudden announcement that "after close consultation with the United States '', a battalion of troops was to be sent to South Vietnam. In parliament, Menzies emphasised the argument that "our alliances made demands on us ''. The alliance involved was presumably, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), and Australia was providing military assistance because South Vietnam, a signatory to SEATO, had apparently requested it. Documents released in 1971 indicated that the decision to commit troops was made by Australia and the US, not at the request of South Vietnam. By 1968, there were three Australian Army battalions at any one time at the 1st Australian Task Force (1ATF) base at Nui Dat in addition to the advisors of the AATTV placed throughout Vietnam, and personnel reached a peak total of almost 8,000, comprising about one third of the Army 's combat capacity. Between 1962 and 1972 almost 60,000 personnel served in Vietnam, including ground troops, naval forces and air assets. The opposition Labor Party opposed military commitment to Vietnam and the national service required to support this level of commitment.
In July 1966, new Prime Minister Harold Holt expressed his government 's support for the US and its role in Vietnam in particular. "I do n't know where people would choose to look for the security of this country were it not for the friendship and strength of the United States. '' While on a visit in the same year to the US, Holt assured President Lyndon B. Johnson "... I hope there is corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend, a staunch friend, (Australia) that will be all the way with LBJ. ''
The Liberal - CP Government was returned with a massive majority in elections held in December 1966, fought over national security issues including Vietnam. Arthur Calwell, who had been leader of the Labor Party since 1960, retired in favour of his deputy Gough Whitlam a few months later.
Despite Holt 's sentiments and his government 's electoral success in 1966, the war became unpopular in Australia, as it did in the United States. The movements to end Australia 's involvement gathered strength after the Tet Offensive of early 1968 and compulsory national service (selected by ballot) became increasingly unpopular. In the 1969 elections, the government hung on despite a significant decline in popularity. Moratorium marches held across Australia in mid-1970 attracted large crowds - the Melbourne march of 100,000 being led by Labor MP Jim Cairns. As the Nixon administration proceeded with Vietnamization of the war and began the withdrawal of troops, so did the Australian Government. In November 1970 1st Australian Task Force was reduced to two battalions and in November 1971, 1ATF was withdrawn from Vietnam. The last military advisors of the AATTV were withdrawn by the Whitlam Labor Government in mid December 1972.
The Australian military presence in Vietnam had lasted 10 years, and in purely human cost, over 500 had been killed and more than 2,000 wounded. The war cost Australia $218 million between 1962 and 1972.
By the mid-1960s, a new nationalism was emerging. The National Trust of Australia began to be active in preserving Australia 's natural, cultural and historic heritage. Australian TV saw locally - made dramas and comedies appear, and programs such as Homicide developed strong local loyalty while Skippy the Bush Kangaroo became a global phenomenon. Liberal Prime Minister John Gorton, a battle scarred former fighter pilot who described himself as "Australian to the bootheels '', established the Australian Council for the Arts, the Australian Film Development Corporation and the National Film and Television Training School.
The iconic Sydney Opera House opened in 1973. In the same year, Patrick White became the first Australian to win a Nobel Prize for Literature. Australian History had begun to appear on school curricula by the 1970s. From the early 1970s, the Australian cinema began to produce the Australian New Wave of films based on uniquely Australian themes. The South Australian Film Corporation took the lead in supporting filmmaking, with successes including quintessential Australian films Sunday Too Far Away (1974), Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975), Breaker Morant (1980) and Gallipoli (1981). The national funding body, the Australian Film Commission, was established in 1975.
Significant changes also occurred to Australia 's censorship laws after the new Liberal Minister for Customs and Excise, Don Chipp, was appointed in 1969. In 1968, Barry Humphries and Nicholas Garland 's cartoon book featuring the larrikin character Barry McKenzie was banned. Only a few years later, the book had been made as a film, partly with the support of government funding. Barry McKenzie both celebrated and parodied Australian nationalism. Historian Richard White also argues that "while many of the plays, novels and films produced in the 1970s were intensely critical of aspects of Australian life, they were absorbed by the ' new nationalism ' and applauded for their Australianness. ''
In 1973, businessman Ken Myer commented; "we like to think we have a distinct style of our own. We have outgrown a lot of our inadequacies... There was a time when an interest in the arts threw doubts on one 's masculinity. '' In 1973, historian Geoffrey Serle, in his 1973 From Deserts the Prophets Come, argued that while Australia had finally arrived at "mature nationhood, '' until that time that the "most important study of Australia had been found in creative treatments '', rather than academic study at universities and schools.
The 1960s was a key decade for indigenous rights. In 1962, the Menzies Government 's Commonwealth Electoral Act provided that all Indigenous people should have the right to enrol and vote at federal elections (prior to this, indigenous people in Queensland, Western Australia and "wards of the state '' in the Northern Territory had been excluded from voting unless they were ex-servicemen). In 1965, Queensland became the last state to confer state voting rights on Aboriginal people.
A 1967 Referendum called by the Holt Government saw Australians vote by a 90 per cent majority to change the Australian constitution to include all Aborigines in the national census and allow the Federal parliament to legislate on their behalf. A Council for Aboriginal Affairs was established.
Indigenous Australians began to take up representation in Australian parliaments. In 1971, the Liberal Neville Bonner was appointed to the Senate, becoming the first Aborigine in Federal Parliament. Bonner remained in the Senate until 1983. Hyacinth Tungutalum of the Country Liberal Party in the Northern Territory and Eric Deeral of the National Party of Queensland, became the first Indigenous people elected to territory and state legislatures in 1974. In 1976, Sir Douglas Nicholls was appointed Governor of South Australia, becoming the first Aborigine to hold vice-regal office in Australia. No indigenous person was elected to the House of Representatives, until West Australian Liberal Ken Wyatt, in August 2010.
Various groups and individuals were active in the pursuit of indigenous rights from the 1960s. One of the earliest Aboriginal graduates from the University of Sydney, Charles Perkins, helped organise freedom rides into parts of Australia to expose discrimination and inequality. In 1966, the Gurindji people of Wave Hill station commenced the Gurindji strike in a quest for equal pay and recognition of land rights.
One of the first acts of the Whitlam Government was to establish a Royal Commission into land rights in the Northern Territory under Justice Woodward. Legislation based on its findings was passed into law by the Fraser Government in 1976, as the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976.
In 1992, the High Court of Australia handed down its decision in the Mabo Case, holding that the legal doctrine of terra nullius did not apply when Australia was settled, and therefore Indigenous native title survived reception of English law. That same year, Prime Minister Paul Keating said in his Redfern Park Speech that European settlers were responsible for the difficulties Australian Aboriginal communities continued to face: ' We committed the murders. We took the children from their mothers. We practised discrimination and exclusion. It was our ignorance and our prejudice '. In 1999 Parliament passed a Motion of Reconciliation drafted by Prime Minister John Howard and Aboriginal Senator Aden Ridgeway naming mistreatment of Indigenous Australians as the most "blemished chapter in our national history ''. In 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd issued a public apology to members of the Stolen Generations on behalf of the Australian Government.
Australia administered Papua New Guinea and Nauru for much of the 20th century. Papua and New Guinea adopted self - government in 1972 and on 15 September 1975, the Territory became the independent nation of Papua New Guinea. Australia had captured the island of Nauru from the German Empire in 1914. After Japanese occupation during World War II, it became a UN Trust Territory under Australia and remained so until achieving independence in 1968.
In 1974, the Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration granted women the full adult wage. However, resistance to women being employed in certain industries remained until well into the 1970s. Because of obstruction from elements of the Unions movement, it would take until 1975 for women to be admitted as drivers on Melbourne 's trams, and Sir Reginald Ansett refused to allow women to train as pilots as late as 1979.
Australia had led the world in bringing women 's suffrage rights during the late 19th century, and Edith Cowan was elected to the West Australian Legislative Assembly in 1921. Dame Enid Lyons, was the first woman to hold a Cabinet post in the 1949 ministry of Robert Menzies and finally, Rosemary Follett was elected Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory in 1989, becoming the first woman elected to lead a state or territory. By 2010, the people of Australia 's oldest city, Sydney had female leaders occupying every major political office above them, with Clover Moore as Lord Mayor, Kristina Keneally as Premier of New South Wales, Marie Bashir as Governor of New South Wales, Julia Gillard as Prime Minister, Quentin Bryce as Governor - General of Australia and Elizabeth II as Queen of Australia.
Elected in December 1972 after 23 years in opposition, Labor won office under Gough Whitlam, introducing a significant program of social change and reform and dramatically expanding the Federal budget. Within a few weeks the last military advisors in Vietnam were recalled, and national service ended. The People 's Republic of China was recognised (Whitlam had visited China while Opposition Leader in 1971) and the embassy in Taiwan closed. Over the next few years, university fees were abolished and a national health care scheme established. Significant changes were made to school funding.
The Whitlam government 's agenda endeared it to some Australians, but not all. Some of the state governments were openly hostile to it, and as it did not control the senate, much of its legislation was rejected or amended. The Queensland Country Party government of Joh Bjelke - Petersen had particularly bad relations with the Federal government. Even after it was re-elected at elections in May 1974, the Senate remained an obstacle to its political agenda. At the only joint sitting of parliament, in August 1974, six key pieces of legislation were passed.
In 1974, Whitlam selected John Kerr, a former member of the Labor Party and presiding Chief Justice of New South Wales to serve as Governor - General. The Whitlam Government was re-elected with a decreased majority in the lower house in the 1974 Election. In 1974 -- 75 the government thought about borrowing US $4 billion in foreign loans. Minister Rex Connor conducted secret discussions with a loan broker from Pakistan, and the Treasurer, Jim Cairns, misled parliament over the issue. Arguing the government was incompetent following the Loans Affair, the opposition Liberal - Country Party Coalition delayed passage of the government 's money bills in the Senate, until the government would promise a new election. Whitlam refused, Malcolm Fraser, leader of the Opposition insisted. The deadlock ended when the Whitlam government was dismissed by the Governor - General, John Kerr on 11 November 1975 and Fraser was installed as caretaker Prime Minister, pending an election. The "reserve powers '' granted to the Governor - General by the Australian Constitution, had allowed an elected government to be dismissed without warning by a representative of the Monarch.
At elections held in late 1975, Malcolm Fraser and the Coalition were elected in a landslide victory.
The Fraser Government won two subsequent elections. Fraser maintained some of the social reforms of the Whitlam era, while seeking increased fiscal restraint. His government included the first Aboriginal federal parliamentarian, Neville Bonner, and in 1976, Parliament passed the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976, which, while limited to the Northern Territory, affirmed "inalienable '' freehold title to some traditional lands. Fraser established the multicultural broadcaster SBS, welcomed Vietnamese boat people refugees, opposed minority white rule in Apartheid South Africa and Rhodesia and opposed Soviet expansionism. A significant program of economic reform however was not pursued and, by 1983, the Australian economy was in recession, amidst the effects of a severe drought. Fraser had promoted "states ' rights '' and his government refused to use Commonwealth powers to stop the construction of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania in 1982. A Liberal minister, Don Chipp had split off from the party to form a new social liberal party, the Australian Democrats in 1977 and the Franklin Dam proposal contributed to the emergence of an influential Environmental movement in Australia, with branches including the Australian Greens, a political party which later emerged from Tasmania to pursue environmentalism as well as left - wing social and economic policies.
Bob Hawke, a less polarising Labor leader than Whitlam, defeated Fraser at the 1983 Election. Hawke retained office until a 1991 Labor Party spill saw him replaced by Paul Keating.
The new government stopped the Franklin Dam project via the High Court of Australia. Hawke, together with treasurer Paul Keating broke with the Keynesian economics that had traditionally been favoured by the Labor party. Instead they sought a more efficient economy and undertook micro-economic and industrial relations reform designed to increase efficiency and competitiveness. Kelly concludes that, "In the 1980s both Labor and non-Labor underwent internal philosophical revolutions to support a new set of ideas -- faith in markets, deregulation, a reduced role for government, low protection and the creation of a new cooperative enterprise culture. ''
The Australian Bicentenary was celebrated in 1988 along with the opening of a new Parliament House in Canberra.
Hawke and Keating stressed the positive role Australia could play as an activist and independent "middle power ''. A supporter of the US alliance, Hawke committed Australian naval forces to the Gulf War, following the 1990 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq. After four successful elections, but amid a deteriorating Australian economy and rising unemployment, the intense rivalry between Hawke and Keating led the Labor Party to replace Hawke as leader and Paul Keating became Prime Minister in 1991.
During his time in office, Keating emphasised links to the Asia Pacific region, co-operating closely with the Indonesian President, Suharto, and campaigned to increase the role of APEC as a major forum for economic co-operation. Keating was active in indigenous affairs and the High Court of Australia 's historic Mabo decision in 1992 required a legislative response to recognition of Indigenous title to land, culminating in the Native Title Act 1993 and the Land Fund Act 1994. In 1993, Keating established a Republic Advisory Committee, to examine options for Australia becoming a republic.
The Monarchy in Australia survived the republic debate which was brought to a head at the close of the 20th century, with the successor Howard Government holding a 1998 Constitutional Convention to discuss the change. A subsequent referendum to establish a republic failed to achieve the required dual majorities, with the No case triumphant winning with 54.87 per cent of the popular vote and 6 -- 0 in the state count.
Hawke and Keating abandoned traditional Labor support for tariffs to protect industry and jobs. They moved to deregulate Australia 's financial system and ' floated ' the Australian dollar. After the initial failure of the Whitlam model and partial dismantling under Fraser, Hawke re-established a new, universal system of health insurance called Medicare.
Unemployment reached 11.4 per cent in 1992 -- the highest since the Great Depression in Australia. The Liberal - National Opposition had proposed an ambitious plan of economic reform to take to the 1993 Election, including the introduction of a Goods and Services Tax. Keating shuffled treasurers, campaigned strongly against the tax, and won the 1993 Election.
With foreign debt, interest rates and unemployment still high, and after a series of ministerial resignations, Keating lost the 1996 Election to the Liberals ' John Howard.
John Howard with a Liberal -- National Party coalition served as Prime Minister from 1996 until 2007, the second - longest prime ministerial term after Menzies. One of the first programs instigated by the Howard government was a nationwide gun control scheme following a mass shooting at Port Arthur. The government also introduced industrial relations reforms in 1996, and later in 2006 controversially introduced the WorkChoices legislation, which made it easier for small businesses to terminate employment. After the 1996 election, Howard and treasurer Peter Costello proposed a Goods and Services Tax (GST) which they successfully took to the electorate in 1998. In response to the High Court 's decision in Wik Peoples v Queensland, the Howard Government introduced legislation which, among other things, introduced a registration test for claimants, gave the government management rights over recognised native title, and imposed stricter time limits on claims.
In 1999, Australia led a United Nations force into East Timor to help establish democracy and independence for that nation, following political violence. During this period Australia committed to a number of other peacekeeping and stabilisation operations: notably in Bougainville, including Operation Bel Isi (1998 -- 2003); as well as Operation Helpem Fren and the Australian - led Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI) in the early 2000s; and the 2006 East Timorese crisis.
Australia hosted the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney to great international acclaim. The Opening Ceremony featured a host of iconic Australian imagery and history and the flame ceremony honoured women athletes, including swimmer Dawn Fraser, with Aboriginal runner Cathy Freeman lighting the Olympic flame.
In 2004, Howard led the response to the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami, with Australia raising the most money in the least amount of time to help Australia 's neighbour, Indonesia, and other countries in the Indo - Pacific Ocean.
In 2005, following the September 11 attacks, the 2002 Bali Bombings and the Benbrika Plot, the Government introduced new counter-terrorism laws which, among other things, allowed for preventative detention and control orders, prohibited incitement of terrorist acts, and prohibited reckless provision of funding to terrorists. Australia also committed troops to the Afghanistan War (with bi-partisan support) and the Iraq War (meeting with the disapproval of other political parties).
In 2007 following the release of the "Little Children are Sacred '' report detailing widespread abuse in Aboriginal communities, the Howard Government launched the Northern Territory Intervention to combat drugs and sexual abuse.
The Howard Government expanded immigration overall, but instituted often controversial tough immigration policies and laws to discourage people arriving by boat without authorisation. These policies included the Pacific Solution, which involved detaining asylum seekers in detention centres in Naru and Papua New Guinea while their refugee status was determined, as well as a policy of turning back vessels intercepted at sea. Two significant controversies involving asylum seekers were the Children Overboard affair and the Tampa Affair.
While Australia maintained traditional links to the Commonwealth and strong support for the United States alliance, trade with Asia during this period continued to increase dramatically, particularly with China. Australia enjoyed an extended period of economic growth and prosperity.
The Howard Government passed several tax cuts and embarked on a program of privatisation. The money gained from the sale of various government assets and corporations, such as Telstra, were put into a Sovereign Wealth Fund and used to reduce the national debt.
However, Howard was defeated in 2007 and the Labor Party 's Kevin Rudd defeated him and Rudd held the office until June 2010, when he was replaced as the leader of the party. Rudd used his term in office to symbolically ratify the Kyoto Protocol and led an historic parliamentary apology to the Stolen Generation (those Indigenous Australians who had been removed from their parents by the state during the early 20th century to the 1960s). The mandarin Chinese speaking former diplomat also pursued energetic foreign policy and initially sought to instigate a price on carbon, in the Australian economy to combat global warming but which he later reneged on. His prime ministership coincided with the initial phases of the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010, to which his government responded quickly through a large package of economic stimulus -- the management of which later proved to be controversial but effective in somewhat shielding Australia from the Great Recession but this was owed to a number of factors including the Mining Boom and Asia. The Rudd Government also finalised withdrawing troops from Iraq and focused much more on its relationship with Asia, the Government also tried to formalise an agreement to be made at the Copenhagen Climate Conference, but failed. The Government also embarked on a huge infrastructure project, which was to be fraught with trouble, the National Broadband Network (NBN), this project aims to lift average Australian internet speeds to be on par with the rest of the world, however the most major policy decision was the cancellation of the Howard Government 's Pacific Solution, but as Kevin Rudd cancelled the arrangement, the number of boat arrivals swelled and the death toll rose, so in response to this, the Gillard Government created multiple different solutions, including proposing Malaysian resettlement, but eventually settling on Nauru, Manus Island and East Timor as refugee resettlement options.
The Labor Party replaced Rudd with Julia Gillard in 2010 owing to Rudd 's unpopularity both among his frontbench and the public, so then Julia Gillard became the first woman prime minister in Australian history. Following the 2010 Election, Labor secured office in the first hung parliament since the 1940 election. The Gillard Government struggled on multiple policy fronts, trying to wrestle with a hung parliament. A scandal rocked the parliament: Speaker of the House Peter Slipper, who was a former Liberal Party member turned Labor ally, had sent sexually suggestive messages to a colleague. This resulted in his removal. Opposition to Gillard 's government following her misogyny speech intensified. Leadership rivalry continued and Kevin Rudd was reinstated as prime minister in a Labor leadership spill on 27 June 2013. At the 2013 Election, the Second Rudd Government lost office and the Liberal - National Abbott Government formed.
The Abbott Government came to office on a platform of "stopping the boats '' via Operation Sovereign Borders, increasing army presence in the Indian Ocean and resettling refugees in Cambodia or turning them back to Indonesia or even to their home countries. The government also concluded the Australia Korea Free Trade Agreement and the Japan -- Australia Economic Partnership Agreement. Abbott responded to multiple foreign policy issues, like the Downing of MH - 17, the hosting of the G20 in Brisbane, the trial of an Australian journalist in Egypt and fighting the execution of Australian nationals convicted of drug smuggling, however leadership tensions emerged again and he was ousted by Malcolm Turnbull, who formed the Turnbull Government.
According to Stuart McIntyre in his survey of the historiography of Australia, until the late 20th century historians of Australia used an Imperial framework, arguing that Australia emerged from a transfer of people, institutions, and culture from Britain. These historians painted a Whiggish narrative of successful growth into a modern nation, tracing the arrival of limited self - government, with regional parliaments and responsible ministers, followed by Federation in 1901 and eventually full national autonomy. According to McIntyre, that interpretation has been largely abandoned by recent scholars:
The first major history of Australia was William Charles Wentworth 's Statistical, Historical, and Political Description of the Colony of New South Wales, and Its Dependent Settlements in Van Diemen 's Land: With a Particular Enumeration of the Advantages Which These Colonies Offer for Emigration, and Their Superiority in Many Respects Over Those Possessed by the United States of America (1819). Wentworth details the disastrous effects the penal regime. Many other historians followed his path, with the six volume History of Australia by Manning Clark (published 1962 -- 87) telling the story of "epic tragedy '' in which "in which the explorers, Governors, improvers, and perturbators vainly endeavored to impose their received schemes of redemption on an alien, intractable setting ''.
With a handful of exceptions, there was little serious history of women in Australia before the 1970s. Women 's history as an academic discipline emerged in the mid-1970s, typified by Miriam Dixson 's The Real Matilda: Woman and Identity in Australia, 1788 to the Present (1976). The first studies were compensatory, filling in the vacuum where women had been left out. In common with developments in the United States and Britain, there was a movement toward gender studies, with a field dominated by feminists. Of recent importance are studies of the role of women on the homefront, and in military service, during world wars. See Australian women during World War I and Australian women in World War II.
Other important topics include the histories of families, demography, education, and childhood.
Since the 1980s a "history war '' has been fought in Australia by scholars and politicians. They angrily debate the concept of genocide in the treatment of Aboriginal populations. They debate how "British '' or "multicultural '' Australia has been historically, and how it should be today. The rhetoric has escalated into national politics, often tied to the question of whether the royalty should be discarded and Australia become a republic. There have been angry statements by those adhering to the older pro-British position. Interest in the study of Australian history has plunged, and some schools and universities have sharply cut it back.
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where is the next step filmed in canada | The Next Step (2013 TV series) - wikipedia
The Next Step is a Canadian teen drama television series created by Frank van Keeken, and produced by Temple Street Productions. Shot in a dramatic mockumentary style, the series focuses on a group of dancers who attend The Next Step Dance Studio. The studio had former regional, national and international titles but lost them all when their rival, Gemini Dance Studio won these prestigious dance competitions.
Family Channel premiered the series in 2013. Its premiere had the largest audience of any original series on the channel since its launch in 1988, with 574,500 P2+ AMA viewers, and over one million P2+ viewers. The series is filmed in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
In February 24, 2012, Family Channel announced that it had ordered 26 half - hour episodes (including S1 and S1. 5), and a four episode season finale. Special content was also going to be available, including The Next Step Interactive. Filming began July 12, 2012 in Toronto, Ontario.
On April 9, 2013, Family Channel announced that it had green lighted a second season of the show. Kevin Wright, the Senior Vice President of Briar and Brittany. Programming of Astral commented: "Family is an industry leader when it comes to making innovative programming that resonates with the tween audience. The Next Step is something different for Family and we recognize that we took a bit of a risk with the show. But we 're delighted that our viewers have embraced the show in a big way. The record - breaking viewership and incredible reaction demonstrate that the show 's appealing characters and relatable storylines really connect with our audience. We are thrilled to order a second season of this creative and highly entertaining series. ''
David Fortier and Ivan Schneeberg, the co-presidents of Temple Street Productions, also commented, saying: "The Next Step offers something viewers have been asking for in a tween series -- drama and dance with compelling characters and storylines. We are pleased to be able to produce more episodes of this unique series for Family Channel. ''
On June 17, 2013, Temple Street Productions announced that it had come up with a partnership with Segal Licensing. John Young, the Managing Director of "Tempal street Productions '' said, "The Next Step has proven to be a ratings hit in Canada and is soon to air in many territories internationally. We are delighted to be working with Segal, who are leaders in the licensing world, to expand The Next Step brand and allow us to bring a variety of new opportunities for fans to get more of this hit show. '' The second season of The Next Step started filming on July 24, 2013. <
On May 5, 2014, the series was renewed for a third season, which premiered on March 16, 2015. On April 16, 2015, it was announced that the series would return for a fourth season, which premiered on February 15, 2016. On March 21, 2016, Frank van Keeken announced on Instagram that The Next Step would return for a fifth season, which premiered on May 26, 2017. Due to the increasing popularity of the show, it has been renewed for a sixth season of 26 episodes which will premiere in 2018.
On January 8, 2014, BBC Worldwide licensed the series to several international broadcasters, including ABC3 in Australia, Hulu in the United States, and CBBC in the United Kingdom. To date, CBBC aired the first series from April 7, 2014, the second series from April 6, 2015, and the third series from August 24, 2015. The first half of the fourth series began on September 5, 2016 and the second half began on April 11, 2017. The fifth series started airing from August 22, 2017. Since September 30, 2017, new episodes air as part of the live Saturday morning show Saturday Mash - Up!.
In Canada, the show also airs on Vrak, in French, and AMI TV, in described video.
The Next Step Interactive is the website component to The Next Step. The website has an "About the Show '', "Dance Mashup '' and "Aftershow '' section.
The aftershow starts when the episode is finished. It is approximately 1 -- 3 minutes long as only a part of the aftershow is premiered after each episode. It is hosted by five members: Asha Bromfield, Lovell Adams - Gray, Luke Watters, Kelly McNamee, and Samantha "Sam '' Munro. The aftershow talks about The Next Step and breaks down some parts to help the viewer understand it better. It may also give the viewer different perspectives on the characters. The whole aftershow can be viewed on the Family Channel 's website.
In Seasons 2 and 3, the aftershow was overhauled. The new aftershow was about characters (e.g. Becoming Michelle) and in Season 3, Cast Cams were created. It was more of a behind - the - scenes aftershow rather than, as with Season 1, being about what happened in the show.
The About the Show section has information about the characters of the show, a schedule of shows, a gallery of shots and videos from the show and a store, with The Next Step related clothing. It also includes The Next Step soundtrack.
On September 27, 2013, Paul Cormack of Family Channel announced that The Next Step cast would go on a tour. Cormack announced:
"We are always looking for new and exciting ways to connect with our audience on a national level. The Next Step Hit The Floor Tour reaches viewers in their own communities, providing a one - of - a-kind, interactive experience that demonstrates Family Channel 's commitment to creating unique opportunities for its fans. ''
Not all of the cast members were the hosts of the tours. Only Victoria Baldesarra, Lamar Johnson, Isaac Lupien, Jennifer Pappas, Brittany Raymond and Trevor Tordjman were part of the tour.
Each event consisted of the cast performing in groups, a Q&A period where the audience asks questions, and a session to get freebies for attending the event. The first 200 people to attend the events were given a wristband, which would get them an autograph signed by the hosts.
Due to the attendance number in the past six malls, Family Channel announced that they had moved the event in the Kingsway Mall from inside to the parking lot.
The cast of The Next Step went on a third tour during 2016. The tour will visit Canada, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Australia, New Zealand, England and Ireland. It will be the first international tour by the cast.
Not all the cast are going on the tour. Only Victoria Baldesarra (Michelle), Trevor Tordjman (James), Jordan Clark (Giselle), Taveeta Szymanowicz (Thalia), Isaac Lupien (Eldon), Lamar Johnson (West), Myles Erlick (Noah) and Briar Nolet (Richelle). Newcomer Isaiah Peck, who will star as Henry in season 4, will also attend the tour. Taveeta Szymanowicz (Thalia) was only on the Canadian tour, Brittany Raymond (Riley) was on the European shows and she could not come to the shows in Australia and New Zealand because of a family problem.
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identify four problem affecting the mining industry in nigeria | Mining industry of Nigeria - wikipedia
The mining of minerals in Nigeria accounts for only 0.3 % of its GDP, due to the influence of its vast oil resources. The domestic mining industry is underdeveloped, leading to Nigeria having to import minerals that it could produce domestically, such as salt or iron ore. Rights to ownership of mineral resources is held by the Federal government of Nigeria, which grants titles to organizations to explore, mine, and sell mineral resources. Organized mining began in 1903 when the Mineral Survey of the Northern Protectorates was created by the British colonial government. A year later, the Mineral Survey of the Southern Protectorates was founded. By the 1940s, Nigeria was a major producer of tin, columbite, and coal. The discovery of oil in 1956 hurt the mineral extraction industries, as government and industry both began to focus on this new resource. The Nigerian Civil War in the late 1960s led many expatriate mining experts to leave the country. Mining regulation is handled by the Ministry of Solid Minerals Development, which oversees the management of all mineral resources. Mining law is codified in the Federal Minerals and Mining Act of 1999. Historically, Nigeria 's mining industry was monopolized by state - owned public corporations. This led to a decline in productivity in almost all mineral industries. The Obasanjo administration began a process of selling off government - owned corporations to private investors in 1999.
Mining is the extraction (removal) of minerals and metals from the earth. The Nigerian Coal Corporation (NCC) is a parastatal corporation that was formed in 1950 and held a monopoly on the mining, processing, and sales of coal, lignite, and coke products until 1999.
Coal was first discovered in Enugu in 1909, and the Ogbete Mine had opened and begun regularly extracting coal by 1916. By 1920, coal production had reached 180,122 long tons (183,012 t). Nigeria 's peak coal production was in the late 1950s, and by 1960 production was at 565,681 long tons (574,758 t). The Nigerian Civil War caused many mines to be abandoned. After the war ended in the early 1970s, coal production was never able to recover. Attempts to mechanize the industry in the 1970s and 1980s were ultimately unsuccessful, and actually hindered production due to problems with implementation and maintenance.
The Nigerian government is currently trying to privatize the Nigerian Coal Corporation and sell off its assets. While the domestic market for coal has been negatively affected by the move to diesel and gas - powered engines by organizations that were previously major coal consumers, the low - sulfur coal mined in Nigeria is desirable by international customers in Italy and the United Kingdom, who have imported Nigerian coal. Recent financial problems have caused a near shutdown of the NCC 's coal mining operations, and the corporation has responded by attempting to sell off some of its assets while it waits for the government to complete privatization activities.
In April 2008, Minister of Mines and Steel Sarafa Tunji Ishola announced that Nigeria was considering coal as an alternative power source as it attempts to reform its power sector, and encouraged Chinese investors to invest in the coal industry.
The Nigerian Mining Cadastre Office manages all the Nigerian mining licenses and mining rights. They are a subsiary of the Ministry of Mines and Steel Development of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Gold deposits are found in Northern Nigeria, most prominently near Maru, Anka, Malele, Tsohon Birnin Gwari - Kwaga, Gurmana, Bin Yauri, Okolom - Dogondaji, and Iperindo in Osun state it is not very dominant in the country.
Gold production began in 1913 and peaked in the 1930s. During the Second World War, production declined. Mines were abandoned by colonial companies, and production never recovered.
The Nigerian Mining Corporation (NMC) was formed in the early 1980s to explore for gold. Lack of funds, and the lure of easier profits from oil production led to its failure. There is no large scale gold mining operation in Nigeria today, though there is small - scale mining carried out by artists. The family of Aleye from Anka is one of the leading gold families in the region.
Columbite and Tantalite are ores used to produce the elements niobium and tantalum. Columbite and tantalite are collectively known as coltan in Africa. Tantalum is a valuable rare element used in electronics manufacturing. In Nigeria, pegmatite deposits of coltan are frequently also the source of several precious and semi-precious stones such as beryl, aquamarine, and tourmaline. These pegmatites are found in Nassarawa State near the Jos Plateau, as well as in several areas in southeast Nigeria. There is small - scale mining of these minerals. Wolframite (tungsten) can be found in the North states.
Bitumen was first discovered in 1900, with focused exploration beginning in 1905. Bitumen deposits are found in Lagos State, Ogun State, Ondo State, and Edo State. Conoco has performed a technical and economic evaluation of these deposits, and believes there to be over thirteen billion barrels of oil in these tar sands and bitumen seepages.
Nigeria has several deposits of iron ore, but the purest deposits are in and around Itakpe in Kogi State.
The National Iron Ore Mining Company was founded in 1979 and given the mission to explore, exploit, process, and supply iron ore concentrate to the Ajaokuta Steel Company (ASCL) in Ajaokuta and Delta Steel Company (DCL) in Aladja. Additional demand has come from several steel rolling mills. The company and its mining operations are based in Kogi State. Export of excess iron ore beyond what is required for domestic needs is currently being explored. Additionally, the Nigerian government has invested in foreign iron ore operations in Guinea. 3
The Nigeria Uranium Mining Company (NUMCO) was a parastatal organization that controlled the exploration and mining of uranium in Nigeria and was a public / private partnership with Total Compagnie Minière of France, which owned 40 % of the company. In 1989, Total pulled out of the partnership, and in 1993 the government reassigned NUMCO 's responsibilities to the Nigerian Geological Survey. The NUMCO corporation was dissolved in 1996, and the government is in the process of liquidating its remaining assets.
Recently, several important uranium deposits were discovered in Cross River State, Adamawa State, Taraba State, Plateau State, Bauchi State, and Kano State by the British Geological Survey.
Environmental officials with the government of Plateau State believe that 1,100 tin and columbite mines, abandoned after the mining boom of the 1960s, now pose serious health risks to as many as 2 million people living in the area. Radioactive mine tailings were reported to be a danger to local people living around mining fields in Jos, Barikin - Ladi, Bukur, Bassa and Riyom districts.
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who sings the theme song on baby daddy | Baby Daddy - Wikipedia
Baby Daddy is an American sitcom created by Dan Berendsen that premiered on June 20, 2012 on ABC Family (later Freeform). The series follows Ben, a man in his twenties, who gets the surprise of his life when a one - night stand leaves his baby at his doorstep. Ben decides to raise his little girl with the help of his brother, Danny, his two close friends, Riley and Tucker, and his sometimes - overbearing mother, Bonnie. Six seasons were produced in total, with the 100th, and final episode airing on May 22, 2017.
Ben Wheeler, a twenty - something bachelor, suddenly becomes a father when his baby daughter Emma is left at his doorstep. With the help of his overbearing mother Bonnie, his older brother Danny, and his two best friends Tucker and Riley, Ben works to turn his life around in order to provide for his daughter.
The series was given a green - light on February 2, 2012 and began production on March 28, 2012. On August 17, 2012, the series renewed for a second season, which premiered on May 29, 2013. On March 22, 2013, ABC Family announced that Baby Daddy was renewed for a third season, two months before the second season premiered. The third season premiered on January 15, 2014. Baby Daddy was renewed for a fourth season on March 17, 2014. It premiered on October 22, 2014, with the series ' first Halloween episode "Strip or Treat ''. On February 27, 2015, the series was renewed for a fifth season. It premiered on February 3, 2016. On June 27, 2016, Freeform renewed the show for a sixth season. It premiered on March 13, 2017.
On May 13, 2017, TVLine announced that the series would end at the conclusion of its sixth season.
The series premiered in the United States on June 20, 2012, on ABC Family.
In New Zealand, the show premiered on TVNZ 's TV2 beginning on December 14, 2013.
In Australia, the series airs on Fox8, with season 1 premiering 29 September 2013, with season 2 returning on 4 May 2014, and season 3 returning 24 August 2014.
In the United Kingdom, the series began airing on E4 on February 16, 2015. The second season started on March 2, 2015. Series 3 aired in April 2015. Series 4 aired in September 2015. Series 5 will premiere 5th September 2016.
In Israel, the series airs weeknights (two episodes each) since July 2016. In South Africa, the series aired on 5 September 2015.
In Italy, the series began airing on Joi Premium, pay channel on the DTT platform Mediaset Premium from 22 February 2013 to 22 March 2013. The second, third, fourth and fifth seasons were broadcast on the streaming platform Mediaset Infinity from 2015 to 2016. The sixth season were made entirely available on October 4, 2017 on the streaming platform Mediaset Infinity.
Baby Daddy received mixed reviews. On Metacritic, the first season of the show holds a 51 out of 100 Metascore based on 8 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds a 36 % approval rating based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 5.08 / 10. Audience score holds 84 % (Season 1), 86 % (Season 2), 90 % (Season 3), 93 % (Seasons 4 and 5), 100 % (Season 6).
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government ownership of property and resources in the united states is | Federal lands - wikipedia
Federal lands are lands in the United States owned by the federal government. Pursuant to the Property Clause of the United States Constitution (Article Four, section 3, clause 2), the Congress has the power to retain and sell foreign lands and to regulate federal lands, such as by limiting cattle grazing on them. These powers have been recognized in a long line of U.S. Supreme Court decisions.
The federal government owns about 640 million acres of land in the United States, about 28 % of the total land area of 2.27 billion acres. The majority of federal lands (610.1 million acres in 2015) are administered by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), National Park Service (NPS), or U.S. Forest Service (FS). BLM, FWS, and NPS are part of the U.S. Department of the Interior, while the Forest Service is part of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. An additional 11.4 million acres of land (about 2 % of all federal land) is owned by the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD). The majority of federal lands are located in Alaska and the Western states.
The United States Supreme Court has upheld the broad powers of the federal government to deal with federal lands, for example having unanimously held in Kleppe v. New Mexico that "the complete power that Congress has over federal lands under this clause necessarily includes the power to regulate and protect wildlife living there, state law notwithstanding. ''
Lands held by the United States in trust for Native American tribes are generally not considered public lands. There are some 55 million acres of land held in trust by the federal government for Indian tribes and almost 11 million acres of land held in trust by the federal government for individual Natives. Although the United States holds legal title to these lands, the tribe or individual holds beneficial title (the right to use and benefit from the property). As a result, Indian Country is "quasi-private, not public, land. '' Nevertheless, "because the United States is a legal title holder, the federal government is a necessary part in all leases and dispositions of resources including trust land. For example, the secretary of the interior must approve any contract for payment or grant by an Indian tribe for services for the tribe ' relative to their lands ' (25 U.S.C. § 81). ''
The four primary federal land holders are:
The fifth largest federal landowner is the U.S. Department of Defense, which owns, leases, or possessed 26.1 million worldwide, of which 11.4 million acres are located in the United States. DOD land is mostly military bases and reservations. The largest single DOD - owned tract is the 2.3 - million - acre White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico.
Together, the BLM, FWS, NPS, Forest Service, and DOD manage 97 % of federal land. Federal agencies that control smaller amounts of land include the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the Bureau of Reclamation, the United States Postal Service, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the U.S. Department of Energy.
Federal land is concentrated in Alaska and the Western United States. Nationwide, the federal government owns 27.4 % of all land area. There are significant variations regionally; the federal government owns 61.3 % of the land area in Alaska, 46.4 % of the land area in the 11 contiguous Western states; and 4.2 % of the land area of other stares. The state with the highest percentage of land held by the federal government is Nevada (79.6 %); the states with the lowest percentage of land held by the federal government are Connecticut and Iowa (0.3 %).
From 1990 to 2015, federal acreage declined by about 3.9 % due to a decline in land held by DOD and BLM.
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who plays jane the virgin as a child | Jane the Virgin - wikipedia
Jane the Virgin is an American satirical romantic comedy drama developed by Jennie Snyder Urman, that debuted on The CW on October 13, 2014. It is a loose adaptation of the Venezuelan telenovela Juana la Virgen created by Perla Farías. The series stars Gina Rodriguez as Jane Villanueva, a working, religious young Latina virgin, who becomes pregnant after accidentally being artificially inseminated. The program parodies commonly used tropes and devices in Latin telenovelas.
At the 72nd Golden Globe Awards, Jane the Virgin was nominated for the award for Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy, received the Peabody Award, and Gina Rodriguez won the award for Best Actress -- Television Series, Musical or Comedy. It was also named a TV Program of the Year by the American Film Institute.
Beginning with the fourth episode of season three, the series ' on - screen title card was modified, with "The Virgin '' crossed out in favor of a substitute each episode. This mirrored the storyline, in which Jane is no longer a virgin.
On April 2, 2018, The CW renewed the series for a fifth and final season.
Set in Miami, the series details the surprising and unforeseen events that take place in the life of Jane Gloriana Villanueva, a hard - working, religious young Venezuelan American woman whose family tradition and a vow to save her virginity until her marriage to her detective boyfriend are complicated when a doctor mistakenly artificially inseminates her during a checkup. To make matters worse, the biological donor is a married man, a former playboy and cancer survivor who is not only the new owner of the hotel where Jane works, but was also her former teenage crush. In addition to adjusting to pregnancy and then motherhood, in the initial episodes Jane is faced with questions about her professional future and the daunting prospect of choosing between the father of her baby or her boyfriend. As the series evolves, in predictably unpredictable telenovela fashion, the issues shift as her child grows into a toddler, her writing career moves forward, and her family members likewise develop independent plotlines.
On June 27, 2013, American television network The CW announced that it was planning to release a new show based on the Venezuelan soap opera Juana La Virgen. On February 23, 2014, Entertainment Weekly announced that Rodriguez would play the title role of Jane Villanueva. On May 8, 2014, during The CW 's 2014 -- 2015 upfronts, the series was officially picked up. On July 18, 2014, an extended trailer was released by The CW. On August 8, 2014, it was announced that White Collar 's Bridget Regan and Azie Tesfai would join the series as respectively Rose, a former lawyer, and Detective Nadine Hansan, a police detective and rival to Dier 's character. On August 10, 2014, TVLine announced that Melrose Place and Emily Owens, M.D. actor Michael Rady would join the series as Lachlan. Filming for season one commenced on July 28, 2014. The show is filmed on soundstages in Los Angeles and the pilot was filmed in Huntington Beach, California. On October 21, 2014, the show was given a full season order. On January 11, 2015, the show was renewed for a second season, set to air during the 2015 -- 16 television season. Its second season premiered on October 12, 2015. On March 11, 2016, the show was renewed for a third season, which premiered on October 17, 2016. On January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a fourth season that premiered on October 13, 2017.
Jane the Virgin premiered on The CW on October 13, 2014, during the 2014 -- 15 television season. Unique to the CW, it is the network 's only program to feature a Spanish language audio track on the second audio program channel; however, as many CW stations usually do not carry the SAP channel due to a lack of need, this is more limited than the major networks, which are required by the FCC to have a SAP channel for the Descriptive Video Service track, which as a minor network the CW is not required to carry.
The show premiered in Canada on Global TV and in Australia on Fox8 on December 1, 2014. The first two seasons aired in the United Kingdom on E4., with the first - run episodes on UK Netflix from season 3 onwards. Sony Channel broadcast the series throughout Southeast Asia as replacements of Sony Entertainment Television in the region (including BeTV in the Philippines). In Canada, new episodes are added each week to the streaming service Shomi, in addition to cable carriage by some providers of American CW affiliates (Chicago 's WGN - TV, available as a superstation in Canada, carried the series ' first two seasons until it ended its CW affiliation before the 2016 - 17 television season). The show premiered in New Zealand on July 24 on Prime.
In the Philippines, Jane the Virgin premiered on ABS - CBN on March 28, 2016, dubbed in Filipino. The show replaced the local drama series You 're My Home on a late - night timeslot, as part of the Primetime BIDA evening block. Days before the premiere, a teaser showing Gina Rodriguez promoting the show was also released. ABS - CBN only aired the first two seasons, locally editing and splitting the episodes into half - hour segments similar to the network 's teleserye and anime programs. For a total of 74 modified episodes, the season - two finale aired on July 8, 2016.
Jane the Virgin has received praise for its writing and Rodriguez 's performance. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the first season of the show a "certified fresh '' rating of 100 % based on 50 reviews, with a rating average of 7.7 out of 10. The site 's consensus states, "Jane the Virgin 's dubious premise has become part of its unlikely charm -- along with delightfully diverse writing and a knockout performance by Gina Rodriguez. '' Metacritic, another review aggregator, gives the show a score of 80 out of 100, based on 23 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The second season also received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, the season holds a 87 out of 100, based on four reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Rotten Tomatoes gave it a rating of 100 % based on 11 reviews and a rating average of 9.7 out of 10. The site 's consensus reads, "Jane the Virgin stays true to its over-the - top telenovela roots in season two while layering in more humor and increasingly complex storytelling. '' Maureen Ryan of Variety praised the show, saying that the series "is envisioned, edited and curated with great deftness and economy, and the fact that it is so entertaining and accessible should not preclude it from being at the center of conversations about the best the medium has to offer. ''
The show has been acknowledged by the People 's Choice Awards, Golden Globe Awards, Critics ' Choice Awards, the Primetime Emmy Awards, the Image Awards and the Television Critics Association as well as honored by the American Film Institute and the George Foster Peabody Awards.
Warner Home Entertainment originally released Season 1 on DVD, but poor sales caused a switch in distribution rights with CBS now releasing every season of Jane the Virgin as manufacture - on - demand Blu - ray and DVDs exclusively on Amazon going forward in addition to a manufacture - on - demand reissue of Season 1.
A tie - in novel, based on the book Jane writes in the show, has been published. The story is a historical romance set in Miami during 1902. In the series, the book 's plot is inspired by the love story of Jane and Michael.
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what year did they put black boxes in cars | Event data Recorder - wikipedia
An event data recorder or EDR, sometimes referred to informally as an automotive "black box '' (by analogy with the common nickname for flight recorders), is a device installed in some automobiles to record information related to vehicle crashes or accidents. In the USA EDRs must meet federal standards, as described within the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations.
In modern diesel trucks, EDRs are triggered by electronically sensed problems in the engine (often called faults), or a sudden change in wheel speed. One or more of these conditions may occur because of an accident. Information from these devices can be collected after a crash and analyzed to help determine what the vehicles were doing before, during and after the crash or event. The term generally refers to a simple, tamper - proof, read - write memory device.
Some EDRs continuously record data, overwriting the previous few minutes until a crash stops them, and others are activated by crash - like events (such as sudden changes in velocity) and may continue to record until the accident is over, or until the recording time is expired. EDRs may record a wide range of data elements, potentially including whether the brakes were applied, the speed at the time of impact, the steering angle, and whether seat belt circuits were shown as "Buckled '' or "Unbuckled '' at the time of the crash. Current EDRs store the information internally on an EEPROM until recovered from the module. Some vehicles have communications systems (such as GM 's OnStar system) that may transmit some data, such as an alert that the airbags have been deployed, to a remote location.
Most EDRs in automobiles and light trucks are part of the restraint system control module, which senses impact accelerations and determines what restraints (airbags and / or seatbelt tensioners) to deploy. After the deployment (or non-deployment) decisions are made, and if there is still power available, the data are written to memory. The data downloaded from older EDRs usually contain 6 to 8 pages of information, though many newer systems include many more data elements and require more pages, depending on the make / model / year of the vehicle being evaluated. Depending on the type of EDR, it may contain either a deployment file or a non-deployment file or sometimes both, depending on the circumstances of the collisions and the time interval between them, among other things.
It is also possible that no data can be recovered from a data recorder. One situation where this might occur is a catastrophic loss of electrical power early in a collision event. In this situation, the power reserve in the restraint system control module capacitors may be completely spent by the deployment of the air bags, leaving insufficient power to write data to the EEPROM. There are other circumstances where a module may fail to record a data file as well.
Most EDRs in heavy trucks are part of the engine electronic control module (ECM), which controls fuel injection timing and other functions in modern heavy - duty diesel engines. The EDR functions are different for different engine manufacturers, but most recognize engine events such as sudden stops, low oil pressure, or coolant loss. Detroit Diesel, Caterpillar Inc., Mercedes - Benz, Mack Trucks, and Cummins engines are among those that may contain this function. When a fault - related event occurs, the data is written to memory. When an event triggered by a reduction in wheel speed is sensed, the data that is written to memory can include almost two minutes of data about vehicle speed, brake application, clutch application, and cruise control status. The data can be downloaded later using the computer software and cables for the specific engine involved. These software tools often allow monitoring of the driver hours of service, fuel economy, idle time, average travel speeds, and other information related to the maintenance and operation of the vehicle.
Some EDRs only keep track of the car 's speed along its length and not the speed going sideways. Analysts generally look at the momentum, energy, and crush damage, and then compare their speed estimates to the number coming out of the EDR to create a complete view of the accident.
There are many different patents related to various types of EDR features.
The Eaton Vehicle Onboard Radar (VORAD) Collision Warning System is used by many commercial trucking firms to aid drivers and improve safety. The system includes forward and side radar sensors to detect the presence, proximity and movements of vehicles around the truck and then alert the truck driver. When sensors determine that the truck is closing on a vehicle ahead too quickly or that a nearby vehicle is potentially hazardous, the VORAD system gives the driver both a visual and audible warning. The VORAD system also monitors various parameters of the truck including vehicle speed and turn rate plus the status of vehicle systems and controls. The monitored data is captured and recorded by the VORAD system. This monitored data can be extracted and analyzed in the event of an accident. The recorded data can be used by accident investigators and forensic engineers to show the movement and speed of the host vehicle plus the position and speeds of other vehicles prior to the incident. In accident reconstruction, the VORAD system is a step above the EDR systems in that VORAD monitors other vehicles relative to the host vehicle, while EDR 's only record data about the host vehicle.
Event data recorders were introduced to American open - wheel championship CART in the 1993 season, and the Formula One World Championship in 1997. This allowed to study crashes that allow to develop new car rules and track safety measures that reduce damages.
Usage of the device in road vehicles once varied widely from manufacturer to manufacturer, but EDRs are now mandated in all new vehicles. As of 2003, there were at least 40 million vehicles equipped with the devices. In the UK many police and emergency service vehicles are fitted with a more accurate and detailed version that is produced by one of several independent companies. Both the Metropolitan police and the City of London police are long - term users of EDRs and have used the data recovered after an incident to convict both police officers and members of the public.
Downloading an airbag module in most vehicles is best accomplished by connecting the appropriate scanning tool to the Diagnostic Link Connector (DLC) usually found under the vehicle 's dashboard near the driver 's knees. Alternately, some modules can be downloaded "on the bench '' after removal from the vehicle.
Over 88 % of model year 2016 and newer vehicles are supported by the Bosch CDR tool, enabling the retrieval of Event Data Recorder (EDR) data from a vehicle that has been involved in a crash. This tool is made up of hardware and software which provides the ability to "image '', "download '', or "retrieve '' EDR data that may be stored in the control modules of passenger cars, light trucks and SUVs. The software component is a single, standalone program designed to run in a Windows environment. The hardware part of the Tool is a collection of components including cables and adapters which, with proper training and minimal difficulty, are used to "retrieve '' data from supported vehicles.
Another 11 % of model year 2016 and newer vehicles are supported by other EDR tools. The limited need to cover less commonly supported vehicles may make the initial investment in software and equipment unnecessary for many in the accident reconstruction or related industries.
From 1998 to 2001, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) sponsored a working group specifically tasked with the study of EDRs. After years of evaluation, NHTSA released a formal Notice of Proposed Rulemaking in 2004. This notice declared NHTSA 's intent to standardize EDRs. It was not until August 2006 that NHTSA released its final ruling (49 CFR Part 563). The ruling was lengthy (207 pages), consisting of not only definitions and mandatory EDR standards, but also acted as a formal reply to the dozens of petitions received by NHTSA after the 2004 notice.
Since there was already an overwhelming trend for voluntary EDR installation, the ruling did not require manufacturers to install EDRs in vehicles produced for North America. Based on its analysis, NHTSA estimated that by 2010, over 85 % of vehicles would already have EDRs installed in them, but warned that if the trend did not continue, the agency would revisit their decision and possibly make installation a requirement.
The mandate did, however, provide a minimum standard for the type of data that EDRs would be required to record: at least 15 types of crash data. Some of the required crash data include pre-crash speed, engine throttle, brake use, measured changes in forward velocity (Delta - V), driver safety belt use, airbag warning lamp status and airbag deployment times.
In addition to the required data, NHTSA also set standards for 30 other types of data if EDRs were voluntarily configured to record them. For example, if a manufacturer configured an EDR to record engine RPMs or ABS activity, then the EDR would have to record 5 seconds of those pre-crash data in half - second increments.
Besides the requirement that all data be able to survive a 30 MPH barrier crash and be measured with defined precision, NHTSA also required that all manufacturers make their EDR data publicly available. As of October 2009, only General Motors, Ford and Daimler Chrysler had released their EDR data to be publicly read. In the August 2006 ruling, NHTSA set a time table for all vehicle manufacturers to be in compliance with the new EDR standards. The compliance date was originally set for all vehicles manufactured after September 1, 2010. NHTSA has since updated its ruling (49 CFR Part 563 Update) to give vehicle manufacturers until September 1, 2014 to be in compliance with the original ruling.
Despite alerts and warnings in their vehicle owner 's manual, many drivers are not aware of their vehicle 's recording capability. Civil liberty and privacy groups have raised concerns about the implications of data recorders ' spying ' on car users, particularly as the issue of ' who owns the data ' has not yet been fully resolved, and there has been some controversy over the use of recorded data as evidence in court cases and for insurance claims against the driver of a crashed vehicle. But the use of EDR data in civil and criminal court cases is on the rise as they become more accepted as a source of reliable empirical evidence in accident reconstruction.
Fourteen states have statutes specific to EDRs. Generally, these state statutes restrict access to the EDR or limit the use of recovered EDR information.
There have been a number of trial cases in the US and Canada involving EDRs. Drivers have been convicted and exonerated as a result of EDR evidence.
Examples include:
Although EDR evidence can be valuable in the litigation of traffic - related accidents and incidents, the primary purpose of an EDR is to improve driver safety and not to provide data for accident reconstruction, and courts should consider the limitations of EDR data in determining the cause of traffic accidents.
On 12 April 2007, N.J. Governor Jon Corzine was seriously injured in an automobile accident. According to the superintendent of state police, an Event Data Recorder in the SUV he was traveling in recorded he was traveling at about 91 MPH five seconds before the crash. The speed limit on the road is 65 MPH. The Governor was not the driver of the vehicle.
On November 2, 2011, Mass. Lt. Governor Tim Murray crashed a government - owned vehicle on a stretch of Interstate 190. Initially, police investigating did not issue any citations.
Murray initially claimed he simply lost control on the ice, was n't speeding, was wearing a seat belt and braked. But those claims were all later disproven when the Crown Victoria black box data recorder information was released. The data revealed the car was traveling 108 miles per hour, accelerated, and the Lt. Governor was not wearing a seat belt at the time the vehicle collided with a rock ledge and flipped over. Murray was unhurt in the accident.
A Video Event Data Recorder (VEDR) is a device that records video in a vehicle to create a record of accidents and for evaluating driver and vehicle performance.
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where does the greyhound bus leave from in new york city | Greyhound Lines - wikipedia
Greyhound Lines, Inc., usually shortened to Greyhound, is an intercity bus common carrier serving over 3,800 destinations across North America. The company 's first route began in Hibbing, Minnesota in 1914, and the company adopted the Greyhound name in 1929. Since October 2007, Greyhound has been a subsidiary of British transportation company FirstGroup, but continues to be based in Dallas, Texas, where it has been headquartered since 1987. Greyhound and sister companies in FirstGroup America are the largest motorcoach operators in the United States and Canada.
Carl Eric Wickman was born in Sweden in 1887. In 1905, he moved to the United States where he was working in a mine as a drill operator in Alice, Minnesota, until he was laid off in 1914. In the same year, he became a Hupmobile salesman in Hibbing, Minnesota. He proved unable to sell the car. In 1914, using his remaining vehicle, a 7 - passenger car, he began a bus service with Andy (Bus Andy) Anderson and C.A.A. (Arvid) Heed, by transporting iron ore miners from Hibbing to Alice (known for its saloons) at 15 cents a ride.
In 1915, Wickman joined forces with Ralph Bogan, who was running a similar service from Hibbing to Duluth, Minnesota. The name of the new organization was the Mesaba Transportation Company, and it made $8,000 in profit in its first year.
By the end of World War I in 1918, Wickman owned 18 buses and was making an annual profit of $40,000. In 1922, Wickman joined forces with Orville Caesar, the owner of the Superior White Bus Lines. Four years later, Wickman purchased two West Coast operations, the Pioneer Yelloway System (the operator of the nation 's first transcontinental bus) and the Pickwick Lines, creating a national intercity bus company.
The Greyhound name had its origins in the inaugural run of a route from Superior, Wisconsin to Wausau, Wisconsin. While passing through a small town, Ed Stone, the route 's operator, saw the reflection of his 1920s era bus in a store window. The reflection reminded him of a greyhound dog, and he adopted that name for that segment of the Blue Goose Lines. The Greyhound name became popular and later applied to the entire bus network. Stone later became General Sales Manager of Yellow Truck and Coach, a division of General Motors (GM), which built Greyhound buses. Wickman, as the president of the company, continued to expand it so that by 1927, his buses were making transcontinental trips from California to New York. In 1928, Greyhound had a gross annual income of $6 million.
In 1929, Greyhound acquired additional interests in Southland Transportation Company, the Gray Line, and part of the Colonial Motor Coach Company to form Eastern Greyhound Lines. Greyhound also acquired an interest in Northland Transportation Company, and renamed it Northland Greyhound Lines.
By 1930, more than 100 bus lines had been consolidated into what was called the "Motor Transit Company ''. Recognizing the need for a more memorable name, the partners of the Motor Transit Company decided to rename it after the "Greyhound '' marketing phrase used by earlier bus lines.
Wickman 's business suffered during the Great Depression, and by 1931 was over $1 million in debt. As the 1930s progressed and the economy improved, the Greyhound Corporation began to prosper again. In 1934, intercity bus lines (of which Greyhound was the largest) carried approximately 400,000,000 passengers -- nearly as many passengers as the Class I railroads. The film It Happened One Night (1934) centered on an heiress (Claudette Colbert) traveling by Greyhound bus with a reporter (Clark Gable). The movie is credited by the company for spurring bus travel nationwide. In 1935, national intercity bus ridership climbed 50 % to 651,999,000 passengers, surpassing the volume of passengers carried by the Class I railroads for the first time. In 1935 Wickman was able to announce record profits of $8 million. In 1936, already the largest bus carrier in the United States, Greyhound began taking delivery of 306 new buses.
To accommodate the rapid growth in bus travel, Greyhound also built many new stations in the period between 1937 and 1945. To unify its brand image, it procured both buses and bus stations in the late Art Deco style known as Streamline Moderne. starting in 1937.
For terminals, Greyhound retained such architects as W.S. Arrasmith and George D. Brown. Notable examples of Streamline Moderne stations have been preserved in Blytheville, Arkansas, Cleveland, Ohio, Columbia, South Carolina, and Washington, D.C.
For new streamlined buses, Greyhound worked with the Yellow Coach Manufacturing Company for its Series 700 buses, first for Series 719 prototypes in 1934, and from 1937 as the exclusive customer for Yellow 's Series 743 bus, which Greyhound named the "Super Coach '' and bought a total of 1,256 between 1937 and 1939.
By the outbreak of World War II, the company had 4,750 stations and nearly 10,000 employees.
Wickman retired as president of the Greyhound Corporation in 1946, being replaced by his long - time partner Orville S. Caesar. Wickman died at the age of 66 in 1954.
Greyhound commissioned noted industrial designer Raymond Loewy and General Motors to design several distinctive buses in the 1930s through 1950s. Loewy 's first was the GM PD - 3751, the Greyhound Silversides produced in 1940 - 1941. 1954 saw the debut of the first of Greyhound 's distinctive hump - backed buses. In 1944 Loewy had produced drawings for the GM GX - 1, a full double - decker parlor bus with the first prototype built in 1953. The Scenicruiser was designed Loewy and built by General Motors as model PD - 4501. The bus ' front was distinctly lower than its rear section.
After World War II, and the building of the Interstate Highway System beginning in 1956, automobile ownership and travel became a preferred mode of travel in the United States. This, combined with the increasing affordability of air travel, spelled trouble for Greyhound and other intercity bus carriers.
In October 1953, Greyhound announced the acquisition of the Tennessee Coach Company 's entire operation, and the negotiations for the Blue Ridge Lines, and its affiliate White Star Lines, that operated between Cleveland and the Mid Atlantic Seaboard.
In 1955, the Interstate Commerce Commission ruled in the case of Keys v. Carolina Coach Co. that U.S. interstate bus operations, such as Greyhound 's, could not be segregated by race. In 1960, in the case of Boynton v. Virginia, the U.S. Supreme Court found that an African American had been wrongly convicted of trespassing in a "whites only '' terminal area. In May 1961, civil rights activists organized interracial Freedom Rides as proof of the desegregation rulings. On May 14, a mob attacked a pair of buses (a Greyhound and a Trailways) traveling from Washington, D.C., to New Orleans, Louisiana, and slashed the Greyhound bus 's tires. Several miles outside of Anniston, Alabama, the mob forced the Greyhound bus to stop, broke its windows, and firebombed it. The mob held the bus ' doors shut, intending to burn the riders to death. Sources disagree, but either an exploding fuel tank or an undercover state investigator brandishing a revolver caused the mob to retreat. When the riders escaped the bus, the mob beat them, while warning shots fired into the air by highway patrolmen prevented them from being lynched. Additional Freedom Riders were beaten by a mob at the Greyhound Station in Montgomery Alabama.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 's Title II and Title III broadened protections beyond federally regulated carriers such as Greyhound, to include non-discrimination in hotels, restaurants, and other public accommodations, as well as state and local government buildings.
Later in the 1960s, Greyhound leadership saw a trend of declining ridership and began significant changes, including using the profitable bus operations to invest in other industries. By the 1970s, Greyhound had moved its headquarters to Phoenix, Arizona and was a large and diversified company, with holdings in everything from the Armour meat - packing company (which in turn owned the popular Dial deodorant soap brand), acquired in 1970; Traveller 's Express money orders, MCI and TMC bus manufacturing companies, and even airliner leasing. Indeed, Greyhound had entered a time of great change, even beginning to hire African American and female drivers in the late seventies.
In 1972, Greyhound introduced the special unlimited mileage "Ameripass. '' The pass was initially marketed as offering "99 days for $99 '' (equal to $579.19 today) or, in other words, transportation to anywhere at any time, for a dollar a day. For decades it was a popular choice for tourists on a budget who wanted to wander across the cities and towns of America. Over time Greyhound raised the price of the pass, shortened its validity period and rebranded it as the Discovery Pass, before finally discontinuing it in 2012.
Greyhound acquired Premier Cruise Line in 1984. Between 1985 and 1993, Premier operated as the "Official Cruise Line of Walt Disney World '' with onboard Disney characters.
In 1983, Greyhound operated a fleet of 3,800 buses and carried about 60 percent of the United States ' intercity bus - travel market. Starting November 2, 1983, Greyhound suffered a major and bitter drivers ' strike with one fatality in Zanesville, Ohio, when a company bus ran over a worker at a picket line. A new contract was ratified December 19, and drivers returned to work the next day.
By the time contract negotiations with the Amalgamated Transit Union (ATU) were due again at the end of 1986, the bus line was in the process of being sold to Dallas - based investors. By early 1987, Greyhound Lines had returned to being a stand - alone bus transportation company. Under CEO Fred Currey, a former executive of rival Continental Trailways, Greyhound 's corporate headquarters relocated to Dallas, Texas.
In February 1987, Greyhound Lines ' new ownership and the ATU agreed on a new, 3 - year contract. In June 1987, Greyhound Lines acquired Trailways, Inc. (formerly Continental Trailways), the largest member of the rival National Trailways Bus System, effectively consolidating into a national bus service. Greyhound was required by the ICC, in their action approving the merger, to maintain coordinated schedules with other scheduled service operators in the U.S.
Between 1987 and 1990, Greyhound Lines ' former parent continued to be called Greyhound Corp., confusing passengers and investors alike. Greyhound Corp. retained both Premier Cruise Lines, and ten Greyhound - brand non-bus subsidiaries, such as Greyhound Leisure Services, Inc. (an operator of airport and cruise ship duty - free shops), and Greyhound Exhibits. In March 1990, the former conglomerate parent changed its name to Greyhound Dial. Because Greyhound Dial 's switchboard continued to get questions from misdirected bus passengers, it ultimately changed its name to Dial Corporation in March 1991, to eliminate any association with bus travel.
In early 1990, the drivers ' contract from 1987 expired at the end of its three - year term. In March, the ATU began its strike against Greyhound. The 1990 drivers ' strike was similar in its bitterness to the strike of 1983, with violence against both strikers and their replacement workers. One striker in California was killed by a Greyhound bus driven by a strikebreaker, and a shot was fired at a Greyhound bus. During the strike by its 6,300 drivers, Greyhound idled much of its fleet of 3,949 buses and cancelled 80 % of its routes. At the same time, Greyhound was having to contend with the rise of low - cost airlines like Southwest Airlines, which further reduced the market for long - distance inter-city bus transportation. Without the financial strength provided in the past by a parent company, the strike 's lower revenues and higher costs for security and labor - law penalties caused Greyhound to file for bankruptcy in June 1990. The strike would not be settled for 38 months under terms favorable to Greyhound. While the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) had awarded damages for unfair labor practices to the strikers, this liability was discharged during bankruptcy reorganization.
At the end of 1990, the company had $488 million in assets and $654 million in liabilities. During bankruptcy, the company ultimately had to address claims for $142 million in back - pay for its striking drivers, and $384 million of pre-bankruptcy debts owed mostly to the investor group led by Fred G. Currey.
According to the company, upon emergence from bankruptcy in August 1991, Greyhound had shrunk its overall workforce to 7,900 employees (from 12,000 pre-bankruptcy), and trimmed its fleet to 2,750 buses and 3,600 drivers.
In August 1992, Greyhound canceled its bus terminal license (BTL) agreements with other carriers at 200 terminals, and imposed the requirement that Greyhound be the sole - seller of the tenant 's bus tickets within a 25 - mile radius of such a Greyhound terminal. In 1995, the United States Department of Justice Antitrust Division brought suit to stop this practice, alleging that it was an illegal restraint of trade, bad for consumers, and reduced competition. In February 1996, the United States won its case, and Greyhound agreed to permit its tenants to sell tickets nearby and permit its tenants to honor interline tickets with competitors.
Greyhound 's total revenues in 1994 were $616 million.
In the late 1990s, Greyhound Lines acquired two more members of the National Trailways Bus System. The company purchased Carolina Trailways in 1997, followed by the intercity operations of Southeastern Trailways in 1998. Following the acquisitions, most of the remaining members of the Trailways System began interlining cooperatively with Greyhound, discontinued their scheduled route services, diversified into charters and tours, or went out of business altogether.
On September 3, 1997, Burlington, Ontario - based transportation conglomerate Laidlaw Inc. announced it would buy Greyhound Canada Transportation ULC (Greyhound 's Canadian operations) for US $72 million.
In October 1998, Laidlaw announced it would acquire the U.S. operations of Greyhound Lines, Inc., including Carolina Trailways and other Greyhound affiliates, for about $470 million. When the acquisition was completed in March 1999, all of Greyhound and much of Trailways had become wholly owned subsidiaries of Laidlaw.
After incurring heavy losses through its investments in Greyhound Lines and other parts of its diversified business, Laidlaw Inc. filed for protection under both U.S. and Canadian bankruptcy laws in June 2001.
Naperville, Illinois - based Laidlaw International, Inc. listed its common shares on the New York Stock Exchange on February 10, 2003 and emerged from re-organization on June 23, 2003 as the successor to Laidlaw Inc.
After this bankruptcy filing, Greyhound dropped low - demand rural stops and started concentrating on dense, inter-metropolitan routes. It cut nearly 37 percent of its network. In some rural areas local operators took over the old stops (often with government subsidies) particularly in the Plains states, parts of the upper Midwest (such as Wisconsin), and the Pacific Northwest.
Starting in 1997, Greyhound had faced significant competition in the northeast from Chinatown bus lines. By 2003, more than 250 buses, operated by competitors like Fung Wah and Lucky Star Bus were competing fiercely from curbsides in the Chinatowns of New York City, Boston, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C. When operating on inter-city routes, the Chinatown buses offered prices about 50 % less than Greyhound 's. Between 1997 and 2007, Chinatown buses took 60 % of Greyhound 's market share in the northeast United States.
On February 7, 2007, Scottish transport group FirstGroup purchased Laidlaw International for $3.6 billion. The deal closed on September 30, 2007 and the acquisition was completed on October 1, 2007 Although FirstGroup 's interest was primarily the school and transit bus operations of Laidlaw, FirstGroup decided to retain the Greyhound operations and in 2009 exported the brand back to the United Kingdom as Greyhound UK.
As of 2014, Greyhound 's 1,229 buses served over 3,800 destinations in North America, traveling 5.5 billion miles (8.8 billion km) on North America 's roads.
Almost immediately after acquiring the carrier, FirstGroup sought to improve Greyhound 's image and create what it called the "New Greyhound '', by refurbishing many terminals, expanding the fleet with new buses, refurbishing old buses, and retraining customer service staff. Greyhound also started a new advertising campaign with Butler, Shine, Stern & Partners aimed at attracting 18 - to 24 - year - olds and Hispanics back to "The New Greyhound ''.
The "New Greyhound '' also saw the introduction of a refreshed logo and a new navy blue and dark gray livery for buses, which was rolled out to the nationwide fleet over several years. As the older buses were repainted, they were also refurbished, receiving wireless Internet access, power outlets, and new leather seating with increased legroom.
During its ownership by Laidlaw, Greyhound had come under criticism for its ticket sale practices, specifically that although tickets had departure dates and times printed on them, Greyhound did not always stop sales after all the seats were purchased for each departure. In periods of high demand, Greyhound added additional "sections '' (buses), but the threshold required to trigger an additional section varied, often leaving passengers behind to wait for the next bus departure.
Shortly after the sale to FirstGroup closed, Greyhound began a program in select markets, where riders could reserve a seat for an additional $5. However, only a limited number of seats could be reserved and the fee would have to be paid at the terminal 's ticketing counter, even if the ticket was bought in advance online.
The problem was further addressed in 2014, when Greyhound rolled out a new yield management computer system. With the new system, Greyhound is now able to more closely manage the number of tickets sold for each departure and dynamically adjust pricing based on sales. Although the amount of overbooked buses has been sharply reduced with this new system, Greyhound still does not explicitly guarantee a seat to everyone with a ticket (except on Greyhound Express routes).
The next major change made by FirstGroup was the launch of a brand of premium bus routes called "Greyhound Express '' in 2010. This came at the same time that competitor Megabus launched its third and fourth US hubs at Philadelphia and Washington D.C. and began to emphasize express services. Greyhound 's express routes make fewer stops between major cities (compared to regular Greyhound routes), use only newer model or refurbished buses, have guaranteed seating, and tickets start at $1. Expansions in Greyhound 's network and upgrades in its services in the early 2010s were at least partly a competitive response to Megabus. In 2014, Greyhound CEO David S. Leach claimed a profit of $73 million on revenues of $990.6 million, and attributed the company 's success to a mix of changing urban populations, less attractive driving options, and competition that was benefiting all carriers.
In July 2015, the company announced that it would open terminals in Monterrey and Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and begin services between the two cities with onward schedules to existing terminals in Texas. In so doing, Greyhound claimed to be the first American bus company to operate an intra-Mexican route. In September 2015, Greyhound announced expanded service in Missouri and Kansas shortly after Megabus announced that it would be ending service to several cities and college campuses.
Greyhound operates 123 routes serving over 2,700 destinations across the United States. Greyhound 's scheduled services compete with the private automobile, low - cost airlines, Amtrak, and other intercity coach bus companies.
Greyhound Express is a low - cost express city - to - city service that makes either fewer stops or no stops compared to a traditional route. Fares start at $1 and seating is guaranteed since buses are not overbooked. Greyhound Express was designed to directly compete with low - cost carriers like Megabus, Chinatown bus lines and Flixbus.
The service began on September 28, 2010, with several routes radiating from New York to major cities in the Northeastern United States and rapidly expanded to serve destinations in the Midwestern, Southern, and Southwestern United States. Currently the Greyhound Express network has expanded to serve 930 city pairs in nearly 120 markets, with further expansion planned.
Greyhound Express routes are assigned new or refurbished buses that are equipped with Wi - Fi, power outlets, leather seats, and extra legroom. In many stations Greyhound Express customers can take advantage of dedicated waiting areas, separate from passengers traveling on other Greyhound services or other carriers. Some stations also board passengers onto Greyhound Express buses using numbers printed on tickets. This number is assigned in the order in which the ticket was purchased, which means that passengers who bought their tickets earlier get to board the bus and choose their seats earlier.
Greyhound Connect is a connector service that operates shorter routes to take passengers from stops in smaller, rural cities to stations in larger, urban cities. Buses are either from Greyhound 's existing fleet or smaller, mid-sized buses (that are not equipped with a lavatory). Currently the Greyhound Connect service is offered in Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Maryland, Missouri, Montana, North Carolina, Utah, and Vermont. Some routes are operated using funds from the "Federal Formula Grant Program for Rural Areas '' from the Federal Transit Administration.
The cities served include (terminal cities in bold):
Alabama: Alexander City, Alexandria, Anniston, Atmore, Bay Minette, Birmingham, Chattanooga (Tenn.), Childersburg, Columbus (Ga.), Dothan, Enterprise, Evergreen, Fort Payne, Gadsden, Mobile, Opelika, Pell City, Steele, Sylacauga, Talladega
Arizona: Cocopah Casino, Fortuna Foothills, Gadsden, San Luis, Somerton, Wellton, Yuma (along with stops at Arizona Western College and in Downtown Yuma and West Yuma)
Arkansas: Bald Knob, Jonesboro, Little Rock, Marked Tree, Newport, Searcy, West Memphis
Colorado: Craig, Denver (along with a stop at Denver 's Greyhound station), Dinosaur, Granby, Hayden, Hot Sulphur Springs, Idaho Springs, Kremmling, Milner, Steamboat Springs, Winter Park
Maryland: Aberdeen, Baltimore, College Park, Edgewood, Elkton, Havre De Grace, Laurel, Washington (D.C.), White Marsh, Wilmington (Del.)
Missouri: Cabool, Columbia, Jefferson City, Houston, Huntsville, Kirksville, Macon, Mountain Grove, Ottumwa (Iowa), Rolla, Springfield
Montana: Arlee, Evaro, Kalispell, Lakeside, Missoula, Pablo, Polson, Ravalli, St. Ignatius, Whitefish
North Carolina: Ahoskie, Edenton, Elizabeth City, Goldsboro, Greenville, Jacksonville, Kinston, New Bern, Raleigh, Rocky Mount, Smithfield, Wallace, Washington, Williamston, Wilmington, Wilson
Utah: Duchesne, Fort Duchesne, Heber City, Myton, Park City, Roosevelt, Salt Lake City, Vernal
Vermont: Albany (N.Y.) (along with a stop at the airport), Burlington, Hanover (N.H.), Rutland, White River Junction
Greyhound Charter Services arranges charter buses for customers using Greyhound 's fleet of motorcoaches. Unlike many smaller charter operators, Greyhound is able to operate nationwide and offer one - way services, due to its network of routes. In addition to providing transportation to individual groups, schools, and event operators, Greyhound Charter Services is also approved by the military and the government as a charter bus vendor.
In addition to carrying passengers and their luggage, Greyhound buses also carry packages. Through Greyhound Package Express customers can book expedited cargo shipping door - to - door or station - to - station. The company says that shipping by bus offers a cost - effective alternative to other ground or air carriers for same - day delivery.
Lucky Streak is Greyhound 's brand for routes between cities with casinos and other nearby cities. All fares are sold as open - ended round - trips, with passengers allowed to return to their origin at any time. On the Atlantic City routes, casinos offer special bonuses (gambling credit, room / dining discounts) to Lucky Streak passengers.
There are currently three Lucky Streak routes:
QuickLink is Greyhound 's brand of commuter bus service that runs frequently during the peak weekday commuting hours. In addition to one - way and round - trip tickets QuickLink offers monthly and 10 - trip passes. Passes and tickets on QuickLink are flexible and passengers can board any bus with available seating. Currently the only QuickLink route is between Mt. Laurel, New Jersey and New York City. Routes were formerly operated from Sacramento, California to the San Francisco Bay Area and Macon, Georgia to Atlanta.
BoltBus is Greyhound 's brand of non-stop and limited - stop, premium - level bus routes. Fares start as low as $1, with the lowest fares depending on how far in advance a trip is booked and demand for the trip, with fares increasing for trips booked closer to departure. BoltBus uses newer model coaches that are equipped with Wi - Fi, power outlets, and leather seats with extra legroom.
The first buses started running between Boston, New York City, and Washington, D.C. on March 27, 2008. In the Northeastern US, BoltBus was originally operated in partnership with Peter Pan Bus Lines, but this arrangement ended on September 27, 2017, with Greyhound continuing the brand alone.
BoltBus expanded to the West Coast in May 2012 with a route in the Pacific Northwest (between Vancouver, BC, Seattle, and Portland). Service was expanded again in October 2013 with a route between the two largest metropolitan areas in California, Los Angeles and the San Francisco Bay Area (San Jose and Oakland). A stop in the city of San Francisco was added in December 2013 along with a new route between Los Angeles and Las Vegas.
Greyhound is one of the largest operators of Amtrak 's Thruway Motorcoach service even though the two companies are competitors in some markets. Amtrak issues rail passengers a ticket for a regularly scheduled Greyhound route that connects with their train, often with buses making a stop at the train station. These Thruway Motorcoach routes allow Amtrak to serve passengers in areas without rail service and offer passengers in areas with rail service a wider selection of destinations.
After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, government scrutiny of train and airplane passengers substantially increased, but bus passengers are largely free of it. Baggage is seldom inspected, and cash customers do not require identification. Greyhound says that security wands have been deployed on buses, but they do not appear to be routinely used.
In February 2013, in partnership with DriveCam, Greyhound deployed video cameras across its entire fleet to increase safety and driver compliance by combining data and video analytics with real - time driver feedback and coaching.
At some major Greyhound stations, passengers are subject to open - bag checks, ticket checks, and pat - downs with metal detectors.
Greyhound operates 1,114 motorcoaches produced mainly by Motor Coach Industries and Prevost.
In an effort to improve its image, between 2007 and 2014, the company aggressively purchased new coaches and refurbished existing ones. As of 2016, the majority of Greyhound 's fleet has the navy blue and grey "neoclassic '' livery on the exterior, wireless internet access, leather seating, and 120 - volt power outlets at most seats. Greyhound 's coaches have one fewer row of seats than the industry standard, giving passengers additional legroom. All buses purchased since 2009 have three - point seat belts installed.
The majority of the Greyhound fleet consists of the following models:
(This list covers stations within or adjacent to larger transportation centers.)
Greyhound serves over 2,700 destinations across America. There are 230 Greyhound operated stations in most major cities, where passengers can catch a bus and buy tickets. All stations have Greyhound branding and are staffed by company representatives. Some stations stand alone, while others are a part of larger transportation centers with a Greyhound ticket counter and waiting area.
In small to mid-size cities Greyhound buses stop at either locations operated by an agent (like a convenience store or another business) or at a curbside stop. At most agent operated locations, the staff can also sell tickets.
Greyhound buses also stop at stations belonging to partner bus companies. At most of these locations, representatives are able to sell tickets for Greyhound routes.
Below is a list of major incidents and accidents on Greyhound buses and buses of subsidiaries in the United States.
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what did the declaration of the rights of man do for france | Declaration of the rights of the Man and of the Citizen of 1789 - Wikipedia
The Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen of 1789 (French: Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789), set by France 's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human civil rights document from the French Revolution.
The Declaration was drafted by General Lafayette, Thomas Jefferson, and Honoré Mirabeau. Influenced by the doctrine of "natural right '', the rights of man are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human nature itself. It became the basis for a nation of free individuals protected equally by the law. It is included in the beginning of the constitutions of both the Fourth French Republic (1946) and Fifth Republic (1958) and is still current. Inspired by the Enlightenment philosophers, the Declaration was a core statement of the values of the French Revolution and had a major impact on the development of freedom and democracy in Europe and worldwide.
The Declaration, together with Magna Carta, the English Bill of Rights, and the United States Bill of Rights, inspired in large part the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
The content of the document emerged largely from the ideals of the Enlightenment. The key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working at times with his close friend Thomas Jefferson. In August 1789, Honoré Mirabeau played a central role in conceptualizing and drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
The last article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was adopted on 27 August 1789 by the National Constituent Assembly, during the period of the French Revolution, as the first step toward writing a constitution for France. Inspired by the Enlightenment, the original version of the Declaration was discussed by the representatives on the basis of a 24 article draft proposed by the sixth bureau, led by Jérôme Champion de Cicé. The draft was later modified during the debates. A second and lengthier declaration, known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793, was written in 1793 but never formally adopted.
The concepts in the Declaration come from the philosophical and political duties of the Enlightenment, such as individualism, the social contract as theorized by the Genevan philosopher Rousseau, and the separation of powers espoused by the Baron de Montesquieu. As can be seen in the texts, the French declaration was heavily influenced by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment and principles of human rights as was the U.S. Declaration of Independence which preceded it (4 July 1776).
According to a legal textbook published in 2007, the declaration is in the spirit of "secular natural law '', which does not base itself on religious doctrine or authority, in contrast with traditional natural law theory, which does.
The declaration defines a single set of individual and collective rights for all men. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, these rights are held to be universal and valid in all times and places. For example, "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good. '' They have certain natural rights to property, to liberty, and to life. According to this theory, the role of government is to recognize and secure these rights. Furthermore, government should be carried on by elected representatives.
At the time of writing, the rights contained in the declaration were only awarded to men. Furthermore, the declaration was a statement of vision rather than reality. The declaration was not deeply rooted in either the practice of the West or even France at the time. The declaration emerged in the late 18th century out of war and revolution. It encountered opposition as democracy and individual rights were frequently regarded as synonymous with anarchy and subversion. The declaration embodies ideals and aspirations towards which France pledged to struggle in the future.
The Declaration is introduced by a preamble describing the fundamental characteristics of the rights which are qualified as being "natural, unalienable and sacred '' and consisting of "simple and incontestable principles '' on which citizens could base their demands. In the second article, "the natural and imprescriptible rights of man '' are defined as "liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression ''. It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaiming an end to feudalism and to exemptions from taxation, freedom and equal rights for all "Men '', and access to public office based on talent. The monarchy was restricted, and all citizens were to have the right to take part in the legislative process. Freedom of speech and press were declared, and arbitrary arrests outlawed.
The Declaration also asserted the principles of popular sovereignty, in contrast to the divine right of kings that characterized the French monarchy, and social equality among citizens, "All the citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents, '' eliminating the special rights of the nobility and clergy.
Article I -- Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions can be founded only on the common good.
Article II -- The goal of any political association is the conservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, safety and resistance against oppression.
Article III -- The principle of any sovereignty resides essentially in the Nation. No body, no individual can exert authority which does not emanate expressly from it.
Article IV -- Liberty consists of doing anything which does not harm others: thus, the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the fruition of these same rights. These borders can be determined only by the law.
Article V -- The law has the right to forbid only actions harmful to society. Anything which is not forbidden by the law can not be impeded, and no one can be constrained to do what it does not order.
Article VI -- The law is the expression of the general will. All the citizens have the right of contributing personally or through their representatives to its formation. It must be the same for all, either that it protects, or that it punishes. All the citizens, being equal in its eyes, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents.
Article VII -- No man can be accused, arrested nor detained but in the cases determined by the law, and according to the forms which it has prescribed. Those who solicit, dispatch, carry out or cause to be carried out arbitrary orders, must be punished; but any citizen called or seized under the terms of the law must obey at once; he renders himself culpable by resistance.
Article VIII -- The law should establish only penalties that are strictly and evidently necessary, and no one can be punished but under a law established and promulgated before the offense and legally applied.
Article IX -- Any man being presumed innocent until he is declared culpable if it is judged indispensable to arrest him, any rigor which would not be necessary for the securing of his person must be severely reprimanded by the law.
Article X -- No one may be disturbed for his opinions, even religious ones, provided that their manifestation does not trouble the public order established by the law.
Article XI -- The free communication of thoughts and of opinions is one of the most precious rights of man: any citizen thus may speak, write, print freely, except to respond to the abuse of this liberty, in the cases determined by the law.
Article XII -- The guarantee of the rights of man and of the citizen necessitates a public force: this force is thus instituted for the advantage of all and not for the particular utility of those in whom it is trusted.
Article XIII -- For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenditures of administration, a common contribution is indispensable; it must be equally distributed to all the citizens, according to their ability to pay.
Article XIV -- Each citizen has the right to ascertain, by himself or through his representatives, the need for a public tax, to consent to it freely, to know the uses to which it is put, and of determining the proportion, basis, collection, and duration.
Article XV -- The society has the right of requesting an account from any public agent of its administration.
Article XVI -- Any society in which the guarantee of rights is not assured, nor the separation of powers determined, has no Constitution.
Article XVII -- Property being an inviolable and sacred right, no one can be deprived of private usage, if it is not when the public necessity, legally noted, evidently requires it, and under the condition of a just and prior indemnity.
While the French Revolution provided rights to a larger portion of the population, there remained a distinction between those who obtained the political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and those who did not. Those who were deemed to hold these political rights were called active citizens. Active citizenship was granted to men who were French, at least 25 years old, paid taxes equal to three days work, and could not be defined as servants (Thouret). This meant that at the time of the Declaration only male property owners held these rights. The deputies in the National Assembly believed that only those who held tangible interests in the nation could make informed political decisions. This distinction directly affects articles 6, 12, 14, and 15 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen as each of these rights is related to the right to vote and to participate actively in the government. With the decree of 29 October 1789, the term active citizen became embedded in French politics.
The concept of passive citizens was created to encompass those populations that had been excluded from political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Because of the requirements set down for active citizens, the vote was granted to approximately 4.3 million Frenchmen out of a population of around 29 million. These omitted groups included women, slaves, children, and foreigners. As these measures were voted upon by the General Assembly, they limited the rights of certain groups of citizens while implementing the democratic process of the new French Republic (1792 -- 1804). This legislation, passed in 1789, was amended by the creators of the Constitution of the Year III in order to eliminate the label of active citizen. The power to vote was then, however, to be granted solely to substantial property owners.
Tensions arose between active and passive citizens throughout the Revolution. This happened when passive citizens started to call for more rights, or when they openly refused to listen to the ideals set forth by active citizens. This cartoon clearly demonstrates the difference that existed between the active and passive citizens along with the tensions associated with such differences. In the cartoon, a passive citizen is holding a spade and a wealthy landowning active citizen is ordering the passive citizens to go to work. The act appears condescending to the passive citizen and it revisits the reasons why the French Revolution began in the first place.
Women, in particular, were strong passive citizens who played a significant role in the Revolution. Olympe de Gouges penned her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in 1791 and drew attention to the need for gender equality. By supporting the ideals of the French Revolution and wishing to expand them to women, she represented herself as a revolutionary citizen. Madame Roland also established herself as an influential figure throughout the Revolution. She saw women of the French Revolution as holding three roles; "inciting revolutionary action, formulating policy, and informing others of revolutionary events. '' By working with men, as opposed to working separate from men, she may have been able to further the fight of revolutionary women. As players in the French Revolution, women occupied a significant role in the civic sphere by forming social movements and participating in popular clubs, allowing them societal influence, despite their lack of direct political influence.
The Declaration recognized many rights as belonging to citizens (who could only be male). This was despite the fact that after The March on Versailles on 5 October 1789, women presented the Women 's Petition to the National Assembly in which they proposed a decree giving women equal rights. In 1790, Nicolas de Condorcet and Etta Palm d'Aelders unsuccessfully called on the National Assembly to extend civil and political rights to women. Condorcet declared that "he who votes against the right of another, whatever the religion, color, or sex of that other, has henceforth abjured his own ''. The French Revolution did not lead to a recognition of women 's rights and this prompted Olympe de Gouges to publish the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in September 1791.
The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen is modeled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and is ironic in formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states that:
"This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights, they have lost in society ''.
The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen follows the seventeen articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point and has been described by Camille Naish as "almost a parody... of the original document ''. The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility. '' The first article of Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied: "Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility ''.
De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law women were fully punishable, yet denied equal rights, declaring "Women have the right to mount the scaffold, they must also have the right to mount the speaker 's rostrum ''.
The declaration did not revoke the institution of slavery, as lobbied for by Jacques - Pierre Brissot 's Les Amis des Noirs and defended by the group of colonial planters called the Club Massiac because they met at the Hôtel Massiac. Despite the lack of explicit mention of slavery in the Declaration, slave uprisings in Saint - Domingue in the Haitian Revolution were inspired by it, as discussed in C.L.R. James ' history of the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins.
Deplorable conditions for the thousands of slaves in Saint - Domingue, the most profitable slave colony in the world, led to the uprisings which would be known as the first successful slave revolt in the New World. Free persons of color were part of the first wave of revolt, but later former slaves took control. In 1794 the Convention dominated by the Jacobins abolished slavery, including in the colonies of Saint - Domingue and Guadeloupe. However, Napoleon reinstated it in 1802 and attempted to regain control of Saint - Domingue by sending in thousands of troops. After suffering the losses of two - thirds of the men, many to yellow fever, the French withdrew from Saint - Domingue in 1803. Napoleon gave up on North America and agreed to the Louisiana Purchase by the United States. In 1804, the leaders of Saint - Domingue declared it as an independent state, the Republic of Haiti, the second republic of the New World.
The Declaration has also influenced and inspired rights - based liberal democracy throughout the world. It was translated as soon as 1793 -- 1794 by Colombian Antonio Nariño, who published it despite the Inquisition. He was sentenced to 10 years in prison for doing so. In 2003, the document was listed on UNESCO 's Memory of the World register.
According to the preamble of the Constitution of the French Fifth Republic (adopted on 4 October 1958, and the current constitution), the principles set forth in the Declaration have constitutional value. Many laws and regulations have been canceled because they did not comply with those principles as interpreted by the Conseil Constitutionnel ("Constitutional Council of France '') or by the Conseil d'État ("Council of State '').
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what is the title of langston hughes 's first book of poetry | Langston Hughes - wikipedia
James Mercer Langston Hughes (February 1, 1902 -- May 22, 1967) was an American poet, social activist, novelist, playwright, and columnist from Joplin, Missouri.
He was one of the earliest innovators of the then - new literary art form called jazz poetry. Hughes is best known as a leader of the Harlem Renaissance in New York City. He famously wrote about the period that "the negro was in vogue '', which was later paraphrased as "when Harlem was in vogue ''.
Like many African Americans, Hughes had a complex ancestry. Both of Hughes ' paternal great - grandmothers were enslaved African Americans and both of his paternal great - grandfathers were white slave owners in Kentucky. According to Hughes, one of these men was Sam Clay, a Scottish - American whiskey distiller of Henry County and supposedly a relative of the statesman Henry Clay. The other was Silas Cushenberry, a Jewish - American slave trader of Clark County. Hughes 's maternal grandmother Mary Patterson was of African - American, French, English and Native American descent. One of the first women to attend Oberlin College, she married Lewis Sheridan Leary, also of mixed race, before her studies. Leary subsequently joined John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859 and died from his wounds.
In 1869 the widow Mary Patterson Leary married again, into the elite, politically active Langston family. (See The Talented Tenth.) Her second husband was Charles Henry Langston, of African - American, Euro - American and Native American ancestry. He and his younger brother John Mercer Langston worked for the abolitionist cause and helped lead the Ohio Anti-Slavery Society in 1858. Charles Langston later moved to Kansas, where he was active as an educator and activist for voting and rights for African Americans. Charles and Mary 's daughter Caroline was the mother of Langston Hughes.
Langston Hughes was born in Joplin, Missouri, the second child of school teacher Carrie (Caroline) Mercer Langston and James Nathaniel Hughes (1871 -- 1934). Langston Hughes grew up in a series of Midwestern small towns. Hughes ' father left his family and later divorced Carrie. He traveled to Cuba and then Mexico, seeking to escape the enduring racism in the United States.
After his parents separated, his mother traveled seeking employment, and young Langston Hughes was raised mainly in Lawrence, Kansas by his maternal grandmother, Mary Patterson Langston. Through the black American oral tradition and drawing from the activist experiences of her generation, Mary Langston instilled in her grandson a lasting sense of racial pride. He spent most of his childhood in Lawrence. In his 1940 autobiography The Big Sea he wrote: "I was unhappy for a long time, and very lonesome, living with my grandmother. Then it was that books began to happen to me, and I began to believe in nothing but books and the wonderful world in books -- where if people suffered, they suffered in beautiful language, not in monosyllables, as we did in Kansas. ''
After the death of his grandmother, Hughes went to live with family friends, James and Mary Reed, for two years. Later, Hughes lived again with his mother Carrie in Lincoln, Illinois. She had remarried when he was still an adolescent, and eventually they moved to Cleveland, Ohio, where he attended high school.
His writing experiments began when he was young. While in grammar school in Lincoln, Hughes was elected class poet. He stated that in retrospect he thought it was because of the stereotype about African Americans having rhythm.
I was a victim of a stereotype. There were only two of us Negro kids in the whole class and our English teacher was always stressing the importance of rhythm in poetry. Well, everyone knows, except us, that all Negroes have rhythm, so they elected me as class poet.
During high school in Cleveland, Hughes wrote for the school newspaper, edited the yearbook, and began to write his first short stories, poetry, and dramatic plays. His first piece of jazz poetry, "When Sue Wears Red, '' was written while he was in high school.
Hughes had a very poor relationship with his father, with whom he lived in Mexico for a brief period in 1919. Upon graduating from high school in June 1920, Hughes returned to Mexico to live with his father, hoping to convince him to support his plan to attend Columbia University. Hughes later said that, prior to arriving in Mexico, "I had been thinking about my father and his strange dislike of his own people. I did n't understand it, because I was a Negro, and I liked Negroes very much. '' Initially, his father had hoped for Hughes to attend a university abroad, and to study for a career in engineering. On these grounds, he was willing to provide financial assistance to his son but did not support his desire to be a writer. Eventually, Hughes and his father came to a compromise: Hughes would study engineering, so long as he could attend Columbia. His tuition provided; Hughes left his father after more than a year. While at Columbia in 1921, Hughes managed to maintain a B+ grade average. He left in 1922 because of racial prejudice. He was attracted more to the people and the neighborhood of Harlem than his studies, though he continued writing poetry.
Hughes worked at various odd jobs, before serving a brief tenure as a crewman aboard the S.S. Malone in 1923, spending six months traveling to West Africa and Europe. In Europe, Hughes left the S.S. Malone for a temporary stay in Paris. There he met and had a romance with Anne Marie Coussey, a British - educated African from a well - to - do Gold Coast family; they subsequently corresponded but she eventually married Hugh Wooding, a promising Trinidadian lawyer. (Wooding went on to become chancellor of the University of the West Indies;
During his time in England in the early 1920s, Hughes became part of the black expatriate community. In November 1924, he returned to the U.S. to live with his mother in Washington, D.C. After assorted odd jobs, he gained white - collar employment in 1925 as a personal assistant to the historian Carter G. Woodson at the Association for the Study of African American Life and History. As the work demands limited his time for writing, Hughes quit the position to work as a busboy at the Wardman Park Hotel. There he encountered the poet Vachel Lindsay, with whom he shared some poems. Impressed with the poems, Lindsay publicized his discovery of a new black poet. By this time, Hughes 's earlier work had been published in magazines and was about to be collected into his first book of poetry.
The following year, Hughes enrolled in Lincoln University, a historically black university in Chester County, Pennsylvania. He joined the Omega Psi Phi fraternity. Thurgood Marshall, who later became an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, was a classmate of Hughes during his undergraduate studies.
