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what does the red seal on us currency mean | United States Note - wikipedia
A United States Note, also known as a Legal Tender Note, is a type of paper money that was issued from 1862 to 1971 in the U.S. Having been current for more than 100 years, they were issued for longer than any other form of U.S. paper money. They were known popularly as "greenbacks '', a name inherited from the earlier greenbacks, the Demand Notes, that they replaced during 1862. Often termed Legal Tender Notes, they were named United States Notes by the First Legal Tender Act, which authorized them as a form of fiat currency. During the 1860s the so - called second obligation on the reverse of the notes stated:
This Note is Legal Tender for All Debts Public and Private Except Duties On Imports And Interest On The Public Debt; And Is Redeemable In Payment Of All Loans Made To The United States.
They were originally issued directly into circulation by the U.S. Treasury to pay expenses incurred by the Union during the American Civil War. During the next century, the legislation governing these notes was modified many times and numerous versions were issued by the Treasury.
United States Notes that were issued in the large - size format, before 1929, differ dramatically in appearance when compared to modern American currency, but those issued in the small - size format, starting 1929, are very similar to contemporary Federal Reserve Notes with the distinction of having red U.S. Treasury Seals and serial numbers in place of green ones.
Existing United States Notes remain valid currency in the United States; however, as no United States Notes have been issued since January 1971, they are increasingly rare in circulation.
During 1861, the first year of the American Civil War, the expenses incurred by the Union Government much exceeded its limited revenues from taxation, and borrowing was the main vehicle for financing the war. The Act of July 17, 1861 authorized United States Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase to raise money via the issuance of $50,000,000 in Treasury Notes payable on demand. These Demand Notes were paid to creditors directly and used to meet the payroll of soldiers in the field. While issued within the legal framework of Treasury Note Debt, the Demand Notes were intended to circulate as currency and were of the same size as banknotes and closely resembled them in appearance. During December 1861, economic conditions deteriorated and a suspension of specie payment caused the government to cease redeeming the Demand Notes as coins.
The beginning of 1862 found the Union 's expenses increasing, and the government was having trouble funding the escalating war. U.S. Demand Notes -- which were used, among other things, to pay Union soldiers -- were unredeemable, and the value of the notes began to deteriorate. Congressman and Buffalo banker Elbridge G. Spaulding prepared a bill, based on the Free Banking Law of New York, that eventually became the National Banking Act of 1863.
Recognizing, however, that his proposal would take many months to pass Congress, during early February Spaulding introduced another bill to permit the U.S. Treasury to issue $150 million in notes as legal tender. This caused tremendous controversy in Congress, as hitherto the Constitution had been interpreted as not granting the government the power to issue a paper currency. "The bill before us is a war measure, a measure of necessity, and not of choice, '' Spaulding argued before the House, adding, "These are extraordinary times, and extraordinary measures must be resorted to in order to save our Government, and preserve our nationality. '' Spaulding justified the action as a "necessary means of carrying into execution the powers granted in the Constitution ' to raise and support armies ', and ' to provide and maintain a navy ' ''. Despite strong opposition, President Abraham Lincoln signed the First Legal Tender Act, enacted February 25, 1862, into law, authorizing the issuance of United States Notes as a legal tender -- the paper currency soon to be known as "greenbacks ''.
Initially, the emission was limited to $150,000,000 total face value between the new Legal Tender Notes and the existing Demand Notes. The Act also intended for the new notes to be used to replace the Demand Notes as soon as practical. The Demand Notes had been issued in denominations of $5, $10, and $20, and these were replaced by United States Notes nearly identical in appearance on the obverse. In addition, notes of entirely new design were introduced in denominations of $50, $100, $500 and $1000. The Demand Notes ' printed promise of payment "On Demand '' was removed and the statement "This Note is a Legal Tender '' was added.
Legal tender status guaranteed that creditors would have to accept the notes despite the fact that they were not backed by gold, bank deposits, or government reserves, and had no interest. However, the First Legal Tender Act did not make the notes an unlimited legal tender as they could not be used by merchants to pay customs duties on imports and could not be used by the government to pay interest on its bonds. The Act did provide that the notes be receivable by the government for short term deposits at 5 % interest, and for the purchase of 6 % interest 20 - year bonds at par. The rationale for these terms was that the Union government would preserve its credit - worthiness by supporting the value of its bonds by paying their interest in gold. Early in the war, customs duties were a large part of government tax revenue and by making these payable in gold, the government would generate the coin necessary to make the interest payments on the bonds. Lastly, by making the bonds available for purchase at par in United States Notes, the value of the latter would be confirmed as well. The limitations of the legal tender status were quite controversial. Thaddeus Stevens, the Chairman of the House of Representatives Committee of Ways and Means, which had authored an earlier version of the Legal Tender Act that would have made United States Notes a legal tender for all debts, denounced the exceptions, calling the new bill "mischievous '' because it made United States Notes an intentionally depreciated currency for the masses, while the banks who loaned to the government got "sound money '' in gold. This controversy would continue until the removal of the exceptions during 1933.
By the First Legal Tender Act, Congress limited the Treasury 's emission of United States Notes to $150,000,000; however, by 1863, the Second Legal Tender Act, enacted July 11, 1862, a Joint Resolution of Congress, and the Third Legal Tender Act, enacted March 3, 1863, had expanded the limit to $450,000,000, the option to exchange the notes for United States bonds at par had been revoked, and notes of $1 and $2 denominations had been introduced as the appearance of fiat currency had driven even silver coinage out of circulation. As a result of this inflation, the greenback began to trade at a substantial discount from gold, which prompted Congress to pass the short - lived Anti-Gold Futures Act of 1864, which was soon repealed after it seemed to accelerate the decrease of greenback value.
The largest amount of greenbacks outstanding at any one time was calculated as $447,300,203.10. The Union 's reliance on expanding the circulation of greenbacks eventually ended with the emission of Interest Bearing and Compound Interest Treasury Notes, and the passage of the National Banking Act. However, the end of the war found the greenbacks trading for only about half of their nominal value in gold.
At the end of the Civil War, some economists, such as Henry Charles Carey, argued for building on the precedent of non-interest - based fiat money and making the greenback system permanent. However, Secretary of the Treasury McCulloch argued that the Legal Tender Acts had been war measures, and that the United States should soon reverse them and return to the gold standard. The House of Representatives voted overwhelmingly to endorse the Secretary 's argument. With an eventual return to gold convertibility in mind, the Funding Act of April 12, 1866 was passed, authorizing McCulloch to retire $10 million of the Greenbacks within six months and up to $4 million per month thereafter. This he proceeded to do until only $356,000,000 were outstanding during February 1868. By this time, the wartime economic prosperity was ended, the crop harvest was poor, and a financial panic in Great Britain caused a recession and a sharp decrease of prices in the United States. The contraction of the money supply was blamed for the deflationary effects, and caused debtors to agitate successfully for a halt to the notes ' retirement.
During the early 1870s, Treasury Secretaries George S. Boutwell and William Adams Richardson maintained that, though Congress had mandated $356,000,000 as the minimum Greenback circulation, the old Civil War statutes still authorized a maximum of $400,000,000 -- and thus they had at their discretion a "reserve '' of $44,000,000. While the Senate Finance Committee under John Sherman disagreed, being of the opinion that the $356,000,000 was a maximum as well as a minimum, no legislation was passed to assert the Committee 's opinion. Starting during 1872, Boutwell and Richardson used the "reserve '' to counteract seasonal demands for currency, and eventually expanded the circulation of the Greenbacks to $382,000,000 in response to the Panic of 1873.
During June 1874, Congress established a maximum for Greenback circulation of $382,000,000, and during January 1875, approved the Specie Payment Resumption Act, which authorized a reduction of the circulation of Greenbacks towards a revised limit of $300,000,000, and required the government to redeem them for gold, on demand, after 1 January 1879. As a result, the currency strengthened and by April 1876, the notes were on par with silver coins which then began to re-emerge into circulation. On May 31, 1878, the contraction in the circulation was halted at $346,681,016 -- a level which would be maintained for almost 100 years afterwards. While $346,681,016 was a significant figure at the time, it is now a very small fraction of the total currency in circulation in the United States. The year 1879 found Sherman, now Secretary of the Treasury, in possession of sufficient specie to redeem notes as requested, but as this brought the value of the greenbacks into parity with gold for the first time since the Specie Suspension of December 1861, the public voluntarily accepted the greenbacks as part of the circulating medium.
While the United States Notes had been used as a form of debt issuance during the Civil War, afterwards they were used as a way of moderately influencing the money supply by the federal government -- such as through the actions of Boutwell and Richardson. During the Panic of 1907, President Theodore Roosevelt attempted to increase liquidity in the markets by authorizing the Treasury to issue more Greenbacks, but the Aldrich -- Vreeland Act provided for the needed flexibility by the National Bank Note supply instead. Eventually, the perceived need for an elastic currency was addressed with the Federal Reserve Notes authorized by the Federal Reserve Act, and attempts to alter the circulating quantity of United States Notes ended.
Soon after private ownership of gold was banned during 1933, all of the remaining types of circulating currency, National Bank Notes, silver certificates, Federal Reserve Notes, and United States Notes, were redeemable by individuals only for silver. Eventually, even silver redemption stopped during June 1968, during a time in which all U.S. currency (both coins and paper currency) was changed to fiat currency. For the general public there was then little to distinguish United States Notes from Federal Reserve Notes. As a result, the public circulation of United States Notes, then mainly in the form of $2 and $5 bills, was replaced with $5 Federal Reserve Notes and, eventually, $2 Federal Reserve Notes as well. United States Notes became rare in hand - to - hand commerce and the Treasury converted most of the outstanding balance into $100 bills which spent most of their time in bank vaults. No more United States Notes were distributed into public circulation after January 21, 1971. In September 1994 the Riegle Improvement Act released the Treasury from its long - standing obligation to keep the notes in circulation and finally, during 1996, the Treasury announced that its stock of $100 United States Notes had been destroyed.
Both United States Notes and Federal Reserve Notes have been legal tender since the gold recall of 1933. Both have been used in circulation as money in the same way. However, the issuing authority for them came from different statutes. United States Notes were created as fiat currency, in that the government has never categorically guaranteed to redeem them for precious metal -- even though at times, such as after the specie resumption of 1879, federal officials were authorized to do so if requested. The difference between a United States Note and a Federal Reserve Note is that a United States Note represented a "bill of credit '' and was inserted by the Treasury directly into circulation free of interest. Federal Reserve notes are legal tender currency notes. The twelve Federal Reserve Banks issue them into circulation pursuant to the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. A commercial bank belonging to the Federal Reserve System can obtain Federal Reserve notes from the Federal Reserve Bank in its district whenever it wishes. It must pay for them in full, dollar for dollar, by drawing down its account with its district Federal Reserve Bank.
Federal Reserve Banks obtain the notes from the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP). It pays the BEP for the cost of producing the notes, which then become liabilities of the Federal Reserve Banks, and obligations of the United States Government.
Congress has specified that a Federal Reserve Bank must hold collateral equal in value to the Federal Reserve notes that the Bank receives. This collateral is chiefly gold certificates and United States securities. This provides backing for the note issue. The idea was that if the Congress dissolved the Federal Reserve System, the United States would assume the notes (liabilities). This would meet the requirements of Section 411, but the government would also assume the assets, which would be of equal value. Federal Reserve notes represent a first lien on all the assets of the Federal Reserve Banks, and on the collateral specifically held against them.
Federal Reserve notes are not redeemable in gold, silver or any other commodity, and can not be exchanged for the collateral held against them. This has been the case since 1933. The notes do not have value for themselves, but for what they will buy. In another sense, because they are legal tender, Federal Reserve notes are "backed '' by all the goods and services in the economy.
Like all U.S. currency, United States Notes were produced in a large sized format until 1929, at which time the notes ' sizes were reduced to the small - size format of the present day.
The original large - sized Civil War issues were dated 1862 and 1863, and issued in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500 and $1000. The United States Notes were dramatically redesigned for the Series of 1869, the so - called Rainbow Notes. The notes were again redesigned for the Series of 1874, 1875 and 1878. The Series of 1878 included, for the first and last time, notes of $5,000 and $10,000 denominations. The final across - the - board redesign of the large - sized notes was the Series of 1880. Individual denominations were redesigned during 1901, 1907, 1917 and 1923.
On small - sized United States Notes, the U.S. Treasury Seal and the serial numbers are printed in red (contrasting with Federal Reserve Notes, where they usually appear in green). By the time the small - size format was adopted, the Federal Reserve System was already existing and there was limited need for United States Notes. They were mainly issued in $2 and $5 denominations in the Series years of 1928, 1953, and 1963. There was a limited issue of $1 notes in the Series of 1928, and an issue of $100 notes in the Series year of 1966, mainly to satisfy legacy legal requirements of maintaining the mandated quantity in circulation. The BEP also printed but did not issue $10 notes in the 1928 Series. An example was displayed at the 1933 Worlds Fair in Chicago.
Section 5119 (b) (2) of Title 31, United States Code, was amended by the Riegle Community Development and Regulatory Improvement Act of 1994 (Public Law 103 - 325) to read as follows: "The Secretary shall not be required to reissue United States currency notes upon redemption. '' This does not change the legal tender status of United States Notes nor does it require a recall of those notes already in circulation. This provision means that United States Notes are to be cancelled and destroyed but not reissued. This will eventually result in a decrease in the amount of these notes outstanding.
As of December 2012, the U.S. Treasury calculates that $239 million in United States notes are in circulation and, in accordance with debt ceiling legislation, excludes this amount from the statutory debt limit of the United States. The $239 million excludes $25 million in United States Notes issued prior to July 1, 1929, determined pursuant to Act of June 30, 1961, 31 U.S.C. 5119, to have been destroyed or irretrievably lost.
The United States Notes were introduced as fiat money rather than the precious metal medium of exchange that the United States had traditionally used. Their introduction was thus contentious.
The United States Congress had enacted the Legal Tender Acts during the U.S. Civil War when southern Democrats were absent from the Congress, and thus their Jacksonian hard money views were underrepresented. After the war, the Supreme Court ruled on the Legal Tender Cases to determine the constitutionality of the use of greenbacks. The 1870 case Hepburn v. Griswold found unconstitutional the use of greenbacks when applied to debts established prior to the First Legal Tender Act as the five Democrats on the Court, Nelson, Grier, Clifford, Field, and Chase, ruled against the Civil War legislation in a 5 -- 3 decision. Secretary Chase had become Chief Justice of the United States and a Democrat, and spearheaded the decision invalidating his own actions during the war. However, Grier retired from the Court, and President Grant appointed two new Republicans, Strong and Bradley, who joined the three sitting Republicans, Swayne, Miller, and Davis, to reverse Hepburn, 5 -- 4, in the 1871 cases Knox v. Lee and Parker v. Davis. During 1884, the Court, controlled 8 -- 1 by Republicans, granted the federal government very broad power to issue Legal Tender paper through the case Juilliard v. Greenman, with only the lone remaining Democrat, Field, dissenting.
The states in the far west stayed loyal to the Union, but also had hard money sympathies. During the specie suspension from 1862 to 1878 western states used the gold dollar as a unit of account whenever possible and accepted greenbacks at a discount wherever they could. The preferred forms of paper money were gold certificates and National Gold Bank Notes, the latter having been created specifically to address the desire for hard money in California.
During the 1870s and 1880s, the Greenback Party existed for the primary purpose of advocating an increased circulation of United States Notes as a way of creating inflation according to the quantity theory of money. However, as the 1870s unfolded, the market price of silver decreased with respect to gold, and inflationists found a new cause in the Free Silver movement. Opposition to the resumption of specie convertibility of the Greenbacks during 1879 was accordingly muted.
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what is the weight of air in kg | Density of air - wikipedia
The density of air ρ (Greek: rho) (air density) is the mass per unit volume of Earth 's atmosphere. Air density, like air pressure, decreases with increasing altitude. It also changes with variation in temperature and humidity. At sea level and at 15 ° C air has a density of approximately 1.225 kg / m (1.225 x10 g / cm, 0.0023769 slug / (cu ft), 0.0765 lb / (cu ft)) according to ISA (International Standard Atmosphere).
Air density is a property used in many branches of science, engineering, and industry, including aeronautics; gravimetric analysis; the air - conditioning industry; atmospheric research and meteorology; agricultural engineering (modeling and tracking of Soil - Vegetation - Atmosphere - Transfer (SVAT) models); and the engineering community that deals with compressed air.
Depending on the measuring instruments used, different sets of equations for the calculation of the density of air can be applied. Air is a mixture of gases and the calculations always simplify, to a greater or lesser extent, the properties of the mixture.
The density of dry air can be calculated using the ideal gas law, expressed as a function of temperature and pressure:
where:
The specific gas constant for dry air is 287.058 J / (kg K) in SI units, and 53.35 (ft lbf) / (lb ° R) in United States customary and Imperial units. This quantity may vary slightly depending on the molecular composition of air at a particular location.
Therefore:
The following table illustrates the air density -- temperature relationship at 1 atm or 101.325 kPa:
The addition of water vapor to air (making the air humid) reduces the density of the air, which may at first appear counter-intuitive. This occurs because the molar mass of water (18 g / mol) is less than the molar mass of dry air (around 29 g / mol). For any ideal gas, at a given temperature and pressure, the number of molecules present is constant for a particular volume (see Avogadro 's Law). So when water molecules (water vapor) are added to a given volume of air, the dry air molecules must decrease by the same number, to keep the pressure or temperature from increasing. Hence the mass per unit volume of the gas (its density) decreases.
The density of humid air may be calculated by treating it as a mixture of ideal gases. In this case, the partial pressure of water vapor is known as the vapor pressure. Using this method, error in the density calculation is less than 0.2 % in the range of − 10 ° C to 50 ° C. The density of humid air is found by:
where:
The vapor pressure of water may be calculated from the saturation vapor pressure and relative humidity. It is found by:
where:
The saturation vapor pressure of water at any given temperature is the vapor pressure when relative humidity is 100 %. One formula used to find the saturation vapor pressure is:
where T = (\ displaystyle T =) is in degrees C.
The partial pressure of dry air p d (\ displaystyle p_ (d)) is found considering partial pressure, resulting in:
Where p (\ displaystyle p) simply denotes the observed absolute pressure.
To calculate the density of air as a function of altitude, one requires additional parameters. They are listed below, along with their values according to the International Standard Atmosphere, using for calculation the universal gas constant instead of the air specific constant:
Temperature at altitude h (\ displaystyle h) meters above sea level is approximated by the following formula (only valid inside the troposphere):
The pressure at altitude h (\ displaystyle h) is given by:
Density can then be calculated according to a molar form of the ideal gas law:
where:
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show me the lord is my shepherd prayer | Psalm 23 - wikipedia
Psalm 23 is the 23rd psalm of the Book of Psalms, generally known in English by its first verse, in the King James Version, "The Lord is my Shepherd ''. The Book of Psalms is the third section of the Hebrew Bible, and a book of the Christian Old Testament. In the Greek Septuagint version of the Bible, and in its Latin translation the Vulgate, this psalm is Psalm 22 in a slightly different numbering system. In Latin, it is known as "Dominus reget me et nihil mihi deerit ''.
Like all psalms, Psalm 23 was used in worship of the ancient Hebrews. The writer describes God as his shepherd, in the role of protector and provider. The psalm is read, recited and sung by Jews and Christians. It has been called the most well - known of all chapters in the Book of Psalms for its universal theme of trust in God.
Following is the Hebrew text and English translation of Psalm 23:
For Christians the image of God as a shepherd evokes connections not only with David but with Jesus, described as "Good Shepherd '' in the Gospel of John. The phrase about "the valley of the shadow of death '' is often taken as an allusion to the eternal life given by Jesus.
Orthodox Christians typically include this Psalm in the prayers of preparation for receiving the Eucharist.
The Reformation inspired widespread efforts in western Europe to make biblical texts available in vernacular languages. One of the most popular early English versions was the Geneva Bible (1557). The most widely recognized version of the psalm in English today is undoubtedly the one drawn from the King James Bible (1611).
The psalm is a popular passage for memorization and is often used in sermons.
An early metrical version of the psalm in English was made in 1565 by Thomas Sternhold. Other metrical versions to emerge from the Protestant Reformation include those from The Bay Psalm Book (1640) and a version influenced by Sternholm published in the Scottish Psalter (1650). The latter version is still encountered, with modernized spelling, in many Protestant hymns. Other notable metrical versions include those by George Herbert, Philip Sidney, and Isaac Watts.
A metrical version of the psalm is traditionally sung to the hymn tune Crimond, generally attributed to Jessie Seymour Irvine. This version, with its opening words "The Lord 's My Shepherd '', is probably the best - known amongst English - speaking congregations. Other melodies, such as Brother James ' Air or Amazing Grace, are also used. Other tunes sometimes used include Belmont, Evan, Martyrdom, Orlington, and Wiltshire.
In the twentieth century, Psalm 23 became particularly associated with funeral liturgies in the English - speaking world, and films with funeral scenes often depict a graveside recitation of the psalm. Official liturgies of English - speaking churches were slow to adopt this practice, though. The Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England has only Psalms 39 and 90 in its order for the burial of the dead, and in the Episcopal Church in the United States, Psalm 23 was not used for funerals until the 1928 revision of the prayer book.
The theme of God as a shepherd was common in ancient Israel and Mesopotamia. For example, King Hammurabi, in the conclusion to his famous legal code, wrote: "I am the shepherd who brings well - being and abundant prosperity; my rule is just... so that the strong might not oppress the weak, and that even the orphan and the widow might be treated with justice. '' This imagery and language was well - known to the community that created the Psalm, and was easily imported into its worship.
Psalm 23 portrays God as a good shepherd, feeding (verse 1) and leading (verse 3) his flock. The "rod and staff '' (verse 4) are also the implements of a shepherd. Some commentators see the shepherd imagery pervading the entire psalm. It is known that the shepherd is to know each sheep by name, thus when God is given the analogy of a shepherd, he is not only a protector but also the caretaker. God, as the caretaker, leads the sheep to green pastures (verse 2) and still waters (verse 2) because he knows that each of his sheep must be personally led to be fed. Thus, without its Shepherd, the sheep would die either by a predator or of starvation, since sheep are known for their helplessness without their shepherd.
J. Douglas MacMillan argues that verse 5 ("Thou preparest a table before me '') refers to the "old oriental shepherding practice '' of using little raised tables to feed sheep. Similarly, "Thou anointest my head with oil '' may refer to an ancient form of backliner -- the oil is poured on wounds, and repels flies. MacMillan also notes that verse 6 ("Goodness and mercy shall follow me '') reminds him of two loyal sheepdogs coming behind the flock.
John Ellinwood argues that in verses 4 and 5 King David acknowledges God 's protection in expeditions and in battles. "Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies '' refers to the sober raucous dinner before major battles. These were raucous in order to demoralize hostiles camped within earshot, and (only) the king ate from a table. "Thou anointest my head with oil '' because tomorrow this ceremony might be impossible. After each victory there was no longer a need for sobriety, so "my cup runneth over. '' The king 's lyricist wisely shortened these military verses for balance. Also in Psalm 18 David mentions God 's protection in battle. (13).
The first verse of the Psalm ascribes authorship to King David, said in the Hebrew Scriptures to have been a field shepherd himself as a youth. However, some scholars do not believe that David could have written any of the Psalms.
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when is the flash season 4 coming out in nz | The Flash (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of the American television series The Flash, which is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash, follows a crime scene investigator with superhuman speed who fights criminals, including others who have also gained superhuman abilities. It is set in the Arrowverse, sharing continuity with the other television series of the universe, and is a spin - off of Arrow. The season is produced by Berlanti Productions, Warner Bros. Television, and DC Entertainment, with Andrew Kreisberg and Todd Helbing serving as showrunners.
The season was ordered in January 2017, and filming began that July. Grant Gustin stars as Barry, with principal cast members Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin also returning from previous seasons, and are joined by Neil Sandilands.
The fourth season began airing on October 10, 2017, on The CW.
Barry, Oliver, Sara, Alex, Martin and Jax wake up in a Nazi concentration camp on Earth - X, with power dampening handcuffs. The arriving SS - Sturmbannführer is revealed to be the Earth - X doppelgänger of Quentin Lance, who takes them away for execution, before they are saved by Citizen Cold (the Earth - X doppelgänger of Leonard Snart) and The Ray (Ray Terrill). Snart and Terrill take them to the underground headquarter of the Freedom Fighters, where the team meets the resistance movement 's leader General Winn Schott (Winn Schott 's Earth - X doppelgänger). They learned that the only way back to Earth - 1 is through a temporal gateway in a Nazi facility, which Schott plans to blow up to strand Dark Arrow (Oliver 's Earth - X doppelgänger) on Earth - 1. Oliver disguises himself as Dark Arrow to infiltrate the facility, discovers the Nazi 's doomsday device against parallel Earths is a militarized timeship called Wellenreiter, and saves a prisoner (who is Felicity 's Earth - X doppelgänger) from Quentin. Barry and Ray battle the Freedom Fighters ' Red Tornado to stop it from destroying the temporal gateway, while the rest of the team enters the facility. In attempting to reactivate the gateway 's portal, Stein is shot and gravely wounded. Back on Earth - 1, Thawne prepares to perform surgery on Kara to save Overgirl at S.T.A.R. Labs. Felicity and Iris try to stop him, but are captured.
Kevin Smith will direct an episode of the season.
The series was renewed for a fourth season on January 8, 2017, earlier than usual for the series. Executive producer Andrew Kreisberg said on this, "The great thing about our dear friends at The CW and Mark Pedowitz picking the shows up as early as they did has allowed us to start building the schedules for next season. '' In May 2017, it was announced that Aaron Helbing would not return as an executive producer for season four, with only Greg Berlanti, Andrew Kreisberg, Sarah Schechter, and Todd Helbing returning from previous seasons. Todd Helbing and Kreisberg were slated to serve as the season 's showrunners. In November 2017, Kreisberg was suspended from his role as executive producer and showrunner on The Flash over allegations of sexual harassment. By the end of the month, he had been fired, with his name eventually being removed from the credits from all shows he worked on. In addition, Berlanti would take additional responsibilities working with Helbing to co-showrun the season.
In March 2017, Kreisberg confirmed that the main villain for the fourth season would not be a speedster, like the previous three seasons. Executive producers Aaron and Todd Helbing also mentioned that there would be less time travel in the season, with Aaron saying, "We like playing with the timelines and the different time periods and future and past. For now, I think we 're going to focus on the present. '' In June 2017, Clifford DeVoe / Thinker was reported to be the main antagonist of the season. He was first hinted in the third season episode "Abra Kadabra '' when the titular villain mentions him among the Flash 's greatest enemies, and again in the season finale "Finish Line '' when Savitar mentions facing DeVoe but states that the Flash has not dealt with him yet. At the series ' San Diego Comic - Con panel, the speculation was confirmed, with Todd Helbing saying, "With three Speedsters in a row, this year it 's the fastest man alive against the fastest mind alive. '' He added that the writers were "making a conscious effort this year to get the fun quotient back up ''.
Regarding the possibility of Wally West taking on the mantle of the Flash in Barry 's absence, Keiynan Lonsdale said that "It 's not something that 's on my radar. I feel as though there is so much story to tell and Wally has so much growing to do... We need to see how these character realistically get to where they are headed for. '' With the action picking up six months after season three, Kid Flash and Vibe are left to protect Central City, with Carlos Valdes saying "the team is sort of clutching at straws to keep the city together,... there is a unanimous feeling amongst the remaining members that it 's just not the same without Barry... So in light of that, Cisco does whatever it takes to get his friends back. '' Valdes also confirmed the return of Cisco 's more lighthearted joking manner. Candice Patton explained Iris West 's larger role within Team Flash as "a way of distracting herself, '' adding that "(Iris) is forced to deal with that anger and resentment and abandonment by kind of focusing on protecting Central City... We 're seeing a very different Iris, almost a very hardened Iris. '' Kreisberg also hinted at some major growth for Iris this season, and noted that "the season premiere is all about Iris and Cisco, not Barry ''.
In July 2017, Sterling Gates, DC Comics comic book writer, joined as a member of the fourth season 's writing staff. At the Television Critics Association press tour in August 2017, Pedowitz stated that the fourth season of The Flash is "going to try to find the lightness... of the Barry Allen of the first two seasons, '' and said that the show was likely "done with Speedster villains ''. Later in the month, Kreisberg confirmed the return of Harry Wells from Earth - 2, saying that "season 4 for Harry is really realizing what he 's missing in his life and what it is he needs to become a better, more complete person, and so he 's going to be going on a fairly epic emotional journey this season that is tied to the Thinker 's plan, '' in addition to confirming the introduction of a new version of the Wells character.
In September 2017, Helbing noted "There 's a lot of love in the air this season, '' and compared Barry and Iris ' reunion to "somebody going off to war for six months and coming back. There 's a lot that Iris experienced that Barry did n't when he was gone, and it 's really (about) the fun and the emotional component of making up that time when they were n't together. '' Helbing also explained that the Speed Force "let (Barry) deal with all of the baggage (from the past three seasons). When he comes out, he 's sort of left that all behind. '' That month, Kreisberg also confirmed that Barry and Iris will be getting married this season, while also revealing that the pair will be going to couples therapy since "(they) keep comically clashing inadvertently because (both are) used to being in charge, and so they wind up going... to work through it. '' He added, "The two of them with the therapist is some of the funniest stuff we have ever done on this show, but it also leads to a deepening of their relationship. ''
Main cast members Grant Gustin, Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin return from previous seasons as Barry Allen / The Flash, Iris West, Caitlin Snow / Killer Frost, Cisco Ramon / Vibe, Wally West / Kid Flash, Harrison Wells, and Joe West, respectively. Cavanagh will portray Harry Wells from Earth - 2 at the start of the season, without ruling out the possibility of introducing another incarnation of the Wells character later on. Teasing the arrival of a new Harrison Wells, Cavanagh said, "We 're going to start with Harry and then find a way, I think, to try and get a different version of Wells in there, be it some version of Harry or whatnot as the season 's gaps present themselves. '' Also returning from earlier in the series are Jessica Camacho as Gypsy, and Anne Dudek as Tracy Brand. Tom Felton, who joined the cast as Julian Albert in the third season, was revealed not to be returning to the series, although there is a possibility he could return if the storyline demanded it and Felton 's availability permits. Julian 's absence will be addressed "pretty quickly -- there 's a reason why he 's no longer with the team, '' said Helbing. In the season premiere, Julian is revealed to have returned to London. Kreisberg also confirmed that he had put on hold the planned return of Violett Beane as Jesse Quick due to the high number of speedsters on the show, but did not rule out a possible return in the future. Beane eventually appeared as Jesse on the episode "Luck Be a Lady ''. Britne Oldford, who previously appeared as Shawna Baez / Peek - a-Boo in the first season and the web series The Chronicles of Cisco, reprised her role in the season premiere.
In July 2017, Neil Sandilands was announced to be cast as Clifford DeVoe, a metahuman genius who embarks on a seasonlong battle with the Flash in order to fix all that he deems wrong with humanity; while Kim Engelbrecht was announced as The Mechanic, Devoe 's right hand and a highly intelligent engineer who designs devices for him; and Danny Trejo as Breacher, a bounty hunter from Earth - 19 and the father of Gypsy. Also in June, the series was looking to cast a role that "should put the visual effects department to the test '', with the role later revealed to be Ralph Dibny / Elongated Man, a metahuman with the ability to stretch his body to superhuman lengths and sizes. Hartley Sawyer was cast in the recurring role that July as the fast - talking private investigator who after discovering his abilities will help Team Flash solve one of Central City 's greatest mysteries. The character was previously mentioned in the first season, as one of the fourteen people who seemingly died as a result of the particle accelerator explosion. The next month, Katee Sackhoff was announced in the recurring role of Amunet Black / Blacksmith, who operates an underground black market of metahuman supervillains.
Filming for the season began on July 4, 2017, in Vancouver, British Columbia, and is set to conclude on April 21, 2018. Kevin Smith will return to direct an episode in January 2018.
In August 2017, series composer Blake Neely and Nathaniel Blume began to compose the music for the fourth season.
In May 2017, The CW president Mark Pedowitz officially announced plans for a four - show Arrowverse crossover event, crossing over episodes of the television series Supergirl, The Flash, Legends of Tomorrow, and Arrow. The crossover will begin with Supergirl and a special airing of Arrow on November 27, 2017, and conclude on The Flash and Legends of Tomorrow on November 28. In August 2017, Berlanti noted that it would be "a big life event for a few different people '' that would bring them all together for the crossover, adding "There are many life events that happen. '' Arrow actress Emily Bett Rickards appears as Felicity Smoak in the fifth episode of the season.
The season began airing on October 10, 2017, on The CW in the United States, and on CTV in Canada.
In July 2017, cast from the series appeared at San Diego Comic - Con International to promote the season, where exclusive footage was shown. During the panel, a trailer for the season was shown, with James Whitbrook at io9 feeling that despite the "grim '' tone, there was "some fun signs of the team coming together to protect the city without (Barry),... Sprinkle in a few wacky things, like, say a goddamn Samuroid ripped straight from the comics, and ladies and gents, you 've got a good season of The Flash lined up. '' Ben Pearson with / Film felt seeing Iris West deal with the absence of Barry was "a nice change of pace for that character '', but anticipated that "Barry (would) be back two or three episodes in at the latest. '' Collider.com 's Allison Keene also noted Iris "getting an actual storyline '' with Barry gone, and similarly presumed that he "(would) be back in the fold by the end of the first episode '' alike to Flashpoint in the third season. She added, "There are some new foes, lots of action, plenty of tech -- it 's great! ''
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.36 / 10 based on 13 reviews.
Reviewing the first two episodes of the season, Allison Keene writing for Collider.com, felt the premiere "wipes the slate clean, fixing a lot of the issues that plagued the end of the last season, and setting up a much more toned - down storyline. Most importantly, it 's brought back some fun. '' She added that with a "streamlined team, '' the core characters now have time to interact and have meaningful plot lines. On the second episode, Keene described it as "truly a delight '' with the show taking "the time to focus on character relationships, and not just romantic relationships '' and each character "feeling like a refreshed version of themselves, with new narrative purpose ''. She also highlighted the setup of the Thinker "as an Alchemy - like villain who manipulates evil metas into the Flash 's path as part of some kind of masterplan '', saying "The Flash is a series that truly works best as a procedural, with the team finding creative ways to bring down Villains of the Week. ''
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when was the first season of breaking bad | Breaking Bad (Season 1) - Wikipedia
The first season of the American television drama series Breaking Bad premiered on January 20, 2008 and concluded on March 9, 2008. It consisted of seven episodes, each running approximately 48 minutes in length, except the pilot episode which runs approximately 58 minutes. AMC broadcast the first season on Sundays at 10: 00 pm in the United States. Season one was to consist of nine episodes, but was reduced to seven by the writer 's strike. The complete first season was released on Region 1 DVD on February 24, 2009 and Region A Blu - ray on March 16, 2010.
Breaking Bad 's original score is composed by Dave Porter. The show also uses music from other recording artists with Music Supervision by Thomas Golubić. Select songs from Season 1 are featured on the Breaking Bad Soundtrack available through iTunes and Amazon.com.
The first season was released on DVD in Region 1 on February 24, 2009, in Region 2 on December 14, 2009, and in Region 4 on July 8, 2009. It was released on Blu - ray in Region A on March 16, 2010. Special features on the DVD and Blu - ray include two audio commentaries -- "Pilot '' by creator Vince Gilligan, cast members Bryan Cranston, Anna Gunn, Aaron Paul, Dean Norris, Betsy Brandt, and RJ Mitte, and editor Lynne Willingham and "Crazy Handful of Nothin ' '' by Vince Gilligan, Bryan Cranston, Anna Gunn, Aaron Paul, Dean Norris, and writer George Mastras; "The Making of Breaking Bad ''; "Inside Breaking Bad ''; AMC Shootout -- Interview with Vince Gilligan, Bryan Cranston, and Mark Johnson; deleted scenes; screen tests; and Vince Gilligan 's photo gallery.
The first season of Breaking Bad received generally favorable reviews, scoring 74 out of 100 on Metacritic. New York Post critic Linda Stasi praised the series, particularly the acting of Cranston and Paul, stating "Cranston and Paul are so good, it 's astounding. I 'd say the two have created great chemistry, but I 'm ashamed to say such a cheap thing. '' Robert Bianco of USA Today also praised Cranston and Paul, exclaiming "There is humor in the show, mostly in Walt 's efforts to impose scholarly logic on the business and on his idiot apprentice, a role Paul plays very well. But even their scenes lean toward the suspenseful, as the duo learns that killing someone, even in self - defense, is ugly, messy work. ''
The first season received numerous awards and nominations, including four Primetime Emmy Award nominations with two wins. Bryan Cranston won for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and Lynne Willingham won for Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series. Vince Gilligan was nominated for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the pilot episode and John Toll was nominated for Outstanding Cinematography for a One - Hour Series for the pilot episode. Cranston also won a Satellite Award for Best Actor in a Drama Series. The series was nominated for Outstanding New Program of the Year at the Television Critics Association Awards. The series also received three Writers Guild of America Award nominations with one win. It was nominated for Best New Series, Patty Lin was nominated for Best Episodic Drama for "Gray Matter '', and Vince Gilligan won for Best Episodic Drama for his work on the pilot.
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where will the star wars hotel be located | Star Wars hotel - wikipedia
The Star Wars Hotel is a proposed Star Wars - themed luxury hotel to be built near Disney 's Hollywood Studios at the Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida. The hotel accompanies the under - construction Star Wars: Galaxy 's Edge themed area in Disney 's Hollywood Studios.
In April 2017, Disney contracted the website swagbucks.com to survey visitors in order to gauge interest in a possible Star Wars - themed hotel. As a result of the survey, Disney decided to approve such a hotel, with a visitor experience based on the Star Wars storyline.
Definite plans for the Star Wars Hotel were first announced at the 2017 D23 Expo in Anaheim. The proposal was announced as part of the unveiling of 23 improvements and additions to Disney parks around the world.
The Star Wars Hotel has no set opening date according to the Orlando Sentinel. According to renderings, the new hotel would be shaped like a Star Wars starship. The rooms would have children 's bunk beds and adult - sized beds in the style of Star Wars bunkers, with each room fitting up to 4 people. Renderings also showed a lobby in the style of a Star Wars spaceship interior.
Bob Chapek, Chairman of Walt Disney Parks & Resorts, stated that the Star Wars Hotel would be Disney 's "most experiential concept ever '' when it opens. Chapek described the hotel as a "100 % immersive '' experience that "will culminate in a unique journey for every person who visits. '' Some examples of the planned features included creatures and droids acting as certain hotel staff such as butlers; guests wearing Star Wars costumes; and an ability to interact with features of the hotel as if visitors were really in the Star Wars universe. Visitors would also be able to have lightsaber training and duels (an extension of the Jedi Training Academy in Disney 's Hollywood Studios); explore and pilot Star Wars aircraft; and go on "secret missions '' personalized toward the visitors ' experience.
One writer for The Verge called the planned hotel a "Westworld for Star Wars fans, '' noting the different hotel amenities that would allow the immersive - hotel experience to occur. Mic compared the planned hotel to Disney 's Animal Kingdom Lodge and Universal Orlando 's Cabana Bay Beach Resort, both of which are existing hotels containing immersive experiences, though to a lesser extent.
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who did england lose to in italia 90 | 1990 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 1990 FIFA World Cup was the 14th FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international football tournament. It was held from 8 June to 8 July 1990 in Italy, the second country to host the event twice (the first being Mexico in 1986). Teams representing 116 national football associations entered and qualification began in April 1988. 22 teams qualified from this process, along with host nation Italy and defending champions Argentina.
The tournament was won by West Germany, their third World Cup title. They beat Argentina 1 -- 0 at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, a rematch of the previous final four years earlier. Italy finished third and England fourth, after both lost their semi-finals in penalty shootouts. This was the last tournament to feature a team from West Germany, with the country being reunified with East Germany a few months later in October, as well as teams from the Eastern Bloc prior to the end of the Cold War in 1991, as the Soviet Union, Romania, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia teams made appearances. Costa Rica, Ireland and the UAE made their first appearances in the finals. As of 2018, this was the last time the UAE qualified for a FIFA World Cup finals. The official match ball was the Adidas Etrusco Unico.
The 1990 World Cup is widely regarded as one of the poorest World Cups. It generated an average 2.2 goals per game -- a record low that still stands -- and a then - record 16 red cards, including the first ever dismissal in a final. This World Cup saw the introduction of the pre-match Fair Play Flag (then inscribed with "Fair Play Please '') to encourage fair play. Defensive tactics led to the introduction of the back - pass rule in 1992 and three points for a win instead of two at future World Cups.
Nonetheless, the 1990 World Cup stands as one of the most watched events in television history, garnering an estimated 26.69 billion non-unique viewers over the course of the tournament. This was the first World Cup to be officially recorded and transmitted in HDTV by the Italian broadcaster RAI in association with Japan 's NHK. At the time it was the most watched World Cup in history in non-unique viewers, but was bettered by the 1994 and 2002 World Cups.
The vote to choose the hosts of the 1990 tournament was held on 19 May 1984 in Zürich, Switzerland. Here, the FIFA Executive Committee chose Italy ahead of the only rival bid, the USSR, by 11 votes to 5. This awarding made Italy only the second nation to host two World Cup tournaments, after Mexico had also achieved this with their 1986 staging. Italy had previously had the event in 1934, where they had won their first championship.
Austria, England, France, Greece, West Germany and Yugoslavia also submitted initial applications for 31 July 1983 deadline. A month later, only England, Greece, Italy and the Soviet Union remained in the hunt after the other contenders all withdrew. All four bids were assessed by FIFA in late 1983, with the final decision over-running into 1984 due to the volume of paperwork involved. In early 1984, England and Greece also withdrew, leading to a two - horse race in the final vote. The Soviet boycott of the 1984 Olympic Games, announced on the eve of the World Cup decision, was speculated to have been a major factor behind Italy winning the vote so decisively, although this was denied by the FIFA President João Havelange.
116 teams entered the 1990 World Cup, including Italy as host nation and Argentina as reigning World Cup champions, who were both granted automatic qualification. Thus, the remaining 22 finals places were divided among the continental confederations, with 114 initially entering the qualification competition. Due to rejected entries and withdrawals, 103 teams eventually participated in the qualifying stages.
Thirteen places were contested by UEFA teams (Europe), two by CONMEBOL teams (South America), two by CAF teams (Africa), two by AFC teams (Asia), and two by CONCACAF teams (North and Central America and Caribbean). The remaining place was decided by a play - off between a CONMEBOL team and a team from the OFC (Oceania).
Both Mexico and Chile were disqualified during the qualification process; the former for fielding an overage player in a prior youth tournament, the latter after goalkeeper Roberto Rojas faked injury from a firework thrown from the stands, which caused the match to be abandoned. Chile were also banned from the 1994 qualifiers for this offence.
Three teams made their debuts, as this was the first World Cup to feature Costa Rica and the Republic of Ireland, and the only one to date to feature the United Arab Emirates.
Returning after long absences were Egypt, who appeared for the first time since 1934, the United States, who competed for the first time since 1950, Colombia, who appeared for the first time since 1962, Romania, who last appeared at the Finals in 1970 and Sweden and the Netherlands, both of which last qualified in 1978. Austria, Cameroon, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia also returned after missing the 1986 tournament.
Among the teams who failed to qualify were 1986 semi-finalists France (missing out their first World Cup since 1974), Denmark, Poland (for the first time since 1970), Portugal and Hungary.
The following 24 teams qualified for the final tournament.
Twelve stadiums in twelve cities were selected to host matches at the 1990 World Cup. The Stadio San Nicola in Bari and Turin 's Stadio delle Alpi were completely new venues opened for the World Cup.
The remaining ten venues all underwent extensive programmes of improvements in preparation for the tournament, forcing many of the club tenants of the stadia to move to temporary homes. Additional seating and roofs were added to most stadia, with further redevelopments seeing running tracks removed and new pitches laid. Due to structural constraints, several of the existing stadia had to be virtually rebuilt to implement the changes required.
Like Espana ' 82, the group stage of this tournament was organized in such a way where specific groups only played in two cities close in proximity to each other. Group A only played in Rome and Florence (Hosts Italy played all their competitive matches in Rome, except for their semi-final and third place matches, which were played in Naples and Bari, respectively), Group B played their matches in Naples and Bari (except for Argentina vs. Cameroon, which was the opening match of the tournament, played in Milan), Group C played their matches in Turin and Genoa, Group D played all their matches in Milan and Bologna, Group E played only in Udine and Verona, and Group F played on the island cities of Cagliari and Palermo. The cities that hosted the most World Cup matches were the two biggest cities in Italy: Rome and Milan, each hosting six matches, and Bari, Naples and Turin each hosted five matches. Cagliari, Udine and Palermo were the only cities of the 12 selected that did not host any knockout round matches.
The England national team, at the British government 's request, were forced to play all their matches in Cagliari on the island of Sardinia. Hooliganism, rife in English football in the 1980s, had followed the national team while they played friendlies on the European continent -- the distrust of English fans was so high that the English FA 's reputation and even diplomatic relations between the UK and Italy were seen to be at risk if England played any group stage matches on the Italian mainland. Thanks largely to British Sports Minister Colin Moynihan 's negative remarks about English fans weeks before the match, security around Cagliari during England 's three matches there was extremely heavy -- in addition to 7,000 local police and Carabineri, highly trained Italian military special forces were also there patrolling the premises. The Italian authorities ' heavy presence proved to be justified as there were several riots during the time England were playing their matches in Cagliari, leading to a number of injuries, arrests and even deportations.
Most of the construction cost in excess of their original estimates and total costs ended up being over £ 550 million (approximately $935 million). Rome 's Stadio Olimpico which would host the final was the most expensive project overall, while Udine 's Stadio Friuli, the newest of the existing stadia (opened 14 years prior), cost the least to redevelop.
Squads for the 1990 World Cup consisted of 22 players, as for the previous tournament in 1986. Replacement of injured players was permitted during the tournament at FIFA 's discretion. Two goalkeepers -- Argentina 's Ángel Comizzo and England 's Dave Beasant -- entered their respective squads during the tournament to replace injured players (Nery Pumpido and David Seaman).
41 match officials from 34 countries were assigned to the tournament to serve as referees and assistant referees. Officials in italics were only used as assistants during the tournament. Referees dressed only in traditional black jerseys for the final time at a World Cup (a red change shirt was used for two Group C games in which Scotland wore their navy blue shirts).
The six seeded teams for the 1990 tournament were announced on 7 December 1989. The seeds were then allocated to the six groups in order of their seeding rank (1st seed to Group A, 2nd seed to Group B, etc.).
The seeds were decided by FIFA based on the nations ' performance in, primarily, the 1986 World Cup with the 1982 World Cup also considered as a secondary influence. Six of the final eight in 1986 had qualified for the 1990 tournament, the missing nations being Mexico (quarter - final in 1986) and France (third place). Italy -- who were seeded first as hosts -- had not reached the final eight in 1986 and this left FIFA needing to exclude one of the three (qualified) nations who were eliminated in the 1986 quarter - finals: Brazil, England or Spain.
Owing to their performance in 1982 but also to their overall World Cup record, Brazil were seeded third and not considered to drop out of the seedings. FIFA opted to seed England ahead of Spain. Spain had only been eliminated in 1986 on penalties, albeit by fourth - placed Belgium, while England had been defeated in 90 minutes by eventual winners Argentina; both countries had also reached the second stage in the 1982 event, playing in the same group in the second group stage with England ending up ahead of Spain, but Spain had also appeared in the 1978 event, while England had failed to qualify. FIFA President João Havelange had reportedly earlier stated that Spain would be seeded.
Spanish officials believed the seeding was contrived to ensure England would be placed in Group F, the group to be held off the Italian mainland, in a bid to contain England 's hooliganism problems. Their coach Luis Suárez said, "We feel we 've been cheated... they wanted to seed England and to send it to Cagliari at all costs. So they invented this formula ''. FIFA countered that "the formula was based on the teams ' respective showings during the previous two World Cups. England merited the sixth position. This is in no way a concession to English hooliganism ''.
Meanwhile, the Netherlands also had an argument that on grounds of recent footballing form, they should be seeded, as the winners of the 1988 European Championship, in which both Spain and England had been eliminated in the group stages, while Belgium (fourth in the 1986 World Cup after beating Spain, and thus seeded in 1990) had failed to even qualify: but this argument was countered by the fact that the Netherlands had themselves failed to qualify for both the 1982 and 1986 World Cups, which was considered the most important factor in the decision not to seed them.
As it happened, the two teams considered the most unlucky not to be seeded, namely Spain and the Netherlands, were both drawn in groups against the two teams considered the weakest of the seeded nations, namely Belgium and England: and the arguments over the seeding positions fizzled out. England could be said to have justified their seeded position by narrowly winning their group ahead of the Netherlands: while Spain seemed to have made their own point about being worth a seeded position, by defeating Belgium to top their own group, in doing so gaining a measure of revenge for the fact that it was Belgium who had eliminated them in 1986.
Italy (1st) Argentina (2nd) Brazil (3rd) West Germany (4th) Belgium (5th) England (6th)
Cameroon Costa Rica Egypt South Korea United Arab Emirates United States
Colombia Czechoslovakia Republic of Ireland Romania Sweden Uruguay
Austria Netherlands Scotland Spain Soviet Union Yugoslavia
On 9 December 1989 the draw was conducted at the Palazzetto dello Sport in Rome, where the teams were drawn out from the three pots to be placed with the seeded teams in their predetermined groups. The only stipulation of the draw was that no group could feature two South American teams. The ceremony was hosted by Italian television presenter Pippo Baudo, with Italian actress Sophia Loren and opera singer Luciano Pavarotti conducting the draw alongside FIFA general secretary Sepp Blatter.
The draw show was FIFA 's most ambitious yet with Pelé, Bobby Moore and Karl - Heinz Rummenigge appearing, as well as a performance of the Italian version of the tournament 's official song "To Be Number One '' by Giorgio Moroder, performed as "Un'estate italiana '' by Edoardo Bennato and Gianna Nannini.
The event also featured the official mascot of this World Cup, Ciao, a stick figure player with a football head and an Italian tricolor body that formed the word "ITALIA '' when deconstructed and reconstructed. Its name is a greeting in Italian.
The finals tournament began in Italy on 8 June and concluded on 8 July. The format of the 1990 competition remained the same as in 1986: 24 qualified teams were divided into six groups of four. The top two teams and four best third - place finishers from the six groups advanced to the knockout stage, which eliminated the teams until a winner emerged. In total, 52 games were played.
The tournament generated a record low goals - per - game average and a then - record of 16 red cards were handed out. In the knockout stage, many teams played defensively for 120 minutes, with the intention of trying their luck in the penalty shoot - out, rather than risk going forward. Two exceptions were the eventual champions West Germany and hosts Italy, the only teams to win three of their four knockout matches in normal time. There were four penalty shoot - outs, a record subsequently equalled in the 2006, 2014 and 2018 tournaments. Eight matches went to extra time, a record equalled in the 2014 tournament.
Ireland and Argentina were prime examples of this trend of cautious defensive play; the Irish team fell behind in two of their three group matches and only equalised late in both games. Losing finalists Argentina, meanwhile, scored only five goals in the entire tournament (a record low for a finalist). Argentina also became the first team to advance twice on penalty shoot - outs and the first team to fail to score and have a player sent off in a World Cup final.
Largely as a result of this trend FIFA introduced the back - pass rule in time for the 1994 tournament to make it harder for teams to time - waste by repeatedly passing the ball back for their goalkeepers to pick up. Three, rather than two points would be awarded for victories at future tournaments to help further encourage attacking play.
Cameroon reached the quarter - finals, where they were narrowly defeated by England. They opened the tournament with a shock victory over reigning champions Argentina, before topping the group ahead of them, Romania and European Championship runners - up the Soviet Union. Their success was fired by the goals of Roger Milla, a 38 - year - old forward who came out of international retirement to join the national squad at the last moment after a personal request from Cameroonian President Paul Biya. Milla 's four goals and flamboyant goal celebrations made him one of the tournament 's biggest stars as well as taking Cameroon to the last eight. Most of Cameroon 's squad was made up of players who played in France 's premier football league, Ligue 1 - French is one of the officially spoken languages in Cameroon, it being a former French territory. In reaching this stage, they had gone further than any African nation had ever managed in a World Cup before; a feat only equalled twice since (by Senegal in 2002 and Ghana in 2010). Their success was African football 's biggest yet on the world stage and FIFA subsequently decided to allocate the CAF qualifying zone an additional place for the next World Cup tournament.
Despite the performances of nations such as Cameroon, Colombia, Ireland, Romania and Costa Rica, the semi-finalists consisted of Argentina, England, Italy and West Germany, all previous World Cup winners, with eight previous titles between them. After the 1970 tournament, this is only the second time in the history of the World Cup this has occurred. The teams which finished first, second and third had also contested both the two previous World Cup Finals between themselves.
All times are Central European Summer Time (UTC + 2)
In the following tables:
The Group stage saw the twenty - four teams divided into six groups of four teams. Each group was a round - robin of six games, where each team played one match against each of the other teams in the same group. Teams were awarded two points for a win, one point for a draw and none for a defeat. The teams coming first and second in each group qualified for the Round of 16. The four best third - placed teams would also advance to the next stage.
Typical of a World Cup staged in Europe, the matches all started at either 5: 00 or 9: 00 in the evening; this allowed for the games to avoid being played in the heat of an Italian summer, which would soar past 86F (30C) all over Italy.
If teams were level on points, they were ranked on the following criteria in order:
Hosts Italy won Group A with a 100 percent record. They beat Austria 1 -- 0 thanks to substitute Salvatore ' Totò ' Schillaci, who had played only one international before but would become a star during the tournament. A second 1 -- 0 victory followed against a United States team already thumped 5 -- 1 by Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovaks ended runners - up in the group, while the USA 's first appearance in a World Cup Finals since 1950 ended with three consecutive defeats.
Cameroon defeated reigning champions Argentina. Despite ending the match with only nine men, the African team held on for a shock 1 -- 0 win, with contrasting fortunes for the brothers Biyik: François Omam scoring the winning goal, shortly after seeing Andre Kana sent off for a serious foul. In their second game the introduction of Roger Milla was the catalyst for a 2 -- 1 win over Romania, Milla scoring twice from the bench (making him the oldest goalscorer in the tournament). With progression assured, Cameroon slumped to a 4 -- 0 defeat in their final group game to the Soviet Union (in what would be their last World Cup due to the dissolution of the Soviet Union), who were striving to stay in the tournament on goal difference after successive 2 -- 0 defeats. Argentina lost their veteran goalkeeper, Nery Pumpido, to a broken leg during their victory over the USSR: his replacement, Sergio Goycochea, proved to be one of the stars of their tournament. In the final match, a 1 -- 1 draw between Romania and Argentina sent both through, equal on points and on goal difference but Romania having the advantage on goals scored: Romania were thus second, Argentina qualified as one of the best third - placed teams.
Costa Rica beat Scotland 1 -- 0 in their first match, lost 1 -- 0 to Brazil in their second, then saw off Sweden 2 -- 1 to claim a place in the second round. Brazil took maximum points from the group. They began with a 2 -- 1 win over Sweden, then beat both Costa Rica and Scotland 1 -- 0. Scotland 's 2 -- 1 win over Sweden was not enough to save them from an early return home as one of the two lowest - ranked third - placed teams.
Group D featured the most goals of all the groups, most due to two large wins of West Germany and defensive inadequacies of a United Arab Emirates team that lost 2 -- 0 to Colombia, 5 -- 1 to West Germany and 4 -- 1 to Yugoslavia. The West Germans topped the group after a 4 -- 1 opening victory over group runners - up Yugoslavia.
The winners of Group E were Spain, for whom Michel hit a hat - trick as they beat South Korea 3 -- 1 in an unbeaten group campaign. Belgium won their first two games against South Korea and Uruguay to ensure their progress; Uruguay 's advance to the second round came with an injury time winner against South Korea to edge them through as the weakest of the third - placed sides to remain in the tournament.
Group F, featured the Netherlands, England, the Republic of Ireland and Egypt. In the six group games, no team managed to score more than once in a match. England beat Egypt 1 -- 0, the only match with a decisive result, and that was enough to win the group. The group containing England, Ireland and the Netherlands was remarkably similar to the group stage of the 1988 European Championship, which had eventually been won by the Netherlands, with England crashing out with three losses (to Ireland, the Netherlands and the USSR) and Ireland also narrowly failing to progress after losing to the Netherlands and drawing with the USSR. The results of the 1990 group, however, were different: England took the lead with an early goal for Lineker against Ireland, but Sheedy 's late equalizer gave them a share of the spoils. The Netherlands failed to replicate their form of two years earlier, only drawing against Egypt: they had taken a 1 - 0 lead, but without impressing, and Egypt were well worth their equalizer courtesy of a penalty by Abdelghani. England then had much the better of their goalless draw with the Netherlands: indeed they had the ball in the net once, from a free - kick by Pearce, but it was disallowed. For the second World Cup in succession, however, England lost their captain Bryan Robson to an injury which put him out of the tournament, just over halfway through their second match. Ireland and Egypt barely registered a shot on goal between them in the other 0 - 0 draw: after the first four matches all four teams had equal records with 2 draws, 1 goal for and 1 goal against. England 's victory over Egypt, thanks to a 58th - minute goal from Mark Wright, put them top of the group: in the other match, Gullit gave the Netherlands the lead against Ireland, but Niall Quinn scored a second - half equalizer and the two teams finished in second and third, still with identical records. Both teams qualified but they had to draw lots to place the teams in second and third place.
The Republic of Ireland and the Netherlands finished with identical records. With both teams assured of progressing, they were split by the drawing of lots to determine second and third place.
Ireland won the drawing of lots against the Netherlands for second place in Group F: the Netherlands were the only third - placed team not to have won any matches - or lost any: they progressed with three draws (3 points), ahead of Austria and Scotland who each had one win and two losses (2 points).
The knockout stage involved the 16 teams that qualified from the group stage of the tournament. There were four rounds of matches, with each round eliminating half of the teams entering that round. The successive rounds were: round of 16, quarter - finals, semi-finals, final. There was also a play - off to decide third / fourth place. For each game in the knockout stage, any draw at 90 minutes was followed by 30 minutes of extra time; if scores were still level there would be a penalty shoot - out (five penalties each, if neither team already had a decisive advantage, and more if necessary) to determine who progressed to the next round. Scores after extra time are indicated by (aet) and penalty shoot - outs are indicated by (p).
All times listed are local (UTC + 2)
Two of the ties -- Brazil vs Argentina and Italy vs Uruguay -- pitted former champion countries against each other and West Germany met the Netherlands in a rematch of the 1974 World Cup Final.
The all - South American game was won for Argentina by a goal from Claudio Caniggia with 10 minutes remaining after a run through the Brazilian defence by Diego Maradona and an outstanding performance from their goalkeeper Sergio Goycochea. It would later come to light that Branco had been offered water spiked with tranquillisers by Maradona and Ricardo Giusti during half time, to slow him down in the second half. Initially discredited by the press, Branco would be publicly proven right years later, when Maradona confessed the episode on a TV show in Argentina. As for Italy, a strong second half showing saw the hosts beat Uruguay 2 -- 0, thanks to another goal from Schillaci and one from Aldo Serena.
The match between West Germany and the Netherlands was held in Milan, and both sides featured several notable players from the two Milanese clubs (Germans Andreas Brehme, Lothar Matthäus and Jürgen Klinsmann for Internazionale, and Dutchmen Marco van Basten, Ruud Gullit and Frank Rijkaard for Milan). After 22 minutes Rudi Völler and Rijkaard were both dismissed after a number of incidents between the two players (including Rijkaard spitting on Völler) left the Argentine referee with no option but to send them both off. As the players walked off the pitch together, Rijkaard spat on Völler a second time. Early in the second half, Jürgen Klinsmann put the West Germans ahead and Andreas Brehme added a second with eight minutes left. A Ronald Koeman penalty for the Netherlands in the 89th minute narrowed the score to 2 -- 1 but the Germans saw the game out to gain some revenge for their exit to the Dutch in the previous European Championship.
Meanwhile, the heroics of Cameroon and Roger Milla continued in their game with Colombia. Milla was introduced as a second - half substitute with the game goalless, eventually breaking the deadlock midway in extra time. Three minutes later he netted a second after Colombian goalkeeper, René Higuita was dispossessed by Milla while well out of his goal, leaving the striker free to slot the ball into the empty net. Though the deficit was soon reduced to 2 -- 1, Cameroon held on to become the first African team ever to reach the World Cup quarter - finals. Costa Rica were comfortably beaten 4 -- 1 by Czechoslovakia, for whom Tomáš Skuhravý scored the tournament 's second and final hat - trick.
The Republic of Ireland 's match with Romania remained goalless after extra time and the Irish side won 5 -- 4 on penalties. David O'Leary converted the penalty that clinched Ireland 's place in the quarter - finals. Ireland thus became the first team since Sweden in 1938 to reach the last eight in a World Cup finals tournament without winning a match outright. Yugoslavia beat Spain 2 -- 1 after extra time, with Dragan Stojković scoring both the Yugoslavs ' goals. England were the final qualifier against Belgium, as midfielder David Platt 's swivelling volley broke the stalemate with the game moments away from a penalty shoot - out.
The first game of the last 8 saw Argentina and a Yugoslav side, reduced to 10 men after only half an hour, play out a goalless stalemate. The holders reached the semi-finals after winning the penalty shoot - out 3 -- 2, despite Maradona having his penalty saved. A second Argentine miss (by Pedro Troglio) looked to have eliminated them until goalkeeper Sergio Goycochea -- playing because first choice Nery Pumpido broke his leg during the group stage -- rescued his side by stopping the Yugoslavs ' final two spotkicks.
The Republic of Ireland 's World Cup run was brought to an end by a single goal from Schillaci in the first half of their quarter - final with hosts Italy. West Germany beat Czechoslovakia with a 25th minute Lothar Matthäus penalty.
The quarter - final between England and Cameroon was the only quarter - final to produce more than one goal. Despite Cameroon 's heroics earlier in the tournament, David Platt put England ahead in the 25th minute. At half - time, Milla was brought on. In the second half, the game was turned on its head during a five - minute stretch: first Cameroon were awarded a penalty from which Emmanuel Kunde scored the equaliser; then in the 65th minute Eugene Ekeke put Cameroon ahead. Cameroon came within eight minutes of reaching the semi-finals before they conceded a penalty, which Gary Lineker converted. Midway through extra time, England were awarded another penalty and Lineker again scored from the spot. England were through to the semi-finals for the first time since the days of Bobby Moore 24 years prior.
The first semi-final featured the host nation, Italy, and the world champions, Argentina in Naples. ' Toto ' Schillaci scored yet again to put Italy ahead in the 17th minute, but Claudio Caniggia equalised midway through the second half, breaking Walter Zenga 's clean sheet streak throughout the tournament. There were no more goals in the 90 minutes or in extra time despite Maradona (who played for Naples in Serie A at the time) showing glimpses of magic, but there was a sending - off: Ricardo Giusti of Argentina was shown the red card in the 13th minute of extra time. Argentina went through on penalties, winning the shoot - out 4 -- 3 after more heroics from Goycochea.
The semi-final between West Germany and England at Juventus 's home stadium in Turin was goalless at half - time. Then, in the 60th minute, a shot from Andreas Brehme was deflected by Paul Parker into his own net. England equalised with ten minutes left; Gary Lineker was the scorer. The game ended 1 -- 1. Extra time yielded more chances. Klinsmann was guilty of two glaring misses and both sides struck a post. England had another Platt goal disallowed for offside. The match went to penalties, and West Germany went on to win the shoot - out 4 -- 3.
The game saw three goals in a 15 - minute spell. Roberto Baggio opened the scoring after a rare mistake by England 's goalkeeper Peter Shilton, in his final game before international retirement, presented a simple opportunity. A header by David Platt levelled the game 10 minutes later but Schillaci was fouled in the penalty area five minutes later, leading to a penalty. Schillaci himself got up to convert the kick to win him the tournament 's Golden Boot for his six - goal tally. Nicola Berti had a goal ruled out minutes later, but the hosts claimed third place. England had the consolation prize of the Fair Play award, having received no red cards and the lowest average number of yellows per match.
The final between West Germany and Argentina has been cited as the most cynical and lowest - quality of all World Cup Finals. In the 65th minute, Argentina 's Pedro Monzon - himself only recently on as a substitute - was sent off for a foul on Jürgen Klinsmann. Monzon was the first player ever to be sent off in a World Cup Final.
Argentina, weakened by suspension and injury, offered little attacking threat throughout a contest dominated by the West Germans, who struggled to create many clear goalscoring opportunities. The only goal of the contest arrived in the 85th minute when Mexican referee Edgardo Codesal awarded a penalty to West Germany, after a foul on Rudi Völler by Roberto Sensini leading to Argentinian protests. Andreas Brehme converted the spot kick to settle the contest. In the closing moments, Argentina were reduced to nine after Gustavo Dezotti, who had already been yellow carded earlier in the match, received a red card when he hauled Jürgen Kohler to the ground during a stoppage in play. The 1 -- 0 scoreline provided another first: Argentina were the first team to fail to score in a World Cup Final.
With its third title (and three second - place finishes) West Germany -- in its final tournament before national reunification -- became the most successful World Cup nation at the time. West German manager Franz Beckenbauer became the only man to both captain (in 1974) and manage a World Cup winning team, and only the second man (after Mário Zagallo of Brazil) to win the World Cup as a player and as team manager. It was also the first time a team from UEFA won the final against a non-European team.
Salvatore Schillaci received the Golden Boot award for scoring six goals in the World Cup. This made him the second Italian footballer to have this honour, after Paolo Rossi won the award in 1982. In total, 115 goals were scored by 75 players (none credited as own goals).
After the tournament, FIFA published a ranking of all teams that competed in the 1990 World Cup finals based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition.
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essay on impact of french revolution on english literature | Romanticism and the French Revolution - wikipedia
Romanticism originated in the 2nd half of the 18th century at the same time as the French Revolution. Romanticism continued to grow in reaction to the effects of the social transformation caused by the Revolution. There are many signs of these effects of the French Revolution in various pieces of Romantic literature. By examining the influence of the French Revolution, one can determine that Romanticism arose as a reaction to the French Revolution. Instead of searching for rules governing nature and human beings, the romantics searched for a direct communication with nature and treated humans as unique individuals not subject to scientific rules.
The French Revolution played a huge role in influencing Romantic writers. As the Revolution began to play out, the absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in only three years. This resulted in a complete transformation of society. A majority of the population was greatly in favor of this as the working class had been suffering oppression for many years. According to Albert Hancock, in his book The French Revolution and the English Poets: a study in historical criticism, "The French Revolution came, bringing with it the promise of a brighter day, the promise of regenerated man and regenerated earth. It was hailed with joy and acclamation by the oppressed, by the ardent lovers of humanity, by the poets, whose task it is to voice the human spirit. ''
A common theme among some of the most widely known romantic poets is their acceptance and approval of the French Revolution. William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, and Percy Shelley all shared the same view of the French Revolution as it being the beginning of a change in the current ways of society and helping to improve the lives of the oppressed. As the French Revolution changed the lives of virtually everyone in the nation and even continent because of its drastic and immediate shift in social reformation, it greatly influenced many writers at the time. Hancock writes, "There is no need to recount here in detail how the French Revolution, at the close of the last century, was the great stimulus to the intellectual and emotional life of the civilized world, how it began by inspiring all liberty - loving men with hope and joy. ''
Literature began to take a new turn when the spirit of the revolution caught the entire nation and turned things in a whole new direction. The newly acquired freedom of the common people did not only bring about just laws and living but ordinary people also had the freedom to think for themselves, and in turn the freedom to express themselves. Triggered by the revolutionary spirit, the writers of the time were full of creative ideas and were waiting for a chance to unleash them. Under the new laws writers and artists were given a considerable amount of freedom to express themselves which did well to pave the way to set a high standard for literature.
Prior to the French Revolution, poems and literature were typically written about and to aristocrats and clergy, and rarely for or about the working man. However, when the roles of society began to shift resulting from the French Revolution, and with the emergence of Romantic writers, this changed. Romantic poets such as Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, and Shelley started to write works for and about the working man; pieces that the common man could relate to. According to Christensen, "To get the real animating principle of the Romantic Movement, one must not study it inductively or abstractly; one must look at it historically. It must be put beside the literary standards of the eighteenth century. These standards impose limits upon the Elysian fields of poetry; poetry must be confined to the common experience of average men... The Romantic Movement then means the revolt of a group of contemporary poets who wrote, not according to common and doctrinaire standards, but as they individually pleased... there are no principles comprehensive and common to all except those of individualism and revolt. ''
Although the poets mentioned earlier (Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, and Shelley) all share the common theme of approving the French Revolution, they each have their own unique ideas regarding the Revolution itself that have greatly shaped their work. This can be seen by analyzing some of each of their works.
Ever since he was young, Percy Shelley was very nontraditional. He was born a freethinker and "in spite of all his lovable and generous traits he was a born disturber of the public peace ''. At school he was known as "Mad Shelley, the Atheist ''. According to Hancock, "The Goddess of Revolution rocked his cradle. ''
Throughout his life Shelley 's opposition toward religion grew less violent; however, he never professed a belief in immortality or religion of any sort. His poems declare a belief in the permanence of things that are true and beautiful. Common themes that Shelley incorporated into his works include the hatred of kings, faith in the natural goodness of man, the belief in the corruption of present society, the power of reason, the rights of natural impulse, the desire for a revolution, and liberty, equality and fraternity. These are all clearly shaped by the French Revolution.
While Shelley had faith that was founded upon modern ideas, Byron had faith in nothing. He stood for only destruction. Because of this he was not a true revolutionist and was rather "the arch - apostle of revolt, of rebellion against constituted authority. '' This statement is easily defended as Byron admitted that he resisted authority but offered no substitute. This is supported by what Byron once wrote, "I deny nothing... but I doubt everything. '' He then said later in life, "I have simplified politics into an utter detestation of all existing governments. '' Byron believed neither in democracy nor in equality, but opposed all forms of tyranny and all attempts of rulers to control man.
In Byron 's poetry, he incorporated deep feeling, rather than deep thinking, to make his characters strong. Often, Byron portrayed his characters as being in complete harmony with nature, causing the character to lose himself in the immensity of the world. The French Revolution played a huge role in shaping Byron 's beliefs and opposition to monarchy.
While Shelley and Byron both proved to support the revolution to the end, both Wordsworth and Coleridge joined the aristocrats in fighting it. Wordsworth, however is the Romantic poet who has most profoundly felt and expressed the connection of the soul with nature. He saw great value in the immediate contact with nature. The French Revolution helped to humanize Wordsworth as his works transitioned from extremely natural experiences to facing the realities and ills of life, including society and the Revolution. From then on, his focus became the interests of man rather than the power and innocence of nature.
Samuel Tailor Coleridge is the third example of an eighteenth century poet who was affected by the French revolution. Unlike Wordsworth, Coleridge was more open and receptive to the social and political world around him. He was a very versatile man and he led a life that covered many fields and his work displayed this. He was a poet of nature, romance, and the Revolution. He was a philosopher, a historian, and a political figure. The French Revolution played a great role in shaping Coleridge into each of these things.
According to Albert Hancock, Coleridge tended to focus his life on two things. The first, being to separate himself from the surrounding world and to submerge himself in thought, as a poet. The second, to play a role in the world 's affairs, as a philosopher, historian, and politician, as mentioned earlier.
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how does the department of water affairs use topographic maps in their operations | Topographic map - wikipedia
In modern mapping, a topographic map is a type of map characterized by large - scale detail and quantitative representation of relief, usually using contour lines, but historically using a variety of methods. Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man - made features. A topographic map is typically published as a map series, made up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A contour line is a line connecting places of equal elevation.
Natural Resources Canada provides this description of topographic maps:
These maps depict in detail ground relief (landforms and terrain), drainage (lakes and rivers), forest cover, administrative areas, populated areas, transportation routes and facilities (including roads and railways), and other man - made features.
Other authors define topographic maps by contrasting them with another type of map; they are distinguished from smaller - scale "chorographic maps '' that cover large regions, "planimetric maps '' that do not show elevations, and "thematic maps '' that focus on specific topics.
However, in the vernacular and day to day world, the representation of relief (contours) is popularly held to define the genre, such that even small - scale maps showing relief are commonly (and erroneously, in the technical sense) called "topographic ''.
The study or discipline of topography is a much broader field of study, which takes into account all natural and man - made features of terrain.
Topographic maps are based on topographical surveys. Performed at large scales, these surveys are called topographical in the old sense of topography, showing a variety of elevations and landforms. This is in contrast to older cadastral surveys, which primarily show property and governmental boundaries. The first multi-sheet topographic map series of an entire country, the Carte géométrique de la France, was completed in 1789. The Great Trigonometric Survey of India, started by the East India Company in 1802, then taken over by the British Raj after 1857 was notable as a successful effort on a larger scale and for accurately determining heights of Himalayan peaks from viewpoints over one hundred miles distant.
Topographic surveys were prepared by the military to assist in planning for battle and for defensive emplacements (thus the name and history of the United Kingdom 's Ordnance Survey). As such, elevation information was of vital importance.
As they evolved, topographic map series became a national resource in modern nations in planning infrastructure and resource exploitation. In the United States, the national map - making function which had been shared by both the Army Corps of Engineers and the Department of the Interior migrated to the newly created United States Geological Survey in 1879, where it has remained since.
1913 saw the beginning of the International Map of the World initiative, which set out to map all of Earth 's significant land areas at a scale of 1: 1 million, on about one thousand sheets, each covering four degrees latitude by six or more degrees longitude. Excluding borders, each sheet was 44 cm high and (depending on latitude) up to 66 cm wide. Although the project eventually foundered, it left an indexing system that remains in use.
By the 1980s, centralized printing of standardized topographic maps began to be superseded by databases of coordinates that could be used on computers by moderately skilled end users to view or print maps with arbitrary contents, coverage and scale. For example, the Federal government of the United States ' TIGER initiative compiled interlinked databases of federal, state and local political borders and census enumeration areas, and of roadways, railroads, and water features with support for locating street addresses within street segments. TIGER was developed in the 1980s and used in the 1990 and subsequent decennial censuses. Digital elevation models (DEM) were also compiled, initially from topographic maps and stereographic interpretation of aerial photographs and then from satellite photography and radar data. Since all these were government projects funded with taxes and not classified for national security reasons, the datasets were in the public domain and freely usable without fees or licensing.
TIGER and DEM datasets greatly facilitated Geographic information systems and made the Global Positioning System much more useful by providing context around locations given by the technology as coordinates. Initial applications were mostly professionalized forms such as innovative surveying instruments and agency - level GIS systems tended by experts. By the mid-1990s, increasingly user - friendly resources such as online mapping in two and three dimensions, integration of GPS with mobile phones and automotive navigation systems appeared. As of 2011, the future of standardized, centrally printed topographical maps is left somewhat in doubt.
Topographic maps have multiple uses in the present day: any type of geographic planning or large - scale architecture; earth sciences and many other geographic disciplines; mining and other earth - based endeavours; civil engineering and recreational uses such as hiking and orienteering.
The various features shown on the map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads. These signs are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet.
Topographic maps are also commonly called contour maps or topo maps. In the United States, where the primary national series is organized by a strict 7.5 - minute grid, they are often called topo quads or quadrangles.
Topographic maps conventionally show topography, or land contours, by means of contour lines. Contour lines are curves that connect contiguous points of the same altitude (isohypse). In other words, every point on the marked line of 100 m elevation is 100 m above mean sea level.
These maps usually show not only the contours, but also any significant streams or other bodies of water, forest cover, built - up areas or individual buildings (depending on scale), and other features and points of interest.
Today, topographic maps are prepared using photogrammetric interpretation of aerial photography, lidar and other Remote sensing techniques. Older topographic maps were prepared using traditional surveying instruments.
Although virtually the entire terrestrial surface of Earth has been mapped at scale 1: 1,000,000, medium and large - scale mapping has been accomplished intensively in some countries and much less in others. Nevertheless, national mapping programs listed below are only a partial selection. Several commercial vendors supply international topographic map series.
The NMIG (National Mapping Information Group) of Geoscience Australia is the Australian Government 's national mapping agency. It provides topographic maps and data to meet the needs of the sustainable development of the nation. The Office of Spatial Data Management provides an online free map service MapConnect. These topographic maps of scales 1: 250,000 and 1: 100,000 are available in printed form from the Sales Centre. 1: 50,000 and 1: 25,000 maps are produced in conjunction with the Department of Defence.
Austrian Maps (German: Österreichische Karte (ÖK)) is the government agency producing maps of Austria, which are distributed by Bundesamt für Eich - und Vermessungswesen (BEV) in Vienna. The maps are published at scales 1: 25,000 1: 50,000 1: 200,000 and 1: 500,000. Maps can also be viewed online.
The Centre for Topographic Information produces topographic maps of Canada at scales of 1: 50,000 and 1: 250,000. They are known as the National Topographic System (NTS). A government proposal to discontinue publishing of all hardcopy or paper topographic maps in favor of digital - only mapping data was shelved in 2005 after intense public opposition.
The State Bureau of Surveying and Cartography compiles topographic maps at 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000 scales. It is reported that these maps are accurate and attractively printed in seven colors, and that successive editions show progressive improvement in accuracy.
These large - scale maps are the basis for maps at smaller scales. Maps at scales 1: 4,000,000 or smaller are exported by Cartographic Publishing House, Beijing while larger - scale maps are restricted as state secrets, and prohibited from publishing by legislation, all except Hong Kong and Macau. China 's topographic maps follow the international system of subdivision with 1: 100,000 maps spanning 30 minutes longitude by 20 minutes latitude.
The Geographic Institute Agustín Codazzi is the government entity responsible for producing and distributing topographic maps of Colombia in 1: 500,000 and 1: 100,000 scales. These and several other Geographic information services can be accessed using the Instituto Geográfico Agustin Codazzi website in Spanish.
The National Survey and Cadastre of Denmark is responsible for producing topographic and nautical geodata of Denmark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands.
The National Land Survey of Finland produces the Topographic Database (accuracy 1: 5000 - 1: 10 000) and publishes topographic maps of Finland at 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000. In addition topographics maps can be viewed by using a free map service MapSite.
The Institut Géographique National (IGN) produces topographic maps of France at 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000. In addition, topographic maps are freely accessible online, through the Géoportail website.
In principle, each federal state (Bundesland) is in charge of producing the official topographic maps. In fact, the maps between 1: 5,000 and 1: 100,000 are produced and published by the land surveying offices of each federal state, the maps between 1: 200,000 and 1: 1,000,000 by a federal office -- the Bundesamt für Kartographie und Geodäsie (BKG) in Frankfurt am Main.
Topographic maps for general use are available at 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000 from the Hellenic Military Geographical Service (HMGS). They use a national projection system called EGSA'87, which is a Transverse Mercatorial Projection mapping Greece in one zone. A few areas are also available at 1: 25,000. Some private firms sell topographic maps of national parks based on HMGS topography.
The Department of Lands is the government agency responsible for surveying and publishing topographic maps of Hong Kong. Commonly used maps such as the HM20C series (1: 20,000) are reviewed and updated every year or two. Very large scale (1: 600 in Urban area and the 1: 1,000 HM1C series for all of HK) topographic maps are also available to public for various uses.
The Survey of India is responsible for all topographic control, surveys and mapping of India.
The Geographical Survey Institute of Japan is responsible for base mapping of Japan. Standard map scales are 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000, 1: 200,000 and 1: 500,000.
From 1992 to 2002 a definitive series of large scale topographic maps were surveyed and published through a joint project by Government of Nepal Survey Department and Finland 's Ministry for Foreign Affairs contracting through the FinnMap consulting firm. Japan International Cooperation Agency substituted for FinnMap in Lumbini Zone.
Topographic sheets at 1: 25,000 scale covering 7.5 minutes latitude and longitude map the densely populated Terai and Middle Mountain regions. Less populated high mountain regions are on 15 - minute sheets at 1: 50,000. JPG scans can be downloaded.
The Land Registry Kadaster (formerly Topografische Dienst) collects, processes and provides topographical information of the entire Dutch territory. The history of the Land Registry goes back to the year 1815, that year was commissioned to create a large map, known as Map of Krayenhoff. Around 1836 they began printing the topographic map on a scale of 1: 50,000, followed in 1865 by the topographic map on a scale of 1: 25,000. In 1951 began the start of production of the topographic map on a scale of 1: 10,000. From various reorganizations arose in 1932 the Topografische Dienst as national mapping agency of the Netherlands, since January 2004 housed within the Land Registry Kadaster.
Land Information New Zealand is the government agency responsible for providing up - to - date topographic mapping. LINZ topographic maps cover all of New Zealand, offshore islands, some Pacific Islands and the Ross Sea Region. The standard issue NZTopo map series was published September 2009 at 1: 50,000 (NZTopo50), and 1: 250,000 (NZTopo250). Vector data from the New Zealand Topographic Database (NZTopo) is also available.
The responsibility for topographic mapping and aerial photography lies with the Surveyor General of Pakistan (SGP). Established in 1947, the Survey of Pakistan (SOP) is based in Rawalpindi with a number of regional offices distributed at urban centers throughout Pakistan. SGP is a civil organization which, for security reasons, is headed by a Surveyor General and works under the strict control of Army General Headquarters (GHQ). Colonel C.A.K. Innes - Wilson, a Royal Engineers officer who joined the Survey of India which mapped the subcontinent, was the first Surveyor General of Pakistan.
All departments which require topographic maps make their request to SGP and many are permanently registered with it for mapping and aerial photographs procurement. The SOP performs these functions under the auspices of the Ministry of Defence (MOD). Organisationally, the SOP is overseen by the Surveyor General (SG) who is a direct military appointee and a senior uniformed officer. The SG reports directly to the Secretary of Defence. Under the SG are two Deputy SG 's (I and II) who manage the operational departments of the agency and a Senior Technical Advisor. These departments are divided into Regional Directorates for Topographic Mapping including the Northern region centred in Peshawar, Eastern region (Lahore), Western region (Quetta) and finally, the Southern region in Karachi. Responsibility for fields surveys and the maintenance / update of topographic maps are sub-divided according to these geographic areas.
The Army 's Geographical Institute - Instituto Geográfico do Exército (1) - produces 1.25, 000, 1: 500,000 maps for public sale, as well as lots of geographical services.
Until recently, the two major government mapping authorities in Romania have been the Military Topographic Department (Directia Topografica Militara (DTM)), and the Institute for Geodesy, Photogrammetry, Cartography and Land Management (Institutul de Geodezie, Fotogrammetrie, Cartografie, si Organizarea Teritoriului (IGFCOT)). This situation has recently changed, following a decision in 1996 by the Romanian Government to establish a combined civilian National Office of Cadastre, Geodesy and Cartography (Oficiul National de Cadastru, Geodezie si Cartografie (ONCGC). Maps continued to be published under the imprint of the previous organizations into the late 1990s. From 1958, a number of town maps at scales of 1: 5,000 or 1: 10,000 were also made, initially on the Gauss - Krϋger projection, but after 1970 on a stereographic projection. More than 100 such sheets have been produced. There is also a street map of Bucharest in four sheets at 1: 15,000 derived from larger scale surveys, which is revised annually.
The 1: 50,000 series in 737 sheets is now regarded as the base map. It was revised in the period 1965 - 72 using aerial photographs, and is currently being updated again with the intention of establishing a revision cycle of five to six years. The 1: 25,000 will be retained, but revision only at 15 - 20 - year intervals, except for sheets covering areas of rapid change.
Detailed, accurate topographic maps have long been a military priority. They are currently produced by the Military - topographic service of armed forces of the Russian Federation (Russian: Военно - топографическая служба Вооружённых сил Российской Федерации or ВТС ВС). Military topographic mapping departments held other titles in the Russian Empire since 1793 and in the Soviet Union where these maps also came to be used for internal control and economic development.
When Germany invaded in 1941, detailed maps from the USSR 's western borders to the Volga River became an urgent task, accomplished in less than one year. After the war years the entire Soviet Union was mapped at scales down to 1: 25,000 -- even 1: 10,000 for the agriculturally productive fraction. The rest of the world except Antarctica is believed to have been mapped at scales down to 1: 200,000, with regions of special interest down to 1: 50,000 and many urban areas to 1: 10,000. In all there may have been over one million map sheets of high quality and detail. Soviet maps were also notable for their consistent global indexing system. These advantages held for Soviet military maps of other countries, although there were some errors due to faulty intelligence.
Soviet maps for domestic civilian purposes were often of lower quality. From 1919 to 1967 they were produced by Head geodesic administration (Russian: Высшее геодезическое управление or ВГУ), then by Chief administration of geodesy and cartography (Russian: Главное управление геодезии и картографии or ГУГК). Now (June 2011) civilian maps are produced by the Federal agency for geodesy and cartography (Russian: Федеральное агентство геодезии и картографии or Роскартография).
Soviet military maps were state secrets. After the 1991 breakup of the Soviet Union, many maps leaked into the public domain and are available for download. Map scales 1: 100.000 - 1: 500.000 can be viewed online.
The Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN) is responsible for the official topographic maps. It does use six scales that cover all the Spanish territory: 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000, 1: 200,000, 1: 500,000, 1: 1,000,000 and 1: 2,000,000. The most common scale is the first one, which utilizes the UTM system.
The Chief Directorate: National Geo - spatial Information (CD: NGI) produces three topographic map series, each covering the whole country, at scales 1: 50 000, 1: 250 000, and 1: 500 000.
Swisstopo (the Federal Office of Topography) produces topographic maps of Switzerland at seven different scales.
Topographic maps for Taiwan had long been kept as confidential information due to security concerns. It has only been recently made available to public from the National Land Surveying and Mapping Center, the government agency responsible for surveying and publishing various maps. Topographic maps of up to 1: 25,000 is now available in digital and printed format.
The Ordnance Survey (OS) produces topographic map series covering the United Kingdom at 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000 scales. The 1: 25,000 scale is known as the "Explorer '' series, and include an "OL '' (Outdoor Leisure) sub-series for areas of special interest to hikers and walkers. It replaced the "Pathfinder '' series, which was less colourful and covered a smaller area on each map. The 1: 50,000 scale is known as the "Landranger '' and carries a distinctive pink cover. More detailed mapping as fine as 1: 10,000 covers some parts of the country. The 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000 scales are easily coordinated with standard romer scales on currently available compasses and plotting tools. The Ordnance Survey maintains a mapping database from which they can print specialist maps at virtually any scale.
The Ordnance Survey National Grid divides the U.K. into cells 500 km, 100 km, 10 km and 1 km square on a Transverse Mercator grid aligned true North - South along the 2 ° W meridian. OS map products are based on this grid.
The United States Geological Survey (USGS), a civilian federal agency, produces several national series of topographic maps which vary in scale and extent, with some wide gaps in coverage, notably the complete absence of 1: 50,000 scale topographic maps or their equivalent. The largest (both in terms of scale and quantity) and best - known topographic series is the 7.5 - minute or 1: 24,000 quadrangle. This scale is unique to the United States, where nearly every other developed nation has introduced a metric 1: 25,000 or 1: 50,000 large scale topo map. The USGS also publishes 1: 100,000 maps covering 30 minutes latitude by one degree longitude, 1: 250,000 covering one by two degrees, and state maps at 1: 500,000 with California, Michigan and Montana needing two sheets while Texas has four. Alaska is mapped on a single sheet, at scales ranging from 1: 1,584,000 to 1: 12,000,000.
The Mount Marcy area of New York State in 1892 in a 15 - minute quadrangle at 1: 62,500.
The same area about a century later (1979) in a 7.5 - by 15 - minute metric map at 1: 25,000.
Recent USGS digital US Topo 1: 24,000 topo maps based on the National Map omit several important geographic details that were featured in the original USGS topographic map series (1945 - 1992). Examples of omitted details and features include power transmission lines, telephone lines, railroads, recreational trails, pipelines, survey marks, and buildings. For many of these feature classes, the USGS is working with other agencies to develop data or adapt existing data on missing details that will be included in The National Map and to US Topo. In other areas USGS digital map revisions may omit geographic features such as ruins, mine locations, springs, wells, and even trails in an effort to protect natural resources and the public at large, or because such features are not present in any public domain database.
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what was the name of simpson's donkey | John Simpson Kirkpatrick - wikipedia
World War I
John (Jack) Kirkpatrick Simpson (6 July 1892 -- 19 May 1915), who served under the name John Simpson, was a stretcher bearer with the 1st Australian Division during the Gallipoli Campaign in World War I. After landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915, Simpson began to use donkeys to provide first aid and carry wounded soldiers to the beach, for evacuation. Simpson and the donkeys continued this work for three and a half weeks, often under fire, until he was killed, during the Third attack on Anzac Cove. "Simpson and his Donkey '' are a part of the "Anzac legend ''.
Simpson was born on 6 July 1892 in Eldon Street, Tyne Dock, South Shields, County Durham, England, to Scottish parents: Sarah Kirkpatrick (née Simpson) and Robert Kirkpatrick. He was one of eight children, and worked with donkeys as a youth, during summer holidays. He attended Barnes Road Junior School and later Mortimer Road Senior School.
At 16 he volunteered to train as a gunner in the Territorial Force, as British Army reserve units were collectively known at the time, and in early 1909 he joined the British merchant navy.
In May 1910, Simpson deserted his ship at Newcastle, New South Wales, and then travelled widely in Australia, taking on various jobs, such as cane - cutting in Queensland and coal mining in the Illawarra district of New South Wales. In the three or so years leading up to the outbreak of World War I, he worked as a steward, stoker and greaser on Australian coastal ships.
Simpson held, or developed, left wing political views while he worked in Australia and wrote, in a letter to his mother: "I often wonder when the working men of England will wake up and see things as other people see them. What they want in England is a good revolution and that will clear some of these Millionaires and lords and Dukes out of it and then with a Labour Government they will almost be able to make their own conditions. '' According to former union leader Alf Rankin, there is anecdotal evidence that Simpson belonged to the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or "Wobblies ''), a radical international labour union, although this has never been confirmed by historical documents or other sources.
Simpson enlisted in the Australian Army after the outbreak of war, apparently as a means of returning to England, He enlisted as "John Simpson '', and may have dropped his real surname to avoid being identified as a ship deserter. Simpson enlisted as a field ambulance stretcher bearer, a role only given to physically strong men, on 23 August 1914 at Swan Barracks, Francis Street, in Perth, and undertook training at Blackboy Hill Training Camp. He was assigned to the 3rd Australian Field Ambulance and the regimental number 202.
Simpson landed on the Gallipoli Peninsula on 25 April 1915 with the 3rd Field Ambulance as part of the 1st Australian Division. In the early hours of the following day, as he was bearing a wounded comrade on his shoulders, he spotted a donkey and quickly began making use of it to carry his fellow soldiers. Simpson would sing and whistle, seeming to ignore the bullets flying through the air, while he tended to his comrades.
He used at least five different donkeys, known as "Duffy No. 1 '', "Duffy No. 2 '', "Murphy '', "Queen Elizabeth '' and "Abdul '' at Gallipoli; some of the donkeys were killed and / or wounded in action. He and the donkeys soon became a familiar sight to the Anzacs, many of whom knew Simpson by the nicknames such as "Scotty '' (in reference to his ancestry) and "Simmy ''. Simpson himself was also sometimes referred to as "Murphy ''. Other Anzac stretcher bearers began to emulate Simpson 's use of the donkeys.
Colonel (later General) John Monash wrote: "Private Simpson and his little beast earned the admiration of everyone at the upper end of the valley. They worked all day and night throughout the whole period since the landing, and the help rendered to the wounded was invaluable. Simpson knew no fear and moved unconcernedly amid shrapnel and rifle fire, steadily carrying out his self - imposed task day by day, and he frequently earned the applause of the personnel for his many fearless rescues of wounded men from areas subject to rifle and shrapnel fire. ''
Other contemporary accounts of Simpson at Gallipoli speak of his bravery and invaluable service in bringing wounded down from the heights above Anzac Cove through Shrapnel and Monash gullies. However, his donkey service spared him the even more dangerous and arduous work of hauling seriously wounded men back from the front lines on a stretcher.
On 19 May 1915, during the Third attack on Anzac Cove, Simpson was killed by machine gun fire. He was survived by his mother and sister, who were still living in South Shields. He was buried at the Beach Cemetery.
Soon after his death, Simpson was being conflated with at least one other stretcher bearer using a donkey around Anzac Cove, Dick Henderson, of the New Zealand Medical Corps (NZMC). Henderson said later that he had taken over one of Simpson 's donkeys, known as "Murphy ''.
An iconic image (right) of Dick Henderson, a stretcher bearer in the New Zealand Medical Corps (NZMC) with a donkey at Gallipoli, has often been wrongly assumed to portray John Simpson Kirkpatrick. The image originated in a photograph taken by Sergeant James G. Jackson of the NZMC on 12 May 1915 (a week before Simpson 's death). The image became famous after Horace Moore - Jones, a New Zealand artist, who had been a member of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force at Gallipoli, painted at least six versions of it. Following the death of Simpson, Henderson continued to rescue wounded soldiers from the battlefield and was later awarded the Military Medal. Moore - Jones ' paintings have usually been referred to by titles such as Private Simpson, D.C.M., & his donkey at Anzac and / or The Man with the Donkey. Many derivatives of the image, including sculptures, have appeared and a variation of it was included on three postage stamps issued in Australia in 1965 to mark the 50th anniversary of Gallipoli -- on the five penny, eight penny and two shillngs and three pence stamps.
The legend surrounding Simpson, sometimes under the misnomer "Murphy '' grew largely from an account of his actions published in a 1916 book, Glorious Deeds of Australasians in the Great War. This was a wartime propaganda effort, and many of its stories of Simpson, supposedly rescuing 300 men and making dashes into no man 's land to carry wounded out on his back, are demonstrably untrue. In fact, transporting that many men down to the beach in the three weeks that he was at Gallipoli would have been a physical impossibility, given the time the journey took. However, the stories presented in the book were widely and uncritically accepted by many people, including the authors of some subsequent books on Simpson.
A silent film based on Simpson 's exploits, Murphy of Anzac, was released in 1916.
In 1965, in the lead up to the fiftieth anniversary of Gallipoli, there were calls for a commemorative medal for veterans of the Gallipoli campaign and / or the award of a late Victoria Cross to Simpson. Both proposals were rejected by the Australian Federal Government in 1965. In January 1966, Robert Menzies who had been Prime Minister of Australia since 1949 retired and was replaced by Harold Holt. The new government soon announced that Australia would present to Australian Army and Royal Australian Navy veterans of the Gallipoli campaign in 1915, an Anzac Commemorative Medal. Both living veterans and next of kin of deceased veterans could apply for the medallion but only living veterans would received a lapel badge. The first medallions were issued to Gallipoli veterans shortly before Anzac Day 1967. The medallion and lapel badge featured Simpson and his donkey. They were also portrayed on a series of Anzac postage stamps issued on April 14, 1965.
In 1977, a donkey "joined '' the Royal Australian Army Medical Corps, under the name "Jeremy Jeremiah Simpson '', with the rank of Private and the regimental number MA 0090. In 1986, this particular donkey was permanently adopted as the official mascot of the corps.
Simpson featured in an episode of the television show Michael Willessee 's Australians in the late 1980s. At least two songs have been written about him: "John Simpson Kirkpatrick '' by Issy and David Emeney with Kate Riaz, on the album Legends and Lovers, and "Jackie and Murphy '' by Martin Simpson on the album Vagrant Stanzas.
The Australian RSPCA, in May 1997 posthumously awarded its Purple Cross to the donkey Murphy for performing outstanding acts of bravery towards humans.
In 2011, a play by Valerie Laws entitled ' The Man and the Donkey ' premiered at the Customs House in South Shields. The part of John Simpson Kirkpatrick was played by local actor Jamie Brown.
On 19 May 2015, the Australian High Commissioner, the Hon. Alexander Downer A.C., visited South Shields as part of special celebrations marking 100 years to the day that John Simpson Kirkpatrick was killed in action.
There have been several petitions over the decades to have Simpson awarded a Victoria Cross (VC) or a Victoria Cross for Australia. There is a persistent myth that he was recommended for a VC, but that this was either refused or mishandled by the military bureaucracy. However, there is no documentary evidence that such a recommendation was ever made. The case for Simpson being awarded a VC is based on diary entries by his commanding officer that express the hope he would receive either a Distinguished Conduct Medal or VC. However, the officer in question never made a formal recommendation for either of these medals. Simpson 's Mention in Despatches was consistent with the recognition given to other men who performed the same role at Gallipoli.