After Hughes earned a B.A. degree from Lincoln University in 1929, he returned to New York. Except for travels to the Soviet Union and parts of the Caribbean, he lived in Harlem as his primary home for the remainder of his life. During the 1930s, he became a resident of Westfield, New Jersey.
Some academics and biographers believe that Hughes was homosexual and included homosexual codes in many of his poems, as did Walt Whitman, whom Hughes said influenced his poetry. Hughes 's story "Blessed Assurance '' deals with a father 's anger over his son 's effeminacy and "queerness ''. The biographer Aldrich argues that, in order to retain the respect and support of black churches and organizations and avoid exacerbating his precarious financial situation, Hughes remained closeted.
Arnold Rampersad, the primary biographer of Hughes, determined that Hughes exhibited a preference for African - American men in his work and life. But, in his biography Rampersad denies Hughes 's homosexuality, and concludes that Hughes was probably asexual and passive in his sexual relationships. Hughes did, however, show a respect and love for his fellow black man (and woman). Other scholars argue for his homosexuality: his love of black men is evidenced in a number of reported unpublished poems to an alleged black male lover.
On May 22, 1967, Hughes died in New York City at the age of 65 from complications after abdominal surgery related to prostate cancer. His ashes are interred beneath a floor medallion in the middle of the foyer in the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in Harlem. It is the entrance to an auditorium named for him. The design on the floor is an African cosmogram entitled Rivers. The title is taken from his poem "The Negro Speaks of Rivers ''. Within the center of the cosmogram is the line: "My soul has grown deep like the rivers ''.
from "The Negro Speaks of Rivers '' (1920)... My soul has grown deep like the rivers. I bathed in the Euphrates when dawns were young. I built my hut near the Congo and it lulled me to sleep. I looked upon the Nile and raised the pyramids above it. I heard the singing of the Mississippi when Abe Lincoln went down to New Orleans, and I 've seen its muddy bosom turn all golden in the sunset...
First published in 1921 in The Crisis -- official magazine of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) -- "The Negro Speaks of Rivers '', which became Hughes 's signature poem, was collected in his first book of poetry The Weary Blues (1926). Hughes 's first and last published poems appeared in The Crisis; more of his poems were published in The Crisis than in any other journal. Hughes ' life and work were enormously influential during the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s, alongside those of his contemporaries, Zora Neale Hurston, Wallace Thurman, Claude McKay, Countee Cullen, Richard Bruce Nugent, and Aaron Douglas. Except for McKay, they worked together also to create the short - lived magazine Fire!! Devoted to Younger Negro Artists.
Hughes and his contemporaries had different goals and aspirations than the black middle class. Hughes and his fellows tried to depict the "low - life '' in their art, that is, the real lives of blacks in the lower social - economic strata. They criticized the divisions and prejudices within the black community based on skin color. Hughes wrote what would be considered their manifesto, "The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain '', published in The Nation in 1926:
"The younger Negro artists who create now intend to express our individual dark - skinned selves without fear or shame. If white people are pleased we are glad. If they are not, it does n't matter. We know we are beautiful. And ugly, too. The tom - tom cries, and the tom - tom laughs. If colored people are pleased we are glad. If they are not, their displeasure does n't matter either. We build our temples for tomorrow, strong as we know how, and we stand on top of the mountain free within ourselves. ''
His poetry and fiction portrayed the lives of the working - class blacks in America, lives he portrayed as full of struggle, joy, laughter, and music. Permeating his work is pride in the African - American identity and its diverse culture. "My seeking has been to explain and illuminate the Negro condition in America and obliquely that of all human kind, '' Hughes is quoted as saying. He confronted racial stereotypes, protested social conditions, and expanded African America 's image of itself; a "people 's poet '' who sought to reeducate both audience and artist by lifting the theory of the black aesthetic into reality.
The night is beautiful, So the faces of my people. The stars are beautiful, So the eyes of my people Beautiful, also, is the sun. Beautiful, also, are the souls of my people.
Hughes stressed a racial consciousness and cultural nationalism devoid of self - hate. His thought united people of African descent and Africa across the globe to encourage pride in their diverse black folk culture and black aesthetic. Hughes was one of the few prominent black writers to champion racial consciousness as a source of inspiration for black artists. His African - American race consciousness and cultural nationalism would influence many foreign black writers, including Jacques Roumain, Nicolás Guillén, Léopold Sédar Senghor, and Aimé Césaire. Along with the works of Senghor, Césaire, and other French - speaking writers of Africa and of African descent from the Caribbean, such as René Maran from Martinique and Léon Damas from French Guiana in South America, the works of Hughes helped to inspire the Négritude movement in France. A radical black self - examination was emphasized in the face of European colonialism. In addition to his example in social attitudes, Hughes had an important technical influence by his emphasis on folk and jazz rhythms as the basis of his poetry of racial pride.
In 1930, his first novel, Not Without Laughter, won the Harmon Gold Medal for literature. At a time before widespread arts grants, Hughes gained the support of private patrons and he was supported for two years prior to publishing this novel. The protagonist of the story is a boy named Sandy, whose family must deal with a variety of struggles due to their race and class, in addition to relating to one another.
In 1931, Hughes helped form the "New York Suitcase Theater '' with playwright Paul Peters, artist Jacob Burck, and writer (soon - to - be underground spy) Whittaker Chambers, an acquaintance from Columbia. In 1932, he was part of a board to produce a Soviet film on "Negro Life '' with Malcolm Cowley, Floyd Dell, and Chambers.
In 1932, Hughes and Ellen Winter wrote a pageant to Caroline Decker in an attempt to celebrate her work with the striking coal miners of the Harlan County War, but it was never performed. It was judged to be a "long, artificial propaganda vehicle too complicated and too cumbersome to be performed. ''
Maxim Lieber became his literary agent, 1933 -- 45 and 1949 -- 50. (Chambers and Lieber worked in the underground together around 1934 -- 35.)
Hughes ' first collection of short stories was published in 1934 with The Ways of White Folks. He finished the book at a Carmel, California cottage provided for a year by Noel Sullivan, another patron. These stories are a series of vignettes revealing the humorous and tragic interactions between whites and blacks. Overall, they are marked by a general pessimism about race relations, as well as a sardonic realism. He also became an advisory board member to the (then) newly formed San Francisco Workers ' School (later the California Labor School).
In 1935, Hughes received a Guggenheim Fellowship. The same year that Hughes established his theatre troupe in Los Angeles, he realized an ambition related to films by co-writing the screenplay for Way Down South. Hughes believed his failure to gain more work in the lucrative movie trade was due to racial discrimination within the industry.
In Chicago, Hughes founded The Skyloft Players in 1941, which sought to nurture black playwrights and offer theatre "from the black perspective. '' Soon thereafter, he was hired to write a column for the Chicago Defender, in which he presented some of his "most powerful and relevant work '', giving voice to black people. The column ran for twenty years. In 1943, Hughes began publishing stories about a character he called Jesse B. Semple, often referred to and spelled "Simple '', the everyday black man in Harlem who offered musings on topical issues of the day. Although Hughes seldom responded to requests to teach at colleges, in 1947 he taught at Atlanta University. In 1949, he spent three months at the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools as a visiting lecturer. Between 1942 and 1949 Hughes was a frequent writer and served on the editorial board of Common Ground, a literary magazine focused on cultural pluralism in the United States published by the Common Council for American Unity (CCAU).
He wrote novels, short stories, plays, poetry, operas, essays, and works for children. With the encouragement of his best friend and writer, Arna Bontemps, and patron and friend, Carl Van Vechten, he wrote two volumes of autobiography, The Big Sea and I Wonder as I Wander, as well as translating several works of literature into English.
From the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s, Hughes ' popularity among the younger generation of black writers varied even as his reputation increased worldwide. With the gradual advance toward racial integration, many black writers considered his writings of black pride and its corresponding subject matter out of date. They considered him a racial chauvinist. He found some new writers, among them James Baldwin, lacking in such pride, over-intellectual in their work, and occasionally vulgar.
Hughes wanted young black writers to be objective about their race, but not to scorn it or flee it. He understood the main points of the Black Power movement of the 1960s, but believed that some of the younger black writers who supported it were too angry in their work. Hughes 's work Panther and the Lash, posthumously published in 1967, was intended to show solidarity with these writers, but with more skill and devoid of the most virulent anger and racial chauvinism some showed toward whites. Hughes continued to have admirers among the larger younger generation of black writers. He often helped writers by offering advice and introducing them to other influential persons in the literature and publishing communities. This latter group, including Alice Walker, whom Hughes discovered, looked upon Hughes as a hero and an example to be emulated within their own work. One of these young black writers (Loften Mitchell) observed of Hughes:
"Langston set a tone, a standard of brotherhood and friendship and cooperation, for all of us to follow. You never got from him, ' I am the Negro writer, ' but only ' I am a Negro writer. ' He never stopped thinking about the rest of us. ''
Hughes, like many black writers and artists of his time, was drawn to the promise of Communism as an alternative to a segregated America. Many of his lesser - known political writings have been collected in two volumes published by the University of Missouri Press and reflect his attraction to Communism. An example is the poem "A New Song ''.
In 1932, Hughes became part of a group of black people who went to the Soviet Union to make a film depicting the plight of African Americans in the United States. The film was never made, but Hughes was given the opportunity to travel extensively through the Soviet Union and to the Soviet - controlled regions in Central Asia, the latter parts usually closed to Westerners. While there, he met Robert Robinson, an African American living in Moscow and unable to leave. In Turkmenistan, Hughes met and befriended the Hungarian author Arthur Koestler, then a Communist who was given permission to travel there.
As later noted in Koestler 's autobiography, Hughes, together with some forty other Black Americans, had originally been invited to the Soviet Union to produce a Soviet film on "Negro Life '', but the Soviets dropped the film idea because of their 1933 success in getting the US to recognize the Soviet Union and establish an embassy in Moscow. This entailed a toning down of Soviet propaganda on racial segregation in America. Hughes and his fellow Blacks were not informed of the reasons for the cancelling, but he and Koestler worked it out for themselves.
Hughes also managed to travel to China and Japan before returning to the States.
Hughes 's poetry was frequently published in the CPUSA newspaper and he was involved in initiatives supported by Communist organizations, such as the drive to free the Scottsboro Boys. Partly as a show of support for the Republican faction during the Spanish Civil War, in 1937 Hughes traveled to Spain as a correspondent for the Baltimore Afro - American and other various African - American newspapers. In August 1937 he broadcast live from Madrid alongside Harry Haywood and Walter Benjamin Garland. Hughes was also involved in other Communist - led organizations such as the John Reed Clubs and the League of Struggle for Negro Rights. He was more of a sympathizer than an active participant. He signed a 1938 statement supporting Joseph Stalin 's purges and joined the American Peace Mobilization in 1940 working to keep the U.S. from participating in World War II.
Hughes initially did not favor black American involvement in the war because of the persistence of discriminatory U.S. Jim Crow laws and racial segregation and disfranchisement throughout the South. He came to support the war effort and black American participation after deciding that war service would aid their struggle for civil rights at home. The scholar Anthony Pinn has noted that Hughes, together with Lorraine Hansberry and Richard Wright, was a humanist "critical of belief in God. They provided a foundation for nontheistic participation in social struggle. '' Pinn has found that such writers are sometimes ignored in the narrative of American history that chiefly credits the civil rights movement to the work of affiliated Christian people.
Hughes was accused of being a Communist by many on the political right, but he always denied it. When asked why he never joined the Communist Party, he wrote, "it was based on strict discipline and the acceptance of directives that I, as a writer, did not wish to accept. '' In 1953, he was called before the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations led by Senator Joseph McCarthy. He stated, "I never read the theoretical books of socialism or communism or the Democratic or Republican parties for that matter, and so my interest in whatever may be considered political has been non-theoretical, non-sectarian, and largely emotional and born out of my own need to find some way of thinking about this whole problem of myself. '' Following his testimony, Hughes distanced himself from Communism. He was rebuked by some on the Radical Left who had previously supported him. He moved away from overtly political poems and towards more lyric subjects. When selecting his poetry for his Selected Poems (1959) he excluded all his radical socialist verse from the 1930s.
Hughes was featured reciting his poetry on the album Weary Blues (MGM, 1959), with music by Charles Mingus and Leonard Feather, and he also contributed lyrics to Randy Weston 's Uhuru Afrika (Roulette, 1960).
Hughes ' life has been portrayed in film and stage productions since the late 20th century. In Looking for Langston (1989), British filmmaker Isaac Julien claimed him as a black gay icon -- Julien thought that Hughes ' sexuality had historically been ignored or downplayed. Film portrayals of Hughes include Gary LeRoi Gray 's role as a teenage Hughes in the short subject film Salvation (2003) (based on a portion of his autobiography The Big Sea), and Daniel Sunjata as Hughes in the Brother to Brother (2004). Hughes ' Dream Harlem, a documentary by Jamal Joseph, examines Hughes ' works and environment.
Paper Armor (1999) by Eisa Davis and Hannibal of the Alps (2005) by Michael Dinwiddie are plays by African - American playwrights that address Hughes 's sexuality. Spike Lee 's 1996 film Get on the Bus, included a black gay character, played by Isaiah Washington, who invokes the name of Hughes and punches a homophobic character, saying, "This is for James Baldwin and Langston Hughes. ''
Hughes was also featured prominently in a national campaign sponsored by the Center for Inquiry (CFI) known as African Americans for Humanism.
Hughes ' Ask Your Mama: 12 Moods for Jazz, written in 1960, was performed for the first time in March 2009 with specially composed music by Laura Karpman at Carnegie Hall, at the Honor festival curated by Jessye Norman in celebration of the African - American cultural legacy. Ask Your Mama is the centerpiece of "The Langston Hughes Project '', a multimedia concert performance directed by Ron McCurdy, professor of music in the Thornton School of Music at the University of Southern California. The European premiere of The Langston Hughes Project, featuring Ice - T and McCurdy, took place at the Barbican Centre, London, on November 21, 2015, as part of the London Jazz Festival.
On September 22, 2016, his poem "I, Too '' was printed on a full page of the New York Times in response to the riots of the previous day in Charlotte, North Carolina.
The Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University holds the Langston Hughes papers (1862 -- 1980) and the Langston Hughes collection (1924 -- 1969) containing letters, manuscripts, personal items, photographs, clippings, artworks, and objects that document the life of Hughes. The Langston Hughes Memorial Library on the campus of Lincoln University, as well as at the James Weldon Johnson Collection within the Yale University also hold archives of Hughes ' work.
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who was the little girl that played jenny in forrest gump | Hanna R. Hall - Wikipedia
Hanna Rose Hall (born July 9, 1984) is an American actress. She made her film debut in Forrest Gump (1994), and later appeared in Sofia Coppola 's The Virgin Suicides (1999) and Rob Zombie 's Halloween (2007).
Hall was born in Denver, Colorado. Her family moved into the mountains when she was two years - old, but she remained in Colorado until age eighteen. After high school, she lived in Hawaii and Los Angeles before moving to Vancouver, British Columbia, where she attended the Vancouver Film School.
When she was seven years - old, Hall attended Nina Axelrod 's open casting call for Robert Zemeckis 's Forrest Gump. A few callbacks later, Hall was eventually cast as young Jenny Curran. This was followed by a role as an orphaned child in the 1996 television film Homecoming, co-starring Anne Bancroft.
Hall screen tested for the role of Lux Lisbon in Sofia Coppola 's film adaptation of The Virgin Suicides, but was considered too young for the part so she was cast as Cecilia Lisbon instead. She appeared in several independent films following this, before being cast in Rob Zombie 's remake of Halloween (2007) as Judith Myers, the sister of murderer Michael Myers. In 2009, she appeared in the independent comedy American Cowslip (2009), opposite Val Kilmer, Diane Ladd, and Cloris Leachman.
In 2012, Hall began working as a theater director in Venice, California, directing underground plays. She has also appeared on television series, including guest roles on Criminal Minds and Masters of Sex.
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what is the difference between ac and dc load line | Load line (electronics) - wikipedia
In graphical analysis of nonlinear electronic circuits, a load line is a line drawn on the characteristic curve, a graph of the current vs the voltage in a nonlinear device like a diode or transistor. It represents the constraint put on the voltage and current in the nonlinear device by the external circuit. The load line, usually a straight line, represents the response of the linear part of the circuit, connected to the nonlinear device in question. The points where the characteristic curve and the load line intersect are the possible operating point (s) (Q points) of the circuit; at these points the current and voltage parameters of both parts of the circuit match.
The example at right shows how a load line is used to determine the current and voltage in a simple diode circuit. The diode, a nonlinear device, is in series with a linear circuit consisting of a resistor, R and a voltage source, V. The characteristic curve (curved line), representing the current I through the diode for any given voltage across the diode V, is an exponential curve. The load line (diagonal line) represents the relationship between current and voltage due to Kirchhoff 's voltage law applied to the resistor and voltage source, is
Since the current going through the three elements in series must be the same, and the voltage at the terminals of the diode must be the same, the operating point of the circuit will be at the intersection of the curve with the load line.
In a BJT circuit, the BJT has a different current - voltage (I - V) characteristic depending on the base current. Placing a series of these curves on the graph shows how the base current will affect the operating point of the circuit.
Semiconductor circuits typically have both DC and AC currents in them, with a source of DC current to bias the nonlinear semiconductor to the correct operating point, and the AC signal superimposed on the DC. Load lines can be used separately for both DC and AC analysis. The DC load line is the load line of the DC equivalent circuit, defined by reducing the reactive components to zero (replacing capacitors by open circuits and inductors by short circuits). It is used to determine the correct DC operating point, often called the Q point.
Once a DC operating point is defined by the DC load line, an AC load line can be drawn through the Q point. The AC load line is a straight line with a slope equal to the AC impedance facing the nonlinear device, which is in general different from the DC resistance. The ratio of AC voltage to current in the device is defined by this line. Because the impedance of the reactive components will vary with frequency, the slope of the AC load line depends on the frequency of the applied signal. So there are many AC load lines, that vary from the DC load line (at low frequency) to a limiting AC load line, all having a common intersection at the DC operating point. This limiting load line, generally referred to as the AC load line, is the load line of the circuit at "infinite frequency '', and can be found by replacing capacitors with short circuits, and inductors with open circuits.
The load line diagram at right is for a resistive load in a common emitter circuit. The load line shows how the collector load resistor (R) constrains the circuit voltage and current. The diagram also plots the transistor 's collector current I versus collector voltage V for different values of base current I. The intersections of the load line with the transistor characteristic curves represent the circuit - constrained values of I and V at different base currents.
If the transistor could pass all the current available, with no voltage dropped across it, the collector current would be the supply voltage V over R. This is the point where the load line crosses the vertical axis. Even at saturation, however, there will always be some voltage from collector to emitter.
Where the load line crosses the horizontal axis, the transistor current is minimum (approximately zero). The transistor is said to be cut off, passing only a very small leakage current, and so very nearly the entire supply voltage appears as V.
The operating point of the circuit in this configuration (labelled Q) is generally designed to be in the active region, approximately in the middle of the load line for amplifier applications. Adjusting the base current so that the circuit is at this operating point with no signal applied is called biasing the transistor. Several techniques are used to stabilize the operating point against minor changes in temperature or transistor operating characteristics. When a signal is applied, the base current varies, and the collector - emitter voltage in turn varies, following the load line - the result is an amplifier stage with gain.
A load line is normally drawn on I - V characteristics curves for the transistor used in an amplifier circuit. The same technique is applied to other types of non-linear elements such as vacuum tubes or field effect transistors.
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visual representation of data used to convey information | Data visualization - wikipedia
Data visuali zation or data visuali sation is viewed by many disciplines as a modern equivalent of visual communication. It involves the creation and study of the visual representation of data.
To communicate information clearly and efficiently, data visualization uses statistical graphics, plots, information graphics and other tools. Numerical data may be encoded using dots, lines, or bars, to visually communicate a quantitative message. Effective visualization helps users analyze and reason about data and evidence. It makes complex data more accessible, understandable and usable. Users may have particular analytical tasks, such as making comparisons or understanding causality, and the design principle of the graphic (i.e., showing comparisons or showing causality) follows the task. Tables are generally used where users will look up a specific measurement, while charts of various types are used to show patterns or relationships in the data for one or more variables.
Data visualization is both an art and a science. It is viewed as a branch of descriptive statistics by some, but also as a grounded theory development tool by others. Increased amounts of data created by Internet activity and an expanding number of sensors in the environment are referred to as "big data '' or Internet of things. Processing, analyzing and communicating this data present ethical and analytical challenges for data visualization. The field of data science and practitioners called data scientists help address this challenge.
Data visualization refers to the techniques used to communicate data or information by encoding it as visual objects (e.g., points, lines or bars) contained in graphics. The goal is to communicate information clearly and efficiently to users. It is one of the steps in data analysis or data science. According to Friedman (2008) the "main goal of data visualization is to communicate information clearly and effectively through graphical means. It does n't mean that data visualization needs to look boring to be functional or extremely sophisticated to look beautiful. To convey ideas effectively, both aesthetic form and functionality need to go hand in hand, providing insights into a rather sparse and complex data set by communicating its key - aspects in a more intuitive way. Yet designers often fail to achieve a balance between form and function, creating gorgeous data visualizations which fail to serve their main purpose -- to communicate information ''.
Indeed, Fernanda Viegas and Martin M. Wattenberg suggested that an ideal visualization should not only communicate clearly, but stimulate viewer engagement and attention.
Data visualization is closely related to information graphics, information visualization, scientific visualization, exploratory data analysis and statistical graphics. In the new millennium, data visualization has become an active area of research, teaching and development. According to Post et al. (2002), it has united scientific and information visualization.
John Tukey
Professor Edward Tufte explained that users of information displays are executing particular analytical tasks such as making comparisons or determining causality. The design principle of the information graphic should support the analytical task, showing the comparison or causality.
In his 1983 book The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Edward Tufte defines ' graphical displays ' and principles for effective graphical display in the following passage: "Excellence in statistical graphics consists of complex ideas communicated with clarity, precision and efficiency. Graphical displays should:
Graphics reveal data. Indeed graphics can be more precise and revealing than conventional statistical computations. ''
For example, the Minard diagram shows the losses suffered by Napoleon 's army in the 1812 -- 1813 period. Six variables are plotted: the size of the army, its location on a two - dimensional surface (x and y), time, direction of movement, and temperature. The line width illustrates a comparison (size of the army at points in time) while the temperature axis suggests a cause of the change in army size. This multivariate display on a two dimensional surface tells a story that can be grasped immediately while identifying the source data to build credibility. Tufte wrote in 1983 that: "It may well be the best statistical graphic ever drawn. ''
Not applying these principles may result in misleading graphs, which distort the message or support an erroneous conclusion. According to Tufte, chartjunk refers to extraneous interior decoration of the graphic that does not enhance the message, or gratuitous three dimensional or perspective effects. Needlessly separating the explanatory key from the image itself, requiring the eye to travel back and forth from the image to the key, is a form of "administrative debris. '' The ratio of "data to ink '' should be maximized, erasing non-data ink where feasible.
The Congressional Budget Office summarized several best practices for graphical displays in a June 2014 presentation. These included: a) Knowing your audience; b) Designing graphics that can stand alone outside the context of the report; and c) Designing graphics that communicate the key messages in the report.
Author Stephen Few described eight types of quantitative messages that users may attempt to understand or communicate from a set of data and the associated graphs used to help communicate the message:
Analysts reviewing a set of data may consider whether some or all of the messages and graphic types above are applicable to their task and audience. The process of trial and error to identify meaningful relationships and messages in the data is part of exploratory data analysis.
A human can distinguish differences in line length, shape, orientation, and color (hue) readily without significant processing effort; these are referred to as "pre-attentive attributes ''. For example, it may require significant time and effort ("attentive processing '') to identify the number of times the digit "5 '' appears in a series of numbers; but if that digit is different in size, orientation, or color, instances of the digit can be noted quickly through pre-attentive processing.
Effective graphics take advantage of pre-attentive processing and attributes and the relative strength of these attributes. For example, since humans can more easily process differences in line length than surface area, it may be more effective to use a bar chart (which takes advantage of line length to show comparison) rather than pie charts (which use surface area to show comparison).
Almost all data visualizations are created for human consumption. Knowledge of human perception and cognition is necessary when designing intuitive visualizations. Cognition refers to processes in human beings like perception, attention, learning, memory, thought, concept formation, reading, and problem solving. Human visual processing is efficient in detecting changes and making comparisons between quantities, sizes, shapes and variations in lightness. When properties of symbolic data are mapped to visual properties, humans can browse through large amounts of data efficiently. It is estimated that 2 / 3 of the brain 's neurons can be involved in visual processing. Proper visualization provides a different approach to show potential connections, relationships, etc. which are not as obvious in non-visualized quantitative data. Visualization can become a means of data exploration.
There is no comprehensive ' history ' of data visualization. There are no accounts that span the entire development of visual thinking and the visual representation of data, and which collate the contributions of disparate disciplines. Michael Friendly and Daniel J Denis of York University are engaged in a project that attempts to provide a comprehensive history of visualization. Contrary to general belief, data visualization is not a modern development. Stellar data, or information such as location of stars were visualized on the walls of caves (such as those found in Lascaux Cave in Southern France) since the Pleistocene era. Physical artefacts such as Mesopotamian clay tokens (5500 BC), Inca quipus (2600 BC) and Marshall Islands stick charts (n.d.) can also be considered as visualizing quantitative information.
First documented data visualization can be tracked back to 1160 B.C. with Turin Papyrus Map which accurately illustrates the distribution of geological resources and provides information about quarrying of those resources. Such maps can be categorized as Thematic Cartography, which is a type of data visualization that presents and communicates specific data and information through a geographical illustration designed to show a particular theme connected with a specific geographic area. Earliest documented forms of data visualization were various thematic maps from different cultures and ideograms and hieroglyphs that provided and allowed interpretation of information illustrated. For example, Linear B tablets of Mycenae provided a visualization of information regarding Late Bronze Age era trades in the Mediterranean. The idea of coordinates was used by ancient Egyptian surveyors in laying out towns, earthly and heavenly positions were located by something akin to latitude and longitude at least by 200 BC, and the map projection of a spherical earth into latitude and longitude by Claudius Ptolemy (c. 85 -- c. 165) in Alexandria would serve as reference standards until the 14th century.
Invention of paper and parchment allowed further development of visualizations throughout history. Figure shows a graph from the 10th, possibly 11th century that is intended to be an illustration of the planetary movement, used in an appendix of a textbook in monastery schools. The graph apparently was meant to represent a plot of the inclinations of the planetary orbits as a function of the time. For this purpose the zone of the zodiac was represented on a plane with a horizontal line divided into thirty parts as the time or longitudinal axis. The vertical axis designates the width of the zodiac. The horizontal scale appears to have been chosen for each planet individually for the periods can not be reconciled. The accompanying text refers only to the amplitudes. The curves are apparently not related in time.
By the 16th century, techniques and instruments for precise observation and measurement of physical quantities, and geographic and celestial position were well - developed (for example, a "wall quadrant '' constructed by Tycho Brahe (1546 -- 1601), covering an entire wall in his observatory). Particularly important were the development of triangulation and other methods to determine mapping locations accurately.
French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat developed analytic geometry and two - dimensional coordinate system which heavily influenced the practical methods of displaying and calculating values. Fermat and Blaise Pascal 's work on statistics and probability theory laid the groundwork for what we now conceptualize as data. According to the Interaction Design Foundation, these developments allowed and helped William Playfair, who saw potential for graphical communication of quantitative data, to generate and develop graphical methods of statistics.
In the second half of the 20th century, Jacques Bertin used quantitative graphs to represent information "intuitively, clearly, accurately, and efficiently ''.
John Tukey and Edward Tufte pushed the bounds of data visualization; Tukey with his new statistical approach of exploratory data analysis and Tufte with his book "The Visual Display of Quantitative Information '' paved the way for refining data visualization techniques for more than statisticians. With the progression of technology came the progression of data visualization; starting with hand drawn visualizations and evolving into more technical applications -- including interactive designs leading to software visualization.
Programs like SAS, SOFA, R, Minitab, Cornerstone and more allow for data visualization in the field of statistics. Other data visualization applications, more focused and unique to individuals, programming languages such as D3, Python and JavaScript help to make the visualization of quantitative data a possibility. Private schools have also developed programs to meet the demand for learning data visualization and associated programming libraries, including free programs like The Data Incubator or paid programs like General Assembly.
Data visualization involves specific terminology, some of which is derived from statistics. For example, author Stephen Few defines two types of data, which are used in combination to support a meaningful analysis or visualization:
Two primary types of information displays are tables and graphs.
Eppler and Lengler have developed the "Periodic Table of Visualization Methods, '' an interactive chart displaying various data visualization methods. It includes six types of data visualization methods: data, information, concept, strategy, metaphor and compound.
There are different approaches on the scope of data visualization. One common focus is on information presentation, such as Friedman (2008). Friendly (2008) presumes two main parts of data visualization: statistical graphics, and thematic cartography. In this line the "Data Visualization: Modern Approaches '' (2007) article gives an overview of seven subjects of data visualization:
All these subjects are closely related to graphic design and information representation.
On the other hand, from a computer science perspective, Frits H. Post in 2002 categorized the field into sub-fields:
Data presentation architecture (DPA) is a skill - set that seeks to identify, locate, manipulate, format and present data in such a way as to optimally communicate meaning and proper knowledge.
Historically, the term data presentation architecture is attributed to Kelly Lautt: "Data Presentation Architecture (DPA) is a rarely applied skill set critical for the success and value of Business Intelligence. Data presentation architecture weds the science of numbers, data and statistics in discovering valuable information from data and making it usable, relevant and actionable with the arts of data visualization, communications, organizational psychology and change management in order to provide business intelligence solutions with the data scope, delivery timing, format and visualizations that will most effectively support and drive operational, tactical and strategic behaviour toward understood business (or organizational) goals. DPA is neither an IT nor a business skill set but exists as a separate field of expertise. Often confused with data visualization, data presentation architecture is a much broader skill set that includes determining what data on what schedule and in what exact format is to be presented, not just the best way to present data that has already been chosen. Data visualization skills are one element of DPA. ''
DPA has two main objectives:
With the above objectives in mind, the actual work of data presentation architecture consists of:
DPA work shares commonalities with several other fields, including:
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where are the descendants of the french royal family | Descendants of Louis XIV of France - wikipedia
The descendants of Louis XIV of France (1638 -- 1715), Bourbon monarch of the Kingdom of France, are numerous. Although only one of his children by his wife Maria Theresa of Spain survived past infancy, Louis had many illegitimate children by his mistresses. This article deals with the children of Louis XIV and in turn their senior descendants.
She was born as Infanta María Teresa of Spain (also known as María Teresa of Austria, being paternal great - great - granddaughter of an Archduke of Austria), at the Royal Monastery of El Escorial. Maria was the daughter of Philip IV of Spain and Elisabeth of France. María Teresa thus combined the blood of Philip III of Spain and Margarita of Austria, on her father 's side, and that of Henry IV of France and Marie de ' Medici, on her mother 's side.
In his turn, Philip III was the son of Philip II of Spain and Anna of Austria who was, herself, a daughter of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor and Maria of Spain. Philip II and Maria of Spain were siblings, being both children of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Isabella of Portugal. María Teresa, therefore, like many Habsburgs, was a product of years and generations of royal intermarriage between cousins.
In 1659, as the war with France began to wind down, a union between the two royal families, of Spain and of France, was proposed as a means to secure peace. María Teresa and Louis XIV were double first - cousins, and it was proposed that they wed. His father was Louis XIII of France, who was the brother of her mother, while her father was brother to Anne of Austria, his mother.
Such a prospect was intensely enticing to Anne of Austria, mother of Louis XIV and aunt of María Teresa, who desired an end to hostilities between her native country, Spain, and her adopted one, France, and who hoped this to come by her niece becoming her daughter - in - law. However, Spanish hesitation and procrastination led to a scheme in which Cardinal Mazarin, the First Minister of France, pretended to seek a marriage for his master with Margaret of Savoy. When Philip IV of Spain heard of the meeting at Lyon between the Houses of France and Savoy, he reputedly exclaimed of the Franco - Savoyard union that "it can not be, and will not be ''. Philip then sent a special envoy to the French Court to open negotiations for peace and a royal marriage. After a marriage by proxy to the French king in Fuenterrabia, María Teresa became known as Marie - Thérèse. Her father, Philip IV, and the entire Spanish court accompanied the bride to the Isle of Pheasants, in the Bidassoa, where Louis and his court met her. On 7 June 1660, she departed from her native country of Spain. Two days later, on 9 June, the religious marriage took place in Saint - Jean - de-Luz Saint Jean - Baptiste church, which had recently been rebuilt on the site of the former 13th century church burned several times in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Louis XIV and Maria Theresa also had three other children, though they were unable to survive infancy. Their names were Anne - Élisabeth (18 November 1662 -- 30 December 1662), Marie - Anne (16 November 1664 - 26 December 1664) and Louis - François (14 June 1672 -- 4 November 1672).
"Louis XVII '' or Louis - Charles, the Duke of Normandy, was the last male heir of the direct line of descent from Louis XIV. After his death in the temple in 1795, the succession rights passed to his uncle (the title of "Heir - Male '' of Louis XIV would also have passed to him), who eventually became Louis XVIII of France, a younger brother of the Duke 's Father, Louis XVI of France, and was as such a member of the senior line of descent from Louis XIV and the Bourbon - Vendôme line of the House of Bourbon.
After Louis XVIII 's death, the throne went to yet another brother of Louis XVI, Charles, Count of Artois, who ascended the throne as Charles X of France. His son, Louis - Antoine, Duke of Angoulême, married Madame Royale, daughter of his uncle, Louis XVI of France, in a move to unite both lines of Royal Family. However, the duke and Madame Royale never had any children. Louis - Antoine was King of France for just about 20 minutes, after his father 's abdication, but was himself forced to sign his abdication, granting all rights to the Duke of Orléans, who became Louis - Philippe, King of the French.
However, the remaining descendants of Charles X refused to give up their claims. From this struggle emerged the Legitimist and the Orleanist parties, the former of which supported the cause of Henri, Comte de Chambord, grandson of Charles X, and the latter supported the deposed House of Orléans, to which Louis - Philippe belonged and were his subsequent descendants. Therefore, according to primogeniture rules, Henri, Comte de Chambord was the Heir - Male of Louis XIV and also the Legitimist claimant of the throne of France.
Henry, Count of Chambord died childless on 24 August 1883. He was the last descendant in the legitimate male line from Louis de France, Duke of Burgundy (duc de Bourgogne), eldest grandson of Louis XIV. Burgundy 's youngest brother, Charles, Duke of Berry, died without any surviving issue. There remained only the descendants of Philip V of Spain, formerly Philippe de France, Duke of Anjou, who was Louis XIV 's second grandson. Some French royalists recognized Louis - Philippe 's grandson, Philippe, Count of Paris, as the rightful heir; others transferred their loyalty to members of the Spanish Royal Family who were descended from Philip V of Spain.
In the aftermath of the War of Spanish Succession, Philip inherited the throne of Spain, but had to renounce his claim to the French throne as part of Treaty of Utrecht, in a move by the Grand Alliance powers to prevent the union of the two Crowns. This makes the pretendership pass from Chambord to the heir of Louis XIV 's brother the duke of Orléans. Legitimists regard this as invalid, because under the fundamental law of French monarchy neither a king nor his heirs can renounce the claim to a throne they hold but do not possess.
Moreover, Philip quickly revived Spanish ambition; taking advantage of the power vacuum caused by Louis XIV 's death in 1715, Philip announced he would claim the French crown if his infant nephew Louis XV died, and attempted to reclaim Spanish territory in Italy, precipitating the War of the Quadruple Alliance in 1717.
After the death of Henry, Count of Chambord, Louis XIV 's senior descendant was Henry 's distant cousin and brother - in - law, Juan, Count of Montizon, who was also the Carlist pretender to the throne of Spain, as he was the son of Carlos, Count of Molina. He was proclaimed Jean III, King of France and Navarre. He issued a declaration saying, "Having become Head of the House of Bourbon by the death of my brother - in - law and cousin, the Count of Chambord, I declare that I do not in any way renounce the rights to the throne of France which I have held since my birth ''.
After his death, his sons and grandson, succeeded to the titles. His youngest son, Alfonso Carlos, willed his rights to the Spanish throne to Xavier, Duke of Parma, who became the Carlist pretender. However, the rights to the throne of France passed to the line of his cousin, Francis, Duke of Cadiz, who was the son of his grandfather 's youngest brother. Francis was Isabella II 's consort; therefore the claim was inherited by the Spanish Royal Family in the person of King Alfonso XIII. The title was next inherited by the eldest - surviving son of Alfonso, Infante Jaime, Duke of Segovia and subsequently his grandson and great - grandson.
Thus, the current heir - male of Louis XIV and the representative of the rights of Philip V of Spain to the French throne is Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou, who is the second cousin of the present king of Spain, Felipe VI.
However, if a non-Salic primogeniture is followed, the eldest surviving descendant, in other words, the heir - general of Louis XIV is the present Duke of Calabria. With the death of the Madame Royale, daughter of Louis XVI, the direct line of the French royal family became extinct. At her death, the heir - general of Louix XIV was also its heir - male -- Henri, Count of Chambord ("Henri V ''), who was the nephew of her husband and first cousin, Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême. However, with his death, the titles split, with the French succession rights passing to the descendants of Philip V of Spain and the status of heir - general passing to his sister, Louise Marie Thérèse d'Artois, who married Charles III, Duke of Parma, himself a direct descendant of Philip V of Spain. It is through this descent that the Duke of Calabria holds the designation of heir - general of Louis XIV.
The Duke is also a descendant of Louis XIV through another line. Louis XV 's eldest daughter, Princess Louise Élisabeth of France married Philip, Duke of Parma, a son of King Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese.
Louis XIV and Françoise - Athénaïs had seven children in total and she was his most notorious mistress. Two of their children died very young. Their names were Louise Françoise de Bourbon (late March 1669 -- 23 February 1672) and Louis - César de Bourbon (20 June 1672 -- 10 January 1683).
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the islamia university of bahawalpur pakistan bahawalpur pakistan | Islamia University - Wikipedia
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur (IUB), colloquially known as Islamia University, is located in Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan.
Islamia University began as Jamia Abbasia, a religious University established in Bahawalpur in 1925, following the academic pursuits of Al - Azhar University in Egypt. In 1975, Jamia Abbasia was declared as a general University, and renamed as The Islamia University of Bahawalpur.
The University started at the Abbasia and Khawaja Fareed campuses with ten departments. Later, 1280 acres of land was allotted to the University on Hasilpur Road about eight kilometers away from the city centre which became the Baghdad - ul - Jadeed campus. IUB added two more campuses in 2005: One covering eastern side of Bahawalpur Division (in Bahawalnagar; known as IUB Bahawalnagar Campus) and the other one to cover western side of Bahawalpur Division (in Rahim Yar Khan; known as IUB - Rahim Yar Khan Campus or IUB - RYK Campus).
The University is now at 45 departments offering 74 disciplines. In 2015, the university was ranked eighth in the general (large) category of "2015 HEC Ranking Of Universities In Pakistan '' universities.
Sub Campuses
"2015 HEC Ranking Of Universities In Pakistan '' Shared By "Department Of Media Studies - The Islamia University Of Bahawalpur ''
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merle haggard blue eyes crying in the rain | Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain - wikipedia
"Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain '' is a song written by songwriter Fred Rose. Originally performed by Roy Acuff, the song was later recorded by Willie Nelson as part of his 1975 album Red Headed Stranger. Both the song and album would become iconic in country music history, and jump start Nelson 's success as a singer and recording artist.
Originally recorded in 1947 by Acuff, "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain '' was recorded by Hank Williams in 1951 for the Mother 's Best Flour Hour. Other early remakes of the song were made by Donn Reynolds (MGM single - June 1957), Ferlin Husky (album Ferlin 's Favorites - November 1959), Slim Whitman (album Country Favorites - 1959), Gene Vincent (recorded October 15, 1958 / album Crazy Times! - 1960), Bill Anderson (album... Sings Country Heart Songs - January 15, 1962), John D. Loudermilk (album Country Love Songs Plain and Simply Sung Country Love Songs Plain and Simply Sung - August 1968), (Hank Snow)) (album, ' Greatest Hits '') and Conway Twitty (album Hello Darlin ' - June 1970).
The version by Willie Nelson, recorded for his 1975 concept album, Red Headed Stranger, which was about a fugitive preacher on the run from the law after killing his wife, was lauded by country music historian Bill Malone as "a fine example of clean, uncluttered country music, (with) a spare arrangement that could have come straight out of the 1940s. '' Rolling Stone noted the song was delivered with his "jazz - style phrasing '' and was "the beating heart of Red Headed Stranger. ''
A music video for the song was created in 1986 to promote the motion picture adaptation of the album.
Prior to the success of "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain, '' Nelson had enjoyed widespread success primarily as a songwriter, with such songs as "Crazy '' (Patsy Cline) and "Hello Walls '' (Faron Young). As a performer, meanwhile, Nelson had hit the Top 10 of the Billboard magazine Hot Country Singles chart just twice; it had happened in 1962, once as a solo artist ("Touch Me '') and again as part of a duet with Shirley Collie ("Willingly ''). Thereafter, Nelson had approached the Top 20 on occasion, but went 13 years without a Top 10 hit.
In October 1975, the song became Nelson 's first No. 1 hit as a singer, and at year 's end was the third - biggest song of 1975 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart. In addition, the song gained modest airplay on Top 40 radio, reaching number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100.
In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain '' # 302 on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
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when will the 2018 nba all stars be announced | 2018 NBA All - Star Game - wikipedia
The 2018 NBA All - Star Game was the 67th edition of an exhibition basketball game that was played on February 18, 2018. It was held at Staples Center in Los Angeles, home of the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Clippers. It was the sixth time that Los Angeles had hosted the All - Star Game and the first time since 2011. Team LeBron won against Team Stephen 148 - 145. The MVP of the game was LeBron James, scoring 29 points, 10 rebounds, 8 assists, winning his third NBA All - Star Game Most Valuable Player (MVP) award. The game was televised nationally by TNT for the 16th consecutive year.
On October 3, 2017, the NBA announced that the format would change from the traditional Eastern Conference versus Western Conference format, and would instead switch to a draft - style format, similar to the format used by the NHL All - Star Game from 2011 through 2015 and the NFL Pro Bowl from 2014 through 2016. The team captains were determined by the most votes received in their respective conference. Each team will pick a charity to play for, and the winning team will have money donated to their charity. The winning team will receive $100,000 for each player and the losing team $25,000 each.
The two teams were coached from their respected conference. Mike D'Antoni, coach of the Houston Rockets, was named as the head coach for Team Stephen. Dwane Casey, coach of the Toronto Raptors, was named as the head coach for Team LeBron.
The rosters for the All - Star Game were selected through a voting process. The starters were chosen by the fans, media, and current NBA players. Fans make up 50 % of the vote, and NBA players and media each comprise 25 % of the vote. The two guards and three frontcourt players who receive the highest cumulative vote totals are named the All - Star starters. NBA head coaches vote for the reserves for their respective conferences, none of which can be players on their own team. Each coach selects two guards, three frontcourt players and two wild cards, with each selected player ranked in order of preference within each category. If a multi-position player is to be selected, coaches are encouraged to vote for the player at the position that was "most advantageous for the All - Star team '', regardless of where the player was listed on the All - Star ballot or the position he was listed in box scores.
The All - Star Game starters were announced on January 18, 2018. Kyrie Irving of the Boston Celtics and DeMar DeRozan of the Toronto Raptors were named the backcourt starters in the East, earning their fifth and fourth all - star appearances, respectively. LeBron James was named a starter to his 14th career all - star game, breaking Dirk Nowitzki 's record for most selections among active players. Joining James in the East frontcourt was Joel Embiid of the Philadelphia 76ers, his first selection, and Giannis Antetokounmpo of the Milwaukee Bucks, his second selection.
Stephen Curry of the Golden State Warriors and James Harden of the Houston Rockets were named to the starting backcourt in the West, earning their fifth and sixth all - star appearances, respectively. In the frontcourt, Kevin Durant of the Golden State Warriors was named to his ninth career all - star game, along with DeMarcus Cousins and Anthony Davis of the New Orleans Pelicans, their fourth and fifth all - star selections, respectively.
The All - Star Game reserves were announced on January 23, 2018. The West reserves include Russell Westbrook of the Oklahoma City Thunder, his seventh selection, Klay Thompson and Draymond Green of the Golden State Warriors, their fourth and third all - star selections, respectively, LaMarcus Aldridge of the San Antonio Spurs, his sixth selection, Damian Lillard of the Portland Trailblazers, his third selection, and Karl - Anthony Towns and Jimmy Butler of the Minnesota Timberwolves, their first and fourth all - star selections, respectively.
The East reserves include Kyle Lowry of the Toronto Raptors, his fourth selection, Al Horford of the Boston Celtics, his fifth selection, John Wall and Bradley Beal of the Washington Wizards, their fifth and first all - star selections, respectively, Victor Oladipo of the Indiana Pacers, his first selection, Kevin Love of the Cleveland Cavaliers, his fifth selection, and Kristaps Porzingis of the New York Knicks, his first selection.
LeBron James and Stephen Curry were named as captains due to being the leading vote getter from the East and West, respectively. James had the first pick in the draft as the leading vote getter overall, while Curry has first choice of jersey color, due to the Western Conference having home team status for the game. The draft pool consisted of the eight other starters, with no regard to conference designation, and 14 reserves (seven from each conference), chosen by NBA head coaches. On January 25, 2018, LeBron James and Stephen Curry created their rosters via a draft, which would not be televised for various reasons. NBA Commissioner Adam Silver will select the replacement for any player unable to participate in the All - Star Game, choosing a player from the same conference as the player who is being replaced. Silver 's selection would join the team that drafted the replaced player. If a replaced player is a starter, the head coach of that team will choose a new starter from his cast of players instead.
^ INJ1 DeMarcus Cousins was unable to play due to an Achilles injury. ^ REP1 Paul George was selected as DeMarcus Cousins ' replacement. ^ INJ2 John Wall was unable to participate due to a knee injury. ^ REP2 Andre Drummond was selected as John Wall 's replacement. ^ INJ3 Kevin Love was unable to participate due to a hand injury. ^ REP3 Goran Dragić was selected as Kevin Love 's replacement. ^ INJ4 Kristaps Porziņģis was unable to participate due to a torn ACL. ^ REP4 Kemba Walker was named as Kristaps Porziņģis ' replacement. ^ ST Russell Westbrook was selected to start in place of Cousins.
Fergie 's performance of "The Star - Spangled Banner '' prior to the game received heavy negative criticism and mockery online. The rendition -- described as "unusual '' and "bizarre '' -- was met with laughter from the arena crowd, and All - Star Draymond Green was shown chuckling on the television broadcast. The following day, Fergie said she "wanted to try something special for the NBA, '' but it "did n't strike the intended tone. ''
The 2018 NBA All - Star Celebrity Game presented by Ruffles will be played on Friday, February 16, 2018 at the Los Angeles Convention Center. Since the All - Star Weekend was held in Los Angeles, the competition would be represented by the two NBA teams in the city with the Los Angeles Lakers (Team Lakers) and the Los Angeles Clippers (Team Clippers) instead of the typical West Vs. East affair like in previous years.
^ INJ1 Malcolm Brogdon is unable to participate due to a leg injury. ^ REP1 Taurean Prince was selected as Malcolm Brogdon 's replacement. ^ INJ2 Lonzo Ball is unable to participate due to a knee injury. ^ REP2 De'Aaron Fox was selected as Lonzo Ball 's replacement.
Team World won against Team USA 155 - 124.
^ OUT Donovan Mitchell was removed due to replacing Aaron Gordon in the Slam Dunk Contest. ^ ALT Buddy Hield was named as Donovan Mitchell 's replacement. ^ INJ Kristaps Porziņģis unable to participate due to a torn ACL. ^ REP Andre Drummond was named as Kristaps Porziņģis ' replacement.
^ INJ Aaron Gordon was unable to participate due to a hip injury. ^ REP Donovan Mitchell was named as Aaron Gordon 's replacement.
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why did spain send missionaries to the pacific coast in the southwest | Spanish missions in the Americas - wikipedia
The Spanish missions in the America were Catholic missions established by the Spanish Empire during the 16th to 19th centuries in an area extending from Mexico and southwestern portions of what today are the United States to as far south as Argentina and Chile.
At the start of the Age of Discovery, European governments sent explorers to find trade routes to facilitate economic relations with Asia and Europe. During this time, these men found the new lands that could be used for the economic benefit of their home countries. In order to understand these new lands and the resources that might be available, explorers fostered relationships with the native people. This led to the colonization of the Americas. The Catholic church was an essential part of both the Spanish and Portuguese Empires so as the empires spread to new lands it was the duty of the King to be sure Christianity was spread into the New World.
Often these empires used missions to teach indigenous people about Christian values that were practiced in Europe at this time. These values did not only include religious teachings but cultural aspects of life such as dress and behavior. Missions were formed in different ways across the Americas and has had a lasting impact on the culture of these areas. Catholicism is still a prevalent religion in both North and South America. The formation and implementation of the missions across the New World reflected the beliefs of the Catholic clerics who created and implemented the missions. In the Catholic church, monks, priests and other clerics take vows and are affiliated with a certain order. These orders, their ideologies, and era can be linked to the way of life and teaching in the missions.
Despite extensive efforts and even successes in recovering the cultural history of the cultures colonized in the Americas, much of the evidence currently available comes from the colonizers themselves. Many of the cultures impacted by missionaries had no written language and were thus robbed of much of their oral history when the populations were decimated by Old World illnesses. Cultures that did possess written language, such as the Maya, often had their artifacts deemed sacrilegious and burned. Therefore, much of the evidence of these events come from accounts of missionaries and -- to a much smaller extent -- archaeological investigation and should be subsequently handled with care. Therefore, readers should consider the ethnocentric and theocratic context in which accounts recorded by missionaries are presented.
Catholic missions were installed throughout the Americas in effort to establish European order in the pursuit of gold, silver, and other resources. The missionaries ' goal was to convert natives to Christianity and ease the transition into a colonial system and minimize the friction required to establish European dominance in the area. One symbolic example of this was the practice of constructing churches and cathedrals, such as Santa Domingo and Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of the Assumption, on top of demolished native temples. Establishment of missions were often followed by the implementation of Encomienda systems, which forced native labor on land granted to Europeans by the Spanish Crown and led to systematic oppression.
In addition to the encomienda system, the aggressive implementation of missions and their forcible establishment of reductions and congregations led to resistance and sometimes revolt in the native populations being colonized. Many natives agreed to join the reductions and congregations out of fear, but many were initially still allowed to quietly continue some of their religious practices. However, as treatment of natives grew worse and suppression of native customs increased, so did the resistance of the natives.
The most notable example of rebellion against colonization is the Pueblo Revolt in 1680, in which the Zuni, Hopi, as well as Tiwa, Tewa, Towa, Tano, and Keres - speaking Pueblos took control of Santa Fe and drove the Spanish colonial presence out of New Mexico with heavy casualties on the Spanish side, including 21 of the 33 Franciscan missionaries in New Mexico. The region remained autonomous under native despite multiple non-violent attempts at peace treaties and trade agreements until 1692.
The Tepehuan Revolt was likewise stirred by hostilities against the missionaries, which arose due to the concurrent and explosive rise in disease that accompanied their arrival. The Tepehuan associated the rise in death directly with these missionaries and their reductions, which spread disease and facilitated exploitative labor to encomanderos and miners. The revolt lasted from 1616 to 1620 with heavy casualties on both sides, during which time the Spanish abandoned their policy of "peace by purchase '' installation of reductions in favor of "fire and blood ''.
Franciscan missionaries were the first to arrive in New Spain in 1523 following the Cortes expeditions in Mexico and soon after began establishing missions across the continents. In addition to their primary goal of spreading Christianity, the missionaries studied the native languages, taught children to read and write, and taught adults trades such as carpentry and ceramics. The first missionaries to arrive to the New World were Franciscan monks from the observant faction which believed in a strict and limited way of practicing religion. Because the monks believed teaching and practicing can only be done through "meditation and contemplation '' Franciscans were not able to convert as many people as quickly as the Spanish would have liked. This caused strain between colonial governments and Franciscan friars, which eventually led to several of the friars fleeing to present day western Mexico and the dissolution of Franciscan parishes. Other issues also contributed to the dissolution of Franciscan parishes including the vow of poverty and accusations made by the colonial governments. however, Spanish missions often used money provided by the King to fund missions. Because monks were taking money this proved to be a controversial issue within the church. In addition, the colonial government claimed missionaries were mistreating indigenous people who were working on the missions. On the other hand, the Franciscan missionaries claimed that the Spanish government enslaved and mistreated indigenous people. In present day, Franciscan missionaries are well known for efforts to protect the indigenous people from Spanish cruelties and supported empowering the native peoples.
The Jesuits had a wide - spread impact between their arrival in the New World about 1570 until their expulsion in 1767. The Jesuits followed a widespread Spanish practice of creating settlements called "reductions '' to concentrate the widespread native populations in order to better rule, Christianize, and exploit native labor. The Jesuit Reductions were socialist societies in which each family would receive a house and field, and individuals were clothed and fed in return for work. Additionally, the communities would include schools, churches, and hospitals as well as native leaders and governing councils to be overseen by two Jesuit missionaries in each reduction. Like the Franciscans, the Jesuit missionaries learned the local languages and trained the adults in European methods of construction, manufacturing, and, to a certain extent, agriculture.
Spanish settlers were prohibited from living or working in reductions. This led to a strained relationship between Jesuit missionaries and the Spanish because in surrounding Spanish settlements people were not guaranteed food, shelter, and clothing.
The Dominicans were centralized in the Caribbean and Mexico and, despite a much smaller representation in the Americas, had one of the most notable histories of native rights activism. Bartolomé de Las Casas was the first Dominican bishop in Mexico and played a pivotal role in dismantling the practice of "encomenderos '', which essentially validated enslavement of natives, with the establishment of the New Laws in 1542.
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malcolm in the middle what's their last name | Characters of Malcolm in the Middle - wikipedia
The following characters had significant roles in the American television comedy series Malcolm in the Middle, which was originally televised from 2000 to 2006 on the Fox Network.
Originally there were four brothers (although Malcolm 's oldest brother attended a military school away from home, so Malcolm was still the middle sibling left at home). A fifth son was introduced in the show 's fourth season, a boy named Jamie. The boys are, from eldest to youngest: Francis, Reese, Malcolm, Dewey, and Jamie. In the final episode, Lois discovered she was pregnant with a sixth child. In the third season, Francis travels home (to celebrate his father 's birthday) with an Alaskan girl named Piama, and reveals that they are married.
During the first season, the writers decided to keep the family 's last name a mystery. In the fifth season episode "Reese Joins the Army (1) '', Reese uses a fake ID by the name of "Jetson '' to lie about his age. In the series finale, "Graduation '', Francis ' employee ID reads "Nolastname '' (or "No Last Name '', a joke referring to the fact that the family name was never spoken aloud). In the same episode when Malcolm was introduced to give the graduation speech, the speaker announces Malcolm 's name, but microphone feedback makes his surname inaudible, even though he does appear to mouth the phrase "No last name ''.
In the pilot episode, the name Wilkerson can be seen on the name badge of the uniform Francis is wearing at Marlin Academy. In the sleeve notes for the season 5 DVD released in Europe, the family is referred to as the Wilkersons in the description for the episode "Block Party ''. British television advertisements and some Fox promotional material also occasionally referred to the family as the Wilkersons, although this name was never spoken aloud in the series. In an early version of the pilot, Malcolm had an exchange of dialogue with a classmate, who claims to have overheard his parents talking about Malcolm 's family and asks him what his last name is. When Malcolm responds, "Wilkerson, why? '' the friend replied with the punchline, "Oh... who are the ' Pariahs '? ''
Out of the show 's six leads, Cranston, Muniz, Berfield and Sullivan were the only ones to appear in all 151 episodes.
Hal, played by Bryan Cranston (all 151 episodes), is the father of the family. Though relaxed in his parenting when compared to Lois, Hal has shown that he can slide into a disciplinarian when confronted by the boys ' bad behavior. He comes from a wealthy family who resent his choice to marry Lois over Susan (an action also shared by Victor and Ida). Hal has a hard time making good decisions, which he often deferred to Lois. Despite the fact many of the neighbors hate his family, Hal blends in well with them. He loves Lois more than she loves him, never even thinking about other women. He is also very scared of her, even more than the boys are, which is why he often bribes their sons to take the fall for his wrongdoings. He is very neurotic and has a slight obsessive - compulsive disorder, and also enjoys unusual hobbies. Hal is also a sex addict, this was revealed in the episode "Forbidden Girlfriend '' when Lois is taking medication and is unable to have sex for an entire week, it is mentioned again in the episode "Poker 2 '' when Hal tells his friends he has sex 14 times per week. It was also revealed that Hal was a chain smoker before quitting the habit. Hal 's best friend is Abe Kenarban.
Francis, played by Christopher Masterson (119 episodes), is the oldest of the brothers, whom Malcolm often looks up to. It is revealed in the episodes "Sleepover '' and "The Bots and the Bees '' in season one that Francis was a breech birth, and in "Flashback '' in season 2, that Lois was in labor with him during her and Hal 's wedding. A rebel from birth, showing signs of Attention - Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Conduct Disorder, he was exiled to Marlin Academy by Lois for his behavior before eventually emancipating himself to run away from the Academy to work in Alaska, incurring his mother 's wrath. Upon moving to Alaska, he marries a local woman named Piama, who is about one year older than him, and had previously been married briefly, and whom Lois does n't like. In the series finale, Hal discovers that Francis has taken a job with Amerysis, and Francis admits he likes sitting at a desk sorting computer data. However, he also admits that he has no intentions of telling Lois about the job and enjoys torturing her by telling her that he 's still unemployed.
Malcolm, portrayed by Frankie Muniz (all 151 episodes), is the protagonist of the series. He is Three years younger than his oldest brother Francis, one 1 / 2 years younger than his older brother Reese, five years older than his younger brother Dewey, and about 15 years older than his youngest brother Jamie. In the first episode of the series, he is discovered to be a child prodigy and immediately moved from his regular class into the ' Krelboynes ', a class for gifted students. Despite his high intelligence, he still gets into mischief either alongside or working against his brothers (in particular, Reese), although he becomes more self - absorbed and egotistical in the later seasons as he goes through puberty. Malcolm, like Reese, is not very popular. However, he has had a number of girlfriends during the series run. Even though he is very intelligent, Malcolm has a short temper, can be easily manipulated and also has problems containing his opinion about himself. Malcolm also occasionally serves as the voice of reason, and does have a conscience, (for instance, despite emotionally manipulating a grieving Hal to buy him a car in the episode "Hal Grieves, '' when the time comes to make the purchase he finds he ca n't go through with it). In the series finale, it is revealed that Lois intended him to have a hard life, knowing that he is destined to assume the role of President of the United States; she wants him to remember where he came from to get there and try to help families like his own when he assumes the office. Malcolm eventually comes to terms with his future, after being unable to tell Lois he ca n't do it. In the series finale, Malcolm begins taking classes at Harvard University. Throughout the series, Malcolm frequently breaks the fourth wall and talks to the viewer about either the current situation or giving exposition about past events.
Lois, played by Jane Kaczmarek (146 episodes), is Francis, Reese, Malcolm, Dewey, and Jamie 's angry and temperamental mother. She is an overbearing control freak despised by the neighbors to the point that they refuse to invite her to their gatherings, revealed in "Mono ''. Unlike Malcolm, Lois is n't bothered by it and tries her best to blend in with it. She was revealed to be a charming and a nurturing mother while Francis was little, but toughened up. She is also always stubbornly right, to the point of being unable to say that she was wrong. It was also shown that she is overbearing and mad as a result of her children 's bad behavior, and not her pure hate. At the series finale, Lois is revealed to be pregnant with a sixth child (actually twins). Her unfairness and behavior also come from her miserable childhood, living with a tough mother and an uncaring father (both of whom favored her younger sister, Susan).
Reese, played by Justin Berfield (all 151 episodes), is the second oldest of the sons. He is two years younger than his older brother Francis, one year older than his younger brother Malcolm, six years older than his younger brother Dewey, and about 16 years older than his youngest brother Jamie. It was revealed in the episode "Flashback '', in season 2, that Reese has been vicious from the womb, so vicious in fact that when he kept kicking Lois during labor, she pushed him out by force. A complete moron from birth, Reese is the worst - behaved of the brothers. Reese is inclined to beat up the Krelboynes. He is intimidated by certain students, including Ira, a dumb jock at school. Despite his violent, idiotic nature, Reese is a culinary prodigy, after finding that he has a talent and genuine love for cooking and baking. He is also the favorite grandson of his grandmother Ida, who taught him the importance of having patsies. In the series finale, Reese moves in with Craig Feldspar and is a janitor at his alma mater North High.
Dewey, played by Erik Per Sullivan (all 151 episodes), is portrayed as being quieter and more inclined to the arts than his brothers. He soon finds he is a musical prodigy, and as the series goes on he becomes more caring and thoughtful especially in regards to his younger brother Jamie, whom he decides not to bully like he was by Malcolm and Reese. Lois remarks at one point that unlike Malcolm, who would have to work hard to achieve success, Dewey would have success handed to him. Dewey joins the Buseys, a class for the emotionally disturbed, by mistake and ends up becoming their unofficial teacher. He ended up caring for his fellow students so much that, when the mistake was uncovered, he feigned severe emotional problems so he could remain. In the final few seasons, Dewey becomes increasingly bitter towards his parents due to them overlooking him throughout his childhood and neglecting his interests. Because of this, he forces them to give Jamie the childhood he never had. In the last episode, he and Jamie (the only other remaining brother living at home) continued the tradition of causing havoc all over the house.
Jamie was played by identical twin brothers James and Lukas Rodriguez (35 episodes). The youngest brother born who is the only brother to have beaten Lois in her own game, bordering to attacking her (though Reese was mostly responsible for feeding him soda). Like Malcolm and Dewey, Jamie is revealed to be intelligent, evident when he tricked Reese into taking a marker after he colored part of the wall.
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who did elena run over in season 1 | Unpleasantville - wikipedia
"Unpleasantville '' is the twelfth episode of the first season of The CW television series, The Vampire Diaries and the twelfth episode of the series overall. It originally aired on January 28, 2010. The episode was written by Barbie Kligman and Brian Young and directed by Liz Friedlander.
Stefan (Paul Wesley) gives Elena (Nina Dobrev) jewelries filled with vervain that he made for her, family and friends to protect them. At the same time, the doorbell rings, Jeremy (Steven R. McQueen) opens the door and a delivery guy (Dillon Casey) is at the door. He invites him in and calls Elena to pay him. As the delivery guy walks away, he pulls his hoodie back on revealing that he is the vampire Elena hit with her car.
Damon (Ian Somerhalder) looks for their dad 's journal when Stefan gets in and tries to find out why Damon wanted to go to Atlanta. He asks him what Bree told him but Damon will not tell. Stefan later gives him their dad journal trying once again to find out what Damon 's after. He tells him that he 'll help him to free Katherine but Damon declines his offer.
Jeremy gets an A for his history paper while Alaric (Matt Davis) tries to see if Jeremy believes in the stories about vampires. He then asks if he could read the source Jeremy used, the journal, and Jeremy gives it to him.
Elena gives Caroline (Candice Accola) a necklace with vervain and asks about her relationship with Matt (Zach Roerig). Caroline feels awkward and tells her that they are just friends but Elena reassures her that she is fine if she wants to date him. Meanwhile, Matt gets a job at the Grill as a busboy and Damon approaches Bonnie trying to make amends since he is gon na need her for his plan. Bonnie warns him to stay away from her and the bartender Ben (Sean Faris) comes to help her get rid of Damon.
Meanwhile, Elena gets a phone call from a stranger. Elena realizes who he is (the guy she hit with her car) and when she spots him across the street she drives away. She informs Stefan about the phone call and Stefan gives her the Gilbert watch explaining her how it works.
Anna (Malese Jow) finds Jeremy at the Grill and he thanks her for her help regarding his history paper. Anna keeps talking about vampires but Jeremy still does not believe in the stories and tries to get away. Anna tries to ask him out but Jeremy leaves for the school dance. She later goes to the school dance herself and finds him, asking him for Jonathan 's journal. Jeremy says that he lent it to Alaric, something that makes Anna upset and her face change (Anna is a vampire). Jeremy notices but she tells him it is nothing and she walks away.
At the Gilbert house, Elena faces Jenna (Sara Canning) and asks the truth about her adoption. Jenna tells her that her parents helped a pregnant teenage girl to give birth but she then disappeared. Her parents were trying for a long time for a baby and they decided to keep her as their own. Her father made all the necessary paper work and when Elena asks if she knows anything more about her birth mother, Jenna says only her name; Isobel.
While Elena is getting ready for the dance, the watch is activated meaning that a vampire is close. Elena freaks out and calls Stefan immediately. Damon answers letting her know that Stefan is on his way but he forgot his cell. Elena calms down thinking that the watch was activated because of Stefan but she gets attacked by Noah. Stefan gets there in time and saves her with Noah running away.
Damon joins Stefan and Elena trying to find out what Noah wanted. Damon suggests to use Elena as a bait at the dance to find him before he comes back at the house. Elena agrees and they all leave for the dance. Elena catches up with Bonnie and Caroline and then the two girls leave the dance because they are not having fun and go to the Grill.
At the Grill, Bonnie decides to take the first step and approaches Ben asking him out. Caroline tries to do the same with Matt but he is upset with her regarding something she said to Bonnie earlier and he overheard it. Caroline apologizes but Matt tells her that he does not know if he got over Elena yet and that is why he does not want to ruin what the two of them have at the moment, their friendship. Caroline says he already did and leaves. Matt changes his mind and follows her with his car. He stops her and he finally kisses her.
Back at the dance, Elena and Stefan keep dancing while Alaric approaches Damon and introduces himself. He starts asking questions until Damon gets suspicious and Alaric backs off. In the meantime, Noah got into the dance and Anna spies him. They seem to know each other while she warns him to stay away from Elena since she is not Katherine and the Salvatores are with her. Noah does not hear her and continues his hunt for Elena. Anna tells him that she did not get the journal yet but she knows where it is.
Elena finally spots Noah and tells Stefan who goes after him but Stefan is following the wrong guy since Noah gave his hoodie to a teenage boy. He realizes that he was tricked to leave Elena alone and runs back to her. Meanwhile, Noah calls Elena and asks her to exit through the side door, otherwise he will kill Jeremy, so Elena follows his instructions. She tries to run away but Noah catches up to her in the cafeteria. The two of them struggle and the moment he is about to bite her, Stefan and Damon arrive.
Noah tries to escape but Stefan stakes him in the gut to make him suffer but not kill him, while he starts asking him what he wants. Noah explains that he is after Elena because he looks like Katherine and Damon and Stefan are surprised to know they were not the only ones Katherine played with. They do not remember Noah but he remembers them and he also gives them information that they need the "Grimoire '' to get into the tomb. They can find more info in Jonathan Gilbert 's journal. They ask him who he is working with but he will not tell, so Stefan kills him.
Anna watches the whole scene between the brothers and Noah but she hides as she hears Alaric approaching. Alaric sees the moment Stefan kills Noah and he walks away like he knows nothing. Damon follows him and compels him to tell him what he knows. Alaric, even compelled, lies to him and Damon walks away. It is revealed that Alaric, who is stunned after the confrontation, was holding vervain in his hand.
Damon and Stefan discuss what happened and suspect that Noah is not alone. Stefan tells Damon that he knows he is looking for Emily 's journal (which is the Grimiore Noah was talking about) to reverse the spell and he repeats his offer to help him free Katherine as long as he is there and the other vampires will stay behind. Damon trusts him and accepts his offer. Stefan tells Elena about his promise to Damon later at home but he informs her that his promise was a lie.
Meanwhile, Alaric walks Jenna home and asks her out for a date which Jenna accepts. While they are talking, Alaric mentions his wife 's name was Isobel and that she was from not far away from Mystic Falls. Jenna looks at him in shock, realizing that his wife is Elena 's birth mother.
The episode ends with Anna stalking Ben while he is closing the Grill and walks home. She attacks him but he fights back revealing that he is also a vampire. The supposed to be fight turns into a play and it is revealed that Ben also works with Anna and Noah and his job is to get close to Bonnie. Anna and Ben kiss before they walk away together.
In "Unpleasantville '' we can hear the songs:
In its original American broadcast, "Unpleasantville '' was watched by 3.71 million; slightly up by 0.03 from the previous episode.
"Unpleasantville '' received positive reviews.
Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic rated the episode with 4.5 / 5 saying that it was another outstanding episode that leaves people anxious about what 's to come. "There are many reasons why we love The Vampire Diaries: a hot cast, intriguing characters, suspenseful storylines. But above all, perhaps, is this: the show actually provides answers. It does n't drag out mysteries with no end in sight. Every week, viewers are treated to valuable nuggets of information, while, of course, dropping their jaws over new questions and plot developments. That 's also why we love The Vampire Diaries. This week 's episode, "Unpleasantville, '' was the perfect example of an hour that shocked fans with what we learned about both old issues and new characters. ''
Popsugar from Buzzsugar gave a good review saying that it was another fantastic, layered episode. "The Vampire Diaries hit us with its second episode since it came back from Winter hiatus, and I 'm just as impressed with "Unpleasantville '' as I was with last week 's "Bloodlines. '' ''
Lucia of Heroine TV said that the episode was a treat for her and she is glad that Caroline, finally, has a vervain necklace to protect her from Damon 's plays. "Honestly, if nothing else happened in this episode besides Caroline getting her vervain necklace, I would have been satisfied. Thankfully, however, the writers were n't stingy with the awesomeness. ''
Robin Franson Pruter from Forced Viewing rated the episode with 3 / 4 stating that it was a solid, yet unremarkable episode. "Overall, "Unpleasantville '' is n't a stand - out episode. The series has found its groove now, and "Unpleasantville '' presents an example of an average episode, typified by solid story development and character interaction. ''
Josie Kafka from Doux Reviews gave a good review to the episode rating it with 3 / 4 and Lauren Attaway from Star Pulse '' gave a B+ rate to the episode.
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what is the song ballad of jayne about | Jayne Mansfield in popular culture - wikipedia
Jayne Mansfield was an actress, singer, playmate and stage show performer who had an enormous impact on popular culture of the late 1950s despite her limited success in Hollywood. She has remained a well - known subject in popular culture ever since. During a period between 1956 and 1957, there were about 122,000 lines of copy and 2,500 photographs that appeared in newspapers. In an article on her in the St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture (1999), Dennis Russel said that "Although many people have never seen her movies, Jayne Mansfield remains, long after her death, one of the most recognizable icons of 1950s celebrity culture. '' In the 2004 novel Child of My Heart by Alice McDermott, a National Book Award winning writer, the 1950s is referred to as "in those Marilyn Monroe / Jayne Mansfield days ''. R.L. Rutsky and Bill Osgerby has claimed that it was Mansfield along with Marilyn Monroe and Brigitte Bardot who made the bikini popular.
M. Thomas Inge described Mansfield, Monroe and Jane Russell as personification of the bad girl in popular culture, as opposed to Doris Day, Debbie Reynolds and Natalie Wood personifying the good girl. Mansfield, Monroe and Barbara Windsor have been described as representations of a historical juncture of sexuality in comedy and popular culture. Evangelist Billy Graham once said, "This country knows more about Jayne Mansfield 's statistics than the Second Commandment. '' As late as the mid-1980s she remained one of the biggest TV draws. As an indication of her impact on popular culture today, there are numerous cultural references to the Hollywood sex symbol and Playboy Playmate in recent films, books, TV and music. Numerous show biz people were dubbed "Jayne Mansfield '' over the time, including Italian actress Marisa Allasio and professional wrestler Missy Hyatt.
Mansfield 's public persona and career image became another subject in popular culture. Francesca Lia Block 's Weetzie Bat books often refer to Mansfield; their characters Dirk and Weetzie watch The Girl Ca n't Help It, and the Witch Baby 's mother is part of a sinister cult that masquerades as a Jayne Mansfield fan club. In Lynda Curnyn 's 2004 novel, Bombshell, the character Grace is advised not to become a Jayne Mansfield when it is suspected that she is pregnant without a boyfriend or a husband. Mansfield 's films and events of her life also became subjects of inspiration in popular culture. In the 1963 movie, The Stripper, the aspiring stripper Lila Green, played by Joanne Woodward, is mistaken as Mansfield. In the 2005 novel Who Wrote the Book of Love? by Lee Siegel, Lucky Lee, an American boy in Southern California in the 1950s, becomes infatuated with Marilyn Monroe and Mansfield in his journey through sexual enlightenment. In the book Lucky Lee uses famous quotes from films and literature - like "Wow! What a body! '' and "Me Tarzan, you Jayne! '' In the book it is spelled Jayne instead of Jane, to make a pun to allude to Mansfield. Dutch writer Jan Cremer wrote a large part of his autobiographical novel I, Jan Cremer -- III about their relationship.
She remains a recurring character in works of fiction. In the eleventh episode of the second season of TV series Goodnight Sweetheart - titled Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea (1993) - Diana Kent plays the role of Mansfield in a time travel story. In the same episode John Evans plays the role of Winston Churchill. She also was a character in Underworld, a 2005 novel by Don DeLillo. In a 2002 detective novel by Max Allan Collins, Chicago Confidential, the series private investigator Nathan Heller falls in love with Mansfield, becomes friends with Frank Sinatra and is threatened by Joseph McCarthy.
Mansfield is also featured in numerous works of art and entertainment in general. She is mentioned in the third sketch of the 48th show of the second season of The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show (also featuring Wailing Whale episodes 5 & 6), which was first released on May 13, 1961. Mansfield also helped unveil a Rocky & Bullwinkle statue on Sunset Boulevard. On the Married... with Children season 3 episode "A Dump of My Own, '' Al Bundy says that when he was young he had two dreams and one of them was to become an astronaut and land on the planet Jayne Mansfield. In the episode of Frasier, "The Impossible Dream '', Mansfield is mentioned by Marty, stating that an example of a fun dream would be in the jungle with Jayne Mansfield and her getting bit by a snake. In the 2001 film Vixen Highway, Ann Tait plays the role of a Dr. Jayne Mansfield. Writer - artist Jack Kirby of Marvel Comics drew inspiration from the strong - woman image of Jayne Mansfield in designing the character Susan Storm of the Fantastic Four.
Mansfield 's publicity antics are another recurring theme in popular culture. On the season 32 episode of Saturday Night Live hosted by Alec Baldwin (with musical guest Christina Aguilera), one of the commercial bumpers has Alec Baldwin PhotoShopped into the famous picture of Sophia Loren staring at Mansfield 's chest at Romanoff 's in Beverly Hills. It was a direct reference to publicity stunt of Mansfield in April 1957 intended to deflect attention from Loren during a dinner party in the Italian star 's honor. Photographs of the encounter were published around the world. The most famous image showed Loren raising a contemptuous eyebrow at the American actress who, sitting between Loren and her dinner companion, Clifton Webb, had leaned over the table, allowing her breasts to spill over her low neckline and exposing one nipple. The photo of Sophia Loren sitting next to Jayne Mansfield and regarding her cleavage inspired other photographers too. In 1993, Daniela Federici created an homage with Anna Nicole Smith as Mansfield and New York City DJ Sky Nellor as Loren for a Guess Jeans campaign. Later, Mark Seliger took a picture named Heidi Klum at Romanoff 's with Heidi Klum in a reproduction of the restaurant set. The meeting between Mansfield and Anton LaVey, the founder and high priest of the Church of Satan, was a much publicized and oft quoted event of her life, as well as the history of the Church.
The fatal motor vehicle accident that claimed Mansfield 's life and spread the rumors of her decapitation had been the subject of many plots and scenes. In the film To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar, Miss Vida Boheme (Patrick Swayze) remarked while trying out a vintage yellow convertible, "I feel like Miss Jayne Mansfield in this car! '' Noxeema Jackson (Wesley Snipes) replied "Uh oh, Jayne Mansfield, not a good auto reference. '' In Severance: Stories, the 2006 story book containing 62 postmortem monologues, each 240 - words long, by Robert Olen Butler, a Pulitzer Award winning writer, Mansfield 's death is included along with James Dean, John the Baptist, Maximilien Robespierre, Marie Antoinette, Cicero and others. The underride guard, a strong bar made of steel tubing fitted underneath the rear portion of a semi-trailer, is also known as a Mansfield bar, commemorating her accident that occurred before the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act required underride guards on semi-trailers.
In the 1994 film Leprechaun 2, directed by Rodman Flender, a character degrades the leprechaun by saying, "If hearing the actual sound of Jayne Mansfield 's head being severed from her body is too intense for you, well then, you know, more power to ya. '' The accident is also referred to in the 1998 film One of Them. In Money, Love: A Novel by Brad Barkley, the character Roman organizes a show of Celebrity Death Cars, including that of Dean and Mansfield, to win back his love interest Gladys. In the song Movie Star by the rock band Cracker sang, "Well the movie star, well she crashed her car, but everyone said she was beautiful even without her head, everyone said she was dangerous '', making an allusion to the accident. In the 2003 single, "Overdrive, '' Katy Rose sang, "I 'm sitting in Jayne Mansfield 's car. '' The Hollywood Forever Cemetery, where her cenotaph is located, is described as one of the sights to see in California by the regional tourist guide by Lonely Planet. In the episode In Escrow of Dead Like Me, George orders a "Jayne Mansfield '' for breakfast. When Kiffany the waitress gives George her order it is a pastry in the shape of breasts with blueberries as nipples. Daisy refers to the breakfast as "... blueberry muffins with their tops cut off, '' making reference to the urban legend of how Mansfield died.
In David Cronenberg 's 1996 film Crash (based on J.G. Ballard 's 1973 novel of the same name), a male stunt driver dressed as Mansfield recreates her fatal accident, killing himself in the process. His partner, a fellow celebrity - crash aficionado, comes across the scene of the wreck and says, "You did the Jayne Mansfield crash without me? '' Differing from the book, the storyline of the film revolves around these two partners recreating fatal celebrity disasters, in the name of a project they call retrospectives, including those of James Dean, Grace Kelly, Albert Camus and John F. Kennedy. The film was nominated for the Golden Palm at the Cannes Film Festival; it instead won the Special Jury Prize for daring, audacity, and originality.
Physical features of the "voluptuous '' actress became subjects of humor or fascination in popular culture in a number of ways. In a 1950s Trans World Airlines (TWA) advertisement Mansfield is shown in a low - cut bodice, facing TWA crews, with the copy reading "quite... roomy... perfect ''. She came to be known as "the Cleavage Queen '' and "the Queen of Sex and Bosom ''. As early as in 1959, Harry Carlson, co-founder of Fraternity Records, marketed Jayne Mansfield water bottles shaped after her curves.
Her bosom was so much a part of her public persona that talk - show host Jack Paar once welcomed the actress to The Tonight Show by saying, "Here they are, Jayne Mansfield '', a line written for Paar by Dick Cavett that became the title of her biography by Raymond Strait. Joan Jacobs Brumberg describes the 1950s as "an era distinguished by its worship of full - breasted women '' and attributes the paradigm shift to Mansfield and Monroe. Almost half a century after her death, a biographer of Nikolaus Pevsner (a German - born writer on British architecture), noted the improbable coincidence that Pevsner and Mansfield had once stayed at the same hotel in Bolton, Lancashire. There, she had "electrified the dining room with her imposing bosom ''. Patricia Vettel - Becker makes that observation more specific by attributing the phenomenon to Playboy and the appearance of Mansfield and Monroe in the magazine. Anita Ekberg and Bettie Page are also added to the list of catalysts besides Mansfield and Monroe. Drawing on the Freudian concept of fetishism, British science fiction writer and socio - cultural commentator J.G. Ballard commented that Mae West, Mansfield and Monroe 's breasts "loomed across the horizon of popular consciousness. ''
Only Hearts founder and head designer Helena Stuart commented, "She was the first one that was really that big. Without the bra, it would n't have worked. There was a whole lot there to be held in and pushed up. '' It has been claimed that her bosom was a major force behind the development of the 1950s brassieres, including the "Whirlpool bra '', Cuties, the "Shutter bra '', the "Action bra '', latex pads, cleavage revealing designs and uplift outline.
In the short story by Graham Greene, May we borrow your husband?, a character comments on her breasts as, "Everybody could grow them big except me. I am no Jayne Mansfield, I can tell you. '' In the 2001 fiction and poetry collection of Zaffi Gousopoulos, The I.V. Lounge Reader, a character tries out lipsticks in Mansfield colors and lifting underwear to emphasize her femininity. "All women aspire to be Jayne Mansfield '', says a character in Drake Worthington 's 2002 book, St. Vincent 's Manhattan, while trying out a bra. In the Seinfeld episode "The Implant '' Jerry quips "you know that Jayne Mansfield had some big breasts! '' to girlfriend Sidra (Teri Hatcher) as he tries to figure out if her breasts are in fact real. Mansfield Domes are the unofficial names of two prominent granite mounds located in Yosemite National Park. In Toni Morrison 's Beloved a character comments "Yeah, while I 'm nursing. I feel like Jayne Mansfield '' when her son comments on how big her breasts are.
Mansfield 's derrière is also repeatedly referred to in popular culture. On an episode of Gilmore Girls, Lorelai goes fishing with Alex. She catches a fish, brings it home and names it Jayne Mansfield because she had a "great tail switch. '' In a sketch entitled The Worst Job I Ever ' Ad in the 1976 LP Derek and Clive Live by comedians Peter Cook and Dudley Moore, known as Derek and Clive, Clive (Cook) had the terrible job of retrieving lobsters from Mansfield 's derrière. In The Broom of the System, a novel by David Foster Wallace, much of the story happens in East Corinth, a Cleveland suburb designed to look like Mansfield 's curves from a bird 's eye view.
Mansfield became an inspiration for musicians in the punk rock genre. The Mansfields are a punk band who took their name from the actress and released titles "Jayne 's Laugh '' and "Jayne Mansfield Was A Punk ''. St. Jayne, a punk band from Cleveland, Ohio was also named after her. Another band of the genre called itself Jane Mansfield 's Head in 1980s. In 1989, the band L.A. Guns released "The Ballad of Jayne '' and the next year the cyberpunk band Sigue Sigue Sputnik released "Hey Jane Mansfield Superstar! ''. Masons, a punk band from Tucson, Arizona, toured in 2000 playing three songs dedicated to her -- "Bombshell, '' "Crash My Car '' and "The Witch. '' The Motors, a British pub rock / punk band, had their billboard campaign I lost my head over The Motors, which featured a picture of Jayne Mansfield, banned. German punk band The Bates has recorded a tune called "The Lips of Jayne Mansfield, '' featured in the 1990 album Shake. The Dave Brothers, a punk rock band in the late 1990s had a Sunday show on radio station KRCL (106 FM, later taken over by KCGL) called the Church of Jayne Mansfield and distributed her posters for promotion. The Village Voice, a newspaper, compared punk pornographer Bruce LaBruce to Mansfield. Marc Bolan, one of the most influential artists of glam rock that spawned the punk, compared the demise of Elvis Presley to Jayne Mansfield. The Japanese female garage punk band The 5.6. 7.8 's wrote a song titled "I Walk Like Jayne Mansfield, '' which is featured in the movie Kill Bill Vol. 1, directed by Quentin Tarantino. Katy Rose mentions Mansfield in her song "Overdrive '', a song that was featured in the trailer for the movie Mean Girls, directed by Mark Waters.
The alternative rock band Siouxsie and the Banshees picked the title of Billboard Top 100 hit single "Kiss Them for Me '' (included in their 1991 's album Superstition) from Mansfield 's 1957 film Kiss Them for Me. Lyrics of the song uses Mansfield 's catchword "divoon '', and refers to her heart - shaped swimming pool, her love of champagne and parties, and to the grisly automobile accident which claimed her life in 1967. In Grok, a novel by Tom Maremaa, a character plays the CD and asks, "Yes, kiss them for me -- I may be delayed. '' "Too Hot To Handle '', the UFO song considered to one of the top 500 heavy metal songs, takes its title from a Jayne Mansfield film. Mansfield is also alluded in the song "The Actor '' by Robbie Williams, from the album "Rudebox ''. Alternative rock band The Chills released "16 Heartthrobs '' as a memorial to Mansfield. In 1997, Courtney Love of the alternative rock band Hole used a photo of Mansfield 's wrecked car in the album artwork for the group 's compilation album, My Body, the Hand Grenade.
The men 's magazine Playboy ignited her career, and she was featured in numerous issues. It has been conjectured that Playboy was a pioneer in starting an American "breast fetish '' which has exaggerated the importance of large breasts, in which both Jayne Mansfield and Marilyn Monroe, featured in the early issues of the magazine, played significant roles. Playboy ' pictorials of Mansfield and Monroe were part of the emerging trend that gave birth to the large - breasted feminine ideal and men 's magazines including Rogue, Nugget and Dude. Numerous other magazines featured her on the cover. These include: Hollywood Studio Magazine: Then And Now (May 1987, Volume 20, No. 5.), Life Magazine (April 23, 1956), Modern Man: The Adult Picture Magazine (March 1966), Photo-Rama Magazine (Volume 6, No. 16) and Playboy (June 1963).
The poem "Elegy for Jayne Mansfield, July 1967 '', by Karen Lindsey, was included in the feminist anthology Sisterhood is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings From The Women 's Liberation Movement, edited by Robin Morgan.
Mansfield posed nude for the February 1955 issue of Playboy, which helped launch her career and increased the magazine 's circulation; Playboy had begun publishing from publisher -- editor Hugh Hefner 's kitchen the year before. In 1964, the magazine repeated the pictorial. Photos from that pictorial was reprinted in a number of Playboy issues, including: December 1965 ("The Playboy Portfolio of Sex Stars ''), January 1979 ("25 Beautiful Years ''), January 1984 ("30 Memorable Years ''), January 1989 ("Women Of The Fifties ''), January 1994 ("Remember Jayne ''), November 1996 ("Playboy Gallery ''), August 1999 ("Playboy 's Sex Stars of the Century ''; Special edition), and January 2000 ("Centerfolds Of The Century ''). In the Lee Siegel novel Who Wrote the Book of Love?, the character Lucky Lee turns the issue of Playboy into a bribe to meet a girl.
In 1963, Hugh Hefner unexpectedly noticed photographs that Bill Kobrin had taken of Jayne Mansfield and asked him to shoot her centerfold for Playboy. In June of that year, photos in which she appeared naked on the set of the film Promises! Promises! were used in a series of photographs that were published in a Playboy pictorial (titled The Nudest Jayne Mansfield). The pictorial was printed with a description that went, "enjoying the luxuries of a bubble bath and a double bed ''. It included pictures that shows Mansfield staring at her breast, as does T.C. Jones (Babbette, a female impersonator hair stylist), then grasping it in her hand and lifting it high. That issue of the magazine was banned, and publisher Hugh Hefner was arrested by the Chicago police in June 1963; it was the only time in his life that Hefner was ever arrested. The trial resulted in a hung jury that voted 7 to 5 for acquittal. Copies of the issue reportedly sold for as much as $10 each. Since that Jayne Mansfield fiasco, Playboy was scrutinized by the Customs Department issue - by - issue until 1967, and they found 51 issues out of 51 objectionable. The heavy publicity of Promises! Promises! in the July 1963 issue of Playboy and advanced blurbs on Playboy put Mansfield 's name out as a major box office draw, though reviews of the film were next to disastrous.
Playboy issues featuring Mansfield include February 1955 (Playmate of the Month), February 1956, February 1957, February 1958, December 1958, February 1960 (The best of Jayne Mansfield), June 1963 (the issue that had Hugh Hefner arrested), Annual 1964 (first issue of The best of Playboy), December 1965, Newsstand Special 1989 (100 Beautiful Women), January 1994 and Newsstand Special 1999 (45th Anniversary Special), as well as the Playboy calendar in 1959. In the February 1958 issue of the magazine the pictorial titled "The nude Jayne Mansfield '' included pictures of a teen - age, brunette Jayne posing nude for an art class and her pictures with Sophia Loren.
In 1980, a TV film was made on her life -- The Jayne Mansfield Story -- which was nominated for three Emmy Awards in the categories for hair, makeup and costume. In the film directed by Dick Lowry, Mansfield is played by Loni Anderson and her husband Mickey Hargitay is played by Arnold Schwarzenegger. She was featured in the A&E Television Networks TV series Biography in an episode titled Jayne Mansfield: Blonde Ambition. The TV series won an Emmy Award in outstanding non-fiction TV series category in 2001. A&E again featured her life in another TV serial titled Dangerous Curves in 1999. In 1988, her story and archival footage was a part of TV documentary Hollywood Sex Symbols. The first film documentary on her, The Wild, Wild World of Jayne Mansfield, started with herself working in the film, but it was finished in 1968 after her death and had to make use of archival footage. Fans of trash documentaries made a cult out of this film.
Numerous books has been written on her life and career. These include: Jayne Mansfield (May Mann; Pocket; 1974), Jayne Mansfield: A biography (May Mann; Abelard - Schuman; 1974), The tragic secret life of Jayne Mansfield (Raymond Strait; Regnery; 1974), Jayne Mansfield and the American fifties (Martha Saxton; Houghton Mifflin; 1975), Jayne Mansfield (Jean - Pierre Jackson; Edilig; 1984), Sexbomb: The Life and Death of Jayne Mansfield (Guus Luitjters, Gerard Timmer; Citadel; 1988), Here They Are Jayne Mansfield (Raymond Strait, S.P.I. Books; 1992), Jayne Mansfield Vs. Mamie Van Doren: Battle of the Blondes (A Pictorial History) (Alan Betrock; Shake Books; 1993), Jayne Mansfield: A Bio-Bibliography (Jocelyn Faris; Greenwood Press; 1994), Man Enough to Be Woman (Jayne County, Rupert Smith; Serpent 's Tail; 1996), Sex Lives of the Hollywood Goddesses 2 (Nigel Cawthorne; Prion; 2004), Diamonds to Dust: The Life and Death of Jayne Mansfield (Frank Ferruccio; Outskirts Press; 2007, and Did Success Spoil Jayne Mansfield?: Her Life in Pictures & Text (Frank Ferruccio; Outskirts Press; 2010).
There are currently plans to make a new film of Mansfield 's life, although little progress has been made. Over the years several directors including Gus Van Sant, Brian DePalma and Catherine Hardwicke have expressed interest in making a biopic of Mansfield. Universal is apparently planning a film and reportedly has a list of actresses and models being considered to play Mansfield, including Ashley Benson, Sienna Miller, Holly Madison, Kate Upton, Kelly Rohrbach, Marisa Miller, Dakota Blue Richards, Hailey Clauson, Holly Willoughby and Charlotte McKinney.
After Mansfield 's death, the documentary The Wild, Wild World of Jayne Mansfield (1968) included nude scenes from the film and pages from the Playboy pictorial, along with scenes from her other films including Too Hot to Handle (1960), The Loves of Hercules (1960) and L'Amore Primitivo (1964). Promises! Promises! was presented for the first time on television in its uncut form in 1984 on the Playboy Channel. A VHS release soon followed but was only briefly in print. On February 14, 2006, VCI Video released the film on DVD with extras such as original trailers and a gallery of stills from the Playboy issue along with never before released lobby cards.
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one day on the moon is the same length as one month on earth | Lunar day - wikipedia
A lunar day is the period of time for Earth 's Moon to complete one rotation on its axis with respect to the Sun. Due to tidal locking, it is also the time the Moon takes to complete one orbit around Earth and return to the same phase. A lunar month is the period between two new moons and lasts about 29.5 days.
Relative to the fixed stars on the celestial sphere, the Moon takes 27 Earth days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and 12 seconds to complete one orbit; however, since the Earth -- Moon system advances around the Sun at the same time, the Moon must travel further to return to the same phase. On average, this synodic period lasts 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 seconds. This is the mean figure since the speed of the Earth -- Moon system around the Sun varies slightly during a year due to the eccentricity of its elliptical orbit, variances in orbital velocity, and a number of other periodic and evolving variations about its observed, relative, mean values, which are influenced by the gravitational perturbations of the Sun and other bodies in the Solar System.
As a result, daylight at a given point on the Moon would last approximately two weeks from beginning to end, followed by approximately two weeks of night.
In some lunar calendars, such as the Hindu calendar, a lunar day, or tithi, is defined as 1 / 30th of a lunar month, or the time it takes for the longitudinal angle between the Moon and the Sun to increase by 12 degrees. By this definition, lunar days generally vary in duration.
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where does the icknield way start and finish | Icknield Way - wikipedia
Coordinates: 51 ° 50 ′ 40 '' N 0 ° 36 ′ 12 '' W / 51.8445 ° N 0.6034 ° W / 51.8445; - 0.6034
The Icknield Way is an ancient trackway in southern and eastern England that goes from Norfolk to Wiltshire. It follows the chalk escarpment that includes the Berkshire Downs and Chiltern Hills.
It is generally said to be, within Great Britain, one of the oldest roads of which the route can still be traced, being one of the few long - distance trackways to have existed before the Romans occupied the country. However, this has been disputed, and the evidence for its being a prehistoric route has been questioned.
The name is Celto - British in derivation, and may be named after the Iceni tribe. They may have established this route to permit trade with other parts of the country from their base in East Anglia. It has also been suggested that the road has older prehistoric origins. The name is also said to have been initially used for the part to the west and south (i.e. south of the River Thames) but now refers usually to the track or traces north of the Thames.
From ancient times, at least as early as the Iron Age period (before the Roman invasion of 43 AD) and through Anglo - Saxon times, it stretched from Berkshire through Oxfordshire and crossed the River Thames at Cholsey, near Wallingford.
The earliest mentions of the Icknield Way are in Anglo - Saxon charters from the year 903 onwards. The oldest surviving copies were made in the 12th and 13th centuries, and these use the spellings Ic (c) enhilde weg, Icenhylte, Icenilde weg, Ycenilde weg and Icenhilde weg. The charters refer to locations at Wanborough, Hardwell in Uffington, Lockinge, Harwell, Blewbury and Risborough, which span a distance of 40 miles from Wiltshire to Buckinghamshire.
The Icknield Way was one of four highways that appear in the literature of the 1130s. Henry of Huntingdon wrote that the Ermine Street, Fosse Way, Watling Street and Icknield Way had been constructed by royal authority. The Leges Edwardi Confessoris gave royal protection to travellers on these roads, and the Icknield Way was said to extend across the width of the kingdom. Geoffrey of Monmouth elaborated the story by saying that Belinus had improved the four roads so that it was clear that they were the protected highways.
Around 1250, the Four Highways were shown by Matthew Paris on a diagramatic map of Britain called Scema Britannie. The Icknield Way is depicted by a straight line from Salisbury (i.e., Old Sarum) to Bury St Edmunds which intersects the other three roads near Dunstable.