In April 2011, the Australian Government announced that Simpson would be one of thirteen servicemen examined in an inquiry into "Unresolved Recognition for Past Acts of Naval and Military Gallantry and Valour ''. The tribunal for this inquiry was directed to make recommendations on the awarding of decorations, including the Victoria Cross. Concluding its investigations in February 2013, the tribunal recommended that no further award be made to Simpson, since his "initiative and bravery were representative of all other stretcher - bearers of 3rd Field Ambulance, and that bravery was appropriately recognised as such by the award of an MID. ''
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la liga all time top scorers and assists | Football records in Spain - wikipedia
This page details football records in Spain. Unless otherwise stated, records are taken from Primera División or La Liga. This page also include records from the Spanish domestic cup competition or Copa del Rey.
Records in this section refer to La Liga from its founding in 1929 through to the present.
Players in Bold are still active.
Three or more goals in a single match. For the complete list of hat - tricks see List of La Liga hat - tricks.
Players in bold are still active
Players with at least 10 hat - tricks are shown in this table.
Source: BDFútbol
Bold player name denotes current season.
Bold player name denotes current season.
Top 5 longest goalkeeping runs without conceding a goal, all - time (Primera División only)
Top 10 most appearances, all - time (Primera División)
Players in bold are still active
Top 5 most appearances, still active (Primera División)
Coaches with most matches managed
Coaches in bold are still active in Primera Division
Records in this section refers to Copa del Rey from its founding in 1902 through to the present.
The following table includes official Spanish, European and worldwide competitions organized respectively by RFEF, UEFA and FIFA since 1903.
(Sorted by overall titles. Use sorting button to change criteria.)
The figures in bold represent the most times this competition has been won by a Spanish team.
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which countries in europe are not part of the eu | Member state of the European Union - wikipedia
The European Union (EU) consists of 28 member states. Each member state is party to the founding treaties of the union and thereby subject to the privileges and obligations of membership. Unlike members of most international organisations, the member states of the EU are subjected to binding laws in exchange for representation within the common legislative and judicial institutions. Member states must agree unanimously for the EU to adopt policies concerning defence and foreign affairs. Subsidiarity is a founding principle of the EU.
In 1957, six core states founded the EU 's predecessor, the European Economic Community (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany). The remaining states have acceded in subsequent enlargements. On 1 July 2013, Croatia became the newest member state of the EU. In order to accede, a state must fulfill the economic and political requirements known as the Copenhagen criteria, which require a candidate to have a democratic, free market government together with the corresponding freedoms and institutions, and respect for the rule of law. Enlargement of the Union is also contingent upon the consent of all existing members and the candidate 's adoption of the existing body of EU law, known as the acquis communautaire.
There is disparity in the size, wealth and political system of member states, but all have equal rights. While in some areas majority voting takes place where larger states have more votes than smaller ones, smaller states have disproportional representation compared to their population. No member state has withdrawn or been suspended from the EU, though some dependent territories or semi-autonomous areas have left. In June 2016, the United Kingdom held a referendum on membership of the EU, resulting in 51.89 % of votes cast in favour to leaving. Prime Minister Theresa May invoked Article 50 on 29 March 2017 to formally initiate the withdrawal process.
According to the Copenhagen criteria, membership of the European Union is open to any European country that is a stable, free market liberal democracy that respects the rule of law and human rights. Furthermore, it has to be willing to accept all the obligations of membership, such as adopting all previously agreed law (the 170,000 pages of acquis communautaire) and switching to the euro. In order to join the European Union, it is required for all member states to agree; if a single member state disagrees, the applying country is declined acceptance to the European Union. In addition to enlargement by adding new countries, the EU can also expand by having territories of member states, which are outside the EU, integrate more closely (for example in respect to the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles) or by a territory of a member state which had previously seceded and then rejoined (see withdrawal below).
Enlargement is, and has been, a principal feature of the Union 's political landscape. The EU 's predecessors were founded by the "Inner Six '', those countries willing to forge ahead with the Community while others remained skeptical. It was only a decade before the first countries changed their policy and attempted to join the Union, which led to the first skepticism of enlargement. French President Charles de Gaulle feared British membership would be an American Trojan horse and vetoed its application. It was only after de Gaulle left office and a 12 - hour talk by British Prime Minister Edward Heath and French President Georges Pompidou took place that the United Kingdom 's third application succeeded in 1970.
Applying in 1969 were the United Kingdom, Ireland, Denmark, and Norway. Norway, however, declined to accept the invitation to become a member when the electorate voted against it, leaving just the UK, Ireland and Denmark to join. But despite the setbacks, and the withdrawal of Greenland from Denmark 's membership in 1985, three more countries joined the Communities before the end of the Cold War. In 1987, the geographical extent of the project was tested when Morocco applied, and was rejected as it was not considered a European country.
The year 1990 saw the Cold War drawing to a close, and East Germany was welcomed into the Community as part of a reunited Germany. Shortly after, the previously neutral countries of Austria, Finland and Sweden acceded to the new European Union, though Switzerland, which applied in 1992, froze its application due to opposition from voters while Norway, which had applied once more, had its voters reject membership again. Meanwhile, the members of the former Eastern Bloc and Yugoslavia were all starting to move towards EU membership. Ten of these joined in a major enlargement on 1 May 2004 symbolising the unification of East and Western Europe in the EU. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007.
This article is part of a series on the politics and government of the European Union
President Juncker (EPP)
Secretary - General Italianer
President Tajani (EPP)
Presidency
President Draghi
President Tusk (EPP)
The year 2013 saw the latest member, Croatia, accede to the Union, and the EU has prioritised membership for the rest of the Balkans -- namely Western Balkans. Albania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey are all formally acknowledged as candidates. Turkish membership, pending since the 1980s, is a more contentious issue but it entered negotiations in 2005. Relations between the EU and Turkey are strained after several incidents, mostly concerning the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt and the Turkish referendum, both of which resulting in the 2016 -- 17 purges in Turkey, resulting in the European Parliament asking for suspending membership talks. The still ongoing Cyprus dispute is the other major hurdle concerning Turkish membership.
Additionally, Bosnia and Kosovo are recognized as potential candidates for membership.
Each state has representation in the institutions of the European Union. Full membership gives the government of a member state a seat in the Council of the European Union and European Council. When decisions are not being taken by consensus, votes are weighted so that a country with a greater population has more votes within the Council than a smaller country (though the number of votes in relation to population is weighted disproportionately in favour of smaller member states). The Presidency of the Council of the European Union rotates between each of the member states, allowing each state six months to help direct the agenda of the EU.
Similarly, each state is assigned seats in Parliament according to their population (again, with the smaller countries receiving more seats per inhabitant than the larger ones). The members of the European Parliament have been elected by universal suffrage since 1979 (before that, they were seconded from national parliaments).
The national governments appoint one member each to the European Commission (in accord with its president), the European Court of Justice (in accord with other members) and the European Court of Auditors. Historically, larger member states were granted an extra Commissioner. However, as the body grew, this right has been removed and each state is represented equally. The six largest states are also granted an Advocates General in the Court of Justice. Finally, the Governing Council of the European Central Bank includes the governors of the national central banks (who may or may not be government appointed) of each euro area country.
The larger states traditionally carry more weight in negotiations, however smaller states can be effective impartial mediators and citizens of smaller states are often appointed to sensitive top posts to avoid competition between the larger states. This, together with the disproportionate representation of the smaller states in terms of votes and seats in parliament, gives the smaller EU states a greater clout than normally attributed to a state of their size. However most negotiations are still dominated by the larger states. This has traditionally been largely through the "Franco - German motor '' but Franco - German influence has diminished slightly following the influx of new members in 2004 (see G6).
While the member states are sovereign, the union partially follows a supranational system that is comparable to federalism. Previously limited to European Community matters, the practice, known as the "community method '', is currently used in most areas of policy. Combined sovereignty is delegated by each member to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions. This practice is often referred to as "pooling of sovereignty ''. Those institutions are then empowered to make laws and execute them at a European level.
If a state fails to comply with the law of the European Union, it may be fined or have funds withdrawn.
In contrast to other organisations, the EU 's style of integration has "become a highly developed system for mutual interference in each other 's domestic affairs ''. However, on defence and foreign policy issues (and, pre-Lisbon Treaty, police and judicial matters) less sovereignty is transferred, with issues being dealt with by unanimity and cooperation. Very early on in the history of the EU, the unique state of its establishment and pooling of sovereignty was emphasised by the Court of Justice:
By creating a Community of unlimited duration, having its own institutions, its own personality, its own legal capacity and capacity of representation on the international plane and, more particularly, real powers stemming from a limitation of sovereignty or a transfer of powers from the States to Community, the Member States have limited their sovereign rights and have thus created a body of law which binds both their nationals and themselves... The transfer by the States from their domestic legal system to the Community legal system of the rights and obligations arising under the Treaty carries with it a permanent limitation of their sovereign rights.
Yet, as sovereignty still originates from the national level, it may be withdrawn by a member state who wishes to leave. Hence, if a law is agreed that is not to the liking of a state, it may withdraw from the EU to avoid it. This however has not happened as the benefits of membership are often seen to outweigh the potentially negative impact of a specific law.
The question of whether EU law is superior to national law is subject to some debate. The treaties do not give a judgement on the matter but court judgements have established EU 's law superiority over national law and it is affirmed in a declaration attached to the Treaty of Lisbon (the European Constitution would have fully enshrined this). Some national legal systems also explicitly accept the Court of Justice 's interpretation, such as France and Italy, however in Poland it does not override the national constitution, which it does in Germany. The exact areas where the member states have given legislative competence to the EU are as follows. Every area not mentioned remains with member states.
As a result of the European sovereign debt crisis, some eurozone states required a bailout from the EU via the European Financial Stability Facility and European Financial Stability Mechanism (to be replaced by the European Stability Mechanism from 2013). In exchange for their bailout, Greece was required to accept a large austerity plan including privatisations and a sell off of state assets. In order to ensure that Greece complies with the EU 's demands, a "large - scale technical assistance '' from the European Commission and other member states has been deployed to Greek government ministries. Some, including the President of the Euro Group Jean - Claude Juncker, state that "the sovereignty of Greece will be massively limited. '' The situation of the bailed out countries (Greece, Portugal and Ireland) has been described as being a ward or protectorate of the EU with some such as the Netherlands calling for a formalisation of the situation.
A number of states are less integrated into the EU than others. In most cases this is because those states have gained an opt - out from a certain policy area. The most notable is the opt - out from the Economic and Monetary Union, the adoption of the euro as sole legal currency. Most states outside the Eurozone are obliged to adopt the euro when they are ready, but Denmark and the United Kingdom have obtained the right to retain their own independent currencies.
Ireland and the United Kingdom also do not participate in the Schengen Agreement, which eliminates internal EU border checks. Denmark has an opt out from the Common Security and Defence Policy; Denmark, Ireland and the UK have an opt - out on police and justice matters and Poland and the UK have an opt out from the Charter of Fundamental Rights.
There are a number of overseas member state territories which are legally part of the EU, but have certain exemptions based on their remoteness. These "outermost regions '' have partial application of EU law and in some cases are outside of Schengen or the EU VAT area -- however they are legally within the EU. They all use the euro as their currency.
Entry to the EU is limited to liberal democracies and Freedom House ranks all EU states as being totally free electoral democracies. All but 4 are ranked at the top 1.0 rating. However, the exact political system of a state is not limited, with each state having its own system based on its historical evolution.
Half of member states -- 14 out of 28 -- are parliamentary republics, while seven states are constitutional monarchies, meaning they have a monarch although political powers are exercised by elected politicians. Most republics and all the monarchies operate a parliamentary system whereby the head of state (president or monarch) has a largely ceremonial role with reserve powers. That means most power is in the hands of what is called in most of those countries the prime minister, who is accountable to the national parliament. Of the remaining republics, five operate a semi-presidential system, where competencies are shared between the president and prime minister, while one republic operates a presidential system, where the president is head of state and government.
The EU is divided between unicameral (single chamber) and bicameral (dual chamber) parliaments, with 15 unicameral national parliaments and 13 bicameral parliaments. The prime minister and government are usually directly accountable to the directly elected lower house and require its support to stay in office -- the exception being Cyprus with its presidential system. Upper houses are composed differently in different member states: it can be directly elected like the Polish senate, indirectly elected, for example, by regional legislatures like the Federal Council of Austria, unelected, but representing certain interest groups like the National Council of Slovenia, unelected (though by and large appointed by elected officials) as a remnant of a non-democratic political system in earlier times (as in the House of Lords in the United Kingdom). Most (though not all) elections in the EU use some form of proportional representation. The most common type of proportional representation is the party - list system.
There are also differences in the level of self - governance for the sub-regions of a member state. Most states, especially the smaller ones, are unitary states; meaning all major political power is concentrated at the national level. 10 states allocate power to more local levels of government. Austria, Belgium and Germany are full federations, meaning their regions have constitutional autonomies. Denmark, Finland, France and the Netherlands are federacies, meaning some regions have autonomy but most do not. Spain and Italy have system of devolution where regions have autonomy, but the national government retains the right to revoke it. The United Kingdom has a system of asymmetric devolution, whereby Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland enjoy a degree of self - government.
States such as France have a number of overseas territories, retained from their former empires. Some of these territories such as French Guiana are part of the EU (see outermost regions, above) while others are related to the EU or outside it, such as the Falkland Islands.
The Lisbon Treaty made the first provision of a member state to leave. The procedure for a state to leave is outlined in TEU Article 50 which also makes clear that "Any Member State may decide to withdraw from the Union in accordance with its own constitutional requirements ''. Although it calls for a negotiated withdrawal between the seceding state and the rest of the EU, if no agreement is reached two years after the seceding state notifying of its intention to leave, it would cease to be subject to the treaties anyway (thus ensuring a right to unilateral withdrawal). There is no formal limit to how much time a member state can take between adopting a policy of withdrawal, and actually triggering Article 50.
In a non-binding referendum in June 2016 the United Kingdom voted to withdraw from the EU. Termed "Brexit '', this has become government policy under Prime Minister Theresa May. UK government triggered Article 50 on 29 March 2017. Once triggered, formal talks could begin but there is no certainty of a deal and some EU officials are preparing to deal with a situation where no deal is reached after the two - year limit.
Prior to 2016, no member state had ever voted to withdraw. However Greenland, as a territory, did leave the EU in 1985 when gaining home rule from a member state (Denmark). The situation of Greenland being outside the EU while still subject to an EU member state had been discussed as a template for the pro-EU regions of the UK remaining within the EU or its single market.
Beyond the formal withdrawal of a member state, there are a number of independence movements such as Catalonia or Flanders which could result in a similar situation to Greenland. Were a territory of a member state to secede but wish to remain in the EU, some scholars claim it would need to reapply to join as if it were a new country applying from scratch. However, other studies claim internal enlargement is legally viable if, in case of a member state dissolution or secession, the resulting states are all considered successor states. There is also a European Citizens ' Initiative that aims at guaranteeing the continuity of rights and obligations of the European citizens belonging to a new state arising from the democratic secession of a European Union member state.
TEU Article 7 provides for the suspension of certain rights of a member state. Introduced in the Treaty of Amsterdam, Article 7 outlines that if a member persistently breaches the EU 's founding principles (liberty, democracy, human rights and so forth, outlined in TEU Article 2) then the European Council can vote to suspend any rights of membership, such as voting and representation as outlined above. Identifying the breach requires unanimity (excluding the state concerned), but sanctions require only a qualified majority.
The state in question would still be bound by the obligations treaties and the Council acting by majority may alter or lift such sanctions. The Treaty of Nice included a preventative mechanism whereby the Council, acting by majority, may identify a potential breach and make recommendations to the state to rectify it before action is taken against it as outlined above. However the treaties do not provide any mechanism to expel a member state outright.
There are a number of countries with strong links with the EU, similar to elements of membership. Following Norway 's decision not to join the EU, it remained one of the members of the European Economic Area which also includes Iceland and Liechtenstein (all former members have joined the EU, and Switzerland rejected membership). The EEA links these countries into the EU 's market, extending the four freedoms to these states. In return, they pay a membership fee and have to adopt most areas of EU law (which they do not have direct impact in shaping). The democratic repercussions of this have been described as "fax democracy '' (waiting for new laws to be faxed in from Brussels rather than being involved in drafting them).
A different example is Bosnia and Herzegovina, which has been under international supervision. The High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina is an international administrator who has wide - ranging powers over Bosnia and Herzegovina to ensure the peace agreement is respected. The High Representative is also the EU 's representative, and is in practice appointed by the EU. In this role, and since a major ambition of Bosnia and Herzegovina is to join the EU, the country has become a de facto protectorate of the EU. The EU appointed representative has the power to impose legislation and dismiss elected officials and civil servants, meaning the EU has greater direct control over Bosnia and Herzegovina than its own states. Indeed, the state 's flag was inspired by the EU 's flag.
In the same manner as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo is under heavy EU influence, particularly after the de facto transfer from UN to EU authority. In theory Kosovo is supervised by EU missions, with justice and policing personal training and helping to build up the state institutions. However the EU mission does enjoy certain executive powers over the state and has a responsibility to maintain stability and order. Like Bosnia, Kosovo has been termed an "EU protectorate ''.
However, there is also the largely defunct term of associate member. It has occasionally been applied to states which have signed an association agreement with the EU. Associate membership is not a formal classification and does not entitle the state to any of the representation of free movement rights that full membership allows. The term is almost unheard of in the modern context and was primarily used in the earlier days of the EU with countries such as Greece and Turkey. Turkey 's association agreement was the 1963 Ankara Agreement, implying that Turkey became an associate member that year. Present association agreements include the Stabilisation and Association Agreements with the western Balkans; these states are no longer termed "associate members ''.
Greenland (Greenland Treaty)
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when did the supreme court say speech would be more dangerous to the country | Schenck v. United States - wikipedia
Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919), is a United States Supreme Court case concerning enforcement of the Espionage Act of 1917 during World War I. A unanimous Supreme Court, in an opinion by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., concluded that defendants who distributed fliers to draft - age men, urging resistance to induction, could be convicted of an attempt to obstruct the draft, a criminal offense. The First Amendment did not alter the well - established law in cases where the attempt was made through expressions that would be protected in other circumstances. In this opinion, Holmes said that expressions which in the circumstances were intended to result in a crime, and posed a "clear and present danger '' of succeeding, could be punished.
The Court did n't continue to follow this reasoning to uphold a series of convictions arising out of prosecutions during wartime, but Holmes began to dissent in the case of Abrams v. United States, insisting that the Court had departed from the standard he had crafted for them, and had begun to allow punishment for ideas. But the Court has set another line of precedents to govern cases in which the constitutionality of a statute is challenged on its face.
Schenck v. United States was the first in a line of Supreme Court Cases defining the modern understanding of the First Amendment. Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. wrote the often - cited opinion in the case, because of events that were not publicly known at the time. The United States ' entry into the First World War had caused deep divisions in society, and was vigorously opposed, especially by those on the radical left and by those who had ties to Ireland or Germany. The Woodrow Wilson Administration launched a broad campaign of criminal enforcement that resulted in thousands of prosecutions. Many of these were for trivial acts of dissent. In the first case arising from this campaign to come to the Court, Baltzer v. United States, the defendants had signed a petition criticizing their governor 's administration of the draft, threatening him with defeat at the polls. They were charged with obstructing the recruitment and enlistment service, and convicted. When a majority of the Court voted during their conference to affirm the conviction, Holmes quickly drafted and circulated a strongly worded dissenting opinion:
Real obstructions of the law, giving real aid and comfort to the enemy, I should have been glad to see punished more summarily and severely than they sometimes were. But I think that our intention to put out all our powers in aid of success in war should not hurry us into intolerance of opinions and speech that could not be imagined to do harm, although opposed to our own. It is better for those who have unquestioned and almost unlimited power in their hands to err on the side of freedom.
Rather than proceed in the face of Holmes 's biting dissent, Chief Justice Edward Douglass White set the case aside and word of the situation evidently reached the Administration, because the prosecution was abandoned. White then asked Holmes to write the opinion for a unanimous Court in the next case, one in which they could agree, Schenck v. United States. Holmes wrote that opinion, and wrote again for a unanimous court upholding convictions in two more cases that spring, Frohwerk v. United States and Debs v. United States, establishing what remains the standard for deciding the constitutionality of criminal convictions based on expressive behavior. Holmes disliked legislative - style formulas, and did not repeat the language of "clear and present danger '' in any subsequent opinion, however. The Schenck opinion alone accordingly is often cited as the source of this legal standard, and some scholars have suggested that Holmes changed his mind and offered a different view in his equally famous dissent in Abrams v. United States. The events leading to the assignment of the Schenck opinion to Holmes were discovered when Holmes 's biographer Sheldon Novick unearthed the unpublished Baltzer opinion among Holmes 's papers at Harvard Law School.
The facts of the Schenck Case were as follows. Charles Schenck and Elizabeth Baer were members of the Executive Committee of the Socialist Party in Philadelphia, of which Schenck was General Secretary. The executive committee authorized, and Schenck oversaw, printing and mailing more than 15,000 fliers to men slated for conscription during World War I. The fliers urged men not to submit to the draft, saying "Do not submit to intimidation '', "Assert your rights '', "If you do not assert and support your rights, you are helping to deny or disparage rights which it is the solemn duty of all citizens and residents of the United States to retain, '' and urged men not to comply with the draft on the grounds that military conscription constituted involuntary servitude, which is prohibited by the Thirteenth Amendment.
After jury trials Schenck and Baer were convicted of violating Section 3 of the Espionage Act of 1917. Both defendants appealed to the United States Supreme Court, arguing that their conviction, and the statute which purported to authorize it, were contrary to the First Amendment. They relied heavily on the text of the First Amendment, and their claim that the Espionage Act of 1917 had what today one would call a "chilling effect '' on free discussion of the war effort.
The Court, in a unanimous opinion written by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., held that Schenck 's criminal conviction was constitutional. The statute only applied to successful obstructions of the draft, but common - law precedents allowed prosecution for attempts that were dangerously close to success. Attempts made by speech or writing could be punished like other attempted crimes; the First Amendment did not protect speech encouraging men to resist induction, because, "when a nation is at war, many things that might be said in time of peace are such a hindrance to its effort that their utterance will not be endured so long as men fight, and that no Court could regard them as protected by any constitutional right. '' In other words, the court held, the circumstances of wartime allow greater restrictions on free speech than would be allowed during peacetime, if only because new and greater dangers are present.
The opinion 's most famous and most often quoted passage was this:
The phrase "shouting fire in a crowded theater '' has since become a popular metaphor for dangers or limitations of free speech.
In subsequent cases, when it appeared to him that the Court was departing from the precedents established in Schenck and companion cases, Holmes dissented, reiterating his view that expressions of honest opinion were entitled to near absolute protection, but that expressions made with the specific intent to cause a criminal harm, or that threatened a clear and present danger of such harm, could be punished. In Abrams v. United States, he elaborated on the common - law privileges for freedom of speech and of the press, and stated his conviction that freedom of opinion was central to the constitutional scheme because competition in the "marketplace '' of ideas was the best test of their truth. In Whitney v. California (1927), concerning a conviction for seditious speech forbidden by California law, Holmes joined a concurring opinion written by Justice Louis D. Brandeis once again explaining the clear - and - present - danger standard for criminal attempts in these terms, reiterating the argument that political speech was protected because of the value of democratic deliberation. The Supreme Court continued to affirm convictions for seditious speech in a series of prosecutions of leftists, however, culminating in Dennis v. United States, 341 U.S. 494 (1951) in which a bitterly divided Court upheld the sedition convictions for the leaders of the Communist Party. Judge Learned Hand in the court below and Chief Justice Vinson for the plurality in the Supreme Court cited Schenck, and the language of "clear and present danger '' accordingly fell into disfavor among the advocates of free speech and freedom of the press.
A unanimous Court in a brief per curiam opinion (Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)) abandoned the disfavored language while seemingly applying the reasoning of Schenck to reverse the conviction of a Ku Klux Klan member prosecuted for giving an inflammatory speech. The Court now said that speech could be prosecuted only when it posed a danger of "imminent lawless action, '' a formulation which is sometimes said to reflect Holmes reasoning as more fully explicated in his Abrams dissent, rather than the common law of attempts explained in Schenck. Brandenburg is also taken to have repudiated the clear - and - present - danger standard as construed in Dennis, and to have adopted something more like the explication given by Holmes and Brandeis in subsequent opinions. Partly because the standard for protecting expressive behavior under the First Amendment was stated differently in his different opinions, "revisionist '' scholars have argued that Holmes changed his mind in the summer of 1919, and that after writing three opinions for a unanimous court, he stated a different and more liberal view in his Abrams dissent a few weeks later. Bolstered by this argument, a number of advocates for freedom of expression have insisted that the Supreme Court has rejected Schenck and the majority opinion in Abrams, and in practice has followed the reasoning of Holmes ' Abrams dissent and Brandeis ' and Holmes ' concurring opinion in Whitney. The Court has repeatedly reaffirmed Schenck, however, holding that the destruction of a draft card could be prosecuted as a violation of Selective Service regulations even though carried out as a protest (United States v. O'Brien), but that burning an American flag at a protest could not be prosecuted because it posed no danger of causing a harm that the legislature had power to forbid (Texas v. Johnson).
In 2010, the Supreme Court rejected the argument of Holmes 's Abrams dissent. The facts in Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project were similar to those in Abrams: persons who planned to advocate the causes of Sri Lankan and Kurdish organizations, designated terrorist groups, had a reasonable fear of prosecution under the USA PATRIOT Act, 18 U.S.C. Section 2339B, for providing material support for terrorist organizations. The Supreme Court held that such prosecutions were not barred by the First Amendment, expressly rejecting the argument that a "specific intent '' to assist terrorist acts was required, rejecting also the claim of the dissenting justices that the case was governed by the concurrence in Whitney, or by the standard stated in Brandenburg. Finally, in Citizens United v. FEC, the majority of the Court rejected the argument made by the dissenters that the First Amendment was premised on the value of democratic deliberation in the "marketplace of ideas. '' Instead, they held that First Amendment rights are individual, not based on communitarian considerations.
As the precedents stand at present, therefore, it appears that Schenck is still good law. Criminal attempts may be prosecuted even if carried out solely through expressive behavior, and a majority of the justices continue to view such prosecutions in the light of the majority opinion in Abrams: the Court will defer to legislative judgments, at least in national security matters, that some forms of political advocacy may be prosecuted.
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the river separates india as north and south | Geography of South India - Wikipedia
The Geography of South India comprises the diverse topological and climatic patterns of South India. South India is a peninsula in the shape of a vast inverted triangle, bounded on the west by the Arabian Sea, on the east by the Bay of Bengal and on the north by the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The line created by the Narmada River and Mahanadi river is the traditional boundary between northern and southern India. Technically all Indian territories below the 20th Parallel.
The Satpura ranges define the northern spur of the Deccan plateau, one of the main geographic features of South India. The Western Ghats, along the western coast, mark another boundary of the plateau. The narrow strip of verdant land between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is the Konkan region; the term encompasses the area south of the Narmada as far as Goa.
The Western Ghats continue south, forming the Malnad (Canara) region along the Karnataka coast, and terminate at the Nilgiri mountains, an inward (easterly) extension of the Western Ghats. The Nilgiris run in a crescent approximately along the borders of Tamil Nadu with northern Kerala and Karnataka, encompassing the Palakkad and Wayanad hills, and the Satyamangalam ranges, and extending on to the relatively low - lying hills of the Eastern Ghats, on the western portion of the Tamil Nadu -- Andhra Pradesh border. The Tirupati and Anaimalai hills form part of this range.
The Deccan plateau, covering the major portion of the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, is the vast elevated region bound by the C - shape defined by all these mountain ranges. No major elevations border the plateau to the east, and it slopes gently from the Western Ghats to the eastern coast.
India is entirely contained on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formed when it split off from the ancient continent Gondwanaland. About 90 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous Period, the Indian Plate began moving north at about 15 cm / yr (6 in / yr).
The vast volcanic basalt beds of the Deccan were laid down in the massive Deccan Traps eruption, which occurred towards the end of the Cretaceous period, between 67 and 66 million years ago. Some paleontologists speculate that this eruption may have accelerated the extinction of the dinosaurs. Layer after layer was formed by the volcanic activity that lasted many thousands of years, and when the volcanoes became extinct, they left a region of highlands with typically vast stretches of flat areas on top like a table. Hence it is also known as Table Top. The volcanic hotspot that produced the Deccan traps is hypothesized to lie under the present day island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean.
The region has a very (tropical climate) with the monsoons playing a major part. The southwest monsoon accounts for most of the rainfall in the region and much of it falls from about June to October. Tamil Nadu and southeast Andhra Pradesh receive rains from the northeast monsoon from about November to February. Much of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka has a distinct dry season from about October - May when there is not much rainfall. This region also experiences cooler nights from October to March while the days are pleasantly warm. In the northern parts of the region temperatures can fall below 10 degrees Celsius on occasions at night during this time. Days are very hot from March to June when temps can go over 40 degrees.
The five states of South India generally follow linguistic boundaries. In addition to these linguistic regions, South India has a number of overlapping traditional geographic regions. Some of these regions are:
The low - lying coral islands of Lakshadweep are off the south - western coast of India. Sri Lanka lies off the south - eastern coast, separated from India by the Palk Strait and the chain of low sandbars and islands known as Rama 's Bridge. The Andaman and Nicobar islands lie far off the eastern coast of India, near the Tenasserim coast of Burma. The southernmost tip of mainland India is at Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) on the Indian Ocean.
Rivers of South India are dependent on the monsoons and shrink during the dry season. The line created by the Narmada River and Mahanadi river is the traditional boundary between northern and southern India. The Narmada flows westwards in the depression between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The plateau is watered by the east flowing Godavari and Krishna rivers. The other major rivers of the Deccan plateau are the Pennar and the Tungabhadra, a major tributary of the Krishna.
The river Kaveri rises in the Western Ghats, in the Kodagu district of Karnataka and flows through the fertile Mandya, Mysore, Hassan regions before entering Tamil Nadu, where it forms an extensive and fertile delta on the east coast. The three major river deltas of South India, the Kaveri, the Godavari and the Krishna, are located along the Bay of Bengal. These areas constitute the rice bowls of South India. Rivers that flow westward, from the mountains to the Arabian Sea, include the Periyar River, Netravati River, Mandovi and Tapti River (or Tapi) rivers, and the Narmada at the northern edge of the region.
There is a large number and wide diversity of plants and animals in South India, resulting from its varied climates and geography. Tropical moist forests are found along the Arabian Sea coast and the Western Ghats. The Malabar Coast moist forests are found on the coastal plains. The South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests are found at intermediate elevations. The southern Western Ghats have high altitude rain forests called the South Western Ghats montane rain forests. The Western Ghats are a biodiversity hotspot.
Scrub lands, including the Deccan thorn scrub forests, are common in the interior Deccan plateau. Some of India 's famous protected areas are found in South India. These include Project Tiger reserves Periyar National Park, Kalakad - Mundanthurai and Nagarjunsagar - Srisailam Tiger Reserve. Important ecological regions of South India are the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, located at the conjunction of the borders of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the Nilgiri Hills including Mudumalai National Park, Bandipur National Park, Nagarhole National Park Silent Valley National Park, Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary and Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary and the Anamalai Hills including the Eravikulam National Park, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and the adjacent The Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park of the Western Ghats. Important bird sanctuaries including Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary, Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary, Nelapattu and Pulicat Sanctuary are home to numerous migratory and local birds. Other protected ecological sites include the backwaters like the Pulicat Lake in Andhra Pradesh, Pitchavaram in Tamil Nadu and the famed backwaters of Kerala formed by the Vembanad Lake, the Ashtamudi Lake and the Kayamkulam Lake.
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who sings the songs in beauty and the beast | Beauty and the Beast (2017 Soundtrack) - wikipedia
Beauty and the Beast: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack album to the 2017 film Beauty and the Beast. In the film, Belle is taken prisoner by a fearsome Beast in his enchanted castle and learns to look beyond his appearance while evading a narcissistic hunter who seeks to take Belle for himself.
The album, largely based on material from Disney 's 1991 animated version, features songs and instrumental score composed by Alan Menken with lyrics by Howard Ashman and three new songs composed by Alan Menken with lyrics by Tim Rice. The songs feature vocal performances by the film 's ensemble cast including Emma Watson, Dan Stevens, Luke Evans, Kevin Kline, Josh Gad, Ewan McGregor, Stanley Tucci, Audra McDonald, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Nathan Mack, Ian McKellen, and Emma Thompson.
All music composed by Alan Menken.
All lyrics written by Tim Rice; all music composed by Alan Menken.
All music composed by Alan Menken.
The album debuted at No. 3 on the Billboard 200 chart with 57,000 units, 48,000 of which are traditional album sales. It has sold 337,000 copies in the United States as of July 2017.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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was all the light of the ray refracted | Refraction - wikipedia
Refraction is the change in direction of wave propagation due to a change in its transmission medium.
The phenomenon is explained by the conservation of energy and the conservation of momentum. Owing to the change of medium, the phase velocity of the wave is changed but its frequency remains constant. This is most commonly observed when a wave passes from one medium to another at any angle other than 0 ° from the normal. Refraction of light is the most commonly observed phenomenon, but any type of wave can refract when it interacts with a medium, for example when sound waves pass from one medium into another or when water waves move into water of a different depth. Refraction follows Snell 's law, which states that, for a given pair of media and a wave with a single frequency, the ratio of the sines of the angle of incidence θ and angle of refraction θ is equivalent to the ratio of phase velocities (v / v) in the two media, or equivalently, to relative indices of refraction (n / n) of the two media. Epsilon (ε (\ displaystyle \ epsilon)) and mu (μ (\ displaystyle \ mu)) represent the dielectric constant and the magnetic moment of the different media:
In general, the incident wave is partially refracted and partially reflected (internal refraction); the details of this behavior are described by the Fresnel equations.
In optics, refraction is a phenomenon that often occurs when waves travel from a medium with a given refractive index to a medium with another at an oblique angle. At the boundary between the media, the wave 's phase velocity is altered, usually causing a change in direction. Its wavelength increases or decreases, but its frequency remains constant. For example, a light ray will refract as it enters and leaves glass, as there is a change in refractive index. A ray traveling along the normal (perpendicular to the boundary) will suffer change in speed, but not direction. Refraction still occurs in this case (by Snell 's Law as angle of incidence will be 0 °). Understanding of this concept led to the invention of lenses and the refracting telescope.
Refraction can be seen when looking into a bowl of water. Air has a refractive index of about 1.0003, and water has a refractive index of about 1.3333. If a person looks at a straight object, such as a pencil or straw, which is placed at a slant, partially in the water, the object appears to bend at the water 's surface. This is due to the bending of light rays as they move from the water to the air. Once the rays reach the eye, the eye traces them back as straight lines (lines of sight). The lines of sight (shown as dashed lines) intersect at a higher position than where the actual rays originated. This causes the pencil to appear higher and the water to appear shallower than it really is. The depth that the water appears to be when viewed from above is known as the apparent depth. This is an important consideration for spearfishing from the surface because it will make the target fish appear to be in a different place, and the fisher must aim lower to catch the fish. Conversely, an object above the water has a higher apparent height when viewed from below the water. The opposite correction must be made by an archer fish. For small angles of incidence (measured from the normal, when sin θ is approximately the same as tan θ), the ratio of apparent to real depth is the ratio of the refractive indexes of air to that of water. But, as the angle of incidence approaches 90, the apparent depth approaches zero, albeit reflection increases, which limits observation at high angles of incidence. Conversely, the apparent height approaches infinity as the angle of incidence (from below) increases, but even earlier, as the angle of total internal reflection is approached, albeit the image also fades from view as this limit is approached.
The diagram on the right shows an example of refraction in water waves. Ripples travel from the left and pass over a shallower region inclined at an angle to the wavefront. The waves travel slower in the more shallow water, so the wavelength decreases and the wave bends at the boundary. The dotted line represents the normal to the boundary. The dashed line represents the original direction of the waves. This phenomenon explains why waves on a shoreline tend to strike the shore close to a perpendicular angle. As the waves travel from deep water into shallower water near the shore, they are refracted from their original direction of travel to an angle more normal to the shoreline. Refraction is also responsible for rainbows and for the splitting of white light into a rainbow - spectrum as it passes through a glass prism. Glass has a higher refractive index than air. When a beam of white light passes from air into a material having an index of refraction that varies with frequency, a phenomenon known as dispersion occurs, in which different coloured components of the white light are refracted at different angles, i.e., they bend by different amounts at the interface, so that they become separated. The different colors correspond to different frequencies.
While refraction allows for phenomena such as rainbows, it may also produce peculiar optical phenomena, such as mirages and Fata Morgana. These are caused by the change of the refractive index of air with temperature.
The refractive index of materials can also be nonlinear, as occurs with the Kerr effect when high intensity light leads to a refractive index proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
Recently, some metamaterials have been created that have a negative refractive index. With metamaterials, we can also obtain total refraction phenomena when the wave impedances of the two media are matched. There is then no reflected wave.
Also, since refraction can make objects appear closer than they are, it is responsible for allowing water to magnify objects. First, as light is entering a drop of water, it slows down. If the water 's surface is not flat, then the light will be bent into a new path. This round shape will bend the light outwards and as it spreads out, the image you see gets larger.
An analogy that is often put forward to explain the refraction of light is as follows: "Imagine a marching band as it marches at an oblique angle from a pavement (a fast medium) into mud (a slower medium). The marchers on the side that runs into the mud first will slow down first. This causes the whole band to pivot slightly toward the normal (make a smaller angle from the normal). ''
Why refraction occurs when light travels from a medium with a given refractive index to a medium with another, can be explained by the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics (the complete method was developed in 1948 by Richard Feynman). Feynman humorously explained it himself in the recording "QED: Fits of Reflection and Transmission - Quantum Behaviour - Richard Feynman (The Sir Douglas Robb Lectures, University of Auckland, 1979) ''.
In medicine, particularly optometry, ophthalmology and orthoptics, refraction (also known as refractometry) is a clinical test in which a phoropter may be used by the appropriate eye care professional to determine the eye 's refractive error and the best corrective lenses to be prescribed. A series of test lenses in graded optical powers or focal lengths are presented to determine which provides the sharpest, clearest vision.
In underwater acoustics, refraction is the bending or curving of a sound ray that results when the ray passes through a sound speed gradient from a region of one sound speed to a region of a different speed. The amount of ray bending is dependent on the amount of difference between sound speeds, that is, the variation in temperature, salinity, and pressure of the water. Similar acoustics effects are also found in the Earth 's atmosphere. The phenomenon of refraction of sound in the atmosphere has been known for centuries; however, beginning in the early 1970s, widespread analysis of this effect came into vogue through the designing of urban highways and noise barriers to address the meteorological effects of bending of sound rays in the lower atmosphere.
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what is the story line of get out | Get Out - wikipedia
Get Out is a 2017 American horror film written and directed by Jordan Peele in his directorial debut. It stars Daniel Kaluuya as Chris, a black man who uncovers a disturbing secret when he meets the family of his white girlfriend (Allison Williams). Bradley Whitford, Caleb Landry Jones, Stephen Root, Lakeith Stanfield, and Catherine Keener co-star.
Get Out premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2017 and was theatrically released in the United States on February 24, 2017, by Universal Pictures. It grossed $255 million worldwide on a $4.5 million budget, making a net profit of $124 million and becoming the tenth most profitable film of 2017.
Critics praised the film 's screenplay, direction, performances, and satirical themes. It was chosen by the National Board of Review, the American Film Institute and Time as one of the top 10 films of the year. At the 90th Academy Awards, it was nominated for four awards, winning the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. It also earned five nominations at the 23rd Critics ' Choice Awards, two at the 75th Golden Globe Awards, and two at the 71st British Academy Film Awards.
Black photographer Chris Washington reluctantly agrees to meet the family of his white girlfriend, Rose Armitage. During their drive to the family 's countryside estate, they hit a deer and report the incident. Though Chris was not driving, the white policeman asks for Chris ' identification; Rose intervenes and the incident goes unrecorded.
At the house, Rose 's parents, neurosurgeon Dean and hypnotherapist Missy, and her brother Jeremy make discomfiting comments about black people. Chris witnesses strange behavior from the estate 's black workers, housekeeper Georgina and groundskeeper Walter.
Unable to sleep, Chris goes outside to smoke and sees Walter sprinting through the grounds while Georgina prowls the house. Missy talks Chris into a hypnotherapy session, ostensibly to cure his smoking addiction. In a trance, he recounts the death of his mother in a hit - and - run when he was a child, about which he feels guilty, and sinks into a void Missy calls the "sunken place ''. He awakens believing he had a nightmare but realizes cigarettes now repulse him. Walter confirms that Chris was in Missy 's office. Georgina unplugs his phone, draining his battery, though she claims it was an accident.
Dozens of wealthy white people arrive for the Armitages ' annual get - together. They take an interest in Chris, admiring his physique or expressing admiration for black figures such as Tiger Woods. Jim Hudson, a blind art dealer, takes particular interest in Chris 's photography skills. Chris meets another black man, Logan King, who acts strangely and is married to a much older white woman.
Chris calls his friend, black TSA agent Rod Williams, about the strange behavior at the house. Chris tries to inconspicuously photograph Logan with his phone to send to Rod, but his flash goes off; Logan becomes hysterical, yelling at Chris to "get out ''. The others restrain him and Dean claims Logan had an epileptic seizure. Away from the house, Chris persuades Rose that they should leave, while Dean holds an auction with a photo of Chris, which Jim wins. Chris sends the photo of Logan to Rod; Rod recognizes Logan as Andre Hayworth, who has been missing for months. Suspecting a conspiracy, Rod goes to the police, but they deride him.
While Chris packs to leave, he finds photos of Rose in prior relationships with black men, contradicting her claim that Chris is her first black boyfriend; the collection also includes pictures of Rose with Walter and Georgina. Chris is blocked from leaving by the Armitage family, including Rose. He tries to attack Jeremy, but Missy hypnotizes him. Chris awakens strapped to a chair in the basement. A video presentation featuring Rose 's grandfather Roman explains that the family transplants the brains of white people into black bodies; the consciousness of the host remains in the "sunken place '', conscious but powerless, and the operation is largely painless. Hudson tells Chris he wants his body so he can gain Chris 's sight and artistic talents.
Chris plugs his ears with cotton stuffing pulled from the chair 's leather padding, blocking the hypnosis. When Jeremy comes to collect him for the surgery, Chris knocks him unconscious and later impales Dean on the antlers of a deer mount. After stabbing and killing Missy and beating Jeremy to death, he drives away in Jeremy 's car but hits Georgina. Remembering his own mother 's death, he carries Georgina into the car, not realizing she is possessed by Rose 's grandmother Marianne; she attacks him and he crashes, killing her. Rose apprehends him with Walter, who is possessed by Roman. Chris uses the flash on his cell phone 's camera to expel Roman from Walter. Walter takes Rose 's rifle, shooting her and then himself. Chris begins to strangle Rose but stops just before Rod arrives in a TSA car and rescues Chris. Rose succumbs to her injuries as Rod and Chris drive away.
Writer - director Jordan Peele voices the sounds made by the wounded deer, and narrates a UNCF commercial.
Get Out is the directorial debut of Jordan Peele, who had previously worked in comedy, including the sketch show Key & Peele. He felt the horror and comedy genres are similar in that "so much of it is pacing, so much of it (hinges on) reveals '', and that comedy gave him "something of a training '' for the film. The Stepford Wives (1975) provided inspiration, about which Peele said, "it 's a horror movie but has a satirical premise. '' As the film deals with racism, Peele has stated that the story is "very personal '', although he noted that "it quickly veers off from anything autobiographical. ''
Peele was introduced to producer Sean McKittrick by comedy partner Keegan - Michael Key in 2013. "I was shooting a movie with Keegan - Michael Key. He said, ' You got ta meet Jordan, he 's a horror fanatic and he has all these ideas. ' Jordan and I met for coffee in New Orleans. He said, ' Here 's one you 'll never want to make, ' and he pitched me the whole story. I 'd never seen that movie before. It fascinated me. So I said right at the table, ' Okay, I 'm going to buy this pitch and pay you to write it. ' I think he was a little shocked. '' Peele wrote the first draft of the script in two months.
The lead actors, Daniel Kaluuya and Allison Williams, were cast in November 2015, with other roles cast between December 2015 and February 2016. "That party sequence is why I really wanted to do this film, because I 've been to that party, '' Kaluuya told The Los Angeles Times. "He (Chris) feels like an everyman. He 's kind of like J. Cole. Chris is that guy that everyone knows, who has been in everyone 's class at school. That good guy from around the area. ''
Williams said she was cast by Peele as a sneaky gambit to disorient audiences. "Jordan told me that he had always pictured me as Rose because Peter Pan or Marnie would make it easier for people to trust me, '' Williams noted. "I was looking for a role that would weaponize everything that people take for granted about me. So I instantly signed on to it. '' Williams observed that white audiences frequently misinterpret the motivations of her character Rose. "They 'd ' say she was hypnotized, right? ' And I 'm like, no! She 's just evil! How hard is that to accept? She 's bad! We gave you so many ways to know that she 's bad! She has photos of people whose lives she ended behind her! The minute she can, she hangs them back up on the wall behind her. That 's so crazy! And they 're still like, ' but maybe she 's also a victim? ' And I 'm like, NO! No! And I will say, that is one hundred percent white people who say that to me. '' The scene where Rose drinks milk while looking at potential future victims was conceived shortly before shooting to add an additional creepy element to her character. The music used in the scene, "(I 've Had) The Time of My Life, '' was intended to reflect Rose 's emotional detachment. "There 's something kind of horrific about milk, '' Peele said. "Think about it! Think about what we 're doing. Milk is kind of gross. ''
Principal photography began on February 16, 2016. Shooting took place in Fairhope, Alabama, for three weeks, followed by Barton Academy and in the Ashland Place Historic District in midtown Mobile, Alabama. Principal photography ended in 23 days.
Lil Rel Howery says the allegorical symbolism in the film is strongly entrenched in the fear historically experienced by African Americans. "It goes back to the way I grew up; I 'm just being honest, '' Howery explained. "Segregation created this. Stories about people like Emmett Till. It 's history; crazy things have happened, so people are going to embellish and pass that onto their kids as a warning. Jordan was so smart to hit on all these stories that could be considered myths, but a lot of it is rooted in truth. ''
Peele was worried about the film 's chances of success, telling the Los Angeles Times, "What if white people do n't want to come see the movie because they 're afraid of being villainized with black people in the crowd? What if black people do n't want to see the movie because they do n't want to sit next to a white person while a black person is being victimized on - screen? ''
In the original ending, Chris is arrested by the police while trying to strangle Rose. Instead of rescuing Chris, Rod meets him in jail and asks him for information about the Armitage family to investigate, but Chris insists that he stopped them and everything is fine. Peele intended this ending to reflect the realities of racism. By the time production had begun, however, several high - profile police shootings of black people had made discussion, in Peele 's words, "more woke ''. After gauging reception at test screenings, he decided the film needed a happy ending, and that having a moment when the audience believes Chris is about to be arrested would preserve the intended reaction.
Peele considered several other endings, some of which are included on the DVD and Blu - ray release. In one ending, Rod breaks into the estate, finds Chris, and calls his name, but Chris responds, "I assure you, I do n't know who you 're talking about. ''
Michael Abels composed the film 's score, which Peele wanted to have "distinctly black voices and black musical references. '' This proved to be a challenge, as Peele found that African - American music typically has what he termed "at the very least, a glimmer of hope to it. '' At the same time, Peele also wanted to avoid having a voodoo motif. The final score features Swahili voices as well as a blues influence. "Sikiliza Kwa Wahenga '' is a Swahili phrase that translates to "listen to (your) ancestors, '' which indicates to the listener, "something bad is coming. Run. ''
"The words are issuing a warning to Chris, '' Peele said. "The whole idea of the movie is ' Get out! ' -- it 's what we 're screaming at the character on - screen. '' The song "Redbone '' by Childish Gambino appears at the movie 's beginning. Other songs in the film include "Run Rabbit Run '' by Flanagan and Allen and "(I 've Had) The Time of My Life '' by Bill Medley and Jennifer Warnes.
The Guardian wrote, "The thing Get Out does so well -- and the thing that will rankle with some viewers -- is to show how, however unintentionally, these same people can make life so hard and uncomfortable for black people. It exposes a liberal ignorance and hubris that has been allowed to fester. It 's an attitude, an arrogance which in the film leads to a horrific final solution, but in reality, leads to a complacency that is just as dangerous. '' Peele said about the film, "The real thing at hand here is slavery... It 's some dark shit. ''
The film also depicts the lack of attention on missing black Americans compared to missing white females. Slate 's Damon Young stated the film 's premise was "depressingly plausible... Although black people only comprise 13 percent of America 's population, they are 34 percent of America 's missing, a reality that exists as the result of a mélange of racial and socioeconomic factors rendering black lives demonstratively less valuable than the lives (of) our white counterparts. ''
Peele wrote Rose as a subversion of the white savior trope, and in particular films where most white characters are evil but one is good. Peele and Williams stated that Rose behaved like a teenager as her emotional development was delayed. Williams believed that Rose was not a victim of indoctrination, hypnotism or Stockholm syndrome, but simply evil. After Rose 's intentions are revealed, her previous "soft and welcoming '' appearance becomes a "vision of cold, meticulous elitism '', with hunting jodhpurs, a white dress shirt, and a "sleek ponytail ''; she hangs photographs of her ex-partners on her wall like hunting trophies.