In the 14th century, Ranulf Higdon described a different route for the Icknield Way: from Winchester to Tynemouth by way of Birmingham, Lichfield, Derby, Chesterfield and York. This route includes the Roman road running from Bourton - on - the - Water to Templeborough near Rotherham, which is now called Icknield Street (or Ryknild Street) to distinguish it from the Icknield Way.
In many places the track consists or consisted of several routes, particularly as it passes along the line of the escarpment of the Chilterns, probably because of the seasonal usage, and possibly the amount of traffic especially of herds or flocks of livestock.
To the west the track can be detected below the escarpments of the Berkshire Downs. Near Wantage, the route along the ridge of the Downs is known as The Ridgeway, and the name Icknield Way is applied to a parallel lowland route above the spring - line at the northern edge of the chalk. Between Lewknor and Ivinghoe there are two parallel courses known as the Lower Icknield Way and the Upper Icknield Way. In Cambridgeshire, Street Way (Ashwell Street), Ditch Way and others have been put forward as variant routes, possibly for use in summer or winter.
Many modern roads follow the Icknield Way, for example the B489 from Aston Clinton to Dunstable and the A505 from Baldock to Royston. In some places, especially from the east of Luton in Bedfordshire to Ickleford (so named from the Way crossing a stream) near Hitchin in Hertfordshire, the route is followed by minor roads, and is not distinguishable at all in many places, except by landscape features such as barrows and mounds which line the route, and indentation presumably from ancient and frequent use. It could be described as a belt studded with archaeological sites found at irregular intervals.
The Icknield Way used to form part of the boundary between Hertfordshire and Cambridgeshire, and at one time Royston was cut in two by this boundary. Royston is where the Icknield Way crosses Ermine Street.
In the south - west some writers take the Way to Exeter, while others only take it as far as Salisbury. To the north - east, Icklingham, Suffolk, and Caistor - by - Norwich, Yarmouth and Hunstanton, Norfolk have all been proposed as the destination. In support of the western route, a road at Dersingham near Hunstanton was named Ykenildestrethe and Ikelynge Street in the 13th century.
Modern long - distance footpaths have been created from Lyme Regis on the Dorset coast to Holme - next - the - Sea on the Norfolk coast, following the general line of the Icknield Way.
The Hobhouse Committee report of 1947 suggested the creation of a path between Seaton Bay and the Chiltern ridge, and in 1956 Tom Stephenson proposed a longer route to Cambridge. A route through Norfolk was discussed in the 1960s.
The first section to be officially designated as a Long - Distance Footpath (as National Trails were then known) was that from Overton Hill to Ivinghoe Beacon, and it was declared open as the Ridgeway in 1973. The Peddars Way, from Knettishall Heath to Holme - next - the - Sea, forms part of the Peddars Way and Norfolk Coast Path National Trail, which was opened as a Long Distance Route in 1986. Between the Ridgeway and Peddars Way, parts of the original line of the Icknield Way had been covered in tarmac or built over, so a route was devised that avoids walking on roads. In 1992 this was designated by the Countryside Commission as a Regional Route called the Icknield Way Path. The Wessex Ridgeway from Lyme Regis to Marlborough was declared open by Dorset County Council in 1994.
Charles Thurstan Shaw, archaeologist and long - distance walker, founded the Icknield Way Association which campaigned to reopen the entire Icknield Way as a long - distance path in 1984, the same year he produced the first walker 's guide to the route.
The author Ray Quinlan has combined most of the Wessex Ridgeway, the Ridgeway National Trail, the Icknield Way Path, the Peddars Way, and a small part of the Norfolk Coast Path to form a path that he calls the Greater Ridgeway, with a length of approximately 584 km (363 miles) from Lyme Regis to Hunstanton.
Parts of the Ridgeway National Trail and the Icknield Way Path are only usable as a footpath, so the Icknield Way Path Riders Route or Icknield Way Trail have been created for horseriders and cyclists. The route runs from Bledlow to Roudham Heath, where it joins the Peddars Way Riders Route.
The Icknield Way has inspired a number of writers and artists. Spencer Gore, the founder of the Camden Town Group of artists, painted the route in 1912 while staying with his friend Harold Gilman at Letchworth. His work, influenced by Cezanne, van Gogh and Gauguin, is acknowledged as one of the pioneering works of British Modernism. One of the best known literary travellers of the Icknield Way is the poet Edward Thomas, who walked the path in 1911 and published his account in 1913. Thomas was interested in ancient roads and inspired by Hilaire Belloc 's Old Road and other travel memoirs published by Constable written by R. Hippisley Cox, Harold J.E. Peake and others. Although the book takes the form of a single 10 - day journey, Thomas wrote the book in stages over the course of a year. He was often joined by his brother Julian, both rising at 5am or 6am to walk 30 or 40 miles a day. Although more interested in poetic description, his publisher directed him to give more concrete details of his route, thus the book is closer to being a guidebook than Thomas ' earlier, more poetic, travel books. Inspired by Thomas 's journey, contemporary British nature writer, Robert MacFarlane, begins his book of walking ancient paths, The Old Ways, by walking the Icknield Way, "hoping to summon him (Thomas) by walking where he had walked. '' George R.R. Martin used the ' Four Highways ' as the model for the Kingsway in his Songs of Ice and Fire novels.
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who wrote sorry seems to be the hardest word | Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word - wikipedia
"Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word '' is a song written by Elton John and Bernie Taupin. It was recorded by Elton John and released in 1976, both as a single and as part of the Blue Moves album. It was John 's second single released by The Rocket Record Company. The song is a mournful ballad about a romantic relationship which is falling apart. The song is in the key of G melodic minor and G harmonic minor.
The song also appeared the following year on Greatest Hits Volume II, though for copyright reasons it no longer appears on the current version of that album. It now appears on Greatest Hits 1976 -- 1986, The Very Best of Elton John and in Greatest Hits 1970 -- 2002, as well as a number of other compilations.
The song is also featured prominently in the 1977 movie Slap Shot.
In December 2015, the song was used in a US holiday - themed commercial for Temptation cat treats.
The song was a Top 20 hit, reaching No. 11 in the United Kingdom, No. 6 in the United States and No. 3 in Canada. In addition, the song went to No. 1 on the Easy Listening chart. In the US, it was certified Gold on 25 January 1977 by the RIAA.
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The song was covered in 2002 by English boy band Blue for their second studio album, One Love (2002). The song was recorded as a collaboration with Elton John, and was the second single from the album. It peaked at number one on the UK Singles Chart on 15 December 2002.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
"Sorry Seems to be the Hardest Word '' has been covered by a wide variety of artists from country to R&B. It has been recorded as a duet, in Spanish, and has even featured Elton John himself on a couple of versions.
In 1991, Joe Cocker covered this song.
In 1992, Argentine singer Pedro Aznar used the music to Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word and wrote his own lyrics to record a Spanish version with the title Ya no hay forma de pedir perdón ("There is n't a way to ask for forgiveness '').
In 1994, country singers Suzy Bogguss and Chet Atkins covered the song on their 1994 Simpatico. It was released as a single but failed to chart.
In 2002, the boy band Blue recorded the song with Elton John (who received a featured artist credit). This version was produced by multi-platinum producer Ray Ruffin and was a hit throughout Europe and went to No. 1 in the UK, where it received a Silver sales certification and sold 315,000 copies.
In 2004, Elton John and Ray Charles performed the song on Charles ' duet album, Genius Loves Company. It would turn out to be the last recording Charles ever did before his death that June. The duet was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals.
Also in 2004, Mary J. Blige covered the song as part of the Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason movie soundtrack.
In 2004, Kenny G and Richard Marx covered the song on At Last... The Duets Album.
In 2012, the Australian electron pop duo Pnau, signed by Elton John to his own management company, Rocket Music, produced a remix album of eight Elton tracks. The lead single of this album was Sad, which sampled Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word.
The single was the lead single for the eight - track remix compilation Good Morning to the Night in collaboration with Australian remixer Pnau, which came out on 16 July 2012.
The "so sad '' lyric, alongside with elements of previous hits was merged into Elton John 's new single "Sad '', which had its first play on Magic 105.4 on 9 July 2012.
Discography
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the ludovisi battle sarcophagus reflects what transition in roman cultural funerary customs | Ludovisi battle sarcophagus - wikipedia
The Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus or "Great '' Ludovisi sarcophagus is an ancient Roman sarcophagus dating to around AD 250 -- 260 from a tomb near the Porta Tiburtina. It is also known as the Via Tiburtina Sarcophagus, though other sarcophagi have been found there. It is known for its densely populated, anti-classical composition of "writhing and highly emotive '' Romans and Goths, and is an example of the battle scenes favored in Roman art during the Crisis of the Third Century. Discovered in 1621 and named for its first modern owner, Ludovico Ludovisi, the sarcophagus is now displayed at the Palazzo Altemps in Rome, part of the National Museum of Rome.
The sarcophagus is a late outlier in a group of about twenty - five late Roman battle sarcophagi, the others all apparently dating to 170 - 210, made in Rome or in some cases Athens. These derive from Hellenistic monuments from Pergamon in Asia Minor showing Pergamene victories over the Gauls, and were all presumably commissioned for military commanders. The Portonaccio sarcophagus is the best known and most elaborate of the main Antonine group and shows both considerable similarities to the Great Ludovisi sarcophagus, and a considerable contrast in style and mood.
The sarcophagus measures 1.53 m in height and is made from Proconnesian marble, a medium characterized by dark gray stripes and a medium to coarse grain. It is decorated in a very high relief with many elements of the composition cut completely free of the background. Overlapping figures entirely fill the image space, allowing no room to depict a background. In many battle sarcophagi the side panels show more tranquil scenes, but here the battle continues round both sides.
The lid of the sarcophagus depicts barbarian children handed over to a Roman general by men presumably their fathers. Children were sometimes taken into Roman custody as pledges of peace, and might be reeducated as Romans. The lid, which was broken in 1945 while on display in Mainz, also shows a bust of a female figure.
The central figure of the tortuous composition on the front is a young Roman military commander on horseback, presumed to represent the deceased. His face is serene, and his arm is extended confidently in a "gesture which is difficult to interpret but seems to be one of farewell ''. An X-mark on his forehead has been interpreted as the cross received by initiates into the Mithraic mysteries as a sign of the god Mithras ' favor. The Mithraic religion was popular among Roman soldiers. The valor (virtus) shown by the horseman may represent real - life bravery on the battlefield, but the religious connotation of the X may suggest victory over death, a theme of mounted warriors in funerary art. The horseman probably represents the deceased.
The figure is sometimes identified as the younger son of the emperor Decius, Hostilian, who reigned briefly in the year 251. Decius and his older son, Herennius, whom he had made his co-ruler, were killed in battle against a federation of Scythians under the command of the Gothic king Cniva. They were the first Roman emperors to die in battle at the hands of a foreign enemy. Despite the battle imagery, Hostilian himself died of plague.
The sarcophagus contains many precise depictions of military details such as the draco military standard and a detailed mail shirt of the longer length characteristic of the period.
The undercutting of the deep relief exhibits virtuosic and very time - consuming drill work that conveys chaos and a sense of weary, open - ended victory. It differs from earlier battle scenes on sarcophagi in which more shallowly carved figures are less convoluted and intertwined. Describing it as "the finest of the third - century sarcophagi '', art historian Donald Strong says:
The faces are strikingly unclassical, and the technique of deep drilling is particularly obvious in the manes of the horses and the shaggy hair of the barbarians. But the main difference (to the Portonaccio sarcophagus, a similar 2nd - century work) is in the symbolism. The barbarians all seem frozen in the moment before disaster and death overwhelm them; their attitudes are highly theatrical but none the less immensely expressive... The main theme is no longer the glorification of military prowess but that of transcending the struggle, presumably conveying the notion of triumph over death... The ugliness of pain and suffering is stressed by the dishevelled hair, the tormented eyes, the twisted mouth.
The carving is so deep that the forms are almost completely offset from the background resulting in three, or even four, layers of various figures and forms. What is more, overlapping figures fill the image space entirely, allowing no room to depict a background. Thus, the sense of space has been eliminated, giving rise to chaos and a sense of weary, open - ended victory. The effect of movement in the scene is evident and, unlike many battle sarcophagi which have more tranquil scenes on the side panels, the battle events continue all the way around the sarcophagus. The perspective constructed is also notable, although certainly not linear.
From the time of the reign of the Antonine emperors, Roman art increasingly depicted battles as chaotic, packed, single - plane scenes presenting dehumanized barbarians mercilessly subjugated by Roman military might, at a time when in fact the Roman Empire was undergoing constant invasions from external threats that led to the fall of the empire in the West. Although armed, the barbarian warriors, usually identified as Goths, are depicted as helpless to defend themselves. Various aspects of the execution of the work accentuate the contrast between the Romans and the Goths. The Roman figures are all clean - shaven and wear armour and helmets, which distinguish them clearly from the Goths, who are unarmoured and wear distinctive clothing, beards, and hairstyles. The Romans are given a nobler appearance with idealised physical features which contrast with the Goths who are almost caricatures, with enlarged noses, pronounced cheekbones, and wild expressions on their faces. The alternation of light / dark accentuates the contrast between the two groups. Shadows and deep carving are mostly found in the faces and hair of the Goths whereas the smooth surface of the marble is reserved for the Romans, who are less deeply carved.
Differences in scale between the figures, though present, are far less marked than in the earlier Portonaccio sarcophagus, such that the general is only slightly larger than his troops or enemies. Nor is the general seen wearing a helmet or in actual combat, as in the earlier sarcophagi.
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what letter grade is 24 out of 40 | Grading systems by country - wikipedia
This is a list of grading systems used by countries of the world, first organized by continent, with links to specifics in many entries.
Nigeria Academic Grading
Most universities follow a model based on the British system. Thus, at the University of Cape Town and the University of South Africa (UNISA), the percentages are calibrated as follows: a 1st class pass is given for75 % and above, a second (division one) for 70 - 74 %, a second (division two) for 60 % - 69 %, and a third for 50 - 59 %. Any lower than 50 % is a fail. The University of the Witwatersrand considers an A to be 75 % and above.
Different countries in Asia have a variety of grading scales. Grading scales for some countries in Asia are described in this article.
University
Below are the percentages and their grade and GPA equivalents
University:
Indian Universities follow a Percentage System and Indian Institutes of Technology follow a 10 - point GPA System. The Percentage System works as:
* At selected India institutions, a lower percentage may be considered passing.
The eight - point GPA introduced by University of Mumbai from Academic year 2012 -- 13 is categorized as follows:
The 10 - point GPA followed by Indian Institutes of Technology is categorized as follows:
Some universities follow weighted average pattern to calculate percentage: 1st and 2nd Semester -- 40 % of the aggregate marks, 3rd and 4th Semester -- 60 % of the aggregate marks, 5th and 6th Semester -- 80 % of the aggregate marks, 7th and 8th Semester -- 100 % of the aggregate marks.
International Grade Conversion by World Education Services for Percentages scored in Indian Universities.
* At selected institutions, a lower grade may be considered passing.
Until high school, an averaged percentage is provided. A percentage over 90 is considered excellent; between 70 - 89 is considered to be ' first division '; between 50 - 69 is considered to be ' second division ', between 40 - 49 is considered to be pass; though these terminologies and classifications depend on the ' board of education '.
Another Good Institution Grading System:
The highest score receivable at schools and universities is 100. Depending on the school and the grade of study, a good mark varies, but in most occasions 75 or higher is considered to be a good one.
In schools, grades are based on 20. Depending on the school and the grade of study, a good mark varies, but in most occasions 16 or higher is considered to be a good one.
This system of grading based on 20 is also common in universities, but sometimes percent scoring is also used in higher educational systems.
Most of the primary, middle and high schools in Iraq grade out of 100 percent with a passing grade of 50 percent, So the grade - point average is out of 100. Most of the post-secondary institutions (universities, colleges, technical colleges... etc.) uses the "word '' grading system described below:
The 100 - point grading scale is as follows:
In Japan, following the reorganization of national universities in 2004, the Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture has encouraged both public and private universities to adopt a GPA system.
Other higher education institutions give grades on a scale from 0 -- 100 or a few universities apply letter grades. While for years an "A '' grade range was from 80 to 100 points, some schools (for example, at Kurume University) have started to give the 90 to 100 point range a special grade to indicate excellence. A failing grade is generally called an "E '', though some institutions use "F ''.
According to standardized credit system accepted in the Republic of Kazakhstan, the measurements of varying levels of comprehension in the realm of higher education in the Republic of Kazakhstan are the following:
Kuwait employs a four - point grading system and percentages.
Kyrgyzstan employs a five - point grading system:
The Lebanese schools follow either the French grading system or the American grading system. Most schools use a 0 -- 20 scale where the passing grade is 10 out of 20 (Minimum passing grade may be as low as 7). It depends on the programme the school is offering: if French / Lebanese Baccalaureate the 0 - 20 scale is used with some exceptions (Some schools offer the Lebanese baccalaureate but instead of the 0 - 20 scale a 100 - point scale is used) IB schools unanimously use a 100 - point scale if not an American grading scale (Refer to the American grading system).
In the typical school offering a Lebanese curriculum (to which the outcome is a Lebanese Baccalaureate) getting high grades is very hard because teachers do not use the full scale. For instance the highest score one can earn in essay writing in some schools is 14 out of 20 (with the class averaging 9 or 10). Each subject has a weight and thus contributes differently towards the overall score: the "General Average '' (Taken from the French Moyenne Générale). This weight is determined by the credit hours. For instance math (6hours / week) x 20 (the base grade) = 120 (weight) Example: Sample grades: (Maths 13.33 / 20, English 13.4 / 20, Biology 8.25 / 20)
English: 5 credits × 13.4 = 67 out of possible 100
Math: 6 credits × 13.33 = 79.98 out of possible 120
Biology: 2 credits × 8.25 = 16.5 out of possible 40
Total points earned = 163.48 out of possible 260
General Average / Moyenne Générale 12.575 (Considered a good average, a B+ if not A - US Equivalent since the standards are different: Grade 12 in Lebanese Baccalaureate or French Baccalaureate is equivalent to a US College Freshman, moreover all Lebanese programmes include 3 Languages and a total of 18 subjects yearly with summer homework) Students Graduating Lebanese or French Bacc. enter universities as sophomores not freshmen and can complete their degrees in 3 years.
U.S. Equivalence Scale / U.S. Grade Equiv. 14 -- 20 / A+ 13 -- 13.9 / A 11 -- 12.9 / B+ 10 -- 10.9 / B 9.5 -- 9.9 / B − 9.1 -- 9.4 / C+ 9 / C 8 -- 8.9 / C − 6.5 -- 7.9 / D Below 6 / F
In some universities the American grading system is used. Others use the 0 -- 100 scale where the passing grade is 60 or 70 depending on the course. French system universities use the 0 -- 20 grading scale.
Malaysia has its own educational grading system. Different level and institution of education uses different grading scheme. This is an example of grading system practiced in a university in Malaysia.
Until high school, an averaged percentage is provided. A percentage over 80 is considered excellent; between 60 and 80 is considered to be ' first division '; between 40 and 60 is considered to be ' second division ' The Percentage System works as: Maximum Marks: 100, Minimum Marks: 0, Minimum Marks Required for Passing: 35. 100 -- 91 % considered Excellent, 75 -- 90 % considered Very Good, 55 -- 64 % considered good, 45 -- 55 % considered fair, 41 -- 44 % considered Pass, 0 -- 40 % considered fail. A percentage above 65 % is referred as 1st Division and indicates high intellectual level. Some Universities follow weighted average pattern to calculate percentage: 1st and 2nd Semester -- 40 % of the aggregate marks, 3rd and 4th Semester -- 60 % of the aggregate marks, 5th and 6th Semester -- 80 % of the aggregate marks, 7th and 8th Semester -- 100 % of the aggregate marks. The 10 - point GPA is categorized as follows: 10 -- 9.1 (O (out of standing) or A+) -- Best, 9 -- 8.1 (A) -- Excellent, 8 -- 7.1 (B+) -- exceptionally good, 7 -- 6.1 (B) -- very good, 6 -- 5.1 (C+) -- good, 5 -- 4.1 (C) -- average, 4 -- 3.1 (D+) -- fair, 3.1 -- 2 (D) -- Pass, 2 -- 0 (E+ -- E) -- fail. A GPA of over 7 is generally considered to be an indication of a strong grasp of all subjects.
Grading Scheme
In the old grading system consisting of "Division Scheme '', the range of percentage of marks is as follows:
Nowadays most universities of Engineering and Technology follow following grading system.
Schools have grades from 1 -- 100 starting from the 4th grade on. In Universities both numerical and alphabetical grade systems can be found, it is up to the teacher.
Most Russian educational institutions use a five - point grading scale:
Qualifiers + and − are often used to add some degree of differentiation between the grades: e.g., 4 + is better than 4, but not quite as good as 5 −. Grading varies greatly from school to school, university to university, and even teacher to teacher, even for courses that lend themselves to objective marking, such as mathematics and applied sciences. Even though the grades technically range from 1 to 5, 1 is not common and is rarely given for academic reasons -- in many cases, a 1 is given as a result of failure to show up for or to complete an exam. A 2 grade usually means that the student showed no or little knowledge in a subject.
It may be worth mentioning that 1 is a fairly exotic grade in Russian schools, but it does officially exist. The generally used grades are 2 to 5. Plus (+) and minus (−) modifiers follow the same tendency; they are rarely used in middle school and almost never in colleges or universities. Some institutions and teachers, dissatisfied with the five - point scale, work with various larger ones, but these grading systems are not recognized by the state and require conversion for official use.
A considerably more complex grading system has been implemented for the recently introduced Unified state examinations. In this system, a "primary grade '' is the sum of points for completed tasks, with each of the tasks having a maximum number of points allocated to it. The maximum total primary grade varies by subject, so that one might obtain a primary grade of 23 out of 37 in mathematics and a primary grade of 43 out of 80 in French. The primary grades are then converted into final or "test grades '' by means of a sophisticated statistical calculation, which takes into account the distribution of primary grades among the examinees. This system has been criticized for its lack of transparency.
At universities some subjects are graded "Pass / No pass '' or "Credit / No Credit '' (зачёт / незачёт, pronounced "zachòt / nyezachòt ''); the rest are typically graded on the five - point scale. The "Pass / No Pass '' grades do not have any official numeric representation. When zachòt -- (credit - or pass -) type subjects are graded as "Pass / No pass '', this represents a student 's knowledge of a subject. Each university applies its own standards with respect to the knowledge a student must have in order to pass a subject. Zachòt equival to pass with mark of minimum 77 % to maximum 100 %. Students in Russia must pass all prescribed courses in order to graduate.
Since the word zachòt can be translated variously into English (e.g. as "credit '' or "pass ''), this notation can create problems for Russian students applying to Western universities. Such grades may confuse Western universities and complicate accurate calculation of students ' GPAs in Western systems. For Western system "Pass '' calculation recommended to perform based on averages. Western universities and equivalency organizations usually disregard zachòt, despite the fact that this notation is typically used for about half of a student 's course results. Consequently, most Western GPA conversions of Russian degrees reflect only part of a candidate 's coursework.
It should be noted that all course examinations and zachot tests must be passed at the time each is given, as there are no repeats, resits or grade appeals. Hence only those who satisfy all the requirements during the allotted examination period for each semester graduate, leaving a huge number of students behind who in the West would have a chance to resit examinations and even get their grades reconsidered. Furthermore, grades in Russia are determined not only by examination results but also by other criteria such as attendance at lectures, participation in class, term papers and projects, in - class and homework assignments, laboratory reports, presentations, and sometimes even grooming and behavior. All these must be passed during the semester before a ' final examination mark ' and final zachot is awarded.
Russian degrees do not have composite classifications such as in the British system of First Class, Upper / Lower Second Class, Third Class, Pass, etc. This is because each course is examined independently, students must pass all of them, and they do not add up or contribute to an average grade or ' class '. Another reason is that during the Russian Revolution, social stratification and classification were supposedly abolished in the interest of promoting social equality. Accordingly, all students would be expected to perform at or above the minimum level required to qualify and graduate. Calculation of an aggregate mark or GPA is not considered fair or even possible, as it would be felt to disregard much of a candidate 's academic work. The zachòt notation would complicate such calculation, and the final thesis qualifying mark is usually considered as the final result. Students who have shown exceptional academic talent by getting 5 's in most of their courses are awarded a ' degree with excellence ', which comes in a special red cover.
Most of the universities and colleges and schools in Saudi Arabia are very similar to United States except the way the grades are said.
In other universities in Saudi Arabia such as Imam University, King Saud University, King Abdulaziz University, King Khalid University, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University and King Faisal University, the following method is used:
Secondary School (13 -- 16 years old)
The grades for tertiary education are from 0.0 to 4.0 (as inclusive).
Middle School (7 -- 9th grade) Points are the student 's raw score in midterms and finals (out of 100).
High School (10 -- 12th grade)
Percentage is the students ' relative position among other students taking same subject (100 % is the highest, 0 % is the lowest).
Most high school programs in Thailand use the following 8 point grading system
For graduate and post-graduate studies, universities sometimes use a 10 - point grading system (see below)
In Turkey, exam grades are from 0 to 100. But final grades are from 1 to 5.
Primary education is free at government run schools. The grading is managed by the Ministry of Education (MOE). However, there are also many schools run by expatriates that are equally successful with their own grading system, or an accepted grading system of the country where the schools are affiliated to or share common standards with. At most universities and colleges, the United Arab Emirates ' grading system is very similar to the United States ' system.
The grade scale in Vietnam is from 10 to 1 where 10 is the highest, as follows.
Schools and universities in Vietnam use a 10 - point grading scale, with 10 being the highest and 0 being the lowest. Often, 5 is the lowest passing grade. The grading may vary from school to school. It depends on the difficulty of each.
The distribution of grades differs from standards in Western countries and strongly depends on the university. In Vietnamese universities, a ten or nine is near impossible. Students hardly get more than 8.0 for the final results.
Grading system in Panama is different from Universities than Schools.
Universities use 0 -- 100 point grade scaling similar to the United States grading. 71 is required to pass or the same as a C. While schools use the 1 -- 5 point system. meaning if a student has a 4.5 that is the equivalent of an A - or somewhere around the 95 point range.
When it comes to the GPA Scale though, Panama uses 0 -- 3 point scale to determine the student 's GPA. So if a student has a 2.5 that is roughly the same as a U.S. student having a 3.0 -- 3.5.
In Albania, grades from 4 to 10 are used, with some schools allowing decimals (up to the hundredth digit) and some others only allowing whole numbers.
Most universities evaluate classes with two mid exams and a final. The final exam encompasses the whole course syllabus, whereas the mid exams usually review half. In some schools, if the average grade of the two mid exams is equal to or higher than 7.00, the student is able to pass the class without the need to take a final exam (since there are only two exams, some teachers also pass students who average 6.50; others weigh in the decision based on the student 's performance in class). An average of less than 4.00 is failing; students who score such an average are not allowed to take the final exam.
In high schools, the year is divided into three trimesters and classes are usually yearlong. Students need an average of 6.00 or higher in the three trimestral exams to avoid having to take a final to pass the class. In the event of a student scoring less than 6.00 in the third trimester, he or she would have to take a final exam, regardless of average. This is considered controversial, since the last trimestral exam is not more important than the first two, but the rule stands to prevent students who have already reached the minimum average (e.g., two 10.00 in the first two give a student the lowest possible average of 6.33) from not making an effort during the last three months of the year. The university lasts 3 -- 5 years.
In Austria, grades from 1 to 5 are used.
The formalized overall grade in Austria is "pass with distinction '' (mit ausgezeichnetem Erfolg bestanden), which is given for excellent performance (average of 1.5 and better, no grade below 3) and "pass '' (Bestanden, no grade below 4).
If someone is given a "pass with distinction '' in his Matura, Diploma and PhD, all curricula absolved in the regular duration time he can have a ' promotio sub auspiciis presidentis rei publicae ', (literally "under the auspices of the President of the Republic '', meaning that the Federal President will personally attend the graduation ceremony), which is the highest honor in Austria only achieved by 1 out of 2500 graduates (. 04 %) yearly.
Generally speaking, a cumulative Grade Point Average does not exist in the Austrian educational system and therefore has little relevance in the local job market.
In Belgian Universities a scale from 0 to 20 is used on a per subject basis, a weighted average is then computed on scale from 0 to 20, with 10 being the passing grade per subject. A total average of around 14 (70 %) gets you a distinction grade (cum laude), around 16 (80 %) means high distinction (magna cum laude) and an average of around 18 (90 %) yields the highest distinction (summa / maxima cum laude). The exact scores for each grade differ between different universities.
Belgian secondary schools use a scale from 0 to 100 or even above for exams (50 usually being the passing grade). On report cards, certain schools also give grades on a percentage scale (0 to 100) while others use a 0 -- 10 scale. Those total scores are weighted averages of exams and tests. In Belgian secondary schools, there are 6 years. In the first three years, students have to do exams every term. The scores are usually given in percentages. On the end of the school year, a total average score is given.
University colleges (other form of higher education, not comparable with American colleges) use the same scale from 0 to 20 as Belgian Universities, although homework and presence may influence sometimes up to 50 % or even more of these 20 points (situation as of February 2011). It is more common to have a final exam counting for 100 % of the grade if the course does not require laboratory work. Obtaining a grade higher than 16 / 20 is considered as a very good grade and a 19 or 20 / 20 is very rare.
Scaling varies significantly depending on the university or college.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, grades from 5 to 1 are used in primary and secondary education, while grades from 10 to 5 are used at universities.
Primary and secondary education grading:
University grading:
In Bulgaria, the following grade scale is used in schools:
For examinations and tests, exact grading is often used and is represented by two positions after the decimal point:
Grades as, e.g., Good (3.50), or Excellent (5.75), are common. Every passing grade at or above the. 50 mark is prefixed with the term of the higher grade. The minimum is 2.00; grades below 3.00 are failing grades, and the maximum is 6.00. Grades like "Very Good '' (5 -) and "Average '' (3 +) are also possible - these are ignored in calculations.
Roughly, the Bulgarian grade system can be equated to the American one as the following: 6 = A, 5 = B, 4 = C, 3 = D, and 2 = F. Also, in accordance with the Australian system, 6 = HD, 5 = D, 4 = Cr, 3 = P, and 2 = F.
The most common formula used in Bulgarian schools is currently Grade = (6 * number of correct answers) / total number of questions. That way if a student has answered 7 out of 10 questions correctly, their mark should be: (6 * 7) / 10 = 4.20, which is graded as Good 4 or an average performance.
In Croatia, the following grade scale is used in schools:
At the end of each semester the grades are averaged to form a Grade Point Average (prosječna ocjena), according to this scale:
In colloquial Croatian, grades are referred to be their numerical values: jedinica, dvojka, trojka, četvorka, petica. Students with failing grades (1 or F) are allowed to carry those grades throughout the school year, but are required to improve them to passing grades (2 or better) in order to finish the year. Failure to pass one class results in the student being held back a year.
In Czech Republic, a five - point grading scale is used in both primary and secondary schools:
Plus and minus signs are often used to further differentiate marks. For example, "2 + '' corresponds to the U.S. ' B + '. Half - intervals may also be used, such as "2 -- 3 '', a grade halfway between 2 and 3.
At the university level, only grades 1, 2 and 3 are passing; anything worse than 3 is automatically a failing grade. Some universities use a six - point scale, with ' A ' corresponding to "1 '', ' B ' to "1 -- 2 '', etc.
The current scale, syv - trins - skalaen ("The 7 - step - scale ''), was introduced in 2007, replacing the old 13 - skala ("13 - scale ''). The new scale is designed to be compatible with the ECTS - scale.
Syv - trins - skalaen consists of seven different grades, ranging from 12 to − 3, with 12 being the highest. This new scale remains an "absolute '' scale, meaning that, proportions are not taken into consideration.
In universities:
Tallinn University of Technology uses numerical grades from 5 (the highest) to 0 (the lowest) with the same percentages.
Several systems are in use in different educational institutions in Finland. The "school grade '' system has historically been a scale of 0 to 10, but all grades lower than 4 have been discarded. Thus, it is now divided between 4, the failing grade, and 5 -- 10, the succeeding grades. Upper secondary school has same grades for courses and course exams as comprehensive school but matriculation examination grades are in Latin. Universities and vocational institutions use a scale of 0 (fail) and 1 -- 5 (pass), or fail / pass. Some schools e.g. Savon Ammatti - ja Aikuisopisto, uses grading from 0 (fail) and 1 - 3 (pass). The professor selects which grading scheme is used; short, optional courses typically have pass / fail grades.
In France, schools grades typically range from either 0 (worst) to 20 (best) or, sometimes, from 0 (worst) to 10 (best). A mark below the average (10 out of 20 or 5 out of 10, depending on the scale) is usually a fail. For the French National High School Level (baccalauréat), a grade of 8 -- 10 typically gives the right to take an additional oral exam in order to try to improve that average to 10 and pass. A grade between 10 and 12 is a simple pass (without grade); between 12 and 14 (more rarely 13 -- 14) the grade is called "assez bien '' (rather good); 14 -- 16 is called "bien '' (good); above 16 is "très bien '' (very good). An exams jury can award the "Félicitations du Jury '' for any mark, though they usually reserve it to a candidate who has achieved 18 / 20 or more. Grade equivalence between France and the U.S. Grading Scale Scale U.S. Grade Equiv. 16 -- 20 = A+; 14 -- 16 = A; 12 -- 13.9 = B+; 11 -- 11.9 = B; 10.5 -- 10.9 = B −; 10.1 -- 10.4 = C+; 10 = C; 9 -- 9.9 = C −; 8 -- 8.9 = D; 0 -- 7.9 = E;
French "Prépa '' are considered as two years of college in the U.S. and the grades given to the students are very low in order to always make them work harder. In some courses, a 10 / 20 can be considered as excellent and the class average can be 3 or 4 / 20.
Primary and secondary education:
University grading:
In Germany, school grades vary from 1 (very good, sehr gut) to 6 (insufficient, ungenügend). In the final classes of German Gymnasium schools that prepare for university studies, a point system is used with 15 points being the best grade and 0 points the worst. The percentage causes the grade can vary from teacher to teacher. The percentages shown in the table are the ones used in the "Oberstufe '' (final classes).
* This conversion scheme is intended as a guideline, as exact conversions may differ.
The table below depicts the Greek Grading system while illustrates approximately how the Grades are compared with ECTS, US and UK grades:
For the National Technical University of Athens (polytehnio) the above grades are different: 9 -- 10 is "excellent '', 7 -- 9 is "very good '', 5 -- 7 is "good '', 0 -- 4.9 is "fail ''.
In Hungary, a five - point scale has been used since 1950. There is one failing grade: 1 -- elégtelen (insufficient). In general, the lowest passing mark is either 50 % or 60 %, or one mark (point) higher. Passing grades are 2 -- elégséges (sufficient or pass), 3 -- közepes (mediocre or satisfactory), 4 -- jó (good) and 5 -- jeles (excellent).
The bare five - point scale is used almost exclusively for final grades at all educational levels (elementary school, high school, university). During the academic year, however, teachers may use various modifiers, especially in elementary school. A comma (,) after the grade has a minus effect ("alá '', below), and an apostrophe (') after the grade has a plus effect ("fölé '', above); a grade halfway between two integers is indicated by the lower and higher one separated by a solidus: 3 / 4 ("háromnegyed '') is equivalent to 3.5, and 4 / 5 is between 4 and 5, etc. Sometimes "5 * '', five starred ("csillagos ötös '') is used to indicate outstanding performance throughout the semester (only in primary school, as it would be considered childish in secondary school).
(pass = 50 % + 1 scale)
(pass = 60 % scale)
In Iceland grades were recently changed from 0 - 10 into the following
On admission to a college student has the ability to work on the second phase of the study stage
The two government regulated educational qualifications are the Junior Certificate (usually taken at 15 / 16) and the Leaving Certificate (usually taken at between the ages of 17 and 19).
Passing or failing the Junior Cert (or any exams in Irish secondary schools), has no bearing on whether or not students can graduate or continue on.
For the Leaving Certificate, a points system is used. Previously, this consisted of lettered and numbered grades (A1, A2, B1, B2), with each grade separated by 5 %, bar an A1 which was given for a mark over 90 %. However, this was updated for the 2016 / 2017 Leaving Cert cycle and these letters were replaced by H (higher level), O (ordinary level) and F (foundation level). Each grade is separated by 10 %. A maximum of 6 subjects are counted, with a possible 100 points in each subject. For students sitting the higher level maths paper, an extra 25 points can be obtained by getting a grade above a H6. In practice, most students take 7 or 8 subjects and their best 6 results are counted. Each subject has 2 or 3 levels: higher, ordinary and foundation. The points are:
The points system allocates all university places in Ireland for Irish applicants.
Irish universities vary in their grading systems. For example, UCD (University College Dublin) awards letter grades and corresponding GPA values similar to the United States system, but 1, 2.1, 2.2 etc. for degrees, while TCD (Trinity College Dublin) awards all grades as 1, 2.1, 2.2 etc.
In Italy, Primary and Mid School grades may vary from 10 (excellent) to 1 (impossible to assess), with passing being 6.
When a professor wants to apply a more precise scale and ranking for students assessments, instead of using the full 1 -- 10 scale (which would make the scale inconsistent with that of other professors), s / he may sometimes have recourse to a plethora of symbols and decimals: the range between 5 and 6 is then expressed, in ascending order, by 5 +, 51⁄2, and 6 −. Minimum passing is 6. As these symbols (except 1⁄2) have no clear mathematical value (usually ± 0.25), calculating end - year averages can be somewhat arbitrary and inconsistent; therefore, there has been a push since 2008 with the Gelmini reform to uniform the system to the 1 -- 10 scale.
Before this reform, primary and secondary school grades used a different grading scale that expressed an assessment of the pupil 's progress:
A recent school reform provides for the average grade of a student to include the grade for behavior; as in academic subjects, acceptable ratings range from 6 to 10.
In universities a point system is used for exams, with 30 points being the best grade and 18 the minimum passing grade. This stems from the practice that exams were traditionally given by 3 examiners. Each had to rate the student 's examination performance on a 1 -- 10 scale, and the final grade was the sum of the three ratings. On a 1 -- 10 scale, passing is 6, so on a 1 -- 30 scale the minimum passing grade is 3 * 6 = 18. Nowadays the form of each examination is decided by the professor (number of examiners, whether written, oral, or both, etc.), but the traditional grading system remained.
Degrees have an analogous point system, in which however the highest grade is 110. A cum laude notation (e lode in Italian) is used to augment the highest grade for both exams and degrees, in all its levels, to reflect truly outstanding performance.
5 - Shkëlqyeshëm - Excellent 4 - Shumë Mirë - Very Good 3 - Mirë - Good 2 - Mjaftueshëm - Lowest possible grade 1 - Dobët - Bad (Fail)
The academic grading system in Latvia is using ten - point scale, where "10 '' (Latvian: desmit) is the highest achievable grade, and "1 '' (Latvian: viens) is awarded for extremely poor performance. The minimal passing grade is "4 '' (Latvian: četri) to get the "4 '', you must acquire at least 40 % correct on the work you hand in. Though some universities have a minimum passing grade of "5 '' (Latvian: pieci).
The absence of any kind of performance is indicated by "nv '' (Latvian: nav vērtējuma ' no assessment possible '); in the past, the mark for absence of work was "0 '' (Latvian: nulle). Teachers in lower classes and for minor assignments in higher classes are encouraged to award one of two grades: "i '' (Latvian: ieskaitīts ' counted ') for a passing grade, and "ni '' (Latvian: neieskaitīts ' not counted ') for a failing grade. The grade of 10 is reserved for exceptional achievements. 9 is most commonly used for a United States equivalent of an A.
In Lithuania, the grading system was changed to a 10 - point scale in 1995. Prior to that, Soviet Lithuania had a five - point grading scale. 10 is the highest achievable grade for an excellent performance and 1 is the lowest. Usually, 1 is given when there is no work submitted at all (called kuolas in the academic jargon, meaning ' stake '); otherwise, most teachers keep 2 the lowest grade and rarely mark work as 1.
The lowest grade for passing a subject in school is usually 4.
The same system is used for evaluating students ' work in universities. However, the minimal grade to pass is usually 5.
Moldova uses a 10 - point scale system, 5 being the minimum grade for passing:
In the Netherlands, grades from 1.0 up to 10.0 are used, with 1 being worst and 10 being best. This system can correspond to a percentage system (1 means 0 -- 5 % correct and 10 means 95 -- 100 % correct) but sometimes points are deducted for number of faults on a test (typically, on vocabulary or topographical tests with more than 10 questions, each fault will nonetheless lead to a reduction in score of one. So 2 faults on a 50 question vocabulary test would constitute an 8). The grades 9 and 10 are hardly ever given on large examinations (on average, a 9 is awarded in only 1.5 %, and a 10 in 0.5 % of the cases). Generally, either one or two decimal places are predominantly used in secondary and higher education. In primary education, fractions of grades are identified with a + or −, which signifies a quarter (converted to either 0.8 or 0.3 if only one decimal place is used). Thus, a grade of 6.75 (or 6.8) could be written as 7 −, whereas a grade of 7 + would count for 7.25 or 7.3.
A 5.5 constitutes a pass, whereas 5.4 and below constitute a fail. If no decimal places are used, 6 and up is a pass and 5 and below is a fail; however, in this case of grading in full numbers there exists sometimes "6 - '', which would officially translate to 5.75, but can be interpreted here as "barely, but just good enough ''. Roughly, a student scores a 5.5 (pass) when 2 / 3 (67 %) of an exam is correct. If the grade would be a 5.49 and one decimal is used, the 5.49 will be a 5.5, but if no decimals are used (usually at the end of the year) the 5.49 will end up as a 5 which indicates a fail.
Depending on the specific university, some students who finish their studies with an average of 8.0 or higher, could get the nomination cum laude (which is comparable with summa cum laude as awarded in Germany and the United States).
The grade scale with its labels:
In primary school (Barneskole, from age 6 to 13) no official grades are given. However, the teachers write an individual comment or analysis on tests and in the end of every term.
Lower secondary school (Ungdomsskole; age 13 -- 16) and upper secondary school (Videregående skole; age 16 -- 19) use a scale running from 1 through 6, with 6 being the highest and 2 the lowest passing grade. It is not possible to fail a grade in Lower Secondary School, even 1 is a passing grade. For non-final tests and mid-term evaluations the grades are often post fixed with + or − (except 6 + and 1 −). It is also common to use grades such as 5 / 6 or 4 / 3 indicating borderline grades. However, the grades students get on their diploma (Vitnemål), are single - digit grades 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6. The student 's non-weighted grade point average is also given on the Vitnemål.
In higher education, according to the ECTS - system, grades for undergraduate and postgraduate examinations are awarded according to a graded scale from A (highest) to F (lowest), with E as the minimum passing grade. The ECTS system was implemented at Norway 's universities and colleges in the early 2000s, with most schools having converted to ECTS by 2003.
Before 2003, the formerly most common system of grades used at university level was based on a scale running from 1.0 (highest) through 6.0 (lowest), with 4.0 being the lowest passing grade. The way the new Bologna system was introduced implies that students, who had started their studies while the old system still was in effect, will graduate with transcripts containing grades from both systems (i.e. both numbers and letters).
An academic year has two semesters, from August to December and from January to June, although exceptions occur. Courses are measured in "studiepoeng '' according to the ECTS standard (European Credit Transfer System credits). A normal full - time study progression awards 60 credits (studiepoeng / stp) per year (30 per semester). Most institutions either use a 7.5, 8, 10, 12, 15 or 20 credit block system.
The most commonly used system in Polish grade schools is as follows (with usual corresponding score percentages):
' Acceptable ' is a passing grade.
Grades (especially expressed numerically) might be suffixed with + (plus) or - (minus). On rare occasions the = (double minus) is used, especially as 2 = to express the very lowest passing grade.
Before 1990, grades 1 and 6 were not used. It was the grade 2 that was called "insufficient ''. 3 =, also called trzy na szynach (literally: three on rails) was the very lowest passing grade. The grade 6 might have been issued on very rare occasions (e.g. for "making the teacher speechless '').
Post-secondary institutions use a different system, usually consisting of the following grades (with usual corresponding score percentages):
The scores corresponding to each grade vary greatly from institution to institution and from course to course, but usually a score of 50 % or 51 % is required to obtain the lowest passing grade (3.0). The notations zal. and nzal. are used when the course only requires attendance and / or is not important (such as sports).
In Portuguese primary and middle schools, up until the 9th grade inclusive, the grading system is as follows:
From the 10th grade onwards, including tertiary education, a 20 - point grading scale is used, with 10 passing grades and 10 failing grades, with 20 being the highest grade possible and 9.5, rounded upwards to 10, the minimum grade for passing. This 20 - point system is used both for test scores and grades.
The system used in Romanian primary schools is as follows:
In secondary schools, high schools, and academic institutions, a 10 - point scale is used, 5 being the minimum grade for passing:
There is no 0. If a student scores 86 %, he will be given a grade of 8.60, which will be rounded to a 9. Further, for a score of 94 %, a grade of 9.40 is given that is rounded down to 9. The average of grades are not rounded, thus a student can earn an average grade of e.g. 9.55.
Serbia has the same academic grading system of the Former Yugoslavia. In elementary schools and secondary schools, a five - point grading scale is used:
At the university the grade scale used is as follows:
In Slovakia, a five - point grading scale is used in primary and secondary schools:
In Spain, schools grades typically range either 0 (worst) to 10 (best). A mark below 5 is usually a fail. These grades are described as follows:
Since the autumn of 2012, grades in Sweden have been given to students in the 6th grade and above. Previously, grades were given from the 8th grade for many years. Students below the 6th grade receive an estimation of their knowledge in each subject from their teachers. The current Swedish national grade scale has been used since 2011 and contains six grades which translates to a number of points, as show below.
The grades A to E are passing grades while F is Failed. Grades A, C and E all have different requirements and the requirements for A are, naturally, the hardest to reach. The grades B and D are given when a student has met all the requirements for the grade below (E or C) and a majority of the requirements for the grade above (C or A). In the end of the Swedish nine - year - school and Upper Secondary School their 17 best grades and points are turned into a qualification value (max 340 points) which they use to apply for their next level of education.
Switzerland has a grading scheme from 1 to 6. 6 is the highest and 4 the minimum pass mark. It is used in schools, high schools and universities.
A way to calculate a grade is: (acquired points / total points) × 5 + 1 = grade.
Ukraine introduced a new grading system in autumn 2000, which replaced the existing Soviet grading system.
The new system provides grades that lie between 1 and 12 and are matched with the five - point grade system that was used previously, as presented in the table below. 12 is the equivalent of an honors / AP course "A + '' in the U.S. and is usually given only for outstanding achievement or exceptionally creative work. Hence 11 is the grade that would ordinarily correspond to A in the United States.
A degree may be awarded with or without honours, with the class of an honours degree usually based on a weighted average mark of the assessed work a candidate has completed. The degree classifications are:
With the exception of Liechtenstein, which uses the Swiss grading system, and Moldova, which uses the Romanian grading system, the majority of European countries create their own academic grading standards. Most involve combinations of the key elements of grading, and all are used to evaluate students ' performance on a scale of passing to failing (or comprehending to not comprehending material).
Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, United Kingdom
Mexican schools use a scale from 0 to 10 to measure students ' scores. Since decimal scores are common, a scale from 0 to 100 is often used to remove the decimal point.
In some Universities, students who fail a subject have the option of taking an extraordinary test (examen extraordinario, often shortened to extra) that evaluates the contents of the entire period. Once the test is finished and the score is assessed, this score becomes the entire subject 's score, thus giving failing students a chance to pass their subjects. Those who fail the extraordinary test have two more chances to take it; if the last test is failed, the subject is marked as failed and pending, and depending on the school, the student may fail the entire year.
Some private schools (particularly in higher levels of education) require a 70 to pass instead of the regular 60.
Grades are often absolute and not class - specific. It may be the case that the top of the class gets a final grade of 79. Curve - adjustment is rare. Grad - level students are usually expected to have grades of 80 or above to graduate. Students in the honor roll are usually those with an overall GPA of 90 or higher upon graduation, and some private universities will award them a "With Honors '' diploma. Additionally, in some private universities, the pass scores is higher or lower depending from the kind of studies that are related with (for example, in some universities, in the case of Engineering, the minimum score is 7.3 and for Art Sciences is 8.8) and lower than this score is not acceptable.
Conversions from percentage marks to letter grades, by province:
In Senior High Schools:
In Alberta Post-Secondary Colleges, Technical Institutes, or Universities, the actual percentage associated with letter grade is up to the individual institution or professor teaching the course.
The 4.33 is scored as a 4.00 at University of Alberta, SAIT Polytechnic, MacEwan University University of Calgary
There is no universal percentage grade associated with any letter grade in the Province of Alberta and such associations are made by professors or a bell curve. A Student may be awarded an Honours designation on a parchment if semester and cumulative grade point average of 3.7 is achieved on the first attempt of courses required towards graduation of major. In addition, students will need to complete graduation requirements within specific time restrictions. D is the minimum general passing letter grade to receive credit for a course. Certain faculties may require higher grades to receive course credit.
Some universities in Alberta have used a nine - point stanine grading scale: 9 = A+, 8 = A / A --, 7 = B+ / B, 6 = B -- / C+, 5 = C, 4 = D, 0 to 3 = F. See also the University of Alberta Office of the Registrar.
The following table is only an approximation; faculties within universities sometimes follow a different system for converting percentage marks to letter grades.
The University of British Columbia uses a percentage grading scale
Simon Fraser University uses a 4.33 - point grading scale
In some faculties, such as the School of Engineering Sciences program at its Faculty of Applied Sciences, a course grade score of a D is considered a fail if it is a prerequisite course.
The University of Manitoba uses a GPA system.
GPA is Calculated taking total "points '' and divided by school credit hours.
In Newfoundland and Labrador at Memorial University:
Grade F is the sole failing mark.
In most Nova Scotia universities:
Grade F is the sole failing mark.
Percentage and grade equivalence
The University of Ottawa uses a grade point average system with numbers ranging from 0 to 10 despite many schools using the 12 point system.
Official grading system at the University of Ottawa: Letter grade, numerical value, and percentage equivalency
In Quebec and New Brunswick universities:
This scale is used by at least UQTR. The Université de Montréal scale is similar but goes from A+ to F. Université Laval uses a similar 4.33 scale. UQAM, Concordia University and Université de Sherbrooke uses a 4.3 scale. This scale is much alike many other scales used in Canada.
McGill University and the École Polytechnique de Montréal use a 4.0 scale. Université de Sherbrooke scale is from A+ to E.
The percent equivalent of each grade and the passing mark can vary. The passing mark in high school and college is 60 %.
The University of Saskatchewan and University of Regina both use a percentage grade system, universal across faculties and departments.
The most popular and commonly used grading system in the United States uses discrete evaluation in the form of letter grades. Many schools use a GPA (grade - point average) system in combination with letter grades. There are also many other systems in place. Some schools use a scale of 100 instead of letter grades. Others, including many Montessori schools, eschew discrete evaluation in favor of pure discursive evaluation. There is no standardized system of grading in the United States. As such, those issues are left up to individual universities, schools and the regulatory authority of the individual states.
At most schools, colleges and universities in the United States, letter grades follow a five - point system, using the letters A, B, C, D and E / F, with A indicating excellent, C indicating average and F indicating failing. Additionally, most schools calculate a student 's grade point average (GPA) by assigning each letter grade a number and averaging those numerical values. Generally, American schools equate an A with a numerical value of 4.0. Most graduate schools require a 3.0 (B) average to take a degree, with C or C − being the lowest grade for course credit. Most undergraduate schools require a 2.0, or C average to obtain a degree with a minimum of D or D − to pass a course. For most secondary schools, the minimum overall and course passes are both D or D −. Some districts, such as Mount Olive Township School District in New Jersey, have eliminated D as a passing grade for their students due to a high failure rate.
Whereas most American graduate schools use four - point grading (A, B, C, and E / F), several -- mostly in the west, especially in California -- do award D grades but still require a B average for degree qualification. Some American graduate schools use nine - or ten - point grading scales, formerly including the Rackham School of Graduate Studies at the University of Michigan, where 9.0 = A+, 8.0 = A, 7.0 = A −, and so on. (Rackham switched to a more conventional four - point scale in August 2013.)
In a handful of states, GPA scales can go above 4.0.
The percentage needed in any given course to achieve a certain grade and the assignment of GPA point values varies from school to school, and sometimes between instructors within a given school. The most common grading scales for normal courses and honors / Advanced Placement courses are as follows:
Some states may use an alternate grading scale such as the following which is commonly used.
Whether a school uses E or F to indicate a failing grade typically depends on time and geography. Around the time of World War II, several states began to use E, while the majority of the country continued to use the F, which traces to the days of Pass / Fail grading (P and F). In recent years, some schools have begun using an N for failing grades, presumably to represent "No Credit ''. Another letter used to represent a failing grade is U, representing "unsatisfactory. ''
Chromatic variants ("+ '' and "− ") are used. In most 100 - point grading systems, the letter grade without variants is centered around a value ending in five. The "plus '' variant is then assigned the values near the nine digit and the "minus '' variant is assigned the values near zero. Any decimal values are usually rounded. Thus, a score of 80 to 82 is a B −, a score 83 to 87 is a B and a score of 87 to 89 is a B+. The four - point GPA scale, the letter grade without variants is assigned to the integer. The "plus '' and "minus '' variants are then assigned to. 3 above the integer and. 3 below the integer, respectively. Thus, a B is equal to 3.0, a B+ is equal to 3.3, and a B − is equal to 2.7.
The A range is often treated as a special case. In most American schools, a 4.00 is regarded as perfect and the highest GPA one can achieve. Thus, an A, being the prime grade, achieves the mark of a 4.00; for the A+ mark, most schools still assign a value of 4.00, equivalent to the A mark, to prevent deviation from the standard 4.00 GPA system. However, the A+ mark, then, becomes a mark of distinction that has no impact on the student 's GPA. A few schools, however, do assign grade values of 4.33 or 4.30; but the scale is still called "4.0 '', because grading scales (or "quality indices '') take their numerical names from the highest whole number.
In many American high schools, students may also score above 4.0 if taking advanced, honors, Advanced Placement, or International Baccalaureate classes (for example, a "regular '' A would be worth four points, but an A earned in an advanced class might be worth 4.5 or 5 points towards the GPA.). This is called a weighted GPA and is designed to reward students for taking more advanced courses. Although weighting GPAs is a widespread practice in the United States, there is little research into whether weighted GPAs are better than unweighted GPAs. In one study, weighted GPAs were not suitable for predicting any college outcomes, but unweighted GPA were strong predictors of college GPA.
There has been dispute over how colleges should look at grades from previous schools and high schools because one grade in one part of the country might not be the equivalent of a grade in another part of the country. In other words, an "A '' might be 90 -- 100 somewhere, and a 94 -- 100 somewhere else. In middle and high schools that do not use a system based on academic credit, the grade point average is computed by taking the mean of all grades. In colleges and universities that use discrete evaluation, the grade - point average is calculated by multiplying the quantitative values by the credit value of the correlative course, and then dividing the total by the sum of all credits.
For example:
In a standards - based grading system, a performance standard is set by a committee based on ranking anchor papers and grading rubrics, which demonstrate performance which is below, meeting, or exceeding the "standard. ''. This standard is intended to be a high, world - class level of performance, which must be met by every student regardless of ability or class, although they are actually set by a committee with no reference to any other national standard Levels are generally assigned numbers between zero and four. Writing papers may be graded separately on content (discussion) and conventions (spelling and grammar). Since grading is not based on a curve distribution, it is entirely possible to achieve a grading distribution in which all students pass and meet the standard. While such grading is generally used only for assessments, they have been proposed for alignment with classroom grading. However, in practice, grading can be much more severe than traditional letter grades. Even after ten years, some states, such as Washington, continue to evaluate over half of their students as "below standard '' on the state mathematics assessment.
Here is another example of a commonly used grading scale, currently in place at Wayzata High School in Plymouth, Minnesota. The Grade Point Average is not the traditional four - point scale, but uses the 12 - point scale for unweighted classes and the 15 - point scale for weighted classes:
The 12 - point GPA scale works as follows. Students receive 12 points for an A or A+, 11 points for an A −, 10 points for a B+, etc. for each grading period. Once a grading period is complete, the student 's total grade points are divided by the total number of credits and a GPA is generated.
For example, here is one term of grades and a grade point average from a student whose school uses the 86 - minute block schedule (such as Wayzata High School):
Standards - based grading is a well - known practice of assessment. It provides students with learning expectations and an in depth way of evaluation students. It is not the most common assessment method but it provides students with developmental feedback. Researchers have determined that students who were previously exposed to standards - based grading reflected higher performance.
Alternative grading methods over a diverse way of assessing student progress. Recent studies reveal that alternative grading methods may lead to more applicable growth opportunities for students ' overtime. These methods can include portfolios, narrative evaluations, contract grading, developmental meetings and verbal feedback. These methods provide insight to evaluation methods and emphasize student progress and improvement. Some alternative grading methods include contract grading, the Waldorf assessment style, and narrative evaluation.
Contract grading emphasizes learning behaviors. Most students are accepting of contract grading; however, the data shows that less than half of students noted they found it helpful and less stressful than letter grades. Most students that dislike this method were advanced students and found the process to be repetitive.
The Waldorf assessment style consists of developmental meetings and an evaluation letter. Waldorf grading methods focused more on what they were learning rather than how well each student applied it. It emphasizes positive feedback and progress. Some people may label it as unstructured, others may describe it as a personalized and relaxed style of learning and assessment. Waldorf philosophy strongly reiterates the growth and improvement of the students.
Narrative evaluation can be defined as detailed written feedback. Studies show that over half of students really like narrative evaluation. It focuses on improvement and provides personal detail of how students have grown. It allows for more personalized feedback and eliminates the competitive nature of students to compare themselves to their classmates.
Both NAPLAN and HSC secondary school gradings are specified in "Bands '', approximately as follows:
During the HSC, Extension subjects, such as Mathematics (Extension 1) and Mathematics (Extension 2), are marked out of fifty, rather than the normal 100 marks, and thus, have slightly different criteria:
The majority of Australian tertiary institutions use the following grading structure:
Some other Australian universities have a marking system similar to the Honours system used by British Universities:
Many courses also have Non-Graded Pass (NGP) and Non-Graded Fail (NGF), in which it is considered more appropriate to have qualitative than quantitative assessment. However, in some universities, an F1 category may be given a ' Pass Conceded ' if the student 's Weighted Average is greater than a nominated threshold. (More often than not, this is around the 53 -- 55 range.)
Grade - point averages are not generally used in Australia below a tertiary level, but are important for selection into graduate entry courses such as Medicine and Law. They are calculated according to more complicated formula than some other nations, and may be customised for the particular course application when used as entry criteria into graduate entry degrees:
Grade Point Average (GPA) = Sum of (grade points × course unit values) / total number of credit points attempted, in which grade points are as follows:
At some universities, among them Macquarie University, University of Technology, Sydney, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) and Monash University in Melbourne, a GPA is calculated, with 4.0 being a High Distinction; 3.0 a Distinction, 2.0 a Credit, and 1.0 a pass. In certain faculties, such as law, it is therefore possible to graduate with "honours '' with a GPA of less than 2.5. Whenever a course result is a Non-Graded Pass, the result will normally be disregarded in GPA calculations.
The term course unit values is used to distinguish between courses which have different weightings e.g. between a full year course and a single semester course.
The grading of secondary school graduates varies from state to state, but in most states the ATAR (Australian Tertiary Admissions Rank) system determines which students are offered positions in tertiary courses. Government Supported Positions are offered to applicants for a course who are ranked above a particular ATAR threshold, which commonly varies from course to course, institution to institution, and year to year. (An example of this is an ATAR of 85 for Civil Engineering at the University of New South Wales.) A student 's ATAR signifies that student 's rank relative to their year 7 cohort, including students that did not complete year 12. A student with an ATAR of 80.00, for example, has performed, in their final year of secondary schooling, better than 80 percent of that student 's year 7 cohort, had all those year 7 students completed year 12 and been eligible for an ATAR.
On the other hand, graduating Year 12 students in Queensland are given an Overall Position (OP) from 1 to 25, with 1 being the highest band. OPs are calculated from a student 's grades in their year 12 (and in some cases, year 11) courses, and also from Student Achievement Indicators (SAIs) which are allocated by the student 's teachers.
Most New Zealand secondary schools use the National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) marking schedule, even in pre-NCEA years for commonality. There are four grades, from lowest to highest, Not Achieved (N), Achieved (A), Merit (M), and Excellence (E). The minority of schools using other secondary school qualifications (usually CIE or IB) have different grades. Grading at tertiary institutions generally centers around a letter scale, with a corresponding nine - point GPA scale (C − = 1, A+ = 9).
In Argentina the GPA is calculated quarterly, each semester, or annually. Grades usually range from 1 to 10. The passing mark is typically 60 %, which in secondary school is represented by a grade of 6.
Depending on the university, admittance may require:
University grades are also on a scale of 1 to 10, but a passing mark is represented by 4, which usually corresponds to a mark of 75 %, or higher.
In Brazil the GPA -- known as Coeficiente de Rendimento, or Índice de Rendimento Acadêmico -- is calculated per semester or per year or both. The High School GPA is almost never used for college entrance evaluation in public universities (state funded and free of charge). To enter state colleges, Brazilian students must attend to entrance exams called vestibulares. The most famous ones are FUVEST, the entrance exam for University of São Paulo, and ENEM, a national exam that ranks high school students to be accepted by federal funded colleges. The private colleges system also apply entrance exams, but some might use the GPA as an evaluation method. During college, the GPA is calculated as a weighted average of grade and course hours and have a bigger importance than in the high school as it determines priority in receiving scholarships, for example.
The majority of schools adopt a 0.00 (worst) to 10.00 (best) scale for grading, and some of the Brazilian schools adopt the following grading system:
A grade below 5.0 is surely a fail, although some schools have passing criteria of 6.0 to 7.0, as 60 % to 70 %.
Some schools adopt a system without the E mark, like this:
In this system a grade below 65 % is a fail, but the people having C and D grades can attend ERP - Estudos de Recuperação Paralela, when the grade is not the final grade, and ERF - Estudos de Recuperação Final - when the grade is the final grade, so they can have a better grade: A or B. In ERP, if person continues having C or D, he / she will attend ERF. If the person has C or D in ERF, he / she will "repeat the year '' - that 's how people say in Brazil.
Grades are assigned with a numeric scale from 1.0 to 7.0, including at least one decimal, with 4.0 as the lowest passing grade (equivalent to 50 %). Everything under a 4.0 is considered a "red mark, '' which equates to failing. For the PSU, Prueba de Selección Universitaria (UST, University Selection Test), the scale goes from 150 to 850 points. The points follow a normal distribution, being 500 the average result. Depending on the university and the major, the student will need a minimum score to get accepted. The final score will depend on the points obtained in each test: Mathematics and Linguistics (both mandatory); Natural Sciences and History (only one of them mandatory) and the NEM score, Notas de Enseñanza Media (High School Grades which is the same as GPA) converted into the PSU Scale.
The most used grading systems are the numerical from 0 to 5 or from 0 to 10 and is approved with 3 or 6, respectively. And the letter system which consist of S, A, Bs, Ap, Bj or E, S, A, I, D. The letter system is based on the numerical, meaning that the numerical system guides the letter one. While the universities only use the numerical system and one approve with a grade of 3.0, because it is more complex and students have more difficulty in approving a course.
Numerical system from 0 to 5:
Numerical system from 0 to 10:
It is noteworthy that most schools no longer implement the Deficiente (D) for represent a null performance and therefore cause low self - esteem in students.
In Ecuador, the rating system is 10 out of 10, including two decimal places in both primary, secondary and university, the highest score is 10 and the lowest is 1, to meet the minimum grade to pass this year is 7, depending on how schools are organized since 2012 enjoy complete autonomy in Ecuador, so that some establishments maintain supplementary examination for those with less than 7, and other approved intensive recovery, but if the grade obtained is low of 5 are automatically disqualified and disciplinary same behavior is described as follows: A (excellent), B (outstanding), C (very good), D (Good), E (Regular) and F (failure), and students they got 10 out of 10 in 90 % of subjects in the first school year quimestre is promoted to a senior year, but making an entrance examination. Notes and academic qualifications and groups them reasoning thus:
The grades vary from 1 to 5, where 5 is the maximum grade achievable and 1 the lowest. The minimum for pass is 2 (equivalent to 60 %).
Grades range from 0 to 20, in an almost unique grading table. The passing grade is 11 in most schools and universities. In some preschool facilities, grades usually range from F to A+, following the American system, and in a few colleges, the passing grade is 10.
For most Peruvian universities the grading system is as follows:
From 2017, Peru will adopt a new evaluation system. AD (Excellent), A (Very good), B (Good), C (Fair), D (Fail).
In Uruguay high grades are very hard to achieve. In elementary school, grades range in this order:
In high school, grades range from 1 to 12. 1 is the lowest and 12 is the highest. Passing an exam or course requires 6 out of 12 in high school or at a private university, and 3 out of 12 at a public university. In high school a 6 corresponds to 50 % on an exam or in a course while in a public university, a 3 corresponds to a 60 % in a course or exam. Grades of 10, 11, and 12 are considered excellent. Some private universities grade their students on a percentage basis, 60 % or 70 % being the passing grade.
Because of the acronym of the word "Sobresaliente '' (Ste.) it is usual to pronounce it as "Sote ''.
Grades in Venezuela may vary according to the education level, but normally the grading system is numerical, and ranges from 00 to 20, 00 being the lowest and 20 being the highest, and 10 being the pass mark, equivalent to a "D '' in the United States. This system is not required, however, and several schools in Venezuela deviate from it by following a letter - grade system similar or identical to those in the United States.
Shown here is the Venezuelan grading system in probable comparison with the United States grading system:
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who sings my mind playing tricks on me | Mind Playing Tricks on Me - wikipedia
"Mind Playing Tricks on Me '' is a single by the Geto Boys, featured on their 1991 album We Ca n't Be Stopped. The lyrics used within describe various mental states such as posttraumatic stress disorder. The sample used in the song is "Hung Up On My Baby '' by Isaac Hayes from his 1974 film Tough Guys. It was the only number - one single (chart: Hot Rap Singles) ever released by the Geto Boys. It reached # 23 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it the highest charting single by the Geto Boys. It was also certified Gold by the RIAA. It has been regarded as one of the best hip hop songs to come out of the 90 's.
"Mind Playing Tricks on Me '' has received acclaim over the years. In 2012, Rolling Stone Magazine ranked it the fifth greatest hip hop song of all time. The song was rated number 18 in the 100 Greatest Rap Songs by About.com. VH1 ranked the song 82 on its list of 100 Greatest Songs of the 90 's and 45 on its list of 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop. Pitchfork Media ranked the song # 45 on its Top 200 Tracks of the 1990s list, with reviewer Tom Breihan writing "This track established the South as a serious force in the music, proving that these Texans could do dark better than anyone on either coast. '' The song was also included in The Pitchfork 500, a book of the greatest 500 songs from ' 76 - ' 06 published by Pitchfork Media.
The song has also been referenced and sampled by other artists. The Kottonmouth Kings remade the song for their album Hidden Stash II: The Kream of the Krop under the same name. Kryptik & Team Death made a remix of the song for the compilation album "Devil 's Nite 2K8 '' titled "Mind Playing Tricks On Me ' 08. '' The Insane Clown Posse also covered this song with Detroit native Anybody Killa and Southern rapper Lil Wyte on The Mighty Death Pop! 's bonus cover album Smothered, Covered & Chunked. Brazilian rapper Gabriel o Pensador sampled "Mind Playing Tricks on Me '' in his song "Lavagem Cerebral '', from his 1993 album "Gabriel o Pensador ''. "Mind Playing Tricks on Me '' has been referenced by Prodigy, of Mobb Deep fame, in his single, "Mac 10 Handle '', by Ice Cube in the song "When Will They Shoot '', and by The Clipse, in the song "Nightmares '' of their second album, Hell Hath No Fury. The Notorious B.I.G. references "Mind Playing Tricks on Me '' and sings the guitar line from the song 's chorus (originally sampled from the Isaac Hayes song "Hung up on my Baby '') in his hit "One More Chance. '' In the song "She Lives In My Lap '' off the highly successful 2003 OutKast album Speakerboxxx / The Love Below, Andre 3000 samples Scarface 's vocals from the track. In the track "Walk in the Streets '' The Game references the song with the lines: "Must I remind you of that Geto Boy track / Your mind is playing tricks on you, you 'll never go plaque ''. Game also references the song in his 2010 song "Big Money '' with the Hook: "I got big money, I drive big cars, everybody know me, It 's like I 'm a movie star. '' In his album The B. Coming, Beanie Sigel, in the highly acclaimed song "Feel it in the Air '', recycles a lyric from Scarface 's intro to the song - "I sit alone in my four cornered room ''. Destiny 's Child 's "Illusion '' featuring Wyclef and Pras sampled "Mind Playin ' Tricks on Me '' on their eponymous 1998 self - titled debut album. A vocal sample from the song is used in the song "Big Money, Big Cars '' by Killer Mike featuring Chamillionaire and Messy Marv released in 2008 on the I Pledge Allegiance to the Grind II. Jean Grae references Bushwick Bill 's dream sequence from "Mind Playing Tricks on Me '' in her song "Going Crazy ''.
Stephan Jenkins of alternative rock band Third Eye Blind said this, along with other rap songs from the early ' 90s, helped shape Third Eye Blind 's hit song "Semi-Charmed Life ''.
In 2012, in an interview with Complex magazine, American recording artist Kid Cudi cited "Mind Playing Tricks on Me '' as his "favorite song in the world '' and revealed the song was the inspiration for his hit single "Day ' n ' Nite '': "I love it so much I wanted to make my own version of it. And then ' Day ' N ' Nite ' came out of it. '' Kid Cudi later sampled the song for his third album Indicud (2013), on the track "Beez ''.
"Mind Playing Tricks on Me '' is featured in the in - game radio station West Coast Classics in the video game Grand Theft Auto V.
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how will nigeria make money with their oil producing | Petroleum industry in Nigeria - wikipedia
The petroleum industry in Nigeria is the largest on the African continent. As of 2016, Nigeria 's petroleum industry contributes about 9 % to its economy. Therefore, though the petroleum sector is important, as government revenues and foreign exchange still heavily rely on this sector, it remains in fact a small part of the country 's overall diversified economy.
Crude oil from the delta basin comes in two types: light, and comparatively heavy -- the lighter around 36 gravity and the heavier, 20 -- 25 gravity. Both types are paraffinic and low in sulfur.
The history of oil exploration in Nigeria dates back to 1907 when Nigerian Bitumen Corporation conducted exploratory work in the country; however, the firm left the country at the onset of World War I. Thereafter, licenses were given to D'Arcy Exploration Company and Whitehall Petroleum. However, neither company found oil of commercial value and they returned their licenses in 1923. A new license covering 920,000 square kilometres (357,000 square miles) was given to a new firm called Shell D'arcy Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria. The new firm was a consortium of Shell and British Petroleum (then known as Anglo - Iranian). The company began exploratory work in 1937. The consortium was granted license to explore oil all over the territory of Nigeria but in 1951 and then between 1955 and 1957, the acreage allotted to the company in the original license was reduced. Drilling activities started in 1951 and the first test well was drilled in Owerri area. Oil was discovered in non-commercial quantities at Akata, near Eket in 1953. Prior to the Akata find, the company had spent around 6 million pounds in exploratory activities in the country. Shell - BP in the pursuit of commercially available petroleum found oil in Oloibiri, Nigeria in 1956. Other important oil wells discovered during the period were Afam and Bomu in Ogoni territory. Production of crude oil began in 1957 and in 1960, a total of 847,000 tonnes of crude oil was exported. Towards the end of the 1950s, non-British firms were granted license to explore for oil: Mobil in 1955, Tenneco in 1960, Gulf Oil and later Chevron in 1961, Agip in 1962, and Elf in 1962. Prior to the discovery of oil, Nigeria (like many other African countries) strongly relied on agricultural exports to other countries to supply their economy. Many Nigerians thought the developers were looking for palm oil. But after nearly 50 years searching for oil in the country, Shell - BP discovered the oil at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta. The first oil field began production in 1958.
After that, the economy of Nigeria should have seemingly have experienced a strong increase. However, competition for the profits from oil created a great level of terror and conflict for those living in the region. Many citizens of Nigeria believe that they have n't been able to see the economic benefits of oil companies in the state. Additionally, Nigerian government officials have remained majority shareholders in the profits created by the production of Nigerian oil, leading to government capturing of nearly all oil production, and citizens are not seeing socioeconomic benefits, and insist that oil companies should compensate people.
As of 2000, oil and gas exports accounted for more than 98 % of export earnings and about 83 % of federal government revenue, as well as generating more than 14 % of its GDP. It also provides 95 % of foreign exchange earnings, and about 65 % of government budgetary revenues.
Nigeria 's proven oil reserves are estimated by the United States Energy Information Administration (EIA) at between 16 and 22 billion barrels (2.5 × 10 and 3.5 × 10 m), but other sources claim there could be as much as 35.3 billion barrels (5.61 × 10 m). Its reserves make Nigeria the tenth most petroleum - rich nation, and by the far the most affluent in Africa. In mid-2001 its crude oil production was averaging around 2,200,000 barrels (350,000 m) per day. It is expected that the industry will continue to be profitable based on an average bench mark oil price of $85 - $90 per barrel.
Nearly all of the country 's primary reserves are concentrated in and around the delta of the Niger River, but off - shore rigs are also prominent in the well - endowed coastal region. Nigeria is one of the few major oil - producing nations still capable of increasing its oil output. Unlike most of the other OPEC countries, Nigeria is not projected to exceed peak production until at least 2009. The reason for Nigeria 's relative unproductivity is primarily OPEC regulations on production to regulate prices on the international market. More recently, production has been disrupted intermittently by the protests of the Niger Delta 's inhabitants, who feel they are being exploited.
Nigeria has a total of 159 oil fields and 1481 wells in operation according to the Department of Petroleum Resources. The most productive region of the nation is the coastal Niger Delta Basin in the Niger Delta or "South - south '' region which encompasses 78 of the 159 oil fields. Most of Nigeria 's oil fields are small and scattered, and as of 1990, these small unproductive fields accounted for 62.1 % of all Nigerian production. This contrasts with the sixteen largest fields which produced 37.9 % of Nigeria 's petroleum at that time.
As a result of the numerous small fields, an extensive and well - developed pipeline network has been engineered to transport the crude oil. Also because of the lack of highly productive fields, money from the jointly operated (with the federal government) companies is constantly directed towards petroleum exploration and production.
Nigeria 's petroleum is classified mostly as "light '' and "sweet '', as the oil is largely free of sulphur. Nigeria is the largest producer of sweet oil in OPEC. This sweet oil is similar in composition to petroleum extracted from the North Sea. This crude oil is known as "Bonny light ''. Names of other Nigerian crudes, all of which are named according to export terminal, are Qua Ibo, Escravos blend, Brass River, Forcados, and Pennington Anfan.
As recently as 2010, Nigeria provided about 10 % of overall U.S. oil imports and ranked as the fifth - largest source for oil imports in the U.S. However, Nigeria ceased exports to the US in July 2014 because of the impact of shale production in America; India is now the largest consumer of Nigerian oil.
There are six petroleum exportation terminals in the country. Shell owns two, while Mobil, Chevron, Texaco, and Agip own one each. Shell also owns the Forcados Terminal, which is capable of storing 13 million barrels (2,100,000 m) of crude oil in conjunction with the nearby Bonny Terminal. Mobil operates primarily out of the Qua Iboe Terminal in Akwa Ibom State, while Chevron owns the Escravos Terminal located in Delta State and has a storage capacity of 3.6 million barrels (570,000 m). Agip operates the Brass Terminal in Brass, a town 113 kilometres (70 miles) southwest of Port Harcourt and has a storage capacity of 3,558,000 barrels (565,700 m). Texaco operates the Pennington Terminal.
Oil companies in Africa investigate offshore production as an alternative area of production. Deepwater production mainly involves underwater drilling that exists 400 metres (1,300 ft) or more below the surface of the water. By expanding to deep water drilling the possible sources for finding new oil reserves is expanded. Through the introduction of deep water drilling 50 % more oil is extracted than before the new forms of retrieving the oil.
Angola and Nigeria are the largest oil producers in Africa. In Nigeria, the deepwater sector still has a large avenue to expand and develop. The Agbami oilfields hit full production in 2005, at 250,000 barrels (40,000 m) a day. Operated by Chevron 's Star Deep and a company called Famfa, Agbami is only one off - shore concession; there are others named Akpo, Bonga and Erha. The amount of oil extracted from Nigeria was expected to expand from 15,000 barrels per day (2,400 m / d) in 2003 to 1.27 million barrels per day (202,000 m / d) in 2010. Deepwater drilling for oil is especially attractive to oil companies because the Nigerian government has very little share in these activities and it is more difficult for the government to regulate the offshore activities of the companies.
The deepwater extraction plants are less disturbed by local militant attacks, seizures due to civil conflicts, and sabotage. These advancements offer more resources and alternatives to extract the oil from the Niger Delta, with less exposure to conflict than the operations on land. An open - air market for illegal crude oil operates off the Niger Delta, called the Togo Triangle.
Natural gas reserves are well over 5,300 km (187 × 10 ^ cu ft), the gas reserves are three times as substantial as the crude oil reserves. The biggest natural gas initiative is the Nigerian Liquified Natural Gas Company, which is operated jointly by several companies and the state. It began exploration and production in 1999. Chevron is also attempting to create the Escravos Gas Utilization project which will be capable of producing 4,500,000 m (160 × 10 ^ cu ft) per day. gas reserves. In 2008, the government prepared a Gas Master Plan that was intended to promote natural gas production and encourage the supply of natural gas to domestic power stations so as to help alleviate the country 's electricity shortages. There is also an export gas pipeline, known as the West African Gas Pipeline, in the works but has encountered numerous setbacks. The pipeline would allow for transportation of natural gas to Benin, Ghana, Togo, and Cote d'Ivoire. The majority of Nigeria 's natural gas is flared off and it is estimated that Nigeria loses 18.2 million US $ daily from the loss of the flared gas.
Nigeria 's total petroleum refining capacity is 445,000 barrels (70,700 m) per day, however, only 240,000 barrels (38,000 m) per day was allotted during the 1990s. Subsequently, crude oil production for refineries was reduced further to as little as 75,000 barrels (11,900 m) per day during the regime of Sanni Abacha. There are four major oil refineries: the Warri Refinery and Petrochemical Plant which can process 125,000 barrels (19,900 m) of crude per day, the New Port Harcourt Refinery which can produce 150,000 barrels (24,000 m) per day (there is also an ' Old ' Port Harcourt Refinery with negligible production), as well as the now defunct Kaduna Refinery. The Port Harcourt and Warri Refineries both operate at only 30 % capacity.
It is estimated that demand and consumption of petroleum in Nigeria grows at a rate of 12.8 % annually. However, petroleum products are unavailable to most Nigerians and are quite costly, because almost all of the oil extracted by the multinational oil companies is refined overseas, while only a limited quantity is supplied to Nigerians themselves.
Nigeria is Africa 's largest oil producer and has been a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries since 1971. The Nigerian economy is heavily dependent on the oil sector, which, accounts for over 95 percent of export earnings and about 40 percent of government revenues, according to the International Monetary Fund. According to the International Energy Agency, Nigeria produced about 2.53 million barrels (402,000 m) per day, well below its oil production capacity of over 3 million barrels (480,000 m) per day, in 2011.
Nigeria is an important oil supplier to the United States. For the last nine years, the United States has imported between 9 - 11 percent of its crude oil from Nigeria; however, United States import data for the first half of 2012 show that Nigerian crude is down to a 5 percent share of total United States crude imports. According to the International Energy Agency, in 2011, approximately 33 percent of Nigeria 's crude exports were sent to the United States, making Nigeria its fourth largest foreign oil supplier.
Although total crude imports into the United States are falling, imports from Nigeria have declined at a steeper rate, according to the International Energy Agency. The main reasons underlying this trend are that some Gulf Coast refiners have reduced Nigerian imports in favor of domestically - produced crude, and that two refineries in the U.S. East Coast, which were significant buyers of Nigerian crude, were idled in late 2011.
As a result, Nigerian crude as a share of total United States imports has fallen to 5 percent in the first half of 2012, down from 10 and 11 percent in the first half of 2011 and 2010, respectively, according to the International Energy Agency. According to the CIA World Factbook, Nigeria 's main export partners are the United States, India, Brazil, Spain, France and the Netherlands. Shell has been working in Nigeria since 1936, and currently dominates gas production in the country, as the Niger Delta, which contains most of Nigeria 's gas resources, also houses most of Shell 's hydrocarbon assets.
Prior to its official amalgamation into the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria by the military forces of the British Empire in 1914, the territory of Nigeria was a loose collection of autonomous states, villages, and ethnic communities. Many of these established themselves as pillars of art, trade, and politics in West Africa as late as the 19th century; four of these cultural entities, the Hausa - Fulani, the Igbo (sometimes spelled Ibo), the Yoruba and the Efik grew extremely prominent in the region before the arrival of foreigners, dictated British colonial policies, and dominate national politics in Nigeria to this day.
The modern Hausa and Fulani societies in northern Nigeria are the cultural successors of the Sokoto Caliphate, a theocratic state founded by Muslim reformer empire - maker Uthman dan Fodio in 1817. Geographically isolated in the north, the Caliphate was governed by Islamic laws as prescribed by dan Fodio 's Kitab al - Farq and maintained greater links commercially and culturally to North Africa and the Arab states than to West Africa and the Atlantic.
By contrast, the Yoruba, the Igbo and the Efik in the south had regularly experienced contact with Europeans since at least the 16th century. A minority of southerners converted to Christianity even prior to the establishment of permanent British control, but the majority followed traditional indigenous religions, worshipping myriad deities with vast domains spanning both cosmic and terrestrial spheres.
Coastal Nigerians established thriving trade both regionally and abroad, fashioning the coast into a hub for products like palm oil, a good sought after by rapidly industrialising Europe, while also serving as key source for the slave trade prior to its international banning (the region came to be known as the Slave Coast as a result).
The Niger Delta region, which is roughly synonymous with the Niger Delta province in location and the contemporary heart of the petroleum industry, is and was a zone of dense cultural diversity and is currently inhabited by roughly forty ethnic groups speaking an estimated 250 dialects. Some of the more relevant ethnic groups in the western part of the Niger Delta region include the Ijaw, Itsekiri, and Ogoni. The Ijaw (sometimes spelled Ijo), the fourth most populous tribe in Nigeria and by far the largest in the Delta region, lived during late medieval times in small fishing villages within the inlets of the delta; however by the 16th century, as the slave trade grew in importance, Ijaw port cities like Bonny and Brass developed into major trading states which served as major exporters of fish and other goods regionally. Other states such as those of Itsekiri domain of Warri sprang up at this time as well.
The eastern Niger Delta region has the Efik people (Annang / Efik / Ibibio who are all related with a common language and ancestors who were all referred to as Efik or Calabar people in early Nigerian history). Their capital city of Calabar, located at the coastal southeast of Nigeria (eastern Niger Delta) served as the major trading and shipping center during the pre-colonial and colonial period. Calabar also served as the first capital of Nigeria and the point of entry of Western religion and Western education into southeastern Nigeria. The combined population of the Ibibio, Annang and Efik people is the fourth largest language group in Nigeria.
Even before the consolidation of British control over all of present - day Nigeria 's borders in 1914 from the protectorates of Southern and Northern Nigeria, British forces had begun imposing drastic political and economic policies on the Nigerian people which would lead to important consequences in the future. Originally this was done primarily through the government - owned Royal Niger Company. The company was crucial in securing most of Nigeria 's major ports and monopolised coastal trade; this resulted in the severing of the ties which had linked the area to the flourishing West African regional trade network, in favour of the exportation of cheap natural resources and cash crops to industrialising nations. Most of the population eventually abandoned food production for such market - dependent crops (peanuts and cotton in the north, palm oil in the east, and cocoa in the west). From the beginning, divide and rule tactics were employed by both traders and administrators, highlighting ethno - religious differences and playing groups against one another. After 1914, the north was permitted a system of indirect rule under authoritarian leaders, while in the south the British exercised control directly.
Interest in Nigerian oil originated in 1914 with an ordinance making any oil and mineral under Nigerian soil legal property of the Crown. By 1938 the colonial government had granted the state - sponsored company, Shell (then known as Shell D'Arcy) a monopoly over the exploration of all minerals and petroleum throughout the entire colony. Commercially viable oil was discovered by Shell in 1956 roughly 90 kilometres (56 mi) west of the soon - to - be oil capital of Port Harcourt at Oloibiri, now in Bayelsa State; initially a 50 -- 50 profit sharing system was implemented between the company and the government. Until the late 1950s concessions on production and exploration continued to be the exclusive domain of the company, then known as Shell - British Petroleum. However, other firms became interested and by the early 1960s Mobil, Texaco, and Gulf had purchased concessions.
In October 1960 Nigeria gained full independence from Britain with the British monarch continuing to preside as Head of State, but the country quickly altered its relationship with its former colonizers by declaring Nigeria a republic of three federated states (the Eastern, Western and Northern Regions). But the flaring of ethnic tensions assured that this new republic would be short - lived, as on 15 January 1966, a small group of army officers consisting mostly of southeastern Igbos, staged a successful coup d'état against the civilian government. The federal military government which assumed power under General Aguiyi - Ironsi was unable to quiet ethnic tensions or produce a constitution acceptable to all sections of the country. In fact, its efforts to abolish the federal structure exacerbated the growing unrest and led to another coup, led by largely northern officers in July of the same year. This second coup established the regime of Major General Yakubu Gowon. Subsequently, the massacre of thousands of Igbo in the north prompted hundreds of thousands to return to the southeast, where increasingly strong Igbo secessionist sentiment emerged under the leadership of the Igbo military governor Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu.
With tensions stoked between the Eastern region and Gowon 's federal government, on 4 -- 5 January 1967, in compliance with Ojukwu 's desire to meet for talks only on neutral soil, a summit attended by Gowon, Ojukwu and other members of the Supreme Military Council was held at Aburi in Ghana, the stated purpose of which was to resolve all outstanding conflicts and establish Nigeria as a confederation of regions. The outcome of this summit was the Aburi Accord, the differing interpretations of which would soon cause Ojukwu to declare Biafran independence and plunge Nigeria into civil war.
Igbo secessionism arose in part from the pogroms in the North that were aimed at Eastern people, most specifically, the Igbo. However, since the southeast encompassed most of the petroleum - rich Niger Delta, the prospect emerged of the Eastern Region gaining self - sufficiency and increasing prosperity. The exclusion of easterners from power caused many in the east to fear that oil revenues would be used to benefit areas in the north and west rather than their own. The desire to accrue profits from oil revenues combined with ethnic tensions acted as a catalyst for the Igbo - spearheaded secession. Additionally, despite his denials in later years, it appears that Ojukwu 's insistence on secession at the time was heavily influenced by his knowledge of the extent of the area 's oil reserves.
Recent evidence has suggested a tax battle waged by American oil companies contributed to the regional and ethnic tensions that would lead to the outbreak of war. It was also during this period that, again thanks to the Americans, the opacity and concomitant corruption of Nigerian oil began to crystallise. However, evidence from leaked US State Department documents have proven that Britain, through Shell - BP, still held the most influence over the Nigerian oil industry at the time the war broke out. The United States declared neutrality, with US Secretary of State Dean Rusk stating that "America is not in a position to take action as Nigeria is an area under British influence, '' but nevertheless provided military assistance to the Nigeria government.
On top of scores of deaths, the war had a largely negative impact on the oil industry. Strife caused production of crude to drop significantly, particularly in Biafra. Total crude output decreased from 420,000 barrels per day (67,000 cubic metres per day) in 1966 at the start of the war, to only 140,000 barrels per day (22,000 cubic metres per day) in 1968. Shell alone saw a drop from 367,000 barrels per day (58,300 cubic metres per day) in 1966, to 43,000 (6,800) in 1968. And in addition to concerns about production, oil companies began experiencing uncertainty as to the future of their investments depending on who prevailed in the war. This led to relations between oil companies and the federal government becoming strained, with the government at one point accusing the oil company Safrap (now TotalFinaElf, but Elf until 1974) of favouring Biafra and enlisting the aid of France for the Biafran cause. Shell, the other major holder of concessions in the southeast, was concerned but placated and limited politically by Britain 's staunch support of the Nigerian government in the war effort.
Despite oil 's prominent role in national affairs, up to this time, the Nigerian federal government had only limited involvement in the oil industry, and the government confined its financial involvement in the oil industry to taxes and royalties on the oil companies. The companies were subsequently able to set their own price on the petroleum they extracted, and dominated petroleum to such a point that laws governing the oil sector were having a negative effect on Nigerian interests. However, even during the conflict with Biafra would force changes to the relationship between federal government and the petroleum industry. Gowon 's military government instituted the 1969 Petroleum Decree which dismantled the existing revenue allocation system that had divided revenue from oil taxes equally between federal and state government, instead favouring an allocation formula in which the federal government controlled the dispensation of revenues to the states.
After the loss of over 2,000,000 lives, the war concluded in 1970 and resulted in a victory for the Nigerian state, as the secessionist regions were subsequently brought back into the Nigerian fold. However, the former Eastern Region had been split into two new states, Rivers and South - Eastern (now Cross River) in order to discourage lingering ideas of independence.
In May 1971 the Nigerian federal government, then under the control of General Yakubu Gowon, nationalised the oil industry by creating the Nigerian National Oil Corporation via a decree. Following the war with Biafra, the government felt it necessary to secure and gain more control over the oil industry. Nationalization of the oil sector was also precipitated by Nigeria 's desire to join OPEC, which was encouraging member states to acquire 51 % stakes and become increasingly involved in the oil sector. Although the Nigerian government had maintained involvement in the industry prior to 1971, this was accomplished mainly through business deals on concessions of the foreign firms in operation. The creation of the NNOC made government participation in the industry legally binding. The federal government would continue to consolidate its oil involvement throughout the next several decades.
However, it was during the years of Gowon and his successors Murtala Mohammed and Olusegun Obasanjo known officially as the Heads of the Federal Military Government of Nigeria, who ruled amidst the oil boom of the 1970s that the political economy of petroleum in Nigeria truly became characterised by endemic patronage and corruption by the political elites, which plagues the nation to this day. At both state and federal government levels, power and therefore wealth has typically been monopolised by select lobby groups who maintain a strong tendency to ' look after their own ' by financially rewarding their political supporters. At the state or community level this means that interest groups in power will reward and protect their own; this is typically based on ethnic / tribal or religious affiliation of the interest group. The heavy patronage based on tribal affiliation has fueled ethnic unrest and violence throughout Nigeria, but particularly in the Niger Delta states, where the stakes for control of the immense oil resources are very high. At the federal level, political elites have utilised patronage to consolidate power for the ruling government, not only by rewarding their political friends in the federal government, but also by paying off major interest groups at the state or tribal level in order to elicit their cooperation. Inevitably these financial favours are distributed unequally and inefficiently, resulting in concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a small minority. Nigeria is ranked by the Corruption Perceptions Index 136st out of 180 countries total (for comparison, this is the same as Russia).
Following the NNOC 's genesis, the Nigerian government continued to garner control over oil revenues. In 1972 it declared that all property not currently owned by a foreign entity was legally the property of the government, which gained jurisdiction over the sale and allocation of concessions to foreign investors. The military regime oversaw the implementation of a number of other important milestones related to oil:
1974: Participation in oil industry by government increases to 55 %.
1975: Decree 6 increases federal government share in oil sector to 80 %, with only 20 % going to the states.
1976: First exploration and development venture by NNOC undertaken and drills to uncover commercial quantities of petroleum off - shore.
1978: Perhaps most importantly, the federal government created the Land Use Act which vested control over state lands in military governors appointed by the federal military regime, and eventually led to Section 40 (3) of the 1979 constitution which declared all minerals, oil, natural gas, and natural resources found within the bounds of Nigeria to be legal property of the Nigerian federal government.
1979: In an effort to establish further control over the industry, the government merges and restructures the NNOC and the Ministry of Petroleum to form the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation, an entity which would exert more power over the allocation and sale of concessions than the NNOC. By 1979, the NNPC had also gained 60 % participation in the oil industry.
Despite the vast revenues accrued by Gowon and his heirs, the junta succumbed to the demands of the civilian population, and in 1979 military head of state Olusegun Obasanjo handed over power to elected National Party of Nigeria (NPN) candidate Shehu Shagari. This event coincided with the declaration of Nigeria 's Second Republic. At this juncture, the oil producing states of the Niger Delta were accounting for 82 % of all federal government revenue but the population of these areas received very little compensation and demands for adequate reimbursement for the black gold extracted from their land could be heard at this time. Overall, petroleum accounted for 96 % of all government external revenue but a mere 27 % of the nation 's GDP. However, the advent of democracy did not improve the situation.
A 1982 Revenue Act implemented by the Shagari government would eventually be modified by yet another military regime in 1984 via Decree 36 which reduced the government share of oil revenue from 80 % to 55 %. States got 32.5 % and 10 % went to local governments. The remaining 1.5 % was earmarked as a special fund to new develop oil - producing areas, but during the Shagari regime the corruption in Nigerian governance reached its zenith and capital flight out of Nigeria peaked, while people in the oil - producing areas continued to receive little or none of the oil profits. Additionally, 1980 saw oil - generated revenues attain an all - time high of US $24.9 billion but Nigeria still managed an international debt of $9 billion.
Shagari 's NPN government was viewed by the majority of Nigerians as incorrigibly corrupt by the time the national elections of 1983 came about. Shagari and his subordinates steadily transformed Nigeria into a police state where Nigerian military and police forces were permitted to utilise force quite liberally in order to control the civilian population. Such repressive measures were employed to ensure victory in the forthcoming elections, and this outcome was achieved largely through the bankrupting of the federal government 's treasury.
Another disturbing trend had also been gaining steam in Nigeria since the early 1970s: a steep drop in agricultural production correlating roughly with the rise in federal revenues from petroleum extraction. Whereas previously Nigeria had been the world 's lead exporter of cocoa, production of this cash crop dropped by 43 %, while productivity in other important income generators like rubber (29 %), groundnuts (64 %), and cotton (65 %) plummeted as well between 1972 and 1983. The decline in agricultural production was not limited to cash crops amid the oil boom, and national output of staple foodstuffs also fell. This situation contrasts to Nigeria in 1960 just after independence, when despite British underdevelopment, the nation was more or less self - sufficient in terms of food supply, while crops made up 97 % of all revenue from exports. The drop in production was so substantial that by the early 1980s the NPN government was forced to implement a now notorious import license scheme which essentially involved Nigeria, for the first time in its history, importing basic food items. However, as Nigerian activist and Nobel Laureate Wole Soyinka asserts, "the import license scam that was used by the party as a reward and enticement for party loyalists and would - be supporters cost the nation billions of dollars... while food production in the country virtually ceased ''.
For these reasons, seizure of power by General Muhammadu Buhari a short time after the NPN government was fraudulently re-elected was initially perceived as a positive development by civilians. Buhari charged out of the gate in December 1983, declaring himself Head of the Supreme Military Council of Nigeria, he condemned the civilian government 's blatant corruption and instituted programs supposedly designed to eliminate the disease of corruption. However, these measures were largely transparent and the looting of federal coffers by Nigeria 's rulers continued largely unabated, "as Shagari 's officers -- both within party and government -- left the country, came in and out as they pleased, while Burahi 's tribunal sentence opposition figures to spells of between a hundred and three hundred years in prison for every dubious kind of crime ''. The Buhari government neglected to punish even Shagari himself, a consistent trend in Nigerian 's long line of dictariorial rulers, who almost universally been spared any kind of justice.
In 1985, another general, this time General Ibrahim Babangida, stole power and again alleged that his predecessors were corrupt violators of human rights and promised to rectify the situation, committing to a return to democracy by 1990. Nigeria had been saddled with a crushingly large international debt at this point. This was because, despite over 101 billion US dollars having been generated by the oil industry between 1958 and 1983, nearly all of these funds had been siphoned into the private bank accounts and the state sponsored pet projects maintained by the succession of Nigerian governmental elites.
Immediately prior to Babangida 's rise to power, which is viewed by some as having been orchestrated by international oil and banking interests, the International Monetary Fund was exerting increasingly acute pressure on the Nigerian government to repay its massive debts, of which 44 % of all federal revenue was already servicing. Therefore, it was unsurprising when Babangida implemented the IMF 's Structural Adjustment Program in October 1986 in order to facilitate debt repayment. The SAP was extremely controversial while it was in effect between 1986 and 1988. While it did permit Nigerian exports to become more competitive internationally and spurred a degree of economic growth, the SAP also incurred a dramatic drop in real wages for the majority of Nigerians. This, combined with major cuts to important public services, incited public unrest so extreme that Babangida 's Armed Forces Ruling Council was obliged to partially reverse the SAP initiatives and return to inflationary economic policies. Babangida 's rule also oversaw the annihilation of the Nigerian economic middle class, and Nigeria 's entry to the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, despite Muslims accounting for less than 50 % of the Nigerian populace.
The 1980s military juntas conducted several attempted re-organisations of the NNPC to increase its efficiency. However, according to most sources by the early 1990s the NNPC was characterised by chronic inefficiency and waste. Red tape and poor organisation are standard, with the NNPC being divided into several sub-entities, each fulfilling a particular function. This is despite the NNPC 's growing participation in the industry, including development and exploration of numerous off - shore wells. As a result, the functionality of the industry is dependent on foreign corporations, not the NNPC.
The sudden jump in oil prices caused by the First Gulf War in 1990 and 1991, as most researchers confirm, was at best squandered. The Babangida junta has been widely accused of "mismanaging '' the oil windfall from the Gulf War price jump, which accounted for about $12.5 billion in revenues. Another alleges that the federal government siphoned off about $12.2 billion between 1988 and 1994 into private accounts or expenditures, "clandestinely undertaken while the country was openly reeling with a crushing external debt ''.
Under these circumstances, Babangida eventually allowed for nationwide elections on 12 June 1993. These elections were declared universally free and fair (at least in comparison to past elections) by all major international election monitors, and the eventual winner of the presidential race was the Chief M.K.O. Abiola (of the newly formed SDP). However, the military regime cynically pronounced the election, in which fourteen million Nigerians participated, to be null and void due to "electoral irregularities ''. The Nigerian people took to the streets in large numbers to protest the election 's annulment. As civil unrest continued, Babangida was forced to cede power to the caretaker government of Ernest Shonekan.
Shonekan 's interim government would be short - lived, as on 17 November 1993, Babangida 's former Chief of Army Staff and Minister of Defence Sani Abacha overthrew the caretaker regime and installed himself as Head of State. Popular opposition to the junta was widespread and public demonstrations were taking place on a regular basis. Immediately upon taking power, Abacha commenced the brutal repression of these subversive elements which would make his tenure notorious on a global basis.
Throughout the early 1990s such popular unrest grew steadily, particularly in the Niger Delta region, where various ethnic groups began demanding compensation for years of ecological damage as well as control over their land 's oil resources. This unrest manifested itself at the outset as peaceful activist organisations that united their members on the basis of ethnicity.
One of the most prominent of these organisations to emerge in the region was the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP). The group declared that the Ogoni people, a small minority in Rivers state of Nigeria, were slowly being annihilated as the arable terrain of their homeland (known as Ogoniland) was degraded by pollution from oil production by Chevron and primarily Shell.
Conflict in the Niger Delta arose in the early 1990s due to tensions between the foreign oil corporations, the Nigerian federal government, and a number of the Niger Delta 's ethnic groups who felt they were being exploited, particularly minority groups like the Ogoni as well as the Ijaw in the late 1990s. Ethnic and political unrest has continued throughout the 1990s and persists as of 2006 despite the conversion to a more democratic, civilian federal system under the Obasanjo government in 1999; democracy has to some degree fan the flames as politicians seeking office may now employ militia groups to coerce voters and generally disrupt the election process. Competition for oil wealth has fuelled violence between innumerable ethnic groups, causing the militarisation of nearly the entire region by ethnic militia groups as well as Nigerian military and police forces (notably the Nigerian Mobile Police). Victims of crimes are fearful of seeking justice for crimes committed against them because of growing "impunity from prosecution for individuals responsible for serious human rights abuses, (which) has created a devastating cycle of increasing conflict and violence ''. The regional and ethnic conflicts are so numerous that fully detailing each is impossible and impractical.
On 30 January 2013, a Dutch court ruled that Shell can be held accountable for the pollution in the Niger Delta.
All petroleum production and exploration is taken under the auspices of joint ventures between foreign multi-national corporations and the Nigerian federal government. This joint venture manifests itself as the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation, a nationalised state corporation. All companies operating in Nigeria obey government operational rules and naming conventions (companies operating in Nigeria must legally be sub-entities of the main corporation, often incorporating "Nigeria '' into its name). Joint ventures account for approximately 95 % of all crude oil output, while local independent companies operating in marginal fields account for the remaining 5 %. Additionally, the Nigerian constitution states that all minerals, oil, and gas legally belong to the federal government. Six companies are operating in Nigeria and are listed with their countries of origin (most of the following is extracted from a 1999 Human Rights Watch report):
Nigeria 's oil revenue has totaled $340 billion in exports since the 1970s and it is the fifth largest producer. Though Nigeria is a major oil exporter, it imports most of its gasoline, and when fuel subsidies were lifted in January 2012, fuel increased from roughly $1.70 per gallon to $3.50. Nigeria produces a form of oil ideal for the United States, has huge reserves, and has increased its production to 2.8 million barrels (450,000 m) of oil a day. But this, some say, is all a resource curse that is hurting Nigeria and disadvantaging her people.
A report analysing the effect of oil theft in Nigeria revealed in July 2013 that Nigeria lost $10.9 billion in potential oil revenues between 2009 and 2011.
The Niger Delta comprises 70,000 square kilometres (27,000 square miles) of wetlands formed primarily by sediment deposition. Home to more than 20 million people and 40 different ethnic groups, this floodplain makes up 7.5 % of Nigeria 's total land mass. It is the largest wetland and maintains the third - largest drainage area in Africa. The Delta 's environment can be broken down into four ecological zones: coastal barrier islands, mangrove swamp forests, freshwater swamps, and lowland rainforests.
This incredibly well - endowed ecosystem, which contains one of the highest concentrations of biodiversity on the planet, in addition to supporting an abundant flora and fauna, arable terrain that can sustain a wide variety of crops, economic trees, and more species of freshwater fish than any ecosystem in West Africa. The region could experience a loss of 40 % of its inhabitable terrain in the next thirty years because of extensive dam construction in the region. The carelessness of the oil industry has also precipitated this situation, which can perhaps be best encapsulated by a report issued by the NNPC in 1983, long before popular unrest surfaced:
We witnessed the slow poisoning of the waters of this country and the destruction of vegetation and agricultural land by oil spills which occur during petroleum operations. But since the inception of the oil industry in Nigeria, more than twenty - five years ago, there has been no concerned and effective effort on the part of the government, let alone the oil operators, to control environmental problems associated with the industry.
Oil spills in Nigeria are a common occurrence; it has been estimated that between 9 and 13 million barrels (1,400,000 and 2,100,000 m) have been spilled since oil drilling started in 1958. The government estimates that about 7,000 spills occurred between 1970 and 2000. Causes include corrosion of pipelines and tankers (accounts for 50 % of all spills), sabotage (28 %), and oil production operations (21 %), with 1 % of the spills being accounted for by inadequate or non-functional production equipment. One reason that corrosion accounts for such a high percentage of all spills is that as a result of the small size of the oilfields in the Niger Delta, there is an extensive network of pipelines between the fields. Many facilities and pipelines were constructed to older standards, are poorly maintained and have outlived their estimated life span. Sabotage is performed primarily through what is known as "bunkering '', whereby the saboteur taps a pipeline, and in the process of extraction sometimes the pipeline is damaged. Oil extracted in this manner is often sold for cash compensation.
Oil spills have a major impact on the ecosystem. Large tracts of mangrove forests have been desroyed. They are especially susceptible to oil spills because the oil is stored in the soil and re-released annually with each inundation. An estimated 5 -- 10 % of Nigerian mangrove ecosystems have been wiped out either by settlement or by oil. Spills also take out crops and aquacultures through contamination of groundwater and soils. Drinking water is frequently contaminated, and a sheen of oil is visible in many localised bodies of water. If the drinking water is contaminated, even if no immediate health effects are apparent, the numerous hydrocarbons and other chemicals present in oil represent a carcinogenic risk. Offshore spills, which are usually much greater in scale, contaminate coastal environments and cause a decline in local fishing production.
Nigerian regulations are weak and rarely enforced allowing oil companies, in essence, to self - regulate.
Nigeria flares more natural gas associated with oil extraction than any other country, with estimates suggesting that of the 99,000,000 m (3.5 × 10 ^ cu ft) of associated gas (AG) produced annually, 71,000,000 m (2.5 × 10 ^ cu ft), or about 70 % is wasted via flaring. Statistical data associated with gas flaring is notoriously unreliable, but AG wasted during flaring is estimated to cost Nigeria US $2.5 billion on a yearly basis. Companies operating in Nigeria harvest natural gas for commercial purposes, however prefer to extract it gas from deposits where it is found in isolation as non-associated gas. It is costly to separate commercially viable associated gas from oil, hence gas flaring to increase crude production.
Gas flaring is discouraged by the international community as it contributes to climate change. In fact, in western Europe 99 % of associated gas is used or re-injected into the ground. Gas flaring in Nigeria releases large amounts methane, which has very high global warming potential. The methane is accompanied by carbon dioxide, of which Nigeria is estimated to have emitted more than 34.38 million tons in 2002, accounting for about 50 % of all industrial emissions in the country and 30 % of the total CO emissions. As flaring in the west has been minimised, in Nigeria it has grown proportionally with oil production. While the international community, the Nigerian government, and the oil corporations seem to agree that gas flaring need to be curtailed, efforts to do so have been slow and largely ineffective.
Gas flares release a variety of potentially poisonous chemicals such as nitrogen dioxides, sulphur dioxide, volatile organic compounds like benzene, toluene, xylene and hydrogen sulfide, as well as carcinogens like benzapyrene and dioxins. Often gas flares are often close to local communities, and lack adequate fencing or protection for villagers who may risk nearing the heat of the flare in order to carry out their daily activities. Flares which are often older and inefficient are rarely relocated away from villages, and are known to coat the land and communities in the area with soot and damage adjacent vegetation.
In November 2005 a judgment by, "the Federal High Court of Nigeria ordered that gas flaring must stop in a Niger Delta community as it violates guaranteed constitutional rights to life and dignity. In a case brought against the Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria (Shell), Justice C.V. Nwokorie ruled in Benin City that the damaging and wasteful practice of flaring can not lawfully continue. ''
One of the greatest threats facing the people of the Niger River Delta has actually been their own government. The Nigerian government has total control over property rights and they have the authority to seize any property for use by the oil companies. A majority of every dollar that comes out of the ground in the delta goes to the State and Federal governments.
According to the World Bank, most of Nigeria 's oil wealth gets siphoned off by 1 % of the population. Corruption in the government is rampant, in fact since 1960 it is estimated that 300 to 400 billion dollars has been stolen by corrupt government officials. The corruption is found at the highest levels as well. For example, a former inspector general of the national police was accused of stealing 52 million dollars. He was sentenced to six years in prison for a lesser charge.
Nigerians have on many occasions engaged in protests against oil - related corruption and environmental concerns in the past, but have been met with harsh suppression by government forces. For example, in February 2005 at a protest at Chevron 's Escravos oil terminal, soldiers opened fire on the protestors. One man was killed and 30 others were injured. The soldiers claimed that the protestors were armed, which the protestors denied. Another, more extreme example happened in 1994. The Nigerian military moved into a region called Ogoniland in force. They razed 30 villages, arrested hundreds of protestors, and killed an estimated 2,000 people.
One of the protestors they arrested was a man named Ken Saro - Wiwa, a Nigerian TV producer, writer and social activist. In 1990 he founded the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP). Ken wrote and spoke out about the rampant corruption in the Nigerian government and he condemned Shell and British Petroleum. He was arrested by the Nigerian government and imprisoned for 17 months. Then in a show trial he and eight others were condemned to death. He and the others were hung in 1995 and he was buried in an unmarked common grave.
The people of the delta states live in extreme poverty even in the face of great material wealth found in the waters by their homes. According to Amnesty International in 2006, 70 % of the people in the Niger River Delta live on less than US $1 per day. For many people, this means finding work in a labour market which is in many instances hostile to them. Much of the labour in the past has been imported. To a growing degree, the labour force for the oil companies is coming from Nigeria. But discrimination is rampant, and for the most part, locals are discriminated against.
This leads to a situation where the men in the community have to search for temporary employment. This has two negative effects on the community. First it takes the men out of the community as they go in search of work. The second is the nature of temporary employment sets up unsustainable spending habits). They earn some money and spend it thinking it will be easy to earn more, when in many cases this does not turn out to be the case.
As the government officials siphon off all the money generated from oil sales the infrastructure suffers. Most of the villages do not have electricity or even running water. They do not have good access to schools or medical clinics. For many, even clean drinking water is difficult to come by. The deterioration of the infrastructure in the delta states is so severe it is even a problem in the more urban areas. One example of this is the airport at Port Harcourt. Part of a fence was not properly maintained and an Air France flight hit a herd of cattle on the runway in 2005. The airport was closed and still had not reopened by 2007.
The leadership of the Niger Delta region appears responsible for most of the underdevelopment in the region. There is large - scale corruption amongst the elected leaders especially governors, and the leaders have helped sponsor the militant groups kidnapping innocent people and sabotaging efforts by the federal government for infrastructure development. Indicted corrupt leaders are also cheered by the Niger Delta people.
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yeh rishta kya kehlata hai new naitik real name | Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai - Wikipedia
Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai (English: What Is This Relationship Called?) is a Hindi language television drama that premiered on January 12, 2009 in India and airs every Monday through Friday at 9: 30 pm on Star Plus. The show, which focuses on the daily happenings within the household of an Udaipur based Rajasthani family, is produced by Rajan Shahi 's Director 's Kut Productions. It is the longest running Hindi series on Indian television by episode count, surpassing Balika Vadhu. The show stars Naira, played by Shivangi Joshi; Kartik, played by Mohsin Khan; and Naksh, played by Rishi Dev, as the lead characters. The series initially starred Naira 's parents Hina Khan and Karan Mehra and Rohan Mehra as the lead characters.
Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai is the story of a young couple, Akshara and Naitik Singhania. who live in a Marwari joint family in Udaipur. The story showcases their journey as a married couple going through adjustment issues, as parents of young children, and how they learn to love each other and their respective extended families while becoming mature members of their household.
Naitik meant with an accident where he is in a coma. Naksh (Akshara - Naitik 's son) is now 5 and does n't know about his father. One day, Naitik comes back and a first Naksh does n't accept him but then he does. When events take place now. Soon the family travel and Gayatri (Naitik 's mother) dies. Now Rajsekhar (Naitik 's dad) is asked to marry someone, and he marries Devyani, who comes with her two children from a divorced marriage. Later, Bhabimaa 's husband died, and Bhabimaa (Naitik 's aunt) blames it on Akshara and kicks her out of the house, after Akshara 's daughter Naira is born. Akshara, Naitik, Naksh and Naira leave the house.
Naksh as a now mature adult and Naira is a diva teenager. Akshara and Naitik, along with Naksh and Naira, live in Cape Town. Naksh returns to Udaipur. He tries to clear up the misunderstanding with Bhabima. After many days, Akshara is forgiven and is allowed to return. The story then focuses on Naksh. He falls in love with Tara, and preparations for their wedding are made. Just minutes before the ceremony, she breaks up with him.
The show focuses on teenage Naira, who flees from her house and now lives in Rishikesh, nursing hatred for her mother. After finding Naira, the story takes a new twist: a love triangle that forms between Kartik (Naitik 's employee), Naira and Gayu (Naitik 's niece). Naira and Kartik have feelings for each other but do n't know that it 's love. Meanwhile Gayu loves Kartik, unaware that Kartik does n't love her back. When Kartik proposes Naira, she initially rejects him, but by the time she realizes that Gayu also loves him, she thinks of sacrificing her happiness in favor of Gayu. When Mishti reveals that Kartik loves only Naira, Kartik and Naira confess their love for each other; Gayatri understands. Kartik does n't want to talk about his family as he hates them. Meanwhile, on Akshara 's birthday, everyone goes for a veneration, but Akshara dies in a car accident. Singhanias blame Kartik for Akshara 's death as Kartik was found drunk and injured at the accident site. Kartik 's family shows up and supports Kartik. Later, Naira finds that Kartik is not the culprit. She proves Kartik 's innocence by finding the real culprit. Kartik does n't like his father and stepmother as he thinks they were responsible for his mother 's death. Seeing Kartik 's feelings towards a Singhanias, his family approves of their relationship in spite of not being much in favor of it.
The two families (Goenka and Singhania) start making preparations for their wedding. Just before the wedding, Kartik discovers the real culprit who ran Akshara over and yearns to tell Naira, but his uncle convinces him that he will tell her. He reneges and tells Naira only that Kartik is missing his mother. Finally, the wedding takes place. Few days later, Naira meets the man whose brother is in jail for killing her mother and learns that Akshara 's accident was caused by Mansi, Kartik 's sister. The news reaches the Singhanias and they are heartbroken. The Goenkas come to apologize. Naira is initially very hurt and angry with Kartik, but she understands that it 's not his fault. She takes Akshara 's accident case back and forgives Mansi. On Karthik 's birthday, he comes to know that Aditya tortures Keerti and, along with Naira, decides to expose him. Eventually, Aditya 's truth comes out and Keerti and Aditya gets divorced.
Suhasini Goenka wants to find a suitable match for Keerti and later forces Naira to get Naksh and Keerti married. Naksh accepts the proposal for the sake of Naira. Naksh and Keerti 's marriage functions starts.
Another parallel story about Manish And Saumya Goenka (Kartik 's mother) gets revealed. Saumya was a mental patient and committed suicide long back. Manish kept the fact hidden keeping his promise to Saumya. Later, Kartik learns the truth and his misunderstandings regarding Manish gets cleared up.
The grand wedding of Naksh and Keerti kickstarts.
Parallel with Akshara and Naitik 's stories, the stories of their respective siblings also form significant story arcs in the series. Past plots have been built around the lives of Naitik 's sisters Nandini and Rashmi. The series has also focused on Naitik 's step - siblings. The series also paralleled the story of Akshara - Naitik with that of Varsha - Shaurya. Varsha is Akshara 's best friend, and Shaurya is Akshara 's older brother. The shows also focus on Naksh, Kartik, Naira, Gayatri "Gayu '' Deora and Tara. Naksh is Naitik and Akshara 's son; Gayu is Nikhil - Rashmi 's daughter (Sameer 's stepdaughter). Naira, the youngest child and only daughter of Akshara and Naitik, is now the main female lead character of the show. Kartik, Naitik 's employee and Naira 's love interest, is the new male lead character of the show. Tara was Naksh 's fiancée until she leaves him.
Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai had several crossover episodes with various shows. In 2009, the show had a connection with Sapna Babul Ka... Bidaai. In 2012, the show had a crossover episode with Diya Aur Baati Hum. In 2016, Diya Aur Baati Hum 's lead actress Deepika Singh made an entry.
The show is one of the most often awarded shows of Indian Television and is India 's longest running television series by episode count. Hina Khan participated in the ' Power of 49 ' campaign in which soap opera actors used their influence to urge women to vote.
Shoma Munshi said the show has "simplicity and highly emotional content '' and was noted for placing female characters in the historical tradition of a large joint family.
The show is also broadcast by Urdu 1 and Star Plus sister channel STAR Utsav. The show always maintained the top spot among Indian TV serials that aired in Pakistan. The show was beaten three to four times by Kumkum Bhagya that aired on Geo Kahani but recovered its leading position. The show also recorded one of the highest TRP in Pakistan.
Star Parivaar Awards
New Talent Awards
Indian Television Academy Awards
Indian Telly Awards
Kalakar Awards
Lions Gold Awards
Star Guild Awards
Garv Indian TV Awards
BIG Star Young Entertainers Awards
BIG Star Entertainment Awards
FICCI Excellence Awards and Frames Honours
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who called the middle ages the dark ages | Dark Ages (historiography) - wikipedia
The "Dark Ages '' is a historical periodization traditionally referring to the Middle Ages, that asserts that a demographic, cultural, and economic deterioration occurred in Western Europe following the decline of the Roman Empire.
The term employs traditional light - versus - darkness imagery to contrast the era 's "darkness '' (lack of records) with earlier and later periods of "light '' (abundance of records). The concept of a "Dark Age '' originated in the 1330s with the Italian scholar Petrarch, who regarded the post-Roman centuries as "dark '' compared to the light of classical antiquity. The phrase "Dark Age '' itself derives from the Latin saeculum obscurum, originally applied by Caesar Baronius in 1602 to a tumultuous period in the 10th and 11th centuries. The concept thus came to characterize the entire Middle Ages as a time of intellectual darkness between the fall of Rome and the Renaissance; this became especially popular during the 18th - century Age of Enlightenment.
As the accomplishments of the era came to be better understood in the 18th and 20th centuries, scholars began restricting the "Dark Ages '' appellation to the Early Middle Ages (c. 5th -- 10th century). The majority of modern scholars avoid the term altogether due to its negative connotations, finding it misleading and inaccurate. The original definition remains in popular use, and popular culture often employs it as a vehicle to depict the Middle Ages as a time of backwardness, extending its pejorative use and expanding its scope.
The term was originally intended to denote an intermediate period between Classical Antiquity and the Modern era. In the 19th century scholars began to recognize the accomplishments of the period, which challenged the image of a time exclusively of darkness and decay. Nowadays the term is not used by scholars to refer to the entire medieval period; when used, it is generally restricted to the Early Middle Ages.
The rise of archaeology in the 20th century has shed light on the period, offering a more nuanced understanding of its achievements. Other terms of periodization have come to the fore: Late Antiquity, the Early Middle Ages, and the Great Migrations, depending on which aspects of culture are being emphasized. Today, on the rare occasions when the term is used by historians, it is intended to be neutral and express the idea that the period often seems ' dark ' from the scarcity of historical record, and artistic and cultural output.
The idea of a Dark Age originated with the Tuscan scholar Petrarch in the 1330s. Writing of the past, he said: "Amidst the errors there shone forth men of genius; no less keen were their eyes, although they were surrounded by darkness and dense gloom ''. Christian writers, including Petrarch himself, had long used traditional metaphors of ' light versus darkness ' to describe ' good versus evil '. Petrarch was the first to give the metaphor secular meaning by reversing its application. He now saw Classical Antiquity, so long considered a ' dark ' age for its lack of Christianity, in the ' light ' of its cultural achievements, while Petrarch 's own time, allegedly lacking such cultural achievements, was seen as the age of darkness.
From his perspective on the Italian peninsula, Petrarch saw the Roman and classical period as an expression of greatness. He spent much of his time travelling through Europe, rediscovering and republishing classic Latin and Greek texts. He wanted to restore the Latin language to its former purity. Renaissance humanists saw the preceding 900 years as a time of stagnation, with history unfolding not along the religious outline of Saint Augustine 's Six Ages of the World, but in cultural (or secular) terms through progressive development of classical ideals, literature, and art.
Petrarch wrote that history had two periods: the classic period of Greeks and Romans, followed by a time of darkness in which he saw himself living. In around 1343, in the conclusion of his epic Africa, he wrote: "My fate is to live among varied and confusing storms. But for you perhaps, if as I hope and wish you will live long after me, there will follow a better age. This sleep of forgetfulness will not last forever. When the darkness has been dispersed, our descendants can come again in the former pure radiance. '' In the 15th century, historians Leonardo Bruni and Flavio Biondo developed a three - tier outline of history. They used Petrarch 's two ages, plus a modern, ' better age ', which they believed the world had entered. Later the term ' Middle Ages ' - Latin media tempestas (1469) or medium aevum (1604) - was used to describe the period of supposed decline.
During the Reformations of the 16th and 17th centuries, Protestants generally had a similar view to Renaissance Humanists such as Petrarch, but also added an Anti-Catholic perspective. They saw classical antiquity as a golden time, not only because of its Latin literature, but also because it witnessed the beginnings of Christianity. They promoted the idea that the ' Middle Age ' was a time of darkness also because of corruption within the Roman Catholic Church, such as: Popes ruling as kings, veneration of saints ' relics, a celibate priesthood, and institutionalized moral hypocrisy.
In response to the Protestants, Catholics developed a counter-image to depict the High Middle Ages in particular as a period of social and religious harmony, and not ' dark ' at all. The most important Catholic reply to the Magdeburg Centuries was the Annales Ecclesiastici by Cardinal Caesar Baronius. Baronius was a trained historian who produced a work that the Encyclopædia Britannica in 1911 described as "far surpassing anything before '' and that Acton regarded as "the greatest history of the Church ever written ''. The Annales covered the first twelve centuries of Christianity to 1198, and was published in twelve volumes between 1588 and 1607. It was in Volume X that Baronius coined the term "dark age '' for the period between the end of the Carolingian Empire in 888 and the first stirrings of Gregorian Reform under Pope Clement II in 1046:
"The new age (saeculum) which was beginning, for its harshness and barrenness of good could well be called iron, for its baseness and abounding evil leaden, and moreover for its lack of writers (inopia scriptorum) dark (obscurum) ''.
Significantly, Baronius termed the age ' dark ' because of the paucity of written records. The "lack of writers '' he referred to may be illustrated by comparing the number of volumes in Migne 's Patrologia Latina containing the work of Latin writers from the 10th century (the heart of the age he called ' dark ') with the number containing the work of writers from the preceding and succeeding centuries. A minority of these writers were historians.
There is a sharp drop from 34 volumes in the 9th century to just 8 in the 10th. The 11th century, with 13, evidences a certain recovery, and the 12th century, with 40, surpasses the 9th, something the 13th, with just 26, fails to do. There was indeed a ' dark age ', in Baronius 's sense of a "lack of writers '', between the Carolingian Renaissance in the 9th century and the beginnings, some time in the 11th, of what has been called the Renaissance of the 12th century. Furthermore, there was an earlier period of "lack of writers '' during the 7th and 8th centuries. So, in Western Europe, two ' dark ages ' can be identified, separated by the brilliant but brief Carolingian Renaissance.
Baronius 's ' dark age ' seems to have struck historians, for it was in the 17th century that the term started to proliferate in various European languages, with his original Latin term saeculum obscurum being reserved for the period he had applied it to. But while some, following Baronius, used ' dark age ' neutrally to refer to a dearth of written records, others used it pejoratively, lapsing into that lack of objectivity that has discredited the term for many modern historians.
The first British historian to use the term was most likely Gilbert Burnet, in the form ' darker ages ' which appears several times in his work during the later 17th century. The earliest reference seems to be in the "Epistle Dedicatory '' to Volume I of The History of the Reformation of the Church of England of 1679, where he writes: "The design of the reformation was to restore Christianity to what it was at first, and to purge it of those corruptions, with which it was overrun in the later and darker ages. '' He uses it again in the 1682 Volume II, where he dismisses the story of "St George 's fighting with the dragon '' as "a legend formed in the darker ages to support the humour of chivalry ''. Burnet was a bishop chronicling how England became Protestant, and his use of the term is invariably pejorative.
During the Age of Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries, many critical thinkers saw religion as antithetical to reason. For them the Middle Ages, or "Age of Faith '', was therefore the opposite of the Age of Reason. Kant and Voltaire were vocal in attacking the Middle Ages as a period of social regress dominated by religion, while Gibbon in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire expressed contempt for the "rubbish of the Dark Ages ''. Yet just as Petrarch, seeing himself at the cusp of a "new age '', was criticising the centuries before his own time, so too were Enlightenment writers.
Consequently, an evolution had occurred in at least three ways. Petrarch 's original metaphor of light versus dark has expanded over time, implicitly at least. Even if later humanists no longer saw themselves living in a dark age, their times were still not light enough for 18th - century writers who saw themselves as living in the real Age of Enlightenment, while the period to be condemned stretched to include what we now call Early Modern times. Additionally, Petrarch 's metaphor of darkness, which he used mainly to deplore what he saw as a lack of secular achievement, was sharpened to take on a more explicitly anti-religious and anti-clerical meaning.
Nevertheless, the term ' Middle Ages ', used by Biondo and other early humanists after Petrarch, was in general use before the 18th century to denote the period before the Renaissance. The earliest recorded use of the English word "medieval '' was in 1827. The concept of the Dark Ages was also in use, but by the 18th century it tended to be confined to the earlier part of this period. The earliest entry for a capitalized "Dark Ages '' in the Oxford English Dictionary is a reference in Henry Thomas Buckle 's History of Civilization in England in 1857. Starting and ending dates varied: the Dark Ages were considered by some to start in 410, by others in 476 when there was no longer an emperor in Rome, and to end about 800, at the time of the Carolingian Renaissance under Charlemagne, or alternatively to extend through to the end of the 1st millennium.
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Romantics reversed the negative assessment of Enlightenment critics with a vogue for medievalism. The word "Gothic '' had been a term of opprobrium akin to "Vandal '' until a few self - confident mid-18th - century English "Goths '' like Horace Walpole initiated the Gothic Revival in the arts. This stimulated interest in the Middle Ages, which for the following generation began to take on the idyllic image of an "Age of Faith ''. This, reacting to a world dominated by Enlightenment rationalism, expressed a romantic view of a Golden Age of chivalry. The Middle Ages were seen with nostalgia as a period of social and environmental harmony and spiritual inspiration, in contrast to the excesses of the French Revolution and, most of all, to the environmental and social upheavals and utilitarianism of the developing Industrial Revolution. The Romantics ' view is still represented in modern - day fairs and festivals celebrating the period with ' merrie ' costumes and events.
Just as Petrarch had twisted the meaning of light versus darkness, so the Romantics had twisted the judgment of the Enlightenment. However, the period they idealized was largely the High Middle Ages, extending into Early Modern times. In one respect, this negated the religious aspect of Petrarch 's judgment, since these later centuries were those when the power and prestige of the Church were at their height. To many, the scope of the Dark Ages was becoming divorced from this period, denoting mainly the centuries immediately following the fall of Rome.
The term was widely used by 19th - century historians. In 1860, in The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, Jacob Burckhardt delineated the contrast between the medieval ' dark ages ' and the more enlightened Renaissance, which had revived the cultural and intellectual achievements of antiquity. However, the early 20th century saw a radical re-evaluation of the Middle Ages, which called into question the terminology of darkness, or at least its more pejorative use. The historian Denys Hay spoke ironically of "the lively centuries which we call dark ''. More forcefully, a book about the history of German literature published in 2007 describes "the dark ages '' as "a popular if ignorant manner of speaking ''.
Most modern historians do not use the term "dark ages '', preferring terms such as Early Middle Ages. But when used by some historians today, the term "Dark Ages '' is meant to describe the economic, political, and cultural problems of the era. For others, the term Dark Ages is intended to be neutral, expressing the idea that the events of the period seem ' dark ' to us because of the paucity of the historical record. The term is used in this sense (often in the singular) to reference the Bronze Age collapse and the subsequent Greek Dark Ages, the dark ages of Cambodia (c. 1450 - 1863), and also a hypothetical Digital Dark Age which would ensue if the electronic documents produced in the current period were to become unreadable at some point in the future. Some Byzantinists have used the term "Byzantine Dark Ages '' to refer to the period from the earliest Muslim conquests to about 800, because there are no extant historical texts in Greek from this period, and thus the history of the Byzantine Empire and its territories that were conquered by the Muslims is poorly understood and must be reconstructed from other contemporaneous sources, such as religious texts. The term "dark age '' is not restricted to the discipline of history. Since the archaeological evidence for some periods is abundant and for others scanty, there are also archaeological dark ages.
Since the Late Middle Ages significantly overlap with the Renaissance, the term ' Dark Ages ' has become restricted to distinct times and places in medieval Europe. Thus the 5th and 6th centuries in Britain, at the height of the Saxon invasions, have been called "the darkest of the Dark Ages '', in view of the societal collapse of the period and the consequent lack of historical records. Further south and east, the same was true in the formerly Roman province of Dacia, where history after the Roman withdrawal went unrecorded for centuries as Slavs, Avars, Bulgars, and others struggled for supremacy in the Danube basin, and events there are still disputed. However, at this time the Arab Empire is often considered to have experienced its Golden Age rather than Dark Age; consequently, usage of the term must also specify a geography. While Petrarch 's concept of a Dark Age corresponded to a mostly Christian period following pre-Christian Rome, today the term mainly applies to the cultures and periods in Europe that were least Christianized, and thus most sparsely covered by chronicles and other contemporary sources, at the time mostly written by Catholic clergy.
However, from the later 20th century onwards, other historians became critical even of this nonjudgmental use of the term, for two main reasons. Firstly, it is questionable whether it is ever possible to use the term in a neutral way: scholars may intend this, but ordinary readers may not understand it so. Secondly, 20th - century scholarship had increased understanding of the history and culture of the period, to such an extent that it is no longer really ' dark ' to us. To avoid the value judgment implied by the expression, many historians now avoid it altogether.
Science historian David C. Lindberg criticises the public use of ' dark ages ' to describe the entire Middle Ages as "a time of ignorance, barbarism and superstition '' for which "blame is most often laid at the feet of the Christian church, which is alleged to have placed religious authority over personal experience and rational activity ''. Historian of science Edward Grant writes that "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed in the Age of Reason, they were made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities ''. Furthermore, Lindberg says that, contrary to common belief, "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led ''. Because of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire due to the Migration Period a lot of classical Greek texts were lost there, but part of these texts survived and they were studied widely in the Byzantine Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate. Around the eleventh and twelfth centuries in the High Middle Ages stronger monarchies emerged; borders were restored after the invasions of Vikings and Magyars; technological developments and agricultural innovations were made which increased the food supply and population. And the rejuvenation of science and scholarship in the West was due in large part to the new availability of Latin translations of Aristotle.
Another view of the period is reflected by more specific notions such as the 19th - century claim that everyone in the Middle Ages thought the world was flat. In fact, lecturers in medieval universities commonly advanced the idea that the Earth was a sphere. Lindberg and Ronald Numbers write: "There was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge (Earth 's) sphericity and even know its approximate circumference ''. Other misconceptions such as: "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages '', "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science '', and "the medieval Christian church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy '', are cited by Numbers as examples of myths that still pass as historical truth, although unsupported by current research.
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what group is gold in on the periodic table | Group 11 element - wikipedia
Group 11, by modern IUPAC numbering, is a group of chemical elements in the periodic table, consisting of copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au). Roentgenium (Rg) is also placed in this group in the periodic table, although no chemical experiments have yet been carried out to confirm that it behaves like the heavier homologue to gold. Group 11 is also known as the coinage metals, due to their former usage. They were most likely the first three elements discovered. Copper, silver, and gold all occur naturally in elemental form.
All the elements of the group except roentgenium have been known since prehistoric times, as all of them occur in metallic form in nature and no extraction metallurgy is necessary to produce them.
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior, although roentgenium is probably an exception:
All Group 11 elements are relatively inert, corrosion - resistant metals. Copper and gold are colored.
These elements have low electrical resistivity so they are used for wiring. Copper is the cheapest and most widely used. Bond wires for integrated circuits are usually gold. Silver and silver - plated copper wiring are found in some special applications.
Copper occurs in its native form in Chile, China, Mexico, Russia and the USA. Various natural ores of copper are: copper pyrites (CuFeS), cuprite or ruby copper (Cu O), copper glance (Cu S), malachite, (Cu (OH) CuCO), and azurite (Cu (OH) 2CuCO).
Copper pyrite is the principal ore, and yields nearly 76 % of the world production of copper.
Silver is found in native form, as an alloy with gold (electrum), and in ores containing sulfur, arsenic, antimony or chlorine. Ores include argentite (Ag S), chlorargyrite (AgCl) which includes horn silver, and pyrargyrite (Ag SbS). Silver is extracted using the Parkes process.
These metals, especially silver, have unusual properties that make them essential for industrial applications outside of their monetary or decorative value. They are all excellent conductors of electricity. The most conductive of all metals are silver, copper and gold in that order. Silver is also the most thermally conductive element, and the most light reflecting element. Silver also has the unusual property that the tarnish that forms on silver is still highly electrically conductive.
Copper is used extensively in electrical wiring and circuitry. Gold contacts are sometimes found in precision equipment for their ability to remain corrosion - free. Silver is used widely in mission - critical applications as electrical contacts, and is also used in photography (because silver nitrate reverts to metal on exposure to light), agriculture, medicine, audiophile and scientific applications.
Gold, silver, and copper are quite soft metals and so are easily damaged in daily use as coins. Precious metal may also be easily abraded and worn away through use. In their numismatic functions these metals must be alloyed with other metals to afford coins greater durability. The alloying with other metals makes the resulting coins harder, less likely to become deformed and more resistant to wear.
Gold coins: Gold coins are typically produced as either 90 % gold (e.g. with pre-1933 US coins), or 22 carat (91.66 %) gold (e.g. current collectible coins and Krugerrands), with copper and silver making up the remaining weight in each case. Bullion gold coins are being produced with up to 99.999 % gold (in the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf series).
Silver coins: Silver coins are typically produced as either 90 % silver -- in the case of pre 1965 US minted coins (which were circulated in many countries), or sterling silver (92.5 %) coins for pre-1920 British Commonwealth and other silver coinage, with copper making up the remaining weight in each case. Old European coins were commonly produced with 83.5 % silver. Modern silver bullion coins are often produced with purity varying between 99.9 % to 99.999 %.
Copper coins: Copper coins are often of quite high purity, around 97 %, and are usually alloyed with small amounts of zinc and tin.
Inflation has caused the face value of coins to fall below the hard currency value of the historically used metals. This had led to most modern coins being made of base metals -- copper nickel (around 80: 20, silver in color) is popular as are nickel - brass (copper (75), nickel (5) and zinc (20), gold in color), manganese - brass (copper, zinc, manganese, and nickel), bronze, or simple plated steel.
Copper, although toxic in excessive amounts, is essential for life. Copper is shown to have antimicrobial properties which make it useful for hospital doorknobs to keep diseases from being spread. Eating food in copper containers is known to increase the risk of copper toxicity.
Elemental gold and silver have no known toxic effects or biological use, although gold salts can be toxic to liver and kidney tissue. Like copper, silver also has antimicrobial properties. The prolonged use of preparations containing gold or silver can also lead to the accumulation of these metals in body tissue; the results are the irreversible but apparently harmless pigmentation conditions known as chrysiasis and argyria respectively.
Due to being short lived and radioactive, roentgenium has no biological use but it is likely extremely harmful due to its radioactivity.
Copper Cu Atomic Number: 29 Atomic Weight: 63.546 Melting Point: 1357.75 K Boiling Point: 2835 K Specific mass: 8.96 g / cm Electronegativity: 1.9
Silver Ag Atomic Number: 47 Atomic Weight: 107.8682 Melting Point: 1234.15 K Boiling Point: 2435 K Specific mass: 10.501 g / cm Electronegativity: 2.2
Gold Au Atomic Number: 79 Atomic Weight: 196.966569 Melting Point: 1337.73 K Boiling Point: 3129 K Specific mass: 19.282 g / cm Electronegativity: 2.54
Roentgenium Rg Atomic Number: 111 Atomic Weight: (281) Melting Point:? K Boiling Point:? K Specific mass:? 28.7 g / cm Electronegativity:?
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who played the characters in the movie frozen | Elsa (Disney) - Wikipedia
Queen Elsa of Arendelle is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures ' 53rd animated film Frozen. She is voiced primarily by Broadway actress and singer Idina Menzel. At the beginning of the film, she is voiced by Eva Bella as a young child and by Spencer Lacey Ganus as a teenager.
Created by directors Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee, Elsa is loosely based on the title character of "The Snow Queen '', a Danish fairytale by Hans Christian Andersen. In the Disney film adaptation, she is introduced as the princess of the fictional Scandinavian kingdom of Arendelle, heiress to the throne and the elder sister of Princess Anna (Kristen Bell). Elsa has the magical ability to create and manipulate ice and snow. She inadvertently sends Arendelle into an eternal winter on the evening of her coronation. Throughout the film, she struggles first with controlling and concealing her abilities and then with liberating herself from her fears of unintentionally harming others, especially her younger sister.
The Snow Queen character, neutral but cold - hearted in the original fairytale and villain in numerous adaptations of the character, proved difficult to adapt to film due to her transparent depiction. Several film executives, including Walt Disney, attempted to build on the character, and a number of scheduled film adaptions were shelved when they could not work out the character. Buck and his co-director, Jennifer Lee, were ultimately able to solve the dilemma by depicting Elsa and Anna as sisters. As much as Anna 's struggle is external, Elsa 's is internal. This led to Elsa being gradually rewritten as a sympathetic, misunderstood character.
Elsa has received largely positive reception from reviewers, who praised her complex characterization and vulnerability. Menzel was also widely praised for her vocal performance of Elsa, especially that of her performance of the song "Let It Go '', with critics frequently calling her a "powerhouse ''.
Attempts were made as early as 1937 by Walt Disney to adapt Hans Christian Andersen 's fairy tale, "The Snow Queen '', into a film. The tale focuses on two children, one named Gerda, who served as the basis for Princess Anna, and the other named Kai, who is "cursed with negativity '' after his heart is pierced with a shard of glass from an enchanted mirror and is later kidnapped by the Snow Queen. However, Disney struggled with creating a believable, multi-dimensional adaption of the fairy tale 's title character, who was intended to be a villain. In the story, she is described as "a woman, dressed in garments of white gauze, which looked like millions of starry snow - flakes linked together. She was fair and beautiful, but made of ice -- shining and glittering ice. Still she was alive and her eyes sparkled like bright stars, but there was neither peace nor rest in their glance. '' Disney was unable to find a way to make the Snow Queen more real and eventually abandoned film plans.
Several film executives later made efforts towards the project, including Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi, Dick Zondag, Glen Keane, and Dave Goetz. In 2011, director Chris Buck began work on another attempted adaption and also faced challenges with the Snow Queen character. Producer Peter Del Vecho explained that this was primarily because she was not relatable and too isolated, having no personal connections. As a result, they could not explain her motivations. After several changes were proposed, someone on the writing team suggested making the Snow Queen Anna 's sister. "Once we realized that these characters could be siblings and have a relationship, everything changed, '' Del Vecho relayed.
The Snow Queen, now given the name Elsa, continued to be cast as a villain, and Disney released the following synopsis for Frozen in May 2013:
When Anna is cursed by her estranged sister, the cold - hearted Snow Queen, Anna 's only hope of reversing the curse is to survive a perilous but thrilling journey across an icy and unforgiving landscape. Joined by a rugged, thrill - seeking outdoorsman, his one - antlered reindeer and a hapless snowman, Anna must race against time, conquer the elements and battle an army of menacing snowmen if she ever hopes to melt her frozen heart.
Earlier manuscripts included more antagonistic actions by Elsa, such as intentionally cursing Arendelle with an eternal winter. Additionally, she is shown creating an army of snowmen similar to the original Snow Queen 's army of snowflakes; the comedic character of Olaf was at the time written as a smaller snowman who was cast out by Elsa for being too unintimidating. Within two months, however, scripts were altered to give emphasis to her lack of control over her powers. Olaf was reduced to the only snowman created by Elsa, and he instead serves as a reminder of the sisters ' childhood friendship. In the final version, Elsa creates a single giant snow creature that Olaf nicknames "Marshmallow '' to act as a guard after being branded as a monster for her powers. According to director Jennifer Lee, the character ultimately became more of a composite of both Kai and the Snow Queen, enhancing her increasingly sympathetic portrayal. Del Vecho added, "There are times when Elsa does villainous things but because you understand where it comes from, from this desire to defend herself, you can always relate to her. ''
Eva Bella and Spencer Lacey Ganus were cast to portray Elsa as a young child and as a teenager, respectively. Actress and singer Megan Mullally was originally cast to voice an adult Elsa. but was replaced by Idina Menzel, a Broadway actress and singer best known for performing as Elphaba in Wicked. Menzel already knew Kristen Bell, who voiced Anna, and had previously auditioned for a lead role in the 2010 Disney film Tangled. She was not cast for the part, but the casting director recorded her singing and later showed the recording to Frozen 's film executives. Menzel was surprised when she was subsequently asked to audition, and she received the role after reading the script out loud. In interviews, she acknowledged similarities between Elsa, her then - current role, and Elphaba, her previous role. Namely, she said, they were both very powerful and very misunderstood individuals. She further said that she related to the characters, having hidden her singing talent from her peers at school. "I did n't want to alienate anyone, '' she explained. "If everyone was singing along in the car to a Madonna song, I did n't join in because when we 're younger we 're afraid of sticking out or showing off, when in fact we should own those things that make us really unique. ''
Director Chris Buck believed that Menzel 's vocals would help in the portrayal of the character, saying, "Idina has a sense of vulnerability in her voice. She plays a very strong character, but someone who lives in fear -- so we needed someone who could portray both sides of the character, and Idina was just amazing. '' Menzel was unaccustomed to working with animated films and being required to portray her character 's feelings with her voice alone, though she did not find it particularly challenging. While recording, she was able to "play '' with her voice, trying various tones to establish the ranges in Elsa 's emotions. For example, Menzel wanted there to be a difference between the ways she sounded when she was being bold and when she was angry. She would also physically restrict her hands from moving as she recorded the film 's early scenes in order to project how her character was "so afraid to move and feel anything that it would come out and hurt people ''.
During production, Menzel and Jonathan Groff, who portrays Kristoff, went to the animation studio to explain to the animators how they were approaching their characters. Animators asked Menzel questions about her singing, observed how she breathed as she sang live, and made videorecordings of her recording sessions; they then animated Elsa 's breathing to match Menzel 's breathing, for further realism. Her voice supplied inspiration for Elsa 's most prominent song, "Let It Go ''. According to composer Robert Lopez, Menzel 's vocal range was able to clearly convey Elsa 's "low, vulnerable, fragile side '' as well as her power and self - realization. Menzel commented that it was "an honor '' to have the song and that she enjoyed recording it. "It 's a collision of a bunch of forces that are all coming together in the right way, '' she explained. "The character, what she is singing and what she is experiencing; beautiful lyrics, beautiful melody and a little bit of me. '' Buck and Lee were also surprised by how compatible Menzel and Kristen Bell 's voices were. At one point during a table read, they sang a ballad (later revealed as "Wind Beneath My Wings '') back and forth to one another with so much sentiment that it reportedly left everyone who was present with tears in their eyes. Subsequently, Lee wanted Menzel and Bell to be in the same room when they were recording the important emotional scenes of the film.
All over the world, Elsa was dubbed in 46 languages.
Dutch singer and actress Willemijn Verkaik dubbed Elsa in Dutch (both speaking and singing) and German (singing only), Spanish singer Gisela sang both for the Castilian Spanish and Catalan versions and French singer Anaïs Delva 's singing lines were also used in the Canadian French version.
Both Anaïs Delva (French) and Jelena Gavrilović (Serbian) had originally auditioned for Anna 's role, but were eventually called back to dub Elsa instead.
Just like Idina Menzel, four of Elsa 's dubbers also played the role of Elphaba in the Musical "Wicked '', that is: Maria Lucia Rosenberg (Danish), Willemijn Verkaik (Dutch and German), Mona Mor (Hebrew) and Hyena Park (ko) (Korean).
Since 2013, some local TV stations have been dubbing the movie in their local languages, creating some unofficial dubs (namely: Albanian, Arabic TV, Karachay - Balkar, Persian and Tagalog).
Following the casting of Idina Menzel, Elsa 's characterization underwent several alterations. According to Menzel, she was originally scripted as a one - dimensional antagonist but was gradually revised as a more vulnerable, multifaceted figure. Menzel further described her character as "extremely complicated and misunderstood ''. Director Jennifer Lee stated that Elsa is largely driven by fear throughout the film, while Menzel added that she was also struggling with her potential to be "a strong, powerful, extraordinary woman ''. Executive producer and animator John Lasseter became very "protective of Elsa '' and was adamant about portraying her in a more favorable, sympathetic light. Writer and director Jennifer Lee stated on Twitter that Elsa 's body language and mannerisms were "intentional to show anxiety and depression ''. In July 2013, Disney released images of the film 's main characters along with outlines of their roles in the story. Elsa received the following description:
From the outside, Elsa looks poised, regal and reserved, but in reality, she lives in fear as she wrestles with a mighty secret -- she was born with the power to create ice and snow. It 's a beautiful ability, but also extremely dangerous. Haunted by the moment her magic nearly killed her younger sister Anna, Elsa has isolated herself, spending every waking minute trying to suppress her growing powers. Her mounting emotions trigger the magic, accidentally setting off an eternal winter that she ca n't stop. She fears she 's becoming a monster and that no one, not even her sister, can help her.
Elsa 's supervising animator was Wayne Unten, who asked for that role because he was fascinated by her complexity. Unten carefully developed Elsa 's facial expressions in order to bring out her fear as contrasted against Anna 's fearlessness. For their work on designing and animating Elsa, Unten and three other Disney Animation employees later won an award for Outstanding Animated Character in an Animated Feature Motion Picture at the 2013 Visual Effects Society Awards: Joy Johnson, character technical director (rigging); Alexander Alvarado, look development artist (Disney 's job title for texture artists); and Chad Stubblefield, modeling supervisor. FX technical director Yoo Jae - hyun worked for a year - and - a-half on creating Elsa 's ice - based special effects, including effects associated with her dress.
Producers identified the scene in which Elsa sings "Let It Go '' as a pivotal point in the character 's development. The scene depicts her choice to "let go '' of her fear of using her powers. Character design supervisor Bill Schwab said, "Before ' Let It Go ', Elsa is really buttoned up, her hair is up -- everything is perfect. During the song, she gives herself permission to be who she is and everything changes -- her hair is more wild, her gown is magical. She 's finally free -- even if she is all alone. '' Animators designed Elsa 's appearance to reflect her metamorphosis; in the beginning, she is shown primarily in restrictive and confining outfits. Menzel said that, after accepting her abilities, Elsa 's appearance becomes "very vampy '', continuing, "She 's quite sexy for Disney, I have to say -- they 're pushing the limits there a little bit! But there 's a gleam in her eye and a supermodel walk that goes with it and, for me, it was fun to be a blonde because I 'm not in real life. '' In a January 2014 interview with John August and Aline Brosh McKenna, Lee disclosed that Lasseter personally helped with conceptualizing Elsa 's physical transformation: "(M) y favorite thing about it... is the actual model for doing it was John Lasseter... he was a huge help in talking through how we translate that emotional journey... with the animation... (H) e got up and he 's like,... ' her hair goes, and she transforms, and she struts, ' and he 's doing it. He 's acting it out. ''
The scene was also a pivotal point in the development of Elsa 's character and was initially planned to depict her becoming evil. Robert Lopez, who composed the song with his wife, Kristen Anderson - Lopez, explained, "Elsa was going to go from being this perfect princess that had tried to keep her personality down her whole life to saying, ' Screw it. I 'm gon na be me. ' '' They had wanted to use the song as a way to gain a better understanding of the character and what she would be like if she was no longer living in fear, which ultimately resulted in her becoming much more complex. The final lyrics and Menzel 's "ability to be so fragile and vulnerable and then break into this powerhouse voice '' turned the plot around and led to Elsa being revised as a "good '' character. She initially attempts to suppress her powers in order to avoid hurting others, particularly Anna, and when she is no longer able to do so, she banishes herself from the kingdom to protect those around her. Lead writer Paul Briggs said that Anna 's support is what Elsa needs most when her secret is exposed. "The strength of the family bond is what makes this story so powerful, '' he explained, "because it 's her sibling who 's willing to look beyond her powers and stand between her and the world if that 's what it takes. ''
Elsa 's appearance had to be redesigned following her transition from antagonist to protagonist. She was originally drawn in a style similar to other Disney villains, with blue skin and spiky black hair. A few months after the film 's release, visual development artist Claire Keane (the daughter of Disney Legend Glen Keane) published early concept art of Elsa that was modeled after the singer Amy Winehouse. At the time, she was imagined as having blue "bouffant '' hair as well as "a deep, soulful voice and dramatic mood swings ''. Lasseter reportedly influenced the creation of the character 's much softer final appearance, particularly in regards to her very thick platinum blonde hair, which animators found difficult to design. Art director Michael Giaimo said that while a number of strategies were proposed for Elsa 's hair, Lasseter would push the animation team to continue making improvements, saying, "It 's not aspirational enough. We want people to feel like this hair is a beautiful statement. '' During a research trip, producers found that "there are lots of braids '' worn by women in Norway; they then hired a stylist from New York named "Danilo '' who helped to create a style that would reflect that while still being "a little different ''. A new animation program called Tonic was invented to assist with the task, and the character 's hair ultimately required 420,000 CGI threads. By contrast, Anna was given roughly 140,000 hairs while Rapunzel from Tangled had only required 27,000 CGI threads for her hair.
Since Elsa is introduced as a young child at the beginning of the film, animators wanted the first glimpse of her powers to reflect her innocent and fanciful state of mind at the time. This included giving her first snowflakes a simple design. Her snow and ice patterns later become more intricate and complex when she is an adult. Co-effects supervisor Marlon West elaborated, "When Elsa finally lets go and really starts owning her cryokinetic abilities, we wanted the ice and snow that she make to get across the idea that Elsa has now grown up and become this beautiful, elegant, confident and powerful young woman. ''
Her ice castle, which she creates while singing "Let It Go '', was designed to illustrate the maturing of her powers as well as to be "a manifestation of her feelings to the world ''. The palace is initially beautiful; however, after she is made aware of the destruction she has inadvertently caused, and as she is increasingly vilified and hunted by others, it becomes darker and more distorted, with jagged icicles forming on the walls. The film 's design team was uncertain about how it should look and drew out designs for various ice castles filled with snow. Lasseter suggested basing the structure and patterns on snowflakes. For example, an enormous snowflake would serve as the foundation, and the palace would be hexagon - shaped. Lasseter also wanted snowflake patterns to influence the manner in which Elsa creates the palace. "Snowflakes are these tiny little ice crystals that form in mid-air. And when there are changes in temperature and humidity, these snowflakes start growing in a pattern that 's known as branching and plating, '' said co-effects supervisor Dale Mayeda. "(Lasseter) said ' You know, when Elsa builds her ice palace, it would be so amazing if -- every step of the way as this castle forms out of thin air -- it 's just branching and plating, branching and plating all along the way. ''
Fifty animators worked on the scene in which the castle is built, and one frame required 30 hours to render. They later extended similar techniques to Elsa 's clothing. While the traditional Norwegian rosemaling was the inspiration for her costuming early in the film, her ice gown was designed similarly to her palace, with snowflakes heavily influencing the style. Her cape itself is a large snowflake.
Elsa, princess of Arendelle and heiress to the throne, is born with the ability to create and control ice and snow. As a child, she uses her abilities to create a winter wonderland to play in with her younger sister and best friend, Princess Anna. One night, Elsa accidentally harms Anna with her powers. The king and queen of Arendelle hurriedly take Anna to a tribe of mountain trolls to be healed. While healing Anna, the trolls inform the royals present that Elsa 's abilities will grow, becoming both beautiful and very dangerous so she must learn to control them. While the trolls erase Anna 's memory of the incident and of her elder sister 's powers in general, Elsa is traumatized by the event. The king and queen take steps to control and hide Elsa 's ice powers: the castle gates are locked, Elsa is shut away in her bedroom for most of the time, she is given gloves to help suppress her powers and is told to hold in her emotions as well. Nonetheless her powers continue to grow even stronger and so she becomes fearful of harming those she cares about most. Meanwhile, her sister Anna is less happy and confused by the loss of contact with her elder sister and tries, without success, to coax her out of her room. When the sisters grow into teenagers, the ship in which the king and queen are sailing is capsized in a storm and they drown, leaving Anna and Elsa feeling even more lonely.
Three years pass, and Elsa, now of age, is set to formally succeed her father as the monarch of Arendelle. Though she is afraid of opening the castle to the large crowds, her coronation goes on relatively peacefully. However, at the reception party, Anna asks for Elsa 's blessing to marry Prince Hans of the Southern Isles, whom Anna had met earlier that day. Elsa refuses to bless Hans 's offer to marry Anna; he is someone she barely knows, prompting an argument between the two. Being so upset Elsa accidentally reveals her power. Upon the guests ' and her subjects ' horror and being accused of sorcery and called a monster, Elsa flees the castle and retreats into the icy mountains. In the process, her emotions unleash an "eternal '' winter throughout Arendelle. While there, she decides to embrace, finally, all her powers and builds an enormous ice palace where she believes she can live freely without fear of hurting people. She also rebuilds her childhood snowman, Olaf, and unknowingly brings him to life.
Anna, determined to find Elsa and bring her back, travels through the mountains, encountering Olaf and a mountain man named Kristoff. They reach the ice palace, where Anna attempts to persuade Elsa to return home and mend their relationship. When Elsa ultimately resists (due to her memory of hurting Anna as a child with her powers resurfacing) Anna tells her about the state that Arendelle and all its people was left in. Horrified, Elsa lashes out and accidentally freezes Anna 's heart. Now even more horrified at the prospect of hurting her sister and people with her powers, Elsa forces Anna, Kristoff and Olaf out by creating a gigantic snow creature (called Marshmallow by Olaf), that is a symbol of her desire to be alone so as to be able to use her powers without hurting anyone. After this, her ice castle evidently becomes darker and more grotesque, reflecting her torment and re-ignited fears. Meanwhile, Anna becomes weaker day by day and Kristoff takes her back to the trolls, who tell them that only an "act of true love '' can save her life.
Hans and a group of soldiers attack the now ugly ice palace. Elsa seizes two soldiers who attempt to assassinate her. Hans convinces her to spare them to prove that she is not a monster. However, she is knocked unconscious and taken to her castle 's dungeon. Hans visits her and urges her to end the winter; Elsa admits that she has no idea how to do so. After he leaves, she is able to break free from the chains by freezing them and escapes the cell, though her fears trigger a massive blizzard. Anna returns to the castle, believing that a romantic kiss from Hans will be the "act of true love '' to save her. Instead, he informs her that his offer of marriage (engagement) had been the first step of a plot to get him the throne of Arendelle. Olaf tells Anna that Kristoff is in love with her and she believes that his kiss will cure her. They rush to find Kristoff. Hans confronts Elsa and tells her that she has killed Anna. Devastated, Elsa collapses and the blizzard stops suddenly. Hans approaches her and swings his sword to kill her, but Anna turns away from an approaching Kristoff with her last bit of strength and blocks Hans ' attack as she freezes solid.
Moments later, Anna begins to thaw, as her choice to save her sister rather than herself constituted the necessary "act of true love ''. Elsa realizes that love is the key to controlling her powers and is able to end the kingdom 's eternal winter. Summer returns to Arendelle, Elsa regains the throne and is able to use and safely control her powers, while the sisters ' bond is restored. She exiles Hans back to the Southern Isles to face punishment from his family and cuts off trade with the Duke of Weselton 's town for his earlier behavior towards her.
Nearly a year after the events of the first film, Elsa tries to make Anna 's 19th birthday as perfect as possible a way of making up for the years they spent apart. To do so, she works heavily with Kristoff, Sven and Olaf to make this a reality. Upon making sure that her surprise party in the palace courtyard is ready, she leaves Kristoff in charge while she goes to get Anna. However, Elsa starts to come down with a cold as she leads Anna on a treasure hunt to find all the gifts that have been made for her. Without realizing it, each sneeze she makes creates small snowmen called "snowgies '', which create trouble for Kristoff, Sven and Olaf. As Anna notices Elsa 's cold getting worse, she tries in vain to get Elsa to stop exerting herself, even taking medicine from Oaken in case Elsa gets sicker. Unfortunately, Elsa 's cold cause her to become very tired and behave in a seemingly intoxicated - like manner, and she nearly falls from Arendelle 's clock tower only for Anna to save her. Upon finally admitting to Anna that she is indeed sick after the previous incident, she allows Anna to escort her home feeling she has ruined everything, and finds that the party has gone off successfully for Anna (as well as discovering her snowgie creations), and still slightly intoxicated, she ends the party by accidentally sneezing into the birthday bugle horn, which inadvertently sends a gigantic snowball all the way to the Southern Isles and hits the now - demoted Hans, causing him to fall into a pile of horse manure. Afterwards, Anna tells a now bed - ridden Elsa that she has given her the best birthday ever by letting her take care of her.
Elsa appeared in a 21 - minute holiday film along with Anna, Kristoff, Sven, and Olaf, which debuted in theaters for a limited time engagement with Disney Pixar 's Coco on November 22, 2017. It made its television debut on ABC on December 14, 2017.
In December 2013, Disney began releasing "Musical Magic Elsa and Anna Dolls '', which played their signature songs that appear in the film. Numerous other doll versions of Elsa were released for purchase, including fashion doll sets, mini dolls, plush dolls, and Elsa - as - a-toddler dolls. A dress up costume for children was modeled after Elsa 's ice gown along with gloves similar to ones she wears in the film. Together with Anna, she was depicted on various Frozen - inspired dishware such as plates and coffee mugs. Other Elsa - inspired merchandise includes luggage, nightgowns, and home décor. Additionally, simplified versions of the film were adapted to children 's storybooks, including one with voice audio and another called A Sister More Like Me that was illustrated by Brittney Lee. Elsa and Anna also both appear as playable characters in Disney Infinity through the use of their corresponding figurines.
In early 2014, most Frozen merchandise, including dolls and dresses, were sold out nearly everywhere, including Disney stores and theme parks. In early November 2014, Disney announced that it had sold over three million Frozen costumes in North America alone, of which Elsa was the no. 1 best - selling Disney costume of all time, followed by Anna at no. 2. Hallmark created a Queen Elsa Christmas tree ornament after much interest was expressed when the Olaf ornament was announced in 2014.
In November, before the release of Frozen, Anna and Elsa began making appearances at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts in Florida and California through meet and greets. In Walt Disney World, the attractions were set up in the Norway Pavilion of Epcot in recognition of the Scandinavian cultural elements that went into the film 's design. In Disneyland, a winter - themed cottage was set up in the Fantasyland section, with a talking audio - animatronic Olaf sitting on the cottage roof. In February 2014, these meet - and - greet sessions were extended indefinitely, with wait time to meet the princesses frequently exceeding two hours, which is longer than any previous Disney characters. Additionally, Elsa, Anna, and Olaf were given a Frozen - themed float for Disneyland Paris ' Disney Magic on Parade. On March 9, 2014, the three made appearances again on their own Frozen parade float in Festival of Fantasy Parade at Magic Kingdom theme park. On April 20, 2014, Anna and Elsa moved from Epcot to the Princess Fairytale Hall at Magic Kingdom, with wait time to see the characters amounted to three hours, compared to Cinderella 's and Rapunzel 's 15 minutes.
Elsa 's performance of "Let It Go '' became the central feature in Disney California Adventure 's Winter Dreams, a 30 - minute, winter - themed adaption of the nighttime show World of Color, which showcases scenes from Disney films. Disneyland Paris ' nighttime spectacular, Disney Dreams!, also added Elsa 's performance of "Let It Go '' to their attractions, and she was given a similar role during the Magic Kingdom show, Celebrate the Magic, with her singing interspersed with scenes from the movie.
On May 16, 2014, it was announced that Disneyland would debut a Frozen pre-parade featuring Elsa, Anna and Olaf. It premiered June 13, 2014, and preceded performances of Mickey 's Soundsational Parade. From July 5 to September 1, 2014, as part of ' Frozen ' Summer Fun show at Disney 's Hollywood Studios, Anna and Elsa will appear in a horse - drawn sleigh making their way down Hollywood Boulevard, alongside Kristoff and skaters, skiers and ice cutters in the Anna and Elsa 's Royal Welcome section. The sisters also made appearances in For the First Time in Forever: A "Frozen '' Sing - Along Celebration, where they were joined by royal historians to retell the history of Arendelle; and "Frozen '' Fireworks Spectacular alongside Kristoff and Olaf, a fireworks display set to the music of Frozen. In response to strong demand, Disney Parks subsequently announced on August 7 that Frozen Summer Fun would be extended to September 28.
On August 19, 2014, it was initially announced that Elsa & Anna 's Boutique (replacing Studio Disney 365) would open mid-September in Downtown Disney at the Disneyland Resort. The opening date was later changed to October 6, 2014, and the store name was changed to "Anna & Elsa 's Boutique ''. The location includes products inspired by Anna, Elsa, and Olaf.
While there had not been any official announcements from Disney regarding a coronation for Anna and Elsa, it had been announced in late August 2014 that a special character meal would be held by a group of travel agents in the morning of September 24, 2014. While not officially organized by Disney, the event, called My Royal Coronation, would feature the official Anna and Elsa characters owned by Disney with assistance from the company. On September 12, 2014, Walt Disney World announced that a Frozen attraction was scheduled to open in early 2016 at Epcot 's World Showcase in the Norway pavilion, replacing the park 's Maelstrom ride. The attraction features the kingdom of Arendelle with music and scenes from the film, as well as meet - and - greets with Anna and Elsa. Anna, Elsa, Kristoff, and Olaf will make appearances in Mickey 's Once Upon a Christmastime Parade, offered during Mickey 's Very Merry Christmas Party at Magic Kingdom in November and December 2014 (from November 7 to December 31). Also starting from November, every night Elsa will use her powers to transform Cinderella Castle into an ice palace.
On November 13, 2014, prior to "A Sparkling Christmas '' Evert, Anna and Elsa began meet - and - greet sessions at Hong Kong Disneyland.
Beginning December 20, 2014, the Anna and Elsa meet and greet at Disneyland Resort was moved from Disneyland park to a new location in the Disney Animation Building called "Anna and Elsa 's Royal Welcome '' in Disney California Adventure. In addition, the Storybook Land Canal Boats at Disneyland were updated to include the village of Arendelle from the film, including Anna and Elsa 's castle and Elsa 's ice palace. Officially starting January 7, 2015, Elsa began making appearances alongside Anna and Kristoff at Disney California Adventure in "For the First Time in Forever -- A Frozen Sing - Along Celebration '' in Hollywood Land as part of the park 's "Frozen Fun '' event. Also starting January 7, Anna and Elsa made appearances in a Frozen play at the Royal Theatre in Disneyland park.
Beginning May 22, 2015, Disneyland debuted a new nighttime parade called "Paint the Night '', which includes a Frozen float featuring Anna, Elsa, and Olaf, as part of the park 's 60th anniversary celebration.
Elsa has become very popular in the cosplaying community. Cosplayer Anna Faith is well known for cosplaying as Elsa at charities, comic - cons, and other events.
Caissie Levy will originate the role of Elsa in the Broadway musical, which is scheduled to open spring 2018.
The character of Elsa was widely praised by reviewers for her multifaceted, evolving personality. Matt Goldberg of Collider.com commented that she was "an incredibly sympathetic character '', while Deepanjana Pal of First Post (India) praised the decision to rewrite her as a protagonist and said, "Elsa is no evil, frosty vision of twisted and toxic maternity like the original Snow Queen. She 's a young woman in difficult circumstances, frightened, trying to understand her abilities and burdened by expectation and convention. It 's easy to sympathise with her and marvel at her ability when she builds her spectacular palace in the mountains. Next to her, Anna is very much a child who needs to grow up and she does in the course of the film. '' Stuff.co.nz 's James Croot compared her "humiliation and exile '' to that of Simba in The Lion King. Katherine Webb, a reviewer for Wall St. Cheat Sheet, said that the scenes depicting Elsa gaining confidence and individuality delivered "an exciting message to send to young girls looking for a new princess role model ''. Gary Wright of Rotoscopers state "Her mental anguish and uncontrollable powers define modern feminism. Elsa represents the boundless female spirit - strong and graceful, with the power to change the world. ''
Travis Bean of Cedar Falls Times suggested that Elsa 's ice powers, a "personal oddity '' that made her self - conscious, as well as her selflessness in withdrawing into isolation in order to avoid hurting others allowed children to connect more with the plot of Frozen. Laurie Levy from Chicago Now wrote that her young grandchildren "admired Elsa for being smart, strong, magical, and powerful '' and did not care that she had no romantic subplot. Magdalena Lachowicz, a film critic for The Heights, opined that Elsa 's relationship with Anna was the most important part of the movie, and Stephen Holden of The New York Times liked that, in departure from traditional Disney formula, it was a sibling 's love rather than romantic love that was able to "thaw the icy heart of the frightened Elsa ''. Tony Hicks of San Jose Mercury News wrote, "(Anna 's) confusion and Elsa 's anguish as she shuts herself away from the world -- and her sister -- is palatable. '' Emma Koonse of Christian Post opined that together the sisters were Disney 's "most lovable and charismatic characters yet '', and Debbie Lynn Elias of Culver City Observer commented, "Elsa and Anna are like two sides of a coin, both strong, albeit one through power and confidence and the other through clumsy sticktuitiveness and love. ''
Several reviewers commented that Elsa was more interesting than Anna, Frozen 's primary protagonist. ABS - CBN writer Fred Hawson described Elsa as "an incredible character with a unique and interesting predicament because of the powers she possessed '' and expressed the opinion that Frozen should have focused more on her rather than Anna. Samra Muslim of The Express Tribune wrote that it was her presence that kept viewers "hooked '' throughout the movie, elaborating, "Her character is complex and sympathetic and deserved to be explored even further. Instead the story revolves more around the relationship of the two sisters and Anna who is the typical, feisty, charming Disney heroine and her love trysts -- instead of the alluring Elsa. ''
The character was not devoid of criticism. Charlotte O'Sullivan from the London Evening Standard gave a more negative assessment of Elsa, saying that she "resembles one of those brittle mentors on The X Factor. Purple eyeshadow, tiny waist, kitten heels ''. Anna Smith of The Guardian disliked that both Elsa and Anna were drawn with slender figures and large eyes as is typical of Disney princesses. Slate 's Dana Stevens wrote that "it 's impossible not to thrill to Elsa 's surging sense of power '' but criticized the choice to illustrate her growing confidence by changing her appearance; Stevens further expressed concern that the switch from the character 's modest coronation gown to "a slinky, slit - to - the - thigh dress with a transparent snowflake - patterned train and a pair of silver - white high heels '' and a hairstyle that suggested "come - hither bad - girl seduction '' was overly sexual. Christy Lemire compared Elsa to Carrie White, another well - known fictional female who unleashes magical powers when agitated.
Idina Menzel also received praise for her singing, with Amon Warmann of Cine Vue saying her voice "positively soars in these musical ballads ''. Reviewers frequently focused on her performance of "Let It Go '', described by Entertainment Weekly 's Marc Snetiker as "an incredible anthem of liberation '' in which Elsa decides to no longer fear her powers. Various critics said that Menzel had been a "powerhouse '' during the scene; Linda Barnard from The Star commented that Menzel "can shatter icicles with her powerful voice ''.
Matt DeTruck of The Rochester City Newspaper wrote, "Menzel should be credited for providing as much power and passion to this performance as she did in her most famous role. '' Donald Clark of Irish Times added, "Elsa 's flight to the glaciers triggers a song that, in its defiant paean to self - reliance, could play comfortably beside camp showtune anthems such as I Am What I Am and Do n't Rain on My Parade. The opening and closing choruses of Let It Go end with a sly, spat - out refrain: ' The cold never bothered me anyway! ' You go, girl. '' Nasim Asl of The Oxford Student continued, "Menzel, especially, steals the show with her performance of ' Let It Go '. Her Wicked-esque belting out works perfectly with such an incredible animated sequence -- the building of the ice castle really demonstrates the prowess of Disney animation, and results in, arguably, one of the most spectacular power ballads seen by any animated character, ever. ''
In December 2013, Elsa and Anna were both nominated for Best Animated Female by the Alliance of Women Film Journalists, with only Anna winning the award, a few weeks later. Elsa won all three awards out of three nominations at the 2013 Visual Effects Society Awards, including Outstanding Animated Character in an Animated Feature Motion Picture, Outstanding Created Environment in an Animated Feature Motion Picture for her ice palace, and Outstanding FX and Simulation Animation in an Animated Feature Motion Picture for her blizzard. Her signature song, "Let It Go '', won Best Original Song at the Academy Awards, the Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards and the Critics ' Choice Awards, and also received Golden Globe Award, the Satellite Awards, the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award, and the Houston Film Critics Society Award nominations.
Time ranked Elsa as the most influential fictional character of 2014.
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where are the pistons located in a car | Flat - four engine - wikipedia
A flat - four or horizontally opposed - four is a flat engine with four cylinders arranged in two horizontal banks of two, each bank lying opposite the other, a crankcase between them.
The pistons are usually mounted on the crankshaft so that opposing pistons move back and forth in opposite directions at the same time, somewhat like boxing competitors punching their gloves together before a fight, which has led to it being referred to as a "boxer '' engine. The design is rarely seen with shared crank throws (See Coventry Climax FWMW for such a non-boxer flat engine), so "flat - four '' and "boxer - four '' are usually used synonymously.
The configuration results in inherently good balance of the reciprocating parts, a low centre of gravity, and a very short engine length. The layout also lends itself to efficient air cooling with excellent thermal balance. However, it is an expensive design to manufacture, and somewhat too wide for compact automobile engine compartments, which makes it more suitable for cruising motorcycles and aircraft than ordinary passenger cars.
This is no longer a common configuration, but some brands of automobiles use such engines and it is a common configuration for smaller aircraft engines such as those made by Lycoming, Continental and Rotax. Although they are superior to straight fours in terms of secondary vibration, they have largely fallen out of favour for overhead cam design engines, for which an opposed - four cylinder layout would require twice as many camshafts as a straight - four while the crankshaft is as complex to manufacture. The low centre of gravity of the engine is an advantage. The shape of the engine suits it better for mid engine or rear engine designs. With a rear engine layout, it allows a low - tail body while in front engine designs the width of the engine often interferes with the maximum front wheel steering angle. The latter problem has not stopped Subaru from using it in its all - wheel drive cars, where the difficulty of fitting the wide engine between the front wheels ahead of the front axle is compensated for by the ease of locating the transmission and four - wheel drive mechanisms behind the short length, between the front and rear axles.
The open and exposed design of the engine allows air cooling as well as water cooling, and in air - cooled applications fins are often cast into the external cylinder block walls to improve the engine cooling.
Boxer engines tend to be better balanced than other four - cylinder configurations. The more common inline - four configuration suffers from a secondary balance problem caused by the fact that the pistons travel faster on the top half of the crank rotation than the bottom half, which causes the engine to vibrate up and down twice per crank rotation for a total of four times per crankshaft revolution for ordinary up - down - down - up crank throws. This problem becomes worse with increased piston speed and weight, effectively limiting the capacity of these engines. Inline - fours larger than 2.0 L usually have balance shafts whilst engines over 3.0 L are seldom used in passenger cars. In contrast, the flat - four has much less secondary imbalance at the expense of larger rocking vibrations, that cause it to rotate back and forth around a vertical axis. This is because the cylinders can not be directly opposed, but must be offset so the connecting rods can be on separate crank pins, which results in the forces being slightly off - centre. The rocking vibration is usually not serious enough to require balance shafts.
Another disadvantage of flat - four boxer configuration is its requirement for long exhaust pipes merging the exhaust from those exhaust ports located on opposing banks in order to achieve evenly spaced exhaust pulse. In a four stroke engine, each cylinder creates an exhaust pulse every 720 degrees of crank rotation, and they need to be paired with another pulse that is 360 crank degrees offset in a four - cylinder configuration to achieve an even scavenging of exhaust gas in the cylinders, which is needed for uniform filling of intake and uniform combustion.
As the firing order on an ordinary flat - four boxer engine on ' L'eft and ' R'ight banks are LLRR or RRLL with each ignition (and thus exhaust) being 180 degrees apart. By counting two characters (2 x 180 = 360) to the right of each ' L ' or ' R ', the cylinders that fire with 360 degree crankshaft rotational angle offset are shown to be located on opposite banks. If the exhaust manifold is designed to merge two exhaust ports on a bank into one exit as was common in the designs in the past, the pulse spacing becomes irregular, which causes uneven filling of intake into cylinders and the characteristic ' burble ' of exhaust note on older flat - four engines. Subaru developed an "equal lengths, even pulse spacing '' exhaust system with exhaust pipes connecting the left and the right banks for WRC competition in the 1990s, and incorporated this design into production Legacys in 2003, Foresters in 2005 and Imprezas in 2007. As a result, most Subaru flat - four engines no longer have the "flat - four burble ''. The Impreza WRX and WRX STI still have unequal length exhaust pipes to feed the turbo sitting in the corner of the engine bay, and still have the characteristic burble. This was changed for the 2015 WRX which feeds a centrally mounted turbo, but the STI retained unequal length headers. They are, however, a somewhat popular aftermarket modification.
In addition, four - stroke cycle flat - fours have a problem common to all four - cylinder engines: the power strokes do not overlap. With a piston starting its power stroke every 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation, and the crank throws 180 degrees apart, all the pistons finish their power stroke before the next piston starts its power stroke. This results in gaps between power strokes and a pulsating delivery of torque to the flywheel, causing a rotational vibration on the entire engine along the crankshaft axis. By contrast, in engines with more cylinders the power strokes overlap; the next piston starts its power stroke before the previous one has finished, and the delivery of power is much smoother.
As a result of the relatively high manufacturing costs of the flat - four compared to the inline - four, most manufacturers now choose the inline - four engine for economy models and have moved to inline - five or V6 engines for models requiring more power. These engines are not without balancing imperfections, but with modern computer - aided design techniques, the problems can be overcome with a variety of complex crankshaft, balance shaft, and engine mounting designs. Luxury performance car manufacturers prefer to use the inline - six, flat - six, or V8 configurations because these designs are much smoother than the flat - four, particularly at larger displacements.
In 1897 Karl Benz developed the boxer engine. This drive system, in which two horizontally opposed cylinders turned a single crankshaft, was given the name "contra engine ''. The unit was used from 1899 onwards, principally in passenger and racing cars. The final evolutionary stage of the Benz racing car equipped with a contra engine was the 20 - hp Benz vehicle introduced in 1900. Whereas the two previous models both had a two - cylinder boxer unit, this vehicle -- developed by Georg Diehl -- featured a four - cylinder boxer with a 5,440 - cc displacement
Wilson - Pilcher introduced their car in 1900, fitted initially with a flat - four engine and, shortly after, a flat - six version was also available. The engine was conventionally mounted lying between the frames of the chassis, water cooled, and having an attached four speed helical gearbox. Unusually for its day it had equal bore and stroke of 95 mm. The car was made in London until Armstrong Whitworth took over production in 1904, and then was made in Newcastle until c1907. One example still exists.
Tatra introduced an air - cooled flat - four engine in the 1926 Tatra 30, followed by the T52 in 1930, T54 in 1931, T57 in 1931, and T75 in 1933, all with air - cooled flat - fours of varying displacements. The 1936 T97 model pioneered the rear - engined, air - cooled flat - four, backbone chassis layout, later copied in the Volkswagen KdF - Wagen.
Jowetts before the Second World War were best known for their flat twin engines, but they made a flat - four for the Jason and 10 hp models in the 1930s. Post-war Gerald Palmer designed Javelin saloon and Jupiter sports models used a totally different design of flat - four. Alec Issigonis originally designed the Morris Minor for a flat - four, but cost constraints meant it was never used.
Porsche designed Volkswagen air - cooled flat - fours for VW Beetles and most early VW and Porsche cars such as the Volkswagen Type 2 (T1), Porsche 356, 550, and the 912. The Porsche 914 that replaced the 912 used an enlarged version of a VW engine originally designed for Volkswagen Type 4.
The Goliath 1100 appeared at the Geneva Motor Show in March 1957, with a water - cooled 1100 cc flat - four driving the front wheels. In 1958, the name was changed to the Hansa 1100, and this car was produced through 1961.
VW used a water - cooled flat - four Wasserboxer in the later third - generation Type 2 until 1991.
Citroën used an air - cooled flat - four on the Ami Super, GS, GSA and Axel.
A water - cooled Alfa Romeo flat - four was introduced in 1971 on the Alfa Romeo Alfasud. That engine was later used on the Alfa Romeo Arna, the Alfa Romeo 33, the Alfa Romeo Sprint and the Alfa Romeo 145 / 146.
Lancia used several versions of a water - cooled flat - four on the Lancia Flavia (1.5 to 2.0 L) and high - end Lancia Gamma (2.0 to 2.5 L).
Subaru produces a water - cooled, front - mounted flat - four engine marketed as "H - 4 '', meaning "horizontal '' rather than the "H '' cross-section normally indicated by an "H engine ''. Subaru has created a number of engines, starting with the EA series introduced in 1966, progressing towards the currently used EJ series, which is wide but very short and light, and is mounted ahead of the front axle with the transmission behind. With this layout, the gearbox can remain very similar to common transmissions in both design and weight without the need for a bulky and inefficient transfer case. Although it is more expensive than a straight - four, it allows Subaru to build an all - wheel drive vehicle at little extra cost from two - wheel drive.
In a joint venture between Toyota and Subaru a 1,998 cc flat - four engine with 200 PS (147 kW) and GDI was developed. Labelled as the Subaru FA20 and Toyota 4U - GSE, it is used in the two - door coupe Toyota 86 (also was used in the Scion FR - S in the United States) and Subaru BRZ.
Porsche announced in 2012 that they were developing a new flat - four, their first flat - four since the 1970s Porsche 914 and 912E. This turbocharged engine in 2.0 and 2.5 litre sizes is now used in Porsche 718 Boxster and Cayman models, it produces up to 350 hp (261 kW).
Lycoming manufactures a popular series of flat - four aircraft engines ranging up to 360 cu in (5.9 L), as used in many smaller Cessnas and other general aviation aircraft. Similar engines are produced by Continental Motors, Franklin Engine Company, and others. Retired aircraft engines power many shallow draft boats in the Florida Everglades.
The OS Engines company in Japan has made miniature, air - cooled flat - four engines in 40 cc and 52 cc sizes for radio - controlled aircraft hobby use, with the 52 cc "FF - 320 '' engine currently in production.
Homebuilt aircraft builders often favour flat four engines because of their smoothness and suitability for air - cooling. For some years modified Volkswagen and Subaru flat - fours were popular. In recent times, flat - fours manufactured specifically for kit planes have been successful; such motors include the Rotax 912, the Jabiru 2200 and the D - Motor LF26.
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what three categories can south africa's airports be divided | List of airports in South Africa - wikipedia
This is a list of airports in South Africa, grouped by type and sorted by location.
Most of the largest airports are owned by the Airports Company of South Africa these include all the international airports except for Lanseria International Airport which is privately owned. Most other public airports are owned by local municipalities although there are also a significant number of privately owned airports. Some South African Air Force bases share the airfields of public airports. In the case of Air Force Base Hoedspruit part of the base has been leased to a private company as a public airport.
Airport names shown in bold indicate the airport has scheduled passenger service on commercial airlines. ICAO codes link to a page of aeronautical charts at the South African Civil Aviation Authority website.
Media related to Airports in South Africa at Wikimedia Commons
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where were the hunting scenes in the deer hunter filmed | The Deer Hunter - wikipedia
The Deer Hunter is a 1978 American epic war drama film co-written and directed by Michael Cimino about a trio of Russian American steelworkers whose lives are changed forever after they fought in the Vietnam War. The three soldiers are played by Robert De Niro, Christopher Walken, and John Savage, with John Cazale (in his final role), Meryl Streep, and George Dzundza playing supporting roles. The story takes place in Clairton, Pennsylvania, a small working class town on the Monongahela River south of Pittsburgh, and in Vietnam.
The film was based in part on an unproduced screenplay called The Man Who Came to Play by Louis Garfinkle and Quinn K. Redeker, about Las Vegas and Russian roulette. Producer Michael Deeley, who bought the script, hired writer / director Michael Cimino who, with Deric Washburn, rewrote the script, taking the Russian roulette element and placing it in the Vietnam War. The film went over-budget and over-schedule, and ended up costing $15 million. The scenes depicting Russian roulette were highly controversial after the film 's release.
The film won five Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director for Michael Cimino, and Best Supporting Actor for Christopher Walken, and marked Meryl Streep 's first Academy Award nomination (for Best Supporting Actress); she would go on to become the most nominated actor in history. In 1996 it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '', and was named the 53rd greatest American film of all time by the American Film Institute in 2007 in their 10th Anniversary Edition of the AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies list.
In the small working class town of Clairton, Pennsylvania, in late 1967, steel workers Mike Vronsky, Steven Pushkov, and Nick Chevotarevich, with the support of their friends and co-workers Stan and Peter "Axel '' Axelrod and local bar owner and friend John Welsh, prepare for two rites of passage: marriage and military service. Mike is a serious but unassuming leader; Steven the groom - to - be, pecked - at by his mother; and Nick the introspective man who loves deer hunting.
Before the trio ships out, Steven and his girlfriend Angela marry in a Russian Orthodox wedding. Mike works to control his feelings for Nick 's girlfriend Linda. At the wedding reception held at the local VFW hall, the guys drink, dance, sing, and enjoy the festivities, but then notice a soldier in a U.S. Army Special Forces uniform. Mike attempts to ask what Vietnam is like, but the soldier ignores him. After Mike explains that he, Steven, and Nick are going to Vietnam, the Green Beret raises his glass and says "fuck it ''. After being restrained from starting a fight, Mike goes back to the bar and raises his glass and toasts him with "fuck it ''. The soldier glances over at Mike and grins.
Later, Steven and Angela drink from conjoined goblets, a traditional part of the Orthodox wedding ceremony. It is believed that if they drink without spilling any wine, they will have good luck for life. Two drops of blood - red wine unknowingly spill on her wedding gown. After Linda catches the bride 's bouquet, Nick asks her to marry him, and she agrees. Later that night, a drunken Mike runs through the town, stripping himself naked along the way. After Nick chases him down, he begs Mike not to leave him "over there '' if anything happens in combat. The next day, Mike, Nick, Stan, John, and Axel go deer hunting one last time. Mike is exasperated by his friends, especially Stan, who drinks and clowns, showing little respect for the ritual of hunting, which to Mike is a nearly sacred experience. Only Nick understands Mike 's attitude, but he is more indulgent toward his friends. Mike goes hunting afterwards and kills a deer with one clean shot.
The friends return to Welsh 's bar, with Michael 's deer strapped to the hood of the car. They enter rambunctiously, spraying beers over each other and singing loudly. Welsh then makes his way to the piano and begins playing Chopin 's Nocturne No. 6 Op. 15 - 3.
In Vietnam, U.S. helicopters attack a village. An unconscious Mike (now a Staff Sergeant in the Special Forces) wakes up to see an NVA soldier shoot a woman carrying a baby. Mike kills him with a flamethrower. Meanwhile, a unit of UH - 1 "Huey '' helicopters drops off several U.S. infantrymen, Nick and Steven among them. Mike, Steven, and Nick unexpectedly find each other just before they are captured and held in a prisoner of war camp. For entertainment, the guards force the prisoners to play Russian roulette and gamble on the outcome. All three friends are forced to play. Steven plays against Mike, who offers moral support, but Steven breaks down and points the gun upwards whilst pulling the trigger, grazing himself with the bullet when it discharges. As punishment, the guards put him into an underwater cage full of rats and dead bodies. Mike and Nick hatch a plan to escape by playing against each other, with Mike convincing the guards to let them play Russian roulette with three bullets in the gun. After a tense match, they kill their captors and escape.
After killing the guards, Mike rescues Steven. The three float downriver on a tree limb. An American helicopter finds them, but only Nick is able to climb aboard. The weakened Steven falls back into the water, and Mike plunges in the water to rescue him. Mike helps Steven to reach the river bank, but Steven 's legs are broken, so Mike carries him through the jungle to friendly lines. Approaching a caravan of locals escaping the war zone, Mike stops a South Vietnamese military truck and places the wounded Steven on it, asking the soldiers to take care of him.
Nick recuperates in a military hospital in Saigon with no knowledge of his friends. After being released, he goes AWOL and aimlessly stumbles through the red - light district at night. He encounters Julien Grinda, a Frenchman, outside a gambling den where men play Russian roulette for money. Grinda entices the reluctant Nick to participate and leads him into the den. Mike is present in the den, watching the game, but the two friends do not notice each other at first. When Mike does see Nick, he is unable to get his attention. When Nick is introduced into the game, he grabs the gun, fires it at the current contestant, and then again at his own temple, causing the audience to riot in protest. Grinda hustles Nick outside to his car to escape the angry mob. Mike can not catch up with them as they speed away.
Back in the U.S., Mike maintains a low profile. He tells a cab driver to drive past the house where all his friends are waiting, as he is embarrassed by the fuss Linda and the others have made. He visits Linda the following day and grows close to her, but only because of the friend they both think they have lost. Mike goes to visit Angela at Steven 's mother 's home. Angela is barely responsive. When asked by Mike about Steven 's whereabouts, she writes a phone number on a scrap of paper, which leads Mike to the local VA hospital where Steven has been for several months. Mike goes hunting with Axel, John, and Stan one more time, and after tracking a deer across the woods, fires into the air. He then sits on a rock escarpment and yells out, "OK? '', which echoes back at him. He also berates Stan for carrying around a small revolver and waving it around, not realizing it is loaded. Mike visits Steven, who has lost both of his legs and is partially paralyzed. Steven reveals that someone in Saigon has been mailing large amounts of money to him, and Mike is convinced that it is Nick. Mike brings a reluctant Steven home to Angela and then travels to Saigon just before its fall in 1975.
He tracks down Grinda, who has made a lot of money from the Russian roulette - playing Nick. He finds Nick in a crowded gambling club, but Nick appears to have no recollection of his friends or his home. Mike enters the game of Russian roulette against Nick, hoping to jog his memory and persuade him to come home, but Nick 's mind is gone. To keep him from taking another turn, Mike grabs Nick 's arms, which are covered in scars. At the last moment, after Mike reminds Nick of their hunting trips together, Nick recognizes Mike and smiles. Nick raises the gun to his temple, and pulls the trigger, killing himself. Mike tries reviving him, but to no avail.
Back home in 1975, the friends have gathered for Nick 's funeral, whom Mike has brought home, staying good to his promise. Mike toasts in Nick 's honor.
While producer Deeley was pleased with the revised script, he was still concerned about being able to sell the film. "We still had to get millions out of a major studio, '' wrote Deeley, "as well as convince our markets around the world that they should buy it before it was finished. I needed someone with the caliber of Robert De Niro. '' De Niro was one of the biggest stars at that time, coming off Mean Streets (1973), The Godfather Part II (1974), and Taxi Driver (1976). In addition to attracting buyers, Deeley felt De Niro was "the right age, apparently tough as hell, and immensely talented. ''
Hiring De Niro turned out to be a casting coup because he knew so many actors in New York. De Niro brought Meryl Streep to the attention of Cimino and Deeley. With Streep came John Cazale. De Niro also accompanied Cimino to scout locations for the steel mill sequence as well as rehearsed with the actors to use the workshops as a bonding process.
Each of the six principal male characters carried a photo in their back pocket depicting them all together as children, to enhance the sense of camaraderie amongst them. Additionally, director Cimino instructed the props department to fashion complete Pennsylvania IDs for each of them, including driver 's licenses, medical cards, and various other pieces of paraphernalia, in order to enhance each actor 's sense of his character.
There has been considerable debate, controversy, and conflicting stories about how The Deer Hunter was initially developed and written. Director and co-writer Michael Cimino, writer Deric Washburn, and producers Barry Spikings and Michael Deeley all have different versions of how the film came to be.
In 1968, the record company EMI formed a new company called EMI Films, headed by producers Barry Spikings and Michael Deeley. Deeley purchased the first draft of a spec script called The Man Who Came to Play, written by Louis Garfinkle and Quinn K. Redeker, for $19,000. The spec script was about people who go to Las Vegas to play Russian roulette. "The screenplay had struck me as brilliant, '' wrote Deeley, "but it was n't complete. The trick would be to find a way to turn a very clever piece of writing into a practical, realizable film. '' When the movie was being planned during the mid-1970s, Vietnam was still a taboo subject with all major Hollywood studios. According to producer Michael Deeley, the standard response was "no American would want to see a picture about Vietnam ''.
After consulting various Hollywood agents, Deeley found writer - director Michael Cimino, represented by Stan Kamen at the William Morris Agency. Deeley was impressed by Cimino 's TV commercial work and crime film Thunderbolt and Lightfoot (1974). Cimino himself was confident that he could further develop the principal characters of The Man Who Came to Play without losing the essence of the original. After Cimino was hired, he was called into a meeting with Garfinkle and Redeker at the EMI office. According to Deeley, Cimino questioned the need for the Russian roulette element of the script, and Redeker made such a passionate case for it that he ended up literally on his knees. Over the course of further meetings, Cimino and Deeley discussed the work needed at the front of the script, and Cimino believed he could develop the stories of the main characters in the first 20 minutes of film.