Get Out grossed $176 million in the United States and Canada and $79.4 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $255.5 million, against a production budget of $4.5 million. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $124.8 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues, making it the 10th most profitable release of 2017.
In North America, Get Out was released on February 24, 2017, alongside Collide and Rock Dog, and was expected to gross $20 -- 25 million from 2,773 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $1.8 million from Thursday night previews and $10.8 million on its first day. It went on to open for $33.4 million, finishing first at the box office. Thirty - eight percent of the film 's opening - weekend audience was African American, while 35 % was white, with Georgia being its most profitable market. In its second weekend, the film finished in second at the box office behind new release Logan ($88.4 million), grossing $28.3 million, for a drop of 15.4 %. Horror films tend to drop at least 60 % in their second weekend, so this was above average. In its third weekend, the film grossed $21.1 million, dropping just 25 % from its previous week, and finished third at the box office behind newcomer Kong: Skull Island and Logan.
In March 2017, three weeks after its release, Get Out crossed the $100 million mark domestically, making Peele the first black writer - director to do so with his debut movie. On April 8, 2017, the film became the highest - grossing film domestically directed by a black filmmaker, beating out F. Gary Gray 's Straight Outta Compton, which grossed $162.8 million domestically in 2015. Gray reclaimed the record two weeks later when The Fate of the Furious grossed $173.3 million on its fourteenth day of release on April 27. Domestically, Get Out is also the highest - grossing debut film based on an original screenplay in Hollywood history, beating the two - decade - long record of 1999 's The Blair Witch Project ($140.5 million). By the end of March, Los Angeles Times had declared the film 's success a "cultural phenomenon '' noting that in addition to its box office success, "moviegoers have shared countless ' sunken place ' Internet memes and other Get Out - inspired fan art across social media. '' Josh Rottenberg, the editor of the piece, attributed the film 's success to the fact that it was released "at one of the most politically charged moments in memory. ''
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 99 % based on 313 reviews, and an average rating of 8.3 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Funny, scary, and thought - provoking, Get Out seamlessly weaves its trenchant social critiques into a brilliantly effective and entertaining horror / comedy thrill ride. '' It is one of ten films to earn a 99 % (six other films) or 100 % (three films) rating with 100 or more reviews (it held a 100 % approval rating after the first 139 reviews on the site were registered). It was also the highest rated wide release of 2017 on the site. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has an average weighted score of 84 out of 100, based on 48 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave an 84 % overall positive score and a 66 % "definite recommend ''.
Richard Roeper gave the film 31⁄2 stars, saying: "the real star of the film is writer - director Jordan Peele, who has created a work that addresses the myriad levels of racism, pays homage to some great horror films, carves out its own creative path, has a distinctive visual style -- and is flat - out funny as well. '' Keith Phipps of Uproxx praised the cast and Peele 's direction, saying, "That he brings the technical skill of a practiced horror master is more of a surprise. The final thrill of Get Out -- beyond the slow - building sense of danger, the unsettling atmosphere, and the twisty revelation of what 's really going on -- is that Peele 's just getting started. '' Mike Rougeau of IGN gave the film 9 / 10, and wrote, "Get Out 's whole journey, through every tense conversation, A-plus punchline and shocking act of violence, feels totally earned. And the conclusion is worth each uncomfortable chuckle and moment of doubt. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave Get Out 3.5 / 4, and called it a "jolt - a-minute horrorshow laced with racial tension and stinging satirical wit. '' Scott Mendelson of Forbes said the film captured the zeitgeist and called it a "modern American horror classic. ''
Conversely, film critic Armond White of the conservative magazine National Review gave a negative review, referring to the film as a "Get - Whitey movie '' and stating that it "(reduces) racial politics to trite horror - comedy... it 's an Obama movie for Tarantino fans. '' New York Observer critic Rex Reed included the film on his list of 10 Worst Films of 2017, and later stated in a CBS Sunday Morning interview, "I did n't care if all the black men are turned into robots. '' A writer on Sunday Morning 's website noted that Reed appeared mistaken on what the film was about, something that Reed has also been accused of over other films.
Despite the film 's universal critical acclaim, Get Out divided Oscar voters, with many older members of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences either dismissing the film or choosing not to see it. According to Vulture, new voting members said they ran into "interference '' from more senior members of the Academy when it came to evaluating the film as Best Picture. "I had multiple conversations with longtime Academy members who were like, ' That was not an Oscar film, ' '' according to a new voter. "And I 'm like, ' That 's bullshit. Watch it. ' Honestly, a few of them had not even seen it and they were saying it, so dispelling that kind of thing has been super important. ''
One anonymous Oscar voter told The Hollywood Reporter that the film 's Oscar campaign turned them off. "(W) hat bothered me... was that instead of focusing on the fact that this was an entertaining little horror movie that made quite a bit of money, they started trying to suggest it had deeper meaning than it does, and, as far as I 'm concerned, they played the race card, and that really turned me off. In fact, at one of the luncheons, the lead actor (Daniel Kaluuya), who is not from the United States (he 's British), was giving us a lecture on racism in America and how black lives matter, and I thought, ' What does this have to do with Get Out? They 're trying to make me think that if I do n't vote for this movie, I 'm a racist. ' I was really offended. That sealed it for me. ''
At the 90th Academy Awards, the film earned four nominations: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Original Screenplay, and Best Actor for Daniel Kaluuya. Peele became the third person (after Warren Beatty and James L. Brooks) to earn Best Picture, Director and Screenplay nominations for a debut film, and the first black winner for Best Original Screenplay (and fourth overall nominated, after John Singleton, Spike Lee, and Suzanne de Passe).
At the 75th Golden Globe Awards, Get Out received two nominations: Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy and Best Actor -- Comedy or Musical for Daniel Kaluuya. The film also received nominations at the 24th Screen Actors Guild Awards, 49th NAACP Image Awards, and 23rd Critics ' Choice Awards, among others. It won Best Foreign International Film at the British Independent Film Awards.
At the 33rd Independent Spirit Awards on Mar. 3, 2018, Jordan Peele won the Best Director Award and the film won Best Picture.
In an interview with website The Playlist, Peele stated that he has ideas for a sequel and was open to making one.
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cinco de mayo the day of the dead | Cinco de Mayo - wikipedia
Cinco de Mayo (pronounced (ˈsiŋko ðe ˈmaʝo); Spanish for "Fifth of May '') is an annual celebration held on May 5. The date is observed to commemorate the Mexican Army 's unlikely victory over the French Empire at the Battle of Puebla, on May 5, 1862, under the leadership of General Ignacio Zaragoza.
In the United States, Cinco de Mayo has taken on a significance beyond that in Mexico. In the U.S. the date has become associated with the celebration of Mexican - American culture. In Mexico, the commemoration of the battle continues to be mostly ceremonial, such as through military parades.
In the United States, Cinco de Mayo is sometimes mistaken for Mexico 's Independence Day -- the most important national holiday in Mexico -- which is celebrated on September 16, commemorating the Cry of Dolores that initiated the war of Mexican independence from Spain.
Cinco de Mayo has its roots in the French occupation of Mexico, which took place in the aftermath of the Mexican -- American War of 1846 -- 48 and the 1858 -- 61 Reform War. The Reform War was a civil war which pitted Liberals (who believed in separation of church and state, and freedom of religion) against the Conservatives (who favored a tight bond between the Roman Catholic Church and the Mexican State). These wars nearly bankrupted the Mexican Treasury. On July 17, 1861, Mexican President Benito Juárez issued a moratorium in which all foreign debt payments would be suspended for two years. In response, Britain, France, and Spain sent naval forces to Veracruz to demand reimbursement. Britain and Spain negotiated with Mexico and withdrew, but France, at the time ruled by Napoleon III, decided to use the opportunity to establish an empire in Mexico that would favor French interests, the Second Mexican Empire. The empire was part of an envisioned "Latin America '' (term used to imply cultural kinship of the region with France) that would rebuild French influence in the American continent and exclude Anglophone American territories.
Late in 1861, a well - armed French fleet stormed Veracruz, landing a large French force and driving President Juárez and his government into retreat. Moving on from Veracruz towards Mexico City, the French army encountered heavy resistance from the Mexicans close to Puebla, at the Mexican forts of Loreto and Guadalupe. The 6,000 - strong French army attacked the much smaller and poorly equipped Mexican army of 4,000. Yet, on May 5, 1862, the Mexicans managed to decisively crush the French army, then considered "the premier army in the world ''.
The victory represented a significant morale boost to the Mexican army and the Mexican people at large. In the description of The History Channel, "Although not a major strategic win in the overall war against the French, Zaragoza 's success at Puebla represented a great symbolic victory for the Mexican government and bolstered the resistance movement. '' As Time magazine remarked, "The Puebla victory came to symbolize unity and pride for what seemed like a Mexican David defeating a French Goliath. '' It helped establish a much - needed sense of national unity and patriotism.
The Mexican victory, however, was short - lived. A year later, with 30,000 troops, the French were able to defeat the Mexican army, capture Mexico City, and install Emperor Maximilian I as ruler of Mexico. The French victory was itself short - lived, lasting only three years, from 1864 to 1867. By 1865, "with the American Civil War now over, the U.S. began to provide more political and military assistance to Mexico to expel the French ''. Upon the conclusion of the American Civil War, Napoleon III, facing a persistent Mexican guerilla resistance, the threat of war with Prussia, and "the prospect of a serious scrap with the United States '', retreated from Mexico starting in 1866. The Mexicans recaptured Mexico City, and Maximilian I was apprehended and executed, along with his Mexican generals Miguel Miramón and Tomás Mejía Camacho in Cerro de las Campanas, Querétaro. "On June 5, 1867, Benito Juárez finally entered Mexico City where he installed a new government and reorganized his administration. ''
The Battle of Puebla was important for at least two reasons. First, although considerably outnumbered, the Mexicans defeated a much - better - equipped French army. "This battle was significant in that the 4,000 Mexican soldiers were greatly outnumbered by the well - equipped French army of 8,000 that had not been defeated for almost 50 years. '' Second, since the Battle of Puebla, no country in the Americas has subsequently been invaded by any other European military force.
Historian Justo Sierra has written in his Political Evolution of the Mexican People that, had Mexico not defeated the French in Puebla on May 5, 1862, France would have gone to the aid of the Confederacy in the U.S. Civil War and the United States ' destiny would have been different.
According to a paper published by the UCLA Center for the Study of Latino Health and Culture about the origin of the observance of Cinco de Mayo in the United States, the modern American focus on that day first started in California in the 1860s in response to the resistance to French rule in Mexico. "Far up in the gold country town of Columbia (now Columbia State Park) Mexican miners were so overjoyed at the news that they spontaneously fired off rifle shots and fireworks, sang patriotic songs and made impromptu speeches. ''
A 2007 UCLA Newsroom article notes that, "the holiday, which has been celebrated in California continuously since 1863, is virtually ignored in Mexico. '' TIME magazine reports that "Cinco de Mayo started to come into vogue in 1940s America during the rise of the Chicano Movement. '' The holiday crossed over from California into the rest of the United States in the 1950s and 1960s but did not gain popularity until the 1980s when marketers, especially beer companies, capitalized on the celebratory nature of the day and began to promote it. It grew in popularity and evolved into a celebration of Mexican culture and heritage, first in areas with large Mexican - American populations, like Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston and San Jose.
In a 1998 study in the Journal of American Culture it was reported that there were more than 120 official US celebrations of Cinco de Mayo in 21 different states. An update in 2006 found that the number of official Cinco de Mayo events was 150 or more, according to José Alamillo, a professor of ethnic studies at Washington State University in Pullman, who has studied the cultural impact of Cinco de Mayo north of the border. Los Angeles ' Fiesta Broadway has been billed as the largest Cinco de Mayo celebration in the world, which it most certainly was at its peak in the 1990s when it attracted crowds of 500,000 or more. In recent years attendance has seen a dramatic decrease.
On June 7, 2005, the United States Congress issued a concurrent resolution calling on the President of the United States to issue a proclamation calling upon the people of the United States to observe Cinco de Mayo with appropriate ceremonies and activities. To celebrate, many display Cinco de Mayo banners while school districts hold special events to educate students about its historical significance. Special events and celebrations highlight Mexican culture, especially in its music and regional dancing. Examples include baile folklórico and mariachi demonstrations held annually at the Plaza del Pueblo de Los Ángeles, near Olvera Street. Commercial interests in the United States have capitalized on the celebration, advertising Mexican products and services, with an emphasis on alcoholic beverages, foods, and music.
On May 9, 1862, President Juárez declared that the anniversary of the Battle of Puebla would be a national holiday regarded as "Battle of Puebla Day '' or "Battle of Cinco de Mayo ''.
Today, the commemoration of the battle is not observed as a national holiday in Mexico (i.e. not a statutory holiday). However, all public schools are closed nationwide in Mexico on May 5. The day is an official holiday in the State of Puebla, where the Battle took place, and also a full holiday (no work) in the neighboring State of Veracruz.
In Puebla, historical reenactments, parades, and meals take place to commemorate the battle. Parade participants dress as French and Mexican soldiers to reenact the battle. Every year the city also hosts the Festival Internacional de Puebla, which gathers national and international artists, traditional musicians and dancers. As well as the Festival Internacional del Mole, with an emphasis on the city 's iconic mole poblano.
In Mexico City, military commemoration is occasionally held at the Campo Marte. A street, Avenida Cinco de Mayo, in the Historic Center of Mexico City was named after the battle in 1862 by Benito Juárez.
Events tied to Cinco de Mayo also occur outside Mexico and the United States. As in the United States, celebrations elsewhere also emphasize Mexican cuisine, culture and music. For example, Windsor, Ontario, Canada, holds an American - style "Cinco de Mayo Street Festival '', some Canadian pubs play Mexican music and serve Mexican food and drink, and a sky - diving club near Vancouver holds a Cinco de Mayo skydiving event. In the Cayman Islands, in the Caribbean, there is an annual Cinco de Mayo air guitar competition, and at Montego Bay, Jamaica, there is a Cinco de Mayo celebration. The city of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, holds an annual Mexican Festival to honor the day, and celebrations are held in London and New Zealand. American - style celebrations of the day can also be found in Cape Town, South Africa, Lagos, Nigeria, and in Paris. Cinco de Mayo is celebrated in Japan in Osaka and in Tokyo 's Yoyogi Park Event Space as a celebration of Latin American culture.
Notes
Citations
Sources
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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use of dma controller in a computer system | Direct memory access - wikipedia
Direct memory access (DMA) is a feature of computer systems that allows certain hardware subsystems to access main system memory (Random - access memory), independent of the central processing unit (CPU).
Without DMA, when the CPU is using programmed input / output, it is typically fully occupied for the entire duration of the read or write operation, and is thus unavailable to perform other work. With DMA, the CPU first initiates the transfer, then it does other operations while the transfer is in progress, and it finally receives an interrupt from the DMA controller when the operation is done. This feature is useful at any time that the CPU can not keep up with the rate of data transfer, or when the CPU needs to perform useful work while waiting for a relatively slow I / O data transfer. Many hardware systems use DMA, including disk drive controllers, graphics cards, network cards and sound cards. DMA is also used for intra-chip data transfer in multi-core processors. Computers that have DMA channels can transfer data to and from devices with much less CPU overhead than computers without DMA channels. Similarly, a processing element inside a multi-core processor can transfer data to and from its local memory without occupying its processor time, allowing computation and data transfer to proceed in parallel.
DMA can also be used for "memory to memory '' copying or moving of data within memory. DMA can offload expensive memory operations, such as large copies or scatter - gather operations, from the CPU to a dedicated DMA engine. An implementation example is the I / O Acceleration Technology.
Standard DMA, also called third - party DMA, uses a DMA controller. A DMA controller can generate memory addresses and initiate memory read or write cycles. It contains several hardware registers that can be written and read by the CPU. These include a memory address register, a byte count register, and one or more control registers. The control registers could specify the source, the destination, the direction of the transfer (reading from the I / O device or writing to the I / O device), the size of the transfer unit, and / or the number of bytes to transfer in one burst depending on what features the DMA controller provides.
To carry out an input, output or memory - to - memory operation, the host processor initializes the DMA controller with a count of the number of words to transfer, and the memory address to use. The CPU then sends commands to a peripheral device to initiate transfer of data. The DMA controller then provides addresses and read / write control lines to the system memory. Each time a byte of data is ready to be transferred between the peripheral device and memory, the DMA controller increments its internal address register until the full block of data is transferred.
In a bus mastering system, also known as a first - party DMA system, the CPU and peripherals can each be granted control of the memory bus. Where a peripheral can become bus master, it can directly write to system memory without involvement of the CPU, providing memory address and control signals as required. Some measure must be provided to put the processor into a hold condition so that bus contention does not occur.
DMA transfers can either occur one byte at a time or all at once in burst mode. If they occur a byte at a time, this can allow the CPU to access memory on alternate bus cycles -- this is called cycle stealing since the CPU and either the DMA controller or the bus master contend for memory access. In burst mode DMA, the CPU can be put on hold while the DMA transfer occurs and a full block of possibly hundreds or thousands of bytes can be moved. When memory cycles are much faster than processor cycles, an interleaved DMA cycle is possible, where the DMA controller uses memory while the CPU can not.
An entire block of data is transferred in one contiguous sequence. Once the DMA controller is granted access to the system bus by the CPU, it transfers all bytes of data in the data block before releasing control of the system buses back to the CPU, but renders the CPU inactive for relatively long periods of time. The mode is also called "Block Transfer Mode ''. It is also used to stop unnecessary data.
The cycle stealing mode is used in systems in which the CPU should not be disabled for the length of time needed for burst transfer modes. In the cycle stealing mode, the DMA controller obtains access to the system bus the same way as in burst mode, using BR (Bus Request) and BG (Bus Grant) signals, which are the two signals controlling the interface between the CPU and the DMA controller. However, in cycle stealing mode, after one byte of data transfer, the control of the system bus is deasserted to the CPU via BG. It is then continually requested again via BR, transferring one byte of data per request, until the entire block of data has been transferred. By continually obtaining and releasing the control of the system bus, the DMA controller essentially interleaves instruction and data transfers. The CPU processes an instruction, then the DMA controller transfers one data value, and so on. On the one hand, the data block is not transferred as quickly in cycle stealing mode as in burst mode, but on the other hand the CPU is not idled for as long as in burst mode. Cycle stealing mode is useful for controllers that monitor data in real time.
Transparent mode takes the most time to transfer a block of data, yet it is also the most efficient mode in terms of overall system performance. In transparent mode, the DMA controller transfers data only when the CPU is performing operations that do not use the system buses. The primary advantage of transparent mode is that the CPU never stops executing its programs and the DMA transfer is free in terms of time, while the disadvantage is that the hardware needs to determine when the CPU is not using the system buses, which can be complex.
DMA can lead to cache coherency problems. Imagine a CPU equipped with a cache and an external memory that can be accessed directly by devices using DMA. When the CPU accesses location X in the memory, the current value will be stored in the cache. Subsequent operations on X will update the cached copy of X, but not the external memory version of X, assuming a write - back cache. If the cache is not flushed to the memory before the next time a device tries to access X, the device will receive a stale value of X.
Similarly, if the cached copy of X is not invalidated when a device writes a new value to the memory, then the CPU will operate on a stale value of X.
This issue can be addressed in one of two ways in system design: Cache - coherent systems implement a method in hardware whereby external writes are signaled to the cache controller which then performs a cache invalidation for DMA writes or cache flush for DMA reads. Non-coherent systems leave this to software, where the OS must then ensure that the cache lines are flushed before an outgoing DMA transfer is started and invalidated before a memory range affected by an incoming DMA transfer is accessed. The OS must make sure that the memory range is not accessed by any running threads in the meantime. The latter approach introduces some overhead to the DMA operation, as most hardware requires a loop to invalidate each cache line individually.
Hybrids also exist, where the secondary L2 cache is coherent while the L1 cache (typically on - CPU) is managed by software.
In the original IBM PC, there was only one Intel 8237 DMA controller capable of providing four DMA channels (numbered 0 -- 3), as part of the so - called Industry Standard Architecture, or ISA. These DMA channels performed 8 - bit transfers and could only address the first megabyte of RAM. With the IBM PC / AT, a second 8237 DMA controller was added (channels 5 -- 7; channel 4 is dedicated as a cascade channel for the first 8237 controller), and the page register was rewired to address the full 16 MB memory address space of the 80286 CPU. This second controller performed 16 - bit transfers.
Due to their lagging performance (2.5 Mbit / s), these devices have been largely obsolete since the advent of the 80386 processor in 1985 and its capacity for 32 - bit transfers. They are still supported to the extent they are required to support built - in legacy PC hardware on modern machines. The only pieces of legacy hardware that use ISA DMA and are still fairly common are Super I / O devices on motherboards that often integrate a built - in floppy disk controller, an IrDA infrared controller when FIR (fast infrared) mode is selected, and a IEEE 1284 parallel port controller when ECP mode is selected.
Each DMA channel has a 16 - bit address register and a 16 - bit count register associated with it. To initiate a data transfer the device driver sets up the DMA channel 's address and count registers together with the direction of the data transfer, read or write. It then instructs the DMA hardware to begin the transfer. When the transfer is complete, the device interrupts the CPU.
Scatter - gather or vectored I / O DMA allows the transfer of data to and from multiple memory areas in a single DMA transaction. It is equivalent to the chaining together of multiple simple DMA requests. The motivation is to off - load multiple input / output interrupt and data copy tasks from the CPU.
DRQ stands for Data request; DACK for Data acknowledge. These symbols, seen on hardware schematics of computer systems with DMA functionality, represent electronic signaling lines between the CPU and DMA controller. Each DMA channel has one Request and one Acknowledge line. A device that uses DMA must be configured to use both lines of the assigned DMA channel.
Standard ISA DMA assignments:
A PCI architecture has no central DMA controller, unlike ISA. Instead, any PCI component can request control of the bus ("become the bus master '') and request to read from and write to system memory. More precisely, a PCI component requests bus ownership from the PCI bus controller (usually the southbridge in a modern PC design), which will arbitrate if several devices request bus ownership simultaneously, since there can only be one bus master at one time. When the component is granted ownership, it will issue normal read and write commands on the PCI bus, which will be claimed by the bus controller and will be forwarded to the memory controller using a scheme which is specific to every chipset.
As an example, on a modern AMD Socket AM2 - based PC, the southbridge will forward the transactions to the northbridge (which is integrated on the CPU die) using HyperTransport, which will in turn convert them to DDR2 operations and send them out on the DDR2 memory bus. As can be seen, there are quite a number of steps involved in a PCI DMA transfer; however, that poses little problem, since the PCI device or PCI bus itself are an order of magnitude slower than the rest of the components (see list of device bandwidths).
A modern x86 CPU may use more than 4 GB of memory, utilizing Physical Address Extension (PAE), a 36 - bit addressing mode, or the native 64 - bit mode of x86 - 64 CPUs. In such a case, a device using DMA with a 32 - bit address bus is unable to address memory above the 4 GB line. The new Double Address Cycle (DAC) mechanism, if implemented on both the PCI bus and the device itself, enables 64 - bit DMA addressing. Otherwise, the operating system would need to work around the problem by either using costly double buffers (DOS / Windows nomenclature) also known as bounce buffers (FreeBSD / Linux), or it could use an IOMMU to provide address translation services if one is present.
As an example of DMA engine incorporated in a general - purpose CPU, newer Intel Xeon chipsets include a DMA engine called I / O Acceleration Technology (I / OAT), which can offload memory copying from the main CPU, freeing it to do other work. In 2006, Intel 's Linux kernel developer Andrew Grover performed benchmarks using I / OAT to offload network traffic copies and found no more than 10 % improvement in CPU utilization with receiving workloads, and no improvement when transmitting data.
Further performance - oriented enhancements to the DMA mechanism have been introduced in Intel Xeon E5 processors with their Data Direct I / O (DDIO) feature, allowing the DMA "windows '' to reside within CPU caches instead of system RAM. As a result, CPU caches are used as the primary source and destination for I / O, allowing network interface controllers (NICs) to talk directly to the caches of local CPUs and avoid costly fetching of the I / O data from system RAM. As a result, DDIO reduces the overall I / O processing latency, allows processing of the I / O to be performed entirely in - cache, prevents the available RAM bandwidth from becoming a performance bottleneck, and lowers the power consumption by allowing RAM to remain longer in low - powered state.
In systems - on - a-chip and embedded systems, typical system bus infrastructure is a complex on - chip bus such as AMBA High - performance Bus. AMBA defines two kinds of AHB components: master and slave. A slave interface is similar to programmed I / O through which the software (running on embedded CPU, e.g. ARM) can write / read I / O registers or (less commonly) local memory blocks inside the device. A master interface can be used by the device to perform DMA transactions to / from system memory without heavily loading the CPU.
Therefore, high bandwidth devices such as network controllers that need to transfer huge amounts of data to / from system memory will have two interface adapters to the AHB: a master and a slave interface. This is because on - chip buses like AHB do not support tri-stating the bus or alternating the direction of any line on the bus. Like PCI, no central DMA controller is required since the DMA is bus - mastering, but an arbiter is required in case of multiple masters present on the system.
Internally, a multichannel DMA engine is usually present in the device to perform multiple concurrent scatter - gather operations as programmed by the software.
As an example usage of DMA in a multiprocessor - system - on - chip, IBM / Sony / Toshiba 's Cell processor incorporates a DMA engine for each of its 9 processing elements including one Power processor element (PPE) and eight synergistic processor elements (SPEs). Since the SPE 's load / store instructions can read / write only its own local memory, an SPE entirely depends on DMAs to transfer data to and from the main memory and local memories of other SPEs. Thus the DMA acts as a primary means of data transfer among cores inside this CPU (in contrast to cache - coherent CMP architectures such as Intel 's cancelled general - purpose GPU, Larrabee).
DMA in Cell is fully cache coherent (note however local stores of SPEs operated upon by DMA do not act as globally coherent cache in the standard sense). In both read ("get '') and write ("put ''), a DMA command can transfer either a single block area of size up to 16 KB, or a list of 2 to 2048 such blocks. The DMA command is issued by specifying a pair of a local address and a remote address: for example when a SPE program issues a put DMA command, it specifies an address of its own local memory as the source and a virtual memory address (pointing to either the main memory or the local memory of another SPE) as the target, together with a block size. According to a recent experiment, an effective peak performance of DMA in Cell (3 GHz, under uniform traffic) reaches 200 GB per second.
Processors with scratchpad memory and DMA (such as digital signal processors and the Cell processor) may benefit from software overlapping DMA memory operations with processing, via double buffering or multibuffering. For example, the on - chip memory is split into two buffers; the processor may be operating on data in one, while the DMA engine is loading and storing data in the other. This allows the system to avoid memory latency and exploit burst transfers, at the expense of needing a predictable memory access pattern.
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how long has this been going on sarah vaughan | How Long Has this Been Going on? (Sarah Vaughan album) - wikipedia
How Long Has This Been Going On? is a 1978 studio album by Sarah Vaughan accompanied by a quartet led by Oscar Peterson.
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when does the president pro tempore of the senate preside | President pro tempore of the United States Senate - wikipedia
The President pro tempore of the United States Senate (often shortened to president pro tem) is the second - highest - ranking official of the United States Senate. Article One, Section Three of the United States Constitution provides that the Vice President of the United States is the President of the Senate (despite not being a Senator), and mandates that the Senate must choose a President pro tempore to act in the Vice President 's absence. Unlike the Vice President, the President pro tempore is an elected member of the Senate, able to speak or vote on any issue. Selected by the Senate at large, the President pro tempore has enjoyed many privileges and some limited powers. During the Vice President 's absence, the President pro tempore is empowered to preside over Senate sessions. In practice, neither the Vice President nor the President pro tempore usually presides; instead, the duty of presiding officer is rotated among junior U.S. Senators of the majority party to give them experience in parliamentary procedure.
Since 1890, the most senior U.S. Senator in the majority party has generally been chosen to be President pro tempore and holds the office continuously until the election of another. This tradition has been observed without interruption since 1949. Since enactment of the current Presidential Succession Act in 1947, the president pro tempore is third in the line of succession to the presidency, after the vice president and the Speaker of the House of Representatives and ahead of the Secretary of State.
The current President pro tempore of the Senate is Utah Republican Orrin Hatch. Elected on January 6, 2015, he is the 90th person to serve in this office. On January 2, 2018, Hatch announced that he will retire from the Senate at the end of his current term, January 3, 2019.
Although the position is in some ways analogous to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the powers of the president pro tempore are far more limited. In the Senate, most power rests with party leaders and individual senators, but as the chamber 's presiding officer, the president pro tempore is authorized to perform certain duties in the absence of the vice president, including ruling on points of order. Additionally, under the 25th Amendment to the Constitution, the president pro tempore and the speaker are the two authorities to whom declarations must be transmitted that the president is unable to perform the duties of the office, or is able to resume doing so. The president pro tempore is third in the line of presidential succession, following the vice president and the speaker. Additional duties include appointment of various congressional officers, certain commissions, advisory boards, and committees and joint supervision of the congressional page school. The president pro tempore is the designated legal recipient of various reports to the Senate, including War Powers Act reports under which he or she, jointly with the speaker, may have the president call Congress back into session. The officeholder is an ex officio member of various boards and commissions. With the secretary and sergeant at arms, the president pro tempore maintains order in Senate portions of the Capitol and Senate buildings.
The office of president pro tempore was established by the Constitution of the United States in 1789. The first president pro tempore, John Langdon, was elected on April 6 the same year. Between 1792 and 1886, the president pro tempore was second in the line of presidential succession following the vice president and preceding the speaker. Through 1891, the president pro tempore was appointed on an intermittent basis only, when the vice president was not present to preside over the Senate, or at the adjournment of a session of Congress. Langdon served four separate terms from 1789 to 1793. During the 4th Congress (1795 -- 1797); in all, more than a 12 senators held the office during the Senate 's first decade. When called upon to serve, they would preside, sign legislation, and perform routine administrative tasks.
Whenever the vice presidency was vacant, as it was on 10 occasions between 1812 and 1889, the office garnered heightened importance, for although he did not assume the vice presidency, the president pro was then next in line for the presidency. Before the ratification of the Twenty - fifth Amendment in 1967, a vacancy in the vice presidency could be filled only by a regular election; several who served during these vacancies were referred to informally as "Acting Vice President. ''
On three occasions during the 19th century, the Senate was without both a president and a president pro tempore:
When President Andrew Johnson, who had no vice president, was impeached and tried in 1868, Senate President pro tempore Benjamin Franklin Wade was next in line to the presidency. Wade 's radicalism is thought by many historians to be a major reason why the Senate, which did not want to see Wade in the White House, acquitted Johnson. The President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House were removed from the presidential line of succession in 1886. Both were restored to it in 1947, though this time with the president pro tempore following the speaker.
William P. Frye served as President pro tempore from 1896 to 1911 (54th -- 62nd Congress), a tenure longer than anyone else. He resigned from the position due to ill health a couple of months before his death. Electing his successor proved difficult, as Senate Republicans, then in the majority, were split between progressive and conservative factions, each promoting its own candidate. Likewise, the Democrats proposed their own candidate. As a result of this three - way split, no individual received a majority vote. It took four months for a compromise solution to emerge: Democrat Augustus Bacon would serve for a single day, August 14, 1911, during the vice president 's absence. Thereafter, Bacon and four Republicans -- Charles Curtis, Jacob Gallinger, Henry Cabot Lodge, and Frank Brandegee -- would alternate as president pro tempore for the remainder of the Congress.
In January 1945, the 79th Congress elected Kenneth McKellar, who at the time was the Senator with the longest continuous service, to be President pro tempore. Since then, it has become customary for the majority party 's senior member to hold this position. Arthur Vandenberg (in 1947 -- 1949) was the last president pro tempore not to be the senior member of the majority party, aside from the single day accorded Milton Young (in December 1980), who was the retiring senior member of the Republican Party, which would hold the majority in the incoming 97th Congress.
Three presidents pro tempore subsequently became Vice President: John Tyler, William R. King and Charles Curtis. Tyler is the only one to become president (in April 1841, following the death of William Henry Harrison).
While the president pro tempore does have other official duties, the holders of the office have, like the vice president, over time ceased presiding over the Senate on a daily basis, owing to the mundane and ceremonial nature of the position. Furthermore, as the president pro tempore is now usually the most senior senator of the majority party, he or she most likely also chairs a major Senate committee and has other significant demands on his or her time. Therefore, the president pro tempore has less time now than in the past to preside daily over the Senate. Instead, junior senators from the majority party are designated acting president pro tempore to preside over the Senate. This allows junior senators to learn proper parliamentary procedure. The acting president pro tempore is usually reappointed daily by the president pro tempore.
In June 1963, because of the illness of president pro tempore Carl Hayden, Senator Lee Metcalf was designated permanent acting president pro tempore. No term was imposed on this designation, so Metcalf retained it until he died in office in 1978.
The ceremonial post of deputy president pro tempore was created for Hubert Humphrey, a former vice president, in 1977 following his losing bid to become the Senate majority leader. The Senate resolution creating the position stated that any former president or former vice president serving in the Senate would be entitled to this position, though none has served since Humphrey 's death in 1978, and former vice president Walter Mondale, who sought his former Senate seat in Minnesota in 2002, is the only one to have tried. Andrew Johnson is the only former president to have subsequently served in the Senate.
George J. Mitchell was elected deputy president pro tempore in 1987, because of the illness of president pro tempore John C. Stennis, similar to Metcalf 's earlier designation as permanent acting president pro tempore. The office has remained vacant since 1989 and no senator other than Humphrey and Mitchell has held it since its creation. Mitchell is the only person to have served as deputy president pro tempore who was neither a former president nor former vice president of the United States.
The post is largely honorary and ceremonial, but comes with a salary increase. By statute, the compensation granted to the position holder equals the rate of annual compensation paid to the president pro tempore, majority leader, and minority leader. (See 2 U.S.C. § 6112.)
Since 2001, the honorary title of president pro tempore emeritus has been given to a senator of the minority party who has previously served as president pro tempore. The position has been held by Strom Thurmond (R - South Carolina) (2001 -- 2003), Robert Byrd (D - West Virginia) (2003 -- 2007), Ted Stevens (R - Alaska) (2007 -- 2009) and Patrick Leahy (D - Vermont) (2015 -- present). From 2009 to 2015, no senator met the requirements for the position.
The position was created for Thurmond when the Democratic Party regained a majority in the Senate in June 2001. With the change in party control, Democrat Robert Byrd of West Virginia replaced Thurmond as president pro tempore, reclaiming a position he had previously held from 1989 to 1995 and briefly in January 2001. Thurmond 's retirement from the Senate on January 3, 2003, coincided with a change from Democratic to Republican control, making Stevens president pro tempore and Byrd the second president pro tempore emeritus. Byrd returned as president pro tempore, and Stevens became the third president pro tempore emeritus, when the Democrats gained control of the Senate in 2007. While a president pro tempore emeritus has no official duties, he is entitled to an increase in staff and advises party leaders on the functions of the Senate.
The office 's accompanying budget increase was removed toward the end of the 113th Congress, shortly before Patrick Leahy was to become the first holder of the title in six years. Quoted in CQ Roll Call, Leahy commented, "(The Republicans) did n't keep their commitment. They want to treat us differently than we treated them, and so they 've got that right. It seems kind of petty, but it really does n't matter to me. I 've got plenty of funding, plenty of good staff. ''
The salary of the president pro tempore for 2012 was $193,400, equal to that of the majority leaders and minority leaders of both houses of Congress. If there is a vacancy in the office of vice president, then the salary would be the same as that of the vice president, $230,700.
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when was vietnam divided into north and south | Northern and Southern Vietnam - wikipedia
Northern Vietnam and Southern Vietnam are two historic, geographic and cultural regions within Vietnam. In the present context, Southern and Northern Vietnam could be differentiated as followed: (Each region consists of subregions, with often considerable cultural differences between subregions).
Northern Vietnam includes the following subregions:
Southern Vietnam includes the following subregions:
The Red River Delta in Northern Vietnam is the traditional homeland of the ethnic Vietnamese (Kinh people) where various Bronze Age cultures such as Phung Nguyen and Dong Son originated over 4000 years ago. Through migration and conquests, Vietnamese people gradually spread south in a process called Nam Tiến (Advancing South).
Central Vietnam was home to Cham people, a Malayo - Polynesian ethnic group who founded their distinct Indianised Kingdom over the Central Coast before being subdued by the Vietnamese during the 14th century. Their predecessors, people who are now known as the Sa Huynh culture, dated back from 1000 BCE.
The Mekong Delta in southernmost Vietnam was part of Funan, Chenla then Angkor Empire. Chinese and Vietnamese started migrating en masse to this region during the 16th to 17th century.
Northern and Southern Vietnam was a fluid concept that changed constantly during the course of history. During the Lê -- Mạc wars (1541 -- 92), Vietnam was partitioned with the Mạc dynasty holding the Red River Delta and Lê dynasty controlling the Central Region from Nghệ An to Bình Định while Champa and the Khmers still held their polities further south.
During the Trịnh -- Nguyễn War (1627 -- 73), the country was partitioned between two ruling Lords with the border being the Gianh River in Quảng Bình Province. The North, called Đàng Ngoài (Outer Expanse) is ruled by the Trịnh Lords and Nguyễn lords in the South, called Đàng Trong (Inner Expanse) or Quảng Nam Quốc, with Lê emperors still nominally acting as head of state. The two sides ruled their own domain independent of the other, and frequently fought each other. The imposed separation encouraged the two regions to develop their own cultures.
After the Tay Son Wars (1770 -- 1802) and the founding of the Nguyễn dynasty, the country started getting the present shape with the center of power now switched to Huế in Central Vietnam. During French colonialism, the French divided the country into three parts, directly ruling over Cochinchina (southern Vietnam) while establishing protectorates in Annam (central Vietnam) and Tonkin (northern Vietnam). Consequently, Cochinchina was more directly influenced by French culture than the other two regions. Hanoi, being the capital of French Indochina, was the only place in Northern Vietnam with significant French influence.
From 1954 to 1975, Vietnam was again divided into two separate nations, divided by the Bến Hải River in Quảng Trị Province at the 17th parallel. The North, ruled by a communist government, was allied with communist China and the Soviet Union, while the South had a free - market economy, quasi-democratic government and had contact with the United States, the West and Western - aligned nations. Although the nation has been united since 1975, linguistic, cultural, and other differences serve to delineate the two regions from one another, with accompanying stereotypes.
The largest city in the North is Hanoi, the nation 's capital; and the country 's economical capital and largest city in the South is Ho Chi Minh City (formerly called Saigon).
The cultural differences between the regions can be divided into two main categories: "tangible '' cultural differences such as traditional clothing, cuisine, and so on; and "intangible '' cultural differences dealing with stereotypes of behavior, attitude and such between the people of these two regions. Discussions of inherent differences between people in the North and in the South are prohibited and can be classified as "reactionary '' in Vietnamese state - controlled media or ' ' undermining national unity ' '.
While relations between Northerners and Southerners are generally civil, the increased contact due to the influx of Northerners into the South since the end of the Vietnam War have given rise to some stereotypes about people from different regions:
Cuisine is one of the cultural differences between the regions. Northern Vietnam being the "cradle '' of ethnic Vietnamese civilization, bears many of Vietnam 's signature dishes (such as phở and Bún chả cá). The cuisine is perceived to be complex in ingredients but simplistic in flavours.
The South 's cuisine has been influenced by the cuisines of southern Chinese immigrants and indigenous Cambodians, and thus Southerners prefer sweet and sour flavors, respectively, in many dishes. Examples of sour - flavored food items include Canh chua and green mango salad / green papaya salad. Southern cookery also tend to use a significantly larger variety of fruits and vegetables than the other 2 regions. The cuisines of Southern Vietnam and Cambodia also share considerable similarities in ingredients, cooking style and food dishes, such as Hủ tiếu Nam Vang.
Central Vietnamese cooking, due to its royal heritage, is quite different from the cuisines of both the Northern and Southern regions, in its use of many small side dishes and requiring more time, more complex preparation (ingredient prep, cooking, serving etc.) and placing greater importance and food presentation, examples like Bánh bèo and Bánh bột lọc. It is also distinctive in its spiciness when compared to its counterparts, for example in Bún bò Huế. Food items from this region also tend to be lesser in size of individual portions (more snack, appetizer - like).
Certain unusual foods are more prevalent in one region than in another. For example, dog meat is much more popular in the North than in the South. Cat meat is also eaten in Northern parts of the country. Similarly, certain seafood dishes and game meat, such as rural rodents meat, while popular in other parts of the country, is unheard of in the North.
Traditional clothes are also often used to symbolize different regions. In women 's attire, commonly the Áo tứ thân is associated with the North, the áo dài with the central region (due to its emergence in the Vietnamese royal court in the 18th century), and the Áo bà ba in the South (although many of these clothes are worn across different regions). However, the áo dài is now a very popular and widely worn ladies ' attire nationwide.
There are an abundance of different dialects of the Vietnamese language, with major differences in phonology.
Despite the countless different accents one can find in each province, the three major accents are those of the North, Center, and South. Of these, the Northern and Southern accents are mostly intelligible to speakers from either region (unless it is a particularly heavy accent, and / or using certain distinct vocabulary) but, strangely, the rather heavy Central accent, in particular from the provinces of Nghệ An, Hà Tĩnh, Quảng Nam, and Quảng Ngãi is often unintelligible to both Northern and Southern speakers.
Differences in these accents lie in several different factors, including but not limited to the following:
Because the accents of Central Vietnam (culturally centered at the ancient capital of Huế), to the unaccustomed ear, reduce the number of tones to 5 (for Quảng Trị and Huế accents) or only 4 (for Hà Tĩnh, Nghệ An and Quảng Bình accents), Central Vietnamese speech can be relatively difficult to understand for Vietnamese speakers from the Northern and Southern regions. The most difficult are from the provinces of Nghệ An and Hà Tĩnh.
While these differences may seem superficial to non-Vietnamese speakers, even the difference in sound between Northern and Southern Vietnamese is quite striking.
The vocabularies of the different regions also differ, as certain words mean different things in different regions. For example, the word mận refers to two different fruits: it is used for Prunus salicina (a type of plum) in the North, while in the South it refers to Syzygium samarangense (the rose apple). Kinship terms are especially affected, as each term has a subtly different meaning in each region. In the South, the eldest child in a family is referred by the ordinal number 2, while in the North the number 2 refers to the second - eldest child.
While the entire country lies in the tropics, there is quite a large difference in climate between Northern and Southern Vietnam.
Northern Vietnam has a humid subtropical climate, with a full four seasons, with much cooler temperatures than in the South (which has a tropical savanna climate), as well as winters that can get quite cold, sometimes with frost and even (rarely) snowfall. The lowest temperature reached in Hanoi was 2.7 ° C in 1955. Snow can even be found to an extent up in the mountains of the extreme Northern regions in places such as Sapa and Lạng Sơn.
Southern Vietnam, with its much hotter temperatures, has only two main seasons: a dry season and a rainy season.
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when was the last time martial law was declared in the us | Martial law in the United States - wikipedia
Martial law in the United States refers to several periods in United States history wherein a region or the United States as whole are placed under the control of a military body. On a federal level, only the president has the power to impose Martial Law. In each state the governor has the right to impose martial law within the borders of the state. In the United States, martial law has been used in a limited number of circumstances, such as directly after a foreign attack, such as Hawaii after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor or New Orleans during the Battle of New Orleans; after major disasters, such as the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 or the San Francisco earthquake of 1906; renegade local leaders seeking to avoid arrest, such as Nauvoo, Illinois during the Illinois Mormon War, or Utah during the Utah War; or in response to chaos associated with protests and mob action, such as the 1934 West Coast waterfront strike, or mob actions against the Freedom Riders.
The martial law concept in the United States is closely tied with the right of habeas corpus, which is in essence the right to a hearing on lawful imprisonment, or more broadly, the supervision of law enforcement by the judiciary. The ability to suspend habeas corpus is related to the imposition of martial law. Article 1, Section 9 of the US Constitution states, "The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. '' There have been many instances of the use of the military within the borders of the United States, such as during the Whiskey Rebellion and in the South during the Civil Rights Movement, but these acts are not tantamount to a declaration of martial law. The distinction must be made as clear as that between martial law and military justice: deployment of troops does not necessarily mean that the civil courts can not function, and that is one of the keys, as the Supreme Court noted, to martial law.
In United States law, martial law is limited by several court decisions that were handed down between the American Civil War and World War II. In 1878, Congress passed the Posse Comitatus Act, which forbids military involvement in domestic law enforcement without congressional approval.
Throughout United States history are several examples of the imposition of martial law, aside from that during the Civil War.
As a result of the Boston Tea Party, Parliament passed the Massachusetts Government Act, one of the Intolerable Acts, which suppressed town meetings and assemblies, and imposed appointed government, tantamount to martial law.
During the War of 1812, US General Andrew Jackson imposed martial law in New Orleans, Louisiana before repulsing the British in the Battle of New Orleans. Martial law was also imposed in a four - mile radius around the vicinity. When word came of the end of the war, Jackson maintained martial law, contending that he had not gotten official word of the peace. A judge demanded habeas corpus for a man arrested for sedition. Rather than comply with the writ, Jackson had the judge arrested.
In 1843, Missouri sought to extradite Joseph Smith, the founder of Mormonism, for the attempted murder of Missouri governor Lilburn Boggs. He escaped arrest with the help of members of his church, and was discharged on a writ of habeas corpus in the Municipal Court of Nauvoo, where he was mayor, even though it was outside the court 's jurisdiction. People in the neighboring town of Carthage, Illinois felt that Smith was abusing his position in order to avoid arrest. They requested that Governor Ford call out the militia to take Smith into custody, to which Governor Ford declined. A group of ex-Mormons published a paper called the Nauvoo Expositor which detailed Smith 's alleged abuse of power. Together with the Nauvoo City Council, Smith ordered the destruction of the Nauvoo Expositor. This caused an uproar in neighboring towns, who interpreted the order as an attack on the freedom of speech. Smith was charged with causing a riot, which the Nauvoo courts dismissed. Neighboring cities raised money for a militia to go and capture Smith. Governor Ford arrived in Carthage and sent word to Smith that if he did not surrender, Ford would call out the militia. On June 18, Smith declared martial law in Nauvoo and called out the Nauvoo Legion, an organized city militia of about 5,000 men, to protect Nauvoo from outside violence. Ford sent a group of men and abolished martial law. By this time, Smith had escaped into Iowa, but was convinced by his supporters to return. He was arrested for treason against the state of Illinois for declaring martial law. While awaiting trial in Carthage Jail, Smith was murdered by a mob. In 1845, Nauvoo was stripped of its charter for abuse of authority. This led to a series of conflicts known as the Illinois Mormon War.
Tension between Utah territory and the federal government was strained in 1857 due to the influence of theodemocracy in the Governor Brigham Young 's semi-theocratic government, Utah 's rejection of Federal appointees, and Utah 's acceptance of polygamy and slavery. In 1857, President James Buchanan sent U.S. forces to the Utah Territory in what became known as the Utah War. The Mormons, fearful that the large U.S. military force had been sent to annihilate them made preparations for defense. On 15 September, Young publicly declared martial law in Utah. It was widely circulated throughout the Territory and was delivered by messenger to Col. Alexander with the approaching army. The most important provision forbade "all armed forces of every description from coming into this Territory, under any pretense whatsoever. '' It also commanded that "all the forces in said Territory hold themselves in readiness to march at a moment 's notice to repel any and all such invasion. '' But more important to California and Oregon bound travelers was the third section that stated "Martial law is hereby declared to exist in this Territory... and no person shall be allowed to pass or repass into, through or from this territory without a permit from the proper officer. '' Brigham Young ordered the people in Salt Lake City, Utah to burn their homes and retreat south to Provo, Utah. Meanwhile, the Mormons harassed the approaching army. Eventually, Brigham Young was removed as governor and replaced by Alfred Cumming.