Cimino worked for six weeks with Deric Washburn on the script. Cimino and Washburn had previously collaborated with Stephen Bochco on the screenplay for Silent Running (1972). According to producer Spikings, Cimino said he wanted to work again with Washburn. According to producer Deeley, he only heard from office rumor that Washburn was contracted by Cimino to work on the script. "Whether Cimino hired Washburn as his sub-contractor or as a co-writer was constantly being obfuscated, '' wrote Deeley, "and there were some harsh words between them later on, or so I was told. ''
According to Cimino, he would call Washburn while on the road scouting for locations and feed him notes on dialogue and story. Upon reviewing Washburn 's draft, Cimino said, "I came back, and read it and I just could not believe what I read. It was like it was written by somebody who was... mentally deranged. '' Cimino confronted Washburn at the Sunset Marquis in LA about the draft, and Washburn supposedly replied that he could n't take the pressure and had to go home. Cimino then fired Washburn. Cimino later claimed to have written the entire screenplay himself. Washburn 's response to Cimino 's comments were, "It 's all nonsense. It 's lies. I did n't have a single drink the entire time I was working on the script. ''
According to Washburn, he and Cimino spent three days together in Los Angeles at the Sunset Marquis, hammering out the plot. The script eventually went through several drafts, evolving into a story with three distinct acts. Washburn did not interview any veterans to write The Deer Hunter nor do any research. "I had a month, that was it, '' he explains. "The clock was ticking. Write the fucking script! But all I had to do was watch TV. Those combat cameramen in Vietnam were out there in the field with the guys. I mean, they had stuff that you would n't dream of seeing about Iraq. '' When Washburn was finished, he says, Cimino and Joann Carelli, an associate producer on The Deer Hunter who went on to produce two more of Cimino 's later films, took him to dinner at a cheap restaurant off the Sunset Strip. He recalls, "We finished, and Joann looks at me across the table, and she says, ' Well, Deric, it 's fuck - off time. ' I was fired. It was a classic case: you get a dummy, get him to write the goddamn thing, tell him to go fuck himself, put your name on the thing, and he 'll go away. I was so tired, I did n't care. I 'd been working 20 hours a day for a month. I got on the plane the next day, and I went back to Manhattan and my carpenter job. ''
Deeley felt the revised script, now called The Deer Hunter, broke fresh ground for the project. The protagonist in the Redeker / Garfinkle script, Merle, was an individual who sustained a bad injury in active service and was damaged psychologically by his violent experiences, but was nevertheless a tough character with strong nerves and guts. Cimino and Washburn 's revised script distilled the three aspects of Merle 's personality and separated them out into three distinct characters. They became three old friends who grew up in the same small industrial town and worked in the same steel mill, and in due course were drafted together to Vietnam. In the original script, the roles of Merle (later renamed Mike) and Nick were reversed in the last half of the film. Nick returns home to Linda, while Mike remains in Vietnam, sends money home to help Steven, and meets his tragic fate at the Russian roulette table.
A Writers ' Guild arbitration process awarded Washburn sole "Screenplay by '' credit. Garfinkle and Redeker were given a shared "Story by '' credit with Cimino and Washburn. Deeley felt the story credits for Garfinkle and Redeker "did them less than justice. '' Cimino contested the results of the arbitration. "In their Nazi wisdom, '' added Cimino, "(they) did n't give me the credit because I would be producer, director and writer. '' All four writers -- Cimino, Washburn, Garfinkle, and Redeker -- received an Oscar nomination for Best Original Screenplay for the film.
The Deer Hunter began principal photography on June 20, 1977. This was the first feature film depicting the Vietnam War to be filmed on location in Thailand. All scenes were shot on location (no sound stages). "There was discussion about shooting the film on a back lot, but the material demanded more realism, '' says Spikings. The cast and crew viewed large amounts of news footage from the war to ensure authenticity. The film was shot over a period of six months. The Clairton scenes comprise footage shot in eight different towns in four states: West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Washington, and Ohio. The initial budget of the film was $8.5 million.
Meryl Streep accepted the role of the "vague, stock girlfriend '', in order to remain for the duration of filming with John Cazale, who had been diagnosed with lung cancer. De Niro had spotted Streep in her stage production of The Cherry Orchard and had suggested that she play his girlfriend Linda. Before the beginning of principal photography, Deeley had a meeting with the film 's appointed line producer Robert Relyea. Deeley hired Relyea after meeting him on the set of Bullitt (1968) and was impressed with his experience. However, Relyea declined the job, refusing to disclose his reason why. Deeley suspected that Relyea sensed in director Cimino something that would have made production difficult. As a result, Cimino was acting without the day - to - day supervision of a producer.
Because Deeley was busy overseeing in the production of Sam Peckinpah 's Convoy (1978), he hired John Peverall to oversee Cimino 's shoot. Peverall 's expertise with budgeting and scheduling made him a natural successor to Relyea, and Peverall knew enough about the picture to be elevated to producer status. "John is a straightforward Cornishman who had worked his way up to become a production supervisor, '' wrote Deeley, "and we employed him as EMI 's watchman on certain pictures. ''
The wedding scenes were filmed at the historic St. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral in the Tremont neighborhood of Cleveland, Ohio. The wedding took five days to film. St. Theodosius ' Father Stephen Kopestonsky was cast as the priest at the wedding. The reception scene was filmed at nearby Lemko Hall. The amateur extras lined up for the crowded wedding - dance sequences drank real liquor and beer. The scenes were filmed in the summer, but were set in the fall. To accomplish a look of fall, individual leaves were removed from deciduous trees. Zsigmond also had to desaturate the colors of the exterior shots, partly in camera and in the laboratory processing.
The production manager asked each of the Russian immigrant extras to bring to the location a gift - wrapped box to double for wedding presents. The manager figured if the extras did this, not only would the production save time and money, but the gifts would also look more authentic. Once the unit wrapped and the extras disappeared, the crew discovered to their amusement that the boxes were n't empty but filled with real presents, from china to silverware. "Who got to keep all these wonderful offerings, '' wrote Deeley "is a mystery I never quite fathomed. ''
Cimino originally claimed that the wedding scene would take up 21 minutes of screen time. In the end, it took 51 minutes. Deeley believes that Cimino always planned to make this prologue last for an hour, and "the plan was to be advanced by stealth rather than straight dealing. ''
At this point in the production, nearly halfway through principal photography, Cimino was already over budget, and producer Spikings could tell from the script that shooting the extended scene could sink the project.
The bar was specially constructed in an empty storefront in Mingo Junction, Ohio for $25,000; it later became an actual saloon for local steel mill workers. U.S. Steel allowed filming inside its Cleveland mill, including placing the actors around the furnace floor, only after securing a $5 million insurance policy. Other filming took place in Pittsburgh.
The first deer to be shot was depicted in a "gruesome close - up '', although he was hit with a tranquilizer dart. The stag that Michael lets escape was the same one later used on TV commercials for the Connecticut Life Insurance Company.
The Viet Cong Russian roulette scenes were shot in real circumstances, with real rats and mosquitoes, as the three principals (De Niro, Walken, and Savage) were tied up in bamboo cages erected along the River Kwai. The woman who was given the task of casting the extras in Thailand had much difficulty finding a local to play the vicious - looking individual who runs the game. The first actor hired turned out to be incapable of slapping De Niro in the face. The caster then found a local Thai man with a particular dislike of Americans, and cast him accordingly. De Niro suggested that Walken be slapped for real by one of the guards without any warning. The reaction on Walken 's face was genuine. Producer Deeley has said that Cimino shot the brutal Vietcong Russian roulette scenes brilliantly and more efficiently than any other part of the film.
De Niro and Savage performed their own stunts in the fall into the river, filming the 30 foot drop 15 times in two days. During the helicopter stunt, the runners caught on the rope bridge as the helicopter rose, which threatened to seriously injure De Niro and Savage. The actors gestured and yelled furiously to the crew in the helicopter to warn them. Footage of this is included in the film.
According to Cimino, De Niro requested a live cartridge in the revolver for the scene in which he subjects John Cazale 's character to an impromptu game of Russian roulette, to heighten the intensity of the situation. Cazale agreed without protest, but obsessively rechecked the gun before each take to make sure that the live round was n't next in the chamber.
While appearing later in the film, the first scenes shot upon arrival in Thailand were the hospital sequences between Walken and the military doctor. Deeley believed that this scene was "the spur that would earn him an Academy Award. ''
In the final scene in the gambling den between Mike and Nick, Cimino had Walken and De Niro improvise in one take. His direction to his actors: "You put the gun to your head, Chris, you shoot, you fall over and Bobby cradles your head. ''
By this point, The Deer Hunter had cost $13 million and the film still had to go through an arduous post-production. Film editor Peter Zinner was given 600,000 feet of printed film to edit, a monumental task at the time. Producers Spikings and Deeley were pleased with the first cut, which ran for three and a half hours. "We were thrilled by what we saw, '' wrote Deeley, "and knew that within the three and a half hours we watched there was a riveting film. ''
Executives from Universal, including Lew Wasserman and Sid Sheinberg, were not very enthusiastic. "I think they were shocked, '' recalled Spikings. "What really upset them was ' God Bless America '. Sheinberg thought it was anti-American. He was vehement. He said something like ' You 're poking a stick in the eye of America. ' They really did n't like the movie. And they certainly did n't like it at three hours and two minutes. '' Deeley was n't surprised by the Universal response: "The Deer Hunter was a United Artists sort of picture, whereas Convoy was more in the style of Universal. I 'd muddled and sold the wrong picture to each studio. '' Deeley did agree with Universal that the film needed to be shorter, not just because of pacing but also to ensure commercial success. "A picture under two and a half hours can scrape three shows a day, '' wrote Deeley, "but at three hours you 've lost one third of your screenings and one third of your income for the cinemas, distributors, and profit participants. ''
Thom Mount, president of Universal at the time, said, "This was just a... continuing nightmare from the day Michael finished the picture to the day we released it. That was simply because he was wedded to everything he shot. The movie was endless. It was The Deer Hunter and the Hunter and the Hunter. The wedding sequence was a cinematic event all unto its own. '' Mount says he turned to Verna Fields, Universal 's then - head of post-production. "I sicked Verna on Cimino, '' Mount says. "Verna was no slouch. She started to turn the heat up on Michael, and he started screeching and yelling. ''
Zinner eventually cut the film down to 18,000 feet. Cimino later fired Zinner when he discovered that Zinner was editing down the wedding scenes. Zinner eventually won Best Editing Oscar for The Deer Hunter. Regarding the clashes between him and Cimino, Zinner stated: "Michael Cimino and I had our differences at the end, but he kissed me when we both got Academy Awards. '' Cimino later commented in The New York Observer, "(Zinner) was a moron... I cut Deer Hunter myself. ''
The Deer Hunter was Cimino 's first film to use Dolby noise - reduction system. "What Dolby does, '' replied Cimino, "is to give you the ability to create a density of detail of sound -- a richness so you can demolish the wall separating the viewer from the film. You can come close to demolishing the screen. '' It took five months to mix the soundtrack. One short battle sequence -- 200 feet of film in the final cut -- took five days to dub. Another sequence recreated the 1975 American evacuation of Saigon; Cimino brought the film 's composer, Stanley Myers, out to the location to listen to the auto, tank, and jeep horns as the sequence was being photographed. The result, according to Cimino: Myers composed the music for that scene in the same key as the horn sounds, so the music and the sound effects would blend with the images to create one jarring, desolate experience.
Both the long and short versions were previewed to Midwestern audiences, although there are different accounts among Cimino, Deeley, and Spikings as to how the previews panned out. Director Cimino claims he bribed the projectionist to interrupt the shorter version, in order to obtain better reviews of the longer one. According to producer Spikings, Wasserman let EMI 's CEO Bernard Delfont decide between the two and chose Cimino 's longer cut. Deeley claims that the two - and - a-half hour version tested had a better response.
The soundtrack to The Deer Hunter was released on audio CD on October 25, 1990.
The Deer Hunter debuted at one theater each in New York and Los Angeles for a week on December 8, 1978. The release strategy was to qualify the film for Oscar consideration and close after a week to build interest. After the Oscar nominations, Universal widened the distribution to include major cities, building up to a full - scale release on February 23, 1979, just following the Oscars. This film was important for helping release patterns for so - called prestige pictures that screen only at the end of the year to qualify for Academy Award recognition. The film eventually grossed $48.9 million at the US box office.
CBS paid $3.5 million for three runs of the film. The network later cancelled the acquisition on the contractually permitted grounds of the film containing too much violence for US network transmission.
One of the most talked - about sequences in the film, the Vietcong 's use of Russian roulette with POWs, was criticized as being contrived and unrealistic since there were no documented cases of Russian roulette in the Vietnam War. Associated Press reporter Peter Arnett, who won a Pulitzer Prize for his coverage of the war, wrote in the Los Angeles Times, "In its 20 years of war, there was not a single recorded case of Russian roulette... The central metaphor of the movie is simply a bloody lie. '' Director Cimino was also criticized for one - sidedly portraying all the North Vietnamese as sadistic racists and killers. Cimino countered that his film was not political, polemical, literally accurate, or posturing for any particular point of view. He further defended his position by saying that he had news clippings from Singapore that confirm Russian roulette was used during the war (without specifying which article).
During the 29th Berlin International Film Festival in 1979, the Soviet delegation expressed its indignation with the film which, in their opinion, insulted the Vietnamese people in numerous scenes. Other socialist states also voiced their solidarity with the "heroic people of Vietnam ''. They protested against the screening of the film and insisted that it violated the statutes of the festival, since it in no way contributed to the "improvement of mutual understanding between the peoples of the world ''. The ensuing domino effect led to the walk - outs of the Cubans, East Germans, Bulgarians, Poles and Czechoslovakians, and two members of the jury resigned in sympathy.
In his review, Roger Ebert defended the artistic license of Russian roulette, arguing "it is the organizing symbol of the film: Anything you can believe about the game, about its deliberately random violence, about how it touches the sanity of men forced to play it, will apply to the war as a whole. It is a brilliant symbol because, in the context of this story, it makes any ideological statement about the war superfluous. ''
Film critic and biographer David Thomson also agrees that the film works despite the controversy: "There were complaints that the North Vietnamese had not employed Russian roulette. It was said that the scenes in Saigon were fanciful or imagined. It was also suggested that De Niro, Christopher Walken, and John Savage were too old to have enlisted for Vietnam (Savage, the youngest of the three, was 28). Three decades later, ' imagination ' seems to have stilled those worries... and The Deer Hunter is one of the great American films. ''
In her review, Pauline Kael wrote, "The Vietcong are treated in the standard inscrutable - evil Oriental style of the Japanese in the Second World War movies... The impression a viewer gets is that if we did some bad things there we did them ruthlessly but impersonally; the Vietcong were cruel and sadistic. ''
In his Vanity Fair article "The Vietnam Oscars '', Peter Biskind wrote that the political agenda of The Deer Hunter was something of a mystery: "It may have been more a by - product of Hollywood myopia, the demands of the war - film genre, garden - variety American parochialism, and simple ignorance than it was the pre-meditated right - wing road map it seemed to many. ''
According to Christopher Walken, the historical context was not paramount: "In the making of it, I do n't remember anyone ever mentioning Vietnam! '' De Niro added to this sentiment: "Whether (the film 's vision of the war) actually happened or not, it 's something you could imagine very easily happening. Maybe it did. I do n't know. All 's fair in love and war. '' Producer Spikings, while proud of the film, regrets the way the Vietnamese were portrayed. "I do n't think any of us meant it to be exploitive, '' Spikings said. "But I think we were... ignorant. I ca n't think of a better word for it. I did n't realize how badly we 'd behaved to the Vietnamese people... ''
Producer Deeley, on the other hand, was quick to defend Cimino 's comments on the nature and motives of the film: "The Deer Hunter was n't really ' about ' Vietnam. It was something very different. It was n't about drugs or the collapse of the morale of the soldiers. It was about how individuals respond to pressure: different men reacting quite differently. The film was about three steel workers in extraordinary circumstances. Apocalypse Now is surreal. The Deer Hunter is a parable... Men who fight and lose an unworthy war face some obvious and unpalatable choices. They can blame their leaders... or they can blame themselves. Self - blame has been a great burden for many war veterans. So how does a soldier come to terms with his defeat and yet still retain his self - respect? One way is to present the conquering enemy as so inhuman, and the battle between the good guys (us) and the bad guys (them) so uneven, as to render defeat irrelevant. Inhumanity was the theme of The Deer Hunter 's portrayal of the North Vietnamese prison guards forcing American POWs to play Russian roulette. The audience 's sympathy with prisoners who (quite understandably) cracked thus completes the chain. Accordingly, some veterans who suffered in that war found the Russian roulette a valid allegory. ''
Cimino frequently referred to The Deer Hunter as a "personal '' and "autobiographical '' film, although later investigation by journalists like Tom Buckley of Harper 's revealed inaccuracies in Cimino 's accounts and reported background.
In 1986, critic Robin Wood examined what he viewed as the film 's homosexual subtext. In the film 's central "male love affair '' Mike supposedly represents the powers of control and repression, whereas Nick stands for release and liberation. According to Wood, "Nick both is and knows himself to be in love with Mike and Mike reciprocates that love but ca n't admit it, even to himself ''. In the end, Wood argues that Nick shoots himself because "he has recognized that Mike offers nothing but a return to repression ''.
The final scene in which all the main characters gather and sing "God Bless America '' became a subject of heated debate among critics when the film was released. It raised the question of whether this conclusion was meant ironically or not -- "as a critique of patriotism or a paean to it ''.
The film 's initial reviews were largely positive. It was hailed by many critics as the best American epic since Francis Ford Coppola 's The Godfather. The film was praised for its depiction of realistic working class settings and environment; Cimino 's direction; the performances of De Niro, Walken, Streep, Savage, Dzundza and Cazale; the symphonic shifts of tone and pacing in moving from America to Vietnam; the tension during the Russian roulette scenes; and the themes of American disillusionment.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film four stars and called it "one of the most emotionally shattering films ever made. '' Gene Siskel from the Chicago Tribune praised the film, saying, "This is a big film, dealing with big issues, made on a grand scale. Much of it, including some casting decisions, suggest inspiration by The Godfather. '' Leonard Maltin also gave the film four stars, calling it a "sensitive, painful, evocative work ''. Vincent Canby of the New York Times called The Deer Hunter "a big, awkward, crazily ambitious motion picture that comes as close to being a popular epic as any movie about this country since The Godfather. Its vision is that of an original, major new filmmaker. '' David Denby of New York called it "an epic '' with "qualities that we almost never see any more -- range and power and breadth of experience. '' Jack Kroll of Time asserted it put director Cimino "right at the center of film culture. '' Stephen Farber pronounced the film in New West magazine as "the greatest anti-war movie since La Grande Illusion. ''
However, The Deer Hunter was not without critical backlash. Pauline Kael of The New Yorker wrote a positive review with some reservations: "(It is) a small minded film with greatness in it... with an enraptured view of common life... (but) enraging, because, despite its ambitiousness and scale, it has no more moral intelligence than the Eastwood action pictures. '' Andrew Sarris wrote that the film was "massively vague, tediously elliptical, and mysteriously hysterical... It is perhaps significant that the actors remain more interesting than the characters they play. '' Jonathan Rosenbaum disparaged The Deer Hunter as an "Oscar - laden weepie about macho buddies '' and "a disgusting account of what the evil Vietnamese did to poor, innocent Americans ''. John Simon of New York wrote: "For all its pretensions to something newer and better, this film is only an extension of the old Hollywood war - movie lie. The enemy is still bestial and stupid, and no match for our purity and heroism; only we no longer wipe up the floor with him -- rather, we litter it with his guts. ''
Author Karina Longworth notes that Streep "made a case for female empowerment by playing a woman to whom empowerment was a foreign concept -- a normal lady from an average American small town, for whom subservience was the only thing she knew ''. She states that The Deer Hunter "evokes a version of dominant masculinity in which male friendship is a powerful force ''. It has a "credibly humanist message '', and that the "slow study of the men in blissfully ignorant homeland machismo is crucial to it ''.
The film holds a metascore of 73 on Metacritic, based on seven reviews, and 93 % fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 48 reviews. The RT summary reads:
Its greatness is blunted by its length and one - sided point of view, but the film 's weaknesses are overpowered by Michael Cimino 's sympathetic direction and a series of heartbreaking performances from Robert De Niro, Meryl Streep, and Christopher Walken.
Academy Award - winning film director Miloš Forman and Academy Award - nominated actor Mickey Rourke consider The Deer Hunter to be one of the greatest films of all time.
Cimino 's next film, Heaven 's Gate (1980), debuted to lacerating reviews and took in only $3 million in ticket sales, effectively leaving United Artists bankrupt. The failure of Heaven 's Gate led several critics to revise their positions on The Deer Hunter. Canby said in his famous review of Heaven 's Gate, "(The film) fails so completely that you might suspect Mr. Cimino sold his soul to the Devil to obtain the success of The Deer Hunter, and the Devil has just come around to collect. '' Andrew Sarris wrote in his review of Heaven 's Gate, "I 'm a little surprised that many of the same critics who lionized Cimino for The Deer Hunter have now thrown him to the wolves with equal enthusiasm. '' Sarris added, "I was never taken in... Hence, the stupidity and incoherence in Heaven 's Gate came as no surprise since very much the same stupidity and incoherence had been amply evident in The Deer Hunter. '' In his book Final Cut: Dreams and Disaster in the Making of Heaven 's Gate, Steven Bach wrote, "critics seemed to feel obliged to go on the record about The Deer Hunter, to demonstrate that their critical credentials were un-besmirched by having been, as Sarris put it, ' taken in. ' ''
More recently, British film critic Mark Kermode challenged the film 's status: "At the risk of being thrown out of the ' respectable film critics ' circle, may I take this opportunity to declare officially that in my opinion The Deer Hunter is one of the worst films ever made, a rambling self indulgent, self aggrandizing barf-fest steeped in manipulatively racist emotion, and notable primarily for its farcically melodramatic tone which is pitched somewhere between shrieking hysteria and somnambulist sombreness. ''
However, many critics, including David Thomson and A.O. Scott., maintain that The Deer Hunter is still a great film, the power of which has n't since diminished.
Film producer and "old - fashioned mogul '' Allan Carr used his networking abilities to promote The Deer Hunter. "Exactly how Allan Carr came into The Deer Hunter 's orbit I can no longer remember, '' recalled producer Deeley, "but the picture became a crusade to him. He nagged, charmed, threw parties, he created word - of - mouth -- everything that could be done in Hollywood to promote a project. Because he had no apparent motive for this promotion, it had an added power and legitimacy and it finally did start to penetrate the minds of the Universal 's sales people that they actually had in their hands something a bit more significant than the usual. '' Deeley added that Carr 's promotion of the film was influential in positioning The Deer Hunter for Oscar nominations.
On the Sneak Previews special "Oscar Preview for 1978 '', Roger Ebert correctly predicted that The Deer Hunter would win for Best Picture while Gene Siskel predicted that Coming Home would win. However, Ebert incorrectly guessed that Robert De Niro would win for Best Actor for Deer Hunter and Jill Clayburgh would win for Best Actress for An Unmarried Woman while Siskel called the wins for Jon Voight as Best Actor and Jane Fonda as Best Actress, both for Coming Home. Both Ebert and Siskel called the win for Christopher Walken receiving the Oscar for Best Supporting Actor.
According to producer Deeley, orchestrated lobbying against The Deer Hunter was led by Warren Beatty, whose own picture Heaven Can Wait had multiple nominations. Beatty also used ex-girlfriends in his campaign: Julie Christie, serving on the jury at the Berlin Film Festival where Deer Hunter was screened, joined the walkout of the film by the Russian jury members. Jane Fonda also criticized The Deer Hunter in public. Deeley suggested that her criticisms partly stemmed from the competition between her film Coming Home vying with The Deer Hunter for Best Picture. According to Deeley, he planted a friend of his in the Oscar press area behind the stage to ask Fonda if she had seen The Deer Hunter. Fonda replied she had not seen the film, and to this day she still has not.
As the Oscars drew near, the backlash against The Deer Hunter gathered strength. When the limos pulled up to the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion on April 9, 1979, they were met by demonstrators, mostly from the Los Angeles chapter of Vietnam Veterans Against the War. The demonstrators waved placards covered with slogans that read "No Oscars for racism '' and "The Deer Hunter a bloody lie '' and thrust pamphlets berating Deer Hunter into long lines of limousine windows. Washburn, nominated for Best Original Screenplay, claims his limousine was pelted with stones. According to Variety, "Police and The Deer Hunter protesters clashed in a brief but bloody battle that resulted in 13 arrests. ''
De Niro was so anxious that he did not attend the Oscars ceremony. He asked the Academy to sit out the show backstage, but when the Academy refused, De Niro stayed home in New York. Producer Deeley made a deal with fellow producer David Puttnam, whose film Midnight Express was nominated, that each would take $500 to the ceremony so if one of them won, the winner would give the loser the $500 to "drown his sorrows in style. ''
The Deer Hunter won five Oscars at the 51st Academy Awards in 1979:
In addition, the film was nominated in four other categories:
Cimino won the film 's only Golden Globe Award for Best Director. Other nominations the film included Best Motion Picture -- Drama, De Niro for Best Motion Picture Actor -- Drama, Walken for Best Motion Picture Actor in a Supporting Role, Streep for Best Motion Picture Actress in a Supporting Role, and Washburn for Best Screenplay -- Motion Picture.
The Deer Hunter was one of the first, and most controversial, major theatrical films to be critical of the American involvement in Vietnam following 1975 when the war officially ended. While the film opened the same year as Hal Ashby 's Coming Home, Sidney Furie 's The Boys in Company C, and Ted Post 's Go Tell the Spartans, it was the first film about Vietnam to reach a wide audience and critical acclaim, culminating in the winning of the Oscar for Best Picture. Other films released in the late 1970s and 1980s that illustrated the ' hellish ', futile conditions of bloody Vietnam War combat included:
David Thomson wrote in an article titled "The Deer Hunter: Story of a scene '' that the film changed the way war - time battles were portrayed on film: "The terror and the blast of firepower changed the war film, even if it only used a revolver. More or less before the late 1970s, the movies had lived by a Second World War code in which battle scenes might be fierce but always rigorously controlled. The Deer Hunter unleashed a new, raw dynamic in combat and action, paving the way for Platoon, Saving Private Ryan and Clint Eastwood 's Iwo Jima films. ''
In a 2011 interview with Rotten Tomatoes, actor William Fichtner retrospectively stated that he and his partner were silenced after seeing the film, stating that "the human experience was just so pointed; their journeys were so difficult, as life is sometimes. I remember after seeing it, walking down the street -- I actually went with a girl on a date and saw The Deer Hunter, and we left the theater and walked for like an hour and nobody said anything; we were just kind of stunned about that. ''
The deaths of approximately twenty - five people who died playing Russian roulette were reported as having been influenced by scenes in the movie.
In 1996, The Deer Hunter was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
American Film Institute included the film as # 79 in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies, # 30 in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Thrills, and # 53 in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition).
The film ranks 467th in the Empire magazine 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time, noting:
Cimino 's bold, powerful ' Nam epic goes from blue - collar macho rituals to a fiery, South East Asian hell and back to a ragged singalong of America the Beautiful (sic). De Niro holds it together, but Christopher Walken, Meryl Streep and John Savage are unforgettable.
Jan Scruggs, a Vietnam veteran who became a counselor with the U.S. Department of Labor, thought of the idea of building a National Memorial for Vietnam Veterans after seeing a screening of the film in March 1979, and he established and operated the memorial fund which paid for it. Director Cimino was invited to the memorial 's opening.
The Deer Hunter has twice been released on DVD in America. The first 1998 issue was by Universal, with no extra features and a non-anamorphic transfer, and has since been discontinued. A second version, part of the "Legacy Series '', was released as a two - disc set on September 6, 2005, with an anamorphic transfer of the film. The set features a cinematographer 's commentary by Vilmos Zsigmond, deleted and extended scenes, and production notes.
The Region 2 version of The Deer Hunter, released in the UK and Japan, features a commentary track from director Michael Cimino.
The film was released on HD DVD on December 26, 2006.
StudioCanal released the film on the Blu - ray format in countries other than the United States on March 11, 2009. It was released on Blu - ray in the U.S. on March 6, 2012.
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who plays karen taylor in grey's anatomy | Personal Jesus (Grey 's Anatomy) - wikipedia
Personal Jesus is the tenth episode of the fourteenth season of the American medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy and the 303rd episode overall. It aired on ABC on January 25, 2018. The episode was written by former E.R. physician and writer Zoanne Clack and directed by Kevin Rodney Sullivan.
With Paul recovering from his injuries from a hit and run, Meredith questions the alibi that Alex and Jo provide her. Believing that it 's his fiancé, Jenny, who ran him over, Jo consult her. She offers Jenny support and prompts her to formally press domestic abuse charges against Paul. Meredith is later informed by the police that the perpetrator was a drunk driver and has been arrested. While Jo and Jenny go to Paul 's room to announce they are taking him to court, in a bout of rage he ends up falling out of his bed and knocking himself out, becoming brain dead. Still legally his wife, Jo decides to take him off life support and have his organs donated.
April 's patient turns out to be the pregnant wife of her ex-fiance, Matthew, proving to be more than an awkward situation as she helps deliver their baby. She offers Mathew an apology for her past actions, but realises that he has moved on from her and is happy with his life. Mathew 's fiance suffers from an internal bleed and is rushed into surgery. April later watches him deal with her unexpected death and is informed about the death of her other patients. She ends up in the shower with Roy, an intern after she finds herself questioning her faith.
Jackson and Bailey treat a 12 - year - old patient who had been shot by police on the grounds of racial profiling. Meanwhile, Maggie organises a science camp for Bailey 's son, Tucker and his friends. The eventual death of the patient prompts Bailey and Ben to discuss police brutality with Tucker.
The episode was written by Zoanne Clack and directed by Kevin Rodney Sullivan.
The episode aired on American Broadcasting Company on January 25, 2018. Upon initial release, it was viewed by 8.62 million people, an increase of 0.35 million from the previous installment and the mid-season premiere "1 - 800 - 799 - 7233 ''; it also garnered a season - best 2.3 / 9 Nielsen rating. "Personal Jesus '' was also the week 's second most watched drama and ranked seventh on the list of most watched television programmes overall. The 8.62 million audience was also the largest for Grey 's Anatomy in over a year.
"Personal Jesus '' opened to positive response from television critics; commentators highlighted Drew and Luddignton for their respective performances and the treatment of such socially relevant stories as domestic abuse and police brutality in the United States. Lacey Vorrasi - Banis of Entertainment Weekly positively reviewed April 's character development, and noted that she "is in the darkest place we 've ever seen her ''. She was also appreciative of the episode title -- which she thought was appropriate -- and the biblical inspiration of the April 's story. TVFanatic 's Jasmine Blu thought of "Personal Jesus '' as one of the series ' best episodes in a long time; she lauded Drew for her performance writing that the storyline gave her "the room to show off her range and excel ''. The view was echoed by Maggie Fremont of Vulture, who was hopeful that the episode, Drew 's performance in particular, would change the perception towards her character for the good. She also praised the return of Bruening 's character and the closure offered to him. Also appreciating the April 's development over the course of the episode, she noted that the character 's "dark '' side is new territory for Grey 's Anatomy.
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role of credit rating agencies in capital market | Credit rating agency - wikipedia
A credit rating agency (CRA, also called a ratings service) is a company that assigns credit ratings, which rate a debtor 's ability to pay back debt by making timely interest payments and the likelihood of default. An agency may rate the creditworthiness of issuers of debt obligations, of debt instruments, and in some cases, of the servicers of the underlying debt, but not of individual consumers.
The debt instruments rated by CRAs include government bonds, corporate bonds, CDs, municipal bonds, preferred stock, and collateralized securities, such as mortgage - backed securities and collateralized debt obligations.
The issuers of the obligations or securities may be companies, special purpose entities, state or local governments, non-profit organizations, or sovereign nations. A credit rating facilitates the trading of securities on a secondary market. It affects the interest rate that a security pays out, with higher ratings leading to lower interest rates. Individual consumers are rated for creditworthiness not by credit rating agencies but by credit bureaus (also called consumer reporting agencies or credit reference agencies), which issue credit scores.
The value of credit ratings for securities has been widely questioned. Hundreds of billions of securities that were given the agencies ' highest ratings were downgraded to junk during the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08. Rating downgrades during the European sovereign debt crisis of 2010 -- 12 were blamed by EU officials for accelerating the crisis.
Credit rating is a highly concentrated industry, with the "Big Three '' credit rating agencies controlling approximately 95 % of the ratings business. Moody 's Investors Service and Standard & Poor 's (S&P) together control 80 % of the global market, and Fitch Ratings controls a further 15 %.
When the United States began to expand to the west and other parts of the country, so did the distance of businesses to their customers. When businesses were close to those who purchased goods or services from them, it was easy for the merchants to extend credit to them, due to their proximity and the fact that merchants knew their customers personally and knew whether or not they would be able to pay them back. As trading distances increased, merchants no longer personally knew their customers and became leery of extending credit to people who they did not know in fear of them not being able to pay them back. Business owners ' hesitation to extend credit to new customers led to the birth of the credit reporting industry.
Mercantile credit agencies -- the precursors of today 's rating agencies -- were established in the wake of the financial crisis of 1837. These agencies rated the ability of merchants to pay their debts and consolidated these ratings in published guides. The first such agency was established in 1841 by Lewis Tappan in New York City. It was subsequently acquired by Robert Dun, who published its first ratings guide in 1859. Another early agency, John Bradstreet, formed in 1849 and published a ratings guide in 1857.
Credit rating agencies originated in the United States in the early 1900s, when ratings began to be applied to securities, specifically those related to the railroad bond market. In the United States, the construction of extensive railroad systems had led to the development of corporate bond issues to finance them, and therefore a bond market several times larger than in other countries. The bond markets in the Netherlands and Britain had been established longer but tended to be small, and revolved around sovereign governments that were trusted to honor their debts. Companies were founded to provide investors with financial information on the growing railroad industry, including Henry Varnum Poor 's publishing company, which produced a publication compiling financial data about the railroad and canal industries. Following the 1907 financial crisis, demand rose for such independent market information, in particular for independent analyses of bond creditworthiness. In 1909, financial analyst John Moody issued a publication focused solely on railroad bonds. His ratings became the first to be published widely in an accessible format, and his company was the first to charge subscription fees to investors.
In 1913, the ratings publication by Moody 's underwent two significant changes: it expanded its focus to include industrial firms and utilities, and it began to use a letter - rating system. For the first time, public securities were rated using a system borrowed from the mercantile credit rating agencies, using letters to indicate their creditworthiness. In the next few years, antecedents of the "Big Three '' credit rating agencies were established. Poor 's Publishing Company began issuing ratings in 1916, Standard Statistics Company in 1922, and the Fitch Publishing Company in 1924.
In the United States, the rating industry grew and consolidated rapidly following the passage of the Glass - Steagall act of 1933 and the separation of the securities business from banking. As the market grew beyond that of traditional investment banking institutions, new investors again called for increased transparency, leading to the passage of new, mandatory disclosure laws for issuers, and the creation of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). In 1936, regulation was introduced to prohibit banks from investing in bonds determined by "recognized rating manuals '' (the forerunners of credit rating agencies) to be "speculative investment securities '' ("junk bonds '', in modern terminology). US banks were permitted to hold only "investment grade '' bonds, and it was the ratings of Fitch, Moody 's, Poor 's, and Standard that legally determined which bonds were which. State insurance regulators approved similar requirements in the following decades.
From 1930 to 1980, the bonds and ratings of them were primarily relegated to American municipalities and American blue chip industrial firms. International "sovereign bond '' rating shrivelled during the Great Depression to a handful of the most creditworthy countries, after a number of defaults of bonds issued by governments such as Germany 's.
In the late 1960s and 1970s, ratings were extended to commercial paper and bank deposits. Also during that time, major agencies changed their business model by beginning to charge bond issuers as well as investors. The reasons for this change included a growing free rider problem related to the increasing availability of inexpensive photocopy machines and the increased complexity of the financial markets.
The rating agencies added levels of gradation to their rating systems. In 1973, Fitch added plus and minus symbols to its existing letter - rating system. The following year, Standard and Poor 's did the same, and Moody 's began using numbers for the same purpose in 1982.
The end of the Bretton Woods system in 1971 led to the liberalization of financial regulations and the global expansion of capital markets in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1975, SEC rules began explicitly referencing credit ratings. For example, the commission changed its minimum capital requirements for broker - dealers, allowing smaller reserves for higher - rated bonds; the rating would be done by "nationally recognized statistical ratings organizations '' (NRSROs). This referred to the "Big Three '', but in time ten agencies (later six, due to consolidation) were identified by the SEC as NRSROs.
Rating agencies also grew in size and profitability as the number of issuers accessing the debt markets grew exponentially, both in the United States and abroad. By 2009 the worldwide bond market (total debt outstanding) reached an estimated $82.2 trillion, in 2009 dollars.
Two economic trends of the 1980s and 90s that brought significant expansion for the global capital market were
More debt securities meant more business for the Big Three agencies, which many investors depended on to judge the securities of the capital market. US government regulators also depended on the rating agencies; they allowed pension funds and money market funds to purchase only securities rated above certain levels.
A market for low - rated, high - yield "junk '' bonds blossomed in the late 1970s, expanding securities financing to firms other than a few large, established blue chip corporations. Rating agencies also began to apply their ratings beyond bonds to counterparty risks, the performance risk of mortgage servicers, and the price volatility of mutual funds and mortgage - backed securities. Ratings were increasingly used in most developed countries ' financial markets and in the "emerging markets '' of the developing world. Moody 's and S&P opened offices Europe, Japan, and particularly emerging markets. Non-American agencies also developed outside of the United States. Along with the largest US raters, one British, two Canadian and three Japanese firms were listed among the world 's "most influential '' rating agencies in the early 1990s by the Financial Times publication Credit Ratings International.
Structured finance was another growth area of growth. The "financial engineering '' of the new "private - label '' asset - backed securities -- such as subprime mortgage - backed securities (MBS), collateralized debt obligations (CDO), "CDO - Squared '', and "synthetic CDOs '' -- made them "harder to understand and to price '' and became a profit center for rating agencies. By 2006, Moody 's earned $881 million in revenue from structured finance. By December 2008, there were over $11 trillion structured finance debt securities outstanding in the US bond market.
The Big Three issued 97 % -- 98 % of all credit ratings in the United States and roughly 95 % worldwide, giving them considerable pricing power. This and credit market expansion brought them profit margins of around 50 % from 2004 through 2009.
As the influence and profitability of CRAs expanded, so did scrutiny and concern about their performance and alleged illegal practices. In 1996 the US Department of Justice launched an investigation into possible improper pressuring of issuers by Moody 's in order to win business. Agencies were subjected to dozens of lawsuits by investors complaining of inaccurate ratings following the collapse of Enron, and especially after the US subprime mortgage crisis and subsequent late - 2000s financial crisis. During that debacle, 73 % -- over $800 billion worth -- of all mortgage - backed securities that one credit rating agency (Moody 's) had rated triple - A in 2006 were downgraded to junk status two years later.
Downgrades of European and US sovereign debt were also criticized. In August 2011, S&P downgraded the long - held triple - A rating of US securities. Since the spring of 2010,
one or more of the Big Three relegated Greece, Portugal, and Ireland to "junk '' status -- a move that many EU officials say has accelerated a burgeoning European sovereign - debt crisis. In January 2012, amid continued eurozone instability, S&P downgraded nine eurozone countries, stripping France and Austria of their triple - A ratings.
Credit rating agencies assess the relative credit risk of specific debt securities or structured finance instruments and borrowing entities (issuers of debt), and in some cases the creditworthiness of governments and their securities. By serving as information intermediaries, CRAs theoretically reduce information costs, increase the pool of potential borrowers, and promote liquid markets. These functions may increase the supply of available risk capital in the market and promote economic growth.
Credit rating agencies provide assessments about the creditworthiness of bonds issued by corporations, governments, and packagers of asset - backed securities. In market practice, a significant bond issuance generally has a rating from one or two of the Big Three agencies.
CRAs theoretically provide investors with an independent evaluation and assessment of debt securities ' creditworthiness. However, in recent decades the paying customers of CRAs have primarily not been issuers of securities but buyers, raising the issue of conflict of interest (see below).
In addition, rating agencies have been liable -- at least in US courts -- for any losses incurred by the inaccuracy of their ratings only if it is proven that they knew the ratings were false or exhibited "reckless disregard for the truth ''. Otherwise, ratings are simply an expression of the agencies ' informed opinions, protected as "free speech '' under the First Amendment. As one rating agency disclaimer read:
The ratings... are and must be construed solely as, statements of opinion and not statements of fact or recommendations to purchase, sell, or hold any securities.
Under an amendment to the 2010 Dodd - Frank Act, this protection has been removed, but how the law will be implemented remains to be determined by rules made by the SEC and decisions by courts.
To determine a bond 's rating, a credit rating agency analyzes the accounts of the issuer and the legal agreements attached to the bond to produce what is effectively a forecast of the bond 's chance of default, expected loss, or a similar metric. The metrics vary somewhat between the agencies. S&P 's ratings reflect default probability, while ratings by Moody 's reflect expected investor losses in the case of default. For corporate obligations, Fitch 's ratings incorporate a measure of investor loss in the event of default, but its ratings on structured, project, and public finance obligations narrowly measure default risk. The process and criteria for rating a convertible bond are similar, although different enough that bonds and convertible bonds issued by the same entity may still receive different ratings. Some bank loans may receive ratings to assist in wider syndication and attract institutional investors.
The relative risks -- the rating grades -- are usually expressed through some variation of an alphabetical combination of lower - and uppercase letters, with either plus or minus signs or numbers added to further fine - tune the rating.
Fitch and S&P use (from the most creditworthy to the least) AAA, AA, A, and BBB for investment - grade long - term credit risk and BB, CCC, CC, C, and D for "speculative '' long - term credit risk. Moody 's long - term designators are Aaa, Aa, A, and Baa for investment grade and Ba, B, Caa, Ca, and C for speculative grade. Fitch and S&P use pluses and minuses (e.g., AA+ and AA -), and Moody 's uses numbers (e.g., Aa1 and Aa3) to add further gradations.
Agencies do not attach a hard number of probability of default to each grade, preferring descriptive definitions, such as "the obligor 's capacity to meet its financial commitment on the obligation is extremely strong, '' (from a Standard and Poor 's definition of a AAA - rated bond) or "less vulnerable to non-payment than other speculative issues '' (for a BB - rated bond). However, some studies have estimated the average risk and reward of bonds by rating. One study by Moody 's claimed that over a "5 - year time horizon '', bonds that were given its highest rating (Aaa) had a "cumulative default rate '' of just 0.18 %, the next highest (Aa2) 0.28 %, the next (Baa2) 2.11 %, 8.82 % for the next (Ba2), and 31.24 % for the lowest it studied (B2). (See "Default rate '' in "Estimated spreads and default rates by rating grade '' table to right.) Over a longer time horizon, it stated, "the order is by and large, but not exactly, preserved ''.
Another study in the Journal of Finance calculated the additional interest rate or "spread '' that corporate bonds pay over that of "riskless '' US Treasury bonds, according to the bonds rating. (See "Basis point spread '' in the table to right.) Looking at rated bonds from 1973 through 1989, the authors found a AAA - rated bond paid only 43 "basis points '' (or 43 / 100ths of a percentage point) more than a Treasury bond (so that it would yield 3.43 % if the Treasury bond yielded 3.00 %). A CCC - rated "junk '' (or speculative) bond, on the other hand, paid over 4 % more than a Treasury bond on average (7.04 % if the Treasury bond yielded 3.00 %) over that period.
The market also follows the benefits from ratings that result from government regulations (see below), which often prohibit financial institutions from purchasing securities rated below a certain level. For example, in the United States, in accordance with two 1989 regulations, pension funds are prohibited from investing in asset - backed securities rated below A, and savings and loan associations from investing in securities rated below BBB.
CRAs provide "surveillance '' (ongoing review of securities after their initial rating) and may change a security 's rating if they feel its creditworthiness has changed. CRAs typically signal in advance their intention to consider rating changes. Fitch, Moody 's, and S&P all use negative "outlook '' notifications to indicate the potential for a downgrade within the next two years (one year in the case of speculative - grade credits). Negative "watch '' notifications are used to indicate that a downgrade is likely within the next 90 days.
Critics maintain that this rating, outlooking, and watching of securities has not worked nearly as smoothly as agencies suggest. They point to near - defaults, defaults, and financial disasters not detected by the rating agencies ' post-issuance surveillance, or ratings of troubled debt securities not downgraded until just before (or even after) bankruptcy. These include the 1970 Penn Central bankruptcy, the 1975 New York City fiscal crisis, the 1994 Orange County default, the Asian and Russian financial crises, the 1998 collapse of the Long - Term Capital Management hedge fund, the 2001 Enron and WorldCom bankruptcies, and especially the 2007 -- 8 subprime mortgage crisis.
In the 2001 Enron accounting scandal, the company 's ratings remained at investment grade until four days before bankruptcy -- though Enron 's stock had been in sharp decline for several months -- when "the outlines of its fraudulent practices '' were first revealed. Critics complained that "not a single analyst at either Moody 's of S&P lost his job as a result of missing the Enron fraud '' and "management stayed the same ''. During the subprime crisis, when hundreds of billion of dollars ' worth of triple - A-rated mortgage - backed securities were abruptly downgraded from triple - A to "junk '' status within two years of issue, the CRAs ' ratings were characterized by critics as "catastrophically misleading '' and "provided little or no value ''. Ratings of preferred stocks also fared poorly. Despite over a year of rising mortgage deliquencies, Moody 's continued to rate Freddie Mac 's preferred stock triple - A until mid-2008, when it was downgraded to one tick above the junk bond level. Some empirical studies have also found that rather than a downgrade lowering the market price and raising the interest rates of corporate bonds, the cause and effect are reversed. Expanding yield spreads (i.e., declining value and quality) of corporate bonds precedes downgrades by agencies, suggesting it is the market that alerts the CRAs of trouble and not vice versa.
In February 2018, an investigation by the Australian Securities and Investments Commission found a serious lack of detail and rigour in many of the ratings issued by agencies. ASIC examined six agencies, including the Australian arms of Fitch, Moody 's and S&P Global Ratings (the other agencies were Best Asia - Pacific, Australia Ratings and Equifax Australia). It said agencies had often paid lip service to compliance. In one case, an agency had issued an annual compliance report only a single page in length, with scant discussion of methodology. In another case, a chief executive officer of a company had signed off on a report as though a board member. Also, overseas staff of ratings agencies had assigned credit ratings despite lacking the necessary accreditation.
Defenders of credit rating agencies complain of the market 's lack of appreciation. Argues Robert Clow, "When a company or sovereign nation pays its debt on time, the market barely takes momentary notice... but let a country or corporation unexpectedly miss a payment or threaten default, and bondholders, lawyers and even regulators are quick to rush the field to protest the credit analyst 's lapse. '' Others say that bonds assigned a low credit rating by rating agencies have been shown to default more frequently than bonds that receive a high credit rating, suggesting that ratings still serve as a useful indicator of credit risk.
A number of explanations of the rating agencies ' inaccurate ratings and forecasts have been offered, especially in the wake of the subprime crisis:
Conversely, the complaint has been made that agencies have too much power over issuers and that downgrades can even force troubled companies into bankruptcy. The lowering of a credit score by a CRA can create a vicious cycle and a self - fulfilling prophecy: not only do interest rates on securities rise, but other contracts with financial institutions may also be affected adversely, causing an increase in financing costs and an ensuing decrease in creditworthiness. Large loans to companies often contain a clause that makes the loan due in full if the company 's credit rating is lowered beyond a certain point (usually from investment grade to "speculative ''). The purpose of these "ratings triggers '' is to ensure that the loan - making bank is able to lay claim to a weak company 's assets before the company declares bankruptcy and a receiver is appointed to divide up the claims against the company. The effect of such ratings triggers, however, can be devastating: under a worst - case scenario, once the company 's debt is downgraded by a CRA, the company 's loans become due in full; if the company is incapable of paying all of these loans in full at once, it is forced into bankruptcy (a so - called death spiral). These ratings triggers were instrumental in the collapse of Enron. Since that time, major agencies have put extra effort into detecting them and discouraging their use, and the US SEC requires that public companies in the United States disclose their existence.
The 2010 Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act mandated improvements to the regulation of credit rating agencies and addressed several issues relating to the accuracy of credit ratings specifically. Under Dodd - Frank rules, agencies must publicly disclose how their ratings have performed over time and must provide additional information in their analyses so investors can make better decisions. An amendment to the act also specifies that ratings are not protected by the First Amendment as free speech but are "fundamentally commercial in character and should be subject to the same standards of liability and oversight as apply to auditors, securities analysts and investment bankers. '' Implementation of this amendment has proven difficult due to conflict between the SEC and the rating agencies. The Economist magazine credits the free speech defence at least in part for the fact that "41 legal actions targeting S&P have been dropped or dismissed '' since the crisis.
In the European Union, there is no specific legislation governing contracts between issuers and credit rating agencies. General rules of contract law apply in full, although it is difficult to hold agencies liable for breach of contract. In 2012, an Australian federal court held Standard & Poor 's liable for inaccurate ratings.
Credit rating agencies play a key role in structured financial transactions such as asset - backed securities (ABS), residential mortgage - backed securities (RMBS), commercial mortgage - backed securities (CMBS), collateralized debt obligations (CDOs), "synthetic CDOs '', or derivatives.
Credit ratings for structured finance instruments may be distinguished from ratings for other debt securities in several important ways.
Aside from investors mentioned above -- who are subject to ratings - based constraints in buying securities -- some investors simply prefer that a structured finance product be rated by a credit rating agency. And not all structured finance products receive a credit rating agency rating. Ratings for complicated or risky CDOs are unusual and some issuers create structured products relying solely on internal analytics to assess credit risk.
The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission has described the Big Three rating agencies as "key players in the process '' of mortgage securitization, providing reassurance of the soundness of the securities to money manager investors with "no history in the mortgage business ''.
Credit rating agencies began issuing ratings for mortgage - backed securities (MBS) in the mid-1970s. In subsequent years, the ratings were applied to securities backed by other types of assets. During the first years of the twenty - first century, demand for highly rated fixed income securities was high. Growth was particularly strong and profitable in the structured finance industry during the 2001 - 2006 subprime mortgage boom, and business with finance industry accounted for almost all of the revenue growth at at least one of the CRAs (Moody 's).
From 2000 to 2007, Moody 's rated nearly 45,000 mortgage - related securities as triple - A. In contrast only six (private sector) companies in the United States were given that top rating.
Rating agencies were even more important in rating collateralized debt obligations (CDOs). These securities mortgage / asset backed security tranches lower in the "waterfall '' of repayment that could not be rated triple - A, but for whom buyers had to found or the rest of the pool of mortgages and other assets could not be securitized. Rating agencies solved the problem by rating 70 % to 80 % of the CDO tranches triple - A. Still another innovative structured product most of whose tranches were also given high ratings was the "synthetic CDO ''. Cheaper and easier to create than ordinary "cash '' CDOs, they paid insurance premium - like payments from credit default swap "insurance '', instead of interest and principal payments from house mortgages. If the insured or "referenced '' CDOs defaulted, investors lost their investment, which was paid out much like an insurance claim.
However when it was discovered that the mortgages had been sold to buyers who could not pay them, massive numbers of securities were downgraded, the securitization "seized up '' and the Great Recession ensued.
Critics blamed this underestimation of the risk of the securities on the conflict between two interests the CRAs have -- rating securities accurately, and serving their customers, the security issuers who need high ratings to sell to investors subject to ratings - based constraints, such as pension funds and life insurance companies. While this conflict had existed for years, the combination of CRA focus on market share and earnings growth, the importance of structured finance to CRA profits, and pressure from issuers who began to ` shop around ` for the best ratings brought the conflict to a head between 2000 and 2007.
A small number of arrangers of structured finance products -- primarily investment banks -- drive a large amount of business to the ratings agencies, and thus have a much greater potential to exert undue influence on a rating agency than a single corporate debt issuer.
A 2013 Swiss Finance Institute study of structured debt ratings from S&P, Moody 's, and Fitch found that agencies provide better ratings for the structured products of issuers that provide them with more overall bilateral rating business. This effect was found to be particularly pronounced in the run - up to the subprime mortgage crisis. Alternative accounts of the agencies ' inaccurate ratings before the crisis downplay the conflict of interest factor and focus instead on the agencies ' overconfidence in rating securities, which stemmed from faith in their methodologies and past successes with subprime securitizations.
In the wake of the global financial crisis, various legal requirements were introduced to increase the transparency of structured finance ratings. The European Union now requires credit rating agencies to use an additional symbol with ratings for structured finance instruments in order to distinguish them from other rating categories.
Credit rating agencies also issue credit ratings for sovereign borrowers, including national governments, states, municipalities, and sovereign - supported international entities. Sovereign borrowers are the largest debt borrowers in many financial markets. Governments from both advanced economies and emerging markets borrow money by issuing government bonds and selling them to private investors, either overseas or domestically. Governments from emerging and developing markets may also choose to borrow from other governments and international organizations, such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.
Sovereign credit ratings represent an assessment by a rating agency of a sovereign 's ability and willingness to repay its debt. The rating methodologies used to assess sovereign credit ratings are broadly similar to those used for corporate credit ratings, although the borrower 's willingness to repay receives extra emphasis since national governments may be eligible for debt immunity under international law, thus complicating repayment obligations. In addition, credit assessments reflect not only the long - term perceived default risk, but also short - or immediate - term political and economic developments. Differences in sovereign ratings between agencies may reflect varying qualitative evaluations of the investment environment.
National governments may solicit credit ratings to generate investor interest and improve access to the international capital markets. Developing countries often depend on strong sovereign credit ratings to access funding in international bond markets. Once ratings for a sovereign have been initiated, the rating agency will continue to monitor for relevant developments and adjust its credit opinion accordingly.
A 2010 International Monetary Fund study concluded that ratings were a reasonably good indicator of sovereign - default risk. However, credit rating agencies were criticized for failing to predict the 1997 Asian financial crisis and for downgrading countries in the midst of that turmoil. Similar criticisms emerged after recent credit downgrades to Greece, Ireland, Portugal, and Spain, although credit ratings agencies had begun to downgrade peripheral Eurozone countries well before the Eurozone crisis began.
As part of the Sarbanes -- Oxley Act of 2002, Congress ordered the U.S. SEC to develop a report, titled "Report on the Role and Function of Credit Rating Agencies in the Operation of the Securities Markets '' detailing how credit ratings are used in U.S. regulation and the policy issues this use raises. Partly as a result of this report, in June 2003, the SEC published a "concept release '' called "Rating Agencies and the Use of Credit Ratings under the Federal Securities Laws '' that sought public comment on many of the issues raised in its report. Public comments on this concept release have also been published on the SEC 's website.
In December 2004, the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) published a Code of Conduct for CRAs that, among other things, is designed to address the types of conflicts of interest that CRAs face. All of the major CRAs have agreed to sign on to this Code of Conduct and it has been praised by regulators ranging from the European Commission to the US SEC.
Regulatory authorities and legislative bodies in the United States and other jurisdictions rely on credit rating agencies ' assessments of a broad range of debt issuers, and thereby attach a regulatory function to their ratings. This regulatory role is a derivative function in that the agencies do not publish ratings for that purpose. Governing bodies at both the national and international level have woven credit ratings into minimum capital requirements for banks, allowable investment alternatives for many institutional investors, and similar restrictive regulations for insurance companies and other financial market participants.
The use of credit ratings by regulatory agencies is not a new phenomenon. In the 1930s, regulators in the United States used credit rating agency ratings to prohibit banks from investing in bonds that were deemed to be below investment grade. In the following decades, state regulators outlined a similar role for agency ratings in restricting insurance company investments. From 1975 to 2006, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) recognized the largest and most credible agencies as Nationally Recognized Statistical Rating Organizations, and relied on such agencies exclusively for distinguishing between grades of creditworthiness in various regulations under federal securities laws. The Credit Rating Agency Reform Act of 2006 created a voluntary registration system for CRAs that met a certain minimum criteria, and provided the SEC with broader oversight authority.
The practice of using credit rating agency ratings for regulatory purposes has since expanded globally. Today, financial market regulations in many countries contain extensive references to ratings. The Basel III accord, a global bank capital standardization effort, relies on credit ratings to calculate minimum capital standards and minimum liquidity ratios.
The extensive use of credit ratings for regulatory purposes can have a number of unintended effects. Because regulated market participants must follow minimum investment grade provisions, ratings changes across the investment / non-investment grade boundary may lead to strong market price fluctuations and potentially cause systemic reactions. The regulatory function granted to credit rating agencies may also adversely affect their original market information function of providing credit opinions.
Against this background and in the wake of criticism of credit rating agencies following the subprime mortgage crisis, legislators in the United States and other jurisdictions have commenced to reduce rating reliance in laws and regulations. The 2010 Dodd -- Frank Act removes statutory references to credit rating agencies, and calls for federal regulators to review and modify existing regulations to avoid relying on credit ratings as the sole assessment of creditworthiness.
Credit rating is a highly concentrated industry, with the "Big Three '' credit rating agencies controlling approximately 95 % of the ratings business. Moody 's Investors Service and Standard & Poor 's (S&P) together control 80 % of the global market, and Fitch Ratings controls a further 15 %.
As of December 2012, S&P is the largest of the three, with 1.2 million outstanding ratings and 1,416 analysts and supervisors; Moody 's has 1 million outstanding ratings and 1,252 analysts and supervisors; and Fitch is the smallest, with approximately 350,000 outstanding ratings, and is sometimes used as an alternative to S&P and Moody 's.
The three largest agencies are not the only sources of credit information. Many smaller rating agencies also exist, mostly serving non-US markets. All of the large securities firms have internal fixed income analysts who offer information about the risk and volatility of securities to their clients. And specialized risk consultants working in a variety of fields offer credit models and default estimates.
Market share concentration is not a new development in the credit rating industry. Since the establishment of the first agency in 1909, there have never been more than four credit rating agencies with significant market share. Even the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 -- where the performance of the three rating agencies was dubbed "horrendous '' by The Economist magazine -- led to a drop in the share of the three by just one percent -- from 98 to 97 %.
The reason for the concentrated market structure is disputed. One widely cited opinion is that the Big Three 's historical reputation within the financial industry creates a high barrier of entry for new entrants. Following the enactment of the Credit Rating Agency Reform Act of 2006 in the US, seven additional rating agencies attained recognition from the SEC as nationally recognized statistical rating organization (NRSROs). While these other agencies remain niche players, some have gained market share following the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 08, and in October 2012 several announced plans to join together and create a new organization called the Universal Credit Rating Group. The European Union has considered setting up a state - supported EU - based agency. In November 2013, credit ratings organizations from five countries (CPR of Portugal, CARE Rating of India, GCR of South Africa, MARC of Malaysia, and SR Rating of Brazil) joint ventured to launch ARC Ratings, a new global agency touted as an alternative to the "Big Three ''.
In addition to "the Big Three '' of Moody 's, Standard & Poor 's, and Fitch Ratings, other agencies and rating companies include:
DataPro Limited (Nigeria), Agusto & Co. (Nigeria), A.M. Best (U.S.), Capital Intelligence Ratings Limited (CIR) (Cyprus), China Lianhe Credit Rating Co., Ltd. (China), China Chengxin Credit Rating Group (China), Credit Rating Agency Ltd (Zambia), Credit Rating Information and Services Limited (Bangladesh), CTRISKS (Hong Kong), Dagong Europe Credit Rating (Italy), DBRS (Canada), Dun & Bradstreet (U.S.), Egan - Jones Rating Company (U.S.), Global Credit Ratings Co. (South Africa), HR Ratings de México, S.A. de C.V. (Mexico), The Pakistan Credit Rating Agency Limited (PACRA) (Pakistan), ICRA Limited (India), Japan Credit Rating Agency (Japan), JCR VIS Credit Rating Company Ltd (Pakistan), Kroll Bond Rating Agency (U.S.), Levin and Goldstein (Zambia), modeFinance (Italy), Morningstar, Inc. (U.S.), Muros Ratings (Russia, alternative rating company), Public Sector Credit Solutions (U.S., not - for profit rating provider), Rapid Ratings International (U.S.), RusRating (Russia), Universal Credit Rating Group (Hong Kong), Veda (Australia, previously known as Baycorp Advantage), Wikirating (Switzerland, alternative rating organization), Humphreys Ltd (Chile, previously known as Moody 's partner in Chile), Credit Research Initiative (Singapore, non-profit rating provider), Spread Research (independent credit research and rating agency, France), INC Rating (Poland).
Credit rating agencies generate revenue from a variety of activities related to the production and distribution of credit ratings. The sources of the revenue are generally the issuer of the securities or the investor. Most agencies operate under one or a combination of business models: the subscription model and the issuer - pays model. However, agencies may offer additional services using a combination of business models.
Under the subscription model, the credit rating agency does not make its ratings freely available to the market, so investors pay a subscription fee for access to ratings. This revenue provides the main source of agency income, although agencies may also provide other types of services. Under the issuer - pays model, agencies charge issuers a fee for providing credit rating assessments. This revenue stream allows issuer - pays credit rating agencies to make their ratings freely available to the broader market, especially via the Internet.
The subscription approach was the prevailing business model until the early 1970s, when Moody 's, Fitch, and finally Standard & Poor 's adopted the issuer - pays model. Several factors contributed to this transition, including increased investor demand for credit ratings, and widespread use of information sharing technology -- such as fax machines and photocopiers -- which allowed investors to freely share agencies ' reports and undermined demand for subscriptions. Today, eight of the nine nationally recognized statistical rating organizations (NRSRO) use the issuer - pays model, only Egan - Jones maintains an investor subscription service. Smaller, regional credit rating agencies may use either model. For example, China 's oldest rating agency, Chengxin Credit Management Co., uses the issuer - pays model. The Universal Credit Ratings Group, formed by Beijing - based Dagong Global Credit Rating, Egan - Jones of the U.S. and Russia 's RusRatings, uses the investor - pays model, while Dagong Europe Credit Rating, the other joint - venture of Dagong Global Credit Rating, uses the issuer - pays model.
Critics argue that the issuer - pays model creates a potential conflict of interest because the agencies are paid by the organizations whose debt they rate. However, the subscription model is also seen to have disadvantages, as it restricts the ratings ' availability to paying investors. Issuer - pays CRAs have argued that subscription - models can also be subject to conflicts of interest due to pressures from investors with strong preferences on product ratings. In 2010 Lace Financials, a subscriber - pays agency later acquired by Kroll Ratings, was fined by the SEC for violating securities rules to the benefit of its largest subscriber.
A 2009 World Bank report proposed a "hybrid '' approach in which issuers who pay for ratings are required to seek additional scores from subscriber - based third parties. Other proposed alternatives include a "public - sector '' model in which national governments fund the rating costs, and an "exchange - pays '' model, in which stock and bond exchanges pay for the ratings. Crowd - sourced, collaborative models such as Wikirating have been suggested as an alternative to both the subscription and issuer - pays models, although it is a recent development as of the 2010, and not yet widely used.
Agencies are sometimes accused of being oligopolists, because barriers to market entry are high and rating agency business is itself reputation - based (and the finance industry pays little attention to a rating that is not widely recognized). In 2003, the US SEC submitted a report to Congress detailing plans to launch an investigation into the anti-competitive practices of credit rating agencies and issues including conflicts of interest.
Think tanks such as the World Pensions Council (WPC) have argued that the Basel II / III "capital adequacy '' norms favored at first essentially by the central banks of France, Germany and Switzerland (while the US and the UK were rather lukewarm) have unduly encouraged the use of ready - made opinions produced by oligopolistic rating agencies
Of the large agencies, only Moody 's is a separate, publicly held corporation that discloses its financial results without dilution by non-ratings businesses, and its high profit margins (which at times have been greater than 50 percent of gross margin) can be construed as consistent with the type of returns one might expect in an industry which has high barriers to entry. Celebrated investor Warren Buffett described the company as "a natural duopoly, '' with "incredible '' pricing power, when asked by the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission about his ownership of 15 % of the company.
According to professor Frank Partnoy, the regulation of CRAs by the SEC and Federal Reserve Bank has eliminated competition between CRAs and practically forced market participants to use the services of the three big agencies, Standard and Poor 's, Moody 's and Fitch.
SEC Commissioner Kathleen Casey has said that these CRAs have acted much like Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac and other companies that dominate the market because of government actions. When the CRAs gave ratings that were "catastrophically misleading, the large rating agencies enjoyed their most profitable years ever during the past decade. ''
To solve this problem, Ms. Casey (and others such as NYU professor Lawrence White) have proposed removing the NRSRO rules completely. Professor Frank Partnoy suggests that the regulators use the results of the credit risk swap markets rather than the ratings of NRSROs.
The CRAs have made competing suggestions that would, instead, add further regulations that would make market entrance even more expensive than it is now.
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where did the first deaths in the american revolution occur | American Revolutionary war - Wikipedia
American - Allied victory:
Thirteen Colonies (before 1776) United States (after 1776) Vermont Republic French Empire Spanish Empire
Co-belligerents:
Dutch Republic Mysore
British Empire Hanover
German mercenaries: Hesse - Kassel Hesse - Hanau Waldeck Brunswick Ansbach Anhalt - Zerbst
George Washington Thomas Chittenden Louis XVI Charles III
William V Hyder Ali † Tipu Sultan
George III Lord North Lord George Germain
United States: Army & Militia: 40,000 (average) 200,000 (total served) Navy: 5,000 sailors (peak 1779) 53 frigates and sloops (total served) State Navies: 106 ships (total served) Privateers: 55,000 sailors (total served) 1,697 ships
Allies: Army: 63,000 French and Spanish (Gibraltar) Navy: 146 ships - of - the - line (1782)
Native American Allies:
Great Britain: Army: 48,000 (America peak) 121,000 (global 1781) 7,500 (Gibraltar) Navy: 94 ships - of - the - line (1782) 104 frigates (1781) 37 sloops (1781) 171,000 sailors
Loyalists: 25,000 (total served)
Hanoverians: 2,365 (total served)
German mercenaries: 29,875 (total served)
Native American Allies:
United States: 25,000 -- 70,000 total dead 6,800 killed in battle 17,000 died of disease
France: at least 7,000 dead (2,112 in the United States)
Spain: 5,000 killed
Netherlands: 500 killed
Great Britain: Army: 43,633 total dead ~ 9,372 killed in battle 27,000 died of disease Navy: 1,243 killed in battle 18,500 died of disease (1776 -- 1780) 42,000 deserted
Germans: 7,774 total dead 1,800 killed in battle 4,888 deserted
Loyalists: 7,000 total dead 1,700 killed in battle 5,300 died of disease (estimated)
The American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 1783), also known as the American War of Independence, was a global war that began as a conflict between Great Britain and her Thirteen Colonies, which declared independence as the United States of America.
After 1765, growing philosophical and political differences strained the relationship between Great Britain and its colonies. Following the Stamp Act, Patriot protests against taxation without representation escalated into boycotts, which culminated in the Sons of Liberty destroying a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor. Britain responded by closing Boston Harbor and passing a series of punitive measures against Massachusetts colony. Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, and they established a shadow government which wrested control of the countryside from the Crown. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, establishing committees and conventions that effectively seized power.
British attempts to disarm the Massachusetts militia at Concord in April 1775 led to open combat. Militia forces then besieged Boston, forcing a British evacuation in March 1776, and Congress appointed George Washington to command the Continental Army. Concurrently, an American attempt to invade Quebec and raise rebellion against the British decisively failed. On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress voted for independence, issuing its declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe launched a British counter-offensive, capturing New York City and leaving American morale at a low ebb. However, victories at Trenton and Princeton restored American confidence. In 1777, the British launched an invasion from Quebec under John Burgoyne, intending to isolate New England. Instead of assisting this effort, Howe took his army on a separate campaign against Philadelphia, and Burgoyne was decisively defeated at Saratoga in October 1777.
Burgoyne 's defeat had drastic consequences; France formally allied with the Americans and entered the war in 1778, and Spain joined the war the following year as an ally of France but not as an ally of the United States. In 1780, the Kingdom of Mysore attacked the British in India, and tensions between Great Britain and the Netherlands erupted into open war. In North America, the British mounted a "Southern strategy '' led by Charles Cornwallis which hinged upon a Loyalist uprising, but too few came forward. Cornwallis suffered reversals at King 's Mountain and Cowpens. He retreated to Yorktown, Virginia, intending an evacuation, but a decisive French naval victory deprived him of an escape. A Franco - American army led by the Comte de Rochambeau and Washington then besieged Cornwallis ' army and, with no sign of relief, he surrendered.
Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tories in Parliament, and the surrender gave them the upper hand. In early 1782, Parliament voted to end all offensive operations in North America, but the war continued in Europe and India. Britain remained under siege in Gibraltar but scored a major victory over the French navy. On September 3, 1783, the belligerent parties signed the Treaty of Paris in which Great Britain agreed to recognize the sovereignty of the United States and formally end the war. French involvement had proven decisive, but France made few gains and incurred crippling debts. Spain made some minor territorial gains but failed in its primary aim of recovering Gibraltar. The Dutch were defeated on all counts and were compelled to cede territory to Great Britain. In India, the war against Mysore and its allies concluded in 1784 without any territorial changes.
In 1651, the Parliament of England sought to regulate trade in America by passing the Navigation Acts, ensuring that trade only enriched Britain. The economic effects were minimal, but they triggered serious political friction. The American colonists had fought King Philip 's War without significant assistance from the Crown, and this contributed to a growing sense of American identity separate from that of Britain. Britain continued to assert control into the 1680s, culminating in the abrogation of colonial charters and the establishment of the Dominion of New England in 1686. Colonists, however, felt that the Dominion was undermining their democratic liberty and they overthrew it in 1689; the Crown made no attempt to restore it.
The British government continued to pursue trade control, however, passing acts that taxed wool, hats, and molasses. The Molasses Act of 1733 was especially egregious to the colonists, as a significant part of colonial trade relied on the product. The taxes severely damaged the local economy, and consequently they were rarely paid. Smuggling, bribery, piracy, and intimidation of customs officials became commonplace. Colonial wars were also a contributing factor. The return of Louisbourg to France in 1748 following the War of the Austrian Succession caused considerable resentment in New England, the colonists having expended great effort in subduing the fortress only to have it returned to their erstwhile enemy.
Britain triumphed over France and Spain in the Seven Years ' War, but this led to a financial crisis, as the national debt had doubled to £ 130 million, and the annual cost of the British civil and military establishment in America had quintupled when compared to 1749. Smuggling had been tacitly accepted, but now the British began to consider that it blunted their revenue, so Whitehall decided to ensure that customs duties were unavoidable by passing the Stamp Act in 1765. Colonists condemned the tax because their rights as Englishmen protected them from being taxed by a Parliament in which they had no elected representatives. Parliament argued that the colonies were "represented virtually '', an idea that was criticized throughout the Empire. Parliament did repeal the act in 1766; however, it also affirmed its right to pass laws that were binding on the colonies. From 1767, Parliament began passing legislation to raise revenue for the salaries of civil officials, ensuring their loyalty while inadvertently increasing resentment among the colonists, and opposition soon became widespread.
Enforcing the acts proved difficult; the seizure of the sloop Liberty on suspicions of smuggling triggered a riot. In response, British troops occupied Boston, and Parliament threatened to extradite colonists to face trial in England. Tensions rose after the murder of a teen by a customs official in 1770 and escalated into outrage after British troops fired on civilians in the Boston Massacre. In 1772, colonists in Rhode Island boarded and burned a customs schooner. Parliament then repealed all taxes except the one on tea, passing the Tea Act in 1773, attempting to force colonists to buy East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid, thus implicitly agreeing to Parliamentary supremacy. The landing of the tea was resisted in all colonies, but the governor of Massachusetts permitted British tea ships to remain in Boston Harbor -- so the Sons of Liberty destroyed the tea chests.
Parliament then passed punitive legislation. It closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for and revoked the Massachusetts Charter, taking upon themselves the right to directly appoint the Massachusetts Governor 's Council. Additionally, the royal governor was granted powers to undermine local democracy. Further measures allowed the extradition of officials for trial elsewhere in the Empire, if the governor felt that a fair trial could not be secured locally. The act 's vague reimbursement policy for travel expenses left few with the ability to testify, and colonists argued that it would allow officials to harass them with impunity. Further laws allowed the governor to billet troops in private property without permission. The colonists referred to the measures as the "Intolerable Acts '', and they argued that both their constitutional rights and their natural rights were being violated, viewing the acts as a threat to all of America. The acts were widely opposed, driving neutral parties into support of the Patriots and curtailing Loyalist sentiment.
The colonists responded by establishing the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, effectively removing Crown control of the colony outside Boston. Meanwhile, representatives from twelve colonies convened the First Continental Congress to respond to the crisis. The Congress narrowly rejected a proposal which would have created an American parliament to act in concert with the British Parliament; instead, they passed a compact declaring a trade boycott against Britain. Congress also affirmed that Parliament had no authority over internal American matters, but they were willing to consent to trade regulations for the benefit of the empire, and they authorized committees and conventions to enforce the boycott. The boycott was effective, as imports from Britain dropped by 97 % in 1775 compared to 1774.
Parliament refused to yield. In 1775, it declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and enforced a blockade of the colony. It then passed legislation to limit colonial trade to the British West Indies and the British Isles. Colonial ships were barred from the Newfoundland cod fisheries, a measure which pleased Canadiens but damaged New England 's economy. These increasing tensions led to a mutual scramble for ordnance and pushed the colonies toward open war. Thomas Gage was the British Commander - in - Chief and military governor of Massachusetts, and he received orders on April 14, 1775 to disarm the local militias.
On April 18, 1775, 700 troops were sent to confiscate militia ordnance stored at Concord. Fighting broke out, forcing the regulars to conduct a fighting withdrawal to Boston. Overnight, the local militia converged on and laid siege to Boston. On March 25, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with three senior generals; William Howe, John Burgoyne and Henry Clinton. On June 17, the British seized the Charlestown peninsular after a costly frontal assault, leading Howe to replace Gage. Many senior officers were dismayed at the attack which had gained them little, while Gage wrote to London stressing the need for a large army to suppress the revolt. On July 3, George Washington took command of the Continental Army besieging Boston. Howe made no effort to attack, much to Washington 's surprise. After a plan to assault the city was rejected, in early March 1776, the Americans fortified Dorchester Heights with heavy artillery captured from a raid on Fort Ticonderoga. On March 17, the British were permitted to withdraw unmolested, sailing to Halifax, Nova Scotia. Washington then moved his army to New York.
Meanwhile, British officials in Quebec began lobbying Native American tribes to support them, while the Americans attempted to maintain their neutrality. Fearing an Anglo - Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized an invasion of Quebec. Quebec, with a largely Francophone population, had only been under British rule for twelve years, and the Americans expected that liberating them from the British would be welcomed. After an arduous march, the Americans attacked Quebec City on December 31, which was decisively defeated. After a loose siege, the Americans withdrew on May 6. 1776. A failed counter-attack on June 8 ended American operations in Quebec. However, the British could not conduct an aggressive pursuit, due to the presence of American ships on Lake Champlain. On October 11, the British defeated the American squadron, forcing the Americans to withdraw to Ticonderoga, ending the campaign. The invasion cost the Patriots their support in British public opinion, while aggressive anti-Loyalist policies diluted Canadien support. The Patriots continued to view Quebec as a strategic aim, though no further attempts to invade were ever realized.
In Virginia, the Royal governor, Lord Dunmore, had attempted to disarm the militia as tensions increased, although no fighting broke out. After war broke out, Dunmore issued a proclamation on November 7, 1775, promising freedom for slaves who fled their Patriot masters to fight for the Crown. After Dunmore 's troops were overwhelmed by Patriots at Great Bridge, Dunmore fled to naval ships anchored off Norfolk. After negotiations broke down, Dunmore ordered the ships to destroy the town. In South Carolina, fighting broke out on November 19 between Loyalist and Patriot militias, and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony. Loyalists recruited in North Carolina to reassert colonial rule in the South were decisively defeated, subduing Loyalist sentiment. An expedition of British regulars to reconquer South Carolina launched a failed attack on Charleston on June 28, 1776, effectively leaving the South in Patriot control until 1780.
The shortage of gunpowder had led Congress to authorize an expedition against the Bahamas Colony in the West Indies, in order to secure ordnance there. On March 3, 1776, the Americans landed after a bloodless exchange of fire, and the local militia offered no resistance. For two weeks, the Americans confiscated all the supplies they could load, and sailed away on March 17. After a brief skirmish with the Royal Navy frigate HMS Glasgow on April 6, the squadron reached New London on April 8.
After fighting began, Congress launched a final attempt to avert war, which Parliament rejected as insincere. King George III then issued a Proclamation of Rebellion on August 23, 1775, leading to an emboldening of hitherto weak support for independence in the colonies. After a speech by the King, Parliament rejected to oppose coercive measures on the colonies by 170 votes. British Tories refused to compromise, while Whigs argued current policy would drive the colonists towards secession. Despite opposition, the King himself began micromanaging the war effort. The Irish Parliament pledged to send troops to America, and Irish Catholics were allowed to enlist in the army for the first time. Irish Protestants favored the Americans, while Catholics favored the King.
Militarily, the initial hostilities was a sobering lesson for the British, causing them to rethink their views on colonial military capability. The weak British response gave the Patriots the advantage; the British lost control over every colony. The army had been kept deliberately small since 1688 to prevent abuses of power by the King. Parliament secured treaties with small German states for additional troops, and, after a year, were able to send an army of 32,000 men to America, the largest it had ever sent outside Europe at the time.
In the colonies, the success of Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense had boosted public support for independence. On July 2, Congress voted in favor of independence with twelve affirmatives and one abstention, issuing its declaration on July 4. Washington read the declaration to his men and the citizens of New York on July 9, invigorating the crowd to tear down a lead statue of the King, melting it to make bullets. British Tories criticized the signatories for not extending the same standards of equality to slaves. Patriots followed independence with the Test Laws, requiring residents to swear allegiance to the state in which they lived, intending to root out neutrals or opponents to independence. Failure to do so meant possible imprisonment, exile, and, in some cases, death. American Tories were barred from public office, forbidden from practising medicine and law, forced to pay increased taxes, barred from executing wills or becoming guardians to orphans. Congress enabled states to confiscate Loyalist property to fund the war, and offered them a choice between swearing loyalty to the republic, or either face exile, or forfeit the right to protection. Quakers, who remained neutral, had their property confiscated. States later prevented Loyalists from collecting any debts they were owed.
After regrouping at Halifax, William Howe determined to take the fight to the Americans. Howe set sail in June 1776, and began landing troops on Staten Island on July 2. Due to poor intelligence, Washington split his army to positions across the city. An informal attempt to negotiate peace was rejected by the Americans. On August 27, Howe defeated Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights. Had Howe chose to land on Manhattan, Washington could have been encircled and his army destroyed. Howe restrained his subordinates from pursuit, opting to besiege Washington instead. Washington managed to withdraw to Manhattan without any losses in men or ordnance. Following the withdrawal, a second attempt to negotiate peace failed, as the British delegates did not possess authorization to grant independence. Howe then seized control of New York on September 15, and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans the following day. Howe attempted encirclement of Washington again, but the Americans successfully withdrew. On October 28, the British fought an indecisive action against Washington, in which Howe declined to attack Washington 's army, instead concentrating his efforts upon a hill that was of no strategic value.
Washington 's retreat left the remnants of his forces isolated, and, on November 16, the British captured an American army, taking 3,000 prisoners, amounting to the worst American defeat to date. Washington fell back four days later. Henry Clinton then captured Newport, an operation which he opposed, feeling the 6,000 troops assigned to him could have been better employed in the pursuit of Washington. The American prisoners were then sent to the infamous "prison ships '', in which more American soldiers and sailors died of disease and neglect than died in every battle of the war combined. Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt, and Washington escaped unmolested. The outlook of the American cause was bleak; the army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men, and would be reduced further when the enlistments expired at the end of the year. Popular support wavered, morale ebbed away, and Congress abandoned Philadelphia. Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in New York.
News of the campaign was well received in Britain; festivities took place in London, and public support reached a peak. William Howe was awarded the Order of the Bath by the King. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. The American defeat revealed Washington 's strategic deficiencies, such as dividing a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misreading the situation, and his poorly - trained troops, who fled in disorder when fighting began. In the meantime, the British entered winter quarters, and were in a good place to resume campaigning.
On December 25, 1776, Washington stealthily crossed the Delaware, and overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton the following morning, taking 900 prisoners. The decisive victory rescued the army 's flagging morale, and gave a new hope to the cause for independence. Cornwallis marched to re-take Trenton, though his efforts to this end were repulsed on January 2. Washington outmanoeuvred Cornwallis that night, and defeated his rearguard the following day. The victories proved instrumental in convincing the French and Spanish that the Americans were worthwhile allies, as well as recovering morale in the army. Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown on January 6, though a protracted guerrilla conflict continued. While encamped, Howe made no attempt to attack, much to Washington 's amazement.
In December 1776, John Burgoyne returned to London to set strategy with Lord George Germain. Burgoyne 's plan was to establish control of the Champlain - George - Hudson route from New York to Quebec, isolating New England. Efforts could then be concentrated on the southern colonies, where it was believed Loyalist support was in abundance. Howe instead argued capturing Philadelphia and defeating Washington was a priority. Germain approved this plan, leaving Howe unable to assist Burgoyne. Washington himself was baffled by Howe 's choices. Alden argues Howe was influenced by the idea that, upon success, he would not receive credit, but Burgoyne. Controversy persists over whether Germain approved Burgoyne 's plan after reading Howe 's, and whether he shared this information with his subordinates. Howe was not given any explicit orders to assist Burgoyne, however, a copy Germain sent to Quebec explicitly stated Howe was to assist Burgoyne 's efforts. Another letter stated Howe should launch his campaign against Philadelphia as intended, while allowing enough time to assist Burgoyne. Black argues Germain either left his generals too much latitude, or without a clear direction.
Burgoyne 's plan was to lead an army along Lake Champlain, while a strategic diversion advanced along the Mohawk River, and both would rendezvous at Albany. Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, quickly capturing Ticonderoga on July 5. The hasty withdrawal of the Continental Army after little resistance outraged the American public. Burgoyne 's pursuit ran into stiff resistance at Hubbardton and Fort Anne. Leaving 1,300 men behind as a garrison, Burgoyne continued the advance. Progress was slow; the Americans blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams and denuded the area of food. Meanwhile, Barry St. Ledger 's diversionary column laid siege to Fort Stanwix. St. Ledger withdrew to Quebec on August 22 after his Indian support abandoned him. On August 16, a British foraging expedition was soundly defeated at Bennington, and more than 700 troops were captured. As a result of the defeat, the vast majority of Burgoyne 's Indian support abandoned him. Meanwhile, Howe informed Burgoyne he would launch his campaign on Philadelphia as planned, and would be unable to render aid.
Having considered his options, Burgoyne decided to continue the advance. On September 19, he attempted to flank the American position, and clashed at Freeman 's Farm. The British won, but at the cost of 600 casualties. Burgoyne then dug in, but suffered a constant haemorrhage of deserters, and critical supplies were running low. Henry Clinton did capture two key forts on October 6 to divert American resources, though he turned back ten days later. Meanwhile, the American army was growing in size daily, swelling to some 15,000 men. On October 7, a British reconnaissance in force against the American lines was repulsed with heavy losses. Burgoyne then withdrew with the Americans in pursuit, and by October 13, he was surrounded. With no hope of relief and supplies exhausted, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17. 6,222 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans. The decisive success spurred France to enter the war as an ally of the United States, securing the final elements needed for victory over Britain, that of foreign assistance.
Meanwhile, Howe launched his campaign against Washington, though his initial efforts to bring him to battle in June 1777 failed. Howe declined to attack Philadelphia overland via New Jersey, or by sea via the Delaware Bay, even though both options would have enabled him to assist Burgoyne if necessary. Instead, he took his army on a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, leaving him completely unable to assist Burgoyne. This decision was so difficult to understand, Howe 's critics accused him of treason.
Howe outflanked and defeated Washington on September 11, though he failed to follow - up on the victory and destroy his army. A British victory at Willistown left Philadelphia defenceless, and Howe captured the city unopposed on September 26. Howe then moved 9,000 men to Germantown, north of Philadelphia. Washington launched a surprise attack on Howe 's garrison on October 4, which was eventually repulsed. Again, Howe did not follow - up on his victory, leaving the American army intact and able to fight. Later, after several days of probing American defences at White Marsh, Howe inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia, astonishing both sides. Howe ignored the vulnerable American rear, where an attack could have deprived Washington of his baggage and supplies. On December 19, Washington 's army entered winter quarters at Valley Forge. Poor conditions and supply problems resulted in the deaths of some 2,500 troops. Howe, only 20 miles (32 km) away, made no effort to attack, which critics observed could have ended the war.
The Continental Army was put through a new training program, supervised by Baron von Steuben, introducing the most modern Prussian methods of drilling. Meanwhile, Howe resigned, and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778. Clinton received orders to abandon Philadelphia and fortify New York following France 's entry into the war. On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia, with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit. The two armies fought at Monmouth Court House on June 28, with the Americans holding the field, greatly boosting morale and confidence. By July, both armies were back in the same positions they had been two years prior.
The defeat at Saratoga caused considerable anxiety in Britain over foreign intervention. The North ministry sought reconciliation with the colonies by consenting to their original demands, although Lord North refused to grant independence. No positive reply was received from the Americans.
French foreign minister the Comte de Vergennes was strongly anti-British, and he sought a casus belli to go to war with and weaken their perennial foe following the conquest of Canada in 1763. The French had covertly supplied the Americans through neutral Dutch ports since the onset of the war, proving invaluable throughout the Saratoga campaign. The French public favored war, though Vergennes and King Louis XVI were hesitant, owing to the military and financial risk. The American victory at Saratoga convinced the French that supporting the Patriots was worthwhile, but doing so also brought major concerns. The King was concerned that Britain 's concessions would be accepted, and that she would then reconcile with the Colonies to strike at French and Spanish possessions in the Caribbean. To prevent this, France formally recognized the United States on February 6, 1778 and followed with a military alliance. France aimed to expel Britain from the Newfoundland fishery, end restrictions on Dunkirk sovereignty, regain free trade in India, recover Senegal and Dominica, and restore the Treaty of Utrecht provisions pertaining to Anglo - French trade.
Spain was wary of provoking war with Britain before she was ready, so she covertly supplied the Patriots via her colonies in New Spain. Congress hoped to persuade Spain into an open alliance, so the first American Commission met with the Count of Aranda in 1776. Spain was still reluctant to make an early commitment, owing to a lack of direct French involvement, the threat against their treasure fleets, and the possibility of war with Portugal, Spain 's neighbor and a close ally of Britain. However, Spain affirmed its desire to support the Americans the following year, hoping to weaken Britain 's empire. In the Spanish - Portuguese War (1776 - 77), the Portuguese threat was neutralized. On 12 April 1779, Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez with France and went to war against Britain. Spain sought to recover Gibraltar and Menorca in Europe, as well as Mobile and Pensacola in Florida, and also to expel the British from Central America.
Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight. He did not welcome war with France, but he believed that Britain had made all necessary steps to avoid it and cited the British victories over France in the Seven Years ' War as a reason to remain optimistic. Britain tried in vain to find a powerful ally to engage France, leaving it isolated, preventing Britain from focusing the majority of her efforts in one theater, and forcing a major diversion of military resources from America. Despite this, the King determined never to recognize American independence and to ravage the colonies indefinitely, or until they pleaded to return to the yoke of the Crown. Mahan argues that Britain 's attempt to fight in multiple theaters simultaneously without major allies was fundamentally flawed, citing impossible mutual support, exposing the forces to defeat in detail.
Since the outbreak of the conflict, Britain had appealed to her ally, the neutral Dutch Republic, to loan her the use of the Scots Brigade for service in America, but pro-American sentiment among the Dutch public forced them to deny the request. Consequently, the British attempted to invoke several treaties for outright Dutch military support, but the Republic still refused. Moreover, American troops were being supplied with ordnance by Dutch merchants via their West Indies colonies. French supplies bound for America had also passed through Dutch ports. The Republic maintained free trade with France following France 's declaration of war on Britain, citing a prior concession by Britain on this issue. Britain responded by confiscating Dutch shipping, and even firing upon it. Consequently, the Republic joined the First League of Armed Neutrality to enforce their neutral status. The Republic had also given sanctuary to American privateers and had drafted a treaty of commerce with the Americans. Britain argued that these actions contravened the Republic 's neutral stance and declared war in December 1780.
Soon after France declared war, French and British fleets fought an indecisive action off Ushant on 27 July 1778. On 12 April 1779, Spain entered the war, with a primary goal of capturing Gibraltar. On June 24, Spanish troops under the Duc de Crillon laid siege to the Rock. The naval blockade, however, was relatively weak, and the British were able to resupply the garrison. Meanwhile, a plan was formulated for a combined Franco - Spanish invasion of the British mainland. A combination of poor planning, disease, logistical issues and high financial expenditures resulted in the expedition 's failure. However, a diversionary Franco - American squadron under John Paul Jones did meet with some success on 23 September. On 16 January 1780, the Royal Navy under George Rodney scored a major victory over the Spanish, weakening the naval blockade of Gibraltar.
On 9 August, a Franco - Spanish fleet commanded by Luis de Córdova intercepted and decisively defeated a large British convoy off The Azores, led by John Moutray, bound for the West Indies. The defeat was catastrophic for Britain; losing 52 merchant ships, 5 East Indiamen, 80,000 muskets, equipment for 40,000 troops, 294 guns and 3,144 men, making it one of the most complete naval captures ever made. The loss was valued at some £ 1.5 million, or £ 180 million in today 's money, dealing a severe blow to British commerce.
In the Caribbean, intending to damage British trade, the French blockaded the lucrative sugar islands of Barbados and Jamaica. In order to improve communication among French Caribbean islands, and to strike a blow to privateering, French troops led by the Marquis de Bouillé captured Dominica on 7 September 1778. To monitor the French naval base on Martinique, the British defeated a French naval force on 15 December, and captured St. Lucia on 28 December. Though both fleets received reinforcements through the first half of 1779, the French under the Comte d'Estaing soon enjoyed superiority in the Caribbean, and began capturing British territories; seizing St. Vincent on 18 June, and Grenada on 4 July. On July 6, having pursued d'Estaing from Grenada, the British fleet under John Byron was tactically defeated, the worst loss the Royal Navy had suffered since 1690. Naval skirmishes continued until 17 April 1780, when British and French fleets clashed indecisively off Martinique.
On the mainland, Bernardo de Gálvez, governor of Louisiana, had intercepted intelligence the British were planning to invade New Orleans, and decided to strike first. Gálvez intended to conquer West Florida, and set out with 670 men on August 27, 1779, though his force was soon swollen to 1,400 by local Native Americans. On 7 September, Fort Bute fell to the Spanish, who then marched on to Baton Rouge, arriving on September 12. After a nine - day siege, the town fell. Leaving a garrison behind, Gálvez returned to New Orleans to recruit additional troops. In early 1780, Gálvez mounted an expedition to take Mobile, setting off with 750 troops on 11 January. Joined by reinforcements from Havana, siege operations commenced on March 1, and the town fell after a 14 - day siege. Gálvez had hoped to push on to Pensacola, the British capital of West Florida, however, a hurricane devastated his expedition, stalling it till 1781.
In Central America, the defence of Guatemala was a priority for Spain. The British intended to capture the key fortress of San Fernando de Omoa and drive the Spanish from the region. After inadequate first attempts, 1,200 British troops led by William Dalrymple arrived on 16 October, and captured the fort on 20 October. However, the British suffered terribly due to disease, and were forced to abandon the fort on 29 November, and Spanish troops subsequently reoccupied the fort. In 1780, John Dalling, governor of Jamaica, planned an expedition to cut New Spain in two, by capturing Granada, which would subsequently allow them full control of the San Juan River. The British expedition, led by John Polson and Horatio Nelson, set out on 3 February 1780. On 17 March, the expedition reached Fort San Juan and laid siege, capturing it on 29 April. The British were ravaged by disease, and were running low on food due to poor logistics. The British withdrew on 8 November, the expedition having suffered a decisive defeat; some 2,500 troops had perished, making it the costliest British disaster of the war.
After word of hostilities with France reached India, the British East India Company moved quickly to capture French possessions, and took Pondicherry after a two - week siege on 19 October 1778. The Company resolved to drive the French out of India entirely, capturing the Malabar port of Mahé in 1779. Mahé had been under the protection of Mysore, as French ordnance passed through the port to the Mysorean ruler, Hyder Ali. Tensions were already inflamed due to British support for Malabar rebels against Ali, and the fall of Mahé precipitated war. In July 1780, Ali invaded the Carnatic, and laid siege to Tellicherry and Arcot. A 7,000 - strong Company relief force under William Baille was intercepted and destroyed by the Tipu Sultan on 10 September; thus far the worst defeat suffered by a European army in India. Instead of pressing on for a decisive victory against a second Company army at Madras, Ali renewed the siege at Arcot, capturing it on 3 November. The delay allowed British forces to regroup for campaigning the following year.
Following the British defeat at Saratoga, and the entry of France into the war, Henry Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia, consolidating in New York. French admiral the Comte d'Estaing had been dispatched to North America in April 1778 to assist Washington, arriving shortly after Clinton withdrew into New York. Concluding New York 's defences were too formidable for the French fleet, the Franco - American forces opted to attack Newport. This effort, launched on August 29, failed after the French opted to withdraw, greatly angering the Americans. The war then ground down to a stalemate, with the majority of actions fought as large skirmishes, such as those at Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor. In the summer of 1779, the Americans captured British posts at Stony Point and Paulus Hook.
In July, Clinton 's attempts to coax Washington into a decisive engagement with a major raid into Connecticut failed. That month, a large American naval operation to retake Maine resulted in the worst American naval defeat until Pearl Harbor in 1941. The high frequency of Iroquois raids on the locals compelled Washington to mount a punitive expedition, destroying a large number of Iroquois settlements, but the effort ultimately failed to stop the raids. During the winter of 1779 -- 80, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge. Morale was poor; public support was being eroded by the long war, the national currency was virtually worthless, the army was plagued with supply problems, desertion was common, and, in early 1780, whole regiments mutinied over the conditions.
In 1780, Clinton launched an attempt to re-take New Jersey. On June 7, an invasion of 6,000 men under Hessian general Wilhelm von Knyphausen met stiff resistance from the local militia. Though the British held the field, Knyphausen feared a general engagement with Washington 's main army, and withdrew. A fortnight later, Knyphausen and Clinton decided upon a second attempt, which was soundly defeated at Springfield, effectively ending British ambitions in New Jersey. Meanwhile, American general Benedict Arnold had grown disenfranchised with the war, and conspired with the British to surrender the key American fortress of West Point. Arnold 's plot was foiled upon the capture of his contact, John André, and he escaped to British lines in New York. Though Arnold 's reasoning reflected Loyalist opinion, Patriots strongly condemned him.
West of the Appalachians, the war was largely confined to skirmishing and raids. In February 1778, an expedition of militia to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River was halted due to adverse weather. Later in the year, a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British. The Americans captured Kaskaskia on July 4, and then secured Vincennes, although the latter was quickly recaptured by Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit. In early 1779, the Americans counter-attacked by undertaking a risky winter march, and secured the surrender of the British at Vincennes, taking Hamilton prisoner.