On September 15, 1863 President Lincoln imposed Congressionally authorized martial law. The authorizing act allowed the President to suspend habeas corpus throughout the entire United States (which he had already done under his own authority on April 27, 1861). Lincoln imposed the suspension on "prisoners of war, spies, or aiders and abettors of the enemy, '' as well as on other classes of people, such as draft dodgers. The President 's proclamation was challenged in Ex parte Milligan, 71 US 2 (1866). The Supreme Court ruled that Lincoln 's imposition of martial law (by way of suspension of habeas corpus) was unconstitutional in areas where the local courts were still in session.
In response to the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, Chicago mayor Roswell B. Mason declared a state of martial law and placed General Philip Sheridan in charge of the city on October 9, 1871. After the fire was extinguished, there were no widespread disturbances and martial law was lifted within a few days.
In 1892, in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, striking mine workers blew up a mill and shot at strike - breaking workers. The explosion leveled a four - story building and killed one person. The governor declared martial law. At the same time, a request was made for federal troops to back guardsmen. Over 600 people were arrested. The list was whittled down to two dozen ringleaders who were tried in military court. While in prison, the mine workers formed a new union, the Western Federation of Miners.
Following the earthquake of 1906, the troops stationed in the Presidio were pressed into martial law service. Guards were posted throughout the city, and all dynamite was confiscated. The dynamite was used to destroy buildings in the path of fires, to prevent the fires from spreading.
In 1914, imposition of martial law climaxed the so - called Colorado Coalfield War. Dating back decades, the conflicts came to a head in Ludlow, Colorado in 1913. The Colorado National Guard was called in to quell the strikers. For a time, the peace was kept, but it is reported that the make - up of the Guard stationed at the mines began to shift from impartial normal troops to companies of loyal mine guards. Clashes increased and the proclamation of martial law was made by the governor, eventually resulting in the Ludlow Massacre. President Wilson sent in federal troops, eventually ending the violence.
During the events of the West Virginia Coal Wars (1920 -- 1921), martial law was declared in the state of West Virginia. At the behest of Governor Cornwell, federal troops had been dispatched to Mingo County to deal with the striking miners. The army officer in charge acted, ostensibly, under the Suspension Clause of Article I of the United States Constitution (selectively; accounts show that he only jailed union miners), and did not allow assembly of any kind. If his soldiers found any union miners, they immediately took them and imprisoned them. The jails filled up so quickly that he had to release miners. As it went, miners were arrested, jailed, and released without any sort of trial. After a time, when the trial of Sid Hatfield began, the military occupation and "veritable military dictatorship '' (Governor Cornwell) of the army officer ended. Many of the miners were not released from jail. It was only the first of three times that federal troops would be called to quiet the miners in the West Virginia Mine War.
In 1934, California Governor Frank Merriam placed the docks of San Francisco under martial law, citing "riots and tumult '' resulting from a dock worker 's strike. The Governor threatened to place the entire city under martial law. The National Guard was called in to open the docks, and a citywide institution of martial law was averted when goods began to flow. The guardsmen were empowered to make arrests and to then try detainees or turn them over to the courts.
During World War II (1939 to 1945) what is now the State of Hawaii was held under martial law from December 7, 1941 to October 24, 1944, following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. After the war, the federal judge for the islands condemned the conduct of martial law, saying, "Gov. Poindexter declared lawfully martial law but the Army went beyond the governor and set up that which was lawful only in conquered enemy territory namely, military government which is not bound by the Constitution. And they... threw the Constitution into the discard and set up a military dictatorship. ''
On May 21, 1961, Governor Patterson of Alabama declared martial law "as a result of outside agitators coming into Alabama to violate our laws and customs '' which had led to "outbreaks of lawlessness and mob action. '' The "agitators '' were Freedom Riders, peaceful civil rights activists challenging the already - illegal racial segregation in the South.
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what was the population of las vegas in 1960 | Las Vegas - Wikipedia
Las Vegas (/ lɑːs ˈveɪɡəs /, Spanish for "The Meadows ''; Spanish: (las ˈβeɣas)), officially the City of Las Vegas and often known simply as Vegas, is the 28th-most populated city in the United States, the most populated city in the state of Nevada, and the county seat of Clark County. The city anchors the Las Vegas Valley metropolitan area and is the largest city within the greater Mojave Desert. Las Vegas is an internationally renowned major resort city, known primarily for its gambling, shopping, fine dining, entertainment, and nightlife. The Las Vegas Valley as a whole serves as the leading financial, commercial, and cultural center for Nevada.
The city bills itself as The Entertainment Capital of the World, and is famous for its mega casino -- hotels and associated activities. It is a top three destination in the United States for business conventions and a global leader in the hospitality industry, claiming more AAA Five Diamond hotels than any other city in the world. Today, Las Vegas annually ranks as one of the world 's most visited tourist destinations. The city 's tolerance for numerous forms of adult entertainment earned it the title of Sin City, and has made Las Vegas a popular setting for literature, films, television programs, and music videos.
Las Vegas was settled in 1905 and officially incorporated in 1911. At the close of the 20th century, it was the most populated American city founded within that century (a similar distinction earned by Chicago in the 1800s). Population growth has accelerated since the 1960s, and between 1990 and 2000 the population nearly doubled, increasing by 85.2 %. Rapid growth has continued into the 21st century, and according to a 2017 estimate, the population is 648,224 with a regional population of 2,248,390.
"Las Vegas '' is often used to describe areas beyond official city limits -- especially the areas on and near the Las Vegas Strip, which is actually located within the unincorporated communities of Paradise, Winchester, and Enterprise.
Perhaps the earliest visitors to the Las Vegas area were nomadic Paleo - Indians, who traveled there 10,000 years ago, leaving behind petroglyphs. Anasazi and Paiute tribes followed at least 2,000 years ago.
A young Mexican scout named Rafael Rivera is credited as the first non-Native American to encounter the valley, in 1829. Trader Antonio Armijo led a 60 - man party along the Spanish Trail to Los Angeles, California in 1829. The area was named Las Vegas, which is Spanish for "the meadows, '' as it featured abundant wild grasses, as well as the desert spring waters needed by westward travelers. The year 1844 marked the arrival of John C. Frémont, whose writings helped lure pioneers to the area. Downtown Las Vegas 's Fremont Street is named after him.
Eleven years later members of the LDS Church chose Las Vegas as the site to build a fort halfway between Salt Lake City and Los Angeles, where they would travel to gather supplies. The fort was abandoned several years afterward. The remainder of this Old Mormon Fort can still be seen at the intersection of Las Vegas Boulevard and Washington Avenue.
Las Vegas was founded as a city in 1905, when 110 acres (45 ha) of land adjacent to the Union Pacific Railroad tracks were auctioned in what would become the downtown area. In 1911, Las Vegas was incorporated as a city.
1931 was a pivotal year for Las Vegas. At that time, Nevada legalized casino gambling and reduced residency requirements for divorce to six weeks. This year also witnessed the beginning of construction on nearby Hoover Dam. The influx of construction workers and their families helped Las Vegas avoid economic calamity during the Great Depression. The construction work was completed in 1935.
In 1941, the Las Vegas Army Air Corps Gunnery School was established. Currently known as Nellis Air Force Base, it is home to the aerobatic team called the Thunderbirds.
Following World War II, lavishly decorated hotels, gambling casinos, and big - name entertainment became synonymous with Las Vegas.
In the 1950s the Moulin Rouge opened and became the first racially integrated casino - hotel in Las Vegas.
In 1951, nuclear weapons testing began at the Nevada Test Site, 65 miles (105 km) northwest of Las Vegas. City residents and visitors were able to witness the mushroom clouds (and were exposed to the fallout) until 1963, when the limited Test Ban Treaty required that nuclear tests be moved underground.
The iconic "Welcome to Las Vegas '' sign, which was never located within municipal limits, was created in 1959 by Betty Willis.
During the 1960s, corporations and business powerhouses such as Howard Hughes were building and buying hotel - casino properties. Gambling was referred to as "gaming '' which transitioned into legitimate business.
The year 1995 marked the opening of the Fremont Street Experience in Las Vegas 's downtown area. This canopied five - block area features 12.5 million LED lights and 550,000 watts of sound from dusk until midnight during shows held on the top of each hour.
Due to the realization of many revitalization efforts, 2012 was dubbed "The Year of Downtown. '' Hundreds of millions of dollars ' worth of projects made their debut at this time. They included The Smith Center for the Performing Arts and DISCOVERY Children 's Museum, Mob Museum, Neon Museum, a new City Hall complex and renovations for a new Zappos.com corporate headquarters in the old City Hall building.
Las Vegas is situated within Clark County in a basin on the floor of the Mojave Desert and is surrounded by mountain ranges on all sides. Much of the landscape is rocky and arid with desert vegetation and wildlife. It can be subjected to torrential flash floods, although much has been done to mitigate the effects of flash floods through improved drainage systems.
The peaks surrounding Las Vegas reach elevations of over 10,000 feet (3,000 m), and act as barriers to the strong flow of moisture from the surrounding area. The elevation is approximately 2,030 ft (620 m) above sea level. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 135.86 sq mi (351.9 km), of which 135.81 sq mi (351.7 km) is land and 0.05 sq mi (0.13 km) (0.03 %) is water.
Nevada is the third most seismically active state in the U.S. (after Alaska and California); it has been estimated by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) that over the next 50 years there is a 10 -- 20 % chance of a M6. 0 or greater earthquake occurring within 50 km (31 mi) of Las Vegas.
Within the city there are many lawns, trees and other greenery. Due to water resource issues, there has been a movement to encourage xeriscapes. Another part of conservation efforts is scheduled watering days for residential landscaping. A U.S. Environmental Protection Agency grant in 2008 funded a program that analyzed and forecast growth and environmental impacts through the year 2019.
Las Vegas has a subtropical hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification: BWh), typical of the Mojave Desert in which it lies. This climate is typified by long, very hot summers; warm transitional seasons; and short, mild to chilly winters. There is abundant sunshine throughout the year, with an average of 310 sunny days and bright sunshine during 86 % of all daylight hours. Rainfall is scarce, with an average of 4.2 in (110 mm) dispersed between roughly 26 to 27 total rainy days per year. Las Vegas is among the sunniest, driest, and least humid locations in North America, with exceptionally low dew points and humidity that sometimes remains below 10 %.
The summer months of June through September are very hot, though moderated by extremely low humidity. July is the hottest month, with an average daytime high of 104.2 ° F (40.1 ° C). On average, 134 days per year reach or exceed 90 ° F (32 ° C), of which 74 days reach 100 ° F (38 ° C) and 7 days reach 110 ° F (43 ° C). During the peak intensity of summer, overnight lows frequently remain above 80 ° F (27 ° C) and occasionally above 85 ° F (29 ° C). While most summer days are consistently hot, dry, and cloudless, the North American Monsoon sporadically interrupts this pattern and brings more cloud cover, thunderstorms, lightning, increased humidity, and brief spells of heavy rain. The window of opportunity for the monsoon to affect Las Vegas usually falls between July and August, although this is inconsistent and varies considerably in its impact from year to year. Summer in Las Vegas is marked by a significant diurnal variation; while less extreme than other parts of the state, nighttime lows in Las Vegas are often 30 ° F (16.7 ° C) or more lower than daytime highs.
Las Vegas winters are short and generally very mild, with chilly (but rarely cold) daytime temperatures. Like all seasons, sunshine is abundant. December is both the year 's coolest and cloudiest month, with an average daytime high of 56.6 ° F (13.7 ° C) and sunshine occurring during 78 % of its daylight hours. Winter evenings are defined by clear skies and swift drops in temperature after sunset, with overnight lows sinking to 39 ° F (3.9 ° C) or lower during the majority of nights in December and January. Owing to its elevation that ranges from 2,000 feet to 3,000 feet, Las Vegas experiences markedly cooler winters than other areas of the Mojave Desert and the adjacent Sonoran Desert that are closer to sea level. Consequently, the city records freezing temperatures an average of 16 nights per winter. However, it is exceptionally rare for temperatures to fall to or below 25 ° F (− 4 ° C), or for temperatures to remain below 45 ° F (7 ° C) for an entire day. Most of the annual precipitation falls during the winter months, but even the wettest month (February) averages only four days of measurable rain. The mountains immediately surrounding the Las Vegas Valley accumulate snow every winter, but significant or sustained accumulation within the city is rare. The most recent accumulating snowfall occurred on December 17, 2008, when Las Vegas received 3.6 inches (9.1 cm). Las Vegas ' largest snowfall on record was 12 inches (30 cm) that fell in 1909.
According to the 2010 Census, the racial composition of Las Vegas was as follows:
Source:
The city 's most populous ethnic group, non-Hispanic Whites, have proportionally declined from 72.1 % of the population in 1990 to 47.9 % in 2010, even as total numbers of all ethnicities have increased with the population. Hispanics or Latinos of any race make up 31.5 % of the population. Of those 24.0 % are of Mexican, 1.4 % of Salvadoran, 0.9 % of Puerto Rican, 0.9 % of Cuban, 0.6 % of Guatemalan, 0.2 % of Peruvian, 0.2 % of Colombian, 0.2 % of Honduran and 0.2 % of Nicaraguan descent.
Hawaiians and Las Vegans sometimes refer to Las Vegas as the "ninth island of Hawaii '' because so many Hawaiians have moved to the city.
As of the census of 2010, there were 583,756 people, 211,689 households, and 117,538 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,222.5 / sq mi (1,630.3 / km). There are 190,724 housing units at an average density of 1,683.3 / sq mi (649.9 / km).
As of 2006, there were 176,750 households, out of which 31.9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.3 % were married couples living together, 12.2 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.5 % were non-families. 25.0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 7.5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.20.
In the city, the population was spread out with 25.9 % under the age of 18, 8.8 % from 18 to 24, 32.0 % from 25 to 44, 21.7 % from 45 to 64, and 11.6 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $53,000 and the median income for a family was $58,465. Males had a median income of $35,511 versus $27,554 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,060. About 6.6 % of families and 8.9 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.4 % of those under age 18 and 6.3 % of those age 65 or over.
According to a 2004 study, Las Vegas has one of the highest divorce rates. The city 's high divorce rate is not wholly due to Las Vegans themselves getting divorced. Since divorce is easier in Nevada than most other states, many people come from across the country for the easier process. Similarly, Nevada marriages are notoriously easy to get. Las Vegas has one of the highest marriage rates of U.S. cities, with many licenses issued to people from outside the area (see Las Vegas weddings).
The primary drivers of the Las Vegas economy are tourism, gaming and conventions, which in turn feed the retail and restaurant industries.
The major attractions in Las Vegas are the casinos and the hotels, although in recent years other new attractions have begun to emerge.
Most casinos in the downtown area are located on Fremont Street, with The Stratosphere being one of the exceptions. Fremont East, adjacent to the Fremont Street Experience, was granted variances to allow bars to be closer together, similar to the Gaslamp Quarter of San Diego, the goal being to attract a different demographic than the Strip attracts.
The Golden Gate Hotel & Casino, located downtown along the Fremont Street Experience, is the oldest continuously operating hotel and casino in Las Vegas; it opened in 1906 as the Hotel Nevada.
The year 1931 marked the opening of the Northern Club (now the La Bayou). The most notable of the early casinos may have been Binion 's Horseshoe (now Binion 's Gambling Hall and Hotel) while it was run by Benny Binion.
Boyd Gaming has a major presence downtown operating the California Hotel & Casino, Fremont Hotel & Casino and the Main Street Casino. Other casinos operations include the Four Queens Hotel & Casino, Las Vegas Club (currently undergoing renovation) and Mermaid 's Casino, which are also located downtown along the Fremont Street Experience.
Downtown casinos that have undergone major renovations and revitalization in recent years include the Golden Nugget Hotel & Casino, The D Las Vegas Hotel Casino (formerly Fitzgerald 's), Downtown Grand (formerly Lady Luck), El Cortez Hotel & Casino and The Plaza Hotel & Casino.
The center of the gambling and entertainment industry, however, is located on the Las Vegas Strip, outside the city limits in the surrounding unincorporated communities of Paradise and Winchester in Clark County. The largest and most notable casinos and buildings are located there.
When The Mirage opened in 1989, it started a trend of major resort development on the Las Vegas Strip outside of the city. This resulted in a drop in tourism in the downtown area, but many recent projects have increased the number of visitors to downtown.
An effort has been made by city officials to diversify the economy by attracting health - related, high - tech and other commercial interests. No state tax for individuals or corporations, as well as a lack of other forms of business - related taxes, have aided the success of these efforts.
The Fremont Street Experience was built in an effort to draw tourists back to the area, and has been popular since its startup in 1995.
The city purchased 61 acres (25 ha) of property from the Union Pacific Railroad in 1995 with the goal of creating a better draw for more people to the downtown area. In 2004, Las Vegas Mayor Oscar Goodman announced plans for Symphony Park, which could include a mixture of offerings, such as residential space and office buildings.
Already operating in Symphony Park is the Cleveland Clinic Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health (opened in 2010), The Smith Center for the Performing Arts (opened in 2012) and the DISCOVERY Children 's Museum (opened in 2013).
On land across from Symphony Park, the World Market Center Las Vegas opened in 2005. It currently encompasses three large buildings with a total of 5.1 million square feet. Trade shows for the furniture and furnishing industries are held there semiannually.
Also located nearby is the Las Vegas North Premium Outlets. A second expansion was completed in May 2015, with the mall currently offering 175 stores.
A new Las Vegas City Hall opened in February 2013 on downtown 's Main Street. The former City Hall building is now occupied by the corporate headquarters for the major online retailer, Zappos.com, which opened downtown in 2013. Zappos CEO Tony Hsieh has taken an interest in the urban area and has contributed $350 million toward a revitalization effort called the Downtown Project. Projects funded include Las Vegas 's first independent bookstore, The Writer 's Block.
A number of new industries have moved to Las Vegas in recent decades. Online shoe retailer Zappos.com (now an Amazon subsidiary) was founded in San Francisco but by 2013 had moved its headquarters to downtown Las Vegas. Allegiant Air, a low - cost carrier launched in 1997, had its first hub at McCarran International Airport and is headquartered in nearby Summerlin.
The city is home to several museums, including the Neon Museum (the location for many of the historical signs from Las Vegas 's mid-20th century heyday), The Mob Museum, the Las Vegas Natural History Museum, the DISCOVERY Children 's Museum, the Nevada State Museum and the Old Las Vegas Mormon State Historic Park.
The city is home to an extensive Downtown Arts District, which hosts numerous galleries and events including the annual Las Vegas Film Festival. "First Friday '' is a monthly celebration that includes arts, music, special presentations and food in a section of the city 's downtown region called 18b, The Las Vegas Arts District. The festival extends into the Fremont East Entertainment District as well.
The Thursday prior to First Friday is known in the arts district as "Preview Thursday. '' This evening event highlights new gallery exhibitions throughout the district.
The Las Vegas Academy of International Studies, Performing and Visual Arts is a Grammy award - winning magnet school located in downtown Las Vegas.
The Smith Center for the Performing Arts is situated downtown in Symphony Park. The world - class performing arts center hosts Broadway shows and other major touring attractions, as well as orchestral, opera, ballet, choir, jazz, and dance performances.
Las Vegas had earned the moniker Gambling Capital of the World, as the city currently has the largest strip of land - based casinos in the world.
The Las Vegas Valley is the home of one major league professional team, the Vegas Golden Knights of the National Hockey League, an expansion team that began play in the 2017 -- 18 NHL season out of T - Mobile Arena in nearby Paradise. In 2020, the Oakland Raiders of the National Football League will relocate to Las Vegas Stadium, which is currently under construction.
The only minor league sports team that plays in the city of Las Vegas is the Las Vegas 51s of the Pacific Coast League, the AAA farm club of the New York Mets, although they will be moving to nearby Summerlin in the 2019 season under a new name.
In response to the original rumors of the eventual NHL expansion team in Las Vegas, ESPN writer Scott Burnside noted several obstacles that would be faced by the city if it were to become a professional sports market, including the presence of legal sports betting, scheduling conflicts with the large number of residents who work nighttime and overnight shifts, and that the casinos would be unlikely to give away tickets to such events as a promotion, as they run contrary to a goal of encouraging patrons to remain in their facilities.
Las Vegas has 68 parks. The city owns the land for, but does not operate, four golf courses: Angel Park Golf Club, Desert Pines Golf Club, Durango Hills Golf Club, and the Las Vegas Municipal Golf Course. It is also responsible for 123 playgrounds, 23 softball fields, 10 football fields, 44 soccer fields, 10 dog parks, six community centers, four senior centers, 109 skates parks, six swimming pools, and more.
The city of Las Vegas government operates as a council -- manager government. The Mayor sits as a Council member - at - large and presides over all of the City Council meetings. In the event that the Mayor can not preside over a City Council meeting, the Mayor Pro-Tem is the presiding officer of the meeting until such time as the Mayor returns to his / her seat. The City Manager is responsible for the administration and the day - to - day operations of all municipal services and city departments. The City Manager maintains intergovernmental relationships with federal, state, county and other local governments.
Much of the Las Vegas metropolitan area is split into neighboring incorporated cities or unincorporated communities. Approximately 700,000 people live in unincorporated areas governed by Clark County, and another 465,000 live in incorporated cities such as North Las Vegas, Henderson and Boulder City. Las Vegas and Clark County share a police department, the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, which was formed after a 1973 merger of the Las Vegas Police Department and the Clark County Sheriff 's Department. North Las Vegas, Henderson, Boulder City and some colleges have their own police departments.
A Paiute Indian reservation occupies about 1 acre (0.40 ha) in the downtown area.
Las Vegas, home to the Lloyd D. George Federal District Courthouse and the Regional Justice Center, draws numerous companies providing bail, marriage, divorce, tax, incorporation and other legal services.
Primary and secondary public education is provided by the Clark County School District, which is the fifth most populous school district in the nation. Students totaled 314,653 in grades K - 12 for school year 2013 -- 2014.
The College of Southern Nevada (the third largest community college in the United States by enrollment) is the main higher education facility in the city. Other institutions include the University of Nevada School of Medicine, with a campus in the city, and the for - profit private school Le Cordon Bleu College of Culinary Arts. Educational opportunities exist around the city; among them are the University of Nevada, Las Vegas and Nevada State College run by the Nevada System of Higher Education, Desert Research Institute, The International Academy of Design & Technology Las Vegas and Touro University Nevada.
Las Vegas is served by 22 television and 46 radio stations. The area is also served by two NOAA Weather Radio transmitters (162.55 MHz located in Boulder City and 162.40 MHz located on Mount Potosi).
RTC Transit is a public transportation system providing bus service throughout Las Vegas, Henderson, North Las Vegas and other areas of the valley. Inter-city bus service to and from Las Vegas is provided by Greyhound, BoltBus, Orange Belt Stages, Tufesa, and several smaller carriers. Amtrak trains have not served Las Vegas since the service via the Desert Wind was discontinued in 1997. Though no Amtrak trains have served Las Vegas since the Desert Wind was cancelled in 1997, Amtrak California operates Thruway Motorcoach dedicated service between the city and its passenger rail stations in Bakersfield, California, as well as Los Angeles Union Station via Barstow.
A bus rapid - transit link in Las Vegas called the Strip & Downtown Express (previously ACE Gold Line) with limited stops and frequent service was launched in March 2010, and connects downtown Las Vegas, the Strip and the Las Vegas Convention Center.
In 2016, 77.1 percent of working Las Vegas residents (those living in the city, but not necessarily working in the city) commuted by driving alone. About 11 percent commuted via carpool, 3.9 percent used public transportation, and 1.4 percent walked. About 2.3 percent of Las Vegas commuters used all other forms of transportation, including taxi, bicycle, and motorcycle. About 4.3 of working Las Vegas residents worked at home. In 2015, 10.2 percent of city of Las Vegas households were without a car, which increased slightly to 10.5 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Las Vegas averaged 1.63 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8 per household.
With some exceptions, including Las Vegas Boulevard, Boulder Highway (SR 582) and Rancho Drive (SR 599), the majority of surface streets in Las Vegas are laid out in a grid along Public Land Survey System section lines. Many are maintained by the Nevada Department of Transportation as state highways. The street numbering system is divided by the following streets:
Interstates 15, 515, and US 95 lead out of the city in four directions. Two major freeways -- Interstate 15 and Interstate 515 / U.S. Route 95 -- cross in downtown Las Vegas. I - 15 connects Las Vegas to Los Angeles, and heads northeast to and beyond Salt Lake City. I - 515 goes southeast to Henderson, beyond which US 93 continues over the Mike O'Callaghan -- Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge towards Phoenix, Arizona. US 95 connects the city to northwestern Nevada, including Carson City and Reno. US 93 splits from I - 15 northeast of Las Vegas and goes north through the eastern part of the state, serving Ely and Wells. US 95 heads south from US 93 near Henderson through far eastern California. A partial beltway has been built, consisting of Interstate 215 on the south and Clark County 215 on the west and north. Other radial routes include Blue Diamond Road (SR 160) to Pahrump and Lake Mead Boulevard (SR 147) to Lake Mead.
McCarran International Airport handles international and domestic flights into the Las Vegas Valley. The airport also serves private aircraft and freight / cargo flights. Most general aviation traffic uses the smaller North Las Vegas Airport and Henderson Executive Airport.
The Union Pacific Railroad is the only Class I railroad providing rail freight service to the city. Until 1997, the Amtrak Desert Wind train service ran through Las Vegas using the Union Pacific Railroad tracks.
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when does the regular season nfl football start | 2018 NFL season - wikipedia
The 2018 NFL season is the 99th season of the National Football League (NFL). The season began on September 6, 2018 with the NFL Kickoff Game with the defending Super Bowl LII champion Philadelphia Eagles defeating the Atlanta Falcons 18 -- 12. The season will conclude with Super Bowl LIII, the league 's championship game, on February 3, 2019 at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia.
The 2018 NFL League year and trading period began on March 14. On March 9, clubs were allowed to exercise options for 2018 on players who have option clauses in their contracts, submit qualifying offers to their pending restricted free agents and submit a Minimum Salary Tender to retain exclusive negotiating rights to their players with expiring 2017 contracts and who have fewer than three accrued seasons of free agent credit. Teams were required to be under the salary cap using the "Top - 51 '' definition (in which the 51 highest paid - players on the team 's payroll must have a combined salary cap hit below the actual cap). On March 12, clubs were allowed to contact and enter into contract negotiations with the agents of players who were set to become unrestricted free agents.
Over 550 players were eligible for some form of free agency during the free agency period. Notable players to change teams include:
Other retirements
The 2018 NFL Draft was held from April 26 to 28 at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas. This was the first draft to take place in an NFL stadium, and the first to be held in Texas. The Cleveland Browns selected Baker Mayfield with the first overall pick.
Four referees retired during the 2018 off - season, the most to do so since records on the statistics have been kept.
In total, 10 officials left the league in the offseason, and 7 were hired. Four officials were promoted to the referee position.
Down judge Hugo Cruz was fired for performance - related issues culminating with a missed false start during a Week 6 game between the Los Angeles Chargers and Cleveland Browns. It was the first time in the Super Bowl era that an official was dismissed in - season.
The following playing rule changes have been approved by the Competition Committee for the 2018 season:
The following bylaws and resolutions were passed:
The following changes to the kickoff rules were approved at the NFL Spring Owners ' Meeting on May 23, 2018:
In response to the recent National Anthem protests in the league the past two seasons, any player or staff member who is on the field during the performance of "The Star - Spangled Banner '' must stand for the duration of the performance. Such players and staff members are not required to be on the field at that time and may wait in the locker room as an alternative. The NFL will not directly fine offending players or staff members for defying the rule, instead fining the teams, who will in turn have power to fine the players or staff members at their own discretion. The National Football League Players Association filed a grievance with the league over the policy on July 11.
The following people associated with the NFL (or AFL) have died in 2018.
Training camps for the 2018 season were held in late July through August. Teams started training camp no earlier than 15 days before the team 's first scheduled preseason game.
The Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, in which the Baltimore Ravens defeated the Chicago Bears 17 -- 16, was played on August 2; and was televised nationally by NBC. The Ravens, who made their first Hall of Fame Game appearance, were represented in the 2018 Hall of Fame class by former linebacker Ray Lewis, while the Bears were represented by former linebacker Brian Urlacher.
The 2018 regular season 's 256 games were played over a 17 - week schedule that began on September 6. Each of the league 's 32 teams played a 16 - game schedule, with one bye week for each team. The slate also featured games on Monday Nights. There were games played on Thursdays, including the National Football League Kickoff game in prime time on September 6 and games on Thanksgiving Day. The regular season concluded with a full slate of 16 games on December 30, all of which were intra-division matchups, as it had been since 2010.
Under the NFL 's current scheduling formula, each team plays the other three teams in its own division twice. In addition, a team plays against all four teams in one other division from each conference. The final two games on a team 's schedule are against the two remaining teams in the same conference that finished in the same position in their respective divisions (e.g., the team that finished fourth in its division will play all three other teams in the conference that also finished fourth). The division pairings for 2018 will be as follows:
Intra-conference AFC East vs AFC South AFC West vs AFC North NFC East vs NFC South NFC West vs NFC North
Inter-conference AFC East vs NFC North AFC North vs NFC South AFC South vs NFC East AFC West vs NFC West
The entire season schedule was released on April 19, 2018. Highlights of the 2018 season include:
When the entire season schedule was released on April 19, 2018, the league announced flexible scheduling for Saturday games in weeks 15 and 16. The final kickoff times for these games will be announced no later than week 8:
The 2018 playoffs will begin on the weekend of January 5 -- 6, 2019 with the Wild Card Playoff round. The four winners of these playoff games will visit the top two seeds in each conference in the Divisional round games the weekend of January 12 -- 13. The winners of those games will advance to the Conference championship games on January 20. The 2019 Pro Bowl will be held at Camping World Stadium in Orlando, Florida on January 27 and will be broadcast on ESPN and ABC. Super Bowl LIII will be held on February 3 at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, on CBS.
The following were named the top performers during the 2018 season:
Two teams, the Carolina Panthers and Oakland Raiders, are entering the final year of their lease agreements with their current stadium.
On December 17, 2017, Jerry Richardson, the Panthers ' founding owner, announced he was putting the team up for sale. Richardson had previously indicated the team would be put up for sale after his death, but Richardson was accused of paying hush money to cover up questionable conduct, including racial slurs and sexually suggestive requests of employees, hastening Richardson 's decision. The Panthers ' lease on Bank of America Stadium expires after the 2018 season, which would allow any incoming owner to relocate the team out of Charlotte, North Carolina, to another market if they so desired, only being liable for the remaining debt from stadium renovation. At an estimated $35 million, the debt payment would be a small expense compared to the relocation fee the NFL charged for the two teams that relocated in 2016 and 2017. The two most likely candidates to buy the team as of May 2018 were David Tepper, a hedge fund manager with a higher net worth and a minority stake in the Pittsburgh Steelers but fewer ties to Charlotte; and Ben Navarro, a financial services CEO based in Charlotte who had the backing of Richardson 's only living son. Tepper was announced as the new owner on May 16, with the announcement coming in time for the league to vote on his bid at the owners meeting on May 19. The sale closed on July 9 with Richardson - era chief operating officer Tina Becker (who ran the franchise after Richardson stepped away from operations) resigning. Tepper immediately stated the franchise would retain the Carolina Panthers name for the time being, but that a new stadium would likely be necessary; he stated that he hoped to build said stadium in Charlotte but would not guarantee the team remains there, claiming he did not know enough about the situation to guarantee the team stays in the Charlotte area.
The Raiders, prior to the 2017 season, committed to relocating to Las Vegas, Nevada, once a new stadium is constructed for them in 2020. In 2016, the Raiders signed a three - year extension with the Oakland Coliseum. The Raiders could choose to stay in the Oakland Coliseum for 2019 with another year - to - year extension or move to Sam Boyd Stadium in Las Vegas, which is undersized but (because of the Los Angeles Chargers ' use of the even smaller StubHub Center) would not be the smallest stadium in the NFL. Management at the Oakland Coliseum has indicated they are unwilling to extend their agreement with the Raiders after 2018, which could force the team to move to Sam Boyd Stadium in 2019. In order to secure another season in Oakland, California, Coliseum management indicated in September 2017 that the Raiders would need to offer major concessions to compensate for the financial losses the Coliseum incurs by hosting Raiders games.
On September 4, University of Phoenix Stadium, the home field of the Arizona Cardinals, was renamed State Farm Stadium. The naming rights agreement is for 18 years; however, the cost of the deal was not disclosed.
On June 20, the Denver Broncos ' home stadium was renamed Broncos Stadium at Mile High. The sporting goods chain Sports Authority had held naming rights to the stadium 's field (as "Sports Authority Field at Mile High '') but had gone out of business in 2016. The previous signage referring to Sports Authority was removed in March. The Broncos hope to resell the naming rights to the stadium to another corporate sponsor in the near future.
On February 16, EverBank Field, the home field of the Jacksonville Jaguars, was renamed TIAA Bank Field, after TIAA 's 2017 acquisition of EverBank. The naming rights agreement was for 10 years and $43 million.
The Color Rush program was discontinued, and teams were no longer required to wear the special uniforms for Thursday Night Football. Initial plans, which were finalized at the league 's owners meeting in May, are for teams to have the option to continue using the existing Nike designs for the program as standard third jerseys.
This will be the fifth year under the current broadcast contracts with ESPN, CBS, Fox, and NBC. This includes "cross-flexing '' (switching) Sunday afternoon games between CBS and Fox before or during the season (regardless of the conference of the visiting team). NBC will continue to air Sunday Night Football, the annual Kickoff game, and the primetime Thanksgiving game. ESPN will continue to air Monday Night Football and the Pro Bowl. CBS will broadcast Super Bowl LIII.
On January 31, the NFL announced that Fox had acquired the broadcast television rights to the Thursday Night Football package under a five - year deal (aligned with the remainder of the NFL 's current broadcast contracts). Fox will air 11 games, along with the 2018 NFL Draft (the first time the event has aired on over-the - air television), in simulcast with NFL Network, with the remaining games in the package airing exclusively on NFL Network to satisfy its carriage contracts. CBS and NBC had made bids to renew their previous contracts (CBS had held the rights since 2014, joined by NBC since 2016), but were reluctant to pay a higher rights fee due to the league 's ratings downturn.
The NFL agreed to an extension of its digital rights agreement with Verizon Communications under a 5 - year, $2.5 billion deal. Unlike the previous deal, it no longer includes exclusivity for streaming in - market and nationally televised NFL games on mobile devices with screens 7 inches (18 cm) or less in size (such as smartphones), in order to account for changes in viewing habits, but still includes enhanced access to highlights and other digital content for Verizon - owned properties. In addition, Verizon announced that it would no longer make these streams exclusive to Verizon Wireless subscribers, and would leverage its portfolio of media brands (such as Yahoo!, which it acquired in 2017) to distribute them to a larger audience. All of the NFL 's current television partners have added mobile streaming rights (which were previously reserved to Verizon) to their existing contracts for the 2018 season. Under the terms of the agreement, Verizon must give the majority of the advertising revenue to the broadcast partners.
On April 26, 2018, the NFL announced that it had reached a two - year extension of its agreement with Amazon for shared digital rights to the Thursday Night Football games simulcast with Fox, with a 15 % increase in rights fees. To fulfill a request that the streams be available freely, the games will also be made available on Twitch, an Amazon - owned streaming service that was originally designed for video game streaming.
Both of the NFL 's national radio contracts, Westwood One for English language and Entravision for Spanish language, expired after the 2017 season. Westwood One 's parent company Cumulus Media filed for bankruptcy in November 2017 and began terminating national broadcast contracts and sports agreements in January 2018, putting any contract extensions on hold. The company emerged from bankruptcy on June 4, 2018.
With the release of the 2018 schedule, NFL.com listed ESPN Deportes Radio (which had shared NFL rights with Entravision in 2017 and had carried Super Bowl LII) as the league 's national Spanish - language broadcaster. The national English - language broadcaster was still identified as Westwood One, which Westwood One has also confirmed; no press release has been issued in regard to a contract extension with that network, and it is unknown when the current arrangement was signed or when it will end. Additionally, Westwood One removed Sunday afternoon games from their package, instead focusing on the primetime matchups as well as the postseason. SportsUSA, Compass and ESPN Radio, which also has broadcast select Sunday afternoon NFL games, will continue to do so.
Only one game into the pre-season, Indianapolis Colts announcer Bob Lamey, who had been with the team for most of the time since their 1984 relocation from Baltimore, retired suddenly after a complaint of him using a racial slur in the 1980s was revealed. Sideline reporter Matt Taylor was named his de facto replacement for the season.
All four broadcast partners will employ rules analysts for the 2018 season, citing changes in the league 's rules that have become too complicated for its broadcast teams to handle. To be precise, NBC hired Terry McAulay to be their rules analyst for SNF and NBC 's coverage of Notre Dame Football. CBS hired Gene Steratore to fill their rules analyst position, filling a position that had been vacant since CBS released Mike Carey in 2015; because Steratore also officiates college basketball, he will also be used as a rules analyst for the networks ' NCAA Basketball coverage. ESPN hired Jeff Triplette for MNF. And Fox kept both Mike Pereira and Dean Blandino. Additionally, Pereira assists with Fox 's Thursday Night Football Coverage.
ESPN will introduce a fully new broadcast team for Monday Night Football. Joe Tessitore will replace Sean McDonough as lead play - by - play man; McDonough will remain with ESPN as a college football announcer. With previous color analyst Jon Gruden returning to coaching, Monday Night Football hired Jason Witten and Booger McFarland as their color commentators; while McFarland offers his commentary from the sidelines, he fills a role similar to the "non-football '' player position that Monday Night Football has traditionally relied upon in its past three - person booths (such as Howard Cosell, Dennis Miller and Tony Kornheiser). Lisa Salters, the sideline reporter, carries over from the previous broadcast team. Jeff Triplette will replace Gerald Austin as rules analyst.
Fox initially had planned to hire a new broadcast team for its Thursday Night Football, making an overture to Peyton Manning to serve as color commentator. Since Manning declined the offer, the network announced that it will be placing its existing lead broadcast team of Joe Buck and Troy Aikman on the package, reducing the number of games the duo will call on Sundays (Buck and Aikman will only call the nationally televised "America 's Game of the Week '' telecasts on Sundays). A version of Fox NFL Sunday will serve as the lead - in to Thursday Night Football, albeit without Curt Menefee or Jimmy Johnson; the show will instead be hosted by panelist Michael Strahan from New York City, displacing Rich Eisen, the studio host for Thursday night pregame since the package 's inception in 2006. Strahan will be joined by fellow Fox colleagues Terry Bradshaw and Howie Long.
In previous seasons, Buck did not call any NFL games during late October, working Major League Baseball playoff games instead. For 2018, Fox coordinated its schedule with MLB so that none of its scheduled broadcasts would land on a Thursday (Fox carries the NLCS and the World Series), so Buck will continue to broadcast both sports, crisscrossing the country in seven cities over a 22 - day period.
In addition, NBC will introduce a new studio team for Football Night in America. Mike Tirico, who was the on - site host and secondary play - by - play announcer in 2017, became the show 's studio host from Stanford, Connecticut, with Liam McHugh moving into Tirico 's former role. Dan Patrick, who had been the studio host for FNiA since 2008, declined to sign a long - term contract and left NBC.
On radio, Kurt Warner will replace Boomer Esiason as the color commentator for Westwood One 's Monday Night Football broadcasts, after Esiason had filled the role for the previous 18 years. Esiason will continue as a studio host for CBS, along with his existing duties on the CBS Sports Network - simulcast Boomer and Gio from WFAN.
In a surprise announcement made two days before its first game, Amazon announced it would provide its own broadcast team for its eleven games, with Hannah Storm and Andrea Kremer serving as the lead broadcast team. The announcement makes Kremer the first - ever female color analyst for an NFL game, the first time a game has been broadcast with no men involved in the broadcast team, and the first time since Tony Kornheiser left Monday Night Football that the color analyst had no coaching or playing experience. Amazon will offer the standard Fox broadcast team, a British broadcasting team, and a Spanish language feed as alternate audio choices.
The start times for Thursday, Sunday, and Monday Night Football broadcasts will be moved up 5 to 15 minutes. Thursday and Sunday Night games will now kick off at 8: 20 p.m. ET, while Monday Night games will now kick off at 8: 15 p.m. ET.
* Note -- Late DH matchups listed in table are the matchups that were shown to the largest percentage of the market.
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where did go break a leg come from | Break a leg - wikipedia
"Break a leg '' is an idiom in theatre used to wish a performer "good luck '' in an ironic way. Well - wishers typically say "Break a leg '' to actors and musicians before they go on stage to perform. The origin of the phrase remains obscure.
The expression reflects a theatrical superstition in which wishing a person "good luck '' is considered bad luck. The expression is sometimes used outside the theatre as superstitions and customs travel through other professions and then into common use. Among professional dancers, the traditional saying is not "break a leg, '' but "merde ''.
Urbane Irish nationalist Robert Wilson Lynd published an article, "A Defence of Superstition '', in the 1 October 1921 edition of the New Statesman, a British liberal political and cultural magazine. Lynd regarded the theatre as the second-most superstitious institution in England, after horse racing. In horse racing, Lynd asserted, to wish a man luck is considered unlucky, so "You should say something insulting such as, ' May you break your leg! ' '' Lynd did not attribute the phrase in any way to theatre people, though he was familiar with many of them and frequently mingled with actors backstage.
The earliest known example in print is from Edna Ferber 's 1939 A Peculiar Treasure in which she writes about the fascination of the theater, "... and all the understudies sitting in the back row politely wishing the various principals would break a leg ''. In Bernard Sobel 's 1948 The Theatre Handbook and Digest of Plays, he writes about theatrical superstitions: "... before a performance actors never wish each other good luck, but say ' I hope you break a leg. ' '' There is anecdotal evidence from theatrical memoirs and personal letters as early as the 1920s.
There are several theories behind the origin of the phrase. Few are supported by contemporary writings. The theories listed below are some of the more popular explanations.
The edge of a stage was marked with a line known as the "leg '' or "leg line ''. Beyond this point, one could be seen by the audience and those not required to be on stage had to remain back stage and not cross (break) the "leg line ''. In a time when performers would queue for an opportunity to perform and were only paid if they did perform, to "break a leg '' meant the performer crossed the line onto the stage and would therefore get paid. So to tell a performer to "break a leg '' was to wish them the luck to have the opportunity to perform and get paid. The sentiment remains the same today, "good luck, give a good performance ''.
Similarly, in the days of Vaudeville, companies would book more performers than could possibly make it onstage, but would only pay those who performed. Since the Renaissance, stage curtain legs have been used as part of the masking in proscenium theaters, which remain the most popular style of theater to this day. Thus, to make it on stage, one had to enter the line of sight of the audience or "break a leg '', to be paid.
To "break a leg '' is archaic slang for bowing or curtsying; placing one foot behind the other and bending at the knee "breaks '' the line of the leg. In theatre, pleased audiences may applaud for an extended time allowing the cast to take multiple curtain calls, bowing to the audience.
Related to this, some argue the mechanism for raising and lowering the curtain was controlled by a crank arm ' leg '. Therefore for popular performers, continued curtain calls may result in a broken crank arm.
In the time of Ancient Greece, people did n't clap. Instead, they stomped for their appreciation and if they stomped long enough, they would break a leg. Or, some would have it that the term originated during Elizabethan times when, instead of applause the audience would bang their chairs on the ground -- and if they liked it enough, the leg of the chair would break.
Some etymologists believe it to be an adaptation from the Yiddish translation into German. The phrase "Hatsloche un Broche '' (הצלחה און ברכה) ("success and blessing '') had been calqued from the German phrase "Hals - und Beinbruch '' ("neck and leg fracture ''), because of its similar pronunciation. The autobiography of Manfred von Richthofen records pilots of the German air force during the First World War as using the phrase "Hals - und Beinbruch '' (neck and leg fracture) to wish each other luck before a flight. The phrase is now most typically used to wish an actor good luck before a performance, or a student good luck before an exam.
One popular, but false, etymology derives the phrase from the 1865 assassination of Abraham Lincoln. The story goes that John Wilkes Booth, the actor turned assassin, claimed in his diary that he broke his leg leaping to the stage of Ford 's Theatre after murdering the President. While Booth 's roles as an actor are not well remembered, wishing an actor to "break a leg '' is to wish them a performance worthy of remembrance. However, the fact that actors did not start wishing each other to "break a leg '' until the 1920s (more than 50 years later) makes this an unlikely source. Furthermore the phrase has distinct origins in other languages that well predate the late 19th century. Also, some historians contend that he broke his leg when he fell from his horse trying to escape. They also cite that Booth often exaggerated and falsified his diary entries to make them more dramatic.
There is an older meaning of "break a leg '' going back to the 17th and 18th Century that refers to having "a bastard / natural child ''.
There are many non-literal references this expression could be referring to.
From the dual meaning of cast, where it can mean a mold used to support a broken leg, as well as the members of a theatre production. "May you get into the cast. ''
Some attribute the line to a performance of Shakespeare 's Richard III, where the famed 18th - century British actor, David Garrick, became so entranced in the performance that he was unaware of a fracture.
Professional dancers do not wish each other good luck by saying "break a leg ''; instead they say "Merde! '', the French word for "shit ''. In turn, theater people have picked up this usage and may wish each other "merde '', alone or in combination with "break a leg ''. In Spanish, the phrase is "mucha mierda '', or "lots of shit ''. This term refers to the times when carriages would take the audience to the theatre. A quick look to the street in front of the venue would tell if the play was successful: a lot of horse dung would mean many carriages had stopped to leave spectators.
Opera singers use "Toi toi toi '', an idiom used to ward off a spell or hex, often accompanied by knocking on wood, and onomatopoeic, spitting (or imitating the sound of spitting). Saliva traditionally had demon - banishing powers. From Rotwelsch tof, from Yiddish tov ("good '', derived from the Hebrew טוב and with phonetic similarities to the Old German word for "Devil. '') One explanation sees "toi toi toi '' as the onomatopoeic rendition of spitting three times. Spitting three times over someone 's head or shoulder is a gesture to ward off evil spirits. A similar - sounding expression for verbal spitting occurs in modern Hebrew as "Tfu, tfu '' (here, only twice), which some say that Hebrew - speakers borrowed from Russian.
An alternate operatic good luck charm, originating from Italy, is the phrase "in bocca al lupo! '' ("In the mouth of the wolf '') with the response "Crepi il lupo! '' ("May the wolf die '') (see Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Myth & Legend).
In Australia, the term "chookas '' has been used also. According to one oral tradition, one of the performers would check audience numbers. If there were not many in the seats, the performers would have bread to eat following the performance. If the theatre was full they could then have "chooks '' -- Australian slang for chicken -- for dinner. Therefore, if it was a full house, the performer would call out "Chookas! '' It is now used by performers prior to a show regardless of the number of patrons; and may be a wish for a successful turnout.
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when did north korea join the united nations | Korea and the United Nations - wikipedia
Korea and the United Nations UNSC Resolution 702 (membership admission in 1991) List of Security Council resolutions COI Report on Human Rights in the DPRK (2014)
The Republic of Korea (commonly known as South Korea) and the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea (commonly known as North Korea) were simultaneously admitted to the United Nations (UN) in 1991. On 8 August 1991, the UN Security Council passed United Nations Security Council Resolution 702, recommending both states to the UN General Assembly for membership. On 17 September 1991, the General Assembly admitted both countries under Resolution 46 / 1.
In December 12, 1948, South Korea was officially recognized by the UN General Assembly (UNGA) under Resolution 195. Since then, South Korea participated in the GA as an observer. In 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, and the Korean War commenced. The UN Security Council took an action in Korea.
Coming with change of recognition in 1971 of the Chinese seat, North Korea gained observer status. North Korea has never held a seat on the UN Security Council.
South Korea has twice been elected to a non-permanent seat of the UN Security Council, first in the 1995 election for 1996 -- 97 and again in the 2012 election for 2013 -- 2014.
In 2001, Han Seung - soo of South Korea held the presidency of the UNGA. In 2006, Ban Ki - moon from South Korea was elected as the Secretary - General of the United Nations. He was re-elected in 2011.
Since 2005, the UNGA has adopted a resolution every year to condemn the human rights situation in North Korea.
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when did the us get involved with puerto rico | History of Puerto Rico - wikipedia
The history of Puerto Rico began with the settlement of the archipelago of Puerto Rico by the Ortoiroid people between 3,000 and 2,000 BC. Other tribes, such as the Saladoid and Arawak Indians, populated the island between 430 BC and 1000 AD. At the time of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the New World in 1492, the dominant indigenous culture was that of the Taínos. The Taíno people 's numbers went dangerously low during the later half of the 16th century because of new infectious diseases carried by Europeans, exploitation by Spanish settlers, and warfare.
Located in the northeastern Caribbean, Puerto Rico formed a key part of the Spanish Empire from the early years of the exploration, conquest and colonization of the New World. The island was a major military post during many wars between Spain and other European powers for control of the region in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The smallest of the Greater Antilles, Puerto Rico was a stepping - stone in the passage from Europe to Cuba, Mexico, Central America, and the northern territories of South America. Throughout most of the 19th century until the conclusion of the Spanish -- American War, Puerto Rico and Cuba were the last two Spanish colonies in the New World; they served as Spain 's final outposts in a strategy to regain control of the American continents. Realizing that it was in danger of losing its two remaining Caribbean territories, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. The decree was printed in Spanish, English and French in order to attract Europeans, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity and strength with the arrival of new settlers. Free land was offered to those who wanted to populate the islands on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church.
In 1898, during the Spanish -- American War, Puerto Rico was invaded and subsequently became a possession of the United States. The first years of the 20th century were marked by the struggle to obtain greater democratic rights from the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900, which established a civil government, and the Jones Act of 1917, which made Puerto Ricans U.S. citizens, paved the way for the drafting of Puerto Rico 's Constitution and its approval by Congress and Puerto Rican voters in 1952. However, the political status of Puerto Rico, a Commonwealth controlled by the United States, remains an anomaly.
The settlement of Puerto Rico began with the establishment of the Ortoiroid culture from the Orinoco region in South America. Some scholars suggest that their settlement dates back 4000 years. An archeological dig at the island of Vieques in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to be an Ortoiroid man (named Puerto Ferro man) which was dated to around 2000 BC. The Ortoiroid were displaced by the Saladoid, a culture from the same region that arrived on the island between 430 and 250 BC.
Between the seventh and 11th centuries, the Arawak are thought to have settled the island. During this time the Taíno culture developed, and by approximately 1000 AD, it had become dominant. Taíno culture has been traced to the village of Saladero at the basin of the Orinoco River in Venezuela; the Taíno migrated to Puerto Rico by crossing the Lesser Antilles.
At the time of Columbus ' arrival, an estimated 30 to 60 thousand Taíno Amerindians, led by the cacique (chief) Agüeybaná, inhabited the island. They called it "Borinquen '', "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord ''. The natives lived in small villages led by a cacique and subsisted on hunting, fishing and gathering of indigenous cassava root and fruit. When the Spaniards arrived in 1493, the Taíno were already in conflict with the raiding Carib, who were moving up the Antilles chain. The Taíno domination of the island was nearing its end, and the Spanish arrival marked the beginning of their extinction. Their culture, however, remains part of that of contemporary Puerto Rico. Musical instruments such as maracas and güiro, the hammock, and words such as Mayagüez, Arecibo, iguana, Caguas and huracán (hurricane) are examples of the legacy left by the Taíno.
On September 24, 1493, Christopher Columbus set sail on his second voyage with 17 ships and 1,200 to 1,500 soldiers from Cádiz. On November 19, 1493 he landed on the island, naming it San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint John the Baptist. The first European colony, Caparra, was founded on August 8, 1508 by Juan Ponce de León, a lieutenant under Columbus, who was greeted by the Taíno Cacique Agüeybaná and who later became the first governor of the island. Ponce de Leon was actively involved in the Higuey massacre of 1503 in Puerto Rico. In 1508, Sir Ponce de Leon was chosen by the Spanish Crown to lead the conquest and slavery of the Taíno Indians for gold mining operations. The following year, the colony was abandoned in favor of a nearby islet on the coast, named Puerto Rico (Rich Port), which had a suitable harbor. In 1511, a second settlement, San Germán was established in the southwestern part of the island. According to the "500TH Florida Discovery Council Round Table '', on March 3, 1513, Juan Ponce de León, organized and commenced an expedition (with a crew of 200, including women and free blacks) departing from "Punta Aguada '' Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico was the historic first gateway to the discovery of Florida, which opened the door to the settlement of the southeastern United States. They introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language and more to the land (Florida) that later became the United States of America. This settlement occurred 107 years before the Pilgrims landed. During the 1520s, the island took the name of Puerto Rico while the port became San Juan.
The Spanish settlers established the first repartimiento system, under which natives were distributed to Spanish officials to be used as slave labor. On December 27, 1512, under pressure from the Roman Catholic Church, Ferdinand II of Aragon issued the Burgos ' Laws, which modified the repartimiento into a system called encomiendas, aimed at ending the exploitation. The laws prohibited the use of any form of punishment toward the indigenous people, regulated their work hours, pay, hygiene, and care, and ordered them to be catechized. In 1511, the Taínos revolted against the Spanish; cacique Urayoán, as planned by Agüeybaná II, ordered his warriors to drown the Spanish soldier Diego Salcedo to determine whether the Spaniards were immortal. After drowning Salcedo, they kept watch over his body for three days to confirm his death. The revolt was easily crushed by Ponce de León and within a few decades much of the native population had been decimated by disease, violence, and a high occurrence of suicide. As a result, Taíno culture, language, and traditions were generally destroyed, and were claimed to have "vanished '' 50 years after Christopher Columbus arrived. Since the early 21st century, efforts have been made to revive and rebuild Taíno culture.
The Roman Catholic Church of chappel, realizing the opportunity to expand its influence, also participated in colonizing the island. On August 8, 1511, Pope Julius II established three dioceses in the New World, one in Puerto Rico and two on the island of Hispaniola under the archbishop of Seville. The Canon of Salamanca, Alonso Manso, was appointed bishop of the Puerto Rican diocese. On September 26, 1512, before his arrival on the island, the first school of advanced studies was established by the bishop. Taking possession in 1513, he became the first bishop to arrive in the Americas. Puerto Rico would also become the first ecclesiastical headquarters in the New World during the reign of Pope Leo X and the general headquarters of the Spanish Inquisition in the New World.
As part of the colonization process, African slaves were brought to the island in 1513. Following the decline of the Taíno population, more slaves were brought to Puerto Rico; however, the number of slaves on the island paled in comparison to those in neighboring islands. Also, early in the colonization of Puerto Rico, attempts were made to wrest control of Puerto Rico from Spain. The Caribs, a raiding tribe of the Caribbean, attacked Spanish settlements along the banks of the Daguao and Macao rivers in 1514 and again in 1521 but each time they were easily repelled by the superior Spanish firepower. However, these would not be the last attempts at control of Puerto Rico. The European powers quickly realized the potential of the newly discovered lands and attempted to gain control of them.
The first school in Puerto Rico and the first school in the United States after Puerto Rico became a US territory, was the Escuela de Gramatica (Grammar School). The school was established by Bishop Alonso Manso in 1513, in the area where the Cathedral of San Juan was to be constructed. The school was free of charge and the courses taught were Latin language, literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology.
Sparked by the possibility of immense wealth, many European powers made attempts to wrest control of the Americas from Spain in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Success in invasion varied, and ultimately all Spanish opponents failed to maintain permanent control of the island. In 1528, the French, recognizing the strategic value of Puerto Rico, sacked and burned the southwestern town of San Germán. They also destroyed many of the island 's first settlements, including Guánica, Sotomayor, Daguao and Loíza before the local militia forced them to retreat. The only settlement that remained was the capital, San Juan. French corsairs would again sack San Germán in 1538 and 1554.
Spain, determined to defend its possession, began the fortification of the inlet of San Juan in the early 16th century. In 1532, construction of the first fortifications began with La Fortaleza (the Fortress) near the entrance to San Juan Bay. Seven years later the construction of massive defenses around San Juan began, including Fort San Felipe del Morro astride the entrance to San Juan Bay. Later, Fort San Cristóbal and Fort San Jerónimo -- built with a financial subsidy from the Mexican mines -- garrisoned troops and defended against land attacks. In 1587, engineers Juan de Tejada and Juan Bautista Antonelli redesigned Fort San Felipe del Morro; these changes endure. Politically, Puerto Rico was reorganized in 1580 into a captaincy general to provide for more autonomy and quick administrative responses to military threats.
On November 22, 1595, English privateer Sir Francis Drake -- with 27 vessels and 2,500 troops -- sailed into San Juan Bay intending to loot the city. However, they were unable to defeat the forces entrenched in the forts. Knowing Drake had failed to overcome the city 's defenses by sea, on June 15, 1598, the Royal Navy, led by George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland, landed troops from 21 ships to the east in Santurce. Clifford and his men met Spanish resistance while attempting to cross the San Antonio bridge (from an area known today as Condado) into the islet of San Juan. Nonetheless, the English conquered the island and held it for several months. They were forced to abandon the island owing to an outbreak of dysentery among the troops. The following year Spain sent soldiers, cannons, and a new governor, Alonso de Mercado, to rebuild the city of San Juan.
The 17th and 18th centuries saw more attacks on the island. On September 25, 1625, the Dutch, under the leadership of Boudewijn Hendrick (Balduino Enrico), attacked San Juan, besieging Fort San Felipe del Morro and La Fortaleza. Residents fled the city but the Spanish, led by Governor Juan de Haro, were able to repel the Dutch troops from Fort San Felipe del Morro. The fortification of San Juan continued; in 1634, Philip IV of Spain fortified Fort San Cristóbal, along with six fortresses linked by a line of sandstone walls surrounding the city. In 1702, the English assaulted the town of Arecibo, located on the north coast, west of San Juan, with no success. In 1797, the French and Spanish declared war on the United Kingdom. The British attempted again to conquer the island, attacking San Juan with an invasion force of 7,000 troops and an armada consisting of 64 warships under the command of General Ralph Abercromby. Captain General Don Ramón de Castro and his army successfully resisted the attack.
Amidst the constant attacks, the first threads of Puerto Rican society emerged. A 1765 census conducted by Lt. General Alejandro O'Reilly showed a total population of 44,883, of which 5,037 (11.2 %) were slaves, a low percentage compared to the other Spanish colonies in the Caribbean. In 1786 the first comprehensive history of Puerto Rico -- Historia Geográfica, Civil y Política de Puerto Rico by Fray Iñigo Abbad y Lasierra -- was published in Madrid, documenting the history of Puerto Rico from the time of Columbus ' landing in 1493 until 1783. The book also presents a first hand account of Puerto Rican identity, including music, clothing, personality and nationality.
In 1779, Puerto Ricans fought in the American Revolutionary War under the command of Bernardo de Gálvez, who was named Field Marshal of the Spanish colonial army in North America. Puerto Ricans participated in the capture of Pensacola, the capital of the British colony of West Florida and the cities of Baton Rouge, St. Louis and Mobile. The Puerto Rican troops, commanded by Brigadier General Ramón de Castro, helped defeat the British and Indian army of 2,500 soldiers and British warships in Pensacola.
The 19th century brought many changes to Puerto Rico, both political and social. In 1809, the Spanish government, in opposition to Napoleon, was convened in Cádiz in southern Spain. While still swearing allegiance to the king, the Supreme Central Junta invited voting representatives from the colonies. Ramón Power y Giralt was nominated as the local delegate to the Cádiz Cortes. The Ley Power ("the Power Act '') soon followed, which designated five ports for free commerce -- Fajardo, Mayagüez, Aguadilla, Cabo Rojo and Ponce -- and established economic reforms with the goal of developing a more efficient economy. In 1812, the Cádiz Constitution was adopted, dividing Spain and its territories into provinces, each with a local corporation or council to promote its prosperity and defend its interests; this granted Puerto Ricans conditional citizenship.
On August 10, 1815, the Royal Decree of Grace was issued, allowing foreigners to enter Puerto Rico (including French refugees from Hispaniola), and opening the port to trade with nations other than Spain. This was the beginning of agriculture - based economic growth, with sugar, tobacco and coffee being the main products. The Decree also gave free land to anyone who swore their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and their allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. Thousands of families from all regions of Spain (particularly Asturias, Catalonia, Majorca and Galicia), Germany, Corsica, Ireland, France, Portugal, the Canary Islands and other locations, escaping from harsh economic times in Europe and lured by the offer of free land, soon immigrated to Puerto Rico. However, these small gains in autonomy and rights were short lived. After the fall of Napoleon, absolute power returned to Spain, which revoked the Cádiz Constitution and reinstated Puerto Rico to its former condition as a colony, subject to the unrestricted power of the Spanish monarch.
The integration of immigrants into Puerto Rican culture and other events changed Puerto Rican society. On June 25, 1835, Queen María Cristina abolished the slave trade to Spanish colonies. In 1851, Governor Juan de la Pezuela Cevallos founded the Royal Academy of Belles Letters. The academy licensed primary school teachers, formulated school methods, and held literary contests that promoted the intellectual and literary progress of the island.
In 1858, Samuel Morse introduced wired communication to Latin America when he established a telegraph system in Puerto Rico. Morse 's oldest daughter Susan Walker Morse (1821 -- 1885), would often visit her uncle Charles Pickering Walker who owned the Hacienda Concordia in the town of Guayama. Morse, who often spent his winters at the Hacienda with his daughter and son - in - law, who lived and owned the Hacienda Henriqueta, set a two - mile telegraph line connecting his son - in - law 's hacienda to their house in Arroyo. The line was inaugurated on March 1, 1859 in a ceremony flanked by the Spanish and American flags. The first lines transmitted by Morse that day in Puerto Rico were:
Puerto Rico, beautiful jewel! When you are linked with the other jewels of the Antilles in the necklace of the world 's telegraph, yours will not shine less brilliantly in the crown of your Queen!
Minor slave revolts had occurred in the island during this period, However the revolt planned and organized by Marcos Xiorro in 1821, was the most important of them all. Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful, he achieved legendary status among the slaves and is part of Puerto Rico 's folklore.
The last half of the 19th century was marked by the Puerto Rican struggle for sovereignty. A census conducted in 1860 revealed a population of 583,308. Of these, 300,406 (51.5 %) were white and 282,775 (48.5 %) were persons of color, the latter including people of primarily African heritage, mulattos and mestizos. The majority of the population in Puerto Rico was illiterate (83.7 %) and lived in poverty, and the agricultural industry -- at the time, the main source of income -- was hampered by lack of road infrastructure, adequate tools and equipment, and natural disasters, including hurricanes and droughts. The economy also suffered from increasing tariffs and taxes imposed by the Spanish Crown. Furthermore, Spain had begun to exile or jail any person who called for liberal reforms.
On September 23, 1868, hundreds of men and women in the town of Lares -- stricken by poverty and politically estranged from Spain -- revolted against Spanish rule, seeking Puerto Rican independence. The Grito de Lares ("Lares Cry '' or "Lares Uprising '') was planned by a group led by Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances, at the time exiled to the Dominican Republic, and Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Dr. Betances had founded the Comité Revolucionario de Puerto Rico (Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico) in January 1868. The most important figures in the uprising were Manuel Rojas, Mathias Brugman, Mariana Bracetti, Francisco Ramírez Medina and Lola Rodríguez de Tió. The uprising, although significant, was quickly controlled by Spanish authorities.
Following the Grito de Lares revolt, political and social reforms occurred toward the end of the 19th century. On June 4, 1870, due to the efforts of Román Baldorioty de Castro, Luis Padial and Julio Vizcarrondo, the Moret Law was approved, giving freedom to slaves born after September 17, 1868 or over 60 years old; on March 22, 1873, the Spanish National Assembly officially abolished, with a few special clauses, slavery in Puerto Rico. In 1870, the first political organizations on the island were formed as two factions emerged. The Traditionalists, known as the Partido Liberal Conservador (Liberal Conservative Party) were led by José R. Fernández, Pablo Ubarri and Francisco Paula Acuña and advocated assimilation into the political party system of Spain. The Autonomists, known as the Partido Liberal Reformista (Liberal Reformist Party) were led by Román Baldorioty de Castro, José Julián Acosta, Nicolás Aguayo and Pedro Gerónimo Goico and advocated decentralization away from Spanish control. Both parties would later change their names to Partido Incondicional Español (Unconditional Spanish Party) and Partido Federal Reformista (Reformist Federal Party), respectively. In March 1887, the Partido Federal Reformista was reformed and named the Partido Autonomista Puertorriqueño (Puerto Rican Autonomist Party); it tried to create a political and legal identity for Puerto Rico while emulating Spain in all political matters. It was led by Román Baldorioty de Castro, José Celso Barbosa, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón and Luis Muñoz Rivera.
Leaders of "El Grito de Lares '', who were in exile in New York City, joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee, founded on December 8, 1895, and continued their quest for Puerto Rican independence. In 1897, Antonio Mattei Lluberas and the local leaders of the independence movement of the town of Yauco, organized another uprising, which became known as the "Intentona de Yauco ''. This was the first time that the current Puerto Rican flag was unfurled in Puerto Rican soil. The local conservative political factions, which believed that such an attempt would be a threat to their struggle for autonomy, opposed such an action. Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities who acted swiftly and put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule.
The struggle for autonomy came close to achieving its goal on November 25, 1897, when the Carta Autonómica (Charter of Autonomy), which conceded political and administrative autonomy to the island, was approved in Spain. In the past 400 - plus years, after centuries of colonial rule, Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, the Prime Minister of Spain granted the island an autonomous government on November 25, 1897 in the empire 's legislative body in Cádiz, Spain, and trade was opened up with the United States and European colonies. The charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain, who held the power to veto any legislative decision he disagreed with, and a partially elected parliamentary structure. That same year, the Partido Autonomista Ortodoxo (Orthodox Autonomist Party), led by José Celso Barbosa and Manuel Fernández Juncos, was founded. On February 9, 1898, the new government officially began. Local legislature set its own budget and taxes. They accepted or rejected commercial treaties concluded by Spain. In February 1898, Governor General Manuel Macías inaugurated the new government of Puerto Rico under the Autonomous Charter which gave town councils complete autonomy in local matters. Subsequently, the governor had no authority to intervene in civil and political matters unless authorized to do so by the Cabinet. General elections were held in March and on July 17, 1898 Puerto Rico 's autonomous government began to function, but not for long.
In 1890, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean Sea; these would serve as coaling and naval stations, as well as strategic points of defense after construction of a canal in the Isthmus. Since 1894, the Naval War College had been formulating plans for war with Spain and by 1896, the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which included military operations in Puerto Rican waters.
On March 10, 1898, Dr. Julio J. Henna and Robert H. Todd, leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, began to correspond with United States President William McKinley and the United States Senate in hopes that they would consider including Puerto Rico in the intervention planned for Cuba. Henna and Todd also provided the US government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island. On April 24, Spanish Minister of Defense Segismundo Bermejo sent instructions to Spanish Admiral Cervera to proceed with his fleet from Cape Verde to the Caribbean, Cuba and Puerto Rico. In May, Lt. Henry H. Whitney of the United States Fourth Artillery was sent to Puerto Rico on a reconnaissance mission. He provided maps and information on the Spanish military forces to the US government that would be useful for an invasion.
The Spanish -- American War broke out in late April. The American strategy was to seize Spanish colonies in the Atlantic -- Puerto Rico and Cuba -- and their possessions in the Pacific -- the Philippines and Guam. On May 10, Spanish forces at Fort San Cristóbal under the command of Capt. Ángel Rivero Méndez in San Juan exchanged fire with the USS Yale under the command of Capt. William C. Wise. Two days later, on May 12, a squadron of 12 US ships commanded by Rear Admiral William T. Sampson bombarded installations at San Juan. On June 25, the USS Yosemite blocked San Juan harbor. On July 18, General Nelson A. Miles, commander of US forces, received orders to sail for Puerto Rico and to land his troops. On July 21, a convoy with nine transports and 3,300 soldiers, escorted by USS Massachusetts, sailed for Puerto Rico from Guantánamo. General Nelson Miles landed unopposed at Guánica, located in the southern coast of the island, on July 25, 1898, with the first contingent of American troops. Opposition was met in the southern and central regions of the island but by the end of August the island was under United States control.
On August 12, peace protocols were signed in Washington and Spanish Commissions met in San Juan on September 9 to discuss the details of the withdrawal of Spanish troops and the cession of the island to the United States. On October 1, an initial meeting was held in Paris to draft the Peace Treaty and on December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed (ratified by the US Senate February 6, 1899). Spain renounced all claim to Cuba, ceded Guam and Puerto Rico and its dependent islets to the United States, and transferred sovereignty over the Philippines to the United States and in turn was paid $20,000,000 ($580 million in 2016 dollars) by the U.S. General John R. Brooke became the first United States military governor of the island.
After the ratification of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, Puerto Rico came under the military control of the United States of America. This brought about significant changes: the name of the island was changed to Porto Rico (it would be changed back to Puerto Rico in 1932) and the currency was changed from the Puerto Rican peso to the United States dollar. Freedom of assembly, speech, press, and religion were decreed and an eight - hour day for government employees was established. A public school system was begun and the U.S. Postal service was extended to the island. The highway system was enlarged, and bridges over the more important rivers were constructed. The government lottery was abolished, cockfighting was forbidden, and a centralized public health service established. Health conditions were poor at the time, with high rates of infant mortality and numerous endemic diseases.
The beginning of the military government also marked the creation of new political groups. The Partido Republicano (Republican Party) and the American Federal Party were created, led by José Celso Barbosa and Luis Muñoz Rivera, respectively. Both groups supported annexation by the United States as a solution to the colonial situation. The island 's Creole sugar planters, who had suffered from declining prices, hoped that U.S. rule would help them gain access to the North American market.
Disaster struck in August 1899, when two hurricanes ravaged the island: the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane on August 8, and an unnamed hurricane on August 22. Approximately 3,400 people died in the floods and thousands were left without shelter, food, or work. The effects on the economy were devastating: millions of dollars were lost due to the destruction of the majority of the sugar and coffee plantations.
The military government in Puerto Rico was short lived; it was disbanded on April 2, 1900, when the U.S. Congress enacted the Foraker Act (also known as the Organic Act of 1900), sponsored by Senator Joseph B. Foraker. This act established a civil government and free commerce between the island and the United States. The structure of the insular government included a governor appointed by the President of the United States, an executive council (the equivalent of a senate), and a legislature with 35 members, though the executive veto required a two - thirds vote to override. The first appointed civil governor, Charles Herbert Allen, was inaugurated on May 1, 1900. On June 5, President William McKinley appointed an Executive Council which included five Puerto Rican members and six U.S. members. The act also established the creation of a judicial system headed by the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico and allowed Puerto Rico to send a Resident Commissioner as a representative to Congress. The Puerto Rico Department of Education was subsequently formed, headed by Martin Grove Brumbaugh (later governor of Pennsylvania). Teaching was conducted entirely in English with Spanish treated as a special subject. Both languages, however, were official on the island. On November 6, the first elections under the Foraker Act were held and on December 3, the first Legislative Assembly took office. On March 14, 1901, Federico Degetau took office as the first Resident Commissioner from Puerto Rico in Washington. The Foraker Act, (with the influence of a fearful progressive) placed a limit of 500 acres (2.0 km) as the amount of land that any one person was allowed to own. This part of the act, however, was not enforced.
The American program included building up a modern economic infrastructure that included roads, ports, electric power systems, and telephones and telegraphs, as well as hospitals and programs to develop agriculture.
Sugar mill owners between the period of 1898 and 1945 turned their sugar mills into monocultural plantations in response to the economy of the 20th century. The sugar mills and tobacco, cigar, and cigarette factories gained the United States ' attention due to their fast productions and large amount of produce. Women and children were the primary workers within these industries. Puerto Rican trades went to the United States 95 % of the time. By 1914, the coffee production that once was steady failed.
The sugar industry rose along with the economy. Puerto Rican mill owners and French and Spanish residents took the United States ' corporate capital. The United States had four operations were part of the United sugar refineries that were owned by Cuba and the Dominican Republic. In 1870, Congress made the tariff wall in order to domestic producers of sugar. This had an effect of putting sugar producers into bankruptcy. The United States acquired jurisdiction over Puerto Rico where there was free trade between the two. Capital flowed into Puerto Rico with the effect of modernizing its sugar processing mills due to the United States ' influence.
The United States had formed a Tobacco Trust that had basis rules for cigarettes, but Puerto Ricans had issues when it came to brand and local marketing. The Tobacco Trust controlled cigarettes and cigar production as well as controlled the tobacco leaf. There was a fall of the industry due to the exports.
During the time when sugar was not going well the coffee in the late 1800s. What changed the coffee production started when the export production replaced the farming. People lost their land and properties, the amount of land disposal shrank and the people hoped that Europe would take part in the trade of coffee, but they did not. Coffee makers were not happy with them being controlled by the United States. In 1933 most of the people worked as families instead of individuals most likely due to 90 percent of the output due to them being poor.
In 1899, the United States took over rich lands that influenced Puerto Rico 's economy that soon made Puerto Rico a state that was more capitalized in operation. There was no limit in their treads to the United States, the sugar industry had expanded and irrigation payments. The taxes Hollander Act was taxing 2 percent on rural property in 1901. This made the people very angry and the people protested. The people were able to bring the tax down to 1 percent but this still forced landowners to sell their land.
The American administrators put great emphasis on developing a modern school system. English - language instruction provoked fears of cultural genocide. This effort generated resistance from teachers, parents, politicians, intellectuals and others. Resistance to the imposition of English was part of a larger effort to resist invasion and colonization. The schools became an important arena for cultural identity, as promoted by the middle - class local teachers who rejected the idea of creating Hispanic Yankees speaking only English, and instead sought to have an autonomous Puerto Rican culture that incorporated the best of modern pedagogy and learning, with a respect for the island 's Hispanic language and cultural traditions. U.S. officials underestimated the place of Spanish in Puerto Rican culture. By 1898 Spanish was firmly rooted in the population. Spanish was also one of the leading international languages, through which Puerto Ricans were in contact with the world. It was the language in which culture was communicated. The level of opposition to the imposition of English was such that it led to the failure of U.S. language policies in Puerto Rico.
One shock came in 1935, however, when a New York study found Puerto Rican schoolchildren in New York City to be seriously deficient in basic skills. After 39 years of the imposition of English at the University of Puerto Rico, Spanish became the preferred language of instruction in 1942, and in the public schools the vernacular of Puerto Ricans became the language of teaching and learning in 1940 -- 50.
Puerto Rico 's agricultural economy was transformed into a sugar monoculture economy, supplemented by gardens for local consumption. American sugar companies had an advantage over the local sugar plantation owners. The local plantation owner could finance his operations only at local banks which offered high interest rates, compared to the low rates that American companies received from the commercial banks in Wall Street. This factor, plus the tariffs imposed, forced many of the local sugar plantation owners to go bankrupt or to sell their holdings to the more powerful sugar companies. Sugar was considered one of the few strategic commodities in which the United States was not fully self - sufficient.
An economically evolving Puerto Rico called for a new advancement in political status. Powerful, innovative Puerto Rican leaders including Luis Muñoz Rivera, José de Diego, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón, Manuel Zeno Gandía, Luis Lloréns Torres, Eugenio Benítez Castaño, and Pedro Franceschi contributed to the rise of multiple successful political parties. However, the birth of multiple political groups led to a diversion of the island 's interests: uniting as a statehood with the US, becoming a US territory commonwealth, or declaring independence altogether. In 1900, the Partido Federal (Federal Party) was formed during the US military rule of the island after the Spanish -- American War. It was formed by Luis Munoz Rivera and other members of the Autonomist Party. The Partido Federal favored immediate transformation of Puerto Rico into an organized unincorporated territory and eventually join US statehood. The Partido Obrero Socialista de Puerto Rico (Socialist Labor Party of Puerto Rico) were founded by Santiago Iglesias Pantin. Overtime the Partido Obrero Socialista de Puerto Rico was also in favor of statehood with the US. The Partido Federal campaigned for assimilation into the United States and wanted to develop prosperously with their best interests under the new US administration. They wanted to fully integrate US law and government. Their plan was to become a territory and have representation through a delegate and eventually become a US state with no restrictions. The Partido Obrero Socialista de Puerto Rico did not advocate for independence. Instead party leader, Santiago Iglesias Pantin, advocated for statehood and change in economic policies which were influenced by his practice in founding the Federación Regional de Trabajadores (Regional Workers Federation) and labor newspaper Ensayo Obrero. The party was based on the principles of the Socialist Labor Party of America and received much support from American colonial authorities. After the dissolution of the Federal Party, Luis Muñoz Rivera and José de Diego founded the Partido Unionista de Puerto Rico (Unionist Party of Puerto Rico) in 1904. The Unionist Party of Puerto Rico aimed to secure "the right of Puerto Rico to assert its own personality, either through statehood or independence. '' The beginning of the Partido Independentista, the independence party, was in 1909. Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón, Manuel Zeno Gandía, Luis Lloréns Torres, Eugenio Benítez Castaño, and Pedro Franceschi founded the party which was the first political party whose agenda was the independence of Puerto Rico. Another change occurred during the year the party was founded. The Olmsted Amendment changed the Foraker Act, which was designed to switch the Puerto Rican government from a military one to a government ran by the civilians. Instead, the Olmsted act called for the government to be managed solely under the executive branch.
The Puerto Rican status quo was again altered in 1909 when the Foraker Act, which replaced military rule with a civilian government in Puerto Rico, was modified by the Olmsted Amendment. This amendment placed the supervision of Puerto Rican affairs in the jurisdiction of an executive department designated by the president of the United States. In 1914, the first Puerto Rican officers, Martín Travieso (Secretary) and Manuel V. Domenech (Commissioner of Interiors), were assigned to the Executive Cabinet. This allowed for native Puerto Ricans to hold a majority in the Council, which consisted of five members selected by the president, for the first time in history. A 1915 delegation from Puerto Rico, accompanied by the Governor Arthur Yager, traveled to Washington, D.C. to ask Congress to grant the island more autonomy. Luis Muñoz Rivera became one of the founders of the Union Party in Puerto Rico who was against the Foraker Act. This delegation and speeches made by Resident Commissioner Muñoz Rivera in Congress, coupled with political and economic interests, led to the drafting of the Jones -- Shafroth Act of 1917 (Jones Act).
The Jones Act was made to replace the Foraker Act, which allowed for the free entry of Puerto Rican goods into the U.S. market. The Jones Act was approved by the U.S. Congress on December 5, 1916, and signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on March 2, 1917. Although it extended citizenship to Puerto Ricans, it was n't always welcomed. The Partido Union had opposed extension of U.S. citizenship in 1912 if it did n't make Puerto Rico a state. If they did n't become a state, U.S. citizenship would be interpreted as an attempt to block independence of the Puerto Ricans. For them, the promise of citizenship did n't affirm the promise of statehood, it excluded any considerations of independence.
The act made Puerto Rico an "organized but unincorporated '' United States territory, much like a colony. Puerto Ricans were also collectively given a restricted U.S. citizenship. This implied that Puerto Ricans residing on the island did not have full American citizenship rights, such as the right to vote for the President of the United States. As U.S. citizens, conscription could be extended to the island. A few months later, 20,000 Puerto Rican soldiers were sent to the United States Army during the First World War. The Act also divided governmental powers into three branches: an executive (appointed by the President of the United States), legislative, and judicial branch. The legislative branch was composed of the Senate, consisting of nineteen members, and a House of Representatives, consisting of 39 members. Legislators were freely elected by the Puerto Rican people. A bill of rights, which established elections to be held every four years, was also created.
Though the act created a more structured government for the island, the United States Congress still held the right to veto or amend bills and laws passed by the territorial legislature. In addition to veto power, the United States could prevent the enforcing of actions taken by the legislature. The Act stated that the President of the United States was to appoint members of the Puerto Rico 's legislative branch, as well as the directors of the six major government departments - agriculture and labor, health, interior, and treasury (with the advisement of Congress) and the Attorney General and the commissioner of education. The Act also made English the official language of the Puerto Rican courts, government, and the public education systems.
On October 11, 1918, an earthquake occurred, with an approximate magnitude of 7.3 on the Richter scale, accompanied by a tsunami reaching 6.1 metres (20 ft) in height. The epicenter was located northwest of Aguadilla in the Mona Passage (between Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic). This earthquake caused great damage and loss of life at Mayagüez, and lesser damage along the west coast. Tremors continued for several weeks. Approximately 116 casualties were reported resulting from the earthquake and 40 from the tsunami.
Some politicians were in favor of Puerto Rico becoming an incorporated state of the U.S., while others wanted Puerto Rico to gain independence from the United States. Amid this debate, a nationalist group emerged that encouraged radical activism for Puerto Rico to become independent from the United States. As a consequence of the Jones Act and the establishment of elections, a new political party, the Partido Nacionalista de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rican Nationalist Party), was founded on September 17, 1922. This party used advocated massive demonstrations and protests against any political activity that was not going to result in Puerto Rico gaining independence. In 1924, Pedro Albizu Campos joined the party and later became the vice president in 1927. In 1930, Albizu was elected president. Being the president, he instilled many of his political ideologies into the party which was composed heavily of anticolonial politics and feelings of contempt against the United States. In the 1930s, the Nationalist Party, led by president Pedro Albizu Campos failed to attract sufficient electoral support and withdrew from political participation. Increased conflict arose between their adherents and the authorities. On October 20, 1935 Albizu testified against the dean of the University of Puerto Rico, claiming that he wanted to Americanize the institution. Four days later a student assembly gathered and declared Albizu a persona non grata, forbidding him to speak there. Albizu was later arrested and convicted of conspiring to overthrow the American government. He was arrested for breaking the Smith Act of 1940 which declared that it was against the law for anyone to teach or be part of a group that encouraged the overthrow of the American government.
On October 23, 1935, a student assembly was planned to be held at the University of Puerto Rico - Río Piedras campus. Its officials asked Governor Blanton Winship to provide armed police officers for the campus, to forestall possible violence. Colonel Elisha Francis Riggs, the U.S. appointed Police Chief, commanded the forces. A couple of police officers spotted what they believed to be a suspicious - looking automobile and asked the driver Ramón S. Pagán for his license. Pagán was the Secretary of the Nationalist Party at this time. He was accompanied in the car by his friends and other Nationalist Party members Pedro Quiñones and Eduardo Rodríguez. The police officers asked Pagán to slowly drive to the police station on Calle Arzuaga, but a block from the station, the police surrounded the vehicle and fired their guns into the car. Pagán, Quiñones, and Rodríguez were not armed with weapons. José Santiago Barea, another Nationalist, was approaching the car when police began shooting. It resulted in the death of the four nationalists and one bystander.
In retaliation for the "Río Piedras massacre '' at the University of Rio Piedras, on February 23, 1936, Nationalists Hiram Rosado and Elias Beauchamp killed Colonel E. Francis Riggs in San Juan. They were taken into custody where they were killed by policemen and officers while being held at the San Juan headquarters. Rosado and Beauchamp were declared heroes by the Nationalist Party president, Pedro Albizu - Campos. Shortly after, the San Juan Federal Court had Albizu arrested for his incitement of discontent. After initially being found innocent in a jury with seven Puerto Ricans and two North Americans, the judge ordered a new jury which had ten North Americans and two Puerto Ricans, who found him guilty. On July 31, 1936, Albizu and several other Nationalists such as Juan Antonio Corretjer and Clemente Soto Vélez were convicted of being associated with Riggs ' murder. They were sentenced to six to 10 years in a federal prison in the United States.
On March 21, 1937, a peaceful march was organized by the Nationalist Party, under Pedro Alibizu Campos, to commemorate the ending of slavery in Puerto Rico in 1873 by the governing Spanish National Assembly. The police, under the orders of General Blanton Winship, the US - appointed colonial Governor of Puerto Rico, opened fire at the peaceful Puerto Rican Nationalist Party parade, which is now known as the "Ponce massacre '': 20 unarmed people (including two policemen) were killed, with wounded persons ranging between 100 -- 200. This occurred because the head of the police force in Juana Díaz, Guillermo Soldevila, raised a whip and struck the chest of Tomás Lopez de Victoria, the captain of the cadet corps, and told him to stop the march. As a result, a police officer, Armando Martinez, ran from the corner in front of the Nationalist council and fired once into the air. This prompted many others to fire their arms.
On July 25, 1938, a little over a year after the Ponce massacre, Governor Winship ordered a military parade take place in the city of Ponce in celebration of the American invasion of Puerto Rico. Such celebrations customarily took place in San Juan, the capital of the colonial government. At the parade, an attempt was made to assassinate Winship, allegedly by members of the Nationalist Party. It was the first time in Puerto Rico 's long history that an attempt had been made against a governor. Although Winship escaped unscathed, a total of 36 people were wounded, including a colonel in the National Guard and the Nationalist gunman.
In the years after World War II, social, political and economical changes began to take place that have continued to shape the island 's character today. The late 1940s brought the beginning of a major migration to the continental United States, mainly to New York City. The main reasons for this were an undesirable economic situation brought by the Great Depression, as well as strong recruiting by the U.S. armed forces for personnel and U.S. companies for workers.
In 1946 President Truman appointed Resident Commissioner Jesús T. Piñero to serve as island governor; he was the first Puerto Rican appointed to that position. On June 10, 1948, Piñero signed the infamous "Ley de la Mordaza '' (Gag Law). Law 53, as it was officially known, was passed by the Puerto Rican legislature presided by Luis Muñoz Marín on May 21, 1948. The Law made it illegal to display the Puerto Rican flag, sing a nationalist song, talk about independence or to campaign for the independence of the island. It resembled the anti-communist Smith Law passed in the United States.
The U.S. Congress passed an act allowing Puerto Ricans to elect their governor, and the first elections under this act were held on November 2, 1948. Luis Muñoz Marín, president of the Puerto Rican Senate, successfully campaigned and became the first democratically elected Governor of the island on January 2, 1949.
On July 4, 1950, President Harry S. Truman signed Public Act 600, which allowed Puerto Ricans to draft their own constitution establishing their own internal government structures; it also renamed the body politic as the "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. '' in English and "Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico '' in Spanish. (The Commonwealth designation was similar to the bodies politic of the states of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Kentucky.) Once in office, Muñoz Marin did not pursue Puerto Rican Independence, which angered some of his constituency.
On October 30, 1950, a group of Puerto Rican nationalists, led by Pedro Albizu Campos, staged several local attacks, known as the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party revolts of the 1950s, the most successful of which is known as the Jayuya Uprising. The revolts included an attack on the governor 's mansion, La Fortaleza. Puerto Rican military forces were called in to put down the Jayuya Uprising. Two days later, two Nationalists from New York tried to storm in to Blair House, then the president 's temporary residence, to assassinate United States President Harry S. Truman. These acts led Muñoz to crack down on Puerto Rican nationalists and advocates of Puerto Rican independence. The actions by both Muñoz and the United States ' Government would later be determined as infringing on constitutional rights.
In February 1952, the Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by voters in a referendum, and a federal law approved it, subject to striking Sec. 20 of Article II and adding text to Sec. 3 of Article VII of the final draft, amendments that were finally ratified in November of that year. The island organized as the Estado Libre Asociado (Commonwealth of Puerto Rico). That same year marked the first time that the Flag of Puerto Rico could be publicly displayed, after having been criminalized in 1948 by the Popular Democratic Party - controlled government. In March 1954, four Nationalists fired guns from the visitors gallery in the US House of Representatives at the Capitol, to protest the lack of Puerto Rican independence, wounding several persons.
Luis A. Ferré founded Estadistas Unidos (United Statehooders), an organization to campaign for statehood in the 1967 plebiscite, after the Statehood Republican Party chose to boycott the vote. On July 23, 1967, the first plebiscite on the political status of Puerto Rico was held. Voters affirmed continuation of Commonwealth status (Commonwealth -- 60.4 % Statehood -- 39 %; Independence -- 0.6 %). Other plebiscites have been held to determine the political status of Puerto Rico, in 1993 and in 1998. Both times, although by smaller margins, the status quo has been upheld. In 2012, a majority voted to reject the current status and voted to become a state. The referendum was controversial as opponents had tried to persuade people to abstain from voting altogether and argued the vote was invalid.
As the U.S. Constitution empowers Congress to admit new states, the referendum could be taken only as a sign of popular opinion. Legally the island remains a territory of the United States, under congressional supervision. After the 1967 plebiscite, the Partido Nuevo Progresista (New Progressive Party or New Party for Progress) was organized under Ferré 's leadership. The party campaigned for Puerto Rico to become the 51st state of the Union. Luis A. Ferré was elected governor on November 5, 1968, with 43.6 % of the vote, the first time a pro-statehood governor had received a plurality. The New Progressive Party, the Popular Democratic Party, and the Independence Party constitute the current political status - based registered political parties in the island.
Puerto Rico continues to struggle to define its political status. Even though Puerto Rico was granted the right to draft its own Constitution, approved conditionally by Congress on July 3, 1952, it remains an unincorporated organized territory of the United States. Its ambiguous status continues to spark political debates which dominate Puerto Rican society.
On July 23, 1967, the first plebiscite on the political status of Puerto Rico was held. Voters overwhelmingly affirmed continuation of Commonwealth status (with 60.4 % voting to remain a commonwealth, 39 % voting to work towards statehood). Other referendums have been subsequently held to determine the political status of Puerto Rico, in 1993 and in 1998. In all three of these, the status quo has been upheld; there was no strong feeling in favor of independence or statehood.
The Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012 occurred on November 6, 2012. The result a 54 % majority of the ballots cast against the continuation of the island 's territorial political status, and in favor of a new status. Of votes for new status, a 61.1 % majority chose statehood. This was by far the most successful referendum for statehood advocates. In all earlier referenda, votes for statehood were matched almost equally by votes for remaining an American territory, with the remainder for independence. Support for U.S. statehood has risen in each successive popular referendum. Because there were almost 500,000 blank ballots in the 2012 referendum, creating confusion as to the voters ' true desire, Congress decided to ignore the vote.
The Puerto Rican status referendum, 2017 occurred on June 11, 2017. While initially the referendum would only have the options of statehood and independence / free association, a letter from the Trump administration recommended to add the Commonwealth, the current status, in the plebiscite. The option had been removed from this plebiscite in response to the results of the plebiscite in 2012 which asked whether to remain in the current status and No had won. However, the Trump administration cited changes in demographics during the past 5 years to add the option once again. Amendments to the plebiscite bill were adopted making ballot wording changes requested by the U.S. Department of Justice, as well as adding a "current territorial status '' option.
Governor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to "solve our 500 - year - old colonial dilemma... Colonialism is not an option... It 's a civil rights issue... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy, '' he told the news media. Benefits of statehood include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.
Regardless of the outcome of the referendum, action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.
While the eye of Category 5 Hurricane Irma passed north of the island on September 5, 2017, winds were sufficient to leave 1 million citizens without power. On September 20, 2017, Hurricane Maria hit the island directly, destroying infrastructure including most homes, all electricity, most potable water supplies, transportation, and communication.
Coffee was a major industry before the 1940s. Arabica beans were introduced to the island in 1736. Production soared in the central mountainous area after 1855 because of cheap land, a low - paid and plentiful workforce, good credit facilities, and a growing market in the U.S., Spain and Europe. Decline set in after 1897, and the end came with a major hurricane in 1928 and the 1930s depression. While coffee declined, sugar and tobacco grew in importance, thanks to the large mainland market.
The island 's social and economic structure modernized after 1898, with new infrastructure such as roads, ports, railroads and telegraph lines, and new public health measures. The high infant mortality death rate of the late 19th century declined steadily, thanks in large measure to basic public health programs.
Land tenure did not become concentrated in fewer hands, but incomes increased as American agribusiness and capital investments arrived. The land tenure system in the firm control of local farmers (small, medium, and large). After 1940 dairying became an industry second only to sugar, and had a higher dollar output than the better - known traditional crops -- coffee and tobacco.
In the 1920s, the economy of Puerto Rico boomed. A dramatic increase in the price of sugar, Puerto Rico 's principal export, brought cash to the farmers. As a result, the island 's infrastructure was steadily upgraded. New schools, roads and bridges were constructed. The increase in private wealth was reflected in the erection of many residences, while the development of commerce and agriculture stimulated the extension of banking and transport facilities.
This period of prosperity came to an end in 1929 with the onset of the Great Depression. At the time, agriculture was the main contributor to the economy. Industry and commerce slowed during the 1930s as well. The problems were aggravated when on September 27, 1932, Hurricane San Ciprián struck the island. Exact figures of the destruction are not known but estimates say that 200 -- 300 people were killed, more than a thousand were injured, and property damage escalated to $30 -- 50 million ($530 million to $880 million as of 2016).
The agricultural production, the principal economic driver for the island, came to a standstill. Under President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal, a Puerto Rican Reconstruction Administration was authorized. Funds were made available for construction of new housing, infrastructure, including transportation improvements and other capital investment to improve island conditions. In 1938, a new federal minimum wage law was passed, establishing it at 25 cents an hour. As a consequence, two - thirds of the island 's textile factories closed because they could not be profitable while paying workers at that level.
After World War II, large numbers of young people migrated to the mainland 's industrial cities for work and remitted dollars back to their families. In 1950 Washington introduced Operation Bootstrap, which greatly stimulated economic growth from 1950 until the 1970s. Due to billions of dollars of corporate investments, the growth rate was 6 % for the 1950s, 5 % for the 1960s, and 4 % for the 1970s. Puerto Rico became one of the most affluent economies in Latin America. However, it had to import 80 % of its food.
Operation Bootstrap was sponsored by governor Muñoz Marín. It was coupled with agrarian reform (land redistribution) that limited the area that could be held by large sugarcane interests. Operation Bootstrap enticed US mainland investors to transfer or create manufacturing plants by granting them local and federal tax concessions, but maintaining the access to mainland markets free of import duties. Another incentive was the lower wage scales in the densely populated island. The program accelerated the shift from an agricultural to an industrial society. The 1950s saw the development of labor - intensive light industries, such as textiles; later manufacturing gave way to heavy industry, such as petrochemicals and oil refining, in the 1960s and 1970s. Muñoz Marín 's development programs brought some prosperity for an emergent middle class. The industrialization was in part fueled by generous local incentives and freedom from federal taxation, while providing access to continental US markets without import duties. As a result, a rural agricultural society was transformed into an industrial working class. Manufacturing activity, however, has been burdened by electricity rates two to three times the average in the United States.
In 2005, protests over the noise of bombing practice forced the closure of Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. This resulted in a loss of 6,000 jobs and an annual decrease in income of $300 million.
In 2006, Puerto Rico saw its credit rating downgraded to one notch above non-investment grade by the main credit rating agencies, with the possibility of more downgrades happening in the near future. This has led to fiscal measures to reduce government spending, increase revenues and balance the budget, and the implementation in 2006 and expansion in 2013 of a 7 % sales tax.
Present - day Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination and a leading pharmaceutical and manufacturing center, as well as a major financial center for the Caribbean.
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis posed serious problems for the government which was saddled with outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with a 45 percent poverty rate and 12.4 % unemployment that is more than twice the mainland U.S. average. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession.
The Commonwealth had been defaulting on many debts, including bonds, since 2015. "Without action before April, Puerto Rico 's ability to execute contracts for Fiscal Year 2018 with its managed care organizations will be threatened, thereby putting at risk beginning July 1, 2017 the health care of up to 900,000 poor U.S. citizens living in Puerto Rico '', according to a letter sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. They also said that "Congress must enact measures recommended by both Republicans and Democrats that fix Puerto Rico 's inequitable health care financing structure and promote sustained economic growth. ''
Initially, the oversight board created under PROMESA called for Puerto Rico 's governor Ricardo Rosselló to deliver a fiscal turnaround plan by January 28. Just before that deadline, the control board gave the Commonwealth government until February 28 to present a fiscal plan (including negotiations with creditors for restructuring debt) to solve the problems. A moratorium on lawsuits by debtors was extended to May 31. It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals to avoid a bankruptcy - like process under PROMESA.
In May 2017, after Puerto Rico 's water system was massively damaged by Hurricane Maria, the Natural Resources Defense Council, a non-profit international environmental advocacy group, reported that Puerto Rico 's potable water system was the worst as measured by the Safe Drinking Water Act, with 70 % of the population living with water that violated U.S. law.
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mid inguinal point vs midpoint of inguinal ligament | Deep inguinal ring - wikipedia
The deep inguinal ring (internal or deep abdominal ring, abdominal inguinal ring, internal inguinal ring) is the entrance to the inguinal canal.
The surface marking of the deep inguinal ring is classically described as half an inch above the midpoint of the inguinal ligament.
However, the surface anatomy of the point is disputed. In a recent study it was found to be in a region between the mid-inguinal point (situated midway between the anterior superior iliac spine and the pubic symphysis) and the midpoint of the inguinal ligament (i.e. midway between the anterior superior iliac spine and the pubic tubercle). Traditionally, either one of these 2 sites was claimed as its location. However, this claim is based upon the study 's dissection of 52 cadavers, and may not reflect the live in vivo anatomy.
Some sources state that it is at the layer of the transversalis fascia.