On May 25, 1780, the British launched an expedition into Kentucky, as part of a wider operation to clear resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast. The expedition met with only limited success, though hundreds of settlers were killed or captured. The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River in August, which met with some success, but did little to abate the Native American raids on the frontier. An attempt by French militia to capture Detroit ended in disaster when Miami Indians ambushed and defeated the gathered troops on November 5. The war in the west had become a stalemate; the Americans did not have the manpower to simultaneously defeat the Indian tribes and occupy their land.
In 1778, despite the defeat at Saratoga, the British turned their attention to reconquering the South. Prominent Loyalists with great influence in London had convinced the British that Loyalist support was high in the South, and that a campaign there would inspire a popular Loyalist uprising. The British centred their strategy upon this thinking. A southern campaign also had the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean, where it would be needed to defend lucrative colonies against the Franco - Spanish fleets.
On December 29, 1778, an expeditionary corps from New York captured Savannah. British troops then moved inland to recruit Loyalist support. Despite a promising initial turnout in early 1779, a large Loyalist militia was defeated at Kettle Creek on February 14, demonstrating their vulnerability when operating away from British regulars. The British recovered their loss, defeating Patriot militia at Brier Creek on March 3. The British then launched an abortive assault on Charleston, South Carolina. The operation was noted for a high degree of looting by British troops, enraging both Loyalists and Patriot colonists. In October, a combined Franco - American effort to capture Savannah failed. In 1780, Henry Clinton moved against Charleston, capturing it on May 12. With few losses of their own, the British took 5,266 prisoners, effectively destroying the Continental Army in the south. Organized American resistance in the region collapsed when Banastre Tarleton defeated the withdrawing Americans at Waxhaws on May 29.
Clinton returned to New York, leaving Charles Cornwallis in command in Charleston to oversee the southern war effort. In the interim, the war was carried on by Patriot militias, whom effectively suppressed Loyalists by winning victories in Fairfield County, Lincolnton, York County, Stanly County, and Lancaster County. Congress appointed Horatio Gates, victor at Saratoga, to lead the American effort in the south. Soon after arriving, on August 16, Gates suffered a major defeat at Camden, setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina. While Patriot militia continued to interfere in attempts to pacify the countryside, Cornwallis dispatched troops to raise Loyalist forces to cover his left flank as he moved north. This wing of Cornwallis ' army was virtually destroyed on October 7, irreversibly breaking Loyalist support in the Carolinas. Cornwallis subsequently aborted his advance and retreated back into South Carolina. In the interim, Washington replaced Gates with his trusted subordinate, Nathanael Greene.
Unable to confront the British directly, Greene dispatched a force under Daniel Morgan to recruit additional troops. Morgan then defeated the cream of the British army under Tarleton on January 17, 1781, at Cowpens. As after the defeat of the Loyalists at King 's Mountain, Cornwallis was criticized for his decision to detach a substantial part of his army without adequate support. Despite the setbacks, Cornwallis proceeded to advance into North Carolina, gambling that he would receive substantial Loyalist support. Greene evaded combat with Cornwallis, instead wearing his army down through a protracted war of attrition. By March, Greene 's army had grown enough where he felt confident in facing Cornwallis. The two armies engaged at Guilford Courthouse on March 15, and, though Greene was beaten, Cornwallis ' army had suffered irreplaceable casualties. Compounding this, far fewer Loyalists were joining as expected due to effective Patriot suppression. Cornwallis ' casualties were such that he was compelled to retreat to Wilmington for reinforcement, leaving the interior of the Carolinas, and Georgia, wide open to Greene.
In Cornwallis ' absence, Greene proceeded to reconquer the South. Despite suffering a reversal at Hobkirk 's Hill on April 25, American troops continued to dislodge strategic British posts in the area, capturing Fort Watson, and Fort Motte. Augusta, the last major British outpost in the South outside of Charleston and Savannah, fell on June 6. In an effort to stop Greene, a British force clashed with American troops at Eutaw Springs on September 8. Despite inflicting a tactical defeat on Greene 's army, the casualties suffered by the British were such that they withdrew to Charleston. While minor skirmishes in the Carolinas continued till the end of the war, British troops were effectively confined to Charleston and Savannah for the remainder of the conflict.
Cornwallis had discovered that the majority of the American 's supplies in the Carolinas were passing through Virginia, and had written to both Lord Germain and Clinton detailing his intentions to invade. Cornwallis believed a successful campaign there would cut supplies to Greene 's army and precipitate a collapse of American resistance in the South. Clinton strongly opposed the plan, instead favoring conducting a campaign further north in the Chesapeake region. Lord Germain wrote to Cornwallis approving his plan, neglecting to include Clinton in the decision - making entirely, despite him being Cornwallis ' superior officer. Cornwallis then decided to move into Virginia without informing Clinton. Clinton, however, had failed to construct a coherent strategy for British operations in 1781, owing to his difficult relationship with his naval counterpart, Marriot Arbuthnot.
Following the calamitous operations at Newport and Savannah, French planners realized closer cooperation with the Americans was required to achieve success. The French fleet, led by the Comte de Grasse, had received discretionary orders from Paris to assist joint efforts in the north if naval support was needed. Washington and his French counterpart, the Comte de Rochambeau, discussed their options. Washington pushed for an attack on New York, while Rochambeau preferred a strike in Virginia, where the British were less well - established and thus, easier to defeat. Franco - American movements around New York caused Clinton a great deal of anxiety, fearing an attack on the city. His instructions to Cornwallis during this time were vague, rarely forming explicit orders. However, Clinton did instruct Cornwallis to establish a fortified naval base, and transfer troops to the north to defend New York. Cornwallis dug in at Yorktown, and awaited the Royal Navy.
Washington still favored an assault on New York, but was essentially overruled when the French opted to send their fleet to their preferred target of Yorktown. In August, the combined Franco - American army moved south to cooperate with de Grasse to defeat Cornwallis. Lacking sufficient naval resources to effectively counter the French, the British dispatched an inadequate fleet under Thomas Graves to assist Cornwallis and assume naval dominance. On September 5, the French fleet decisively defeated Graves, giving the French control of the seas around Yorktown, cutting Cornwallis off from reinforcements and relief. Despite the continued urging of his subordinates, Cornwallis made no attempt to break out and engage the Franco - American army before it had established siege works, instead expecting reinforcements would arrive from New York.
On September 28, the Franco - American army laid siege to Yorktown. Believing relief from Clinton was imminent, Cornwallis prematurely abandoned all of his outer defences, which were then occupied by the Franco - American troops, serving to hasten his subsequent defeat. A British attempt to break out of the siege across the river at Gloucester Point failed when a storm hit. Under increasing bombardment and with dwindling supplies, Cornwallis and his subordinates agreed their situation was untenable, and negotiated a surrender on October 17. Some 7,685 soldiers became prisoners of the Franco - American army. The same day as the surrender, 6,000 troops under Clinton had departed New York, sailing to relieve Yorktown.
Following British successes at Newport and Charleston, the North government had gained support in Parliament. However, the government 's decision to allow Irish Catholics to enlist in the army was deeply unpopular, triggering a massive protest in London in 1780, culminating in widespread rioting. The riots were the most destructive in London 's history, damaging the prestige of the government. On 25 November 1781, the situation worsened when news of the surrender at Yorktown arrived in London. Prime Minister Lord North is said to have repeatedly exclaimed; "Oh, God! It 's all over! '' King George III received the news with dignity, though later became depressed and considered abdication. The Whig opposition gained traction in Parliament, though a motion proposed on December 12 to end the war was defeated by only one vote.
Lord Germain, who had overseen strategic matters in the war effort, was dismissed from office in early 1782. Soon after, a no confidence motion in the Prime Minister was passed, forcing the resignation of North and leading to the collapse of his ministry. The Rockingham Whigs came to power soon after and began opening negotiations for peace. Prime Minister the Marquess of Rockingham died in office on 1 July 1782, and was succeeded by the Earl of Shelburne, forcing the resignations of prominent Whigs Edmund Burke and Charles James Fox, with whom Shelburne had an icy relationship. Shelburne was initially hesitant to granting full American independence, instead preferring the colonies accept Dominion status, though such intentions were never realized.
Despite the defeats in America, the British still had 30,000 troops garrisoned there, occupying New York, Charleston and Savannah. Henry Clinton was recalled to London after the defeat at Yorktown, and departed America in March 1782. He was replaced by Guy Carleton, who was under orders to suspend offensive operations in America.
After hostilities with the Dutch began in late 1780, Britain had moved quickly, enforcing a blockade across the North Sea. Within weeks, the British had captured 200 Dutch merchantmen, and 300 more were holed up in foreign ports, though political turmoil within the Republic and peace negotiations by both sides helped keep conflict to a minimum. The majority of the Dutch public favored a military alliance with France against Britain, however, the Dutch Stadtholder impeded these efforts, hoping to secure an early peace. To restore diminishing trade a Dutch squadron under Johan Zoutman escorted a fleet of some 70 merchantmen from the Texel. Zoutman 's ships were intercepted by Sir Hyde Parker, who engaged Zoutman at Dogger Bank on 5 August 1781. Though the contest was tactically inconclusive, the Dutch fleet did not leave harbor again during the war, and their merchant fleet remained crippled.
On 6 January 1781, a French attempt to capture Jersey to neutralize British privateering failed. Frustrated in their attempts to capture Gibraltar, a Franco - Spanish force of 14,000 men under the Duc de Mahon met with more success in August; invading Minorca on 19 August. After a long siege of St. Philip 's, the British garrison under James Murray surrendered on 5 February 1782, securing a primary war goal for the Spanish. At Gibraltar, a major Franco - Spanish assault on 13 September 1782 was repulsed with heavy casualties. On 20 October 1782, following a successful resupply of Gibraltar, British ships under Richard Howe successfully refused battle to the Franco - Spanish fleet under Luis de Córdova, denying Córdova dominance at sea. On 7 February 1783, after 1,322 days of siege, the Franco - Spanish army withdrew, decisively defeated.
In the West Indies, on 29 -- 30 April 1781, a Royal Navy squadron under Samuel Hood was narrowly defeated by the French, led by the Comte de Grasse. de Grasse continued seizing British territories; Tobago fell on 2 June, Demerara and Essequibo on 22 January 1782, St. Kitts and Nevis on 12 February, despite a British naval victory on 25 January, and Montserrat on 22 February. In 1782, the primary strategic goal of the French and Spanish was the capture of Jamaica, whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the Thirteen Colonies combined. On 7 April 1782, de Grasse departed Martinique to rendezvous with Franco - Spanish troops at Saint Domingue, and invade Jamaica from the north. The British under Hood and George Rodney pursued and decisively defeated the French off Dominica between 9 -- 12 April. The Franco - Spanish plan to conquer Jamaica was in ruins, and the balance of naval power in the Caribbean shifted to the Royal Navy.
After the fall of Mobile to Spanish troops under Bernardo de Gálvez, an attempt to capture Pensacola was thwarted due to a hurricane. Emboldened by the disaster, John Campbell, British commander at Pensacola, decided to recapture Mobile. Campbell 's expeditionary force of around 700 men was defeated on 7 January 1781. After re-grouping at Havana, Gálvez set out for Pensacola on 13 February. Arriving on 9 March, siege operations did not begin until 24 March, owing to difficulties in bringing the ships into the bay. After a 45 - day siege, Gálvez decisively defeated the garrison, securing the conquest of West Florida. In May, Spanish troops captured the Bahamas, although the British bloodlessly recaptured the islands the following year on 18 April.
In Guatemala, Matías de Gálvez led Spanish troops in an effort to dislocate British settlements along the Gulf of Honduras. Gálvez captured Roatán on 16 March 1782, and then quickly took Black River. Following the decisive naval victory at the Saintes, Archibald Campbell, the Royal governor of Jamaica, authorized Edward Despard to re-take Black River, which he did on 22 August. However, with peace talks opening, and Franco - Spanish resources committed to the siege of Gibraltar, no further offensive operations took place.
Few operations were conducted against the Dutch, although several Dutch colonies were captured by the British in 1781. Sint Eustatius, a key supply port for the Patriots, was sacked by British forces under George Rodney on 3 February 1782, plundering the island 's wealth.
Following Dutch entry into the conflict, East India Company troops under Hector Munro captured the Dutch port of Negapatam after a three - week siege on 11 October 1781. Soon after, British Admiral Edward Hughes captured Trincomalee after a brief engagement on 11 January 1782.
In March 1781, French Admiral Bailli de Suffren was dispatched to India to assist colonial efforts. Suffren arrived off the Indian coast in February 1782, where he clashed with a British fleet under Hughes, winning a narrow tactical victory. After landing troops at Porto Novo to assist Mysore, Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again Providien on 12 April. There was no clear victor, though Hughes ' fleet came off worse, and he withdrew to the British - held port of Trincomalee. Hyder Ali wished for the French to capture Negapatam to establish naval dominance over the British, and this task fell to Suffren. Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again off Negapatam on 6 July. Suffren withdrew to Cuddalore, strategically defeated, and the British remained in control of Negapatam. Intending to find a more suitable port than Cuddalore, Suffren captured Trincomalee on 1 September, and successfully engaged Hughes two days later.
Meanwhile, Ali 's troops loosely blockaded Vellore as the East India Company regrouped. Company troops under Sir Eyre Coote led a counter-offensive, defeating Ali at Porto Novo on 1 July 1781, Pollilur on 27 August, and Sholinghur on 27 September, expelling the Mysorean troops from the Carnatic. On 18 February 1782, Tipu Sultan defeated John Braithwaite near Tanjore, taking his entire 1,800 - strong force prisoner. The war had, by this point, reached an uneasy stalemate. On 7 December 1782, Hyder Ali died, and the rule of Mysore passed to his son, Tipu Sultan.
Sultan advanced along the west coast, laying siege to Mangalore on 20 May 1783. Meanwhile, on the east coast, an army under James Stuart besieged the French - held port of Cuddalore on 9 June 1783. On 20 June, key British naval support for the siege was neutralized when Suffren defeated Hughes ' fleet off Cuddalore, and though narrow, the victory gave Suffren the opportunity to displace British holdings in India. On 25 June, the Franco - Mysorean defenders made repeated sorties against British lines, though all assaults failed. On 30 June, news arrived of a preliminary peace between the belligerent powers, and the siege was effectively over when the French abandoned the siege. Mangalore remained under siege, and capitulated to Sultan on 30 January 1784. Little fighting took place thereafter, and Mysore and Britain made peace on 11 March.
Following the surrender at Yorktown, the Whig party came to power in Britain and began opening negotiations for a cessation of hostilities. While peace negotiations were being undertaken, British troops in America were restricted from launching further offensives. Prime Minister the Earl of Shelburne was reluctant to accept American independence as a prerequisite for peace, as the British were aware that the French economy was nearly bankrupt, and reinforcements sent to the West Indies could potentially reverse the situation there. He preferred that the colonies accept Dominion status within the Empire, though a similar offer had been rejected by the Americans in 1778. Negotiations soon began in Paris.
The Americans initially demanded that Quebec be ceded to them as spoils of war, a proposal that was dropped when Shelburne accepted American demands for recognition of independence. On April 19, 1782, the Dutch formally recognized the United States as a sovereign power, enhancing American leverage at the negotiations. Spain initially impeded the negotiations, refusing to enter into peace talks until Gibraltar had been captured. The Comte de Vergennes proposed that American territory be confined to the east of the Appalachians; Britain would have sovereignty over the area north of the Ohio River, below which an Indian barrier state would be established under Spanish control. The United States fiercely opposed the proposal.
The Americans skirted their allies, recognizing that more favorable terms would be found in London. They negotiated directly with Shelburne, who hoped to make Britain a valuable trading partner of America at the expense of France. To this end, Shelburne offered to cede all the land east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Quebec, while also allowing American fishermen access to the rich Newfoundland fishery. According to one historian, Shelburne was hoping to facilitate the growth of the American population, creating lucrative markets that Britain could exploit at no administrative cost to London. As Vergennes commented, "the English buy peace rather than make it ''.
Throughout the negotiations, Britain never consulted her American Indian allies, forcing them to reluctantly accept the treaty. However, the subsequent tension erupted into conflicts between the Indians and the young United States, the largest being the Northwest Indian War. Britain continued trying to create an Indian buffer state in the American Midwest as late as 1814 during the War of 1812.
Britain negotiated separate treaties with Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic. Gibraltar proved to be a stumbling block in the peace talks; Spain offered to relinquish their conquests in West Florida, Menorca, and the Bahamas in exchange for Gibraltar, terms which Shelburne steadfastly refused. Shelburne instead offered to cede East Florida, West Florida, and Menorca if Spain would relinquish the claim on Gibraltar, terms which were reluctantly accepted. However, in the long - term, the new territorial gains were of little value to Spain. France 's only net gains were the island of Tobago in the Caribbean and Senegal in Africa, after agreeing to return all other colonial conquests to British sovereignty. Britain returned Dutch Caribbean territories to Dutch sovereignty, in exchange for free trade rights in the Dutch East Indies and control of the Indian port of Negapatnam.
Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris on 30 November 1782, while preliminaries between Britain, Spain, France, and the Netherlands continued until September 1783. The United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14, 1784. Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties involved, the first reaching France in March 1784. British ratification occurred on April 9, 1784, and the ratified versions were exchanged in Paris on May 12, 1784. The war formally concluded on September 3, 1783.
The last British troops departed New York City on November 25, 1783, marking the end of British rule in the new United States.
The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America, killing 40 people in Boston alone. Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington 's decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions.
Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service. Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor. If the upper limit of 70,000 is accepted as the total net loss for the Patriots, it would make the conflict proportionally deadlier than the American Civil War. Uncertainty arises due to the difficulties in accurately calculating the number of those who succumbed to disease, as it is estimated at least 10,000 died in 1776 alone. The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000.
The French suffered approximately 7,000 total dead throughout the conflict; of those, 2,112 were killed in combat in the American theaters of war.
The Dutch suffered around 500 total killed, owing to the minor scale of their conflict with Britain.
British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank and file deaths across the British Armed Forces. A table from 1781 puts total British Army deaths at 9,372 soldiers killed in battle across the Americas; 6,046 in North America (1775 -- 1779), and 3,326 in the West Indies (1778 -- 1780). In 1784, a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of 205 British officers killed in action during the war, encompassing Europe, the Caribbean and the East Indies. Extrapolations based upon this list puts British Army losses in the area of at least 4,000 killed or died of wounds. Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; of the former, it is estimated 1,800 were killed in combat.
Around 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during the war; approximately a quarter of whom had been pressed into service. Around 1,240 were killed in battle, while an estimated 18,500 died from disease (1776 -- 1780). The greatest killer at sea was scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. It was not until 1795 that scurvy was eradicated from the Royal Navy after the Admiralty declared lemon juice and sugar were to be issued among the standard daily rations of sailors. Around 42,000 sailors deserted during the war. The impact on merchant shipping was substantial; an estimated 3,386 merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war; of those, 2,283 were taken by American privateers alone.
At the start of the war, the economy of the colonies was flourishing, and the free white population enjoyed the highest standard of living in the world. The Royal Navy enforced a naval blockade during the war to financially cripple the colonies, however, this proved unsuccessful; 90 % of the population worked in farming, not in coastal trade, and, as such, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade.
Congress had immense difficulties throughout the conflict to efficiently finance the war effort. As the circulation of hard currency declined, the Americans had to rely on loans from American merchants and bankers, France, Spain and the Netherlands, saddling the young nation with crippling debts. Congress attempted to remedy this by printing vast amounts of paper money and bills of credit to raise revenue. The effect was disastrous; inflation skyrocketed, and the paper money became virtually worthless. The inflation spawned a popular phrase that anything of little value was "not worth a continental ''.
By 1791, the United States had accumulated a national debt of approximately $75.5 million. The United States finally solved its debt and currency problems in the 1790s, when Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton secured legislation by which the national government assumed all of the state debts, and, in addition, created a national bank and a funding system based on tariffs and bond issues that paid off the foreign debts.
Britain spent around £ 80 million and ended with a national debt of £ 250 million, (£ 27.1 billion in today 's money), generating a yearly interest of £ 9.5 million annually. The debts piled upon that which it had already accumulated from the Seven Years ' War. Due to wartime taxation upon the British populace, the tax for the average Briton amounted to approximately four shillings in every pound.
The French spent approximately 1.3 billion livres on aiding the Americans, accumulating a national debt of 3.315. 1 billion livres by 1783 on war costs. Unlike Britain, which had a very efficient taxation system, the French tax system was highly unstable, eventually leading to a financial crisis in 1786. The debts contributed to a worsening fiscal crisis that ultimately begat the French Revolution at the end of the century. The debt continued to spiral; on the eve of the French Revolution, the national debt had skyrocketed to 12 billion livres.
Spain had nearly doubled her military spending during the war, from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million in 1779. Spain more easily disposed of her debts unlike her French ally, partially due to the massive increase in silver mining in her American colonies; production increased approximately 600 % in Mexico, and by 250 % in Peru and Bolivia.
The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was approximately 12.6 million, while the Thirteen Colonies held a population of some 2.8 million, including some 500,000 slaves. Theoretically, Britain had the advantage, however, many factors inhibited the procurement of a large army.
In 1775, the standing British Army, exclusive of militia, comprised 45,123 men worldwide, made up of 38,254 infantry and 6,869 cavalry. The Army had approximately eighteen regiments of foot, some 8,500 men, stationed in North America. Standing armies had played a key role in the purge of the Long Parliament in 1648, the maintenance of a military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell, and the overthrow of James II, and, as such, the Army had been deliberately kept small in peacetime to prevent abuses of power by the King. Despite this, eighteenth century armies were not easy guests, and were regarded with scorn and contempt by the press and public of the New and Old World alike, derided as enemies of liberty. An expression ran in the Navy; "A messmate before a shipmate, a shipmate before a stranger, a stranger before a dog, a dog before a soldier ''.
Parliament suffered chronic difficulties in obtaining sufficient manpower, and found it impossible to fill the quotas they had set. The Army was a deeply unpopular profession, one contentious issue being pay. A Private infantryman was paid a wage of just 8 d. per day, the same pay as for a New Model Army infantryman, 130 years earlier. The rate of pay in the army was insufficient to meet the rising costs of living, turning off potential recruits, as service was nominally for life.
To entice people to enrol, Parliament offered a bounty of £ 1.10 s for every recruit. As the war dragged on, Parliament became desperate for manpower; criminals were offered military service to escape legal penalties, and deserters were pardoned if they re-joined their units. After the defeat at Saratoga, Parliament doubled the bounty to £ 3, and increased it again the following year, to £ 3.3 s, as well as expanding the age limit from 17 -- 45 to 16 -- 50 years of age.
Impressment, essentially conscription by the "press gang '', was a favored recruiting method, though it was unpopular with the public, leading many to enlist in local militias to avoid regular service. Attempts were made to draft such levies, much to the chagrin of the militia commanders. Competition between naval and army press gangs, and even between rival ships or regiments, frequently resulted in brawls between the gangs in order to secure recruits for their unit. Men would maim themselves to avoid the press gangs, while many deserted at the first opportunity. Pressed men were militarily unreliable; regiments with large numbers of such men were deployed to garrisons such as Gibraltar or the West Indies, purely to increase the difficulty in successfully deserting.
By 1781, the Army numbered approximately 121,000 men globally, 48,000 of whom were stationed throughout the Americas. Of the 171,000 sailors who served in the Royal Navy throughout the conflict, around a quarter were pressed. Interestingly, this same proportion, approximately 42,000 men, deserted during the conflict. At its height, the Navy had 94 ships - of - the - line, 104 frigates and 37 sloops in service.
In 1775, Britain unsuccessfully attempted to secure 20,000 mercenaries from Russia, and the use of the Scots Brigade from the Dutch Republic, such was the shortage of manpower. Parliament managed to negotiate treaties with the princes of German states for large sums of money, in exchange for mercenary troops. In total, 29,875 troops were hired for British service from six German states; Brunswick (5,723), Hesse - Kassel (16,992), Hesse - Hannau (2,422), Ansbach - Bayreuth (2,353), Waldeck - Pyrmont (1,225) and Anhalt - Zerbst (1,160). King George III, who also ruled Hanover as a Prince - elector of the Holy Roman Empire, was approached by Parliament to loan the government Hanoverian soldiers for service in the war. Hanover supplied 2,365 men in five battalions, however, the lease agreement permitted them to only be used in Europe.
Without any major allies, the manpower shortage became critical when France and Spain entered the war, forcing a major diversion of military resources from the Americas. Recruiting adequate numbers of Loyalist militia in America proved difficult due to high Patriot activity. To bolster numbers, the British promised freedom and grants of land to slaves who fought for them. Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war, and provided some of the best troops in the British service; the British Legion, a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry commanded by Banastre Tarleton, gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies, especially in the South.
Britain had a difficult time appointing a determined senior military leadership in America. Thomas Gage, Commander - in - Chief of North America at the outbreak of the war, was criticized for being too lenient on the rebellious colonists. Jeffrey Amherst, who was appointed Commander - in - Chief of the Forces in 1778, refused a direct command in America, due to unwillingness to take sides in the war. Admiral Augustus Keppel similarly opposed a command, stating; "I can not draw the sword in such a cause ''. The Earl of Effingham resigned his commission when his regiment was posted to America, while William Howe and John Burgoyne were opposed to military solutions to the crisis. Howe and Henry Clinton both stated they were unwilling participants, and were only following orders.
As was the case in many European armies, except the Prussian Army, officers in British service could purchase commissions to ascend the ranks. Despite repeated attempts by Parliament to suppress it, the practise was common in the Army. Values of commissions varied, but were usually in line with social and military prestige, for example, regiments such as the Guards commanded the highest prices. The lower ranks often regarded the treatment to high - ranking commissions by wealthier officers as "plums for (their) consumption ''. Wealthy individuals lacking any formal military education, or practical experience, often found their way into positions of high responsibility, diluting the effectiveness of a regiment. Though Royal authority had forbade the practise since 1711, it was still permitted for infants to hold commissions. Young boys, often orphans of deceased wealthy officers, were taken from their schooling and placed in positions of responsibility within regiments.
Logistical organization of eighteenth century armies was chaotic at best, and the British Army was no exception. No logistical corps existed in the modern sense; while on campaign in foreign territories such as America, horses, wagons, and drivers were frequently requisitioned from the locals, often by impressment or by hire. No centrally organized medical corps existed. It was common for surgeons to have no formal medical education, and no diploma or entry examination was required. Nurses sometimes were apprentices to surgeons, but many were drafted from the women who followed the army. Army surgeons and doctors were poorly paid and were regarded as social inferiors to other officers.
The heavy personal equipment and wool uniform of the regular infantrymen were wholly unsuitable for combat in America, and the outfit was especially ill - suited to comfort and agile movement. During the Battle of Monmouth in late June 1778, the temperature exceeded 100 ° F (37.8 ° C) and is said to have claimed more lives through heat stroke than through actual combat. The standard - issue firearm of the British Army was the Land Pattern Musket. Some officers preferred their troops to fire careful, measured shots (around two per minute), rather than rapid firing. A bayonet made firing difficult, as its cumbersome shape hampered ramming down the charge into the barrel. British troops had a tendency to fire impetuously, resulting in inaccurate fire, a trait for which John Burgoyne criticized them during the Saratoga campaign. Burgoyne instead encouraged bayonet charges to break up enemy formations, which was a preferred tactic in most European armies at the time.
Every battalion in America had organized its own rifle company by the end of the war, although rifles were not formally issued to the army until the Baker Rifle in 1801. Flintlocks were heavily dependent on the weather; high winds could blow the gunpowder from the flash pan, while heavy rain could soak the paper cartridge, ruining the powder and rendering the musket unable to fire. Furthermore, flints used in British muskets were of notoriously poor quality; they could only be fired around six times before requiring resharpening, while American flints could fire sixty. This led to a common expression among the British: "Yankee flint was as good as a glass of grog ''.
Provisioning troops and sailors proved to be an immense challenge, as the majority of food stores had to be shipped overseas from Britain. The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the Army from living off the land. Other factors also impeded this option; the countryside was too sparsely populated and the inhabitants were largely hostile or indifferent, the network of roads and bridges was poorly developed, and the area which the British controlled was so limited that foraging parties were frequently in danger of being ambushed. After France entered the war, the threat of the French navy increased the difficulty of transporting supplies to America. The food that could be bought in America was purchased at vastly inflated prices. Soldiers stationed in the West Indies perhaps suffered the worst; the garrison commander of Tobago, Barbados, and Antigua frequently complained of the near - total lack of regular supply from Britain, and the food that could be bought was so expensive that the pay of the troops was inadequate to cover the costs.
Food supplies were frequently in terrible condition, infested with mould, weevils, worms, and maggots. Provisions were frequently destroyed by rats, and their containers were too fragile to sustain a long ocean voyage or the rigors of campaigning. The climate was also against the British in the southern colonies and the Caribbean, where the intense summer heat caused food supplies to sour and spoil. British troops stationed in America were often on the verge of starvation.
Life at sea was little better. Sailors and passengers were issued a daily food ration, largely consisting of hardtack and beer. The hardtack was often infested by weevils and was so tough that it earned the nicknames "molar breakers '' and "worm castles '', and it sometimes had to be broken up with cannon shot. Meat supplies often spoiled on long voyages. The lack of fresh fruit and vegetables gave rise to scurvy, one of the biggest killers at sea. Rum was issued as part of a daily ration and was a popular drink among soldiers and sailors alike, often mixed with fresh water to make grog.
Discipline in the armed forces was harsh, and the lash was used to punish even trivial offences, nor was it applied sparingly. For instance, during the Saratoga campaign, two redcoats received 1,000 lashes each for robbery, while another received 800 lashes for striking a superior officer. During the Napoleonic Wars, one soldier received 700 lashes for stealing a beehive, while another, whom had received only 175 strikes of his 400 - lash sentence, spent three weeks in hospital from his injuries. The practise could often be a contentious source of resentment; during the Battle of Quatre Bras in 1815, the commander of the 92nd Foot was shot and killed by a soldier whom he had recently flogged. Flogging was a common punishment in the Royal Navy, and came to be associated with the stereotypical hardiness of sailors.
Despite the harsh discipline, a distinct lack of self - discipline pervaded all ranks. Soldiers had an intense passion for gambling, reaching such excesses that troops would often wager their own uniforms. Soldiers drank heavily, and was not exclusive to the lower ranks; William Howe was said to have seen many "crapulous mornings '' while campaigning in New York. John Burgoyne drank heavily on a nightly basis towards the end of the Saratoga campaign. The two generals were also reported to have found solace with the wives of subordinate officers to ease the stressful burdens of command. During the Philadelphia campaign, British officers deeply offended local Quakers by entertaining their mistresses in the houses they had been quartered in. Despite such issues, British troops are reported to have been generally scrupulous in their treatment of non-combatants. This is contrasted by Hessian diaries, who wrote of their disapproval of British conduct towards the colonists, such as the destruction of property and the execution of prisoners.
The presence of Hessian soldiers caused considerable anxiety amongst the colonists, both Patriot and Loyalist, who viewed them as brutal mercenaries. British soldiers were often contemptuous in their treatment of Hessian troops, despite orders from General Howe that "the English should treat the Germans as brothers ''. The order only began to have any real effect when the Hessians learned to speak a minimal degree of English, which was seen as a prerequisite for the British troops to accord them any respect.
During peacetime, the Army 's idleness led to it becoming riddled with corruption and inefficiency, resulting in a myriad of administrative difficulties once campaigning began.
The British leadership soon discovered it had overestimated the capabilities of its own troops, while underestimating those of the colonists, causing a sudden re-think in British planning. The ineffective initial response of British military and civil officials to the onset of the rebellion had allowed the advantage to shift to the colonists, as British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony. A microcosm of these shortcomings were evident at the Battle of Bunker Hill. It took ten hours for the British leadership to respond following the sighting of the Americans on the Charlestown Peninsula, giving the colonists ample time to reinforce their defenses. Rather than opt for a simple flanking attack that would have rapidly succeeded with minimal loss, the British decided on repeated frontal attacks. The results were telling; the British suffered 1,054 casualties of a force of around 3,000 after repeated frontal assaults. The British leadership had nevertheless remained excessively optimistic, believing that just two regiments could suppress the rebellion in Massachusetts.
Debate persists over whether a British defeat was a guaranteed outcome. Ferling argues that the odds were so long, the defeat of Britain was nothing short of a miracle. Ellis, however, considers that the odds always favored the Americans, and questions whether a British victory by any margin was realistic. Ellis argues that the British squandered their only opportunities for a decisive success in 1777, and that the strategic decisions undertaken by William Howe underestimated the challenges posed by the Americans. Ellis concludes that, once Howe failed, the opportunity for a British victory "would never come again ''. Conversely, the United States Army 's official textbook argues that, had Britain been able to commit 10,000 fresh troops to the war in 1780, a British victory was within the realms of possibility.
Historians such as Ellis and Stewart have observed that, under William Howe 's command, the British squandered several opportunities to achieve a decisive victory over the Americans. Throughout the New York and Philadelphia campaigns, Howe made several strategic errors, errors which cost the British opportunities for a complete victory. At Long Island, Howe failed to even attempt an encirclement of Washington, and actively restrained his subordinates from mounting an aggressive pursuit of the defeated American army. At White Plains, he refused to engage Washington 's vulnerable army, and instead concentrated his efforts upon a hill which offered the British no strategic advantage. After securing control of New York, Howe dispatched Henry Clinton to capture Newport, a measure which Clinton was opposed to, on the grounds the troops assigned to his command could have been put to better use in pursuing Washington 's retreating army. Despite the bleak outlook for the revolutionary cause and the surge of Loyalist activity in the wake of Washington 's defeats, Howe made no attempt to mount an attack upon Washington while the Americans settled down into winter quarters, much to their surprise.
During planning for the Saratoga campaign, Howe was left with the choice of committing his army to support Burgoyne, or capture Philadelphia, the revolutionary capital. Howe decided upon the latter, determining that Washington was of a greater threat. The decision left Burgoyne precariously isolated, and left the Americans confounded at the decision. Alden argues Howe may have been motivated by political opportunism; if Burgoyne was successful, he would receive the credit for a decisive victory, and not Howe. However, the confusion was further compounded by the lack of explicit and contradictory instructions from London. When Howe launched his campaign, he took his army upon a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, rather than the more sensible choices of overland through New Jersey, or by sea through the Delaware Bay. The move left him unable to assist Burgoyne even if it was required of him. The decision so confused Parliament, that Howe was accused by Tories on both sides of the Atlantic of treason.
During the Philadelphia campaign, Howe failed to pursue and destroy the defeated Americans on two occasions; once after the Battle of Brandywine, and again after the Battle of Germantown. At the Battle of White Marsh, Howe failed to even attempt to exploit the vulnerable American rear, and then inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia after only minor skirmishes, astonishing both sides. While the Americans wintered only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, which critics argue could have ended the war. Following the conclusion of the campaign, Howe resigned his commission, and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778.
Contrary to Howe 's more hostile critics, however, there were strategic factors at play which impeded aggressive action. Howe may have been dissuaded from pursuing aggressive manoeuvres due to the memory of the grievous losses the British suffered at Bunker Hill. During the major campaigns in New York and Philadelphia, Howe often wrote of the scarcity of adequate provisions, which hampered his ability to mount effective campaigns. Howe 's tardiness in launching the New York campaign, and his reluctance to allow Cornwallis to vigorously pursue Washington 's beaten army, have both been attributed to the paucity of available food supplies.
During the winter of 1776 -- 1777, Howe split his army into scattered cantonments. This decision dangerously exposed the individual forces to defeat in detail, as the distance between them was such that they could not mutually support each other. This strategic failure allowed the Americans to achieve victory at the Battle of Trenton, and the concurrent Battle of Princeton. While a major strategic error to divide an army in such a manner, the quantity of available food supplies in New York was so low that Howe had been compelled to take such a decision. The garrisons were widely spaced so their respective foraging parties would not interfere with each other 's efforts. Howe 's difficulties during the Philadelphia campaign were also greatly exacerbated by the poor quality and quantity of available provisions.
In 1780, the primary British strategy hinged upon a Loyalist uprising in the south, for which Charles Cornwallis was chiefly responsible. After an encouraging success at Camden, Cornwallis was poised to invade North Carolina. However, any significant Loyalist support had been effectively destroyed at the Battle of Kings Mountain, and the British Legion, the cream of his army, had been decisively defeated at the Battle of Cowpens. Following both defeats, Cornwallis was fiercely criticized for detaching a significant portion of his army without adequate mutual support. Despite the defeats, Cornwallis chose to proceed into North Carolina, gambling his success upon a large Loyalist uprising which never materialized. As a result, subsequent engagements cost Cornwallis valuable troops he could not replace, as at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse, and the Americans steadily wore his army down in an exhaustive war of attrition. Cornwallis had thus left the Carolinas ripe for reconquest. The Americans had largely achieved this aim by the end of 1781, effectively confining the British to the coast, and undoing all the progress they had made in the previous year.
In a last - ditch attempt to win the war in the South, Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia, in order to cut off the American 's supply base to the Carolinas. Henry Clinton, Cornwallis ' superior, strongly opposed the plan, believing the decisive confrontations would take place between Washington in the North. London had approved Cornwallis plan, however they had failed to include Clinton in the decision - making, despite his seniority over Cornwallis, leading to a muddled strategic direction. Cornwallis then decided to invade Virginia without informing Clinton of his intentions. Clinton, however, had wholly failed to construct a coherent strategy for British campaigning that year, owing to his fractious relationship that he shared with Mariot Arbuthnot, his naval counterpart.
As the Franco - American army approached Cornwallis at Yorktown, he made no attempt to sally out and engage before siege lines could be erected, despite the repeated urging of his subordinate officers. Expecting relief to soon arrive from Clinton, Cornwallis prematurely abandoned all of his outer defences, which were then promptly occupied by the besiegers, serving to hasten the British defeat. These factors contributed to the eventual surrender of Cornwallis ' entire army, and the end of major operations in North America.
Like Howe before him, Clinton 's efforts to campaign suffered from chronic supply issues. In 1778, Clinton wrote to Germain complaining of the lack of supplies, even after the arrival of a convoy from Ireland. That winter, the supply issue had deteriorated so badly, that Clinton expressed considerable anxiety over how the troops were going to be properly fed. Clinton was largely inactive in the North throughout 1779, launching few major campaigns. This inactivity was partially due to the shortage of food. By 1780, the situation had not improved. Clinton wrote a frustrated correspondence to Germain, voicing concern that a "fatal consequence will ensue '' if matters did not improve. By October that year, Clinton again wrote to Germain, angered that the troops in New York had not received "an ounce '' of that year 's allotted stores from Britain.
Suppressing a rebellion in America presented the British with major problems. The key issue was distance; it could take up to three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time that they arrived. The colonies had never been formally united prior to the conflict and there was no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance. Traditionally, the fall of a capital city often signalled the end of a conflict, yet the war continued unabated even after the fall of major settlements such as New York, Philadelphia (which was the Patriot capital), and Charleston. Britain 's ability to project its power overseas lay chiefly in the power of the Royal Navy, allowing her to control major coastal settlements with relative ease and enforce a strong blockade of colonial ports. However, the overwhelming majority of the American population was agrarian, not urban. As a result, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade 's effects.
The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the British from using the harsh methods of suppressing revolts that they had used in Scotland and Ireland. For example, British troops looted and pillaged the locals during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779, enraging both Patriots and Loyalists. Neutral colonists were often driven into the ranks of the Patriots when brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs across the Carolinas in the later stages of the war. Conversely, Loyalists were often emboldened when Patriots resorted to intimidating suspected Tories, such as destroying property or tarring and feathering. The vastness of the American countryside and the limited manpower available meant that the British could never simultaneously defeat the Americans and occupy captured territory. One British statesman described the attempt as "like trying to conquer a map ''.
Wealthy Loyalists wielded great influence in London and were successful in convincing the British that the majority view in the colonies was sympathetic toward the Crown. Consequently, British planners pinned the success of their strategies on popular uprisings of Loyalists, which never transpired on the scale required. Historians have estimated that Loyalists made up only 15 -- 20 % of the population (vs. 40 - 45 % Patriots) and that they continued to deceive themselves on their level of support as late as 1780. The British discovered that any significant level of organized Loyalist activity would require the continued presence of British regulars, which presented them with a major dilemma. The manpower that the British had available was insufficient to both protect Loyalist territory and counter American advances. The vulnerability of Loyalist militias was repeatedly demonstrated in the South, where they suffered strings of defeats to their Patriot neighbors. The most crucial juncture of this was at Kings Mountain, and the victory of the Patriot partisans irreversibly crippled Loyalist military capability in the South.
Upon the entry of France and Spain into the conflict, the British were forced to severely limit the number of troops and warships that they sent to North America in order to defend other key territories and the British mainland. As a result, King George III abandoned any hope of subduing America militarily while he had a European war to contend with. The small size of Britain 's army left them unable to concentrate their resources primarily in one theater as they had done in the Seven Years ' War, leaving them at a critical disadvantage. The British were compelled to disperse troops from the Americas to Europe and the East Indies, and these forces were unable to assist one other as a result, precariously exposing them to defeat. In North America, the immediate strategic focus of the French, Spanish, and British shifted to Jamaica, whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the economy of the Thirteen Colonies combined.
Following the end of the war, Britain had lost some of her most populous colonies. However, the economic effects of the loss were negligible in the long - term, and she became a global superpower just 32 years after the end of the conflict.
The Americans began the war with significant disadvantages compared to the British. They had no national government, no national army or navy, no financial system, no banks, no established credit, and no functioning government departments, such as a treasury. The Congress tried to handle administrative affairs through legislative committees, which proved inefficient. The state governments were themselves brand new and officials had no administrative experience. In peacetime the colonies relied heavily on ocean travel and shipping, but that was now shut down by the British blockade and the Americans had to rely on slow overland travel.
However, the Americans had multiple advantages that in the long run outweighed the initial disadvantages they faced. The Americans had a large prosperous population that depended not on imports but on local production for food and most supplies, while the British were mostly shipped in from across the ocean. The British faced a vast territory far larger than Britain or France, located at a far distance from home ports. Most of the Americans lived on farms distant from the seaports -- the British could capture any port but that did not give them control over the hinterland. They were on their home ground, had a smoothly functioning, well organized system of local and state governments, newspapers and printers, and internal lines of communications. They had a long - established system of local militia, previously used to combat the French and Native Americans, with companies and an officer corps that could form the basis of local militias, and provide a training ground for the national army created by Congress.
Motivation was a major asset. The Patriots wanted to win; over 200,000 fought in the war; 25,000 died. The British expected the Loyalists to do much of the fighting, but they did much less than expected. The British also hired German mercenaries to do much of their fighting.
At the onset of the war, the Americans had no major international allies. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of Saratoga and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations such as France and Spain, who moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies, to overtly supporting them militarily, moving the war to a global stage.
The new Continental Army suffered significantly from a lack of an effective training regime, and largely inexperienced officers and sergeants. The inexperience of its officers was compensated for in part by its senior officers; officers such as George Washington, Horatio Gates, Charles Lee, Richard Montgomery and Francis Marion all had military experience with the British Army during the French and Indian War. The Americans solved their training dilemma during their stint in Winter Quarters at Valley Forge, where they were relentlessly drilled and trained by General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a veteran of the famed Prussian General Staff. He taught the Continental Army the essentials of military discipline, drills, tactics and strategy, and wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual. When the Army emerged from Valley Forge, it proved its ability to equally match the British troops in battle when they fought a successful strategic action at the Battle of Monmouth.
When the war began, the 13 colonies lacked a professional army or navy. Each colony sponsored local militia. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were reluctant to travel far from home and thus were unavailable for extended operations, and lacked the training and discipline of soldiers with more experience. If properly used, however, their numbers could help the Continental armies overwhelm smaller British forces, as at the battles of Concord, Bennington and Saratoga, and the siege of Boston. Both sides used partisan warfare but the Americans effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area.
Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the Continental Congress established a regular army on June 14, 1775, and appointed George Washington as commander - in - chief. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war.
Three current branches of the United States Military trace their institutional roots to the American Revolutionary War; the United States Army comes from the Continental Army, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. The United States Navy recognizes October 13, 1775 as the date of its official establishment, the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia that created the Continental Navy. And the United States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental Marines of the war, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday of the Marine Corps. At the beginning of 1776, Washington 's army had 20,000 men, with two - thirds enlisted in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias. At the end of the American Revolution in 1783, both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time. About 55,000 American sailors served aboard privateers during the war. The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they captured 2,283 enemy ships. John Paul Jones became the first great American naval hero, capturing HMS Drake on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters.
Armies were small by European standards of the era, largely attributable to limitations such as lack of powder and other logistical capabilities on the American side. It was also difficult for Great Britain to transport troops across the Atlantic and they depended on local supplies that the Patriots tried to cut off. By comparison, Duffy notes that Frederick the Great usually commanded from 23,000 to 50,000 in battle. Both figures pale in comparison to the armies that were fielded in the early 19th century, where troop formations approached or exceeded 100,000 men.
African Americans -- slave and free -- served on both sides during the war. The British recruited slaves belonging to Patriot masters and promised freedom to those who served by act of Lord Dunmore 's Proclamation. Because of manpower shortages, George Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. Small all - black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts; many slaves were promised freedom for serving. Some of the men promised freedom were sent back to their masters, after the war was over, out of political convenience. Another all - black unit came from Saint - Domingue with French colonial forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Revolutionary cause.
Tens of thousands of slaves escaped during the war and joined British lines; others simply moved off in the chaos. For instance, in South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (30 % of the enslaved population) fled, migrated or died during the disruption of the war. This greatly disrupted plantation production during and after the war. When they withdrew their forces from Savannah and Charleston, the British also evacuated 10,000 slaves belonging to Loyalists. Altogether, the British evacuated nearly 20,000 blacks at the end of the war. More than 3,000 of them were freedmen and most of these were resettled in Nova Scotia; other blacks were sold in the West Indies.
Most American Indians east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over the question of how to respond to the conflict. A few tribes were on friendly terms with the other Americans, but most Indians opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Indians fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes, who fielded around 1,500 men. The powerful Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the conflict, although they did not take sides; the Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga nations sided with the British. Members of the Mohawk nation fought on both sides. Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the colonists. The Continental Army sent the Sullivan Expedition on raids throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively, and this further exacerbated the split.
Early in July 1776, a major action occurred in the fledgling conflict when the Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the western frontier areas of North Carolina. Their defeat resulted in a splintering of the Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee, bitter enemies of the Colonials who carried on a frontier war for decades following the end of hostilities with Britain.
Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia. Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown 's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah. Many Indians were involved in the fighting between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and up the Mississippi River -- mostly on the British side. Thousands of Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile, and the Siege of Pensacola.
Pybus (2005) estimates that about 20,000 slaves defected to or were captured by the British, of whom about 8,000 died from disease or wounds or were recaptured by the Patriots. The British took some 12,000 at the end of the war; of these 8000 remained in slavery. Including those who left during the war, a total of about 8000 to 10,000 slaves gained freedom. About 4000 freed slaves went to Nova Scotia and 1200 blacks remained slaves.
Baller (2006) examines family dynamics and mobilization for the Revolution in central Massachusetts. He reports that warfare and the farming culture were sometimes incompatible. Militiamen found that living and working on the family farm had not prepared them for wartime marches and the rigors of camp life. Rugged individualism conflicted with military discipline and regimentation. A man 's birth order often influenced his military recruitment, as younger sons went to war and older sons took charge of the farm. A person 's family responsibilities and the prevalent patriarchy could impede mobilization. Harvesting duties and family emergencies pulled men home regardless of the sergeant 's orders. Some relatives might be Loyalists, creating internal strains. On the whole, historians conclude the Revolution 's effect on patriarchy and inheritance patterns favored egalitarianism.
McDonnell (2006) shows a grave complication in Virginia 's mobilization of troops was the conflicting interests of distinct social classes, which tended to undercut a unified commitment to the Patriot cause. The Assembly balanced the competing demands of elite slave - owning planters, the middling yeomen (some owning a few slaves), and landless indentured servants, among other groups. The Assembly used deferments, taxes, military service substitute, and conscription to resolve the tensions. Unresolved class conflict, however, made these laws less effective. There were violent protests, many cases of evasion, and large - scale desertion, so that Virginia 's contributions came at embarrassingly low levels. With the British invasion of the state in 1781, Virginia was mired in class division as its native son, George Washington, made desperate appeals for troops.
These are some of the standard works about the war in general that are not listed above; books about specific campaigns, battles, units, and individuals can be found in those articles.
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who does the voice over for come dine with me | Dave Lamb - wikipedia
David Imelda "Dave '' Lamb (born 17 January 1969) is an English actor, presenter, comedian, and voice actor. He is best known for his work on Come Dine with Me as well as appearances in British television and radio programmes, especially comedy programmes like Goodness Gracious Me. He also presented the CBBC game show Horrible Histories: Gory Games.
Lamb attended the Broxbourne School in Broxbourne, Hertfordshire, and studied Philosophy and Literature at the University of Warwick.
Lamb 's first noted credit was in the 1998 British sitcom How Do You Want Me? He played a homophobic tramp called Buster. His first notable appearances were in the British Indian sketch show Goodness Gracious Me, being the only recurring white person in the cast. Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s he also appeared in comedy programmes such as People Like Us, Hippies, Armstrong and Miller, The Smoking Room and Fun at the Funeral Parlour as well as having a brief role in a couple of episodes of EastEnders. He also made a brief appearance in DIY SOS.
Dave Lamb was one of the main voice - over artists on satirical cartoon 2DTV alongside Jan Ravens and Jon Culshaw, but he gained cult status through his sarcastic voice - overs on dinner party show Come Dine With Me which began in 2005. In an interview he claimed that in the first series he did do quite a lot of ad - libbing but that the show 's writers now know how to write for his voice. He also stated that he would never take part in a celebrity edition as he was n't famous enough to participate.
In 2008, Lamb provided a voice for one of the Spade brothers in Lionhead Studios ' Fable II and again in 2010 for Fable III.
Dave has narrated Come Dine With Me - style sketches for 5 episodes of Horrible Histories, between 2010 and 2013.
In 2011 for the Big Brother 2011 Come Dine With Me task, Lamb took over from usual narrator Marcus Bentley for the feature, the first time that anyone other than Bentley had provided a voice - over for the show.
He starred in a voice - over part for a character in the 2011 MMORPG Star Wars: The Old Republic.
He also narrates Come Dine With Me and Come Dine With Me South Africa and provides the voice - over on the CBeebies animated shows Big Barn Farm and Waybuloo. He narrated a special section of Blue Peter on 25 October 2011. The section was a spoof of Come Dine With Me at a zoo where the guests were animals.
In May 2012, he did a voice over for UK band Jackdaw4 on their PledgeMusic page, to promote their pledge campaign to record their fourth album.
In November 2013, Lamb provided a voice over for Bedford Modern School 's production of "The Only Way '', a play commemorating 10 years of co-education.
He narrates the 2015 reboot of Danger Mouse. He also voices Stiletto Mafiosa in the series. He also narrates the live stage show of Danger Mouse at Butlins in 2017 -- 2018.
In 2018 Dave was the commentator on BBC One 's Saturday evening game show And They 're Off... for Sport Relief, presented by Ore Oduba.
Lamb has had two main - cast roles in television sitcoms, firstly as producer Des in BBC 's The Life and Times of Vivienne Vyle (broadcast October 2007) and then in early 2008 he played put - upon television writer Carl Morris in ITV 's Moving Wallpaper. He also played Sergeant Foster in two episodes of Only Fools and Horses prequel Rock & Chips, including the special shown on BBC One on New Year 's Day 2011.
He now co-presents a CBBC show Horrible Histories: Gory Games and was a regular on the first series of Alexander Armstrong 's Big Ask. In 2009, he appeared in Miranda, in the episode in which Miranda pretends to go to Thailand. In 2014, he appeared alongside the rest of the original cast of Goodness Gracious Me in a reunion special that was produced for BBC Two 's 50th Anniversary.
In 2016, Lamb presented Come Dine With Me: Champion of Champions, the first time in the 11 - year history of the show that he had appeared on screen rather than just narrating.
Lamb was a member of radio comedy troupe The Cheese Shop and has also featured on radio recording three series of The Bigger Issues as well as featuring on 15 Minute Musical, The Alan Davies Show, ElvenQuest, No Future in Eternity, The Big Town All Stars, The Very World of Milton Jones, Artists and The Way It Is. He has also recorded two series of a radio drama entitled London, Europe for Radio 4, which he also wrote. Radio 4 aired his sitcom, Hobby Bobbies during Summer 2013.
Lamb made his stage debut alongside Russ Abbot and Eric Sykes in 2003 in a production of Ray Cooney 's Caught in the Net at the Vaudeville Theatre.
Lamb lives in Brighton and is a regular at the Dripping Pan, home of Lewes FC. He is a shareholder in the club.
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kasam tere pyar ki serial actor real name | Kasam Tere Pyaar Ki - Wikipedia
Kasam -- Tere Pyaar Ki (English: Swear On Your Love) is an Indian Hindi romantic television series. Kratika Sengar and Sharad Malhotra play the roles of Tanu / Tanuja and Rishi respectively.
The story revolves around Tanushree Khurana, fondly called Tanu Khurana and Rishi Singh Bedi who are childhood friends. One day, Tanu saves Rishi and a sadhu woman (Katyani Bai) prophesies that Tanu and Rishi 's kundli matches very well, and Tanu will shield Rishi from danger. But Rano, Rishi 's mother, dislikes Tanu 's family and brainwashes her husband Raaj 's mind to move to America.
Tanu eagerly waits for Rishi to return. Rishi, who now is a boxer and does n't believe in love, has forgotten Tanu and also denies going to India but Raaj threatens Rano to donate all his wealth and they all are forced to go to India. Rishi and his family reach Patiala, where Tanu resides, and on the same day Tanu 's parents are killed in a terrorist attack. Raaj reaches Tanu 's home and comes to know that his friend has died. Bani, Tanu 's aunt, takes Rishi and family to Mumbai, where Bani 's own daughters, Swati and Neha reside. Bani changes her daughter Neha 's name to Tanu in front of Rishi 's family. Tanu and Ahana also reach Mumbai. On the same night, Rishi and Tanu meet, and Rishi instantly falls for Tanu, without knowing that she is Tanu. Rishi 's marriage is fixed with Neha. Bani changes Tanu 's name to Tanvi by saying that Raaj does n't like Tanu and Ahana. Tanu 's marriage gets fixed with Pawan, a man from Jalandhar. Rishi and Tanu 's marriage is going to take place on the same day. He finds out that Pawan is already married to a girl, Saloni and fails to expose them. On the day of their marriage, Tanu 's sister Ahana drugs Tanu and helps Rishi in kidnapping her. they both marry after Tanu reveals that she is the real Tanu but Pawan follows them. Everyone gets to know the truth by Ahana, Katyani Bai and Manpreet that Pawan is married to Saloni and Tanvi is real Tanu. Neha tells Sandy, his boyfriend that Rishi molested her and Sandy decides to kill Rishi. When Rishi and Tanu are about to travel back to home, Sandy shoots Tanu instead of Rishi and she dies. Rishi tries to commit suicide but Tanu 's soul comes and stops him. Her soul says that she will come back.
Tanu is reborn as Tanuja Vikram Sikand (Sandy 's niece). Rishi becomes harsh due to Tanu 's death. In an accident, Tanuja 's face gets burnt badly and mistakenly she gets Tanu 's face. Rishi becomes more cold towards Tanuja. Also Rishi hates Tanuja as she is Sandy 's niece. On the day of Rishi 's marriage with his friend Malaika, who wants Rishi 's property. Raj sees her with her boyfriend Shekhar Singh Ahlawat. Raaj asks Tanuja to be the bride without knowing anyone while Malaika gets late for the marriage as she is in the traffic jam. Rishi marries Tanuja. Rishi 's hatred towards Tanuja increases but he realizes his love for Tanuja later. Rano and Malaika plot against Tanuja to separate her from Rishi but in vain. On the marriage day Rishi plays a smaller game with Malaika and open his real face and Later Malaika is thrown out of Bedi house after her secret is revealed as she had planned to destroy Bedi family along with her boyfriend Shekhar. On that very night Rishi and Tanuja consummate their marriage. Due to circumstances, Tanuja tells Rishi to divorce her as she thinks that she is unlucky for him and he will die if Tanuja remains in his life as his wife. Rishi agrees and they both sign divorce papers but later they are reunited as Tanuja gets to know she is right for Rishi. Rishi 's stepbrother Purab Vohra comes and demands 51 % shares of Rishi 's company to take revenge from Raj. Rishi goes to give him 51 % shares but Tanuja gets all Rishi 's property and Bedi family business on her name to stop Rishi giving 51 % shares to Purab as he wants to destroy Rishi. Divya, Yuvraj 's wife is with Purab as she thinks they treat Yuvraj badly. Netra, Rano 's friend 's daughter loves Rishi and Rano wants Netra to marry Rishi. Rishi agrees to marry Netra so he can make Tanuja jealous so she confesses her love. On the day of Rishi and Netra 's engagement, Rishi gets angry on Tanuja and tells her to sign property papers in 15 minutes and give his property back to him otherwise he will get engaged to Netra. Tanuja signs the property papers but Malaika steal the papers and gives it to Netra and asks her to take the credit of getting property back. Rishi gets engaged to Netra. Rishi gets drunk. Tanuja who is pregnant sees Rishi getting very close to Netra. Netra 's trap gets successful. Thus, Tanuja leaves from Bedi House. Rishi goes to stop her at the railway station but they have a fight there and rishi slaps tanujaandin anger Tanuja gets in the train. Tanuja realises that she is pregnant with Rishi 's child but it was too late.
Tanuja lives with her friend Abhishek Khurana and her and Rishi 's daughter Natasha in London. Rishi lives with Netra and her daughter, Tanya. Natasha and Tanya assume Abhishek and Rishi as their respective father. Rishi and Abhishek also loves them as their own daughter. Tanuja is Abhishek 's house 's caretaker. Tanuja and Abhishek pretend to be husband and wife in front of the world so does Rishi and Netra. Abhishek comes to India with Tanuja and Natasha to take over Rishi company. Rishi and Abhishek are business competitors. Natasha gets admission in Tanya 's school. Natasha meets Rishi in her school. Rishi has developed bonding with Natasha. Rishi comes to know that Natasha is Abhishek 's daughter. Rishi and Tanuja meet at a restaurant but they have a fight. Rishi and Manpreet are trying to find Tanuja. Manpreet gets Tanuja ' phone number and address. Rishi and Abhishek 's bankers tell them to collaborate their businesses. Rishi and Abhishek at the beginning refuse but later agrees. Abhishek calls Rishi, Netra and Tanya to his house for a dinner. Abhishek introduces Tanuja to Rishi and Netra as his wife. Rishi is doing his best to have Tanuja back in her life but she does n't wants to go back. After Natasha saves Tanya from a car accident, Rishi finds out she is his daughter. Later, it is found out Tanya is n't Netra 's daughter, but Ahana and Manpreet 's granddaughter, whom they told their unwed daughter Smiley to abort. then came the news of Tanuja ' marriage with Abhishek
The series aired in Pakistan by Filmazia simultaneously with Colors TV till 15 October 2016. The series is again running on Filmazia Mon to Fri from 10: 00pm to 10: 30 simultaneously with Colors TV.
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when was the indian constitution adopted and what were its features | Constitution of India - Wikipedia
The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles and the duties of citizens. It is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world. B.R. Ambedkar, the chairman of the Drafting Committee, is widely considered to be its chief architect.
It imparts constitutional supremacy and not parliamentary supremacy, as it is not created by the Parliament but, by a constituent assembly, and adopted by its people, with a declaration in its preamble. Parliament can not override the constitution.
It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949, and came into effect on 26 January 1950. With its adoption, the Dominion of India became the modern and contemporary Republic of India replacing the Government of India Act, 1935 as the country 's fundamental governing document. To ensure constitutional autochthony, the framers of the constitution repealed the prior Acts of the British Parliament via Article 395 of the constitution. India celebrates its coming into force on 26 January each year, as Republic Day.
It declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic, assuring its citizens of justice, equality, and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity among them.
The major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1857 to 1947. When the Constitution of India came into force on 26 January 1950, it repealed the Indian Independence Act. India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown and became a sovereign democratic republic. The date of 26 January was chosen to commemorate the Purna Swaraj declaration of independence of 1930.
Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, 393 and 394 of the Constitution came into force on 26 November 1949 and the remaining articles on 26 January 1950.
It is drawn from many sources. Keeping in mind the needs and conditions of India its framers borrowed different features freely from previous legislation viz. Government of India Act 1858, Indian Councils Act 1861, Indian Councils Act 1892, Indian Councils Act 1909, Government of India Act 1919, Government of India Act 1935 and the Indian Independence Act 1947. The last legislation which led to the creation of the two independent nations of India and Pakistan provided for the division of the erstwhile Constituent Assembly into two, with each new assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it, to enable each to draft and enact a new constitution, for the separate states.
It was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by elected members of the provincial assemblies. The 389 member Constituent Assembly took almost three years (two years, eleven months and eighteen days to be precise) to complete its historic task of drafting the Constitution for independent India, during which, it held eleven sessions over 165 days. Of these, 114 days were spent on the consideration of the draft Constitution. On 29 August 1947, the Constituent Assembly set up a Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to prepare a draft Constitution for India. While deliberating upon the draft Constitution, the assembly moved, discussed and disposed of as many as 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635 tabled. Dr B.R. Ambedkar, Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Kanaiyalal Munshi, Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar, Sandipkumar Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Nalini Ranjan Ghosh, and Balwantrai Mehta were some important figures in the assembly. There were more than 30 members of the scheduled classes. Frank Anthony represented the Anglo - Indian community, and the Parsis were represented by H.P. Modi. The Chairman of the Minorities Committee was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a distinguished Christian who represented all Christians other than Anglo - Indians. Ari Bahadur Gurung represented the Gorkha Community. Prominent jurists like Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, Benegal Narsing Rau and K.M. Munshi, Ganesh Mavlankar were also members of the Assembly. Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur and Vijayalakshmi Pandit were important women members.
The first temporary 2 - day president of the Constituent Assembly was Dr Sachchidananda Sinha. Later, Rajendra Prasad was elected president of the Constituent Assembly. The members of the Constituent Assembly met for the first time on 9 December 1946.
B.N. Rau was appointed as the Constitutional Adviser to the Constituent Assembly in formulating the Indian Constitution in 1946. He was responsible for the general structure of its democratic framework of the Constitution and prepared its initial draft in February 1948. This draft was debated, revised and finally adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949.
On 14 August 1947 meeting of the Assembly, a proposal for forming various committees was presented. Such committees included a Committee on Fundamental Rights, the Union Powers Committee and Union Constitution Committee. On 29 August 1947, the Drafting Committee was appointed, with Dr B.R. Ambedkar as the Chairman along with six other members assisted by a constitutional advisor. These members were Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi (KM Munshi, Ex - Home Minister, Bombay), Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer (Ex - Advocate General, Madras State), N Gopalaswami Ayengar (Ex-Prime Minister, J&K and later member of Nehru Cabinet), BL Mitter (Ex-Advocate General, India), Md. Saadullah (Ex - Chief Minister of Assam, Muslim League member) and DP Khaitan (Scion of Khaitan Business family and a renowned lawyer). The constitutional advisor was Sir Benegal Narsing Rau (who became First Indian Judge in International Court of Justice, 1950 -- 54). Later BL Mitter resigned and was replaced by Madhav Rao (Legal Advisor of Maharaja of Vadodara). On DP Khaitan 's death, TT Krishnamachari was included in the drafting committee. A draft Constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the Assembly on 4 November 1947, which was debated and over 2000 amendments were moved over a period of two years. Finally on 26 November 1949, the process was completed and the Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution. 284 members signed the document and the process of constitution making was complete. This day is celebrated as National Law Day or Constitution Day.
The assembly met in sessions open to the public, for 166 days, spread over a period of 2 years, 11 months and 18 days before adopting the Constitution, the 308 members of the assembly signed two copies of the document (one each in Hindi and English) on 24 January 1950. The original Constitution of India is hand - written with beautiful calligraphy, each page beautified and decorated by artists from Shantiniketan including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose. The illustrations on the cover and pages represent styles from the different civilisations of the subcontinent, ranging from the prehistoric Mohenjodaro civilisation, in the Indus Valley, to the present. The calligraphy in the book was done by Prem Behari Narain Raizda. It was published in Dehra Dun, and photolithographed at the offices of Survey of India. The entire exercise to produce the original took nearly five years. Two days later, on 26 January 1950, the Constitution of India became the law of all the States and territories of India. Rs. 1, 00, 00,000 was official estimate of expenditure on constituent assembly. It has undergone many amendments since its enactment.
The original 1950 Constitution of India is preserved in helium cases in the Parliament house, New Delhi. There are two original versions of this -- one in Hindi and the other in English. The original constitution can be viewed here.
The Indian constitution is the world 's longest. At its commencement, it had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules. It is made up of approximately 145,000 words, making it the second largest active constitution in the world. In its current form (September 2012), it has a preamble, 25 parts with 448 articles, 12 schedules, 5 appendices and 101 amendments, the latest of which came into force on 8 September 2016.
The individual articles of the constitution are grouped together into the following parts:
with the words "socialist '' and "secular '' added to it in 1976 by the 42nd constitutional amendment.
Schedules are lists in the Constitution that categorise and tabulate bureaucratic activity and policy of the Government.
Institutions of governance -- the Parliament, the President, the Judiciary, the Executive, etc. get their power from the Constitution and are bound by it. With the aid of the Constitution, India is governed by a parliamentary system of government with the executive directly accountable to the legislature. It states that there shall be a President of India who shall be the head of the executive, under Articles 52 and 53. The President 's duty is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law under Article 60 of the Indian constitution. Article 74 provides that there shall be a Prime Minister as the head of union cabinet which would aid and advise the President in performing his constitutional duty. Union cabinet is collectively responsible to the House of the People per Article 75 (3).
The Constitution of India is federal in nature but unitary in spirit. The common features of a federation such as written Constitution, supremacy of Constitution, rigidity of Constitution, two government, division of powers, bicameralism and independent judiciary as well as unitary features like single Constitution, single citizenship, integrated judiciary, flexible Constitution, a strong Centre, appointment of state governor by the Centre, All - India Services, Emergency Provisions etc. can be seen in Indian Constitution. This unique combination makes it quasi-federal in form.
Each state and each Union territory of India has its own government. Analogous to President and Prime Minister, each has a Governor (in case of states) or Lieutenant Governor (in the case of Union territories) and a Chief Minister. Article 356 permits the President to dismiss a state government and assume direct authority when a situation has arisen in which the Government of the State can not be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. This power, known as President 's rule, was abused earlier as state governments came to be dismissed on the flimsiest of grounds, and more due to the political discomfiture of the party in power at the centre. Post -- Bommai judgment, such a course of action has been rendered rather difficult, as the courts have asserted their right to review it. Consequently, very few state governments have been disbanded since.
The 73rd and 74th Amendment Act also introduced the system of Panchayati Raj in rural areas and Municipality in urban areas. Also, Article 370 of the Constitution gives special status to the State of Jammu and Kashmir.
The process of addition, variation or repeal of any part of the constitution by the parliament under its constituent powers, is called amendment of the constitution. The procedure is laid out in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by each House of the Parliament by a majority of the total membership of that House when at least two - thirds members are present and voted. In addition to this, certain amendments which pertain to the federal nature of the Constitution must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. Unlike the ordinary bills under legislative powers of Parliament as per Article 245 (with exception to money bills), there is no provision for joint sitting of the two houses (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) of the parliament to pass a constitutional amendment bill. During recess of Parliament, President can not promulgate ordinances under his legislative powers per Article 123, Chapter III which needs constitutional amendment. Deemed amendments to the constitution which can be passed under legislative powers of Parliament, are no more valid after the addition of Article 368 (1) by Twenty - fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India.
As of September 2015, there have been 120 amendment bills presented in the parliament, out of which 100 have been passed to become Amendment Acts. Despite the supermajority requirement for amendments to pass, the Constitution of India is the most frequently amended national governing document in the world. The Constitution is so specific in spelling out government powers that many of these amendments address issues dealt with by ordinary statute in other democracies. As a result, the document is amended roughly twice a year, and three times every two years.
In 2000, the National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC) was set up to look into updating the constitution. Government of India, establishes term based law commissions to recommend law reforms for maximising justice in society and for promoting good governance under the rule of law.
The Supreme Court has ruled in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case that an amendment can not destroy what it seeks to modify, which means, while amending anything in the Constitution, it can not tinker with the "basic structure '' or its framework, which is immutable. Such an amendment will be declared invalid even though no part of the constitution is explicitly prevented from being amended, nor does the basic structure doctrine protect any single provision of the Constitution. Yet, this "doctrine of basic features '' lays down that, the Constitution when "read as a whole '', that what comes to be understood as its basic features can not be abridged, deleted or abrogated. What these "basic features '' are, have not been defined exhaustively anywhere, and whether a particular provision of the Constitution of India is a "basic feature '' is decided as and when an issue is raised before a court in an instant case.
The judgment in the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case laid down the following as the basic structure of the constitution of India:
This implies that the Parliament, while amending the Constitution, can only amend it to the extent so as to not destroy any of the aforesaid characters. The Supreme Court / High Court (s) may declare the amendment null and void if this is violated, by performing Judicial review. This is typical of Parliamentary governments, where the Judiciary has to exercise an effective check on the exercise of the powers of the Parliament, which in many respects is supreme.
In the Golak Nath v. State of Punjab case of 1967, the Supreme Court ruled that the State of Punjab could not restrict any of the Fundamental rights protected by the basic structure doctrine. Extent of land ownership and practice of profession, in this case, were held to be a fundamental right. The ruling of the Golak Nath v. State of Punjab case was eventually overturned with the ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1971.
The Judiciary interprets the Constitution as its final arbiter. It is its duty as mandated by the Constitution, to be its watchdog, by calling for scrutiny any act of the legislature or the executive, who otherwise, are free to enact or implement these, from overstepping bounds set for them by the Constitution. It acts like a guardian in protecting the fundamental rights of the people, as enshrined in the Constitution, from infringement by any organ of the state. It also balances the conflicting exercise of power between the centre and a state or among states, as assigned to them by the Constitution.
While pronouncing decisions under its constitutional mandate, it is expected to remain unaffected by pulls and pressures exerted by other branches of the state, citizens or interest groups. And crucially, independence of the judiciary has been held to be a basic feature of the Constitution, and which being inalienable, has come to mean -- that which can not be taken away from it by any act or amendment by the legislature or the executive.
Judicial review is adopted in the Constitution of India from judicial review in the United States. In the Indian constitution, Judicial review is dealt with under Article 13. Judicial Review refers that the Constitution is the supreme power of the nation and all laws are under its supremacy. Article 13 states that:
Due to the adoption of the thirty - eighth amendment, the Indian Supreme Court was not allowed to preside over any laws adopted during a state of emergency that infringes upon fundamental rights under article 32 i.e. Right to Constitutional Remedies. Later with the Forty - second Amendment of the Constitution of India, article 31 C was widened and article 368 (4) and 368 (5) were added, which stated that any law passed by the parliament ca n't be challenged in the court on any ground. The Supreme court in the Minerva Mills v. Union of India case said that Judicial Review is one of the basic character of the constitution and therefore ca n't be taken away quashing Article 368 (4) & (5) as well as 31 C.
"The Indian Constitution is first and foremost a social document, and is aided by its Parts III & IV (Fundamental Rights & Directive Principles of State Policy, respectively) acting together, as its chief instruments and its conscience, in realising the goals set by it for all the people. ''
The Constitution 's provisions have consciously been worded in generalities, though not in vague terms, instead of making them rigid and static with a fixed meaning or content as in an ordinary statute, so that they may be interpreted by coming generations of citizens with the onward march of time, to apply to new and ever - changing and demanding situations, making the Constitution a living and an organic document. Justice Marshall asserts: "It is the nature of (a) Constitution that only its great outlines be marked ''. It is a document intended "to endure for ages '' and therefore, it has to be interpreted not merely on the basis of the intention and understanding of the its framers but on the experience of its working effectively, in the existing social and political context.
For instance, "right to life '' as guaranteed under Article 21, has by interpretation been expanded to progressively mean a whole lot of human rights
In the conclusion of his Making of India 's Constitution, Justice Khanna writes:
"If the Indian constitution is our heritage bequeathed to us by our founding fathers, no less are we, the people of India, the trustees and custodians of the values which pulsate within its provisions! A constitution is not a parchment of paper, it is a way of life and has to be lived up to. Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and in the final analysis, its only keepers are the people. ''
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immediately after expulsion of the ovum the ruptured follicle is now referred to as | Ovulation - wikipedia
Ovulation is the release of eggs from the ovaries. In humans, this event occurs when the ovarian follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells. After ovulation, during the luteal phase, the egg will be available to be fertilized by sperm. In addition, the uterine lining (endometrium) is thickened to be able to receive a fertilized egg. If no conception occurs, the uterine lining as well as blood will be shed during menstruation.
In humans, ovulation occurs about midway through the menstrual cycle, after the follicular phase. The few days surrounding ovulation (from approximately days 10 to 18 of a 28 - day cycle), constitute the most fertile phase. The time from the beginning of the last menstrual period (LMP) until ovulation is, on average, 14.6 days, but with substantial variation between females and between cycles in any single female, with an overall 95 % prediction interval of 8.2 to 20.5 days.
The process of ovulation is controlled by the hypothalamus of the brain and through the release of hormones secreted in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH). In the preovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle, the ovarian follicle will undergo a series of transformations called cumulus expansion, which is stimulated by FSH. After this is done, a hole called the stigma will form in the follicle, and the secondary oocyte will leave the follicle through this hole. Ovulation is triggered by a spike in the amount of FSH and LH released from the pituitary gland. During the luteal (post-ovulatory) phase, the secondary oocyte will travel through the fallopian tubes toward the uterus. If fertilized by a sperm, the fertilized secondary oocyte or ovum may implant there 6 -- 12 days later.
The follicular phase (or proliferative phase) is the phase of the menstrual cycle during which the ovarian follicles mature. The follicular phase lasts from the beginning of menstruation to the start of ovulation.
For ovulation to be successful, the ovum must be supported by the corona radiata and cumulus oophorous granulosa cells. The latter undergo a period of proliferation and mucification known as cumulus expansion. Mucification is the secretion of a hyaluronic acid - rich cocktail that disperses and gathers the cumulus cell network in a sticky matrix around the ovum. This network stays with the ovum after ovulation and has been shown to be necessary for fertilization.
An increase in cumulus cell number causes a concomitant increase in antrum fluid volume that can swell the follicle to over 20 mm in diameter. It forms a pronounced bulge at the surface of the ovary called the blister.
Estrogen levels peak towards the end of the follicular phase. This causes a surge in levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH). This lasts from 24 to 36 hours, and results in the rupture of the ovarian follicles, causing the oocyte to be released from the ovary.
Through a signal transduction cascade initiated by LH, proteolytic enzymes are secreted by the follicle that degrade the follicular tissue at the site of the blister, forming a hole called the stigma. The secondary oocyte leaves the ruptured follicle and moves out into the peritoneal cavity through the stigma, where it is caught by the fimbriae at the end of the fallopian tube. After entering the fallopian tube, the oocyte is pushed along by cilia, beginning its journey toward the uterus.
By this time, the oocyte has completed meiosis I, yielding two cells: the larger secondary oocyte that contains all of the cytoplasmic material and a smaller, inactive first polar body. Meiosis II follows at once but will be arrested in the metaphase and will so remain until fertilization. The spindle apparatus of the second meiotic division appears at the time of ovulation. If no fertilization occurs, the oocyte will degenerate between 12 and 24 hours after ovulation. Approximately 1 - 2 % of ovulations release more than one oocyte. This tendency increases with maternal age. Fertilization of two different oocytes by two different spermatozoa results in fraternal twins.
The mucous membrane of the uterus, termed the functionalis, has reached its maximum size, and so have the endometrial glands, although they are still non-secretory.
The follicle proper has met the end of its lifespan. Without the oocyte, the follicle folds inward on itself, transforming into the corpus luteum (pl. corpora lutea), a steroidogenic cluster of cells that produces estrogen and progesterone. These hormones induce the endometrial glands to begin production of the proliferative endometrium and later into secretory endometrium, the site of embryonic growth if implantation occurs. The action of progesterone increases basal body temperature by one - quarter to one - half degree Celsius (one - half to one degree Fahrenheit). The corpus luteum continues this paracrine action for the remainder of the menstrual cycle, maintaining the endometrium, before disintegrating into scar tissue during menses.
The start of ovulation can be detected by signs. Because the signs are not readily discernible by people other than the female, humans are said to have a concealed ovulation. In many animal species there are distinctive signals indicating the period when the female is fertile. Several explanations have been proposed to explain concealed ovulation in humans.
Females near ovulation experience changes in the cervical mucus, and in their basal body temperature. Furthermore, many females experience secondary fertility signs including Mittelschmerz (pain associated with ovulation) and a heightened sense of smell, and can sense the precise moment of ovulation.
Many females experience heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before ovulation. One study concluded that females subtly improve their facial attractiveness during ovulation.
Symptoms related to the onset of ovulation, the moment of ovulation and the body 's process of beginning and ending the menstrual cycle vary in intensity with each female but are fundamentally the same. The charting of such symptoms -- primarily basal body temperature, mittelschmerz and cervical position -- is referred to as the sympto - thermal method of fertility awareness, which allow auto - diagnosis by a female of her state of ovulation. Once training has been given by a suitable authority, fertility charts can be completed on a cycle - by - cycle basis to show ovulation. This gives the possibility of using the data to predict fertility for natural contraception and pregnancy planning.
The moment of ovulation has been photographed.
Disorders of ovulation are classified as menstrual disorders and include oligoovulation and anovulation:
The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed the following classification of ovulatory disorders:
Ovulation induction is a promising assisted reproductive technology for patients with conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and oligomenorrhea. It is also used in in vitro fertilization to make the follicles mature before egg retrieval. Usually, ovarian stimulation is used in conjunction with ovulation induction to stimulate the formation of multiple oocytes. Some sources include ovulation induction in the definition of ovarian stimulation.
A low dose of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) may be injected after completed ovarian stimulation. Ovulation will occur between 24 -- 36 hours after the HCG injection.
By contrast, induced ovulation in some animal species occurs naturally, ovulation can be stimulated by coitus.
Contraception can be achieved by suppressing the ovulation.
The majority of hormonal contraceptives and conception boosters focus on the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle because it is the most important determinant of fertility. Hormone therapy can positively or negatively interfere with ovulation and can give a sense of cycle control to the female.
Estradiol and progesterone, taken in various forms including combined oral contraceptive pills, mimics the hormonal levels of the menstrual cycle and engage in negative feedback of folliculogenesis and ovulation.
Ovulation Calculator = = External links = =
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when was the movie saving private ryan made | Saving Private Ryan - wikipedia
Saving Private Ryan is a 1998 American epic war drama film set during the Invasion of Normandy in World War II. Directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Robert Rodat, the film is notable for its graphic portrayal of war, and for the intensity of its opening 27 minutes, which includes a depiction of the Omaha Beach assault during the Normandy landings. It follows United States Army Rangers Captain John H. Miller (Tom Hanks) and a squad (Tom Sizemore, Edward Burns, Barry Pepper, Giovanni Ribisi, Vin Diesel, Adam Goldberg, and Jeremy Davies) as they search for a paratrooper, Private First Class James Francis Ryan (Matt Damon), who is the last - surviving brother of four servicemen.
The film received critical acclaim, winning several awards for film, cast, and crew, as well as earning significant returns at the box office. The film grossed US $481.8 million worldwide, making it the second - highest - grossing film of the year. The film was nominated for 11 Academy Awards; Spielberg 's direction won his second Academy Award for Best Director, with four more awards going to the film. Saving Private Ryan was released on home video in May 1999, earning another $44 million from sales.
In 2014, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. ''
On the morning of June 6, 1944, American soldiers land on Omaha Beach as part of the Normandy Invasion. They suffer heavy losses in assaulting German positions defended by artillery and machine guns. Captain John H. Miller of the 2nd Ranger Battalion assembles a group to penetrate the German defenses, leading to a breakout from the beach. Elsewhere on the beach, a dead soldier is face down in the bloody surf; his pack is stenciled Ryan, S.
In Washington, D.C., at the U.S. War Department, General George Marshall learns that three of the four brothers of the Ryan family were killed in action and that the fourth son, James, is missing in action in Normandy. After reading Abraham Lincoln 's Bixby letter aloud for his staff, he orders that James Ryan be found and returned home immediately.
Three days after D - Day, Miller receives orders to find Ryan and bring him back from the front. He assembles six men from his company -- T / Sgt. Mike Horvath, Privates First Class Richard Reiben and Adrian Caparzo, Privates Stanley Mellish and Danny Jackson, medic Irwin Wade -- plus T / 5 Timothy Upham, a cartographer and interpreter borrowed from another unit. They move out to Neuville, where they meet a squad from the 101st Airborne Division, where Caparzo is killed by a German sniper. They locate a Private James Ryan, but quickly learn he is not their man. They eventually encounter a friend of James Ryan, who tells them that he is defending an important bridge in the town of Ramelle.
On the way to Ramelle, Miller decides to neutralize a German machine gun position, despite his men 's misgivings; Wade is killed in the skirmish. Miller, at Upham 's urging, declines to execute a surviving German (nicknamed "Steamboat Willie '') and sets him free on the condition that he surrender to the first Allied unit he encounters. Losing confidence in Miller 's leadership, Reiben declares his intention to desert, prompting a confrontation with Horvath, which Miller defuses by disclosing his civilian background as a teacher, about which his men had set up a betting pool. Reiben reluctantly decides to stay.
At Ramelle, Miller and the squad find a small group of paratroopers preparing to defend the bridge; one is Ryan. Miller tells Ryan about his brothers and their orders to bring him home and that two men had been lost in finding him. He is distressed at the loss of his brothers, but asks Miller to tell his mother that he intends to stay "with the only brothers (he has) left. '' Miller decides to join his unit with the paratroopers in defense of the bridge against the imminent German attack. Miller forms ambush positions throughout the ruined town, preparing to attack arriving tanks with Molotov cocktails, detonation cords and "sticky bombs '' made from socks filled with Composition B.
Elements of the 2nd SS Panzer Division arrive with infantry and armor. Although they inflict heavy casualties on the Germans, most of the paratroopers, along with Jackson, Mellish, and Horvath are killed, while Upham avoids fighting. Miller attempts to blow the bridge, but is shot and mortally wounded by Steamboat Willie, who has rejoined the Germans. Just before a Tiger tank reaches the bridge, an American P - 51 Mustang flies overhead and destroys the tank, followed by American armored units which rout the remaining Germans. Witnessing Miller 's shooting, Upham confronts Steamboat Willie and his group as they attempt to retreat. Steamboat Willie raises his hands in surrender, believing that Upham will accept because of their earlier encounter. Instead, Upham kills him, but lets the other Germans flee.
Reiben and Ryan are with Miller as he dies and says his last words, "James... earn this. Earn it. '' In the present day, the elderly Ryan and his family visit the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial and discover Miller 's grave. Ryan expresses his appreciation for what Miller and the others did for him. He then asks his wife if he is a "good man '' worthy of their sacrifices, to which she tells him he is. Ryan comes to attention and salutes Miller 's grave.
In 1994, Robert Rodat wrote the script for the film. Rodat 's script was submitted to producer Mark Gordon, who liked it and in turn passed it along to Spielberg to direct. The film is loosely based on the World War II life stories of the Niland brothers. A shooting date was set for June 27, 1997.
In casting the film Spielberg sought to create a cast that "looked '' the part, stating in an interview, "You know, the people in World War II actually looked different than people look today '', adding to this end that he cast partly based on wanting the cast "to match the faces I saw on the newsreels. ''
Before filming began, several of the film 's stars, including Edward Burns, Barry Pepper, Vin Diesel, Adam Goldberg, Giovanni Ribisi, and Tom Hanks, endured ten days of "boot camp '' training led by Marine veteran Dale Dye and Warriors, Inc., a California - based company that specializes in training actors for realistic military portrayals. Matt Damon was intentionally not brought into the camp, to make the rest of the group feel resentment towards the character. Spielberg had stated that his main intention in forcing the actors to go through the boot camp was not to learn the proper techniques but rather "because I wanted them to respect what it was like to be a soldier. ''
The film 's second scene is a 20 + minute sequence recounting the landing on the beaches of Normandy. Spielberg chose to include this particularly violent sequence in order "to bring the audience onto the stage with me '' specifically noting that he did not want the "audience to be spectators '' but rather he wanted to "demand them to be participants with those kids who had never seen combat before in real life, and get to the top of Omaha Beach together. ''
Spielberg had already demonstrated his interest in World War II themes with the films 1941, Empire of the Sun, Schindler 's List, and the Indiana Jones series. Spielberg later co-produced the World War II themed television miniseries Band of Brothers and its counterpart The Pacific with Tom Hanks. When asked about this by American Cinematographer, Spielberg said, "I think that World War II is the most significant event of the last 100 years; the fate of the baby boomers and even Generation X was linked to the outcome. Beyond that, I 've just always been interested in World War II. My earliest films, which I made when I was about 14 years old, were combat pictures that were set both on the ground and in the air. For years now, I 've been looking for the right World War II story to shoot, and when Robert Rodat wrote Saving Private Ryan, I found it. ''
The D - Day scenes were shot in Ballinesker Beach, Curracloe Strand, Ballinesker, just east of Curracloe, County Wexford, Ireland. Hanks recalled to Roger Ebert that although he realized it was a movie, the experience still hit him hard, stating, "The first day of shooting the D - Day sequences, I was in the back of the landing craft, and that ramp went down and I saw the first 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 rows of guys just getting blown to bits. In my head, of course, I knew it was special effects, but I still was n't prepared for how tactile it was. '' Filming began June 27, 1997, and lasted for two months. Some shooting was done in Normandy, for the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial in Colleville - sur - Mer and Calvados. Other scenes were filmed in England, such as a former British Aerospace factory in Hatfield, Hertfordshire, Thame Park, Oxfordshire and Wiltshire. Production was due to also take place in Seaham, County Durham, but government restrictions disallowed this.
Saving Private Ryan has received critical acclaim for its realistic portrayal of World War II combat. In particular, the sequence depicting the Omaha Beach landings was named the "best battle scene of all time '' by Empire magazine and was ranked number one on TV Guide 's list of the "50 Greatest Movie Moments ''. The scene cost US $12 million and involved up to 1,500 extras, some of whom were members of the Irish Reserve Defence Forces. Members of local reenactment groups such as the Second Battle Group were cast as extras to play German soldiers. In addition, twenty to thirty actual amputees were used to portray American soldiers maimed during the landing. Spielberg did not storyboard the sequence, as he wanted spontaneous reactions and for "the action to inspire me as to where to put the camera ''.
The historical representation of Charlie Company 's actions, led by its commander, Captain Ralph E. Goranson, was well maintained in the opening sequence. The sequence and details of the events are very close to the historical record, including the sea sickness experienced by many of the soldiers as the landing craft moved toward the shoreline, significant casualties among the men as they disembarked from the boats, and difficulty linking up with adjacent units on the shore.
The distinctive signature "ping '' of the US soldiers ' M1 Garand rifles ejecting their ammunition clips is heard throughout the battle sequence. The contextual details of the Company 's actions were well maintained, for instance, the correct code names for the sector Charlie Company assaulted, and adjacent sectors, were used. Included in the cinematic depiction of the landing was a follow - on mission of clearing a bunker and trench system at the top of the cliffs which was not part of the original mission objectives for Charlie Company, but which they did undertake after the assault on the beach.
The landing craft used included twelve actual World War II examples, 10 LCVPs and 2 LCMs, standing in for the British LCAs that the Ranger Companies rode in to the beach during Operation Overlord. The filmmakers used underwater cameras to better depict soldiers being hit by bullets in the water. Forty barrels of fake blood were used to simulate the effect of blood in the seawater. This degree of realism was more difficult to achieve when depicting World War II German armored vehicles, as few examples survive in operating condition. The Tiger I tanks in the film were copies built on the chassis of old, but functional, Soviet T - 34 tanks. The two vehicles described in the film as Panzers were meant to portray Marder III tank destroyers. One was created for the film using the chassis of a Czech - built Panzer 38 (t) tank similar to the construction of the original Marder III; the other was a cosmetically modified Swedish SAV m / 43 assault gun, which also used the 38 (t) chassis.
There are, however, historical inaccuracies in the film 's depiction of the Normandy campaign. At the time of the mission, American forces from the two American beach areas, Utah and Omaha, had not yet linked up. In reality, a Ranger team operating out of the Omaha beach area would have had to move through the heavily enemy - occupied city of Carentan, or swim or boat across the estuary linking Carentan to the channel, or transfer by boat to the Utah landing area. On the other hand, US forces moving out of Utah would have had direct and much shorter routes, relatively unencumbered by enemy positions, and were already in contact with some teams from both US airborne divisions landed in the area.
The Utah beach landings, however, were relatively uncontested, with assault units landing on largely unoccupied beaches and experiencing far less action than the landings at Omaha. The filmmakers chose to begin the narrative with a depiction of the more dramatic story of Omaha, despite the strategic inaccuracy of an impossible mission that could easily have been pursued from the other beach area. In addition, one of the most notable of the operational flaws is the depiction of the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich as the adversary during the fictional Battle of Ramelle. The 2nd SS was not engaged in Normandy until July, and then at Caen against the British and Canadians, 100 miles east. Furthermore, the Merderet River bridges were not an objective of the 101st Airborne Division but of the 82nd Airborne Division, part of Mission Boston.
Much has also been said about various "tactical errors '' made by both the German and American forces in the film 's climactic battle. Spielberg responded, saying that in many scenes he opted to replace sound military tactics and strict historical accuracy for dramatic effect. Some other technical errors were also made, often censored, including the mistaken reversed orientation of the beach barriers; the tripod obstructions with a mine at the apex.
To achieve a tone and quality that was true to the story as well as reflected the period in which it is set, Spielberg once again collaborated with cinematographer Janusz Kamiński, saying, "Early on, we both knew that we did not want this to look like a Technicolor extravaganza about World War II, but more like color newsreel footage from the 1940s, which is very desaturated and low - tech. '' Kamiński had the protective coating stripped from the camera lenses, making them closer to those used in the 1940s. He explains that "without the protective coating, the light goes in and starts bouncing around, which makes it slightly more diffused and a bit softer without being out of focus. '' The cinematographer completed the overall effect by putting the negative through bleach bypass, a process that reduces brightness and color saturation. The shutter timing was set to 90 or 45 degrees for many of the battle sequences, as opposed to the standard of 180 - degree timing. Kamiński clarifies, "In this way, we attained a certain staccato in the actors ' movements and a certain crispness in the explosions, which makes them slightly more realistic. ''
Saving Private Ryan was a critical and commercial success and is credited with contributing to a resurgence in America 's interest in World War II. Old and new films, video games, and novels about the war enjoyed renewed popularity after its release. The film 's use of desaturated colors, hand - held cameras, and tight angles has profoundly influenced subsequent films and video games. Saving Private Ryan was released in 2,463 theaters on July 24, 1998, and grossed $30.5 million on its opening weekend. The film grossed $216.5 million in the US and Canada. and $265.3 million in other territories, bringing its worldwide total to $481.8 million and making it the highest - grossing US film of the year. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 45.74 million tickets in the United States and Canada.
The film received critical acclaim and has a ' certified fresh ' rating of 92 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 130 reviews with an average score of 8.6 out of 10. The consensus states "Anchored by another winning performance from Hanks, Spielberg 's unflinchingly realistic war film virtually redefines the genre. '' The film also has a score of 90 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 34 reviews indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Much of the praise went for the realistic battle scenes and the actors ' performances. However, it did earn some criticism for ignoring the contributions of several other countries to the D - Day landings in general and at Omaha Beach specifically. The most direct example of the latter is that during the actual landing the 2nd Rangers disembarked from British ships and were taken to Omaha Beach by Royal Navy landing craft (LCAs). The film depicts them as being United States Coast Guard - crewed craft (LCVPs and LCMs) from an American ship, the USS Thomas Jefferson (APA - 30). This criticism was far from universal with other critics recognizing the director 's intent to make an "American '' film. The film was not released in Malaysia after Spielberg refused to cut the violent scenes; however, the film was finally released there on DVD with an 18SG certificate much later in 2005. Many critics associations, such as New York Film Critics Circle and Los Angeles Film Critics Association, chose Saving Private Ryan as Film of the Year. Roger Ebert gave it four stars out of four and called it "a powerful experience ''.
Filmmaker Robert Altman wrote a letter to Spielberg stating, "Private Ryan was awesome -- best I 've seen. '' Filmmaker Quentin Tarantino has expressed admiration for the film and has cited it as an influence on his 2009 film, Inglourious Basterds.
Many World War II veterans stated that the film was the most realistic depiction of combat they had ever seen. The film was so realistic that combat veterans of D - Day and Vietnam left theaters rather than finish watching the opening scene depicting the Normandy invasion. Their visits to posttraumatic stress disorder counselors rose in number after the film 's release, and many counselors advised "' more psychologically vulnerable ' '' veterans to avoid watching it. The Department of Veterans Affairs set up a nationwide hotline for veterans who were affected by the film, and less than two weeks after the film was released it had already received over 170 calls.
The film has gained criticism and negative reviews from war veterans and film critics. Film director and military veteran Oliver Stone has accused the film of promoting "the worship of World War II as the good war, '' and has placed it alongside films such as Gladiator and Black Hawk Down that he believes were well - made, but may have inadvertently contributed to Americans ' readiness for the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In defense of the film 's portrait of warfare, Brian De Palma commented, "The level of violence in something like Saving Private Ryan makes sense because Spielberg is trying to show something about the brutality of what happened. '' Actor Richard Todd, who performed in The Longest Day and was amongst the first of the Allied soldiers to land in Normandy (Operation Tonga), said the film was "Rubbish. Overdone. '' American academic Paul Fussell, who saw combat in France during World War II, objected to what he described as, "the way Spielberg 's Saving Private Ryan, after an honest, harrowing, 15 - minute opening visualizing details of the unbearable bloody mess at Omaha Beach, degenerated into a harmless, uncritical patriotic performance apparently designed to thrill 12 - year - old boys during the summer bad - film season. Its genre was pure cowboys and Indians, with the virtuous cowboys of course victorious. '' Historian James DiEugenio has argued that the film was actually "95 percent fiction '' and that Tom Hanks knew this, with his goal being to "... commemorate World War II as the Good War and to depict the American role in it as crucial. ''
The film was nominated for eleven Academy Awards, and won five including Best Cinematography, Best Sound Mixing, Best Sound Effects Editing, Best Film Editing, and Best Director for Spielberg, but lost the Best Picture award to Shakespeare in Love, being one of a few that have won the Best Director award without also winning Best Picture. The Academy 's decision to not award the film with the Best Picture Oscar has resulted in much criticism in recent years, with many considering it as one of the biggest snubs in the ceremony 's history.