It is of an oval form, the long axis of the oval being vertical; it varies in size in different subjects, and is much larger in the male than in the female.
It is bounded, above and laterally, by the arched lower margin of the transversalis fascia; below and medially, by the inferior epigastric vessels.
It transmits the spermatic cord in the male and the round ligament of the uterus in the female.
From its circumference a thin funnel - shaped membrane, the infundibuliform fascia, is continued around the cord and testis, enclosing them in a distinct covering.
The abdominal inguinal ring.
The relations of the femoral and abdominal inguinal rings, seen from within the abdomen. Right side.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 1315 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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who played meathead on the archie bunker show | Rob Reiner - wikipedia
Robert Reiner (born March 6, 1947) is an American actor, writer, director, producer, and activist. As an actor, Reiner first came to national prominence with the role of Michael Stivic on All in the Family (1971 -- 1979). That role earned him two Emmy Awards during the 1970s. As a director, Reiner was recognized by the Directors Guild of America (DGA) with nominations for the coming of age comedy - drama film Stand by Me (1986), the romantic comedy When Harry Met Sally... (1989), and the military courtroom drama A Few Good Men (1992). He also directed the psychological horror - thriller Misery (1990), the romantic comedy fantasy adventure The Princess Bride (1987), and the heavy metal mockumentary This Is Spinal Tap (1984).
Reiner was born to a Jewish family in the Bronx, New York, and is the son of Estelle Reiner (née Lebost; 1914 -- 2008), an actress, and Carl Reiner (born 1922), a renowned comedian, actor, writer, producer and director. As a child, Reiner lived at 48 Bonnie Meadow Road in New Rochelle, New York; the home of the fictional Petrie family in The Dick Van Dyke Show, created by Rob 's father, was 148 Bonnie Meadow Lane. He studied at the UCLA Film School.
In the late 1960s, Reiner acted in bit roles in several television shows including Batman, The Andy Griffith Show, Room 222, Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. and The Beverly Hillbillies. He began his career writing for the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour in 1968 and 1969. Two years later, Reiner became famous playing Michael Stivic, Archie Bunker 's liberal son - in - law, on Norman Lear 's 1970s situation comedy All in the Family, which was the most - watched television program in the United States for five seasons (1971 -- 1976). The character 's nickname became closely associated with him, even after he had left the role and went on to build a high - profile career as a director. Reiner has stated, "I could win the Nobel Prize and they 'd write ' Meathead wins the Nobel Prize '. '' For his performance, Reiner won two Emmy Awards in addition to three other nominations and five Golden Globe nominations. After an extended absence, Reiner has recently returned to television acting with a recurring role on New Girl (2012 -- present).
In 1972, Reiner, Phil Mishkin, and Gerry Isenberg created the situation comedy The Super for ABC. Starring Richard S. Castellano, the show depicted the life of the harried Italian American superintendent of a New York City apartment building and ran for 10 episodes in the summer of 1972. Reiner and Mishkin co-wrote the premiere episode.
Beginning in the 1980s, Reiner became known as a director of several successful Hollywood films that spanned many different genres. Several of these films remain highly popular with fans and critics. Some of his earlier films include cult classics such as the rock - band mockumentary This Is Spinal Tap (1984) and the comedic fantasy film The Princess Bride (1987), as well as his period piece coming of age tale Stand by Me (1986), which was also highly acclaimed. He often collaborates with film editor Robert Leighton, whom he also shares with fellow director - actor Christopher Guest as their go - to editor.
Reiner has gone on to direct other critically and commercially successful films with his own company, Castle Rock Entertainment. These include several iconic films such as the romantic comedy When Harry Met Sally... (1989), which has been critically ranked among the all - time best of its genre, the tense thriller Misery (1990), for which Kathy Bates won the Academy Award for Best Actress, and his most commercially successful work, the military courtroom drama A Few Good Men (1992), which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture. Subsequent films directed by Reiner include the political romance The American President (1995), the courtroom drama Ghosts of Mississippi (1996), and the uplifting comedy The Bucket List (2007).
Reiner has continued to act in supporting roles in a number of movies and television shows, including Throw Momma from the Train (1987), Sleepless in Seattle (1993), Bullets Over Broadway (1994), The First Wives Club (1996), Primary Colors (1998), EDtv (1999), New Girl (2012 -- present), and The Wolf of Wall Street (2013). He has also parodied himself with cameos in works such as Dickie Roberts: Former Child Star (2003) and 30 Rock (2010).
Reiner has devoted considerable time and energy to liberal activism in recent years. His lobbying as an anti-smoking advocate, in particular, prompted his likeness to be used in a satirical role in a South Park episode titled "Butt Out ''.
Reiner is a co-founder of the American Foundation for Equal Rights, which initiated the court challenge against California Proposition 8 which banned same - sex marriage in the state.
In 1998, Reiner chaired the campaign to pass Prop 10, the California Children and Families Initiative, which created First 5 California, a program of early childhood development services, funded by a tax on tobacco products. He served as the first chairman of First 5 California, from 1999 to 2006. Reiner came under criticism for campaigning for a ballot measure (Prop 82) to fund state - run preschools while still chair of the First Five Commission, causing him to resign from his position on March 29, 2006. An audit was conducted, and it concluded that the state commission did not violate state law and that it had clear legal authority to conduct its public advertising campaigns related to preschool. In the end, Prop 82 failed to win approval, garnering only 39.1 % support.
Reiner is a member of the Social Responsibility Task Force, an organization advocating moderation where social issues (such as violence and tobacco use) and the entertainment industry meet. He is also active in environmental issues, and he successfully led the effort to establish California 's Ahmanson Ranch as a state park and wildlife refuge rather than as a commercial real estate development. He introduced Spinal Tap at the London Live Earth concert in July 2007.
Reiner was mentioned as a possible candidate to run against California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in 2006 but decided not to run for personal reasons. He campaigned extensively for Democratic presidential nominee Al Gore in the 2000 Presidential election, and he campaigned in Iowa for Democratic Presidential candidate Howard Dean just before the 2004 Iowa caucuses. He endorsed Hillary Clinton for president for the 2008 election. In 2015, he donated US $10,000 to Correct the Record, a political action committee which supported Hillary Clinton 's 2016 presidential campaign. Since the 2016 election, he has continued to campaign against Donald Trump, calling him a racist, sexist, anti-gay, and anti-Semitic, and compared him to the Nazi police at Auschwitz.
Reiner serves on the Advisory Board of the Committee to Investigate Russia.
Rob Reiner married actress / director Penny Marshall in 1971. Marshall 's daughter, actress Tracy Reiner (A League of Their Own), was from a previous marriage to Michael Henry. Reiner and Marshall divorced in 1981.
Reiner was introduced to his future wife, photographer Michele Singer, while directing When Harry Met Sally. The meeting not only resulted in his deciding to change the ending of that movie, but he also married Singer in 1989. They have three children, Jake (born 1991), Nick (born 1993), and Romy. In 1997, Reiner and Singer founded the "I Am Your Child Foundation, '' and in 2004, they founded the "Parents ' Action for Children, '' a non-profit organization with a dual purpose: a) to raise awareness of the importance of a child 's early years by producing and distributing celebrity - hosted educational videos for parents, and b) to advance public policy through parental education and advocacy.
Reiner has stated that his childhood home was not observantly Jewish, although he did have a Bar Mitzvah ceremony; Reiner 's father Carl has acknowledged that he himself became an atheist as the Holocaust progressed. He identified himself as having no religious affiliation on the January 13, 2012, episode of Real Time with Bill Maher and as an atheist. Reiner later told Huffington Post contributor Debra Oliver that while he rejected organized religion, he was sympathetic to the ideas of Buddhism.
In addition to his four children, Reiner has five grandchildren, through his adopted daughter Tracy.
In 2016 Rapper Magneto Dayo paid homage to Reiner and his film "Misery '' by releasing a song titled "Misery (Tribute to Rob Reiner) ''
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did double deckers used to have raisins in | Double Decker (chocolate bar) - Wikipedia
Double Decker is a brand of chocolate bar currently manufactured by Cadbury. First introduced in the UK in 1976, its name derives from the double - decker bus, and these vehicles have sometimes appeared in advertisements for the product. It is a mixture of milk chocolate, nougat and cereal crispies. This has proved to be a very popular recipe, being used in cakes and more.
The chocolate bar is structured in two layers; a lightly - whipped nougat layer, with a lower layer of cereal ' crispies ', these are then coated in milk chocolate. Originally the bar contained raisins within the base layer; however, consumer research in the mid-1980s led to these being removed and the current formulation being introduced. Television adverts in the 1970s featured Willie Rushton before a mascot named Dougie the Double Decker Dog was introduced.
The bar has a mass of approximately 54.5 g. This increased from 42g in the 1970s and 51g in the 1980s, to a peak of 60g before attaining the current weight. It typically contains 9.9 g of fat, 38g of carbohydrates, 2.3 g of protein and 1060kJ (250kcal) of energy. The Double Decker no longer contains hydrogenated oil. The bar is manufactured in Poland.
There also existed a ' Double Decker -- Nuts ' launched in 2004, which had the advertising slogan "crispy, crunchy, chewy and nutty ''. This chocolate bar was essentially a Double Decker with nuts contained within the nougat layer; however, it has since been discontinued. At the time it was distinctly aimed at males, and featured in Coronation Street credits during 2004. In August 2016 Cadbury launched Dinky Deckers as part of the Bite Size bag range which are mini Cadbury Double Deckers available in a 120g pouch bag.
In 2009, the bar received a packaging revamp for the first time since 2004. Also a Cadbury Double Decker Duo product was launched, two smaller 40 g (1.4 oz) Double Decker bars in one pack. The next packaging redesign of the standard Double Decker bar was in 2013 when Cadbury 's elliptical logo was scrapped, replaced with a new modern triangular logo device. In December 2015, the wrapper was changed again. The purple was made slightly lighter and extended to cover half the bar while other changes included a revamped logo. Discount stores now also stock the 40g bars, but packaged individually, in outer packs of 4.
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when will episode 21 of meteor garden be released | Meteor Garden (2018 TV series) - wikipedia
Meteor Garden (2001, Taiwan) Meteor Garden II (2002, Taiwan) Hana Yori Dango (TV series) (2005, Japan) Hana Yori Dango Returns (2007, Japan) Hana Yori Dango Final (2008, Japan) Boys Over Flowers (2009, South Korea)
Meteor Garden (Chinese: 流星 花園; pinyin: Liúxīng Huāyuán) is a 2018 Chinese television series starring Shen Yue, Dylan Wang, Darren Chen, Connor Leong, and Caesar Wu. It is based on the first Meteor Garden series and the Japanese shōjo manga series Boys Over Flowers (花 より 男子, Hana Yori Dango) written by Yoko Kamio. The series is produced by Angie Chai and directed by Lin Helong. It is set in Shanghai.
The series reboot was first broadcast in China on Hunan Television, then made available after its airing to VIP users of its streaming counterpart, Mango TV. The stream is then made available to everyone the day after. Two episodes are released per day on a Monday to Wednesday basis. The show is expected to have 50 episodes.
The series is a remake of the 2001 Taiwanese series Meteor Garden.
The story centers around an ordinary girl, Dong Shancai (Shen Yue) who is accepted to the most prestigious university in the country. She encounters F4, an exclusive group composed of the four popular boys in the institution - Dao Mingsi (Dylan Wang), Hua Zelei (Darren Chen), Yan Ximen (Caesar Wu), and Feng Meizuo (Connor Leong). Shancai is a girl from a family that is barely able to make ends meet. Due to the nature of her personality, she immediately clashes with F4, especially Dao Mingsi who is spoiled, arrogant, and a bully. She remains defiant even after becoming a target of Dao Mingsi and just when she 's about to give up, Hua Zelei always seems to show up to comfort her. Eventually, the four boys begin to acknowledge Shancai 's unyielding personality that is like her namesake, which is that of a weed that can never be brought down. She also begins to see the good in the boys, which paves the way for friendship and an eventual romance.
(董 杉菜)
(道明寺)
(花澤 類)
(冯 美作)
(西門 彦)
In April 2017, Angie Chai announced the remake of Meteor Garden, which she produced in 2001. Prior to the announcement, Barbie Hsu hinted at the news on her Weibo account. Chai plans on making the remake a "fuller -- and flashier -- adaptation of the books ''. The drama is budgeted at 720 million New Taiwan dollars (about US $24 million) with 15 million per episode, which is thirty times higher than the original.
A casting call was announced on social media on June 21, 2017 with a video and the topic, "# FindingF4 # ''. On November 7, 2017, the actors playing the F4 were revealed, namely Dylan Wang (Daoming Si), Darren Chen (Huaze Lei), Connor Leong (Meizuo), and Caesar Wu (Xi Men). Shen Yue 's role as Dong Shancai was unveiled at a press conference in Shanghai on November 9.
On February 2018, it was announced that the director has been changed from Xu Fuxiang to Lin Helong.
Besides Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines, the show will air as a Netflix Exclusive under the Netflix Originals category and will start streaming on July 13, 2018.
After sucking out DaoMing si with one kick that has made her famous through the entire school, Shancai is puzzled when two men in suits extend her with an invitation to DaoMing si 's mansion. She wonders if it 's a trick since the men claim that DaoMing si is ready to apologize, but she gets in the car anyway. Upon her arrival, an army of stylists flock to her and after much poking and scrubbing against her will, Shancai emerges all made up in a cute outfit.
Xiaozi arrived at the hospital after her police interrogation and apologized to Shancai. Mrs. Daoming arrived a while later with Mrs. Yu. After seeing Si safely, she scheduled a ride for the next flight back to London and left Mrs. Yu to care for Si. As Mrs. Daoming was leaving the hospital, she warned Shancai to stop seeing Si and told Xiaozi to stop befriending Shancai. Shancai retorted that she will stay with Si until he personally tells her that he does not want her.
Si 's surgery was a success, but a skull injury caused a blood vessel clog. When Si woke from his coma, he remembers everyone except Shancai. At Meizuo 's suggestion, Shancai starts recalling their memories together and begs him to remember her. After she declares her love and vows that she will never leave him, he reveals the joke, surprising everyone but Lei who suspected it. Seeing that Si was back to normal, Lei asks Mrs. Yu to go home and rest, requesting that she does not inform Mrs. Daoming yet about Si regaining consciousness. Mrs. Yu assures him that she will only inform Zhuang, Si 's sister, about Si 's condition.
Shancai returns to school and gained sudden popularity due to her media coverage during the attack on Si. After Si got discharged from the hospital, he decides to stay in Lei 's house to avoid his mother 's attention. He tells Lei about his plan to marry Shancai and hints on a secret plan for a new concept for the Daoming group hotels. Meanwhile, Xiaoyou joins the Way of Tea club where she forms an immediate bond with a short - haired lady called Yifen.
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where does the process of transcription fit into the central dogma of molecular genetics | Central dogma of molecular biology - wikipedia
The central dogma of molecular biology is an explanation of the flow of genetic information within a biological system. It is often stated as "DNA makes RNA and RNA makes protein, '' although this is an oversimplification. It was first stated by Francis Crick in 1958:
and re-stated in a Nature paper published in 1970:
A second version of the central dogma is popular but incorrect. This is the simplistic DNA → RNA → protein pathway published by James Watson in the first edition of The Molecular Biology of the Gene (1965). Watson 's version differs from Crick 's because Watson describes the two - step (DNA → RNA and RNA → protein) pathway as the central dogma. While the dogma, as originally stated by Crick, remains valid today, Watson 's version does not.
The dogma is a framework for understanding the transfer of sequence information between information - carrying biopolymers, in the most common or general case, in living organisms. There are 3 major classes of such biopolymers: DNA and RNA (both nucleic acids), and protein. There are 3 × 3 = 9 conceivable direct transfers of information that can occur between these. The dogma classes these into 3 groups of 3: three general transfers (believed to occur normally in most cells), three special transfers (known to occur, but only under specific conditions in case of some viruses or in a laboratory), and three unknown transfers (believed never to occur). The general transfers describe the normal flow of biological information: DNA can be copied to DNA (DNA replication), DNA information can be copied into mRNA (transcription), and proteins can be synthesized using the information in mRNA as a template (translation). The special transfers describe: RNA being copied from RNA (RNA replication), DNA being synthesised using an RNA template (reverse transcription), and proteins being synthesised directly from a DNA template without the use of mRNA. The unknown transfers describe: a protein being copied from a protein, synthesis of RNA using the primary structure of a protein as a template, and DNA synthesis using the primary structure of a protein as a template - these are not thought to naturally occur.
The biopolymers that comprise DNA, RNA and (poly) peptides are linear polymers (i.e.: each monomer is connected to at most two other monomers). The sequence of their monomers effectively encodes information. The transfers of information described by the central dogma ideally are faithful, deterministic transfers, wherein one biopolymer 's sequence is used as a template for the construction of another biopolymer with a sequence that is entirely dependent on the original biopolymer 's sequence.
In the sense that DNA replication must occur if genetic material is to be provided for the progeny of any cell, whether somatic or reproductive, the copying from DNA to DNA arguably is the fundamental step in the central dogma. A complex group of proteins called the replisome performs the replication of the information from the parent strand to the complementary daughter strand.
The replisome comprises:
This process typically takes place during S phase of the cell cycle.
Transcription is the process by which the information contained in a section of DNA is replicated in the form of a newly assembled piece of messenger RNA (mRNA). Enzymes facilitating the process include RNA polymerase and transcription factors. In eukaryotic cells the primary transcript is pre-mRNA. Pre-mRNA must be processed for translation to proceed. Processing includes the addition of a 5 ' cap and a poly - A tail to the pre-mRNA chain, followed by splicing. Alternative splicing occurs when appropriate, increasing the diversity of the proteins that any single mRNA can produce. The product of the entire transcription process (that began with the production of the pre-mRNA chain) is a mature mRNA chain.
The mature mRNA finds its way to a ribosome, where it gets translated. In prokaryotic cells, which have no nuclear compartment, the processes of transcription and translation may be linked together without clear separation. In eukaryotic cells, the site of transcription (the cell nucleus) is usually separated from the site of translation (the cytoplasm), so the mRNA must be transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where it can be bound by ribosomes. The ribosome reads the mRNA triplet codons, usually beginning with an AUG (adenine − uracil − guanine), or initiator methionine codon downstream of the ribosome binding site. Complexes of initiation factors and elongation factors bring aminoacylated transfer RNAs (tRNAs) into the ribosome - mRNA complex, matching the codon in the mRNA to the anti-codon on the tRNA. Each tRNA bears the appropriate amino acid residue to add to the polypeptide chain being synthesised. As the amino acids get linked into the growing peptide chain, the chain begins folding into the correct conformation. Translation ends with a stop codon which may be a UAA, UGA, or UAG triplet.
The mRNA does not contain all the information for specifying the nature of the mature protein. The nascent polypeptide chain released from the ribosome commonly requires additional processing before the final product emerges. For one thing, the correct folding process is complex and vitally important. For most proteins it requires other chaperone proteins to control the form of the product. Some proteins then excise internal segments from their own peptide chains, splicing the free ends that border the gap; in such processes the inside "discarded '' sections are called inteins. Other proteins must be split into multiple sections without splicing. Some polypeptide chains need to be cross-linked, and others must be attached to cofactors such as haem (heme) before they become functional.
Reverse transcription is the transfer of information from RNA to DNA (the reverse of normal transcription). This is known to occur in the case of retroviruses, such as HIV, as well as in eukaryotes, in the case of retrotransposons and telomere synthesis. It is the process by which genetic information from RNA gets transcribed into new DNA.
RNA replication is the copying of one RNA to another. Many viruses replicate this way. The enzymes that copy RNA to new RNA, called RNA - dependent RNA polymerases, are also found in many eukaryotes where they are involved in RNA silencing.
RNA editing, in which an RNA sequence is altered by a complex of proteins and a "guide RNA '', could also be seen as an RNA - to - RNA transfer.
Direct translation from DNA to protein has been demonstrated in a cell - free system (i.e. in a test tube), using extracts from E. coli that contained ribosomes, but not intact cells. These cell fragments could synthesize proteins from single - stranded DNA templates isolated from other organisms (e, g., mouse or toad), and neomycin was found to enhance this effect. However, it was unclear whether this mechanism of translation corresponded specifically to the genetic code.
After protein amino acid sequences have been translated from nucleic acid chains, they can be edited by appropriate enzymes. Although this is a form of protein affecting protein sequence, not explicitly covered by the central dogma, there are not many clear examples where the associated concepts of the two fields have much to do with each other.
An intein is a "parasitic '' segment of a protein that is able to excise itself from the chain of amino acids as they emerge from the ribosome and rejoin the remaining portions with a peptide bond in such a manner that the main protein "backbone '' does not fall apart. This is a case of a protein changing its own primary sequence from the sequence originally encoded by the DNA of a gene. Additionally, most inteins contain a homing endonuclease or HEG domain which is capable of finding a copy of the parent gene that does not include the intein nucleotide sequence. On contact with the intein - free copy, the HEG domain initiates the DNA double - stranded break repair mechanism. This process causes the intein sequence to be copied from the original source gene to the intein - free gene. This is an example of protein directly editing DNA sequence, as well as increasing the sequence 's heritable propagation.
Variation in methylation states of DNA can alter gene expression levels significantly. Methylation variation usually occurs through the action of DNA methylases. When the change is heritable, it is considered epigenetic. When the change in information status is not heritable, it would be a somatic epitype. The effective information content has been changed by means of the actions of a protein or proteins on DNA, but the primary DNA sequence is not altered.
Prions are proteins of particular amino acid sequences in particular conformations. They propagate themselves in host cells by making conformational changes in other molecules of protein with the same amino acid sequence, but with a different conformation that is functionally important or detrimental to the organism. Once the protein has been transconformed to the prion folding it changes function. In turn it can convey information into new cells and reconfigure more functional molecules of that sequence into the alternate prion form. In some types of prion in fungi this change is continuous and direct; the information flow is Protein → Protein.
Some scientists such as Alain E. Bussard and Eugene Koonin have argued that prion - mediated inheritance violates the central dogma of molecular biology. However, Rosalind Ridley in Molecular Pathology of the Prions (2001) has written that "The prion hypothesis is not heretical to the central dogma of molecular biology -- that the information necessary to manufacture proteins is encoded in the nucleotide sequence of nucleic acid -- because it does not claim that proteins replicate. Rather, it claims that there is a source of information within protein molecules that contributes to their biological function, and that this information can be passed on to other molecules. ''
James A. Shapiro argues that a superset of these examples should be classified as natural genetic engineering and are sufficient to falsify the central dogma. While Shapiro has received a respectful hearing for his view, his critics have not been convinced that his reading of the central dogma is in line with what Crick intended.
In his autobiography, What Mad Pursuit, Crick wrote about his choice of the word dogma and some of the problems it caused him:
"I called this idea the central dogma, for two reasons, I suspect. I had already used the obvious word hypothesis in the sequence hypothesis, and in addition I wanted to suggest that this new assumption was more central and more powerful... As it turned out, the use of the word dogma caused almost more trouble than it was worth. Many years later Jacques Monod pointed out to me that I did not appear to understand the correct use of the word dogma, which is a belief that can not be doubted. I did apprehend this in a vague sort of way but since I thought that all religious beliefs were without foundation, I used the word the way I myself thought about it, not as most of the world does, and simply applied it to a grand hypothesis that, however plausible, had little direct experimental support. ''
Similarly, Horace Freeland Judson records in The Eighth Day of Creation:
"My mind was, that a dogma was an idea for which there was no reasonable evidence. You see?! '' And Crick gave a roar of delight. "I just did n't know what dogma meant. And I could just as well have called it the ' Central Hypothesis, ' or -- you know. Which is what I meant to say. Dogma was just a catch phrase. ''
The Weismann barrier, proposed by August Weismann in 1892, distinguishes between the "immortal '' germ cell lineages (the germ plasm) which produce gametes and the "disposable '' somatic cells. Hereditary information moves only from germline cells to somatic cells (that is, somatic mutations are not inherited). This, before the discovery of the role or structure of DNA, does not predict the central dogma, but does anticipate its gene - centric view of life, albeit in non-molecular terms.
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what power does the house have that the senate doesn't | Speaker of the United States House of Representatives - wikipedia
The Speaker of the House is the presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives. The office was established in 1789 by Article I, Section 2 of the United States Constitution. The Speaker is the political and parliamentary leader of the House of Representatives, and is simultaneously the House 's presiding officer, leader of the body 's majority party, and the institution 's administrative head. Speakers also perform various other administrative and procedural functions. Given these several roles and responsibilities, the Speaker usually does not personally preside over debates. That duty is instead delegated to members of the House from the majority party. Neither does the Speaker regularly participate in floor debates or vote.
The Constitution does not require the Speaker to be an elected member of the House of Representatives, although every Speaker thus far has been. The Speaker is second in the United States presidential line of succession, after the Vice President and ahead of the President pro tempore of the U.S. Senate.
The current House Speaker is Congressman Paul Ryan from Wisconsin. He was elected to the office on October 29, 2015, and is the 54th person to serve as Speaker.
The House of Representatives elects the Speaker of the House on the first day of every new Congress and in the event of the death, resignation or removal from the Chair of an incumbent Speaker. The Clerk of the House of Representatives requests nominations: there are normally two, one from each major party (each party having previously met to decide on its nominee). The Clerk then calls the roll of the Representatives, each Representative indicating the surname of the candidate the Representative is supporting. Representatives are not restricted to voting for one of the nominated candidates and may vote for any person, even for someone who is not a member of the House at all. They may also abstain by voting "present ''.
Although no rule exists, based on tradition and practice from the earliest days of the nation, to be elected speaker a candidate must receive an absolute majority of all votes cast for individuals, i.e. excluding those who abstain. If no candidate wins such a majority, then the roll call is repeated until a speaker is elected. The last time repeated votes were required was in 1923, when the Speaker was elected on the ninth ballot.
The new Speaker is then sworn in by the Dean of the United States House of Representatives, the chamber 's longest - serving member.
In modern practice, the Speaker is chosen by the majority party from among its senior leaders either when a vacancy in the office arrives or when the majority party changes. Previous Speakers have been minority leaders (when the majority party changes, as they are already the House party leader, and as the minority leader are usually their party 's nominee for Speaker), or majority leaders (upon departure of the current Speaker in the majority party), assuming that the party leadership hierarchy is followed. In the past, other candidates have included chairpersons of influential standing committees.
So far, the Democrats have always elevated their minority leader to the speakership upon reclaiming majority control of the House. However, Republicans have not always followed this leadership succession pattern. In 1919, Republicans bypassed James Robert Mann, R - IL, who had been Minority Leader for eight years, and elected a backbencher representative, Frederick H. Gillett, R - MA, to be Speaker. Mann had "angered many Republicans by objecting to their private bills on the floor, '' and was also a protégé of autocratic Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon (R - IL18) who had been Speaker from 1903 to 1911, and was still in the House. Many members "suspected that he (Mann) would try to re-centralize power in his hands if elected Speaker. '' More recently, although Robert H. Michel was Minority Leader in 1994 when the Republicans regained control of the House in the 1994 midterm elections, he had already announced his retirement and had little or no involvement in the campaign, including the "Contract with America '', which was unveiled six weeks before Election Day. Michel opted not to seek re-election because he had been isolated in the caucus by Minority Whip Newt Gingrich and other younger and more aggressive Congressmen.
It is expected that members of the House vote for their party 's candidate. If they do not, they usually vote for someone else in their party or vote "present ''. Those who vote for the other party 's candidate often face serious consequences, up to and including the loss of seniority. The last instance where a representative voted for the other party 's candidate was in 2000, when Democrat Jim Traficant of Ohio voted for Republican Dennis Hastert. In response, the Democrats stripped him of his seniority and he lost all of his committee posts.
If the Speaker 's party loses control of the House in an election, and if the Speaker and Majority Leader both remain in the leadership hierarchy, they would become the Minority Leader and Minority Whip, respectively. As the minority party has historically had one less leadership position after losing the Speaker 's chair, there may be a contest for the remaining leadership positions; upon losing control of the House after the 2010 election, the Democrats created the position of Assistant Democratic Leader in order to prevent such a contest. Most Speakers whose party has lost control of the House have not returned to the party leadership (Tom Foley lost his seat, Dennis Hastert returned to the backbenches and resigned from the House in late 2007). However, Speakers Joseph William Martin, Jr. and Sam Rayburn did seek the post of Minority Leader in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Nancy Pelosi is the most recent example of an outgoing Speaker who was elected Minority Leader, after the Democrats lost control of the House in the 2010 elections.
The first Speaker was Frederick Muhlenberg: he was elected as a Pro-Administration candidate to the 1st Congress, an Anti-Administration candidate to the 2nd and 3rd Congresses, and a Republican candidate to the 4th Congress, according to the Biographical Directory of Congress, though Oswald Seidensticker wrote that he was elected as a Federalist for the first four Congresses.
The position of Speaker started to gain its partisan role and its power in legislative development under Henry Clay (1811 -- 1814, 1815 -- 1820, and 1823 -- 1825). In contrast to many of his predecessors, Clay participated in several debates, and used his influence to procure the passage of measures he supported -- for instance, the declaration of the War of 1812, and various laws relating to Clay 's "American System '' economic plan. Furthermore, when no candidate received an Electoral College majority in the 1824 presidential election causing the President to be elected by the House, Speaker Clay threw his support to John Quincy Adams instead of Andrew Jackson, thereby ensuring Adams ' victory. Following Clay 's retirement in 1825, the power of the speakership once again began to decline, despite speakership elections becoming increasingly bitter. As the Civil War approached, several sectional factions nominated their own candidates, often making it difficult for any candidate to attain a majority. In 1855 and again in 1859, for example, the contest for Speaker lasted for two months before the House achieved a result. During this time, Speakers tended to have very short tenures. For example, from 1839 to 1863 there were eleven Speakers, only one of whom served for more than one term. To date, James K. Polk is the only Speaker of the House later elected President of the United States.
Towards the end of the 19th century, the office of Speaker began to develop into a very powerful one. At the time, one of the most important sources of the Speaker 's power was his position as Chairman of the Committee on Rules, which, after the reorganization of the committee system in 1880, became one of the most powerful standing committees of the House. Furthermore, several Speakers became leading figures in their political parties; examples include Democrats Samuel J. Randall, John Griffin Carlisle, and Charles F. Crisp, and Republicans James G. Blaine, Thomas Brackett Reed, and Joseph Gurney Cannon.
The power of the Speaker was greatly augmented during the tenure of the Republican Thomas Brackett Reed (1889 -- 1891, 1895 -- 1899). "Czar Reed '', as he was called by his opponents, sought to end the obstruction of bills by the minority, in particular by countering the tactic known as the "disappearing quorum ''. By refusing to vote on a motion, the minority could ensure that a quorum would not be achieved, and that the result would be invalid. Reed, however, declared that members who were in the chamber but refused to vote would still count for the purposes of determining a quorum. Through these and other rulings, Reed ensured that the Democrats could not block the Republican agenda.
The speakership reached its apogee during the term of Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (1903 -- 1911). Cannon exercised extraordinary control over the legislative process. He determined the agenda of the House, appointed the members of all committees, chose committee chairmen, headed the Rules Committee, and determined which committee heard each bill. He vigorously used his powers to ensure that Republican proposals were passed by the House. In 1910, however, Democrats and several dissatisfied Republicans joined together to strip Cannon of many of his powers, including the ability to name committee members and his chairmanship of the Rules Committee. Fifteen years later, Speaker Nicholas Longworth restored much, but not all, of the lost influence of the position.
One of the most influential Speakers in history was Democrat Sam Rayburn. Rayburn was the longest - serving Speaker in history, holding office from 1940 to 1947, 1949 to 1953, and 1955 to 1961. He helped shape many bills, working quietly in the background with House committees. He also helped ensure the passage of several domestic measures and foreign assistance programs advocated by Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman. Rayburn 's successor, Democrat John William McCormack (served 1962 -- 1971), was a somewhat less influential speaker, particularly because of dissent from younger members of the Democratic Party. During the mid-1970s, the power of the speakership once again grew under Democrat Carl Albert. The Committee on Rules ceased to be a semi-independent panel, as it had been since 1910. Instead, it once again became an arm of the party leadership. Moreover, in 1975, the Speaker was granted the authority to appoint a majority of the members of the Rules Committee. Meanwhile, the power of committee chairmen was curtailed, further increasing the relative influence of the Speaker.
Albert 's successor, Democrat Tip O'Neill, was a prominent Speaker because of his public opposition to the policies of President Ronald Reagan. O'Neill is the longest continually serving Speaker, from 1977 through 1987. He challenged Reagan on domestic programs and on defense expenditures. Republicans made O'Neill the target of their election campaigns in 1980 and 1982 but Democrats managed to retain their majorities in both years.
The roles of the parties reversed in 1994 when, after spending forty years in the minority, the Republicans regained control of the House with the "Contract with America '', an idea spearheaded by Minority Whip Newt Gingrich. Speaker Gingrich would regularly clash with Democratic President Bill Clinton, leading to the United States federal government shutdown of 1995 and 1996, in which Clinton was largely seen to have prevailed. Gingrich 's hold on the leadership was weakened significantly by that and several other controversies, and he faced a caucus revolt in 1997. After the Republicans lost House seats in 1998 (although retaining a majority) he did not stand for a third term as Speaker. His successor, Dennis Hastert, had been chosen as a compromise candidate, since the other Republicans in the leadership were more controversial. Hastert played a much less prominent role than other contemporary Speakers, being overshadowed by House Majority Leader Tom DeLay and President George W. Bush. The Republicans came out of the 2000 elections with a further reduced majority but made small gains in 2002 and 2004. The periods of 2001 -- 2002 and 2003 -- 2007 were the first times since 1953 -- 1955 that there was single - party Republican leadership in Washington, interrupted from 2001 -- 2003 as Senator Jim Jeffords of Vermont left the Republican Party to become independent and caucused with Senate Democrats to give them a 51 - 49 majority.
In the 2006 midterm elections, the Democrats won a majority in the House. Nancy Pelosi became Speaker when the 110th Congress convened on January 4, 2007, making her the first female to hold the office. With the election of Barack Obama as President and Democratic gains in both houses of Congress, Pelosi became the first Speaker since Tom Foley to hold the office during single - party Democratic leadership in Washington. During the 111th Congress, Pelosi was the driving force behind several of Obama 's major initiatives that proved controversial, and the Republicans campaigned against the Democrats ' legislation by staging a "Fire Pelosi '' bus tour and regained control of the House in the 2010 midterm elections. House Minority Leader John Boehner was elected as Speaker.
Historically, there have been several controversial elections to the speakership, such as the contest of 1839. In that case, even though the 26th United States Congress convened on December 2, the House could not begin the speakership election until December 14 because of an election dispute in New Jersey known as the "Broad Seal War ''. Two rival delegations, one Whig and the other Democrat, had been certified as elected by different branches of the New Jersey government. The problem was compounded by the fact that the result of the dispute would determine whether the Whigs or the Democrats held the majority. Neither party agreed to permit a speakership election with the opposite party 's delegation participating. Finally, it was agreed to exclude both delegations from the election and a Speaker was finally chosen on December 17.
Another, more prolonged fight occurred in 1855 in the 34th United States Congress. The old Whig Party had collapsed but no single party had emerged to replace it. Candidates opposing the Democrats had run under a bewildering variety of labels, including Whig, Republican, American (Know Nothing), and simply "Opposition ''. By the time Congress actually met in December 1855, most of the northerners were concentrated together as Republicans, while most of the southerners and a few northerners used the American or Know Nothing label. Opponents of the Democrats held a majority in House, with the party makeup of the 234 Representatives being 83 Democrats, 108 Republicans, and 43 Know Nothings (primarily southern oppositionists). The Democratic minority nominated William Alexander Richardson of Illinois as Speaker, but because of sectional distrust, the various oppositionists were unable to agree on a single candidate for Speaker. The Republicans supported Nathaniel Prentiss Banks of Massachusetts, who had been elected as a Know Nothing but was now largely identified with the Republicans. The southern Know Nothings supported first Humphrey Marshall of Kentucky, and then Henry M. Fuller of Pennsylvania. The voting went on for almost two months with no candidate able to secure a majority, until it was finally agreed to elect the Speaker by plurality vote, and Banks was elected. The House found itself in a similar dilemma when the 36th Congress met in December 1859. Although the Republicans held a plurality, the Republican candidate, John Sherman, was unacceptable to southern oppositionists due to his anti-slavery views, and once again the House was unable to elect a Speaker for several months. After Democrats allied with southern oppositionists to nearly elect the North Carolina oppositionist William N.H. Smith, Sherman finally withdrew in favor of compromise candidate William Pennington of New Jersey, a former Whig of unclear partisan loyalties, who was finally elected Speaker at the end of January 1860.
The last speakership elections in which the House had to vote more than once occurred in the 65th and 72nd United States Congress. In 1917, neither the Republican nor the Democratic candidate could attain a majority because three members of the Progressive Party and other individual members of other parties voted for their own party. The Republicans had a plurality in the House but James "Champ '' Clark remained Speaker of the House because of the support of the Progressive Party members. In 1931, both the Republicans and the Democrats had 217 members with the Minnesota Farmer - Labor Party having one member who served as the deciding vote. The Farmer - Labor Party eventually voted for the Democrats ' candidate for Speaker, John Nance Garner, who later became Vice President under Franklin Roosevelt.
In 1997, several Republican congressional leaders tried to force Speaker Newt Gingrich to resign. However, Gingrich refused since that would have required a new election for Speaker, which could have led to Democrats along with dissenting Republicans voting for Democrat Dick Gephardt (then Minority Leader) as Speaker. After the 1998 midterm elections where the Republicans lost seats, Gingrich did not stand for re-election. The next two figures in the House Republican leadership hierarchy, Majority Leader Richard Armey and Majority Whip Tom DeLay, chose not to run for the office. The chairman of the House Appropriations Committee, Bob Livingston, declared his bid for the speakership, which was unopposed, making him Speaker - designate. It was then revealed, by Livingston himself, who had been publicly critical of President Bill Clinton 's perjury during his sexual harassment trial, that he had engaged in an extramarital affair. He opted to resign from the House, despite being urged to stay on by House Democratic leader Gephardt. Subsequently, chief deputy whip Dennis Hastert was selected as Speaker. The Republicans retained their majorities in the 2000, 2002, and 2004 elections.
The Democrats won a majority of seats in the 2006 midterm elections. On November 16, 2006, Nancy Pelosi, who was then Minority Leader, was selected as Speaker - designate by House Democrats. When the 110th Congress convened on January 4, 2007, she was elected as the 52nd Speaker by a vote of 233 - 202, becoming the first woman elected Speaker of the House. Pelosi remained Speaker through the 111th Congress. For the 112th Congress, Republican John Boehner was unanimously designated Speaker - designate by House Republicans and was elected the 53rd Speaker of the House. As a show of dissent, nineteen Democratic representatives voted for Democrats other than Pelosi, who had been chosen as House Minority Leader and the Democrats ' candidate for Speaker.
The Constitution does not spell out the political role of the Speaker. As the office has developed historically, however, it has taken on a clearly partisan cast, very different from the speakership of most Westminster - style legislatures, such as the Speaker of the British House of Commons, which is meant to be scrupulously non-partisan. The Speaker in the United States, by tradition, is the head of the majority party in the House of Representatives, outranking the Majority Leader. However, despite having the right to vote, the Speaker usually does not participate in debate and rarely votes.
The Speaker is responsible for ensuring that the House passes legislation supported by the majority party. In pursuing this goal, the Speaker may use their power to determine when each bill reaches the floor. They also chair the majority party 's steering committee in the House. While the Speaker is the functioning head of the House majority party, the same is not true of the President pro tempore of the Senate, whose office is primarily ceremonial and honorary.
When the Speaker and the President belong to the same party, the Speaker tends to play the role in a more ceremonial light, as seen when Dennis Hastert played a very low - key role during the presidency of fellow Republican George W. Bush. Nevertheless, there are times when the Speaker plays a much larger role if the President is a fellow member of their party, and thus, the Speaker is tasked with pushing through the agenda of the majority party, often at the expense of the minority opposition. This can be seen, most of all, in the speakership of Democratic - Republican Henry Clay, who personally ensured the presidential victory of fellow Democratic - Republican John Quincy Adams. Democrat Sam Rayburn was a key player in the passing of New Deal legislation under the presidency of fellow Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (under Theodore Roosevelt) was particularly infamous for his marginalization of the minority Democrats and centralizing of authority to the speakership. In more recent times, Speaker Nancy Pelosi played a role in continuing the push for health care reform during the presidency of fellow Democrat Barack Obama. The Republicans campaigned against Pelosi and the Democrats ' legislation with their "Fire Pelosi '' bus tour.
On the other hand, when the Speaker and the President belong to opposite parties, the public role and influence of the Speaker tend to increase. As the highest - ranking member of the opposition party (and de facto Leader of the Opposition), the Speaker is normally the chief public opponent of the President 's agenda. In this scenario, the Speaker is known for undercutting the President 's agenda by blocking measures by the minority party or rejecting bills by the Senate. One famous instance came in the form of Thomas Brackett Reed (under Grover Cleveland), a Speaker notorious for his successful attempt to force the Democrats to vote on measures where the Republicans had clear majorities, which ensured that Cleveland 's Democrats were in no position to challenge the Republicans in the House. Joseph Cannon was particularly unique in that he led the conservative "Old Guard '' wing of the Republican Party, while his President -- Theodore Roosevelt -- was of the more progressive clique, and more than just marginalizing the Democrats, Cannon used his power to punish the dissidents in his party and obstruct the progressive wing of the Republican Party.
More modern examples include Tip O'Neill, who was a vocal opponent of President Ronald Reagan 's economic and defense policies; Newt Gingrich, who fought a bitter battle with President Bill Clinton for control of domestic policy; Nancy Pelosi, who argued with President George W. Bush over the Iraq War; and John Boehner, who clashed with President Barack Obama over budget issues and health care.
As presiding officer of the House of Representatives, the Speaker holds a variety of powers over the House and is ceremonially the highest - ranking legislative official in the US government. The Speaker may delegate his powers to a member of the House to act as Speaker pro tempore and preside over the House in the Speaker 's absence; when this has occurred the delegation has always been to a member of the same party. During important debates, the Speaker pro tempore is ordinarily a senior member of the majority party who may be chosen for his skill in presiding. At other times, more junior members may be assigned to preside to give them experience with the rules and procedures of the House. The Speaker may also designate, with approval of the House, a Speaker pro tempore for special purposes, such as designating a Representative whose district is near Washington, D.C. to sign enrolled bills during long recesses.
Under the Rules of the House, the Speaker, "as soon as practicable after the election of the Speaker and whenever appropriate thereafter, '' must deliver to the Clerk of the House a confidential list of Members who are designated to act as Speaker in the case of a vacancy or physical inability of the Speaker to perform their duties.
On the floor of the House, the presiding officer is always addressed as "Mister Speaker '' or "Madam Speaker, '' even if it is a Speaker pro tempore, and not the Speaker themselves. When the House resolves itself into a Committee of the Whole, the Speaker designates a member to preside over the Committee as the Chairman, who is addressed as "Mister Chairman '' or "Madam Chairwoman. '' To speak, members must seek the presiding officer 's recognition. The presiding officer also rules on all points of order but such rulings may be appealed to the whole House. The Speaker is responsible for maintaining decorum in the House and may order the Sergeant - at - Arms to enforce House rules.
The Speaker 's powers and duties extend beyond presiding in the chamber. In particular, the Speaker has great influence over the committee process. The Speaker selects nine of the thirteen members of the powerful Committee on Rules, subject to the approval of the entire majority party. The leadership of the minority party chooses the remaining four members. Furthermore, the Speaker appoints all members of select committees and conference committees. Moreover, when a bill is introduced, the Speaker determines which committee will consider it. As a member of the House, the Speaker is entitled to participate in debate and to vote but, by custom, only does so in exceptional circumstances. Ordinarily, the Speaker votes only when the Speaker 's vote would be decisive or on matters of great importance, such as constitutional amendments or major legislation.
Because joint sessions and joint meetings of Congress are held in the House chamber, the Speaker presides over joint sessions to hear addresses by the President, and joint meetings to hear addresses from foreign leaders or other invited guests. However, the Twelfth Amendment and 3 U.S.C. § 15 require that the President of the Senate preside over joint sessions of Congress assembled to count electoral votes and to certify the results of a presidential election.
The Speaker is also responsible for overseeing the officers of the House: the Clerk, the Sergeant - at - Arms, the Chief Administrative Officer, and the Chaplain. The Speaker can dismiss any of these officers. The Speaker appoints the House Historian and the General Counsel and, jointly with the Majority and Minority Leaders, appoints the House Inspector General.
The Speaker is second in the presidential line of succession, immediately after the Vice President, under the Presidential Succession Act of 1947. The Speaker is followed in the line of succession by the President pro tempore of the Senate and by the heads of federal executive departments.
To date, the implementation of the Presidential Succession Act has never been necessary and no Speaker has ever acted as President. Implementation of the law almost became necessary in 1973 after the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew. At the time, many believed that President Richard Nixon would resign because of the Watergate scandal, allowing Speaker Carl Albert to succeed to the Presidency. However, before he resigned, Nixon appointed Gerald Ford as Vice President in accordance with the Twenty - fifth Amendment. Nevertheless, the United States government takes the Speaker 's place in the line of succession seriously enough that, for example, following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Speakers used military jets to fly back and forth to their districts and for other travel until Speaker Boehner discontinued the practice in 2011. The Speaker of the House is one of the officers to whom declarations of presidential inability or ability to resume the Presidency must be addressed under the Twenty - fifth Amendment.
To be elected as Speaker, a candidate must receive an absolute majority of all votes cast for individuals, excluding those who abstain.
Source: Election of the Speaker Office of the Clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives. January 5, 2011.
Source: Election of the Speaker Office of the Clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives. January 3, 2013.
Source: Election of the Speaker Office of the Clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives. January 6, 2015.
On September 25, 2015, Speaker Boehner formally announced to the Republican congressional caucus of his intention to resign from the House on October 30, 2015, which necessitated an election for a new speaker before that time. The election was held on October 29.
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where do the trolls live in the movie | Trolls (film) - Wikipedia
Trolls is a 2016 American 3D computer - animated musical film based on the Troll dolls created by Thomas Dam. The film was directed by Mike Mitchell and co-directed by Walt Dohrn, written by Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger and based on a story by Erica Rivinoja. The film features the voices of Anna Kendrick, Justin Timberlake, Zooey Deschanel, Russell Brand, James Corden and Gwen Stefani. The film revolves around two trolls on a quest to save their village from destruction by the Bergens, creatures who eat trolls.
The 33rd animated feature film produced by DreamWorks Animation, the film premiered on October 8, 2016, at the BFI London Film Festival and was theatrically released in the United States on November 4, 2016, by 20th Century Fox. The film grossed $344 million worldwide against its $125 million budget and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song for "Ca n't Stop the Feeling! ''.
The Trolls are small creatures who live in an almost perpetual state of happiness, singing, dancing and hugging all day. However, they are discovered by the Bergens, large miserable creatures, who can feel happy only after eating a Troll. The Bergens imprison the trolls and eat them every year on a special occasion, called Trollstice. The Trolls, led by their king, King Peppy, with his baby daughter, Princess Poppy, escape through underground tunnels on the day of trollstice, when young Prince Gristle was going to eat his first Troll. Enraged, Gristle 's father King Gristle Sr. banishes his Chef who was in charge of the Trollstice preparation.
20 years later, Poppy, throws a big party to celebrate the Trolls ' escape, despite the fears and warnings of the gray troll, Branch, that loud parties will attract the Bergens. A Zen troll Creek arrives, and tells Branch to start being happy, instead of being grumpy, but Branch refuses. At the party, Branch 's fears come true, when Chef sees the fireworks and captures some Trolls.
Alone inside the bunker, Branch looks at a bunch of homemade party invitations, indicating that he does want to go to the parties. Meanwhile, Poppy goes on a rescue mission alone, as no other troll is willing to venture to Bergen Town, including Branch. But later when Poppy gets into trouble, she is saved by Branch, who thinks she will not make it if she goes alone.
Once inside the Bergen prince 's castle, Poppy and Branch witness Creek, one of the Troll hostages, apparently get eaten by the now King Gristle, but Poppy remains hopeful that Creek survived. Poppy and Branch find the rest of the captured Trolls, being guarded by a scullery maid named Bridget. Poppy discovers that Bridget is in love with King Gristle and offers to help her get a date with the king while trying to confirm if Creek is alive.