The film also won the Golden Globes for Best Motion Picture -- Drama and Director, the BAFTA Award for Special Effects and Sound, the Directors Guild of America Award, a Grammy Award for Best Film Soundtrack, the Producers Guild of America Golden Laurel Award, and the Saturn Award for Best Action, Adventure, or Thriller Film. The American Film Institute has included Saving Private Ryan in many of its lists, ranking it as the 71st greatest American movie in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition), as well as the 45th most thrilling film in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Thrills, the 10th most inspiring in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Cheers, and the eighth best epic film in "AFI 's 10 Top 10 ''.
On Veterans Day from 2001 -- 2004, the American Broadcasting Company aired the film uncut and with limited commercial interruption. The network airings were given a TV - MA rating, as the violent battle scenes and the profanity were left intact. The 2004 airing was marred by pre-emptions in many markets because of the language, in the backlash of Super Bowl XXXVIII 's halftime show controversy. However, critics and veterans ' groups such as the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars assailed those stations and their owners, including Hearst - Argyle Television (owner of 12 ABC affiliates); Scripps Howard Broadcasting (owner of six); and Belo (owner of four) for putting profits ahead of programming and honoring those who gave their lives at wartime, saying the stations made more money running their own programming instead of being paid by the network to carry the film, especially during a sweeps period.
A total of 65 ABC affiliates -- 28 % of the network -- did not clear the available timeslot for the film, even with the offer of The Walt Disney Company, ABC 's parent, to pay all fines for language to the Federal Communications Commission. In the end, however, no complaints were lodged against ABC affiliates who showed Ryan, perhaps because even conservative watchdogs like the Parents Television Council supported the unedited rebroadcast of the film. Additionally, some ABC affiliates in other markets that were near affected markets, such as Youngstown, Ohio, ABC affiliate WYTV (which is viewable in parts of the Columbus, Cleveland, and Pittsburgh markets, none of which aired the film) and Gainesville, Florida, ABC affiliate WCJB - TV (which is viewable in parts of the Orlando and Tampa markets), still aired the film and gave those nearby markets the option of viewing the film. TNT and Turner Classic Movies have also broadcast the film.
The film was released on home video in May 1999 with a VHS release that earned over $44 million. The DVD release became available in November of the same year, and was one of the best - selling titles of the year, with over 1.5 million units sold. The DVD was released in two separate versions: one with Dolby Digital and the other with DTS 5.1 surround sound. Besides the different 5.1 tracks, the two DVDs are identical. The film was also issued in a very limited 2 - disc LaserDisc release in November 1999, making it one of the very last feature films to ever be issued in this format, as LaserDiscs ceased manufacturing and distribution by the year 's end, due in part to the growing popularity of DVDs.
In 2004, a Saving Private Ryan special edition DVD was released to commemorate the 60th anniversary of D - Day. This two - disc edition was also included in a box set titled World War II Collection, along with two documentaries produced by Spielberg, Price For Peace (about the Pacific War) and Shooting War (about war photographers, narrated by Tom Hanks). The film was released on Blu - ray Disc on April 26, 2010 in the UK and on May 4, 2010 in the US, as part of Paramount Home Video 's premium Sapphire Series. However, only weeks after its release, Paramount issued a recall due to audio synchronization problems. The studio issued an official statement acknowledging the problem, which they attributed to an authoring error by Technicolor that escaped the quality control process, and that they had already begun the process of replacing the defective discs.
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when was the last time there was a sweep in nba finals | List of NBA champions - wikipedia
The National Basketball Association (NBA) (formerly Basketball Association of America (BAA) from 1946 -- 49) Finals is the championship series for the NBA and the conclusion of the NBA 's postseason. All Finals have been played in a best - of - seven format, and contested between the winners of the Eastern Conference and the Western Conference (formerly Divisions before 1970), except in 1950 in which the Eastern Division champion faced the winner between the Western and Central Division champions. Prior to 1949, the playoffs were instituted a three - stage tournament where the two semifinal winners played each other in the finals. The winning team of the series receives the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy.
The home - and - away format in the NBA Finals is in a 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 5 and 7) during 1947 -- 1948, 1950 -- 1952, 1957 -- 1970, 1972 -- 1974, 1976 -- 1977, 1979 -- 1984, 2014 -- present. It was previously in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 6 and 7) during 1949, 1953 -- 1955, and 1985 -- 2013, in a 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format during 1956 and 1971 and in a 1 -- 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 format during 1975 and 1978.
The Eastern Conference / Division leads the Western Conference / Division in series won (38 -- 32). The defunct Central Division won one championship. The Boston Celtics and the Minneapolis / Los Angeles Lakers alone own almost half of the titles, having won a combined 33 of 70 championships.
The trophy was originally referred to as the NBA Finals trophy, but was renamed in 1964 after Walter A. Brown, the original owner of the Boston Celtics who was instrumental in merging the BAA and the National Basketball League into the NBA in 1949.
The original trophy was awarded to the BAA / NBA champions from 1947 to 1976. The trophy was kept by the winning team for one year and given to the winning team of the following year 's finals, unless the previous team won again, much like the NHL 's Stanley Cup, which continues that tradition to this day.
A new trophy design was created for the 1977 NBA Finals, although it retained the Walter A. Brown title. Unlike the original championship trophy, the new trophy was given permanently to the winning team and a new one was made every year.
The inaugural winners of the trophy were the Philadelphia Warriors, who defeated the Chicago Stags. From 1957 to 1969, the Celtics won the NBA Finals 11 out of 13 times, including eight consecutive wins. The final winners of the trophy were the Philadelphia 76ers, who defeated the Los Angeles Lakers in the 1983 NBA Finals. In 1984, the trophy was renamed the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy.
In 1984, the trophy was renamed to the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy, in honor of Larry O'Brien, who served as NBA commissioner from 1975 to 1984.
The current trophy is made out of 14.5 pounds of sterling silver and vermeil with a 24 karat gold overlay and stands 2 feet (0.61 m) tall. It is designed to look like a basketball about to enter a net. The year and team names are engraved on the trophies, which are often prominently displayed in the winning team 's arena.
The Boston Celtics were the inaugural winners of the renamed trophy, defeating the Los Angeles Lakers in seven games (4 -- 3) in the 1984 NBA Finals.
Legend
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what kind of element forms cation after ionic bonding | Ionic bonding - wikipedia
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds. The ions are atoms that have gained one or more electrons (known as anions, which are negatively charged) and atoms that have lost one or more electrons (known as cations, which are positively charged). This transfer of electrons is known as electrovalence in contrast to covalence. In the simplest case, the cation is a metal atom and the anion is a nonmetal atom, but these ions can be of a more complex nature, e.g. molecular ions like NH or SO. In simpler words, an ionic bond is the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal in order to obtain a full valence shell for both atoms.
It is important to recognize that clean ionic bonding -- in which one atom or molecule completely share an electron from another -- can not exist: all ionic compounds have some degree of covalent bonding, or electron sharing. Thus, the term "ionic bonding '' is given when the ionic character is greater than the covalent character -- that is, a bond in which a large electronegativity difference exists between the two atoms, causing the bonding to be more polar (ionic) than in covalent bonding where electrons are shared more equally. Bonds with partially ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds.
Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution, typically as a solid. Ionic compounds generally have a high melting point, depending on the charge of the ions they consist of. The higher the charges the stronger the cohesive forces and the higher the melting point. They also tend to be soluble in water. Here, the opposite trend roughly holds: the weaker the cohesive forces, the greater the solubility.
Atoms that have an almost full or almost empty valence shell tend to be very reactive. Atoms that are strongly electronegative (as is the case with halogens) often have only one or two empty orbitals in their valence shell, and frequently bond with other molecules or gain electrons to form anions. Atoms that are weakly electronegative (such as alkali metals) have relatively few valence electrons, which can easily be shared with atoms that are strongly electronegative. As a result, weakly electronegative atoms tend to distort their electrons cloud and form cations.
Ionic bonding can result from a redox reaction when atoms of an element (usually metal), whose ionization energy is low, give some of their electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration. In doing so, cations are formed. The atom of another element (usually nonmetal), whose electron affinity is positive, then accepts the electron (s), again to attain a stable electron configuration, and after accepting electron (s) the atom becomes an anion. Typically, the stable electron configuration is one of the noble gases for elements in the s - block and the p - block, and particular stable electron configurations for d - block and f - block elements. The electrostatic attraction between the anions and cations leads to the formation of a solid with a crystallographic lattice in which the ions are stacked in an alternating fashion. In such a lattice, it is usually not possible to distinguish discrete molecular units, so that the compounds formed are not molecular in nature. However, the ions themselves can be complex and form molecular ions like the acetate anion or the ammonium cation.
For example, common table salt is sodium chloride. When sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) are combined, the sodium atoms each lose an electron, forming cations (Na), and the chlorine atoms each gain an electron to form anions (Cl). These ions are then attracted to each other in a 1: 1 ratio to form sodium chloride (NaCl).
However, to maintain charge neutrality, strict ratios between anions and cations are observed so that ionic compounds, in general, obey the rules of stoichiometry despite not being molecular compounds. For compounds that are transitional to the alloys and possess mixed ionic and metallic bonding, this may not be the case anymore. Many sulfides, e.g., do form non-stoichiometric compounds.
Many ionic compounds are referred to as salts as they can also be formed by the neutralization reaction of an Arrhenius base like NaOH with an Arrhenius acid like HCl
The salt NaCl is then said to consist of the acid rest Cl and the base rest Na.
The removal of electrons from the cation is endothermic, raising the system 's overall energy. There may also be energy changes associated with breaking of existing bonds or the addition of more than one electron to form anions. However, the action of the anion 's accepting the cation 's valence electrons and the subsequent attraction of the ions to each other releases (lattice) energy and, thus, lowers the overall energy of the system.
Ionic bonding will occur only if the overall energy change for the reaction is favorable. In general, the reaction is exothermic, but, e.g., the formation of mercuric oxide (HgO) is endothermic. The charge of the resulting ions is a major factor in the strength of ionic bonding, e.g. a salt C A is held together by electrostatic forces roughly four times weaker than C A according to Coulombs law, where C and A represent a generic cation and anion respectively. Of course the sizes of the ions and the particular packing of the lattice are ignored in this simple argument.
Ionic compounds in the solid state form lattice structures. The two principal factors in determining the form of the lattice are the relative charges of the ions and their relative sizes. Some structures are adopted by a number of compounds; for example, the structure of the rock salt sodium chloride is also adopted by many alkali halides, and binary oxides such as MgO. Pauling 's rules provide guidelines for predicting and rationalizing the crystal structures of ionic crystals
For a solid crystalline ionic compound the enthalpy change in forming the solid from gaseous ions is termed the lattice energy. The experimental value for the lattice energy can be determined using the Born - Haber cycle. It can also be calculated (predicted) using the Born - Landé equation as the sum of the electrostatic potential energy, calculated by summing interactions between cations and anions, and a short - range repulsive potential energy term. The electrostatic potential can be expressed in terms of the inter-ionic separation and a constant (Madelung constant) that takes account of the geometry of the crystal. The further away from the nucleus the weaker the shield. The Born - Landé equation gives a reasonable fit to the lattice energy of, e.g., sodium chloride, where the calculated (predicted) value is − 756 kJ / mol, which compares to − 787 kJ / mol using the Born - Haber cycle.
Ions in crystal lattices of purely ionic compounds are spherical; however, if the positive ion is small and / or highly charged, it will distort the electron cloud of the negative ion, an effect summarised in Fajans ' rules. This polarization of the negative ion leads to a build - up of extra charge density between the two nuclei, i.e., to partial covalency. Larger negative ions are more easily polarized, but the effect is usually important only when positive ions with charges of 3 + (e.g., Al) are involved. However, 2 + ions (Be) or even 1 + (Li) show some polarizing power because their sizes are so small (e.g., LiI is ionic but has some covalent bonding present). Note that this is not the ionic polarization effect that refers to displacement of ions in the lattice due to the application of an electric field.
In ionic bonding, the atoms are bound by attraction of oppositely charged ions, whereas, in covalent bonding, atoms are bound by sharing electrons to attain stable electron configurations. In covalent bonding, the molecular geometry around each atom is determined by valence shell electron pair repulsion VSEPR rules, whereas, in ionic materials, the geometry follows maximum packing rules. One could say that covalent bonding is more directional in the sense that the energy penalty for not adhering to the optimum bond angles is large, whereas ionic bonding has no such penalty. There are no shared electron pairs to repel each other, the ions should simply be packed as efficiently as possible. This often leads to much higher coordination numbers. In NaCl, each ion has 6 bonds and all bond angles are 90 degrees. In CsCl the coordination number is 8. By comparison carbon typically has a maximum of four bonds.
Purely ionic bonding can not exist, as the proximity of the entities involved in the bonding allows some degree of sharing electron density between them. Therefore, all ionic bonding has some covalent character. Thus, bonding is considered ionic where the ionic character is greater than the covalent character. The larger the difference in electronegativity between the two types of atoms involved in the bonding, the more ionic (polar) it is. Bonds with partially ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds. For example, Na -- Cl and Mg -- O interactions have a few percent covalency, while Si -- O bonds are usually ~ 50 % ionic and ~ 50 % covalent. Pauling estimated that an electronegativity difference of 1.7 (on the Pauling scale) corresponds to 50 % ionic character, so that a difference greater than 1.7 corresponds to a bond which is predominantly ionic. Ionic character in covalent bonds can be directly measured for atoms having quadrupolar nuclei (H, N, Br, Cl or I). These nuclei are generally objects of NQR nuclear quadrupole resonance and NMR nuclear magnetic resonance studies. Interactions between the nuclear quadrupole moments Q and the electric field gradients (EFG) are characterized via the nuclear quadrupole coupling constants QCC = e q Q / h where the eq term corresponds to the principal component of the EFG tensor and e is the elementary charge. In turn, the electric field gradient opens the way to description of bonding modes in molecules when the QCC values are accurately determined by NMR or NQR methods.
In general, when ionic bonding occurs in the solid (or liquid) state, it is not possible to talk about a single "ionic bond '' between two individual atoms, because the cohesive forces that keep the lattice together are of a more collective nature. This is quite different in the case of covalent bonding, where we can often speak of a distinct bond localized between two particular atoms. However, even if ionic bonding is combined with some covalency, the result is not necessarily discrete bonds of a localized character. In such cases, the resulting bonding often requires description in terms of a band structure consisting of gigantic molecular orbitals spanning the entire crystal. Thus, the bonding in the solid often retains its collective rather than localized nature. When the difference in electronegativity is decreased, the bonding may then lead to a semiconductor, a semimetal or eventually a metallic conductor with metallic bonding.
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jaya real name of sajan re phir jhoot mat bolo | Sajan Re Jhoot Mat Bolo - wikipedia
Season 1
Season 2
480i (SDTV)
Sajan Re Jhoot Mat Bolo (SRJMB), is a Hindi sitcom telecast on SAB TV. The serial name was based on a famous song "Sajan re jhoot mat bolo '' from the movie Teesri Kasam '.
A Second Season, Sajan Re Phir Jhoot Mat Bolo (SRPJMB), began airing from 23 May 2017.
Apoorva is looking for a job. He lands a job with the Dhirubhai 's Global Sanskar Group of Industries. Apoorva meets Aarti (niece of Dhirubhai) and falls in love with her. Apoorva lies to Dhirubhai and Aarti about his family. Raju, Apoorva 's best friend, builds up a fake family. After a month Aarti gets married to Apoorva. It shows how Apoorva and other family members try to hide the truth of this fake family from Dhirubhai and his niece Aarti.
Sajan Re Jhoot Mat Bolo revolves around the humor that comes from situational lies and liars. It is a situational comedy that arises from a small lie that the protagonist, Apoorva, had to tell his employer Dhirubhai Jhaveri to get a job. Dhirubhai is a very successful businessman who hates lies and liars and believes in family bonding and values. His belief in these values at times crosses levels of normalcy and are unbelievably rigid. Apoorva was raised in an orphanage and, to get the job in Dhirubhai 's company, lies that he has a full - fledged family in India. Apoorva 's description of his imaginary family makes Dhirubhai fall in love with each and every member.
Dhirubhai has a niece Aarti, who is young, beautiful and believes in the same values as her uncle. They both trust Apoorva blindly: He has earned this trust and respect on the basis of his hard work. Over time he has become the Man Friday for Dhirubhai as well as Aarti. Apoorva has also developed a liking for Aarti but has refrained from expressing his feelings to her.
Dhirubhai fixes Aarti 's marriage but, in a dramatic turn of events, it is called off at the last moment. Dhirubhai decides to marry Aarti with Apoorva. He announces that the marriage will take place in India, in the presence of Apoorva 's family. Apoorva tries to convey the truth to Aarti but realizes that it will break her heart. He asks his best friend Raju to set up his fake family in India before the marriage, which has to take place in a few days.
Raju does the needful and when Apoorva arrives in India with Dhirubhai and Aarti, he comes face to face with family for the first time. From here starts a non-stop comical journey in which the family members, who are from varied backgrounds, try to find their feet in their new characters and live up to Dhirubhai and Aarti 's expectations. And the fake family never speaks truth to Dhirubhai.
In a series of episodes particularly for a Valentine 's Day special, the family was shown on a trip to Goa. On the trip, Dhirubhai crashes with Preeti who is roaming around in modern clothes. What follows is a series of attempts by Apoorva to make him believe that doubles do exist in this world. Dhirubhai refuses to accept it but, in the end, as Apoorva was about to unfold the secret of his family, Dhirubhai meets his own look - alike and believes Apoorva. Once again the family is saved from being destroyed.
SEASON 2
Tiku Talsania plays the character of Dhirubhai Jhaveri: a 55 - year - old, rich, very honest, god - fearing, truthful man. He is a diamond merchant in London with business in eight countries including India is a firm believer in Indian culture, traditions and family values. He hates lies.
Has lost his wife and three kids, his brother and bhabhi and their three kids in a tragic bus accident 15 years ago. Only his brother 's daughter survived whom he raised as his daughter. He has inculcated the same family values in her in which he believes. He wants to fulfill his responsibility of getting her married and settle her in a good family who believes in the traditional family values.
He dislikes Raju very much.
Portrayed by Anchal Sabharwal, a 23 - year - old daughter of Dhirubhai 's brother who died in the tragic bus accident. She was in shock and had gone into depression. It took Dhirubhai 15 years to bring her out of the shock to normal life.
Now she is full of zest for life, bubbly, chirpy, charming and full of energy and optimism. She is a firm believer in god and that life is beautiful and future is optimistic. She is a little short - tempered and a firm believer in Indian traditions and family values. She wants to fulfill her father 's dream and settle down in a good joint family after marriage.
Anchal Sabharwal has replaced Mugdha Chaphekar for Aarti 's character.
Sumeet Raghavan has played the character of Apoorva Shah.
A 25 - year - old gentleman, handsome very practical, having worldly wisdom, with a great sense of humour and always lively. His best friend Raju 's father is Dhirubhai 's friend. Raju arranges the job for him. On seeing his sharpness, Dhirubhai gradually puts him in business as it was expanding; he is now the right hand of Dhirubhai who has seen the spark of business acumen in him. He has seen Apoorva taking wise business decisions and so is rightly called "Man Friday '' who has solutions of any problems under the sun. He always talks highly of his (non-existent) family; a father, mother, two brothers, two bhabhis, and one sister -- who are residing in Mumbai. He constantly talks about them and believing in him Dhirubhai feels closely connected to his family. Whenever Dhirubhai faces difficult situations in life, Apoorva has Raju talk to him as his father. Raju does the needful and so Dhirubhai has great regards for Apoorva 's father.
He has a fondness for Arti Jhaveri of which Dhirubhai is aware.
Gradually Dhirubhai marries of his daughter Arti to him as he believes in Apoorva and that his daughter will be happy in that joint family of Apurva in Mumbai.
In the 3 November 2010 episode, Usha Dhirubhai Jhaveri reappears. She first is seen upon as a ghost but later, after lodging a case against her, Dhirubhai and the family learns that she had not died but was injured and had lost memory. She has now rejoined the family. She forgets things at a short interval. She discovers the secret of Apoorva 's fake family and threatens to reveal it. However after close observation, she decides to not reveal the secret and calls the family as "Sabse Pyara Parivaar '' -- the most lovable family. She is loved by the family as a mother.
This character of Apoorva 's father is played by Raju (Rajiv Thakur), best friend of Apoorva who helped to create this family. After setting up a fake family he realises that there was no one to play the role of Apoorva 's father, so he is playing the role of Apoorva 's father. When he is asked to give pravachan, he sings Hindi songs of olden days. He always helps Apoorva when there is any trouble.
This character of Apoorva 's mother is played by Damini Dewaan (Apara Mehta). She is a 42 - year - old theatre artist who now portrays the role of a mother in most plays. Damini is always seen creating trouble. Her innocence and inability to hold the truth makes her spill the beans about the family, but the other family members cover her mistakes humorously. She is often seen enacting her "Jhansi ki Rani '' play, which she claims had stirred the then theater scene. Little is known about her past except in one episode it is revealed that she has a brother, who was lost in a village fair when they were kids. He persuades her to leave the fake family and return to Gujarat with him, where he has a cycle repair shop, but the family members refuse to part with their mother. Regardless of her blunders, the other members of the family are fond of her. The brothers Apoorva, Poresh and Pankaj decide to adopt her as their mother in an episode. Damini is often seen reminiscing about her past exploits as a theater artist in plays called "Uova satham manj '' and "Jhansi ki Rani ''. Damini likes to play "Jhansi ki Rani '' and is seen repeating the dialogue "mein meri Jhansi nahi doongi '' (I shall not give up my kingdom of Jhansi). Apart from acting she is fond of sweets and is chided by her family members for her vast consumption of gulab jamoon and jalebee.
Pankaj is Apoorva elder brother. His character portrayed by Manish Goyal. He runs an "anath ashram '' (orphanage) and is a staunch bachelor (brahmachari). He was selected to play Apoorva 's elder brother after the chosen elder brother ran away after getting a role in a Bollywood movie. He speaks pure Hindi. Preeti falls in love with him and always tries to persuade him to marry her. Later he starts loving Preeti. Preeti 's mother does not accept their marriage. So Pankaj leaves the house and comes back as Peter. After taking the agreement of Preeti 's mother, they marry each other and become a real couple. The family members are often troubled by his language.
Preeti Shah is the wife of Pankaj Shah and Apoorva 's sister - in - law. She is portrayed by Melissa Pais. She was a backstage dancer earlier and knows dancing very well. She starts dancing with Ishwarlal starts singing Pravachan. She loves her fake husband and wants to marry him, but Pankaj is not ready. Later Pankaj starts loving her and marries her after her mother agrees, as she wanted Preeti to marry a Christian boy of the same religion, and not Pankaj, who is a Hindu.
Apoorva 's second elder brother. This character is portrayed by Sukesh Anand. He is a Bengali guy, who had been a thief before joining this family. He tried to steal valuables of the family members too out of his habits. But as he started loving his fake wife, Pallavi, he has now left theft habits and trying to improve himself. He loves the family and always tries to save Apoorva 's fake family. His real name is Gondogol. When Pallavi 's fiance Mohit arrives to take Pallavi, Apoorva tells him that if he really wants to see Pallavi happy, he should let her go with Mohit. A heart broken Paresh agrees, but soon he finds out that Mohit is a crook and wants Pallavi 's jewellery. He then decides to expose him but gets failed. He then leaves the home but is known that he is safe and together with Apoorva he reveals Mohit 's mystery.
She plays Paresh 's wife. She is portrayed by Shalini Khanna. She is a Rajasthani girl, who is already engaged to be married with a person in Rajasthan. As her marriage is not scheduled yet, she has joined Apoorva 's fake family. Paresh loves her but she does n't like it as she 's dedicated to her fiance. She 's so shy that she never addresses directly the person she 's talking to and addresses the objects near them like "kangan sa, katori sa, sookhe hue phool sa, '' etc.
She plays the role of Apoorva 's sister in his fake family. this character is portrayed by Ami Trivedi. She is smart, a beautiful banjanran (a vagabond tribeswomen) who was picked up by Raju from the street side while she was performing acrobatics to earn money. Her father is a drunk and rude character who made her perform on the streets to fund his drinking habit. He leaves her and never vows to return once. He is told that she is married to Raju (a lie to get rid of her father). She is known to have the knowledge of making potions from herbs and roots and other quack remedies.
Mehul Bhojak portrays role of Mohit. He was a fiancé of Pallavi but is a wanted criminal. Apoorva and Paresh get him arrested. He has returned and as an antagonist is trying to reveal Apoorva 's secret. He tricks Dhirubhai Jhaveri and takes all his flats, cars, bungalows and other property and Mohit have power of attorney paper. Disguising as Lucky Singh, Apoorva gets him arrested by fooling him to make a film Badla: The Revenge. Apoorva takes Dhirubhai Jhaveri 's flats, cars bungalows and other property back from him.
Sumeet Raghavan and Pallavi Pradhan earlier worked opposite each other for one episode in Dilip Joshi and Sumeet Raghavan starrer show Shubh Mangal Savadhan in 2002.
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where is the yunnan plateau located on a map | Yunnan -- Guizhou Plateau - wikipedia
The Yunnan -- Guizhou Plateau or Yungui Plateau (simplified Chinese: 云贵 高原; traditional Chinese: 雲貴 高原; pinyin: Yúnguì Gāoyuán) is a highland region located in southwest China. The region is primarily spread over the provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou. In the southwest, the Yungui is a true plateau with relatively flatter highland areas, while in the northeast, the Yungui is a generally mountainous area of rolling hills, gorges, and karst topography.
Under the most strict definition, the Yungui Plateau stretches from the Red River Fault in Yunnan in the southwest to the Wuling Mountains in Hunan in the northeast. This plateau region includes most of eastern Yunnan and most of Guizhou. It is common, however, for much of the rest of Yunnan and surrounding highland areas to be referred to as part of the Yunnan -- Guizhou Plateau even where there are no pleateau - like characteristics.
Under the broader definition of the Yungui Plateau, the provinces would include not only Yunnan and Guizhou but also Gulin County and the southernmost extremes of Sichuan, eastern Chongqing, southwestern Hubei, western Hunan, and northwestern Guangxi.
Located in Southwest China, the Yungui Plateau separates the Sichuan Basin from South China. The area has long been considered a backwater region of China. Historically, the plateau has been home to many minority peoples who have traditionally engaged in intensive agriculture along hills and in valleys. Today, the Yungui region is one of the most economically depressed areas of China and both Guizhou and Yunnan provinces are in the bottom three in rankings for the Human Development Index in China. Many residents on the Yungui Plateau live in a traditional fashion in rural villages.
Major cities on the Yungui Plateau include Kunming, Guiyang, and Zunyi. The Yungui Plateau is home to many extreme engineering feats where railways and expressways have been built to traverse the challenging terrain. The world 's highest bridge, the Beipanjiang Bridge, is located on the Yunnan - Guizhou border in the heart of the plateau.
The Yungui Plateau is a large mountainous region with rugged terrain including steep karst peaks and deep gorges. The plateau is buttressed by the large Hengduan Mountains to the northwest and by lowland regions to the north, east, and southeast. Other major mountain ranges cross or surround portions of the Yungui Plateau. The Wumeng Mountains and Wulian Feng form a barrier through north - central Yungui along the Jinsha (Upper Yangtze) River. To the north, the Dalou Mountains run along the Yungui 's edge with the Sichuan Basin. The Wuling Mountains in the northeast form a transitional terrain between the plateau and the Yangtze Plain. In the south, the Miao Range steps down to the karst hills of South China. Across the Red River to the southwest, the Ailao Mountains form a definitive barrier.
The high mountain peaks of Eastern Tibet are the source of many of Asia 's great rivers, which flow southerly towards the Yunnan -- Guizhou Plateau. The rivers split around the plateau, with the Salween and Mekong keeping south and the Yangtze turning northeast. Most of the western Yungui Plateau is drained by the Nanpan and Beipan Rivers, both headwaters of the Pearl River. The eastern Yungui Plateau is largely drained by the Wu River, a tributary of the Yangtze.
Major lakes have formed in the Yunnan portions of the Yungui Plateau, including Dian Chi and Fuxian Lake. Erhai Lake is located on the plateau 's western edge at the southern base of the Hengduan Mountains.
The climate gradually transitions from drier in the southwest to rainier in the northeast. In east - central Yunnan, parts of the Yungui Plateau experience a semi-arid climate. In most of Guizhou, the climate is classified as humid subtropical. The Yungui Plateau is covered by subtropical evergreen forests for much of its Yunnan portions and by mixed broadleaf forests for the Guizhou portions.
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george michael - killer/papa was a rolling stone | Killer (Adamski song) - wikipedia
"Killer '' is a song by British acid house producer Adamski. Written by Adamski and Seal and produced by Adamski, "Killer '' was Adamski 's breakthrough single, but is now more notable for featuring Seal as a vocalist. A major hit in the UK, it reached number one, spending four weeks at the top of the UK Singles Chart in May and June 1990. In total, the single sold over 400,000 copies in the UK, earning it a BPI Gold certification.
Journalist Dave Simpson conducted a pair of interviews for The Guardian in 2013 with Seal and Adamski, concerning the origins of "Killer ''. Adamski recounted that Seal had seen him perform in 1989 at an illegal rave called ' Sunrise 5000 ' at the Santa Pod Raceway. Seal had afterwards handed a demo tape to Adamski 's MC, Daddy Chester, with which both were impressed. Seal had previously been singing in blues bands but a year spent travelling in Asia had recently changed his view of life and he had since become involved in the rave scene.
Adamski and Seal later happened to meet on New Year 's Eve 1989 at a club named Solaris in London, and Seal was invited to work on one of a number of pieces that Adamski was performing at that time. Adamski had an instrumental track he called "The Killer '' because he felt that it sounded ' like the soundtrack to a movie murder scene '. According to Adamski, Seal 's vocals were recorded against this track on 27 January 1990: coincidentally the same day that 10,000 people gathered in Trafalgar Square (not far from the studio where they were working) for the ' Freedom to Party ' demonstration against a government crackdown on rave culture, which Adamski himself attended. The track featured only two instruments -- keyboard and a Roland TR - 909 drum machine -- and occupied only eight tracks of a 48 - track mixing console.
In the Simpson interviews, both Adamski and Seal recalled that they were in financial trouble at the time of recording. Seal was almost penniless and was living in a squat. Although Adamski had his own following as a DJ and was enjoying success with his previous single "N-R-G '', he was on a government scheme which paid his rent and allowed him £ 40 a week. Both Adamski and Seal were struck by the popularity of "Killer '' following its release on 21 March 1990. The song went to the top of the UK charts, reached the top ten in many European countries, and sold strongly across the world. Adamski recounted his surprise at people singing the memorable bassline to him in the street and, in particular, at hearing the track played at a wedding in a hotel at which he stayed following a performance in Cambridge. Seal told Simpson, ' within a week, I went from being a relative nobody -- this weird guy at raves, with silver bits in my hair -- to a household name. '
Seal explained to Dave Simpson that the words he provided for "Killer '' were intended as an exhortation to freedom and overcoming; that ' the lyrics are about transcending whatever holds you back '.
Lyrically, the song features the line "It 's the loneliness that 's the killer, '' which occurs only once in the introduction to the Seal version and not at all in the Adamski version. The distinctive opening bassline and keyboard melody during the chorus, however, are preserved in almost every version of the song in some form.
The song also contains the lyrics "Racism in amongst future kings can only lead to no good, and besides, all our sons and daughters already know how that feels '', which were reused in Seal 's song "Future Love Paradise '' featured on his debut album. "Killer '' was featured in the film Miami Twice based on the TV series Only Fools and Horses.
In 1991, Seal re-recorded "Killer '' for his eponymous debut album, produced by Trevor Horn. The single release of Seal 's version peaked at number eight in the UK, squeezed onto the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 100 and peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart with a remix by William Orbit.
The music video for this version used computer - generated science - fiction themed imagery, largely built around a partial re-creation of the M.C. Escher print Another World. The video was produced and directed by Don Searll. The song won Best British Video at the 1992 Brit Awards.
4 January 2005, saw a new single release of "Killer '', containing new remixes of both "Killer '' and "Crazy ''. This brought the single back to the Hot Dance Club Play chart, where it reached number one.
In 1991, George Michael performed "Killer '' live at the Wembley Arena in a version that was released on the 1993 EP Five Live. "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' was also recorded and released on the same album. The two songs were blended together in the live performance, then remixed several times. The P.M. Dawn extended and radio remix for the "Killer '' / "Papa '' combination was released in 1993. Michael shot a video for the release, in which he did not appear personally. It was during the time when Michael refused to exploit his outward look, which he thought would distract the audience from the music, his main concern. The video was directed by Marcus Nispel.
Trance act ATB recorded a version in 1999, released as a single on 31 May 1999 in Germany and on 19 September 2000 in the United States. The ATB version peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart and number 36 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart. Featuring vocals by Drue Williams, it was the producer 's first fully vocal - based song under the ATB name.
The song uses elements from both Adamski and Seal 's versions, updated with more contemporary production techniques. The UK radio edit differs from others in that it includes ATB 's signature guitar sound.
The song featured on the acclaimed 2000 mix album CreamLive.
Other versions of "Killer '' were performed by Northern Kings on the 2008 album Rethroned, Nina Hagen on her 2011 album Volksbeat, power metal band Angel Dust on the 2002 album Of Human Bondage, girl group Sugababes as a B - side to the 2003 single "Shape '', Scottish garage rock band Sons and Daughters as a B - side to their 2007 single "Gilt Complex '', UK alternative rock band 2: 54 as a B - side to the 2012 vinyl single "Sugar '' and Rhythm Police on the 2009 remix release "Killer ''. In 2010, Tiësto contributed a remix of the song for the game DJ Hero 2. In 2013, British rock band Bastille also made a more electronic heavy cover of "Killer '' on their second mixtape Other People 's Heartache Part 2.
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what is the role of the monarchy in uk | Monarchy of the United Kingdom - wikipedia
The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom, its dependencies and its overseas territories. The current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952.
The monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic and representational duties. As the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is commander - in - chief of the British Armed Forces. Though the ultimate formal executive authority over the government of the United Kingdom is still by and through the monarch 's royal prerogative, these powers may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament and, in practice, within the constraints of convention and precedent.
The British monarchy traces its origins from the petty kingdoms of early medieval Scotland and Anglo - Saxon England, which consolidated into the kingdoms of England and Scotland by the 10th century AD. In 1066, the last crowned Anglo - Saxon monarch, Harold Godwinson, was defeated and killed during the Norman conquest of England and the English monarchy passed to the Normans ' victorious leader, William the Conqueror, and his descendants.
From the 1080s, the lordships of South Wales were held by a succession of Norman families inter-married with older Welsh houses loyal to the English throne, with many lordships also held by the English King in his own right. The process was completed in the 13th century when the north of Wales, as a principality, became a client state of the English kingdom, while Magna Carta began a process of reducing the English monarch 's political powers.
From 1603, when the Scottish monarch James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, which followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The Act of Settlement 1701 excluded Roman Catholics, or those who married Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the world 's surface at its greatest extent in 1921.
In the early 1920s, five - sixths of Ireland seceded from the Union as the Irish Free State, and the Balfour Declaration recognised the evolution of the dominions of the empire into separate, self - governing countries within a Commonwealth of Nations. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, effectively bringing the empire to an end. George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states.
The United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the same person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. The terms British monarchy and British monarch are frequently still employed in reference to the shared individual and institution; however, each country is sovereign and independent of the others, and the monarch has a different, specific, and official national title and style for each realm.
In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch (otherwise referred to as the Sovereign or "His / Her Majesty '', abbreviated H.M.) is the Head of State. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. "God Save the Queen '' (or "God Save the King '') is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins and banknotes.
The Monarch takes little direct part in Government. The decisions to exercise sovereign powers are delegated from the Monarch, either by statute or by convention, to Ministers or officers of the Crown, or other public bodies, exclusive of the Monarch personally. Thus the acts of state done in the name of the Crown, such as Crown Appointments, even if personally performed by the Monarch, such as the Queen 's Speech and the State Opening of Parliament, depend upon decisions made elsewhere:
The Sovereign 's role as a constitutional monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions, such as granting honours. This role has been recognised since the 19th century. The constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the "dignified part '' rather than the "efficient part '' of government.
Whenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister (who by convention appoints and may dismiss every other Minister of the Crown, and thereby constitutes and controls the government). In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the Sovereign must appoint an individual who commands the support of the House of Commons, usually the leader of the party or coalition that has a majority in that House. The Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after "kissing hands '' that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument.
In a hung parliament where no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in choosing the individual likely to command the most support, though it would usually be the leader of the largest party. Since 1945, there have only been three hung parliaments. The first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilson 's Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party. The second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives (the largest party) and Liberal Democrats (the third largest party) agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II. The third occurred shortly thereafter, in June 2017, when the Conservative Party lost its majority in a snap election, though the party remained in power as a minority government.
In 1950 the King 's Private Secretary Sir Alan "Tommy '' Lascelles, writing pseudonymously to The Times newspaper asserted a constitutional convention: according to the Lascelles Principles, if a minority government asked to dissolve Parliament to call an early election to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse, and would do so under three conditions. When Harold Wilson requested a dissolution late in 1974, the Queen granted his request as Heath had already failed to form a coalition. The resulting general election gave Wilson a small majority. The monarch could in theory unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister, but a Prime Minister 's term now comes to an end only by electoral defeat, death, or resignation. The last monarch to remove a Prime Minister was William IV, who dismissed Lord Melbourne in 1834. The Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 removed the monarch 's authority to dissolve Parliament; the Act specifically retained the monarch 's power of prorogation however, which is a regular feature of the parliamentary calendar.
Some of the government 's executive authority is theoretically and nominally vested in the Sovereign and is known as the royal prerogative. The monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, exercising prerogative only on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament, often through the Prime Minister or Privy Council. In practice, prerogative powers are exercised only on the Prime Minister 's advice -- the Prime Minister, and not the Sovereign, has control. The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister. No records of these audiences are taken and the proceedings remain fully confidential. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the decisions of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet (providing they command the support of the House). In Bagehot 's words: "the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy... three rights -- the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn. ''
Although the Royal Prerogative is extensive and parliamentary approval is not formally required for its exercise, it is limited. Many Crown prerogatives have fallen out of use or have been permanently transferred to Parliament. For example, the monarch can not impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. According to a parliamentary report, "The Crown can not invent new prerogative powers '', and Parliament can override any prerogative power by passing legislation.
The Royal Prerogative includes the powers to appoint and dismiss ministers, regulate the civil service, issue passports, declare war, make peace, direct the actions of the military, and negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements. However, a treaty can not alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The monarch is the Head of the Armed Forces (the Royal Navy, the British Army, and the Royal Air Force), and accredits British High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives heads of missions from foreign states.
It is the prerogative of the monarch to summon and prorogue Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the monarch 's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament, during which the Sovereign reads the Speech from the throne in the Chamber of the House of Lords, outlining the Government 's legislative agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term, and is followed by a general election for all seats in the House of Commons. A general election is normally held five years after the previous one under the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, but can be held sooner if the Prime Minister loses a motion of confidence, or if two - thirds of the members of the House of Commons vote to hold an early election.
Before a bill passed by the legislative Houses can become law, the royal assent (the monarch 's approval) is required. In theory, assent can either be granted (making the bill law) or withheld (vetoing the bill), but since 1707 assent has always been granted.
The monarch has a similar relationship with the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament, and the First Minister of Wales on the nomination of the National Assembly for Wales. In Scottish matters, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government. However, as devolution is more limited in Wales, in Welsh matters the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Sovereign can veto any law passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly, if it is deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.
The Sovereign is deemed the "fount of justice ''; although the Sovereign does not personally rule in judicial cases, judicial functions are performed in his or her name. For instance, prosecutions are brought on the monarch 's behalf, and courts derive their authority from the Crown. The common law holds that the Sovereign "can do no wrong ''; the monarch can not be prosecuted for criminal offences. The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government), but not lawsuits against the monarch personally. The Sovereign exercises the "prerogative of mercy '', which is used to pardon convicted offenders or reduce sentences.
The monarch is the "fount of honour '', the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. The Crown creates all peerages, appoints members of the orders of chivalry, grants knighthoods and awards other honours. Although peerages and most other honours are granted on the advice of the Prime Minister, some honours are within the personal gift of the Sovereign, and are not granted on ministerial advice. The monarch alone appoints members of the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of Merit.
Following Viking raids and settlement in the ninth century, the Anglo - Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the Great secured Wessex, achieved dominance over western Mercia, and assumed the title "King of the English ''. His grandson Æthelstan was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to the present borders of England, though its constituent parts retained strong regional identities. The 11th century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes, which resulted in a Danish monarchy for one generation. The conquest of England in 1066 by William, Duke of Normandy, was crucial in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in the Anglo - Saxon period, while the Feudal System continued to develop.
William was succeeded by two of his sons: William II, then Henry I. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter Matilda (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry 's death in 1135, one of William I 's grandsons, Stephen, laid claim to the throne and took power with the support of most of the barons. Matilda challenged his reign; as a result, England descended into a period of disorder known as the Anarchy. Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power but agreed to a compromise under which Matilda 's son Henry would succeed him. Henry accordingly became the first Angevin king of England and the first monarch of the Plantagenet dynasty as Henry II in 1154.
The reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs were marred by civil strife and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility. Henry II faced rebellions from his own sons, the future monarchs Richard I and John. Nevertheless, Henry managed to expand his kingdom, forming what is retrospectively known as the Angevin Empire. Upon Henry 's death, his elder son Richard succeeded to the throne; he was absent from England for most of his reign, as he left to fight in the Crusades. He was killed besieging a castle, and John succeeded him.
John 's reign was marked by conflict with the barons, particularly over the limits of royal power. In 1215, the barons coerced the king into issuing Magna Carta (Latin for "Great Charter '') to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility. Soon afterwards, further disagreements plunged England into a civil war known as the First Barons ' War. The war came to an abrupt end after John died in 1216, leaving the Crown to his nine - year - old son Henry III. Later in Henry 's reign, Simon de Montfort led the barons in another rebellion, beginning the Second Barons ' War. The war ended in a clear royalist victory and in the death of many rebels, but not before the king had agreed to summon a parliament in 1265.
The next monarch, Edward Longshanks, was far more successful in maintaining royal power and responsible for the conquest of Wales. He attempted to establish English domination of Scotland. However, gains in Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor, Edward II, who also faced conflict with the nobility. In 1311, Edward II was forced to relinquish many of his powers to a committee of baronial "ordainers ''; however, military victories helped him regain control in 1322. Nevertheless, in 1327, Edward was deposed by his wife Isabella. His 14 - year - old son became Edward III. Edward III claimed the French Crown, setting off the Hundred Years ' War between England and France.
His campaigns conquered much French territory, but by 1374, all the gains had been lost. Edward 's reign was also marked by the further development of Parliament, which came to be divided into two Houses. In 1377, Edward III died, leaving the Crown to his 10 - year - old grandson Richard II. Like many of his predecessors, Richard II conflicted with the nobles by attempting to concentrate power in his own hands. In 1399, while he was campaigning in Ireland, his cousin Henry Bolingbroke seized power. Richard was deposed, imprisoned, and eventually murdered, probably by starvation, and Henry became king as Henry IV.
Henry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster; hence, his dynasty was known as the House of Lancaster. For most of his reign, Henry IV was forced to fight off plots and rebellions; his success was partly due to the military skill of his son, the future Henry V. Henry V 's own reign, which began in 1413, was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to pursue the Hundred Years ' War in France. Although he was victorious, his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son Henry VI on the throne and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow English rule.
The unpopularity of Henry VI 's counsellors and his belligerent consort, Margaret of Anjou, as well as his own ineffectual leadership, led to the weakening of the House of Lancaster. The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of York, so called because its head, a descendant of Edward III, was Richard, Duke of York. Although the Duke of York died in battle in 1460, his eldest son, Edward IV, led the Yorkists to victory in 1461. The Wars of the Roses, nevertheless, continued intermittently during his reign and those of his son Edward V and brother Richard III. Edward V disappeared, presumably murdered by Richard. Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian branch led by Henry Tudor, in 1485, when Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field.
Now King Henry VII, he neutralised the remaining Yorkist forces, partly by marrying Elizabeth of York, a Yorkist heir. Through skill and ability, Henry re-established absolute supremacy in the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end. The reign of the second Tudor king, Henry VIII, was one of great political change. Religious upheaval and disputes with the Pope led the monarch to break from the Roman Catholic Church and to establish the Church of England (the Anglican Church).
Wales -- which had been conquered centuries earlier, but had remained a separate dominion -- was annexed to England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. Henry VIII 's son and successor, the young Edward VI, continued with further religious reforms, but his early death in 1553 precipitated a succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half - sister Mary I to succeed, and therefore drew up a will designating Lady Jane Grey as his heiress. Jane 's reign, however, lasted only nine days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her and declared herself the lawful sovereign. Mary I married Philip of Spain, who was declared king and co-ruler, pursued disastrous wars in France and attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism, burning Protestants at the stake as heretics in the process. Upon her death in 1558, the pair were succeeded by her Protestant half - sister Elizabeth I. England returned to Protestantism and continued its growth into a major world power by building its navy and exploring the New World.
In Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of the Roman empire from Britain in the early fifth century. The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the Picts in the north east, the Britons in the south, including the Kingdom of Strathclyde, and the Gaels or Scotti (who would later give their name to Scotland), of the Irish petty kingdom of Dál Riata in the west. Kenneth MacAlpin is traditionally viewed as the first king of a united Scotland (known as Scotia to writers in Latin, or Alba to the Scots). The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries, as other territories such as Strathclyde were absorbed.
Early Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead the custom of tanistry was followed, where the monarchy alternated between different branches of the House of Alpin. As a result, however, the rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. From 942 to 1005, seven consecutive monarchs were either murdered or killed in battle. In 1005, Malcolm II ascended the throne having killed many rivals. He continued to ruthlessly eliminate opposition, and when he died in 1034 he was succeeded by his grandson, Duncan I, instead of a cousin, as had been usual. In 1040, Duncan suffered defeat in battle at the hands of Macbeth, who was killed himself in 1057 by Duncan 's son Malcolm. The following year, after killing Macbeth 's stepson Lulach, Malcolm ascended the throne as Malcolm III.
With a further series of battles and deposings, five of Malcolm 's sons as well as one of his brothers successively became king. Eventually, the Crown came to his youngest son, David I. David was succeeded by his grandsons Malcolm IV, and then by William the Lion, the longest - reigning King of Scots before the Union of the Crowns. William participated in a rebellion against King Henry II of England but when the rebellion failed, William was captured by the English. In exchange for his release, William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal overlord. The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the arrangement in 1189, in return for a large sum of money needed for the Crusades. William died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son Alexander II. Alexander II, as well as his successor Alexander III, attempted to take over the Western Isles, which were still under the overlordship of Norway. During the reign of Alexander III, Norway launched an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland; the ensuing Treaty of Perth recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed areas.
Alexander III 's unexpected death in a riding accident in 1286 precipitated a major succession crisis. Scottish leaders appealed to King Edward I of England for help in determining who was the rightful heir. Edward chose Alexander 's three - year - old Norwegian granddaughter, Margaret. On her way to Scotland in 1290, however, Margaret died at sea, and Edward was again asked to adjudicate between 13 rival claimants to the throne. A court was set up and after two years of deliberation, it pronounced John Balliol to be king. Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a vassal, and tried to exert influence over Scotland. In 1295, when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England, Edward I invaded. During the first ten years of the ensuing Wars of Scottish Independence, Scotland had no monarch, until Robert the Bruce declared himself king in 1306.
Robert 's efforts to control Scotland culminated in success, and Scottish independence was acknowledged in 1328. However, only one year later, Robert died and was succeeded by his five - year - old son, David II. On the pretext of restoring John Balliol 's rightful heir, Edward Balliol, the English again invaded in 1332. During the next four years, Balliol was crowned, deposed, restored, deposed, restored, and deposed until he eventually settled in England, and David remained king for the next 35 years.
David II died childless in 1371 and was succeeded by his nephew Robert II of the House of Stuart. The reigns of both Robert II and his successor, Robert III, were marked by a general decline in royal power. When Robert III died in 1406, regents had to rule the country; the monarch, Robert III 's son James I, had been taken captive by the English. Having paid a large ransom, James returned to Scotland in 1424; to restore his authority, he used ruthless measures, including the execution of several of his enemies. He was assassinated by a group of nobles. James II continued his father 's policies by subduing influential noblemen but he was killed in an accident at the age of thirty, and a council of regents again assumed power. James III was defeated in a battle against rebellious Scottish earls in 1488, leading to another boy - king: James IV.
In 1513 James IV launched an invasion of England, attempting to take advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII. His forces met with disaster at Flodden Field; the King, many senior noblemen, and hundreds of soldiers were killed. As his son and successor, James V, was an infant, the government was again taken over by regents. James V led another disastrous war with the English in 1542, and his death in the same year left the Crown in the hands of his six - day - old daughter, Mary I. Once again, a regency was established.
Mary, a Roman Catholic, reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland. As a result of the efforts of reformers such as John Knox, a Protestant ascendancy was established. Mary caused alarm by marrying her Catholic cousin, Lord Darnley, in 1565. After Lord Darnley 's assassination in 1567, Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of Darnley 's murder. The nobility rebelled against the Queen, forcing her to abdicate. She fled to England, and the Crown went to her infant son James VI, who was brought up as a Protestant. Mary was imprisoned and later executed by the English queen Elizabeth I.
Elizabeth I 's death in 1603 ended Tudor rule in England. Since she had no children, she was succeeded by the Scottish monarch James VI, who was the great - grandson of Henry VIII 's older sister and hence Elizabeth 's first cousin twice removed. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the "Union of the Crowns ''. Although England and Scotland were in personal union under one monarch -- James I became the first monarch to style himself "King of Great Britain '' in 1604 -- they remained two separate kingdoms. James I 's successor, Charles I, experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers, especially the power to impose taxes. He provoked opposition by ruling without Parliament from 1629 to 1640, unilaterally levying taxes and adopting controversial religious policies (many of which were offensive to the Scottish Presbyterians and the English Puritans). His attempt to enforce Anglicanism led to organised rebellion in Scotland (the "Bishops ' Wars '') and ignited the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In 1642, the conflict between the King and English Parliament reached its climax and the English Civil War began.
The Civil War culminated in the execution of the king in 1649, the overthrow of the English monarchy, and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England. Charles I 's son, Charles II, was proclaimed King of Great Britain in Scotland, but he was forced to flee abroad after he invaded England and was defeated at the Battle of Worcester. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell, the most prominent military and political leader in the nation, seized power and declared himself Lord Protector (effectively becoming a military dictator, but refusing the title of king). Cromwell ruled until his death in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing; he soon resigned. The lack of clear leadership led to civil and military unrest, and for a popular desire to restore the monarchy. In 1660, the monarchy was restored and Charles II returned to Britain.
Charles II 's reign was marked by the development of the first modern political parties in England. Charles had no legitimate children, and was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. A parliamentary effort to exclude James from the line of succession arose; the "Petitioners '', who supported exclusion, became the Whig Party, whereas the "Abhorrers '', who opposed exclusion, became the Tory Party. The Exclusion Bill failed; on several occasions, Charles II dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass. After the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681, Charles ruled without a Parliament until his death in 1685. When James succeeded Charles, he pursued a policy of offering religious tolerance to Roman Catholics, thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant subjects. Many opposed James 's decisions to maintain a large standing army, to appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military offices, and to imprison Church of England clerics who challenged his policies. As a result, a group of Protestants known as the Immortal Seven invited James II 's daughter Mary and her husband William III of Orange to depose the king. William obliged, arriving in England on 5 November 1688 to great public support. Faced with the defection of many of his Protestant officials, James fled the realm and William and Mary (rather than James II 's Catholic son) were declared joint Sovereigns of England, Scotland and Ireland.
James 's overthrow, known as the Glorious Revolution, was one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary power. The Bill of Rights 1689 affirmed parliamentary supremacy, and declared that the English people held certain rights, including the freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent. The Bill of Rights required future monarchs to be Protestants, and provided that, after any children of William and Mary, Mary 's sister Anne would inherit the Crown. Mary died childless in 1694, leaving William as the sole monarch. By 1700, a political crisis arose, as all of Anne 's children had died, leaving her as the only individual left in the line of succession. Parliament was afraid that the former James II or his supporters, known as Jacobites, might attempt to reclaim the throne. Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701, which excluded James and his Catholic relations from the succession and made William 's nearest Protestant relations, the family of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, next in line to the throne after his sister - in - law Anne. Soon after the passage of the Act, William III died, leaving the Crown to Anne.
After Anne 's accession, the problem of the succession re-emerged. The Scottish Parliament, infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia 's family as the next heirs, passed the Act of Security 1704, threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the Alien Act 1705, threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by restricting trade. The Scottish and English parliaments negotiated the Acts of Union 1707, under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain, with succession under the rules prescribed by the Act of Settlement.
In 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by her second cousin, and Sophia 's son, George I, Elector of Hanover, who consolidated his position by defeating Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719. The new monarch was less active in government than many of his British predecessors, but retained control over his German kingdoms, with which Britain was now in personal union. Power shifted towards George 's ministers, especially to Sir Robert Walpole, who is often considered the first British prime minister, although the title was not then in use. The next monarch, George II, witnessed the final end of the Jacobite threat in 1746, when the Catholic Stuarts were completely defeated. During the long reign of his grandson, George III, Britain 's American colonies were lost, the former colonies having formed the United States of America, but British influence elsewhere in the world continued to grow, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created by the Acts of Union 1800.
From 1811 to 1820, George III suffered a severe bout of what is now believed to be porphyria, an illness rendering him incapable of ruling. His son, the future George IV, ruled in his stead as Prince Regent. During the Regency and his own reign, the power of the monarchy declined, and by the time of his successor, William IV, the monarch was no longer able to effectively interfere with parliamentary power. In 1834, William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, and appointed a Tory, Sir Robert Peel. In the ensuing elections, however, Peel lost. The king had no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne. During William IV 's reign, the Reform Act 1832, which reformed parliamentary representation, was passed. Together with others passed later in the century, the Act led to an expansion of the electoral franchise and the rise of the House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament.
The final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of William IV 's successor, Victoria. As a woman, Victoria could not rule Hanover, which only permitted succession in the male line, so the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end. The Victorian era was marked by great cultural change, technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world 's foremost powers. In recognition of British rule over India, Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876. However, her reign was also marked by increased support for the republican movement, due in part to Victoria 's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861.
Victoria 's son, Edward VII, became the first monarch of the House of Saxe - Coburg and Gotha in 1901. In 1917, the next monarch, George V, changed "Saxe - Coburg and Gotha '' to "Windsor '' in response to the anti-German sympathies aroused by the First World War. George V 's reign was marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom, and the Irish Free State, an independent nation, in 1922.
During the twentieth century, the Commonwealth of Nations evolved from the British Empire. Prior to 1926, the British Crown reigned over the British Empire collectively; the Dominions and Crown Colonies were subordinate to the United Kingdom. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave complete self - government to the Dominions, effectively creating a system whereby a single monarch operated independently in each separate Dominion. The concept was solidified by the Statute of Westminster 1931, which has been likened to "a treaty among the Commonwealth countries ''.
The monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it is often still referred to as "British '' for legal and historical reasons and for convenience. The monarch became separately monarch of the United Kingdom, monarch of Canada, monarch of Australia, and so forth. The independent states within the Commonwealth would share the same monarch in a relationship likened to a personal union.
George V 's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of Edward VIII, who caused a public scandal by announcing his desire to marry the divorced American Wallis Simpson, even though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcées. Accordingly, Edward announced his intention to abdicate; the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth countries granted his request. Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were excluded from the line of succession, and the Crown went to his brother, George VI. George served as a rallying figure for the British people during World War II, making morale - boosting visits to the troops as well as to munitions factories and to areas bombed by Nazi Germany. In June 1948 George VI relinquished the title Emperor of India, although remaining head of state of the Dominion of India.
At first, every member of the Commonwealth retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, but when the Dominion of India became a republic in 1950, it would no longer share in a common monarchy. Instead, the British monarch was acknowledged as "Head of the Commonwealth '' in all Commonwealth member states, whether they were realms or republics. The position is purely ceremonial, and is not inherited by the British monarch as of right but is vested in an individual chosen by the Commonwealth heads of government. Member states of the Commonwealth that share the same person as monarch are known as Commonwealth realms.
In 1155 the only English pope, Adrian IV, authorised King Henry II of England to take possession of Ireland as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship. The pope wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the Irish church into line with Rome, despite this process already underway in Ireland by 1155. An all - island kingship of Ireland had been created in 854 by Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid. His last successor was Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, who had become King of Ireland in early 1166, and exiled Diarmait Mac Murchada, King of Leinster. Diarmait asked Henry II for help, gaining a group of Anglo - Norman aristocrats and adventurers, led by Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, to help him regain his throne. Diarmait and his Anglo - Norman allies succeeded and he became King of Leinster again. De Clare married Diarmait 's daughter, and when Diarmait died in 1171, de Clare became King of Leinster. Henry was afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival Norman kingdom, so he took advantage of the papal bull and invaded, forcing de Clare and the other Anglo - Norman aristocrats in Ireland and the major Irish kings and lords to recognise him as their overlord. English lords came close to colonising the entire island, but a Gaelic resurgence from the 1260s resulted in the island divided between Gaelic - Irish and Anglo - Irish lords by 1400. Many of the latter became completely Gaelicised, and did not recognise England 's kings except perhaps nominally. Some, such as Manus O'Donnell and Conn O'Neill, 1st Earl of Tyrone, were kings themselves.
By 1541, King Henry VIII of England had broken with the Church of Rome and declared himself Supreme Head of the Church of England. The pope 's grant of Ireland to the English monarch became invalid, so Henry summoned a meeting of the Irish Parliament to change his title from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland. However much of the island was beyond English control, resulting in the extended Tudor conquest of Ireland that only made the Kingdom of Ireland a reality in 1603, at the conclusion of the Nine Years ' War (Ireland). Nevertheless, Ireland retained its own parliament, becoming an independent state in 1642 - 1649 (Confederate Ireland), and again in 1688 - 91. Only warfare such as the Williamite War in Ireland and subsequent occupation enabled the English crown from 1692, and successive British states from 1707, to retain the country.
In 1800, as a result of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the Act of Union merged the kingdom of Great Britain and the kingdom of Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The whole island of Ireland continued to be a part of the United Kingdom until 1922, when what is now the Republic of Ireland won independence as the Irish Free State, a separate Dominion within the Commonwealth. The Irish Free State was renamed Éire (or "Ireland '') in 1937, and in 1949 declared itself a republic, left the Commonwealth and severed all ties with the monarchy. Northern Ireland remained within the Union. In 1927, the United Kingdom changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, while the monarch 's style for the next twenty years became "of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India ''.
In the 1990s, republicanism in the United Kingdom grew, partly on account of negative publicity associated with the Royal Family (for instance, immediately following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales). However, polls from 2002 to 2007 showed that around 70 -- 80 % of the British public supported the continuation of the monarchy.
The sovereign is the Supreme Governor of the established Church of England. Archbishops and bishops are appointed by the monarch, on the advice of the Prime Minister, who chooses the appointee from a list of nominees prepared by a Church Commission. The Crown 's role in the Church of England is titular; the most senior clergyman, the Archbishop of Canterbury, is the spiritual leader of the Church and of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The monarch takes an oath to preserve Church of Scotland and he or she holds the power to appoint the Lord High Commissioner to the Church 's General Assembly, but otherwise plays no part in its governance, and exerts no powers over it. The Sovereign plays no formal role in the disestablished Church in Wales or Church of Ireland.
The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the laws governing succession to the shared throne requires the unanimous consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes such as the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Acts of Union 1707. The rules of succession may only be changed by an Act of Parliament; it is not possible for an individual to renounce his or her right of succession. The Act of Settlement restricts the succession to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover (1630 -- 1714), a granddaughter of James I.
Upon the death of a sovereign, his or her heir immediately and automatically succeeds (hence the phrase "The king is dead, long live the king! ''), and the accession of the new sovereign is publicly proclaimed by an Accession Council that meets at St James 's Palace. Upon their accession, a new sovereign is required by law to make and subscribe several oaths: the Accession Declaration as first required by the Bill of Rights, and an oath that they will "maintain and preserve '' the Church of Scotland settlement as required by the Act of Union. The monarch is usually crowned in Westminster Abbey, normally by the Archbishop of Canterbury. A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign; indeed, the ceremony usually takes place many months after accession to allow sufficient time for its preparation and for a period of mourning.
After an individual ascends the throne, he or she reigns until death. The only voluntary abdication, that of Edward VIII, had to be authorised by a special Act of Parliament, His Majesty 's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. The last monarch involuntarily removed from power was James VII and II, who fled into exile in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution.
Succession was largely governed by male - preference cognatic primogeniture, under which sons inherit before daughters, and elder children inherit before younger ones of the same gender. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Cameron, announced at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 that all 16 Commonwealth realms, including the United Kingdom, had agreed to abolish the gender - preference rule for anyone born after the date of the meeting, 28 October 2011. They also agreed that future monarchs would no longer be prohibited from marrying a Roman Catholic -- a law which dated from the Act of Settlement 1701. However, since the monarch is also the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, the law which prohibits a Roman Catholic from acceding to the throne remains. The necessary UK legislation making the changes received the royal assent on 25 April 2013 and was brought into force in March 2015 after the equivalent legislation was approved in all the other Commonwealth realms.
Only individuals who are Protestants may inherit the Crown. Roman Catholics are prohibited from succeeding. An individual thus disabled from inheriting the Crown is deemed "naturally dead '' for succession purposes, and the disqualification does not extend to the individual 's legitimate descendants.
The Regency Acts allow for regencies in the event of a monarch who is a minor or who is physically or mentally incapacitated. When a regency is necessary, the next qualified individual in the line of succession automatically becomes regent, unless they themselves are a minor or incapacitated. Special provisions were made for Queen Elizabeth II by the Regency Act 1953, which stated that the Duke of Edinburgh (the Queen 's husband) could act as regent in these circumstances.
During a temporary physical infirmity or an absence from the kingdom, the sovereign may temporarily delegate some of his or her functions to Counsellors of State, the monarch 's spouse and the first four adults in the line of succession. The present Counsellors of State are: the Duke of Edinburgh, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Cambridge, the Duke of Sussex and the Duke of York.
Until 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues, which included the profits of the Crown Estate (the royal property portfolio). King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List, and this arrangement persisted until 2012. An annual Property Services grant - in - aid paid for the upkeep of the royal residences, and an annual Royal Travel Grant - in - Aid paid for travel. The Civil List covered most expenses, including those for staffing, state visits, public engagements, and official entertainment. Its size was fixed by Parliament every 10 years; any money saved was carried forward to the next 10 - year period. From 2012 until 2020, the Civil List and Grants - in - Aid are to be replaced with a single Sovereign Grant, which will be set at 15 % of the revenues generated by the Crown Estate.
The Crown Estate is one of the largest property owners in the United Kingdom, with holdings of £ 7.3 billion in 2011. It is held in trust, and can not be sold or owned by the Sovereign in a private capacity. In modern times, the profits surrendered from the Crown Estate to the Treasury have exceeded the Civil List and Grants - in - Aid. For example, the Crown Estate produced £ 200 million in the financial year 2007 -- 8, whereas reported parliamentary funding for the monarch was £ 40 million during the same period.
Like the Crown Estate, the land and assets of the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued at £ 383 million in 2011, are held in trust. The revenues of the Duchy form part of the Privy Purse, and are used for expenses not borne by the parliamentary grants. The Duchy of Cornwall is a similar estate held in trust to meet the expenses of the monarch 's eldest son. The Royal Collection, which includes artworks and the Crown Jewels, is not owned by the Sovereign personally and is held in trust, as are the occupied palaces in the United Kingdom such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle.
The sovereign is subject to indirect taxes such as value - added tax, and since 1993 the Queen has paid income tax and capital gains tax on personal income. Parliamentary grants to the Sovereign are not treated as income as they are solely for official expenditure. Republicans estimate that the real cost of the monarchy, including security and potential income not claimed by the state, such as profits from the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall and rent of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, is £ 334 million a year.
Estimates of the Queen 's wealth vary, depending on whether assets owned by her personally or held in trust for the nation are included. Forbes magazine estimated her wealth at US $450 million in 2010, but no official figure is available. In 1993, the Lord Chamberlain said estimates of £ 100 million were "grossly overstated ''. Jock Colville, who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth in 1971 at £ 2 million (the equivalent of about £ 26 million today).
The Sovereign 's official residence in London is Buckingham Palace. It is the site of most state banquets, investitures, royal christenings and other ceremonies. Another official residence is Windsor Castle, the largest occupied castle in the world, which is used principally at weekends, Easter and during Royal Ascot, an annual race meeting that is part of the social calendar. The Sovereign 's official residence in Scotland is the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh. The monarch stays at Holyrood for at least one week each year, and when visiting Scotland on state occasions.
Historically, the Palace of Westminster and the Tower of London were the main residences of the English Sovereign until Henry VIII acquired the Palace of Whitehall. Whitehall was destroyed by fire in 1698, leading to a shift to St James 's Palace. Although replaced as the monarch 's primary London residence by Buckingham Palace in 1837, St James 's is still the senior palace and remains the ceremonial Royal residence. For example, foreign ambassadors are accredited to the Court of St James 's, and the Palace is the site of the meeting of the Accession Council. It is also used by other members of the Royal Family.
Other residences include Clarence House and Kensington Palace. The palaces belong to the Crown; they are held in trust for future rulers, and can not be sold by the monarch. Sandringham House in Norfolk and Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire are privately owned by the Queen.
The present Sovereign 's full style and title is "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith ''. The title "Head of the Commonwealth '' is held by the Queen personally, and is not vested in the British Crown. Pope Leo X first granted the title "Defender of the Faith '' to King Henry VIII in 1521, rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of the Protestant Reformation, particularly for his book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments. After Henry broke from the Roman Church, Pope Paul III revoked the grant, but Parliament passed a law authorising its continued use.
The Sovereign is known as "His Majesty '' or "Her Majesty ''. The form "Britannic Majesty '' appears in international treaties and on passports to differentiate the British monarch from foreign rulers. The monarch chooses his or her regnal name, not necessarily his or her first name -- King George VI, King Edward VII and Queen Victoria did not use their first names.
If only one monarch has used a particular name, no ordinal is used; for example, Queen Victoria is not known as "Victoria I '', and ordinals are not used for English monarchs who reigned before the Norman conquest of England. The question of whether numbering for British monarchs is based on previous English or Scottish monarchs was raised in 1953 when Scottish nationalists challenged the Queen 's use of "Elizabeth II '', on the grounds that there had never been an "Elizabeth I '' in Scotland. In MacCormick v Lord Advocate, the Scottish Court of Session ruled against the plaintiffs, finding that the Queen 's title was a matter of her own choice and prerogative. The Home Secretary told the House of Commons that monarchs since the Acts of Union had consistently used the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals, which in the applicable four cases has been the English ordinal. The Prime Minister confirmed this practice, but noted that "neither The Queen nor her advisers could seek to bind their successors ''. Future monarchs will apply this policy.
Traditionally, the signature of the monarch includes their regnal name but not ordinal, followed by the letter R, which stands for rex or regina (Latin for king and queen, respectively). The present monarch 's signature is "Elizabeth R ''. From 1877 until 1948 reigning monarchs added the letter I to their signatures, for imperator or imperatrix (emperor or empress in Latin), from their status as Emperor or Empress of India. For example, Queen Victoria signed as "Victoria RI '' from 1877.
The Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom are "Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory - counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland) ''. The supporters are the Lion and the Unicorn; the motto is "Dieu et mon droit '' (French: "God and my Right ''). Surrounding the shield is a representation of a Garter bearing the motto of the Chivalric order of the same name; "Honi soit qui mal y pense ''. (Old French: "Shame be to him who thinks evil of it ''). In Scotland, the monarch uses an alternative form of the arms in which quarters I and IV represent Scotland, II England, and III Ireland. The mottoes are "In Defens '' (an abbreviated form of the Scots "In My Defens God Me Defend '') and the motto of the Order of the Thistle; "Nemo me impune lacessit ''. (Latin: "No - one provokes me with impunity ''); the supporters are the unicorn and lion, who support both the escutcheon and lances, from which fly the flags of Scotland and England.
The monarch 's official flag in the United Kingdom is the Royal Standard, which depicts the Royal Arms in banner form. It is flown only from buildings, vessels and vehicles in which the Sovereign is present. The Royal Standard is never flown at half - mast because there is always a sovereign: when one dies, his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly.
When the monarch is not in residence, the Union Flag is flown at Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle and Sandringham House, whereas in Scotland the Royal Standard of Scotland is flown at Holyrood Palace and Balmoral Castle.
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what's the hummingbird's name in pocahontas | Pocahontas (1995 film) - wikipedia
Pocahontas is a 1995 American animated musical romantic drama film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation for Walt Disney Pictures. The 33rd Disney animated feature film, it was directed by Mike Gabriel and Eric Goldberg and is loosely inspired by the Native American woman Pocahontas. It portrays a fictionalized account of her historical encounter with Englishman John Smith and the Jamestown settlers that arrived from the Virginia Company. The voice cast stars Irene Bedard and Mel Gibson as Pocahontas and Smith, respectively, with David Ogden Stiers, Russell Means, Christian Bale, Billy Connolly, and Linda Hunt. The score was written by Alan Menken, who also wrote the film 's songs with Stephen Schwartz.
After making his directorial debut with The Rescuers Down Under (1990), Gabriel conceived the film during a Thanksgiving weekend. The project went into development concurrently with The Lion King (1994) and attracted most of Disney 's top animators. Meanwhile, Disney studio chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg decided the film should be a serious romantic epic in the vein of Beauty and the Beast (1991), in hope that, like Beauty, it would also be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture. Screenwriters Carl Binder, Susannah Grant, and Philip LaZebnik took creative liberties with history in an attempt to make the film palatable to audiences.
Pocahontas was released on June 23, 1995 to mixed reactions from reviewers, who praised its animation but criticized its story; the film 's racial overtones and historical inaccuracy also garnered a mix of condemnation and praise. While Pocahontas earned $346 million at the box office, its gross was seen as a disappointment compared to that of The Lion King. The film received two Academy Awards for Best Musical or Comedy Score for Menken and Best Original Song for the song "Colors of the Wind ''. A video game based on the film was released across various platforms, and the film itself was followed by a direct - to - video sequel titled Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World in 1998. Critics have noted the influence that Pocahontas had on subsequent films.
In 1607, the Susan Constant sails to the New World from London, carrying English settlers from the Virginia Company. On board are Captain John Smith and the voyage 's leader Governor Ratcliffe, who seeks gold to bring him wealth and status. Along the way, the Susan Constant is caught in a North Atlantic storm, and Smith saves a young, inexperienced crewmate named Thomas from drowning. As they approach the New World, the settlers, including Smith, talk of adventure, finding gold, fighting ' Injuns ', and perhaps settling in the new land.
In the Powhatan tribe in Tsenacommacah, North America, Pocahontas, the daughter of Chief Powhatan, fears being possibly wed to Kocoum, a brave warrior whom she sees as too serious for her own free - spirited personality. Powhatan gives Pocahontas her mother 's necklace as a present. Pocahontas, along with her friends, the raccoon Meeko and hummingbird Flit, visit Grandmother Willow, a spiritual talking willow tree, and speaks of a dream involving a spinning arrow, and her confusion regarding what her path in life should be. Grandmother Willow then alerts Pocahontas to the arriving English.
Ratcliffe has Jamestown built in a wooded clearing and immediately has the crewmen dig for gold. Smith departs to explore the wilderness and encounters Pocahontas. They quickly bond, fascinated by each other 's worlds and end up falling in love, despite Powhatan 's orders to keep away from the English after Kocoum and other warriors engage them in a fight. Meanwhile, Meeko meets Percy, Ratcliffe 's pet pug, and becomes the bane of his existence. Pocahontas introduces Smith to Grandmother Willow and avoids two other crewmen, but Pocahontas 's best friend Nakoma discovers her relationship with Smith and warns Kocoum. Ratcliffe also learns of Smith 's encounters and angrily warns Smith against sparing any natives he comes across on pain of death.
Later, Smith and Pocahontas meet with Grandmother Willow and plan to bring peace between the colonists and the tribe. Smith and Pocahontas share a kiss, while Kocoum and Thomas, sent by Ratcliffe to spy on Smith, witness from afar. Enraged, Kocoum screaming a Battle cry for attacks and attempts to kill Smith, but Thomas intervenes with his musket and kills Kocoum, who destroys Pocahontas ' necklace in the process. Smith orders Thomas to leave just before the tribesmen come and capture Smith while Kocoum 's body is taken away. Enraged at Kocoum 's death, Powhatan declares war on the English, beginning with Smith 's execution at sunrise. Pocahontas tries to convince him otherwise, but Powhatan refuses to listen, as he is furious with her for not listening to his orders to remain in the village.
Thomas reaches Jamestown safely at night and warns the crewmen of Smith 's capture. Ratcliffe then rallies his men to battle using this as an excuse to annihilate the tribe and find their non-existent gold. That same night, Powhatan also orders his men to prepare for battle. A desperate Pocahontas visits Grandmother Willow, where Meeko hands her Smith 's compass. Pocahontas realizes Smith 's compass was the spinning arrow from her real life encounter, which leads to her destiny. Just then morning comes, and Powhatan and his tribe forcibly bring Smith to a cliff overlooking a clearing for execution. Meanwhile, Ratcliffe leads the armed colonists to the cliff to fight Powhatan 's warriors. Just as Powhatan is about to kill Smith, Pocahontas stops him and finally convinces him to end the fighting between the two groups. Everyone accepts gracefully, except Ratcliffe, who tries to shoot Powhatan dead in anger, but inadvertently shoots Smith instead when he shields Powhatan. Ratcliffe is then arrested by his crewmen, who turn on him for hurting their comrade. In the end, Smith is forced to return home to receive medical treatment, while Ratcliffe is also sent back to England to face punishment for his crimes. Smith asks Pocahontas to come with him, but she chooses to stay with her tribe. Meeko and Percy, now friends, give Pocahontas her mother 's necklace completely fixed. Smith leaves without Pocahontas but with Powhatan 's blessing to return in the future.
Three actors in the film have been involved in other Pocahontas - related projects. Gordon Tootoosis acted as Chief Powhatan in Pocahontas: The Legend (1995). Christian Bale and Irene Bedard would portray John Rolfe and Pocahontas 's mother, respectively, in Terrence Malick 's The New World (2005).
Following the release of The Rescuers Down Under (1990), director Mike Gabriel was eager to collaborate with veteran Disney story artist Joe Grant on a follow - up project that was vastly different from the animated adventure film. During Thanksgiving weekend, 1990, Gabriel considered adapting Western legends such as Annie Oakley, Buffalo Bill, and Pecos Bill into animated films before conceiving of Pocahontas. Pitching his idea at the Gong Show meeting, Gabriel wrote the title Walt Disney 's Pocahontas on an image of Tiger Lily from Peter Pan (1953), to the back of which he taped a brief pitch that read "an Indian princess who is torn between her father 's wishes to destroy the English settlers and her wishes to help them -- a girl caught between her father and her people, and her love for the enemy. '' Coincidentally, Feature Animation president Peter Schneider had been developing an animated version of William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet, and observed several similarities between his idea and Gabriel 's Pocahontas pitch; Schneider recalled, "We were particularly interested in exploring the theme of ' If we do n't learn to live with one another, we will destroy ourselves. ' '' Gabriel 's pitch was quickly accepted, becoming the quickest story turnaround in Disney studio history.
After Beauty and the Beast (1991) was unprecedentedly nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture at the 64th Academy Awards, then - studio chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg opted to produce another animated romance film in the hopes of achieving a similar feat. While Aladdin (1992) and The Lion King (1994) were considered to be too far into development, Katzenberg deemed Pocahontas a promising candidate, and thus pushed for the heroine to be older, the romance between her and Smith to be more mature, and the animals to be mute. Head of Story Tom Sito went on the record stating he wanted to include "broader '' jokes, but the "higher - ups wanted it more winsome, more gentle. Some of the folks were so concerned about political correctness, they did n't want to be cuckoo - wacky about it. '' Likewise, Eric Goldberg -- following his contributions to Aladdin as the supervising animator of the Genie and with all animation units for The Lion King already occupied -- was asked to co-direct Pocahontas alongside Gabriel, to which he agreed. Goldberg had originally expected the film to be more comedic and cartoonish like Aladdin, but Schneider informed him that the film would be produced in a vein more similar to that of Beauty and the Beast; the then - ongoing 1992 Los Angeles riots further convinced Goldberg to commit to the film due to its racial themes. Executive interference would eventually grow so much that Goldberg himself decided to work for Chuck Jones Productions under the pseudonym "Claude Raynes '' during production. Executive paranoia peaked when Joe Grant drew Percy wearing an Indian feather, by which the animators took the concept one step further by placing a Spanish ruff on Meeko. One executive exclaimed, "Animals do n't have the intelligence to switch their clothes! They do n't even have opposing thumbs. '' The animators would retain their concept for the film.
Under Katzenberg, Frank Wells, and Michael Eisner, the Disney studios began a correlation of hiring Broadway personnel to manage the Disney animation staff on their feature films that brought such producers as Amy Pell to Aladdin and Sarah McArthur and Thomas Schumacher to The Lion King. In June 1992, the filmmakers embarked on a research trip to the Jamestown Settlement where Pentecost first met Shirley "Little Dove '' Custalow - McGowan and Debbie "White Dove '' Custalow, both descendants of the Powhatan Indians. The trip also included a visit to the Pamunkey Indian Reservation, and conducted interviews with historians at Old Dominion University. Following the research trip, Custalow - McGowan served as a consultant traveling to the Disney studios three times, and while Custalow - McGowan offered her services for free, Disney paid her a $500 daily consulting fee plus expenses. Ultimately, when it came to light that historical accuracy was not being pursued to the extent she had hoped, McGowan has voiced her feelings of shame she felt in conjunction with her work on the film, saying, "(she) wish (ed her) name was n't on it ''. Additional Native American consultants were brought in to authenticate the clothing and war dance choreography. That same month, Katzenberg held a meeting with the Feature Animation staff in which he predicted that Pocahontas would be a commercial hit, while deeming The Lion King experimental and less likely to succeed. As a result, most of the animators of Walt Disney Feature Animation decided to work on Pocahontas instead, believing it would be the more prestigious and successful of the two.
In January 1993, Carl Binder joined the project, having previous expertise as a television writer on shows such as Punky Brewster, War of the Worlds, Friday the 13th: The Series, and Top Cops. Four months later, Susannah Grant and Philip LaZebnik joined the writing team. Susannah Grant was selected by Disney as a screenwriter on Pocahontas after winning the Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting awarded by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences the year before while still attending film school. Onboard as a screenwriter, she was only one of the many who was contributing the specific vision the upper management at Disney had in mind, and collaborated with Native American consultants. While working on the movie, Susannah Grant wrote to a specific story outline, and no scene was rewritten less than thirty - five times until she felt it was perfect.
Story supervisor Tom Sito, who became the project 's unofficial historical consultant, did extensive research into the early colonial era and the story of John Smith and Pocahontas, and was confronted over the historical inaccuracies from historians. Already knowing that in reality Pocahontas married John Rolfe, Gabriel explained it was felt that "the story of Pocahontas and Rolfe was too complicated and violent for a youthful audience '' so instead, they would focus on Pocahontas 's meeting with John Smith. The filmmakers discovered that Pocahontas was around twelve years old and Smith was "not a very likeable character '', and producer James Pentecost confessed that dramatic license was needed to be taken. Likewise, when searching for an appropriate age for Pocahontas to begin her relationship with Smith, Glen Keane explained, "We had the choice of being historically accurate or socially responsible, so we chose the socially responsible side '' by increasing Pocahontas 's age from a girl into a young woman.
One of Gabriel 's early ideas was for Pocahontas 's mother to be embodied in a certain star in the sky that by the end of the film, she would help Pocahontas find her path to Smith. The Lion King however had concurrently carried a similar idea of the ancestors giving wisdom and guidance to the protagonist so the idea was discarded. Michael Eisner pushed for Pocahontas to have a mother, lamenting that "We 're always getting fried for having no mothers. '' The writers countered that Powhatan was polygamous and formed dynastic alliances among other neighboring tribes by impregnating a local women and giving away the child, so it was believed that Pocahontas herself probably did not see her mother that much. "Well '', Eisner conceded, "I guess that means we 're toasted. '' Ultimately, her mother 's spirit would become the swirling wind that occurs throughout the film. For the villain, they chose John Ratcliffe, whose portrayal was based on actual English captains, including John Martin, Christopher Newport and Edward Maria Wingfield. In reality, it was Wingfield who despised John Smith, but the filmmakers preferred the sinister sound of "Ratcliffe ''. The writers would continue to adapt actual events into the film such as Pocahontas warning Smith that the Indians were after him so he could escape in the middle of the night, Powhatan ordering the captured Smith to make bead necklaces to humiliate him, and Pocahontas being captured by Ratcliffe instead of Samuel Argall, though none of them worked with the story.
Sito mentioned that Joe Grant contributed heavily towards the film, as he was the creator of Redfeather, Meeko, and Flit. Redfeather was a wise - cracking turkey planning to be voiced by John Candy, and Percy, who was to be voiced by Richard E. Grant, was revised to become mute. Following the death of John Candy in March 1994, co-screenwriter Susannah Grant decided the turkey was inappropriate for the script she co-wrote for Pocahontas, and a more realistic approach would have the animals pantomime instead of talking. Joe Grant stated Redfeather "had comic potential -- he thought he was handsome, a lady 's man. When we decided he could n't talk, and, having no hands, he could n't mime... '' Joe Grant would later draw a concept sketch of a hair - braiding raccoon, in which Glen Keane animated and claimed the directors "loved the idea and got rid of the turkey character. '' Likewise, according to Sito, Meeko was created because they were "naturally enigmatic, because they have little hands and a little mask over their face like a thief. '' Gabriel described the inspiration for Flit the hummingbird where "I have hummingbirds all over my backyard, (and) I thought, ' That 's a great animal to animate. ' '' According to the directors, Governor Ratcliffe 's pampered pet, Percy, was based on history as the royalty of the time often carried small pugs wherever they went.
For the spiritual ancestor, a male character named Old Man River was originally envisioned, and Gregory Peck was cast in the role. Peck later realized that the character ought to be a maternal figure and reluctantly turned down the role. Conceived as a tree of life whose seasonal changes would frame the story, Grandmother Willow grew out of a concept sketch of a sawed - off tree with a branch pointing to its right drawn by Joe Grant, which would serve as a narrator that would "remember back to Pocahontas 300 years earlier ''. Joe Grant would continue to protest to have the tree be more a character within the story, and her character flowered into the idea of a grandmotherly spiritual adviser to Pocahontas. Because of Katzenberg 's opposition to having Grandmother Willow in the story, Joe Grant assisted fellow veteran story artist Burny Mattinson with coming up tree puns such as "My bark is worse than my bite '', "The roots of all problems '', and "They 're barking up the wrong tree. '' Mattinson reluctantly added them to his pitch for the next morning, and during the story meeting, he exclaimed, "Everybody loved it! All of a sudden: ' Oh, I want her in! ' ' Let 's build her part bigger! ' ''
In September 1992, Disney began casting actors for Pocahontas telling talent agents that they were particularly interested in Native American actors for the project. For the role of Pocahontas, Broadway actress - singer Judy Kuhn was hired to provide the singing voice for the eponymous character before Irene Bedard was cast. Kuhn explained, "They said, ' You are going to do the dialogue unless we find a Native American actress whose singing voice matched yours. ' I was cast before Irene, so it actually went backwards. '' Bedard herself was filming Lakota Woman: Siege at Wounded Knee (1994) where she was informed by the casting director that they were looking for someone to voice the title role. According to Bedard, she took a train to Buffalo, New York where she was walked in wearing a sundress and a straw hat, and read for the part. Back on the set of Lakota Woman, she learned that she was cast in the role. Michelle St. John had also auditioned for the role of Pocahontas, and was given the role of Nakoma after Bedard was cast.
Mel Gibson was cast as English settler John Smith following a desire to make "something for my kids. '' In a notable contrast to previous voice actors for Disney animated features, Gibson provided the singing voice for his character, which the actor has described as the most difficult part of his role. Christian Bale auditioned for the role of Thomas. As he explained in an interview with Disney Adventures, "the directors played with Thomas being Irish and Scottish and younger than I am, so I had to raise my voice and do different accents. But the more we did it, the more he became like me -- older and English. '' Richard White, the voice of Gaston in Beauty and the Beast, was supposed to voice Ratcliffe, but the crew was worried he might sound too much like Gaston, so he was replaced by his co-star David Ogden Stiers. Russell Means was cast as Chief Powhatan, though he initially expressed displeasure with the script in that Native Americans addressed each other using proper names rather than the traditional "my father '' or "my friend ''. Aboriginal Canadian actor Gordon Tootoosis was also cast as the tribal shaman Nekata. Throughout most of the production, the cast members performed their dialogue in separate recording sessions.
Renowned for animating female characters such as Ariel, supervising animator Glen Keane was immediately tapped to draw the titular Indian princess. Following the demands of Jeffrey Katzenberg to make the title character "the most idealized and finest woman ever made '', Keane first began to sought his inspirations for his depictions for Pocahontas from Shirley ' Little Dove ' Custalow - McGowan and Devi White Dove, women he had met during the research trip to Virginia. Keane recalled meeting the women:
So I turned around and there 's this beautiful Indian woman walking up; a Native American. She said ' Are you Glen Keane? The animator that 's going to do Pocahontas? ' I said ' Well, yeah. ' And then from behind another tree another woman came up and she said, ' Well, my name is Shirley Little Dove, and this is my sister Devi White Dove, and we are descended from Pocahontas. ' And as they stood there, I mean I took a picture of both of them, and between their faces was Pocahontas ' face in my mind -- I could see her.
Other inspirations were Filipino model Dyna Taylor, Christy Turlington, Natalie Belcon, Naomi Campbell, Jamie Pillow, white supermodel Kate Moss, Charmaine Craig, and Irene Bedard, who provided the character 's speaking voice. Keane also looked to a 1620 depiction of Pocahontas from a history book, though Keane would state she was "not exactly a candidate for People 's ' Most Beautiful ' issue (so) I made a few adjustments to add an Asian feeling to her face. '' Due to the complexity of the color schemes, shapes, and expressions in the animation, a total of 55 animators worked on the design of Pocahontas ' character alone, including Mark Henn and Pres Romanillos.
Following the closure of Sullivan - Bluth Studios in 1993, John Pomeroy, who notoriously resigned alongside Don Bluth during work on The Fox and the Hound (1981) in 1979, worked on the film. Pomeroy noted that initially John Smith was portrayed as well - groomed before the film 's animators tried designs where the character was "sloppier '', bearded, and carried daggers and knives. Pomeroy was more satisfied with the character 's design the more simple it became. Additionally, Pomeroy cited inspiration for John Smith from Errol Flynn and physical attributes of Gibson.
Initially assigned as a supervising animator on The Lion King, Nik Ranieri did character designs and test animation for Timon, but moved over to Pocahontas growing frustrated with an indecisive vision from the directors. There, he was assigned to animate Redfeather until Jeffrey Katzenberg ordered for the animals to be mute. Finding feathers difficult for Redfeather to gesture with, he was again assigned to animate Meeko using a Little Golden Books animal book illustrated by Alice and Martin Provensen as reference. Duncan Marjoribanks utilized geometric shapes to create Ratcliffe. In early drafts of the character, he had the body similar to a pear, but to make him appear more arrogant, the animator increased the force of gravity on his chest so that he seemed more pompous and physically threatening. Chris Buck served as the supervising animator for Percy, Wiggins, and Grandmother Willow. For Grandmother Willow, the face was traditionally animated by Buck, while the cowl and the trunk of the tree was digitally animated under the supervision of Steve Goldberg. Assisted with the effect animators, a 3D software program was employed for the bark to be individually manipulated and for the face to match with the computer - generated texture. The following supervising animators included Anthony DeRosa for Nakoma, Michael Cedeno for Kocoum, Ken Duncan for Thomas, T. Daniel Hofstedt for the settlers Lon and Ben, and Dave Pruiksma for Flit. While Mulan (1998) was within its pre-production stages, 18 minutes were animated by 170 animators and artists at the Disney - MGM Studios.
For the film 's art director, Gabriel selected Michael Giamo who shared his painting style of shape - based and secondary art details. For Giamo, he relied on a color - saturated, elegant designs in a less - than - realistic format inspired by "prehistory Caribbean themes and creatures derived from Mexican and African folk art. '' Giamo also sought out inspiration for the film 's look from the works produced by earlier Disney art designers such as Richard Kelsey 's story sketches from his unproduced film Hiawatha, Eyvind Earle, who worked on Sleeping Beauty (1959), and Mary Blair.
Howard Ashman and Alan Menken were planning to write songs for this film once they were finished working on Aladdin, but Ashman died in 1991. Following the death of his longtime collaborator, Menken wrote the remaining songs for Aladdin with Tim Rice at his home in London, which the New York - based composer found to be difficult. When work on Aladdin was finished, Menken was planning to write songs for the film with Rice. Kevin Bannerman, the film 's director of development, stated Rice "was always gallivanting around the world and it was difficult to get him and Alan together... And so here was Stephen (Schwartz), who had written scores that we all loved and we were huge fans of, and he lived in the New York area. '' Disney immediately contacted Stephen Schwartz, who, after working on Working, Rags, and Children of Eden, had quit theater and was taking psychology courses at New York University; he was brought on board to write the lyrics. This would mark the first time Menken had collaborated without Ashman for a Disney animated film. Menken commented that their work included moments of tension because Schwartz was also capable of writing music and Menken had experience with lyrics.
Due to corporate interest in the film surrounding its theme of promoting understanding between different groups, and its inclusion of violence and threats of greater conflict, Schwartz became heavily involved in the storytelling. Bannerman estimated that he spent a week with one of the screenwriters and helped work out the overall themes of tolerance and cooperation. In June 1992, Schwartz researched Jamestown, Virginia where he absorbed the atmosphere and bought tapes of Native American music and English sea shanties, as well as other music from the early seventeenth century that helped inspire numbers in the film. Schwartz modeled his lyrical writing for people of other ethnicities on that of Oscar Hammerstein II and Sheldon Harnick. "Colors of the Wind '' was the first song to be written for the film. Gabriel, Goldberg, and Pentecost insisted that the song help define the film 's "heart and soul ''. Schwartz began "Colors '' with a few draft ideas for lyrics taking inspiration from Chief Seattle 's letter to the United States Congress. Then, Menken wrote the melody with Schwartz listening at the piano and making suggestions. Schwartz would add lyrics before a session together where they were refined. "Just Around the Riverbend '', also composed by Menken and Schwartz, was devised by Schwartz 's wife Carole, with the idea that Pocahontas would have a recurring dream that suggested something coming her way, paving the way for her "I Want '' song. The song almost did not make it into the completed film when Disney executives doubted whether her song would have the kind of impact they wanted at that point. Schwartz however stated he and Menken "believed in it very strongly. Indeed, at one point we wrote a different song for that spot, but Alan and I were never as happy with the second song and ultimately everybody at Disney came to feel that way, too. ''
The filmmakers had planned for a song for when Pocahontas and Smith met in the glade, just before Kocoum attacks his rival and one of the settlers stalking Smith kills Kocoum. There were an estimated three to four songs at this point, including "In the Middle of the River '', "First to Dance '', which was deemed too silly to as it took place before Kocoum 's death, and "Powerful Magic '', which was another attempt at a happy song. A love song, titled "If I Never Knew You '', had been finished by the animators, but following a test screening where younger audiences were not interested in it and the teenagers felt giddy as it played, Menken suggested that the song be removed from the film. It was, although its melody remained in the orchestral underscoring. The film 's soundtrack was successful, reaching number - one on the Billboard 200 charts during the week of July 22, 1995. It received a triple platinum certification.
To replicate the promotional buzz of The Lion King, the four - minute musical number, "Colors of the Wind '', was released in November 1994, accompanying a theatrical re-release of The Lion King. On February 3, 1995, Disney began its promotional marketing campaign starting in San Diego, California launching a nationwide 18 - week tour of fashion malls located within twenty - five cities where a mall exhibit named Pocahontas Animation Discovery Adventure was created to help promote the release. There, a Disney animator would guide shoppers on a presentation tour, which featured a walk - through maze with interactive lily pads, flying birds, and huge video wall, a studio workshop where visitors can become the voice of their favorite animated character, and an area where visitors can electronically manipulate images. Additionally, they would demonstrate animation techniques and discuss the design and creation of Pocahontas ' character. Further promotional tie - ins included Burger King distributing 55 million toy replicas of the film 's characters with kids ' meals, Payless Shoes selling a line of moccasins, and Mattel peddling a Barbie - like Pocahontas doll.
A behind - the - scenes documentary television special titled The Making of Pocahontas: A Legend Comes to Life was aired on June 20, 1995, on the Disney Channel where the animators, voice cast, crew, and studio heads were interviewed on the production of the film. The special was hosted by actress Irene Bedard.
The film had the largest premiere in history, on June 10, 1995, in New York 's Central Park, followed by a live performance by Vanessa Williams. Disney officials estimated the crowd at 100,000. The premiere 's attendees included then - New York Mayor Rudy Giuliani, Caroline Kennedy, Mariah Carey and Michael Eisner.
At first announced to be released on March 6, 1996, Pocahontas was first released on VHS and laserdisc in the United States on February 28, 1996, under the "Masterpiece Collection '' lineup. Some prototype copies of the VHS release used the 1989 Walt Disney Classics logo, while copies produced from February 28, 1996, onwards used the standard Masterpiece Collection logo. A deluxe VHS edition included the film and a documentary on the making of the film alongside a special edition of The Art of Pocahontas book and Disney - certified lithograph prints. Released on November 13, 1996, the CAV laserdisc Deluxe Edition contained the film, a historical documentary on Pocahontas, and The Making of Pocahontas, along with added storyboards, character design artwork, concept art, rough animation, publicity and promotional trailers, the deleted "If I Never Knew You '' musical sequence, and an audio commentary on a total of four double sided discs. The release was also accompanied with a Special Edition of the Art of Pocahontas book. Disney initially shipped 17 million VHS copies to retail stores, with nine million copies sold within its first weekend exceeding the VHS sales of Cinderella (1950) released in the previous fall but falling short of the retail sales of The Lion King. By the summer of 1998, sales and rentals of the VHS release had accumulated to $200 million.
In January 2000, Walt Disney Home Video launched the Gold Classic Collection, with Pocahontas re-issued on VHS and DVD on June 6, 2000. The DVD contained the film in its 1.66: 1 aspect ratio enhanced with 5.1 surround sound, and was accompanied with special features including two music videos, a trivia game, the theatrical trailer, and a "Fun with Nature '' activity booklet. In 2005, a 10th Anniversary 2 - disc Special Edition DVD set was released, which featured a new extended cut of the film (adding two performances of "If I Never Knew You '') and numerous bonus features. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Pocahontas, alongside its sequel Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World, on Blu - ray Disc as a 2 - Movie Collection on August 21, 2012. Pocahontas was re-released yet again in 2016 as a Blu - Ray, DVD and Digital HD combo pack, available exclusively through the Disney Movie Club. It featured brand - new cover art, and, for the first time, a digital copy download of the film alongside the physical release.
Timed with Pocahontas ' 400th birthday, Pocahontas had a limited release in North America on June 16, 1995, playing in only six selected theaters. The film grossed nearly $2.7 million during its first weekend, standing at the eighth place in the box office ranking. The wide release followed on June 24, 1995, in 2,596 screens. Studio estimates initially anticipated Pocahontas earning $30.5 million, ranking first and beating out the previous box office champion Batman Forever (1995). The figure was later revised to $28.8 million with Pocahontas falling second behind Batman Forever. The final estimates placed Pocahontas narrowly ranking first grossing $29.5 million in its first weekend with Batman Forever falling into second place taking $29.2 million. By January 1996, the film grossed $141.5 million in the United States, being the fourth - highest - grossing film in North America behind Apollo 13 (1995), Toy Story (1995), and Batman Forever, respectively. Foreign wise, the film was expected to gross $225 million outside the United States, though foreign box office grosses eventually amounted to $204.5 million. Cumulatively, Pocahontas grossed $346.1 million worldwide. Seen as a commercial box office disappointment in comparison to The Lion King, then - Disney CEO Michael Eisner contested in an annual shareholders ' meeting in January 1996 that "Pocahontas is well on its way to being one of our most successful films of all time. It equalled Beauty and the Beast 's box office numbers domestically, and now it has taken Europe by storm and is playing well in every country in which it is being shown. Sales of Pocahontas merchandise have been phenomenal. ''
Pocahontas received generally mixed reviews from film critics. Roger Ebert, writing for the Chicago Sun - Times, gave the film 3 out of 4 stars writing the film was "the best - looking of the modern Disney animated features, and one of the more thoughtful '' though he was more critical of the story and portrayal of the villain, ultimately summarizing that "on a list including Mermaid, Beauty, Aladdin and Lion King, I 'd rank it fifth. It has a lot of good intentions, but a severe scoundrel shortage. '' On the television program Siskel & Ebert, Ebert repeated the same sentiment, while his partner Gene Siskel was more praising of the film. Both critics gave the film a "Thumbs Up ''. In his print review for the Chicago Tribune, Siskel awarded the film 31⁄2 stars out of 4 commenting that the film is a "surprisingly serious, thoughtful and beautifully drawn Disney animated feature about the American birthright of exploitation and racism ''. He praised it for "sending powerful images to children about threats to the natural order '', restoring "a certain majesty to the Indian culture '', and for having "the courage that leads to the life - goes - on ending. ''
The film 's writing and lack of humor received mixed reviews. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly stated "With dismay, I realize that virtually everything in the movie -- every character, every story twist, every song -- is as generic as the two hygienic lovers. As a fairy - tale confection, a kind of West Side Story in Jamestown, Pocahontas is pleasant to look at, and it will probably satisfy very small kiddies, but it 's the first of the new - era Disney cartoons that feels less than animated. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone bemoaned that there were "no funny, fast - talking animals -- Meeko the raccoon and Flit the hummingbird remain silent pals to Pocahontas and make you miss the verbal fun that Nathan Lane 's wisecracking meerkat brought to The Lion King. '' Desson Howe, reviewing for The Washington Post, likewise criticized the writing as recycling "elements from Snow White to The Lion King, with a father - child clash, a heroine 's saintly pureness that transforms an entire people, a forbidden love, consultations with an oracle / shaman (in this case a tree spirit, voiced by Linda Hunt) and the usual sideshow of funny, fuzzy animals. '' While calling the screenplay was the "film 's weakest element '', Janet Maslin of The New York Times summarized that "Gloriously colorful, cleverly conceived and set in motion with the usual Disney vigor, Pocahontas is one more landmark feat of animation. It does everything a children 's film should do except send little viewers home humming its theme song. ''
According to Chief Roy Crazy Horse of the Powhatan Renape Nation, the film "distorts history beyond recognition '' and "perpetuates a dishonest and self - serving myth at the expense of the Powhatan Nation ''. Roy claims that Disney refused the tribe 's offers to help create a more culturally and historically accurate film. An editorial by Angela Aleiss in the Los Angeles Times pointed out America 's fascination with the Indian princess who was rarely shown as having anything more important in her life than her male relationships. Professor and Director of Indigenous Nations Studies Cornel Pewewardy argues that the film presents damaging stereotypes of the Native American population. Pewewardy feels that the representation of Native characters, like Grandmother Willow, Meeko, and Flit, as animals, has a marginalizing effect. Anthropologist Kiyomi Kutsuzawa also observed that in the film, Kocoum and John Smith fight for Pocahontas 's affection. Kutsuzawa viewed Smith 's victory over Kocoum in this arena as symbolic of Western Europe 's domination of the Americas and the white man 's domination over men of color.
Conversely, Native American activist Russell Means, who portrays Chief Powhatan in the film, praised the film 's racial overtones, saying that "Pocahontas is the first time Eurocentric male society has admitted its historical deceit. It makes the stunning admission that the British came over here to kill Indians and rape and pillage the land. '' Means also said that the film marked "the first time, other than on Northern Exposure, that a human face has been put on an Indian female, '' dubbing Pocahontas "the finest feature film on American Indians Hollywood has turned out. '' Sophie Gilbert of The Atlantic concurred, writing that the film "had a progressive attitude when it came to interpreting history, depicting the English settlers as plunderers searching for non-existent gold who were intent upon murdering the ' savages ' they encountered in the process. ''
The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 56 % of critics gave the film a positive review based on 52 reviews, with an average score of 6 / 10. The site 's consensus states "Pocahontas means well, and has moments of startling beauty, but it 's largely a bland, uninspired effort, with uneven plotting and an unfortunate lack of fun. '' Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 from top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 58 based on 23 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews. ''
Pocahontas ' real name was Matoaka. "Pocahontas '' was only a nickname, and it can variously be translated to "little wanton '', "playful one '', "little brat '' or "the naughty one ''. In the film, Pocahontas is a young adult; in reality, she was around 10 or 11 at the time John Smith arrived with the Virginia Company in 1607.
Smith is portrayed as an amiable man; in reality, he was described as having a harsh exterior by his fellow colonists.
Historically, there is no evidence of a romantic relationship emerging between Pocahontas and John Smith. Whether or not Pocahontas saved Smith 's life is debated. English colonists led by Samuel Argall captured Pocahontas three years after John Smith departed for England; she converted to Christianity in Henricus and later married John Rolfe, who was known for introducing tobacco as a cash crop.
Ebert criticized the film 's deviations from history, writing "Having led one of the most interesting lives imaginable, Pocahontas serves here more as a simplified symbol ''. Sophie Gilbert of The Atlantic wrote that "The movie might have fudged some facts '', but that this allowed it to tell "a compelling romantic story ''.
Animator Tom Sito defended the film 's relationship to history, saying "Contrary to the popular verdict that we ignored history on the film, we tried hard to be historically correct and to accurately portray the culture of the Virginia Algonquins. ''
Pocahontas became the first Native American Disney Princess and the first woman of color to be the lead character in a Disney film.
A video game entitled Disney 's Pocahontas based on the film was released on the Sega Genesis / Mega Drive on January 1, 1996. Pocahontas was followed by a direct - to - video sequel entitled Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World (1998). Bedard and Kuhn reprised their roles as Pocahontas ' speaking and singing voices, respectively, while John Smith was voiced by Donal Gibson. Pocahontas, alongside other Disney Princesses, is set to briefly appear in the film Ralph Breaks the Internet: Wreck - It Ralph 2 (2018), with Bedard returning to the role.
Critics have also discussed the influence of Pocahontas on other films. Sophie Gilbert of The Atlantic argues that the strong and brave title character of Pocahontas influenced the portrayal of subsequent heroines of Disney animated films, specifically Mulan, Rapunzel, Merida, and Elsa. Similarly, The Verge 's Tasha Robinson wrote that Moana (2016) "draws on '' Pocahontas in its portrayal of a woman buoyed by her culture. According to HuffPost, James Cameron 's Avatar (2009) is a "rip - off '' of Pocahontas. Avatar 's producer Jon Landau has said that Avatar is akin to Pocahontas with the Na'vi aliens taking the place of Native Americans. Cameron has said that he first conceived of Avatar in the 1960s, long before Pocahontas was released but he has also said that Avatar does reference the story of Pocahontas, the historical figure. Kirsten Acuna of Business Insider wrote that, while Avatar may be based on Cameron 's own ideas, it nevertheless takes inspiration from animated films like Pocahontas and FernGully: The Last Rainforest (1992).
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meaning of right wing and left wing in politics | Right - wing politics - wikipedia
Right - wing politics hold that certain social orders and hierarchies are inevitable, natural, normal or desirable, typically supporting this position on the basis of natural law, economics or tradition. Hierarchy and inequality may be viewed as natural results of traditional social differences or the competition in market economies. The term right - wing can generally refer to "the conservative or reactionary section of a political party or system ''.
The political terms "Left '' and "Right '' were first used during the French Revolution (1789 -- 1799) and referred to seating arrangements in the French parliament: those who sat to the right of the chair of the parliamentary president were broadly supportive of the institutions of the monarchist Old Regime. The original Right in France was formed as a reaction against the "Left '' and comprised those politicians supporting hierarchy, tradition and clericalism. The use of the expression la droite ("the right '') became prominent in France after the restoration of the monarchy in 1815, when it was applied to the Ultra-royalists. The people of English - speaking countries did not apply the terms "right '' and "left '' to their own politics until the 20th century.
Although the right - wing originated with traditional conservatives, monarchists and reactionaries, the term extreme right - wing has also been applied to movements including fascists, Nazis and racial supremacists. From the 1830s to the 1880s, there was a shift in the Western world of social class structure and the economy, moving away from nobility and aristocracy towards capitalism. This general economic shift toward capitalism affected centre - right movements such as the British Conservative Party, which responded by becoming supportive of capitalism. In the United States, the Right includes both economic and social conservatives. In Europe, economic conservatives are usually considered liberal and the Right includes nationalists, nativist opposition to immigration, religious conservatives and historically a significant presence of right - wing movements with anti-capitalist sentiments including conservatives and fascists who opposed what they saw as the selfishness and excessive materialism inherent in contemporary capitalism.
The political term right - wing was first used during the French Revolution, when liberal deputies of the Third Estate generally sat to the left of the president 's chair, a custom that began in the Estates General of 1789. The nobility, members of the Second Estate, generally sat to the right. In the successive legislative assemblies, monarchists who supported the Old Regime were commonly referred to as rightists because they sat on the right side. A major figure on the right was Joseph de Maistre, who argued for an authoritarian form of conservatism. Throughout the 19th century, the main line dividing Left and Right in France was between supporters of the republic (often secularists) and supporters of the monarchy (often Catholics). On the right, the Legitimists and Ultra-royalists held counter-revolutionary views, while the Orléanists hoped to create a constitutional monarchy under their preferred branch of the royal family, a brief reality after the 1830 July Revolution. The centre - right Gaullists in post-World War II France advocated considerable social spending on education and infrastructure development as well as extensive economic regulation, but limited the wealth redistribution measures characteristic of social democracy.
In British politics, the terms "right '' and "left '' came into common use for the first time in the late 1930s in debates over the Spanish Civil War.
The Right has gone through five distinct historical stages: (I) the reactionary right sought a return to aristocracy and established religion; (II) the moderate right distrusted intellectuals and sought limited government; (III) the radical right favored a romantic and aggressive nationalism; (IV) the extreme right proposed anti-immigration policies and implicit racism; and (V) the neo-liberal right sought to combine a market economy and economic deregulation with the traditional Right - wing beliefs in patriotism, elitism and law and order.
The meaning of right - wing "varies across societies, historical epochs, and political systems and ideologies ''. According to The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics, in liberal democracies the political right opposes socialism and social democracy. Right - wing parties include conservatives, Christian democrats, classical liberals, nationalists and on the far - right racists and fascists.
Roger Eatwell and Neal O'Sullivan divide the right into five types: reactionary, moderate, radical, extreme and new. Chip Berlet argues that each of these "styles of thought '' are "responses to the left '', including liberalism and socialism, which have arisen since the 1789 French Revolution. The reactionary right looks toward the past and is "aristocratic, religious and authoritarian ''. The moderate right, typified by the writings of Edmund Burke, is tolerant of change, provided it is gradual and accepts some aspects of liberalism, including the rule of law and capitalism, although it sees radical laissez - faire and individualism as harmful to society. The moderate right often promotes nationalism and social welfare policies. Radical right is a term developed after World War II to describe groups and ideologies such as McCarthyism, the John Birch Society, Thatcherism and the Republikaner Party. Eatwell stresses that this use has "major typological problems '' and that the term "has also been applied to clearly democratic developments ''. The radical right includes right - wing populism and various other subtypes. Eatwell argues that the extreme right ' has four traits: "1) anti-democracy; 2) nationalism; 3) racism; and 4) the strong state ''. The New Right consists of the liberal conservatives, who stress small government, free markets and individual initiative.
Other authors make a distinction between the centre - right and the far - right. Parties of the centre - right generally support liberal democracy, capitalism, the market economy (though they may accept government regulation to control monopolies), private property rights and a limited welfare state (for example, government provision of education and medical care). They support conservatism and economic liberalism and oppose socialism and communism. By contrast, the phrase "far - right '' by is used to describe those who favor an absolutist government, which uses the power of the state to support the dominant ethnic group or religion and often to criminalize other ethnic groups or religions. Typical examples of leaders to whom the far - right label is often applied are Francisco Franco in Spain, Benito Mussolini in Italy, Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany and Augusto Pinochet in Chile. The United States Department of Homeland Security defines right - wing extremism as hate groups who target racial, ethnic or religious minorities and may be dedicated to a single issue. The phrase is also used to describe support for ethnic nationalism.
Right - wing politics involves in varying degrees the rejection of some egalitarian objectives of left - wing politics, claiming either that social or economic inequality is natural and inevitable or that it is beneficial to society. Right - wing ideologies and movements support social order. The original French right - wing was called "the party of order '' and held that France needed a strong political leader to keep order. British conservative scholar R.J. White, who rejects egalitarianism, wrote: "Men are equal before God and the laws, but unequal in all else; hierarchy is the order of nature, and privilege is the reward of honourable service ''. American conservative Russell Kirk also rejected egalitarianism as imposing sameness, stating: "Men are created different; and a government that ignores this law becomes an unjust government for it sacrifices nobility to mediocrity ''. Kirk took as one of the "canons '' of conservatism the principle that "civilized society requires orders and classes ''. Right libertarians reject collective or state - imposed equality as undermining reward for personal merit, initiative and enterprise. In their view, it is unjust, limits personal freedom and leads to social uniformity and mediocrity.
The original use of "right - wing '' in reference to communism had the conservatives on the right, the liberals in the center and the communists on the left. Both the conservatives and the liberals were strongly anti-communist. The history of the use of the term "right - wing '' to mean anti-communist is a complicated one.
Early Marxist movements were at odds with the traditional monarchies that ruled over much of the European continent at the time. Many European monarchies outlawed the public expression of communist views and the Communist Manifesto, which began "(a) spectre (that) is haunting Europe '', stated that monarchs feared for their thrones. Advocacy of communism was illegal in the Russian Empire, the German Empire and Austria - Hungary, the three most powerful monarchies in continental Europe prior to World War I. Many monarchists (except constitutional monarchists) viewed inequality in wealth and political power as resulting from a divine natural order. The struggle between monarchists and communists was often described as a struggle between the Right and the Left.
By World War I, in most European monarchie, the divine right of kings had become discredited and replaced by liberal and nationalist movements. Most European monarchs became figureheads and elected governments held the real power. The most conservative European monarchy, the Russian Empire, was replaced by the communist Soviet Union. The Russian Revolution inspired a series of other communist revolutions across Europe in the years 1917 -- 1922. Many of these, such as the German Revolution, were defeated by nationalist and monarchist military units. In this period, nationalism began to be considered right - wing, especially when it opposed the internationalism of the communists.
The 1920s and 1930s saw the fading of traditional right - wing politics. The mantle of conservative anti-communism was taken up by the rising fascist movements on the one hand and by American - inspired liberal conservatives on the other. When communist groups and political parties began appearing around the world, their opponents were usually colonial authorities and the term right - wing came to be applied to colonialism.
After World War II, communism became a global phenomenon and anti-communism became an integral part of the domestic and foreign policies of the United States and its NATO allies. Conservatism in the post-war era abandoned its monarchist and aristocratic roots, focusing instead on patriotism, religion and nationalism. Throughout the Cold War, colonial governments in Asia, Africa and Latin America turned to the United States for political and economic support. Communists were also enemies of capitalism, portraying Wall Street as the oppressor of the masses. The United States made anti-communism the top priority of its foreign policy and many American conservatives sought to combat what they saw as communist influence at home. This led to the adoption of a number of domestic policies that are collectively known under the term "McCarthyism ''. While both liberals and conservatives were anti-communist, the followers of Senator McCarthy were called right - wing and those on the right called liberals who favored free speech, even for communists, leftist.
In France after the French Revolution, the Right fought against the rising power of those who had grown rich through commerce and sought to preserve the rights of the hereditary nobility. They were uncomfortable with capitalism, the Enlightenment, individualism and industrialism and fought to retain traditional social hierarchies and institutions. In Europe 's history, there have been strong collectivist right - wing movements, such as in the social Catholic right that has exhibited hostility to all forms of liberalism (including economic liberalism) and has historically advocated for paternalist class harmony involving an organic - hierarchical society where workers are protected while hierarchy of classes remain.
In the 19th century, the Right had shifted to support the newly rich in some European countries (particularly England) and instead of favouring the nobility over industrialists, favoured capitalists over the working class. Other right - wing, such as Carlism in Spain and nationalist movements in France, Germany and Russia, remained hostile to capitalism and industrialism. However, there are still a few right - wing movements today, notably the French Nouvelle Droite, CasaPound and American paleoconservatives, that are often in opposition to capitalist ethics and the effects they have on society as a whole, which they see as infringing upon or causing the decay of social traditions or hierarchies that they see as essential for social order.
In modern times, "right - wing '' is sometimes used to describe laissez - faire capitalism. In Europe, capitalists formed alliances with the Right during their conflicts with workers after 1848. In France, the Right 's support of capitalism can be traced to the late 19th century. The so - called neoliberal Right, popularized by Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher, combines support for free markets, privatisation and deregulation with traditional right - wing support for social conformity. Right - wing libertarianism (sometimes known as libertarian conservatism or conservative libertarianism) supports a decentralized economy based on economic freedom and holds property rights, free markets and free trade to be the most important kinds of freedom. Russell Kirk believed that freedom and property rights were interlinked. Anthony Gregory has written that right - wing libertarianism "can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations ''. Gregory holds that the issue is not right or left, but "whether a person sees the state as a major hazard or just another institution to be reformed and directed toward a political goal ''.
Conservative authoritarians and those on the far - right have supported fascism and corporatism.
In France, nationalism was originally a left - wing and Republican ideology. After the period of boulangisme and the Dreyfus Affair, nationalism became a trait of the right - wing. Right - wing nationalists sought to define and defend a "true '' national identity from elements deemed to be corrupting that identity. Some were supremacists, who in accordance with social Darwinism applied the concept of "survival of the fittest '' to nations and races. Right - wing nationalism was influenced by Romantic nationalism, in which the state derives its political legitimacy from the organic unity of those it governs. This generally includes the language, race, culture, religion and customs of the nation, all of which were "born '' within its culture. Linked with right - wing nationalism is cultural conservatism, which supports the preservation of the heritage of a nation or culture and often sees deviations from cultural norms as an existential threat.
Right - wing politics typically justifies a hierarchical society on the basis of natural law or tradition.
Traditionalism was advocated by a group of United States university professors (labeled the "New Conservatives '' by the popular press) who rejected the concepts of individualism, liberalism, modernity and social progress, seeking instead to promote what they identified as cultural and educational renewal and a revived interest in what T.S. Eliot referred to as "the permanent things '' (concepts perceived by traditionalists as truths that endure from age to age alongside basic institutions of western society such as the church, the family, the state and business).
Right - wing populism is a combination of civic / ethno - nationalism with anti-elitism, using populist rhetoric to provide a radical critique of existing political institutions. According to Margaret Canovan, a right - wing populist is "a charismatic leader, using the tactics of politicians ' populism to go past the politicians and intellectual elite and appeal to the reactionary sentiments of the populace, often buttressing his claim to speak for the people by the use of referendums ''.
In Europe, right - wing populism often takes the form of distrust of the European Union and of politicians in general combined with anti-immigrant rhetoric and a call for a return to traditional, national values. In the United States, the Tea Party movement states that the core beliefs for membership are the primacy of individual liberties as defined in the Constitution, small federal government and respect for the rule of law. Some policy positions include an opposition to illegal immigration, a strong national military force, the right to individual gun ownership, cutting taxes, reducing government spending and balancing the budget.
Government support for an established religion was associated with the original French Right. Joseph de Maistre argued for the indirect authority of the Pope over temporal matters. According to Maistre, only governments founded upon a Christian constitution, implicit in the customs and institutions of all European societies and especially in Catholic European monarchies, could avoid the disorder and bloodshed that followed the implementation of rationalist political programs, as in the French Revolution. The Church of England was established by Henry VIII and some churchmen are given seats in the House of Lords, but are considered politically neutral rather than being specifically right or left - wing.
Religious fundamentalists frequently feel that governments should enact laws supporting their religious tenets. The Christian right is a major force in North America. They generally support laws upholding what they consider religious values, such as opposition to abortion, contraception, sex outside marriage and to same - sex marriage and reject scientific positions on evolution and other matters where science disagrees with the Bible. Outside the West, other religious and ethnic groups are considered right - wing. In India, Hindu nationalism is sometimes considered a part of the Right. The Hindu nationalist movement has attracted privileged groups fearing encroachment on their dominant positions and also "plebeian '' and impoverished groups seeking recognition around a majoritarian rhetoric of cultural pride, order and national strength. Many Islamist groups have been called "right - wing '' including the Great Union Party and the Combatant Clergy Association / Association of Militant Clergy and the Islamic Society of Engineers of Iran.
The term "family values '' has been used as a buzzword by right - wing parties such as the Republican Party in the United States, the Family First Party in Australia, the Conservative party in the United Kingdom and the Bharatiya Janata Party in India to describe support for traditional families and opposition to the changes the modern world has made in how families live. Right - wing supporters of "family values '' may oppose abortion, euthanasia, the normalizing of homosexuality, divorce, teenage pregnancy and adultery.
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which of the following formulas would be used to calculate vo2max | VO2 max - wikipedia
VO max (also maximal oxygen consumption, maximal oxygen uptake, peak oxygen uptake or maximal aerobic capacity) is the maximum rate of oxygen consumption measured during incremental exercise (exercise of increasing intensity). The name is derived from V - volume, O - oxygen, max - maximum. Maximal oxygen consumption reflects the cardiorespiratory fitness of an individual and is an important determinant of their endurance capacity during prolonged exercise.
VO max is widely used as an indicator of health. In 2016, the American Heart Association published a scientific statement recommending that cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), quantifiable as VO max, be regularly assessed and utilized as a clinical vital sign. This statement was based on mounting evidence that lower fitness levels are associated with high risk of cardiovascular disease, all - cause mortality, and mortality rates stemming from various types of cancers. In addition to risk assessment, the AHA recommendation cited the value measuring fitness for validating exercise prescription, physical activity counseling, and improving both patient management and patient health.
VO max is expressed either as an absolute rate in (for example) litres of oxygen per minute (L / min) or as a relative rate in (for example) millilitres of oxygen per kilogram of body mass per minute (e.g., mL / (kg min)). The latter expression is often used to compare the performance of endurance sports athletes. However, VO max generally does not vary linearly with body mass, either among individuals within a species or among species, so comparisons of the performance capacities of individuals or species that differ in body size must be done with appropriate statistical procedures, such as analysis of covariance.
Accurately measuring VO max involves a physical effort sufficient in duration and intensity to fully tax the aerobic energy system. In general clinical and athletic testing, this usually involves a graded exercise test (either on a treadmill or on a cycle ergometer) in which exercise intensity is progressively increased while measuring:
VO max is reached when oxygen consumption remains at a steady state despite an increase in workload.
VO max is properly defined by the Fick equation:
Tests measuring VO max can be dangerous in individuals who are not considered normal healthy subjects, as any problems with the respiratory and cardiovascular systems will be greatly exacerbated in clinically ill patients. Thus, many protocols for estimating VO max have been developed for those for whom a traditional VO max test would be too risky. These generally are similar to a VO max test, but do not reach the maximum of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems and are called sub-maximal tests.
Another estimate of VO max, based on maximum and resting heart rates, was created by a group of researchers from Denmark. It is given by:
This equation uses the ratio of maximum heart rate (HR) to resting heart rate (HR) to predict VO max. The researchers cautioned that the conversion rule was based on measurements on well - trained men aged 21 to 51 only, and may not be reliable when applied to other sub-groups. They also advised that the formula is most reliable when based on actual measurement of maximum heart rate, rather than an age - related estimate.
Kenneth H. Cooper conducted a study for the United States Air Force in the late 1960s. One of the results of this was the Cooper test in which the distance covered running in 12 minutes is measured. Based on the measured distance, an estimate of VO max (in mL / (kg min)) is:
where d is distance (in metres) covered in 12 minutes
An alternative equation is:
where dmiles is distance (in miles) covered in 12 minutes,
There are several other reliable tests and VO max calculators to estimate VO max, most notably the multi-stage fitness test (or beep test).
Estimation of VO max from a timed one - mile track walk with duration t, incorporating gender, age, body weight in pounds (BW), and heart rate (HR) at the end of the mile. The constant x is 6.3150 for males, 0 for females. BW is in lbs, time is in minutes.
The Firstbeat method of VO max estimation, of which a patent application was filed in 2012, is widely licensed and used in consumer technology applications. The first consumer fitness device utilizing the Firstbeat method of VO max estimation was the Garmin Forerunner 620, released in 2013. Since then, Suunto, Jabra, Huawei, and PulseOn have also introduced products that utilize the Firstbeat method.
The method relies on an analysis of the linear relationship between oxygen consumption and running speed, meaning that the oxygen cost of running increases when running speed increases. To facilitate analysis and enhance accuracy, timed segments of recorded activity data are identified on the basis of heart rate ranges and reliability; and only the most reliable segments are utilized. This allows the method to be applied to freely performed running, walking and cycling activities and diminishes the need for dedicated fitness testing protocols. The calculation requires user basic anthropometric data (age, gender, height, weight, etc.), heartbeat data (internal workload), and a measure of external workload.
VO max estimates provided by the Firstbeat method are most accurate during running activities that utilize GPS to capture external workload data. This combination has been validated to be 95 % accurate compared to laboratory testing. Because the Firstbeat estimation method is sub-maximal in nature, accuracy of the estimate is strongly tied to validity of the HRmax value used in the calculation.
The average untrained healthy male will have a VO max of approximately 35 -- 40 mL / (kg min). The average untrained healthy female will score a VO max of approximately 27 -- 31 mL / (kg min). These scores can improve with training and decrease with age, though the degree of trainability also varies very widely: conditioning may double VO max in some individuals, and will never improve it in others. In one study, 10 % of participants showed no benefit after completing a 20 - week conditioning program, although the other 90 % of the test subjects all showed substantial improvements in fitness to varying degree.
In sports where endurance is an important component in performance, such as cycling, rowing, cross-country skiing, swimming and running, world - class athletes typically have high VO maxima. Elite male runners can consume up to 85 mL / (kg min), and female elite runners can consume about 77 mL / (kg min). Five time Tour de France winner Miguel Indurain is reported to have had a VO max of 88.0 at his peak, while cross-country skier Bjørn Dæhlie measured at 96 mL / (kg min). Dæhlie 's result was achieved out of season, and physiologist Erlend Hem who was responsible for the testing stated that he would not discount the possibility of the skier passing 100 mL / (kg min) at his absolute peak. Norwegian cyclist Oskar Svendsen is thought to have recorded the highest VO max of 97.5 mL / (kg min), when aged 18.
The highest values in absolute terms for humans are often found in rowers, as their much greater bulk makes up for a slightly lower VO max per kg. Elite oarsmen measured in 1984 had VO max values of 6.1 ± 0.6 L / min and oarswomen 4.1 ± 0.4 L / min. Rowers are interested in both absolute values of VO max and in lung capacity, and the fact that they are measured in similar units means that the two are often confused. British rower Sir Matthew Pinsent is variously reported to have had a VO of 7.5 L / min or 8.5 L / min, although the latter may represent confusion with his lung capacity of 8.5 litres. New Zealand sculler Rob Waddell has one of the highest absolute VO2 max levels ever tested.
Values have been measured in some other animal species: thoroughbred horses have a VO max of around 180 mL / (kg min). Siberian dogs running in the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race have VO max values as high as 240 mL / (kg min).
The factors affecting VO are often divided into supply and demand. Supply is the transport of oxygen from the lungs to the mitochondria (including lung diffusion, stroke volume, blood volume, and capillary density of the skeletal muscle) while demand is the rate at which the mitochondria can reduce oxygen in the process of oxidative phosphorylation. Of these, the supply factor is often considered to be the limiting one. However, it has also been argued that while trained subjects probably are supply limited, untrained subjects can indeed have a demand limitation.
Tim Noakes, a professor of exercise and sports science at the University of Cape Town, describes a number of factors that may affect VO max: age, sex, fitness and training, changes in altitude, and action of the ventilatory muscles. Noakes also asserts that VO max is a relatively poor predictor of performance in runners due to variations in running economy and fatigue resistance during prolonged exercise.
Cardiac output, pulmonary diffusion capacity, oxygen carrying capacity, and other peripheral limitations like muscle diffusion capacity, mitochondrial enzymes, and capillary density are all examples of VO max determinants. The body works as a system. If one of these factor is sub-par, then the whole system loses its normal capacity to function properly.
The drug erythropoietin (EPO) can boost VO max by a significant amount in both humans and other mammals. This makes EPO attractive to athletes in endurance sports, such as professional cycling. EPO has been banned since the 1990s as an illicit performance - enhancing substance. But in 1998 it became widespread in cycling and led to the Festina affair as well as being mentioned ubiquitously in the USADA 2012 report on the US Postal team. Greg LeMond has suggested establishing a baseline for riders ' VO max (and other attributes) to detect abnormal performance increases.
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who is the head of the england church | Church of England - wikipedia
The Church of England (C of E) is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury (currently Justin Welby) is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor. The Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It traces its history to the Christian church recorded as existing in the Roman province of Britain by the third century, and to the 6th - century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury.
The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII failed to secure an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon in 1534. The English Reformation accelerated under Edward VI 's regents, before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. The Act of Supremacy 1558 renewed the breach and the Elizabethan Settlement charted a course enabling the English church to describe itself as both catholic and reformed:
In the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants. In the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to greater religious tolerance.
Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English. The church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo - Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality. The church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members.
The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop. Within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the legislative body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy and laity. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament.
According to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian and Origen in the first years of the 3rd century. Three Romano - British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Serdica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, and a number of references to the church in Roman Britain are found in the writings of 4th century Christian fathers. Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippo 's doctrine of original sin.
While Christianity was long established as the religion of the Britons at the time of the Anglo - Saxon invasion, Christian Britons made little progress in converting the newcomers from their native paganism. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrew 's (later canonised as Augustine of Canterbury) from Rome to evangelise the Angles. This event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. With the help of Christians already residing in Kent, Augustine established his church at Canterbury, the capital of the Kingdom of Kent, and became the first in the series of Archbishops of Canterbury in 598. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England. The Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, the Church of England considers itself to be the same church which was more formally organised by Augustine.
While some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. Queen Bertha of Kent was among the Christians in England who recognised papal authority before Augustine arrived, and Celtic Christians were carrying out missionary work with papal approval long before the Synod of Whitby.
The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in England. This meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hilda 's double monastery of Streonshalh (Streanæshalch), later called Whitby Abbey. It was presided over by King Oswiu, who did not engage in the debate but made the final ruling.
In 1534, King Henry VIII separated the English Church from Rome. A theological separation had been foreshadowed by various movements within the English Church, such as Lollardy, but the English Reformation gained political support when Henry VIII wanted an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn. Pope Clement VII, considering that the earlier marriage had been entered under a papal dispensation and how Catherine 's nephew, Emperor Charles V, might react to such a move, refused the annulment. Eventually, Henry, although theologically opposed to Protestantism, took the position of Supreme Head of the Church of England to ensure the annulment of his marriage. He was excommunicated by Pope Paul III.
In 1536 -- 40 Henry VIII engaged in the Dissolution of the Monasteries, which controlled much of the richest land. He disbanded monasteries, priories, convents and friaries in England, Wales and Ireland, appropriated their income, disposed of their assets, and provided pensions for the former residents. The properties were sold to pay for the wars. Bernard argues:
Henry maintained a strong preference for traditional Catholic practices and, during his reign, Protestant reformers were unable to make many changes to the practices of the Church of England. Indeed, this part of Henry 's reign saw the trial for heresy of Protestants as well as Roman Catholics.
Under his son, King Edward VI, more Protestant - influenced forms of worship were adopted. Under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, a more radical reformation proceeded. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy but influenced by Protestant principles. The confession of the reformed Church of England was set out in the Forty - two Articles (later revised to thirty - nine). The reformation however was cut short by the death of the king. Queen Mary I, who succeeded him, returned England again to the authority of the papacy, thereby ending the first attempt at an independent Church of England. During her co-reign with her husband, King Philip, many leaders and common people were burnt for their refusal to recant of their reformed faith. These are known as the Marian martyrs and the persecution led to her nickname of "Bloody Mary ''.
Mary also died childless and so it was left to the new regime of her half - sister Elizabeth to resolve the direction of the church. The settlement under Queen Elizabeth I (from 1558), known as the Elizabethan Settlement, developed the via media (middle way) character of the Church of England, a church moderately Reformed in doctrine, as expressed in the Thirty - Nine Articles, but also emphasising continuity with the Catholic and Apostolic traditions of the Church Fathers. It was also an established church (constitutionally established by the state with the head of state as its supreme governor). The exact nature of the relationship between church and state would be a source of continued friction into the next century.
For the next century, through the reigns of James I, who ordered the creation of what became known as the King James Bible, and Charles I, culminating in the English Civil War and the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, there were significant swings back and forth between two factions: the Puritans (and other radicals) who sought more far - reaching Protestant reforms, and the more conservative churchmen who aimed to keep closer to traditional beliefs and Catholic practices. The failure of political and ecclesiastical authorities to submit to Puritan demands for more extensive reform was one of the causes of open warfare. By Continental standards, the level of violence over religion was not high, but the casualties included King Charles I and the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud. Under the Commonwealth and the Protectorate of England from 1649 to 1660, the bishops were dethroned and former practices were outlawed, and Presbyterian ecclesiology was introduced in place of the episcopate. The 39 Articles were replaced by the Westminster Confession, the Book of Common Prayer by the Directory of Public Worship. Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform to this form of State Presbyterianism.
With the Restoration of Charles II, Parliament restored the Church of England to a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation, taken for granted by the Tudors, had to be abandoned. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with the Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and those Puritans and Protestants who dissented from the Anglican establishment, and Roman Catholics, too strong to be suppressed altogether, having to continue their existence outside the national church rather than controlling it. Continuing official suspicion and legal restrictions continued well into the 19th century.
By the Fifth Article of the Union with Ireland 1800, the Church of England and Church of Ireland were united into "one Protestant Episcopal church, to be called, the United Church of England and Ireland ''. Although this union was declared "an essential and fundamental Part of the Union '', the Irish Church Act 1869 separated the Irish part of the church again and disestablished it, the Act coming into effect on 1 January 1871.
As the British Empire expanded, British colonists and colonial administrators took the established church doctrines and practices together with ordained ministry and formed overseas branches of the Church of England. As they developed or, beginning with the United States of America, became sovereign or independent states, many of their churches became separate organisationally but remained linked to the Church of England through the Anglican Communion.
In Bermuda, the oldest remaining English colony (now designated a British Overseas Territory), the first Church of England services were performed by the Reverend Richard Buck, one of the survivors of the 1609 wreck of the Sea Venture which initiated Bermuda 's permanent settlement. The nine parishes of the Church of England in Bermuda, each with its own church and glebe land, rarely had more than a pair of ordained ministers to share between them until the Nineteenth Century. From 1825 to 1839, Bermuda 's parishes were attached to the See of Nova Scotia. Bermuda was then grouped into the new Diocese of Newfoundland and Bermuda from 1839. In 1879, the Synod of the Church of England in Bermuda was formed. At the same time, a Diocese of Bermuda became separate from the Diocese of Newfoundland, but both continued to be grouped under the Bishop of Newfoundland and Bermuda until 1919, when Newfoundland and Bermuda each received its own Bishop.
The Church of England in Bermuda was renamed in 1978 as the Anglican Church of Bermuda, which is an extra-provincial diocese, with both metropolitan and primatial authority coming directly from the Archbishop of Canterbury. Among its parish churches is St Peter 's Church in the UNESCO World Heritage Site of St George 's Town, which is both the oldest Anglican and the oldest non-Roman Catholic church in the New World.
Under the guidance of Rowan Williams and with significant pressure from clergy union representatives, the ecclesiastical penalty for convicted felons to be defrocked was set aside from the Clergy Discipline Measure 2003. The clergy union argued that the penalty was unfair to victims of hypothetical miscarriages of criminal justice, because the ecclesiastical penalty is considered irreversible. Although clerics can still be banned for life from ministry, they remain ordained as priests.
The archbishops of Canterbury and York warned in January 2015 that the Church of England will no longer be able to carry on in its current form unless the downward spiral in membership is somehow reversed as typical Sunday attendances have halved to 800,000 in the last 40 years:
The urgency of the challenge facing us is not in doubt. Attendance at Church of England services has declined at an average of one per cent per annum over recent decades and, in addition, the age profile of our membership has become significantly older than that of the population... Renewing and reforming aspects of our institutional life is a necessary but far from sufficient response to the challenges facing the Church of England... The age profile of our clergy has also been increasing. Around 40 per cent of parish clergy are due to retire over the next decade or so.
However, Sarah Mullally, the fourth woman chosen to become a bishop in the Church of England, insisted in June 2015 that declining numbers at services should not necessarily be a cause of despair for churches because people will still "encounter God '' without ever taking their place in a pew, saying that people might hear the Christian message through social media sites such as Facebook or in a café run as a community project. Additionally, the church 's own statistics reveal that 9.7 million people visit an Anglican church every year and 1 million students are educated at Anglican schools.
In 2015 the Church of England admitted that it was embarrassed to be paying staff under the living wage. The Church of England had previously campaigned for all employers to pay this minimum amount. The archbishop acknowledged it was not the only area where the church "fell short of its standards ''.
The canon law of the Church of England identifies the Christian scriptures as the source of its doctrine. In addition, doctrine is also derived from the teachings of the Church Fathers and ecumenical councils (as well as the ecumenical creeds) in so far as these agree with scripture. This doctrine is expressed in the Thirty - Nine Articles of Religion, the Book of Common Prayer, and the Ordinal containing the rites for the ordination of deacons, priests, and the consecration of bishops. Unlike other traditions, the Church of England has no single theologian that it can look to as a founder. However, Richard Hooker 's appeal to scripture, church tradition, and reason as sources of authority continue to inform Anglican identity.
The Church of England 's doctrinal character today is largely the result of the Elizabethan Settlement, which sought to establish a comprehensive middle way between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. The Church of England affirms the Protestant Reformation principle that scripture contains all things necessary to salvation and is the final arbiter in doctrinal matters. The Thirty - nine Articles are the church 's only official confessional statement. Though not a complete system of doctrine, the articles highlight areas of agreement with Lutheran and Reformed positions, while differentiating Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism and Anabaptism.
While embracing some themes of the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England also maintains Catholic traditions of the ancient church and teachings of the Church Fathers, unless these are considered contrary to scripture. It accepts the decisions of the first four ecumenical councils concerning the Trinity and the Incarnation. The Church of England also preserves Catholic order by adhering to episcopal polity, with ordained orders of bishops, priests and deacons. There are differences of opinion within the Church of England over the necessity of episcopacy. Some consider it essential, while others feel it is needed for the proper ordering of the church.
The Church of England has, as one of its distinguishing marks, a breadth and "open - mindedness ''. This tolerance has allowed Anglicans who emphasise the Catholic tradition and others who emphasise the Reformed tradition to coexist. The three "parties '' (see Churchmanship) in the Church of England are sometimes called high church (or Anglo - Catholic), low church (or evangelical Anglican) and broad church (or liberal). The high church party places importance on the Church of England 's continuity with the pre-Reformation Catholic Church, adherence to ancient liturgical usages and the sacerdotal nature of the priesthood. As their name suggests, Anglo - Catholics maintain many traditional Catholic practices and liturgical forms. The low church party is more Protestant in both ceremony and theology. Historically, broad church has been used to describe those of middle - of - the - road ceremonial preferences who lean theologically towards liberal Protestantism. The balance between these strands of churchmanship is not static: in 2013, 40 % of Church of England worshippers attended evangelical churches (compared with 26 % in 1989), and 83 % of very large congregations were evangelical. Such churches were also reported to attract higher numbers of men and young adults than others.
The Church of England 's official book of liturgy as established in English Law is the Book of Common Prayer. In addition to this book the General Synod has also legislated for a modern liturgical book, Common Worship, dating from 2000, which can be used as an alternative to the BCP. Like its predecessor, the 1980 Alternative Service Book, it differs from the Book of Common Prayer in providing a range of alternative services, mostly in modern language, although it does include some BCP - based forms as well, for example Order Two for Holy Communion. (This is a revision of the BCP service, altering some words and allowing the insertion of some other liturgical texts such as the Agnus Dei before communion.) The Order One rite follows the pattern of more modern liturgical scholarship.
The liturgies are organised according to the traditional liturgical year and the calendar of saints. The sacraments of baptism and the Eucharist are generally thought necessary to salvation. Infant baptism is practised. At a later age, individuals baptised as infants receive confirmation by a bishop, at which time they reaffirm the baptismal promises made by their parents or sponsors. The Eucharist, consecrated by a thanksgiving prayer including Christ 's Words of Institution, is believed to be "a memorial of Christ 's once - for - all redemptive acts in which Christ is objectively present and effectually received in faith ''.
The use of hymns and music in the Church of England has changed dramatically over the centuries. Traditional Choral evensong is a staple of most cathedrals. The style of psalm chanting harks back to the Church of England 's pre-reformation roots. During the 18th century, clergy such as Charles Wesley introduced their own styles of worship with poetic hymns.
In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the Charismatic Movement significantly altered the worship traditions of numerous Church of England parishes, primarily affecting those of evangelical persuasion. These churches now adopt a contemporary worship form of service, with minimal liturgical or ritual elements, and incorporating contemporary worship music.
Women were appointed as deaconesses from 1861 but they could not function fully as deacons and were not considered ordained clergy. Women have been lay readers for a long time. During the First World War, some women were appointed as lay readers, known as "bishop 's messengers '', who also led missions and ran churches in the absence of men. After that no more lay readers were appointed until 1969.
Legislation authorising the ordination of women as deacons was passed in 1986 and they were first ordained in 1987. The ordination of women as priests was passed by the General Synod in 1992 and began in 1994. In 2010, for the first time in the history of the Church of England, more women than men were ordained as priests (290 women and 273 men).
In July 2005, the synod voted to "set in train '' the process of allowing the consecration of women as bishops. In February 2006, the synod voted overwhelmingly for the "further exploration '' of possible arrangements for parishes that did not want to be directly under the authority of a bishop who is a woman. On 7 July 2008, the synod voted to approve the ordination of women as bishops and rejected moves for alternative episcopal oversight for those who do not accept the ministry of bishops who are women. Actual ordinations of women to the episcopate required further legislation, which was narrowly rejected in a vote at General Synod in November 2012.
On 20 November 2013, the General Synod voted overwhelmingly in support of a plan to allow the ordination of women as bishops, with 378 in favour, 8 against and 25 abstentions.
On 14 July 2014, the General Synod approved the ordination of women as bishops. The House of Bishops recorded 37 votes in favour, two against with one abstention. The House of Clergy had 162 in favour, 25 against and four abstentions. The House of Laity voted 152 for, 45 against with five abstentions. This legislation had to be approved by the Ecclesiastical Committee of the Parliament before it could be finally implemented at the November 2014 synod.
In December 2014, Libby Lane was announced as the first woman to become a bishop in the Church of England. She was consecrated as a bishop in January 2015.
In July 2015, Rachel Treweek was the first woman to become a diocesan bishop in the Church of England when she became the Bishop of Gloucester. She and Sarah Mullally, Bishop of Crediton, were the first women to be ordained as bishops at Canterbury Cathedral. Treweek later made headlines by calling for gender - inclusive language, saying that "God is not to be seen as male. God is God. ''
After the consecration of the first women as bishops, Women and the Church (WATCH), a group supporting the ministries of women in the Church of England, called for language referring to God as "Mother ''. This call for more gender inclusive language has receive the outspoken support of the Rt Rev Alan Wilson, the Bishop of Buckingham. In 2015, the Rev Jody Stowell, from WATCH, expressed her support for female images saying "we 're not restricted to understanding God with one gender. I would encourage people to explore those kinds of images. They 're wholly Biblical. ''
The Church of England has been discussing same - sex marriages and LGBT clergy. The church holds that marriage is a union of one man with one woman. However, the church teaches that "Same - sex relationships often embody genuine mutuality and fidelity. '' The "Church of England does not conduct Civil Partnership Ceremonies or Same Sex Marriages but individual churches can conduct a service of thanksgiving after a ceremony. '' The Archbishops ' Council has stated that "clergy in the Church of England are permitted to offer prayers of support on a pastoral basis for people in same - sex relationships; '' As such, many Anglican churches, with clergy open to it, "already bless same - sex couples on an unofficial basis. ''
Civil Partnerships for clergy have been allowed since 2005. The General Synod also voted in favour of extending pensions to clergy in civil unions. In a missive to clergy, the church communicated that "there was a need for committed same - sex couples to be given recognition and ' compassionate attention ' from the Church, including special prayers. '' Some congregations have published "Prayers for a Same Sex Commitment. '' After same - sex marriage was legalised, the Archbishops ' Council asked for the government to continue to offer civil unions saying "The Church of England recognises that same - sex relationships often embody fidelity and mutuality. Civil partnerships enable these Christian virtues to be recognised socially and legally in a proper framework. ''
In 2014, the Bishops released guidelines that permit "more informal kind of prayer '' for couples. In the guidelines, "gay couples who get married will be able to ask for special prayers in the Church of England after their wedding, the bishops have agreed. '' In 2016, The Bishop of Grantham, the Rt Rev Nicholas Chamberlain, announced he is gay, in a same - sex relationship and celibate; becoming the first bishop to do so in the church. The church had decided in 2013 that gay clergy in civil partnerships could become bishops. "The House (of Bishops) has confirmed that clergy in civil partnerships, and living in accordance with the teaching of the church on human sexuality, can be considered as candidates for the episcopate. ''
In 2017, the House of Clergy voted against the motion to ' take note ' of the Bishops ' report defining marriage as between a man and a woman. Due to passage in all three houses being required for passage, the motion was rejected. After General Synod rejected the motion, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York called for "radical new Christian inclusion '' that is "based on good, healthy, flourishing relationships, and in a proper 21st century understanding of being human and of being sexual. '' The Diocese of Hereford approved a motion calling for the church "to create a set of formal services and prayers to bless those who have had a same - sex marriage or civil partnership. ''
Regarding transgender issues, the 2017 General Synod voted in favour of a motion saying that transgender people should be "welcomed and affirmed in their parish church... '' The motion also asked the Bishops "to look into special services for transgender people. '' The Diocese of Blackburn has already begun recognising the ceremony. Since 2000, the church has allowed priests to undergo gender transition and remain in office. The House of Bishops declined to create a new liturgy, but advised that clergy adapt the service for an affirmation of baptism to mark a gender transition. "The House notes that the Affirmation of Baptismal Faith, found in Common Worship, is an ideal liturgical rite which trans people can use to mark this moment of personal renewal. '' The church has ordained openly transgender clergy since 2005.
Just as the Church of England has a large conservative or "traditionalist '' wing, it also has many liberal members and clergy. Approximately one third of clergy "doubt or disbelieve in the physical resurrection ''. Others, such as the Revd Giles Fraser, a contributor to The Guardian, have argued for an allegorical interpretation of the virgin birth of Jesus. The Independent reported in 2014 that, according to a YouGov survey of Church of England clergy, "as many as 16 per cent are unclear about God and two per cent think it is no more than a human construct. '' Moreover, many congregations are seeker - friendly environments. For example, one report from the Church Mission Society suggested that the church open up "a pagan church where Christianity (is) very much in the centre '' to reach out to spiritual people.
The Church of England is generally opposed to abortion but recognises that "there can be - strictly limited - conditions under which it may be morally preferable to any available alternative ''. The church also opposes euthanasia. Its official stance is that "While acknowledging the complexity of the issues involved in assisted dying / suicide and voluntary euthanasia, the Church of England is opposed to any change in the law or in medical practice that would make assisted dying / suicide or voluntary euthanasia permissible in law or acceptable in practice. '' It also states that "Equally, the Church shares the desire to alleviate physical and psychological suffering, but believes that assisted dying / suicide and voluntary euthanasia are not acceptable means of achieving these laudable goals. '' However, George Carey, a former Archbishop of Canterbury, announced that he had changed his stance on euthanasia in 2014 and now advocated legalising "assisted dying ''. On embryonic stem - cell research, the church has announced "cautious acceptance to the proposal to produce cytoplasmic hybrid embryos for research ''.
The Church of England set up the Church Urban Fund in the 1980s to tackle poverty and deprivation. They see poverty as trapping individuals and communities with some people in urgent need. This leads to dependency, homelessness, hunger, isolation, low income, mental health problems, social exclusion and violence. They feel that poverty reduces confidence and life expectancy and that people born in poor conditions have difficulty escaping their disadvantaged circumstances.
In parts of Liverpool, Manchester and Newcastle two - thirds of babies are born to poverty and have poorer life chances, also life expectancy 15 years lower than babies born in most fortunate communities. South Shore, Blackpool, has lowest life expectancy at 66 years for men.
The deep - rooted unfairness in our society is highlighted by these stark statistics. Children being born in this country, just a few miles apart, could n't witness a more wildly differing start to life. In child poverty terms, we live in one of the most unequal countries in the western world. We want people to understand where their own community sits alongside neighbouring communities. The disparity is often shocking but it 's crucial that, through greater awareness, people from all backgrounds come together to think about what could be done to support those born into poverty. (Paul Hackwood, the Chair of Trustees at Church Urban Fund)
Many prominent people in the Church of England have spoken out against poverty and welfare cuts in the United Kingdom. Twenty - seven bishops are among 43 Christian leaders who signed a letter which urged David Cameron to make sure people have enough to eat.
We often hear talk of hard choices. Surely few can be harder than that faced by the tens of thousands of older people who must ' heat or eat ' each winter, harder than those faced by families whose wages have stayed flat while food prices have gone up 30 % in just five years. Yet beyond even this we must, as a society, face up to the fact that over half of people using food banks have been put in that situation by cutbacks to and failures in the benefit system, whether it be payment delays or punitive sanctions.
Benefit cuts, failures and "punitive sanctions '' force thousands of UK citizens to use food banks. The campaign to end hunger considers this "truly shocking '' and called for a national day of fasting on 4 April 2014.
Official figures from 2005 showed there were 25 million baptised Anglicans in England and Wales. Due to its status as the established church, in general, anyone may be married, have their children baptised or their funeral in their local parish church, regardless of whether they are baptised or regular churchgoers.
Between 1890 and 2001, churchgoing in the United Kingdom declined steadily. In the years 1968 to 1999, Anglican Sunday church attendances almost halved, from 3.5 per cent of the population to 1.9 per cent. By the year 2014, Sunday church attendances had declined further to 1.4 per cent of the population. One study published in 2008 suggested that if current trends were to continue, Sunday attendances could fall to 350,000 in 2030 and just 87,800 in 2050.
In 2011, the Church of England published statistics showing 1.7 million people attending at least one of its services each month, a level maintained since the turn of the millennium; approximately one million participating each Sunday and three million taking part in a Church of England service on Christmas Day or Christmas Eve. The church also claimed that 30 % attend Sunday worship at least once a year; more than 40 % attend a wedding in their local church and still more attend a funeral there. Nationally the Church of England baptises one child in ten (2011). In 2015, the church 's statistics showed that 2.6 million people attended a special Advent service, 2.4 million attended a Christmas service, 1.3 million attended an Easter service, and 980,000 attended service during an average week. In 2016, 2.6 million people attended a Christmas service, 1.2 million attended an Easter service, 1.1 million people attended a service in the Church of England each month, an average of 930,000 people attended a weekly service, an additional 180,000 attended a service for school each week, and an average of 740,000 people attended Sunday service.
The Church of England has 18,000 active ordained clergy and 10,000 licensed lay ministers. In 2009, 491 people were recommended for ordination training, maintaining the level at the turn of the millennium, and 564 new clergy (266 women and 298 men) were ordained. More than half of those ordained (193 men and 116 women) were appointed to full - time paid ministry. In 2011, 504 new clergy were ordained, including 264 to paid ministry, and 349 lay readers were admitted to ministry; and the mode age - range of those recommended for ordination training had remained 40 -- 49 since 1999.
Article XIX (' Of the Church ') of the 39 Articles defines the church as follows:
The visible Church of Christ is a congregation of faithful men, in which the pure Word of God is preached, and the sacraments be duly ministered according to Christ 's ordinance in all those things that of necessity are requisite to the same.
The British monarch has the constitutional title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England. The canon law of the Church of England states, "We acknowledge that the Queen 's most excellent Majesty, acting according to the laws of the realm, is the highest power under God in this kingdom, and has supreme authority over all persons in all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil. '' In practice this power is often exercised through Parliament and the Prime Minister.
The Church of Ireland and the Church in Wales separated from the Church of England in 1869 and 1920 respectively and are autonomous churches in the Anglican Communion; Scotland 's national church, the Church of Scotland, is Presbyterian but the Scottish Episcopal Church is in the Anglican Communion.
In addition to England, the jurisdiction of the Church of England extends to the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands and a few parishes in Flintshire, Monmouthshire, Powys and Radnorshire in Wales which voted to remain with the Church of England rather than joining the Church in Wales. Expatriate congregations on the continent of Europe have become the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe.
The church is structured as follows (from the lowest level upwards):
All rectors and vicars are appointed by patrons, who may be private individuals, corporate bodies such as cathedrals, colleges or trusts, or by the bishop or directly by the Crown. No clergy can be instituted and inducted into a parish without swearing the Oath of Allegiance to Her Majesty, and taking the Oath of Canonical Obedience "in all things lawful and honest '' to the bishop. Usually they are instituted to the benefice by the bishop and then inducted by the archdeacon into the possession of the benefice property -- church and parsonage. Curates (assistant clergy) are appointed by rectors and vicars, or if priests - in - charge by the bishop after consultation with the patron. Cathedral clergy (normally a dean and a varying number of residentiary canons who constitute the cathedral chapter) are appointed either by the Crown, the bishop, or by the dean and chapter themselves. Clergy officiate in a diocese either because they hold office as beneficed clergy or are licensed by the bishop when appointed, or simply with permission.
The most senior bishop of the Church of England is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who is the metropolitan of the southern province of England, the Province of Canterbury. He has the status of Primate of All England. He is the focus of unity for the worldwide Anglican Communion of independent national or regional churches. Justin Welby has been Archbishop of Canterbury since the confirmation of his election on 4 February 2013.
The second most senior bishop is the Archbishop of York, who is the metropolitan of the northern province of England, the Province of York. For historical reasons (relating to the time of York 's control by the Danes) he is referred to as the Primate of England. John Sentamu became Archbishop of York in 2005. The Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham and the Bishop of Winchester are ranked in the next three positions.
The process of appointing diocesan bishops is complex, due to historical reasons balancing hierarchy against democracy, and is handled by the Crown Nominations Committee which submits names to the Prime Minister (acting on behalf of the Crown) for consideration.
The Church of England has a legislative body, the General Synod. Synod can create two types of legislation, measures and canons. Measures have to be approved but can not be amended by the British Parliament before receiving the Royal Assent and becoming part of the law of England. Although it is the established church in England only, its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament including the non-English members. Canons require Royal Licence and Royal Assent, but form the law of the church, rather than the law of the land.
Another assembly is the Convocation of the English Clergy, which is older than the General Synod and its predecessor the Church Assembly. By the 1969 Synodical Government Measure almost all of the Convocations ' functions were transferred to the General Synod. Additionally, there are Diocesan Synods and deanery synods, which are the governing bodies of the divisions of the Church.
Of the 42 diocesan archbishops and bishops in the Church of England, 26 are permitted to sit in the House of Lords. The Archbishops of Canterbury and York automatically have seats, as do the Bishops of London, Durham and Winchester. The remaining 21 seats are filled in order of seniority by consecration. It may take a diocesan bishop a number of years to reach the House of Lords, at which point he becomes a Lord Spiritual. The Bishop of Sodor and Man and the Bishop of Gibraltar in Europe are not eligible to sit in the House of Lords as their dioceses lie outside the United Kingdom.
Although they are not part of England or the United Kingdom, the Church of England is also the Established Church in the Crown dependencies of the Isle of Man, the Bailiwick of Jersey and the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The Isle of Man has its own diocese of Sodor and Man, and the Bishop of Sodor and Man is an ex officio member of the Legislative Council of the Tynwald on the island. The Channel Islands are part of the Diocese of Winchester, and in Jersey the Dean of Jersey is a non-voting member of the States of Jersey. In Guernsey the Church of England is the Established Church, although the Dean of Guernsey is not a member of the States of Guernsey.
The Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, has taken strong action in an effort to prevent complaints of sex abuse cases being covered up. Independent investigators are examining files as far back as the 1950s and Welby hopes this independence will prevent any possibility of a cover - up.
We will systematically bring those transparently and openly first of all working with the survivors where they are still alive and then seeing what they want. The rule is survivors come first, not our own interests, and however important the person was, however distinguished, however well - known, survivors come first. (Justin Welby)
The personal files of all Anglican clergy since the 1950s are being audited in an effort to ensure no cover - up. Welby emphasised repeatedly that no cover - up would be acceptable.
Despite such assurances there is concern that not enough may be done and historic abuse may still sometimes be covered up. Keith Porteous Wood of the National Secular Society stated:
The problem was n't that bishops were n't trained in such matters, it is the institutional culture of denial and the bullying of the abused and whistleblowers into silence. One report suggests that 13 bishops ignored letters written in the 1990s warning of abuse by Ball on behalf of a victim who later committed suicide. I have seen evidence that such bullying persists to this day. I hope that the Archbishop 's review into the case of Peter Ball will deal with such bullying and what appears to be the undue influence exerted on the police and CPS by the Church in dealing with this case. The total failure of procedures, outlined by Ian Elliott, echoes that revealed in the totally damning Cahill Report about the conduct of the Archbishop Hope of York in respect of Robert Waddington. The current Archbishop of York has decided that this report should remain in printed form rather than be more widely available on the web.
Bishop Peter Ball was convicted in October 2015 on several charges of indecent assault against young adult men. There are allegations of large - scale earlier cover - ups involving many British establishment figures which prevented Ball 's earlier prosecution. There have also been allegations of child sex abuse, for example Robert Waddington. A complainant, known only as "Joe '', tried for decades to have action taken over sadistic sex abuse which Garth Moore perpetrated against him in 1976 when "Joe '' was 15 years old. None of the high ranking clergy who "Joe '' spoke to recall being told about the abuse, which "Joe '' considers incredible. A representative of the solicitors firm representing "Joe '' said:
The Church of England wants to bury and discourage allegations of non-recent abuse. They know how difficult it is for survivors to come forward, and it appears from this case that the Church has a plan of making it hard for these vulnerable people to come forward. This survivor has had the courage to press his case. Most do not. Most harbour the psychological fallout in silence. We need to find a way to make the system more approachable for survivors.
Although an established church, the Church of England does not receive any direct government support. Donations comprise its largest source of income, and it also relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments. In 2005, the Church of England had estimated total outgoings of around £ 900 million.
The Church of England manages an investment portfolio which is worth more than £ 8000 million.
The Church of England supports A Church Near You, an online directory of churches. A user - edited resource, it currently lists 16,400 churches and has 7,000 editors in 42 dioceses. The directory enables parishes to maintain accurate location, contact and event information which is shared with other websites and mobile apps. In 2012, the directory formed the data backbone of Christmas Near You and in 2014 was used to promote the church 's Harvest Near You initiative.
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why are there no elephants in the philippines | List of mammals of the Philippines - Wikipedia
This is a list of the mammal species recorded in the Philippines.
There are 210 native mammal species in the Philippines, excluding those of the order Cetacea (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and extinct species (Pleistocene Epoch), of which around six are critically endangered, around thirteen are endangered, around thirty are vulnerable, and around two are near - threatened. Eight of the species listed for the Philippines have been extinct since the Pleistocene Epoch. One fossil species of Sirenia has been found in Palawan and could have been extinct since the Miocene, the east-most fossil remains of any Sirenia in history. Though there are also extinct deer and pig fossil remains known in the Philippine not yet included in this list, as well as other buffalo and small mammal species from the Pleistocene Epoch. One species which became extinct in the 13th to possibly the 16th century, the Asian elephant, which was transported to the Sultanate of Sulu and Maguindanao but became extinct on those areas or were transported back to Sabah for unknown reasons. One former species, Acerodon lucifer is now extinct, but is now highly regarded as part of the species Acerodon jubatus today, thus, the species still thrives in the archipelago, but is locally extinct on the island of Panay.
Seven species in the country have been introduced for agriculture, transportation, companionship, and tourism and has played significant roles in the livelihood of the people, one species was introduced for unknown purpose, the sika deer which evolved into as separate subspecies on Jolo Island, while three species (introduced accidentally through ships) are worldwide pests: black and brown rat, and the house mouse.
The taxonomy and naming of the individual species is based on 1.) The Synopsis of Philippine Mammals by Smithsonian Institution, 2.) Recent articles on species discovery in the country, 3.) Domesticated profiles, and 4.) Those used in existing Wikipedia articles as of 21 May 2007 and supplemented by the common names and taxonomy from the IUCN, Smithsonian Institution, or the University of Michigan where no Wikipedia article was available.
The following tags are used to highlight each species ' conservation status as assessed by the IUCN:
Some species were assessed using an earlier set of criteria. Species assessed using this system have the following instead of near threatened and least concern categories:
Elephants comprise three living species and are the largest living land animals. Three species that lived in prehistoric times used to live in the Philippines, until their extinction. One species, the Asian elephant - unknown subspecies like those on Sabah, once lived in both the Sultanate of Sulu and Maguindanao, though became extinct on those areas because of hunting and / or were transported back to Sabah for unknown reasons.
Sirenia is an order of fully aquatic, herbivorous mammals that inhabit rivers, estuaries, coastal marine waters, swamps, and marine wetlands. All four species are endangered. One species occur in the Philippines. One fossil species has been discovered in the Philippines in 2011. The fossil has n't yet been extracted from the rocks in fear of destroying the natural heritage caves of Palawan which are protected by Philippine Law. Future technology in fossil extraction is the only way to get and identify the fossil remain in peace according to the scientists who found the remains.
The treeshrews are small mammals native to the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. Although called treeshrews, they are not true shrews and are not all arboreal. Three species occur in the Philippines, though the Calamian treeshrew is not yet fully considered by the IUCN as a full separate species because assessment is not yet done at present to confirm the movement as of 2013.
The two species of colugos make up the order Dermoptera. They are arboreal gliding mammals found in Southeast Asia. Only one species occurs in the Philippines and is endemic to the Mindanao Faunal Region.
The order Primates contains humans and their closest relatives: lemurs, lorisoids, monkeys, and apes. Three endemic species occurs in the Philippines.
Rodents make up the largest order of mammals, with over 40 percent of mammalian species. They have two incisors in the upper and lower jaw which grow continually and must be kept short by gnawing. Most rodents are small though the capybara can weigh up to 45 kg (100 lb). 86 native species occurs in the Philippines as of 2014, most endemic to the archipelago. One discovered fossil species is extinct since the Pleistocene Epoch. The number of species is speculated to rise more because of the high endemic concentration on the islands which are mostly isolated from Mainland Asia in prehistoric times. There are also three introduced species of rodents in the archipelago, the most common introduced rodents, house mouse, black rat, and the brown rat which are considered worldwide pests.
The order Erinaceomorpha contains a single family, Erinaceidae, which comprise the hedgehogs and gymnures. The hedgehogs are easily recognised by their spines while gymnures look more like large rats. 2 species occurs in the Philippines as of 2013, though speculation persists that perhaps there will be future moonrat species on Leyte, Samar, Basilan, or even Bohol because they were also once part of the Mindanao Faunal Region like Mindanao and Dinagat.
The "shrew - forms '' are insectivorous mammals. The shrews and solenodons closely resemble mice while the moles are stout - bodied burrowers. 12 species occur in the Philippines, most of them are endemic.
The bats ' most distinguishing feature is that their forelimbs are developed as wings, making them the only mammals in the world naturally capable of flight. Bat species account for about 20 % of all mammals. 90 Species occur in the Philippines, though the exact number of species is truly unknown because of the uneven distribution of bat species in Southeast Asia and Australasia. More additional field survey is needed in all of the 7,107 islands of the country archipelago to determine the exact species that occur in the country, and to know the exact number of species that actually live in the archipelago.
The order Philodota comprises the eight species of pangolin. Pangolins are anteaters and have the powerful claws, elongated snout and long tongue is seen in the other unrelated anteater species. One species occurs in the Philippines, the Philippine pangolin which was elevated to full species status from the Sunda pangolin.
The order Cetacea includes whales, dolphins and porpoises. They are the mammals most fully adapted to aquatic life with a spindle - shaped nearly hairless body, protected by a thick layer of blubber, and forelimbs and tail modified to provide propulsion underwater. The number of cetacea species that occur in the Philippines is critically unsure. More research and field work is needed to confirm the exact number.
There are over 260 species of carnivorans, the majority of which feed primarily on meat. They have a characteristic skull shape and dentition. Seven native species occurs in the Philippines, the second smallest number of carnivore species in any of the Asia - Pacific region countries, next to East Timor. And the smallest number in Southeast Asia compared to land size. One species or subspecies has been introduced: the domestic cat, although its origin is uncertain whether it originated from the leopard cat (though thought by some as introduced in the Visayas from Palawan) in the country or migrated with the Malays, or from Spain and America, or more than two of the former theories. Two subspecies are introduced to the country, the dingo which became extinct 15,000 years ago (dingo migration theory), and the aspin (the term for the domestic dog in the Philippines) which probably evolved from the dingo. One tiger subspecies is extinct in the Philippines that once thrived in the Holocene to the Pleistocene.
The odd - toed ungulates are browsing and grazing mammals. They are usually large to very large and have relatively simple stomachs and a large middle toe. One species was introduced from Malaysia (probably from Saudi Arabia) and was bred with those that were imported from Spain when the Spaniards built the Spanish East Indies in the Philippines in the 16th century. One species used to occur in the Philippines in the Pleistocene Epoch but died out for an unknown reason.
The even - toed ungulates are ungulates whose weight is borne about equally by the third and fourth toes, rather than mostly or entirely by the third as in perissodactyls. There are about 220 artiodactyl species, including many that are of great economic importance to humans. 10 native species occur in the Philippines, including the Sus populations in Tawi - tawi Province which are the only Bornean bearded pigs in the country. 2 species is extinct since the Pleistocene Epoch, though there are also other pig, deer, and buffalo species extinct since the Pleistocene Epoch not listed in this list because they need further research, naming, and placement of family and genus. 5 introduced species occurs in the country: 1.) The carabao, which originated from the water buffalo in Mainland Asia, 2.) The domesticated goat - Philippine breed, 3.) The domesticated pig, though some domesticated pigs in the country originated from native Sus species like those of Banaue, 4.) The domestic cattle, which hybridized from the banteng, and Mexican domestic cattle, forming the breed, Philippine cattle which is further divided into 4 varieties, 5.) The Jolo sika deer which was anciently introduced to Sulu (unknown date, unknown subspecies origin), though it might be already extinct.
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what was the period before the enlightenment called | List of time periods - wikipedia
The categorization of the past into discrete, quantified named blocks of time is called periodization. This is a list of such named time periods as defined in various fields of study. Major categorization systems include cosmological (time periods in the origin and mass evolution of the universe), geological (time periods in the origin and evolution of the Earth), anthropological (time periods in the origin and evolution of humans) and historical (written history).
These can be divided broadly into prehistorical (before history began to be recorded) and historical periods (when written records began to be kept).
In archaeology and anthropology, prehistory is subdivided around the three - age system. This list includes the use of the three - age system as well as a number of various designation used in reference to sub-ages within the traditional three.
The dates for each age can vary by region. On the geologic time scale, the Holocene epoch starts at the end of the last glacial period of the current ice age (c. 10,000 BC) and continues to the present. The beginning of Mesolithic is usually considered to correspond to the beginning of the Holocene epoch.
The Marxian theory of history identifies five major distinct periods of history:
The First Stage: is usually called primitive communism. It has the following characteristics.
The Second Stage: may be called slave society, considered to be the beginning of "class society '' where private property appears.
The Third Stage: may be called feudalism; it appears after slave society collapses. This was most obvious during the European Middle Ages when society went from slavery to feudalism.
Capitalism may be considered The Fourth Stage in the sequence. Marx pays special attention to this stage in human development. The bulk of his work is devoted to analysing the mechanisms of capitalism, which in western society classically arose "red in tooth and claw '' from feudal society in a revolutionary movement. In capitalism, the profit motive rules and people, freed from serfdom, work for the capitalists for wages. The capitalist class are free to spread their laissez faire practices around the world. In the capitalist - controlled parliament, laws are made to protect wealth.
Capitalism appears after the bourgeois revolution when the capitalists (or their merchant predecessors) overthrow the feudal system, and it is categorized by the following:
But according to Marx, capitalism, like slave society and feudalism, also has critical failings -- inner contradictions which will lead to its downfall. The working class, to which the capitalist class gave birth in order to produce commodities and profits, is the "grave digger '' of capitalism. The worker is not paid the full value of what he or she produces. The rest is surplus value -- the capitalist 's profit, which Marx calls the "unpaid labour of the working class. '' The capitalists are forced by competition to attempt to drive down the wages of the working class to increase their profits, and this creates conflict between the classes, and gives rise to the development of class consciousness in the working class. The working class, through trade union and other struggles, becomes conscious of itself as an exploited class. In the view of classical Marxism, the struggles of the working class against the attacks of the capitalist class will eventually lead the working class to establish its own collective control over production
After the working class gains class consciousness and mounts a revolution against the capitalists, socialism, which may be considered The Fifth Stage, will be attained, if the workers are successful. Marxist Socialism may be characterised as follows:
Marx explained that, since socialism, the first stage of communism, would be "in every respect, economically, morally, and intellectually, still stamped with the birthmarks of the old society from whose womb it emerges '', each worker would naturally expect to be awarded according to the amount of labor he contributes, despite the fact that each worker 's ability and family circumstances would differ, so that the results would still be unequal at this stage, although fully supported by social provision.
The geologic time scale covers the extent of the existence of Earth, from about 4600 million years ago to the present day. It is marked by Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points. Geologic time units are (in order of descending specificity) eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages; and the corresponding chronostratigraphic units, which measure "rock - time '', are eonothems, erathems, systems, series, and stages.
The second and third timelines are each subsections of their preceding timeline as indicated by asterisks. The Cenozoic is sometimes divided into the Quaternary and Tertiary periods, although the latter is no longer used officially.
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who is the top goal scorer for brazil | Brazil national football team - wikipedia
Uruguay 6 -- 0 Brazil (Viña del Mar, Chile; 18 September 1920)
The Brazil national football team (Portuguese: Seleção Brasileira de Futebol) represents Brazil in international men 's association football. Brazil is administered by the Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF), the governing body for football in Brazil. They have been a member of the FIFA since 1923 and member of the CONMEBOL since 1916.
Brazil is the most successful national team in the FIFA World Cup, the main football international competition, being crowned winner five times: 1958, 1962, 1970, 1994 and 2002. Brazil also has the best overall performance in the World Cup, both in proportional and absolute terms, with a record of 70 victories in 104 matches played, 119 goal difference, 227 points, and 17 losses. Brazil is the only national team to have played in all World Cup editions without any absence nor need for playoffs. The seleção is likewise the most successful national team in the FIFA Confederations Cup with four titles: 1997, 2005, 2009 and 2013.
In relation to ranking standings Brazil fare well, having the all - time highest average football Elo Rating, and the third all time highest football Elo Rating established in 1962, only behind the Hungary Golden Team of 1954 and the German team of 2014. Many commentators, experts and former players have considered the Brazil team of 1970 to be the greatest football team ever; while other Brazilian teams are also highly estimated and regularly appear listed among the best teams of all time, such as the Brazil teams of 1958 - 62, with honorary mentions for the gifted 1982 side.
Brazil is the only national team to have won the World Cup on four different continents: once in Europe (1958 Sweden), once in South America (1962 Chile), twice in North America (1970 Mexico and 1994 United States) and once in Asia (2002 Korea / Japan). They share with France, Argentina and Germany the feat to have won the three most important men 's football titles recognized by FIFA: the World Cup, the Confederations Cup, and the Olympic tournament. They also share with Spain a record of 35 consecutive matches undefeated. A common quip about football is: "Os ingleses o inventaram, os brasileiros o aperfeiçoaram '' (The English invented it, the Brazilians perfected it).
It is generally believed that the first game of the Brazilian national football team was a 1914 match between a Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo select team and the English club Exeter City, held in Fluminense 's stadium. Brazil won 2 -- 0 with goals by Oswaldo Gomes and Osman, though it is claimed that the match was a 3 -- 3 draw.
In contrast to its future success, the national team 's early appearances were not brilliant. Other early matches played during that time include several friendly games against Argentina (being defeated 3 -- 0), Chile (first in 1916) and Uruguay (first on July 12, 1916). However, led by the goalscoring abilities of Arthur Friedenreich, they were victorious at home in the South American Championships in 1919, repeating their victory, also at home, in 1922.
In 1930, Brazil played in the first World Cup, held in Uruguay in 1930. The squad defeated Bolivia but lost to Yugoslavia, being eliminated from the competition. They lost in the first round to Spain in 1934 in Italy, but reached the semi-finals in France in 1938, being defeated 2 - 1 by eventual winners Italy. Brazil were the only South American team to participate in this competition.
The 1949 South American Championship held in Brazil ended a 27 - year streak without official titles. The last one had been in the 1922 South American Championship, also played on Brazilian soil.
After that, Brazil first achieved international prominence when it hosted the 1950 FIFA World Cup. The team went into the last game of the final round, against Uruguay at Estádio do Maracanã in Rio, needing only a draw to win the World Cup. Uruguay, however, won the match and the Cup in a game known as "the Maracanazo ''. The match led to a period of national mourning.
For the 1954 World Cup in Switzerland, the Brazilian team was then almost completely renovated, with the team colours changed (to a new design by Aldyr Schlee) from all white to the yellow, blue and green of the national flag, to forget the Maracanazo, but still had a group of star players. Brazil reached the quarter - final, where they were beaten 4 -- 2 by tournament favourites Hungary in one of the ugliest matches in football history, known as the Battle of Berne.
For the 1958 World Cup, Brazil were drawn in a group with England, the USSR and Austria. They beat Austria 3 -- 0 in their first match, then drew 0 -- 0 with England. Before the match, coach Vicente Feola made three substitutions that were crucial for Brazil to defeat the Soviets: Zito, Garrincha and Pelé. From the kick - off, they kept up the pressure relentlessly, and after three minutes, which were later described as "the greatest three minutes in the history of football '', Vavá gave Brazil the lead. They won the match by 2 -- 0. Pelé scored the only goal of their quarter - final match against Wales, and they beat France 5 -- 2 in the semi-final. Brazil then beat Sweden 5 -- 2 in the final, winning their first World Cup and becoming the first nation to win a World Cup title outside of its own continent. In Pele 's words, he described it tearfully as a nation coming of age.
In the 1962 World Cup, Brazil earned its second title with Garrincha as the star player, a mantle and responsibility laid upon him after the regular talisman, Pelé, was injured during the second group match against Czechoslovakia and unable to play for the rest of the tournament.
In the 1966 World Cup, Brazil had their worst performance in a World Cup. The 1966 tournament was remembered for its excessively physical play, and Pelé was one of the players most affected. Against Portugal, several violent tackles by the Portuguese defenders caused Pelé to leave the match and the tournament. Brazil lost this match and was eliminated in the first round of the World Cup for the first time since 1934. They have not failed to reach the knockout stages of the competition since. Brazil became the second nation to be eliminated in the first round while holding the World Cup crown following Italy in 1950. After the 2002, 2010 and 2014 World Cups, France, Italy and Spain were also added to this list. After the tournament, Pelé declared that he did not wish to play in the World Cup again. Nonetheless, he returned in 1970.
Brazil won its third World Cup in Mexico at the 1970 World Cup. It fielded what has since then often been considered the best World Cup football squad ever, led by Pelé in his last World Cup finals, captain Carlos Alberto Torres, Jairzinho, Tostão, Gérson and Rivelino. Even though Garrincha had retired, this team was still a force to be reckoned with. They won all six of their games -- against Czechoslovakia, England and Romania during group play, and against Peru, Uruguay and Italy in the knockout rounds. Jairzinho was the second top scorer with seven goals; Pelé finished with four goals. Brazil lifted the Jules Rimet trophy for the third time (the first nation to do so), which meant that they were allowed to keep it. A replacement was then commissioned, though it would be 24 years before Brazil won it again.
After the international retirement of Pelé and other stars from the 1970 squad, Brazil was not able to overcome the Netherlands at the 1974 World Cup in West Germany, finishing in fourth place.
In the second group stage of the 1978 World Cup, Brazil was competing with tournament hosts Argentina for top spot and a place in the finals. In their last group match, Brazil defeated Poland 3 -- 1 to go to the top of the group with a goal difference of + 5. Argentina had had a goal difference of + 2, but in its last group match, it defeated Peru 6 -- 0, and thus qualified for the final in a match accused of ultimately - unproven match fixing. The Brazilian team qualified for the third place, and were the only team to remain unbeaten in the tournament.
At the 1982 World Cup, held in Spain, Brazil were the tournament favorites, and easily moved through the early part of the draw, but a 3 -- 2 defeat in Barcelona to Italy, in one of the classic games in World Cup finals history, eliminated them from the tournament in the match that they refer to as "Sarriá 's Disaster '', referencing the stadium 's name. The 1982 team, with players like Sócrates, Zico, Falcão and Éder, is remembered as perhaps the greatest team never to win a World Cup.
Several players, including Sócrates and Zico, from 1982 returned to play at the 1986 World Cup in Mexico. Brazil, still a very good team and more disciplined defensively than four years earlier, met the Michel Platini - led France in the quarter - finals in a classic of Total Football. The game played to a 1 -- 1 draw in regulation time, and after a goalless extra time, it all came down to a penalty shoot - out, where Brazil was defeated 4 -- 3.
After 40 years, Brazil was victorious in the 1989 Copa América, this being their fourth victory in four tournaments hosted in Brazil. This achievement ended a 19 - year streak without official titles for the Brazilians. The last one had been in the 1970 World Cup.
At the 1990 World Cup in Italy, Brazil was coached by Sebastião Lazaroni, that had been the coach in the 1989 Copa América. With a defensive scheme, whose main symbol was midfielder Dunga, forward Careca and three centre - backs, the team lacked creativity but made it to the second round. Brazil was eliminated by Diego Maradona - led Argentina in the round of 16 in Turin, losing to their South American archrivals 1 -- 0.
Brazil went 24 years without winning a World Cup or even participating in a final. Their struggles ended at the 1994 tournament in the United States, where a solid side headed by Romário, Bebeto, Dunga, Cláudio Taffarel and Jorginho won the World Cup for a then - record fourth time. Highlights of their campaign included a 1 -- 0 victory over the United States in the round of 16 in San Francisco, a 3 -- 2 win over the Netherlands in the quarter - finals in Dallas, and a 1 -- 0 victory over Sweden in the semi-finals in Los Angeles. This set up Brazil vs. Italy in the final once again in Los Angeles, which was less than 2,000 miles away from Mexico City, where Brazil had won their previous World Cup in 1970, ironically after beating Italy. After a 0 -- 0 draw, penalty kicks loomed and Brazil became champions once again.
Entering the 1998 World Cup as defending champions, Brazil finished runner - up. After a respectable campaign during which they beat the Netherlands on penalties in the semi-final following a 1 -- 1 draw, the team lost to the host France 3 -- 0 in the final.
Fuelled by the "Three R 's '' (Ronaldo, Rivaldo and Ronaldinho), Brazil won its fifth championship at the 2002 World Cup, held in South Korea and Japan. Brazil beat all three opponents in group play in South Korea and topped the group. In Brazil 's opening game against Turkey, in Ulsan, Rivaldo fell to the ground clutching his face after Turkey 's Hakan Ünsal had kicked the ball at his legs. Rivaldo escaped suspension but was fined £ 5,180 for play - acting, and became the first player ever to be punished in FIFA 's crackdown on diving. In their knockout round matches in Japan, Brazil defeated Belgium 2 -- 0 in Kobe in the round of 16. Against England in the quarter - finals in Shizuoka, they won 2 -- 1, with the winning goal coming from an unexpected free - kick by Ronaldinho. The semi-final was against Turkey in Saitama; Brazil won 1 -- 0. The final was between Germany and Brazil in Yokohama, where Ronaldo scored two goals in Brazil 's 2 -- 0 triumph. Ronaldo also won the Golden Shoe as the tournament 's leading scorer with 8 goals.
Brazil won the 2004 Copa América, their third win in four competitions since 1997 Brazil also won the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup for the second time. Manager Carlos Alberto Parreira built his side through a 4 -- 2 -- 2 -- 2 formation. Nicknamed the "Magic Square '', the attack was built around four players: Ronaldo, Adriano, Kaká and Ronaldinho.
In the 2006 World Cup, Brazil won its first two games against Croatia (1 -- 0) and Australia (2 -- 0). In the final group game against Japan, Brazil won 4 -- 1. Ronaldo scored twice and equalled the record for the most goals scored across all World Cups. In the round of 16, Brazil beat Ghana 3 -- 0. Ronaldo 's goal was his 15th in World Cup history, breaking the record. Brazil, however, was eliminated in the quarter - finals against France, losing 1 -- 0.
Dunga was hired as Brazil 's new team manager in 2006. Brazil then won the 2007 Copa América, where forward Robinho was awarded the Golden Boot and named the tournament 's best player. Two years later, Brazil won the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup to seal their third Confederations Cup title. Kaká was named as the player of the tournament while striker Luís Fabiano won the top goalscorer award.
At the 2010 World Cup in South Africa, Brazil won their first two matches against North Korea (2 -- 1) and the Ivory Coast (3 -- 1), respectively. Their last match, against Portugal, ended in a 0 -- 0 draw. They faced Chile in the round of 16, winning 3 -- 0, although in the quarter - final they fell to the Netherlands 2 -- 1.
In July 2010, Mano Menezes was named as Brazil 's new coach. At the 2011 Copa América, Brazil lost against Paraguay and was eliminated in the quarter - finals. On 4 July 2012, due to a lack of competitive matches because the team had automatically qualified for the 2014 World Cup as tournament hosts, Brazil was ranked 11th in the FIFA ranking, the first time the Seleção was ruled out the top ten since the ranking was created in 1993.
In November 2012, coach Mano Menezes was sacked and replaced by Luiz Felipe Scolari.
On 6 June 2013, Brazil was ranked 22nd in the FIFA ranking, their lowest - ever rank. Brazil entered the 2013 Confederations Cup with the objective of defending their title. In the final, Brazil faced Spain, winning 3 -- 0 and sealing their fourth Confederations Cup title. Neymar was named player of the tournament and received the Golden Ball Award and the Adidas Bronze Shoe, and Júlio César won the Golden Glove Award for the best goalkeeper of the tournament.
Brazil was drawn into Group A of the 2014 World Cup, alongside Croatia, Mexico and Cameroon. In the opening match of the tournament, Marcelo scored an own goal for Croatia; however, two goals from Neymar and one from Oscar turned the game around to get the Seleção off to a winning start in their first World Cup on home soil in 64 years. The team then drew 0 -- 0 with Mexico, as Guillermo Ochoa produced a man of the match performance in the Mexican goal. Brazil confirmed qualification to the knockout stage by defeating Cameroon 4 -- 1 with Neymar again scoring twice, and Fred and Fernandinho providing further goals.
Brazil faced Chile in the round of 16, taking an 18th - minute lead through David Luiz 's first goal for the Seleção. With no further scoring after Alexis Sánchez 's equaliser, the match went to a penalty shootout. Brazil prevailed 3 -- 2, with Neymar, David Luiz and Marcelo converting their kicks, and goalkeeper Júlio César saving from Chileans Alexis Sánchez and Mauricio Pinilla. The team again faced South American opposition in the quarter - final, defeating Colombia 2 -- 1 with goals from central defenders David Luiz and the team captain Thiago Silva. Late in the match, Neymar was substituted on a stretcher after Juan Camilo Zúñiga 's knee had made contact with the forward 's back. Neymar was taken to hospital and later diagnosed with a fractured vertebra, which ruled him out for the remainder of the tournament. Prior to this, Neymar had scored four goals, provided one assist, and been named man of the match twice. Brazil faced further problems ahead of their semi-final against Germany, as Thiago Silva was to serve a one - match suspension for receiving his second yellow card of the tournament in the quarter - final. The Seleção went on to lose 1 -- 7 to the Germans -- their biggest ever defeat at the World Cup and first home loss in a competitive match since 1975. Towards the end of the match, the home crowd began to "olé '' each pass from the German team, and booed their own players off the pitch after the final whistle. The match has been nicknamed the Mineirazo, making reference to the nation 's previous World Cup defeat on home soil, the Maracanazo against Uruguay in 1950, and the Estádio do Mineirão where the match took place.
Brazil finished the World Cup in fourth place, having failed to avenge their semi final defeat to Germany by losing to the Netherlands 0 -- 3 in the third - place match. The team ended the tournament with the worst defensive record of the 32 competing nations, having conceded 14 goals. The only other countries to concede 12 or more goals in the current World Cup format are North Korea and Saudi Arabia. Following these results, Scolari announced his resignation.
On 22 July 2014, Dunga was announced as the new manager of Brazil, returning to the position for the first time since the team 's exit at the 2010 World Cup.
Dunga 's first match in his second reign as Brazil 's manager was a friendly match against 2014 World Cup quarter - finalists Colombia at Sun Life Stadium in Miami on 5 September 2014, with Brazil winning the match 1 -- 0 through a 83rd - minute Neymar free - kick goal. Dunga followed this up with wins against Ecuador (1 -- 0), in the 2014 Superclásico de las Américas against Argentina (2 -- 0), against Japan (4 -- 0), against Turkey (0 -- 4), and against Austria (1 -- 2). Dunga continued Brazil 's winning streak in 2015 by defeating France 3 -- 1 in another friendly. They followed this with wins against Chile (1 -- 0), Mexico (2 -- 0) and Honduras (1 -- 0).
Brazil started the tournament with a victory against Peru after coming from behind by 2 -- 1 (with Douglas Costa scoring in the dying moments), followed by a 1 -- 0 defeat against Colombia and a 2 -- 1 victory against Venezuela. In the knockout stage, Brazil faced Paraguay and was eliminated after drawing 1 -- 1 in normal time and losing 4 -- 3 in the penalty shootout. As such, Brazil was unable to qualify for a FIFA Confederations Cup (in this case, the 2017 edition) for the first time in almost 20 years.
Brazil began the tournament with a scoreless draw against Ecuador, with the Ecuadorians having a goal wrongly disallowed in the second half. This was followed by an emphatic 7 -- 1 victory over Haiti, with Philippe Coutinho scoring a hat - trick. Needing only a draw to progress to the knockout stage of the tournament, Brazil suffered a controversial 1 -- 0 loss to Peru, with Raúl Ruidíaz scoring in the 75th minute by guiding the ball into the net with his arm. This loss, Brazil 's first loss to Peru since 1985, saw Brazil eliminated from the tournament in the group stage for the first time since 1987.
On 14 June 2016, Dunga was sacked as manager of Brazil. Tite, who had managed the 2015 Brazilian champion and the 2012 World Club Cup Champions, Corinthians, was confirmed as his replacement six days later. Tite 's debut was marked with an away victory against Ecuador by 3 -- 0 on 2 September, 2 -- 1 win over Colombia, 5 -- 0 shocking win against Bolivia and a 0 -- 2 victory away against Venezuela, bringing Brazil to the top of the World Cup Qualifiers leaderboard for the first time since 2011. Brazil then defeated Paraguay 3 -- 0 to become the first team, other than the hosts Russia, to qualify for the 2018 FIFA World Cup.
Brazil won its first Olympic gold medal in 2016 on home ground. Prior to that victory, the Olympic football tournament was the only international competition in football organized by FIFA that Brazil had never won. They have also won three silver medals (1984, 1988 and 2012) and two bronze medals (1996, 2008). The Brazilian Olympic team is often coached by the national team coach, such as Mário Zagallo in 1996, Vanderlei Luxemburgo in 2000, Dunga in 2008 and Mano Menezes in 2012.
The Brazil national team have accumulated many nicknames and is known by different names in various parts of the world. Nicknames for the squad in Brazil include: Canarinho, meaning ' Little Canary ', a reference to a species of bird commonly found in Brazil that has a vivid yellow color which resembles that of the shirts used by the team. This phrase was popularized by the late cartoonist Fernando "Mangabeira '' Pieruccetti during the 1950 World Cup. Amarelinha (Little Yellow One), Verde - amarelo (Green and Yellow), Pentacampeão (Five - time Champions) and Esquadrão de Ouro (The Golden Squad). Some Latin American commentators often refer to the Brazil team as El Scratch (The Scratch), among others.
Brazil 's first team colors were white with blue collars, but following the defeat at Maracanã in the 1950 World Cup, the colors were criticised for lacking patriotism. With permission from the Brazilian Sports Confederation, the newspaper Correio da Manhã held a competition to design a new kit incorporating the four colors of the Brazilian flag. The winning design was a yellow jersey with green trim and blue shorts with the white trim drawn by Aldyr Garcia Schlee, a nineteen - year - old from Pelotas. The new colors were first used in March 1954 in a match against Chile, and have been used ever since. Topper were the manufacturers of Brazil 's kit up to and including the match against Wales on 11 September 1991; Umbro took over before the next match, versus Yugoslavia in October 1991. Nike began making Brazil kits in time for the 1998 FIFA World Cup.
The use of blue as the second kit color dates from the 30s, but it became the permanent second choice accidentally in the 1958 World Cup Final. Brazil 's opponents were Sweden, who also wear yellow, and a draw gave the home team, Sweden, the right to play in yellow. Brazil, who travelled with no second kit, hurriedly purchased a set of blue shirts and sewed on them the badges taken from their yellow shirts.
Brazil do not have a home national stadium like many other national teams, and rotate their home World Cup qualifying matches in various venues throughout the country, such as the Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro. Since September 2006, Brazil have played many international friendlies at Arsenal 's Emirates Stadium in London, England. Brazil also plays a number of international friendlies in the United States.
Brazil 's training camp is the Granja Comary in Teresópolis, located 90 kilometres (55 miles) from Rio de Janeiro. Granja Comary was opened in 1987, and underwent significant renovations in 2013 and 2014.
The following tables shows only Brazil 's results at major tournaments. To see Brazil 's results at minor tournaments, see Brazil national football team competitive record. Brazil have won a total of 64 official international titles to professional and grassroots level selections, what constitutes a world record.
Brazil has qualified for every FIFA World Cup they entered, never requiring a qualifying play - off. With five titles, they have won the tournament on more occasions than any other national team. Brazil is the only national team to have played in all FIFA World Cup editions without having any absence.
Win Draw Loss
Gabriel Jesus 56 ', 90 + 2 '
The following players have been called up to the Brazil squad in the last 12 months.
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which channel in youtube has the most subscribers | List of Most - Subscribed YouTube Channels - wikipedia
This article lists the fifty most - subscribed channels on the video platform YouTube. The ability to subscribe to channels was introduced by October 2005, and the website began publishing a list of its most - subscribed channels by May 2006, at which time Smosh, with fewer than three thousand subscribers, occupied the number - one position. Since December 22, 2013, the most - subscribed channel has been PewDiePie, with over 65 million as of August 2018.
The following table lists the fifty most subscribed channels on YouTube, with each total rounded down to the nearest million subscribers, as well as the network and language of each channel. Channels marked as "Auto - generated by YouTube '' (such as Music, Gaming, Sports and Movies) and channels whose content has been transferred (such as JustinBieberVEVO and RihannaVEVO) are excluded. As of August 2018, 33 of these channels primarily produce content in English.
Self - owned channel (without a network)
The following table lists the most subscribed YouTube channel in each country and territory from which at least one channel with at least five million subscribers originates, according to social media statistics compiler DBase.
The following table lists the last 16 channels to become YouTube 's most subscribed channel, from May 2006 to present.
Timeline of Most Subscribed Channels (May 2006 -- August 2018)
In late 2006, when Peter Oakley, also known as Geriatric1927, became most subscribed, a number of TV channels wanted to interview him on his rise to fame. The Daily Mail and TechBlog published an article about him and his success. In 2009, the FRED channel was the first to have over one million subscribers.
Following the third time that Smosh became most subscribed, Ray William Johnson collaborated with the duo. A flurry of top YouTubers including Ryan Higa, Shane Dawson, Felix Kjellberg, Michael Buckley, Kassem Gharaibeh, The Fine Brothers, and Johnson himself, congratulated the duo shortly after they surpassed Johnson as the most subscribed channel.
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