While setting her up for the date, Branch refuses to sing and triggers a big argument with Poppy, revealing that, as a child, his grandmother was killed while trying to save him, because his singing compromised his location to Chef. His guilt caused his color to turn from blue to gray. After Poppy comforts him with a hug, Branch decides to help Bridget and the trolls. Bridget, disguised as Lady Glitter Sparkles gets her date with Gristle, at a roller rink and arcade restaurant and Gristle asks her to be his "plus one '' at Trollstice. Poppy notices Creek being held captive, in the jewel adorning the king 's mantle.
Having helped Bridget, the Trolls attempt to rescue Creek from Gristle 's room and steal his jewel, but discover that it is empty. The Trolls are then captured by Chef, and are shocked to discover that Creek sold them out to the Bergens, to spare himself from being eaten. Creek then lures out every troll from Troll village, and they are captured by Chef and the other Bergen cooks. With all the Trolls captured and soon to be eaten, Poppy loses hope as she and all the other Trolls turn gray when she starts to cry. The Chef also hints that she plans to "do in '' Prince Gristle and take over the kingdom, using control over the trolls to remain in power.
Branch sings "True Colors '' for Poppy to cheer her up, and also confesses his secret love for her. Poppy, after regaining her colors, reciprocates his feelings, and they end up restoring all the trolls ' colors including Branch 's. Bridget liberates the trolls, willing to sacrifice herself for them. Poppy wishes to return the favor and with Branch and her friends, shows the Bergens that Bridget was Lady Glitter Sparkles and explains that they can find happiness, within themselves instead of eating the Trolls.
Chef however, refuses to accept the peace, tries to kill Poppy and Branch, but is knocked into a serving cart that is sent rolling out of Bergen Town, on fire with Creek in her pouch and (in the mid credits) are consumed by a giant monster. Both species celebrate, bringing new life to the town and renewing the life of the troll tree. Poppy is declared queen, and she and Branch share a romantic hug.
DreamWorks announced plans for a film based on the Troll toyline as early as 2010. This version was to be written by Adam Wilson and his wife Melanie By 2012, Chloë Grace Moretz had already been cast in the female lead role and Jason Schwartzman was reported to have been offered the male lead. In September 2012, 20th Century Fox and DreamWorks Animation announced that the film with the working title Trolls would be released on June 5, 2015, with Anand Tucker set to direct the film, written by Wallace Wolodarsky and Maya Forbes.
By April 2013, DreamWorks Animation had acquired the intellectual property for the Trolls franchise from the Dam Family and Dam Things. Having "big plans for the franchise, '' DreamWorks Animation became the exclusive worldwide licensor of the merchandise rights, except for Scandinavia, where Dam Things remains the licensor. In May 2013, the film was pushed back for a year to November 4, 2016. The same month, DreamWorks Animation announced that Mike Mitchell and Erica Rivinoja has been hired as a director and screenplay writer to "reimagine '' the film as a musical comedy, which will present the origin of the Trolls ' colorful hair. On June 16, 2014, Anna Kendrick joined the cast to voice Poppy, a princess. On September 15, 2015, Deadline.com reported that Justin Timberlake will voice a character named Branch. Timberlake previously worked with DreamWorks Animation as the voice of Arthur "Artie '' Pendragon in Shrek the Third in 2007. The full cast announced their respective roles via announcements on Twitter on January 6, 2016.
Justin Timberlake served as an executive producer for the film 's music and released the original song "Ca n't Stop the Feeling! '' on May 6, 2016. The song reached No. 1 in the official charts of 17 countries, including the United States and Canada. Timberlake along with the film cast, with guest appearances from Earth, Wind & Fire and Ariana Grande, contributed to the soundtrack. The soundtrack album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and the Australian Recording Industry Association.
The film 's world premiere took place at the BFI London Film Festival on October 8, 2016, and was theatrically released on November 4, 2016, in the United States by 20th Century Fox.
Trolls was released on Digital HD on January 24, 2017, and on DVD and Blu - ray on February 7, 2017. The film topped the home video sales chart for two consecutive weeks.
Trolls grossed $153.7 million in the US and Canada and $193.2 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $346.8 million, against a budget of $125 million.
In the United States and Canada, Trolls was released alongside Doctor Strange and Hacksaw Ridge, and was projected to gross $35 -- 40 million from 4,060 theaters in its opening weekend. On its first day, the film grossed $12.3 million (including $900,000 made from Thursday night previews). It went on to open to $46.5 million, finishing second at the box office behind Doctor Strange.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 74 % based on 145 reviews; the average rating is 6.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Trolls brings its instantly recognizable characters to the big screen in a colorful adventure that, while geared toward the younger set, is n't without rewards for parents. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score 56 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Lindsey Bahr of Associated Press gave the film a positive review and said, "Ultimately, the ' get happy ' moral of the story, while trite compared to something like Inside Out, is sufficiently sweet enough for its audience. Did you expect more from a piece of candy? '' Bill Zwecker of Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four and said, "You simply will walk out -- or perhaps dance out -- of the theater feeling very happy yourself. '' Andy Webster of The New York Times said, "Exuberant, busy and sometimes funny, DreamWorks Animation 's Trolls is determined to amuse. ''
The Hollywood Reporter called the film "an admittedly vibrant - looking but awfully recognizable animated musical comedy concoction. '' Alonso Duralde of TheWrap said the film "combines the barely - there characterization and irritating cutesiness of The Smurfs with the hideous character design and awful pop covers of Strange Magic. '' Betsy Bozdech of Common Sense Media gave the movie 4 stars. She said, "Make no mistake: Kids are going to love this movie. Trolls is cute, it 's colorful, it has tons of catchy songs, and the messages are positive and easy to understand (happiness is inside everyone, if you know where / how to find it, and you should n't have to change who you are to get someone to like you). ''
On February 28, 2017, Universal Pictures, the studio 's new distributor and parent company since 2016, and DreamWorks Animation announced that a sequel titled Trolls 2 would be released on April 10, 2020, with Anna Kendrick and Justin Timberlake reprising their roles of Poppy and Branch. On October 4, 2017, the release date for the sequel was moved up to February 14, 2020, as Fast & Furious 9 took its original April 10, 2020 slot. Along with the new release date, it was announced that Walt Dohrn will be returning to direct and Gina Shay will return to produce the sequel. On December 6, 2017, the film was pushed back to an April 17, 2020 release.
Trolls Holiday is a half - hour television special that aired on November 24, 2017 on NBC. Set after the film, Poppy realizes that the Bergens have no holidays to celebrate. She enlists Branch and their friends (the Snack Pack) to show their best friend Bridget and other Bergens the importance of holidays. Most of the original cast (including Anna Kendrick, Justin Timberlake, Zooey Deschanel, Christopher Mintz - Plasse, James Corden, Ron Funches, Kunal Nayyar and Walt Dohrn) all reprise their roles from the film. The likely - Christmas Special is also directed by Joel Crawford and written by Josh Bycel & Jonathan Fener with music by Jeff Morrow. Its soundtrack album that features seven songs was released on October 27, 2017. It is now available on Netflix and on DVD by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment. The bonus features of the DVD also include one episode of Dawn of the Croods and two of Home: Adventures with Tip & Oh.
A 26 - episode animated series based on the film, entitled Trolls: The Beat Goes On! that will air on Netflix is expected to premiere on January 19, 2018. The show stars Amanda Leighton as Poppy, Skylar Astin as Branch, and Ron Funches who is reprising his role as Cooper.
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when did the texas seat belt law start | Seat belt laws in the United States - wikipedia
Most seat belt laws in the United States are left to the states. However, the first seat belt law was a federal law, Title 49 of the United States Code, Chapter 301, Motor Vehicle Safety Standard, which took effect on January 1, 1968, that required all vehicles (except buses) to be fitted with seat belts in all designated seating positions. This law has since been modified to require three - point seat belts in outboard - seating positions, and finally three - point seat belts in all seating positions. Initially, seat belt use was voluntary. New York was the first state to pass a law which required vehicle occupants to wear seat belts, a law that came into effect on December 1, 1984. Officer Nicholas Cimmino of the Westchester County Department of Public Safety wrote the nation 's first ticket for such violation. New Hampshire is the only state that has no enforceable laws for the wearing of seat belts in a vehicle.
U.S. seatbelt laws may be subject to primary enforcement or secondary enforcement. Primary enforcement allows a police officer to stop and ticket a driver if he or she observes a violation. Secondary enforcement means that a police officer may only stop or cite a driver for a seatbelt violation if the driver committed another primary violation (such as speeding, running a stop sign, etc.) at the same time. New Hampshire is the only U.S. state that does not by law require adult drivers to wear safety belts while operating a motor vehicle.
In 15 of the 50 states, the seat belt law is considered a secondary offense, which means that a police officer can not stop and ticket a driver for the sole offense of not wearing a seatbelt. (One exception to this is Colorado, where children not properly restrained is a primary offense and brings a much larger fine.) If a driver commits a primary violation (e.g., for speeding) he may additionally be charged for not wearing a seatbelt. In most states the seat belt law was originally a secondary offense; in many it was later changed to a primary offense: California was the first state to do this, in 1993. Of the 30 with primary seat belt laws, all but 8, Connecticut, Hawaii, Iowa, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, and Texas, originally had only secondary enforcement laws.
This table contains a brief summary of all seatbelt laws in the United States. This list includes only seatbelt laws, which often do not themselves apply to children; however, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have separate child restraint laws. Keep in mind these fines are the base fines only. In many cases considerable extra fees such as the head injury fund and court security fees can mark up the fine to almost five times as much in some cases. These are also "first offense '' fines; a subsequent offense may be much higher.
under 18 in all seats
1 Colorado and Missouri 's law is Secondary for adults but Primary for under the age of 16.
Idaho, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Vermont and Virginia 's law is Secondary for adults but Primary for under 18.
Kansas, Maryland, and New Jersey, law is Secondary Enforcement for rear seat occupants (18 + in Kansas). These states assess points on one 's driving record for the seat belt violation. In California - An additional penalty of $24 shall be levied upon every $10 or fraction thereof, of every fine, penalty, or forfeiture imposed by and collected by the court for criminal offenses, including all traffic offenses, except parking offenses as defined in subdivision (i) of Penal Code § 1463. The additional penalty is calculated as follows:
State penalty required by PC 1464 $10,
County penalty required by GC 76000 (e), $ 7 Court facilities construction penalty required by GC 70372 (a), $ 3 DNA Identification Fund penalty required by GC 76104.6 and 76104.7, $ 2
Emergency medical services penalty required by GC 76000.5, $ 2
Penal Code § 1465.8 requires imposition of an additional fee of twenty dollars ($20) for court security on every conviction for a criminal offense, including a traffic offense, except parking offenses as defined in Penal Code § 1463, $20
A person involved in a car accident who was not using a seatbelt may be liable for damages far greater than if they had been using a seatbelt. However, when in court, most states protect motorists from having their damages reduced in a lawsuit due to the nonuse of a seatbelt, even if they were acting in violation of the law by not wearing the seatbelt. Currently, damages may be reduced for the nonuse of a seatbelt in 16 states: Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida (See F.S.A. 316.614 (10)), Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
Seat belt laws are effective in reducing car crash deaths. One study found that mandatory - seatbelt laws reduced traffic fatalities by 8 % and serious traffic - related injuries by 9 %, respectively. Primary - seatbelt laws seem to be more effective at reducing crash deaths than secondary laws.
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where is a good year filmed with russell crowe | A Good Year - wikipedia
A Good Year is a 2006 British - American romantic comedy directed and produced by Ridley Scott. The film stars Russell Crowe, Marion Cotillard, Didier Bourdon, Abbie Cornish, Tom Hollander, Freddie Highmore and Albert Finney. The film is loosely based on the 2004 novel of the same name by British author Peter Mayle. The film was theatrically released in the United Kingdom on October 27, 2006 and in the United States on November 10, 2006 by 20th Century Fox. The film grossed over $42.1 million against its $35 million budget. The film received nominations for the Critics Choice Award for Best Young Actor and the Satellite Award for Best Cinematography. A Good Year was released on DVD on February 27, 2007 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.
Young Max Skinner, whose parents have died in an accident, spends his childhood summer holidays learning to appreciate the finer things in life at his Uncle Henry 's vineyard estate in Provence in southeastern France. Some 25 years later, Max is an unethical, successful, and hard - working London - based bond trader with a sense of humour.
Following his uncle 's death, Max is the sole beneficiary of the French property. He travels to Provence to prepare a quick sale. Shortly after arriving, by driving while fumbling with a cell phone, he unknowingly causes a local café owner, Fanny Chenal, to crash her bicycle. Subsequently, he discovers that his latest City financial stunt has caused real trouble for the owners of the trading company he works for, and the CEO orders him to return to London as soon as possible.
To assist in his planned sale of the property, Max hurriedly snaps some photos and in the process falls into an empty swimming pool. He is unable to escape until Fanny, driving by and spotting his rental car, turns on the water supply in retaliation. This delay causes Max to miss his flight and, having failed to report to the directors in person, he is suspended from work and trading activities for one week.
On Henry 's estate, Max must deal with a gruff, dedicated winemaker, Francis Duflot, who fears being separated from his precious vines. Duflot pays a vineyard inspector to tell Max that the soil is bad and the vines worthless.
They are surprised by the arrival of young Napa Valley oenophile Christie Roberts, who is backpacking through Europe and claims to be Henry 's previously unknown illegitimate daughter. Max realizes, but does not tell her how French law decrees, even though Christie is not his uncle 's legitimate daughter, she still becomes the rightful heir to the Chateau and vineyards. As Max did earlier, Christie finds the house wine unpalatable but is impressed by Max 's casual offering of the boutique Le Coin Perdu ("the lost corner '') vintage, noting some intriguing characteristics. During dinner at the Duflot house, while slightly inebriated, Max exposes his concern that she might lay claim to the estate and brusquely interrogates her.
Max 's assistant Gemma warns him of the ambitious antics of other employees. To ensure he is not usurped by Kenny, his second - in - command in London, through whom Max continues to direct trades, Max intentionally gives the ambitious young trader bad advice, getting him fired.
Max becomes enamoured with Fanny, who is rumoured to have sworn off men. He successfully woos Fanny into his bed. She leaves him the next morning, expecting him to return to his life in London. A disillusioned Christie also decides to move on. Max finds his uncle 's memoirs, which contain proof of Christie 's heritage. He bids her farewell while handing her an unexplained note inside a book she was reading. While informing Duflot of the pending estate sale, Max learns that the mysterious expensive Le Coin Perdu was made by Henry and Duflot with "illegal vines '' from the estate, bypassing wine classification and appellation laws.
The estate is sold and Max returns to London where Sir Nigel, the company chairman, offers him a choice: either a large discharge settlement, or the partnership in the trading firm. Max asks about Nigel 's art in the conference room, which Fanny has a copy of in her restaurant. Upon Nigel 's dismissive comment that the real one is kept in a vault and the $200,000 copy in the office is for show, Max reconsiders if he wants to still be like Nigel.
Max invalidates the estate 's sale with the farewell letter he gave to Christie, which he forged, along with real photos confirming Christie as Henry 's daughter with a valid claim to the entire estate. (As a child Max signed cheques for his uncle, and is able to replicate his handwriting.)
He puts his London residence up for sale and returns to Provence, entering into a relationship with Fanny. Christie also returns and she and Francis jointly run the vineyard while trying to reconcile their vastly different philosophies of wine production. This enables Max to focus his entire attention on Fanny.
-- Ridley Scott on breaking away from action movies
Ridley Scott had owned a house in Provence for fifteen years, and wanted to film a production there. Scott Free president Lisa Ellzey recommended the works of author Peter Mayle, who had written best - selling books set in the south of France. Scott and Mayle were acquaintances and neighbours, having worked together in advertising and commercials during the 1970s, but as the author did not want to write a screenplay, he instead wrote a new book after discussing a film plot with Scott. Screenwriter Marc Klein was brought in after Scott read an adaptation he did of The Girls ' Guide to Hunting and Fishing -- eventually released in 2007 as Suburban Girl.
Klein had to expand and alter the story of the book to make the adaptation "more movie - like ''. A particular focus was to add conflict, with changes such as turning Fanny from a gentle character to a stubborn woman who starts without sympathy for Max. Another addition was the scene where Max falls in the swimming pool, which Scott said was to demonstrate "(that) the house had not let him go ''. The director wanted to portray Uncle Henry on screen instead of just describing him. While writer Marc Klein first suggested depicting him as a ghost, Scott 's attempts at that did not work so he used flashbacks which "occur just as another scene '' where it would depict "the grooming of Max as child which will be used as payoffs for the three acts that follow ''. Klein described Henry as "sounding like Albert Finney '' so Scott hired the actor, with whom he had worked in The Duellists. Scott brought Russell Crowe as the protagonist Max. The actor stated that it was a good opportunity for them to reunite after 2000 's Gladiator as "it just seemed more fun to go into this smaller place, where the problems were n't as vast. '' The character was considered a change from Crowe 's usual roles, with some noting it may reflect "maturity '' or "contentment '', with Australia 's Courier - Mail dubbing him "A Mellow Fellow ''. Crowe said of his life at the time: "(I 'm) relaxed... Work is n't the most important thing in my life now. It 's not even in the top ten. '' The actor also stressed the importance of his family. Scott also stated one of the reasons for the project was that he had "not done much in the way of comedy '' and it seemed to be a good opportunity to "keep challenging yourself ''.
The film was shot throughout nine weeks in 2005, mostly in locations Scott described as "eight minutes from my house ''. French locations were filmed at Bonnieux, Cucuron and Gordes in Vaucluse, Marseille Provence Airport, and the rail station in Avignon. London locations included Albion Riverside in Battersea, Broadgate, the Bluebird Cafe on King 's Road in Chelsea, and Criterion Restaurant in Piccadilly Circus. The scene with the tennis match between Max and Duflot was added on the set, replacing an argument at the vines to provide "a battle scene ''. As the swimming pool on Chateau La Canorgue did not fit the one Scott had envisioned from the scene, only the scenes outside the pool were filmed there. The one after Max had fallen was dug and concreted nearby, and the original one had its bottom replaced digitally to match. The production team could not film the wine cave from La Canorgue as they shot during the period where it was being used, so the wine cellar from a nearby hotel was turned into a cave. While southern France does not have clay courts as the weather makes them hard to maintain, Scott wanted one for its dirty and beaten up aspect, so the tennis court was built from scratch, including posts straight from the Wimbledon courts. Fanny 's cafe was shot in a Gordes restaurant, with designer Sonja Klaus decorating it with items bought from second - hand shops considering the character would have done the same. Klaus employed a kitsch decoration on Duflot 's estate to show it was "a character keeping up with the Joneses -- if it was in America, he would drive a golden Cadillac with leopard skin print seats '', and decorated the large water basin of Cucuron with floating candles to "make it look like a fabulous event '' for Max 's dinner with Fanny.
Marc Streitenfeld worked as a music editor on Hans Zimmer 's Remote Control Productions and was invited by Scott to make his debut as a film score composer. The soundtrack includes "Moi Lolita '' by Alizée, "Breezin ' Along with the Breeze '' by Josephine Baker, "Gotta Get Up '', "Jump into the Fire '', and "How Can I Be Sure of You '' by Harry Nilsson, "Hey Joe '' by Johnny Hallyday, "Vous, qui passez sans me voir '' and "J'attendrai '' by Jean Sablon, "Le chant du gardien '' by Tino Rossi, "Je chante '' by Charles Trenet, "Old Cape Cod '' by Patti Page, "Walk Right Back '' by the Everly Brothers, "Boum! '' by Adrien Chevalier, and "Itsy Bitsy Petit Bikini '' by Richard Anthony. The CD includes only 15 songs from the film; several are left out.
A Good Year was theatrically released in the United Kingdom on October 27, 2006 and in the United States on November 10, 2006 by 20th Century Fox.
A Good Year was released on DVD on February 27, 2007 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.
The film grossed $42,061,749. As of 2010, it has earned over $7 million in US DVD sales.
Fox chairman Rupert Murdoch dismissed A Good Year as a ' flop ' at a shareholders meeting
https://bombreport.com/yearly-breakdowns/2006-3/a-good-year/
The film received negative reviews from critics. It holds a 26 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 129 reviews, with an average rating of 4.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "A Good Year is a fine example of a top - notch director and actor out of their elements, in a sappy romantic comedy lacking in charm and humor. '' In Variety, Todd McCarthy wrote that the film is a "divertissement '' that is easy to watch, but "does n't amount to much ''. Stephen Holden 's review in The New York Times called it "a three - P movie: pleasant, pretty and predictable. One might add piddling ''. Writing for the Los Angeles Times, Kenneth Turan said, "the fact that we know exactly what will happen (...) is not what 's wrong with A Good Year. After all, we go to films like this precisely because the satisfaction of emotional certainty is what we 're looking for. What we 're not looking for is a romantic comedy made by individuals with no special feeling for the genre who stretch a half hour 's worth of story to nearly two hours ''. Comparing it to Under the Tuscan Sun, Love Actually, and Roman Holiday, Jessica Reaves of the Chicago Tribune said The Good Year was "unbearably sweet and emotionally lifeless ''. British film critic Peter Bradshaw wrote in The Guardian that it was "a humourless cinematic slice of tourist gastro - porn ''.
In a book - length study of Ridley Scott 's film career, Adam Barkman summarized the general critical response to A Good Year as "lightweight as far as most critics were concerned '' and that it "offer (ed) little in comparison to the combined commercial and critical success of the next venture, (American Gangster), the biopic of Harlem drug lord Frank Lucas ''.
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the scooby and scrappy doo puppy hour dvd | The Scooby & Scrappy - Doo / Puppy hour - wikipedia
The Scooby & Scrappy - Doo / Puppy Hour is a 60 - minute Saturday morning animated package show co-produced by Hanna - Barbera Productions and Ruby - Spears Enterprises and broadcast on ABC from September 25, 1982 to December 18, 1982. The show contained segments of Scooby - Doo & Scrappy - Doo (Hanna - Barbera), Scrappy & Yabba - Doo (Hanna - Barbera) and The Puppy 's New Adventures (Ruby - Spears).
The first half - hour consisted of a 7 - minute Scrappy & Yabba - Doo episode placed between two 7 - minute Scooby - Doo & Scrappy - Doo episodes followed by a 30 - minute episode of The Puppy 's New Adventures in the second half - hour. The Scooby / Scrappy - related shorts were written, storyboarded and voiced at Hanna - Barbera, but animated and edited by Ruby - Spears.
Scooby - Doo & Scrappy - Doo: Scooby - Doo, Scrappy - Doo and Shaggy Rogers travel across the country as the "Fearless Detective Agency '' and get involved in typical spy or criminal cases. Scrappy & Yabba - Doo: Scrappy - Doo 's adventures with his uncle Yabba - Doo and Deputy Dusty in the wild west.
The adventures of Petey the Puppy and his friends -- Dolly, Dash, Duke and Lucky -- as they travel around the world together searching for his young owner Tommy and his family.
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a valediction forbidding mourning is the speaker about to die | A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning - wikipedia
"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning '' is a metaphysical poem by John Donne. Written in 1611 or 1612 for his wife Anne before he left on a trip to Continental Europe, "A Valediction '' is a 36 - line love poem that was first published in the 1633 collection Songs and Sonnets, two years after Donne 's death. Based on the theme of two lovers about to part for an extended time, the poem is notable for its use of conceits and ingenious analogies to describe the couple 's relationship; critics have thematically linked it to several of his other works, including "A Valediction: of my Name, in the Window '', Meditation III from the Holy Sonnets and "A Valediction: of Weeping ''.
Donne 's use of a drafting compass as an analogy for the couple -- two points, inextricably linked -- has been both praised as an example of his "virtuoso display of similitude '', and also criticised as an illustration of the excesses of metaphysical poetry; despite detractors, it remains "the best known sustained conceit '' in English poetry. As well as citing this most famous example, literary critics point to Donne 's use of subtlety and precise wording in "A Valediction '', particularly around the alchemical theme that pervades the text.
John Donne was born on 21 January 1572 to John Donne, a wealthy ironmonger and one of the wardens of the Worshipful Company of Ironmongers, and his wife, Elizabeth. Donne was four when his father died and, instead of being prepared to enter a trade, he was trained as a gentleman scholar; his family used the money his father had made from ironmongering to hire private tutors who taught him grammar, rhetoric, mathematics, history and foreign languages. Elizabeth soon remarried to a wealthy doctor, ensuring that the family remained comfortable; as a result, despite being the son of an ironmonger and portraying himself in his early poetry as an outsider, Donne refused to accept that he was anything other than a gentleman. After study at Hart Hall, Oxford, Donne 's private education eventually saw him study at Lincoln 's Inn, one of the Inns of Court, where he occupied his time with history, poetry, theology and "Humane learning and languages ''. It was at Lincoln 's Inn that Donne first began writing poetry, looking upon it as "a life - sign or minor irritation '' rather than something which defined him.
In November 1597, he became chief secretary to Thomas Egerton, and soon after met Egerton 's niece, Anne More. After meeting in 1599, the two conducted a heated love affair in the summer of 1600; letters exchanged between the two reveal the growing suspicion of Anne 's father, Sir George More, and Donne 's pledge to pick Anne over the favour of his patron, Egerton. The two secretly married, and when More discovered this in 1602, he had Donne sent to Fleet Prison for violating canon law. After many demands, Egerton also consented to Donne 's dismissal. After Donne wrote to Egerton, he was released from prison, and during his trial at the Court of Audience the marriage was validated and Donne absolved of any canon law violation. "A Valediction '' was written to a heavily pregnant Anne, in 1611 or 1612, as Donne prepared to travel to Continental Europe with Sir Robert Drury. It was later published in 1633 as part of the collection Songs and Sonnets, following his death.
36 lines long, the poem opens with:
In these stanzas, Donne compares the parting of two lovers to a death, desiring the lovers ' parting to be quiet, without struggle, and voluntary even though it is inevitable. At the same time, he considers the separation of lovers to be equivalent to the soul separating from the body on death. Ramie Targoff argues that this is not because he sees the separation of the lovers as permanent, like death, but that as with death Donne finds the challenge with separation to be ensuring the relationship 's continuity in the future.
Writing in Texas Studies in Literature and Language, Peter L. Rudnytsky notes the "imagery of extraordinary complexity '' in this stanza. "Moving of th ' earth '' is interpreted not to refer to earthquakes, but to the then - recent theories about the movement of Earth. This theory is supported by the use of the phrase "trepidation of the spheres '', an obsolete astronomical theory used in the Ptolemaic system.
Theresa M. DiPasquale notes the use of "refined '' as a continuation of an alchemical theme set in the earlier stanzas, with the phrase "so much refined '' ambiguous as to whether it is modifying "love '', or the couple themselves are being refined by the love they share.
These lines use a piece of gold to describe the love between the writer and the subject of the poem. While beating the gold ever - thinner spreads it out, widening the distance between the couple, the gold now covers more room -- it has spread and become pervasive. Beating it to "aery thinness '' -- distributing it throughout the air -- means that the love is now part of the atmosphere itself.
The analogy here -- of a compass in the process of drawing a circle -- draws contrasts between the two lovers, where one is fixed and "in the centre sit (s) '' while the other roams; despite this, the two remain inextricably connected and interdependent, staying inseparable despite the increasing distance between the two compass hands. Achsah Guibbory identifies a pun in "the fix 'd foot... Thy firmness makes my circle just ''; a circle with a dot in the middle is the alchemical symbol for gold, an element referred to in a previous stanza.
Thematically, "A Valediction '' is a love poem; Meg Lota Brown, a professor at the University of Arizona, notes that the entire poem (but particularly the compass analogy in the final three stanzas) "ascribe to love the capacity to admit changing circumstances without itself changing at the same time ''. Achsah Guibbory highlights "A Valediction '' as an example of both the fear of death that "haunts '' Donne 's love poetry and his celebration of sex as something sacred; the opening draws an analogy between the lovers ' parting and death, while, later on, the poem frames sex in religious overtones, noting that if the lovers were "to tell the layetie (of) our love '' they would profane it.
Targoff argues that "A Valediction '' follows on from Donne 's earlier poem "A Valediction: of my Name, in the Window '' in theme, with the opening stanza of one, like the closing stanza of the other, concerning itself with dying men, while J.D. Jahn, writing in the journal College Literature, compares it to Donne 's Meditation III, from the Holy Sonnets. Carol Marks Sicherman, however, draws parallels between it and another Valediction -- "A Valediction: of Weeping '', saying that "The speaker of "Mourning '' begins where his "Weeping '' colleague ends; he knows at the outset that "teare - floods '' and "sigh - tempests '' do not suit the climate of love he and his lady enjoy ".
Considering it Donne 's most famous valedictory poem, Theodore Redpath praises "A Valediction '' for its "lofty and compelling restraint, and the even tenor of its movement ''. Targoff maintains that what distinguishes "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning '' from Donne 's other "Valedictions '' is what Donne leaves for his lover: "Donne does not leave his beloved either a physical or spiritual piece of himself. Instead, he leaves her the power of his poetic making. What is meant to prevent her "mourning '' is not her possession of his name or book or heart or soul. It is the possession of his metaphors, metaphors of their union that seem invulnerable to division ". Guibbory uses "A Valediction '' to highlight Donne 's status as "master of the monosyllable, the small word that holds the line taut '' with his use of the word "beat '' rather than "spun '' in the analogy of beaten gold, while Ian Ousby uses the compass metaphor as an example of Donne 's skill at weaving conceits "sometimes extended throughout an entire poem in a virtuoso display of similitude ''. This view is seconded by Geoffrey Galt Harpham, who refers to it as "the best known sustained conceit ''.
Sicherman writes that "A Valediction '' is an example of Donne 's writing style, providing "(a) confident opening, a middle in which initial certainties give way gradually to new perceptions, and a conclusion manifesting a clear and profoundly rooted assurance ''. At the same time, she considers it "a poem whose development is so subtle, whose conclusion so perfect, that one may remain unaware of while responsive to the pattern of discovery ''. The analogy of beaten gold was heavily criticised by T.S. Eliot as not being based on a statement of philosophical theory; Targoff argues that this is incorrect -- that Donne had a consistent philosophy, and that the analogy of beaten gold can be traced to the writings of Tertullian, one of Donne 's greatest religious influences. Another critic of Donne, Samuel Johnson, noted that the poem 's compass analogy highlights the "violence '' used by metaphysical poets to "(force) the most heterogeneous ideas together ''.
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when does season 16 start of ghost adventures | List of Ghost Adventures episodes - wikipedia
Ghost Adventures is an American television series about the paranormal created by Zak Bagans and Nick Groff, airing on the Travel Channel. The series follows ghost hunters Zak Bagans, Nick Groff (seasons 1 - 10), and Aaron Goodwin as they investigate locations that are reported to be haunted. The show is introduced and narrated by Bagans. As of March 31, 2018, 184 episodes of Ghost Adventures have aired, including 32 specials.
The crew investigated the abandoned psychiatric hospital, which is officially called the Essex County Hospital Center.
The crew returns to Goldfield, Nevada to investigate two locations, the Nixon Building and the Santa Fe Saloon, but receive the chance to reinvestigate the Goldfield Hotel once more, a site they first investigated six years earlier.
GAC travels to San Jose, California, to get locked - down inside the legendary Winchester Mystery House, a 160 - room Victorian mansion filled with mazes of hallways, staircases leading to nowhere, and trap doors. Beginning in 1884, the house was built continuously for over 38 years, by Sarah Winchester, an eccentric heiress to the Winchester rifle company who was told by a fortune teller that the spirits of those killed by the rifles would kill her as soon as the house was finished being built.
The crew gets locked down in the Old Charleston Jail in Charleston, South Carolina, which held some of the city 's most notorious criminals like Lavinia Fisher, the first female serial killer. GAC also demonstrates a daytime - investigation when they find evidence at The Battery Carriage House Inn.
The Ghost Adventures Crew investigates the Shanghai Tunnels underneath modern - day Portland, Oregon, which were reportedly used to kidnap or "shanghai '' unsuspecting victims, sell them as slaves to sea captains waiting at the waterfront and force them to work aboard their ships.
UFC fighter Brendan Schaub joins GAC as a guest investigator on a special lockdown of the haunted Peabody - Whitehead Mansion in Denver, Colorado, to investigate an unsolved murder that happened in the historic home many years ago. They also investigated the student union, formerly a brewery, at the University of Colorado at Denver.
Zak, Nick, and Aaron travel to the historic mining town of Cripple Creek, Colorado, to investigate three diverse locations plagued with intense paranormal activity: the Colorado Grande Casino & Hotel, the Outlaws & Lawmen Jail Museum, and the Piotrowski House, a private residence near Florissant, Colorado, that sits on an old Native American battlefield where a bloody battle was fought between the Ute and Comanche peoples.
The GAC visit the historic Brookdale Lodge located in Brookdale, California, where the running water of Clearwater Creek flows through the world - famous "Brook Room ''. The guys use Zak 's pet dog Gracie in an attempt to contact the spirit of a deceased little girl named Sarah Logan who drowned in the brook around 1918.
Zak, Nick, and Aaron travel to the town of Mineral Wells, Texas, to determine if the town 's mineral water the locals call "crazy water '' has caused the Baker Hotel to become infested with ghosts. During the lockdown, Zak turns aggressive after a shadow figure seems to disappear into him.
Zak, Nick and Aaron travel back in time to the Heritage Junction, home to eight historic buildings to investigate the unsolved murder of Mrs. Margaret Rutledge. During the lockdown, husband and wife duo, Michael and Marti Perry make their debut investigation with the guys as psychics who make contact with a deceased man as well as Nick 's grandparents.
Zak, Nick and Aaron head to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, to investigate a home terrorized by an ancient, demonic force called "Zozo '', an ancient demon which is known for attacking, sexually assaulting and possessing its victims through a spirit board.
Zak, Aaron, Bill and Jay travel to the Bell Witch Cave in a secluded area near Cross Plains, Tennessee, where they will investigate the notorious legend of the Bell Witch that has plagued the Bell family and other families on the nearby farmland in 1817. This is the first time in Paranormal TV that the case is documented.
GAC travel to Texas for their lockdown in the De Soto Hotel, along with investigating the Concordia Cemetery and its connection to the hotel 's devil worshiping and satanic rituals.
GAC go to the Old Alton Bridge to discover a history of Satan worship and speak with four women who claim they were physically attacked by a demonic entity. Events lead Jay 's wife to quit the team and almost leads Zak to commit suicide under the influence of a unknown dark entity.
Note to Editors: Please keep in mind that the Travel Channel lists the production season rather than the regular season.
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lamb of god ashes of the wake song | Ashes of the Wake - wikipedia
Ashes of the Wake is the fourth studio album and first major label release by American metal band Lamb of God, released in 2004 via Epic Records. The album debuted at number 27 on the Billboard 200, selling 35,000 copies in its first week and was rated by Guitar World as the 49th greatest Guitar Album of all Time. The album is aimed at the war in Iraq, with songs such as "Ashes of the Wake '' (which includes snippets of former Marine Staff Sergeant Jimmy Massey in an interview after his return from the Iraq War), "Now You 've Got Something to Die For '', "One Gun '' and "The Faded Line ''. The quote at the beginning of "Omerta '' is a paraphrase of the Sicilian Mafia 's code of silence. As of August 2010, Ashes of the Wake has sold 398,000 copies in the United States. Ten years after its release, as of 2014, sales have topped 400,000 copies sold and is Lamb of God 's best - selling record. The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in February 2016.
The first pressing came with a bonus disc titled "Pure American Metal '',
The Japanese edition included a bonus song "Another Nail for Your Coffin '' which was released worldwide in 2010 on disc 3 of the 3 - CD box set Hourglass: The Anthology along with other band rarities.
A DualDisc version was released in the U.S. The DVD side contained the album in LPCM 2.0, and Dolby Digital 5.1 surround sound, as well as various video clips, including the promo videos for "Now You 've Got Something To Die For '' (intended to promote the Killadelphia release) and "Laid to Rest '', a short on the New England Metalfest, a "Meet the Band '' and a clip from the Terror and Hubris DVD. A production error in the 5.1 mix of "One Gun '' causes the vocals to pitch shift high and low throughout the song.
The album was generally well received; Blabbermouth.net gave it a 7 rating. Johnny Loftus of AllMusic gave it a 4 out of 5 star rating. He praised Blythe 's vocals, saying they became, "Lamb of God 's threshold of pain conduit. ''
All tracks written by Randy Blythe, Willie Adler, Chris Adler, Mark Morton and John Campbell.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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cast of tv series when calls the heart | When Calls the Heart - wikipedia
When Calls the Heart is a Canadian - American television drama series, inspired by Janette Oke 's book of the same name from her Canadian West series, and developed by Michael Landon Jr. The series began airing on the Hallmark Channel in the United States on January 11, 2014, and on April 16, 2014 on Super Channel in Canada.
The series originally debuted as a two - hour television movie pilot in October 2013, starring Maggie Grace as young teacher Elizabeth Thatcher and Stephen Amell as North West Mounted Police officer Wynn Delaney. In the television series Erin Krakow is cast as her niece, whose name is also Elizabeth Thatcher (played by Poppy Drayton in the movie), and Daniel Lissing plays a Mountie named Jack Thornton, with Lori Loughlin reprising her role as coal mine widow Abigail Stanton.
On April 24, 2017, Krakow announced via the Hallmark Channel website that the show would return for a fifth season, which premiered with a two - hour Christmas special broadcast as part of Hallmark 's Countdown to Christmas event and resumed in February 2018, ending in April. On March 21, 2018, Hallmark renewed the series for a sixth season.
When Calls the Heart tells the story of Elizabeth Thatcher (Erin Krakow), a young teacher accustomed to her high - society life. She receives her first classroom assignment in Coal Valley, a small coal - mining town in Western Canada which is located just south of Robb, Alberta. There, life is simple -- but often fraught with challenges. Elizabeth charms most everyone in Coal Valley, except Royal North West Mounted Police Constable Jack Thornton (Daniel Lissing). He believes Thatcher 's wealthy father has doomed the lawman 's career by insisting he be assigned in town to protect the shipping magnate 's daughter. The town of Coal Valley was renamed Hope Valley in Episode 2, Season 2 after the coal mine was closed.
Living in this 1910 coal town, Elizabeth must learn the ways of the Canadian frontier movement if she wishes to thrive in the rural west on her own. Lori Loughlin portrays Abigail Stanton, whose husband, the foreman of the mine, and her only son -- along with 45 other miners -- have recently been killed in an explosion, which turns out to have been a tragic accident waiting to happen -- a result of the mining - company site manager 's irresponsible management and lack of due care in his management of the mine. The newly widowed women find their faith tested when they must go to work in the mine to keep a roof over their heads, food on the table, and compile a wage for the town 's teacher.
The series, originally planned to be filmed in Colorado, is filmed south of Vancouver, British Columbia, on a farm surrounded by vineyards. The fictional frontier town of Coal Valley was erected in late 2013. Some of the set trimmings and a stage coach came from the Hell on Wheels set. The Thatcher home is the University Women 's Club of Vancouver.
The series was renewed for a second season, which aired from April 25 to June 13, 2015. Hallmark Channel announced in July 2015 that the series had been renewed for a third season, which aired from February 21 to April 10, 2016, with a sneak peek airing during the 2015 Christmas season.
In mid-2016, it was announced that Season 4 would premiere on the Hallmark Channel Christmas Day with a two - hour special. On April 11, 2016, Lissing and Krakow announced via the series ' Facebook page that Hallmark Channel had renewed the series for a fourth season, which aired from February 19 to April 23, 2017.
Filming for season five began in Vancouver on August 22, 2017, and ended on December 21, 2017.
The first season of the series was subsequently picked up by CBC Television for rebroadcast as a summer series in 2015. The network has since aired all five seasons. The series became available internationally on Netflix in August 2017.
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every which way but loose black widows song | Every which way but Loose (film) - wikipedia
Every Which Way but Loose is a 1978 American adventure comedy film, released by Warner Bros., produced by Robert Daley and directed by James Fargo. It stars Clint Eastwood in an uncharacteristic and offbeat comedy role, as Philo Beddoe, a trucker and brawler roaming the American West in search of a lost love while accompanied by his friend / manager, Orville, and his pet orangutan, Clyde. In the process Philo manages to cross a motley assortment of characters, including a pair of police officers and an entire motorcycle gang (the "Black Widows ''), who end up pursuing him for revenge.
Eastwood 's appearance in the film, after his string of spaghetti western and Dirty Harry roles, somewhat startled the film industry and he was reportedly advised against making it. Although it was panned by critics, the film went on to become an enormous success and became, along with its 1980 sequel Any Which Way You Can, two of the highest grossing Eastwood films. When adjusted for inflation, it still ranks as one of the top 200 highest - grossing films of all time.
Philo Beddoe is a truck driver living in the San Fernando Valley. He lives in a small house, with an orangutan named Clyde, behind that of his friend, Orville Boggs, and his mother. Philo makes money on the side as a bare - knuckle fighter; he is often compared to a legendary fighter named Tank Murdock.
One night Philo becomes smitten with Lynn Halsey - Taylor, an aspiring country music singer he meets at the Palomino Club, a local honky - tonk. His relationship with her seems to be going well until one day she and her camper disappear from the trailer park. Believing that he is falling for her, Philo decides to set off for Lynn 's home in Denver, Colorado.
Along the way, he has a run - in with a motorcycle gang called "The Black Widows '', who incur Philo 's wrath after two gang members insult him and Clyde at a traffic light. Philo chases them down and takes their bikes (which he repaints, repairs, and resells), and every attempt they make to get even results in disaster. Philo also incurs the wrath of LAPD cop named Putnam, with whom he gets into a fight at the Palomino. Both the officer and the Widows learn of Philo 's trip to Colorado and head off to find him.
Orville and Clyde accompany Philo to Denver, and on the way, they meet a woman named Echo who becomes Orville 's girlfriend. They earn money along the way by booking fights for Philo. After a fight in a slaughterhouse, the man holding the money tries to stiff Philo. Echo fires two shots from a. 38, and the man hands over the money.
Knowing that Philo has come to look for her, Lynn helps the Black Widows lure him into a trap. Philo sees Lynn and attempts to talk to her, but finds himself surrounded by the Widows. He manages to fight most of them until Orville intervenes. Using a garbage truck with a dumpster hoist, he dumps all the motorcycles into the back of the truck. The Widows charge the garbage truck, but Orville gets away. Philo, Echo, and Orville then escape.
Philo finally finds Lynn and she reveals her true nature to him. Hurt by her callousness, Philo says that he is the only one dumb enough to want to take her further than her bed. Lynn erupts in a fit of rage, striking him repeatedly until she collapses in tears.
Orville learns that Tank Murdock, based in the area, is ready to retire after one more fight. Orville makes the arrangements, and Philo faces his elderly nemesis. During the fight, the crowd, initially pro-Murdock, begins to insult him, with some murmurs that Philo is going to be the next Murdock. Philo lets his guard down, intentionally giving Murdock a clear shot, knocking Philo down for the count. Murdock, having regained the crowd 's esteem, is allowed to retire undefeated. Clyde, Orville and Echo head home the next day.
The script, written by Jeremy Joe Kronsberg, had been turned down by many other big production companies in Hollywood. Most of Eastwood 's production team and his agents thought it was ill - advised. Bob Hoyt, whom Eastwood had contacts with (through his Malpaso secretary Judy Hoyt and Eastwood 's long - term friend Fritz Manes), thought it showed promise and eventually convinced Warner Brothers to buy it. An orangutan named Manis was brought in to play Clyde; also cast were Geoffrey Lewis as the dimwitted Orville, Beverly D'Angelo as his girlfriend, and Sondra Locke as Lynn Halsey - Taylor, the country and western barroom singer. Eastwood spoke about using the orangutan for the main role, "Clyde was one of the most natural actors I ever worked with! But you had to get him on the first take because his boredom level was very limited. ''
The film has a contemporary western theme, displaying the blue collar aspects of the western United States, with many scenes shot in rural locations, cheap motel rooms, industrial facilities, and honky - tonk bars. The film was shot on location, including the California communities of Bakersfield, North Hollywood, San Fernando, Sun Valley, Ukiah, and Van Nuys. It was also filmed in Colorado, including parts of Denver, Aurora and historic Georgetown. A few scenes were also filmed in Albuquerque, Santa Fe and Taos, all in New Mexico.
The film 's title refers to the eponymous Eddie Rabbitt song from the soundtrack, in which the singer complains that his girlfriend turns him "every which way but loose ''; i.e., he can not bring himself to leave her although he is more of a freewheeling character.
Upon its release, the film was a surprising success and became Eastwood 's most commercially successful film at the time. It ranks high amongst those of his career, and was the second - highest - grossing film of 1978. It was panned by the critic David Ansen of Newsweek, who described the film as a "plotless junk heap of moronic gags, sour romance and fatuous fisticuffs. '' Ansen continued, "The only decent part is played by an orangutan. One can forgive (his) participation -- he could n't read the script -- but what is Eastwood 's excuse? '' Variety commented that, "This film is so awful it 's almost as if Eastwood is using it to find out how far he can go -- how bad a film he can associate himself with. ''
The soundtrack album included many successful country music hits, two new songs of which reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart in 1979: the title track "Every Which Way but Loose '' by Eddie Rabbitt and "Coca - Cola Cowboy '' by Mel Tillis; also included was "Behind Closed Doors '' by Charlie Rich, which had reached the No. 1 spot on the Hot Country Singles chart in 1973. Both Rich and Tillis had other songs reach the top 5 of the country chart: Rich 's "I 'll Wake You Up When I Get Home '' (No. 3) and Tillis ' "Send Me Down to Tucson '' (No. 2).
Songwriter Snuff Garrett was hired to write songs for the film, including three for Sondra Locke 's character, something which proved problematic as Locke was not a professional singer. Locke, who appears as Eastwood 's love interest, performs several musical numbers in the film as well.
In addition to "Behind Closed Doors, '' a 1960 song by Hank Thompson, "A Six Pack to Go, '' was featured in the film and included on the soundtrack.
According to a book by anthropologist Jane Goodall, the orangutan used in the movie, Manis, was trained with a can of mace and a pipe wrapped in newspaper, a common way of training great apes used in movies at the time. His successor for the sequel, an orangutan named Buddha, was beaten to death with an ax handle by its trainer for stealing doughnuts from the set.
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where is the 2018 tennis us open being played | 2018 US Open (tennis) - wikipedia
The 2018 US Open was the 138th edition of tennis ' US Open and the fourth and final Grand Slam event of the year. It was held on outdoor hard courts at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in New York City.
Rafael Nadal and Sloane Stephens were the defending champions in the men 's and women 's singles events, however both failed to defend their titles. Nadal retired during his semifinal match against Juan Martín del Potro. Stephens was defeated in the quarterfinals by Anastasija Sevastova, whom Stephens had beaten at the same stage the previous year.
Novak Djokovic won the men 's singles title, defeating del Potro in the final, 6 -- 3, 7 -- 6, 6 -- 3. It was his third US Open title and 14th Grand Slam, tieing Pete Sampras ' record to become equal third among all - time Grand Slam champions. In women 's singles, Naomi Osaka defeated Serena Williams in the final, 6 -- 2, 6 -- 4, becoming Japan 's first ever able - bodied Grand Slam singles champion.
The 2018 US Open was the 138th edition of the tournament and took place at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows -- Corona Park of Queens in New York City, New York, United States. The tournament was held on 14 DecoTurf hard courts.
The tournament was an event run by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and was part of the 2018 ATP World Tour and the 2018 WTA Tour calendars under the Grand Slam category. The tournament consisted of both men 's and women 's singles and doubles draws as well as a mixed doubles event. There are also singles and doubles events for both boys and girls (players under 18), which are part of the Grade A category of tournaments. Additionally, there are singles and doubles wheelchair tennis events for men, women and quads.
The tournament was played on hard courts and takes place over a series of 15 courts with DecoTurf surface, including the two existing main showcourts -- Arthur Ashe Stadium and the new Grandstand. The brand new Louis Armstrong Stadium would be ready for the 2018 tournament and replaced the temporary stadium on the same site from the 2017 edition.
In the United States, the 2018 US Open will be the fourth year in a row under an 11 - year, $825 million contract with ESPN, in which the broadcaster holds exclusive rights to the entire tournament and the US Open Series. This means that the tournament is not available on broadcast television. This also makes ESPN the exclusive U.S. broadcaster for three of the four tennis majors.
Below is a series of tables for each of the competitions showing the ranking points on offer for each event.
The total prize - money compensation for the 2018 US Open is $53 million, a more than 5 % increase on the same total last year. Of that total, a record $3.8 million goes to both the men 's and women 's singles champions, which is increased by 2.7 % from last year. This makes the US Open the most lucrative and highest paying tennis grand slam in the world, leapfrogging Roland - Garros in total prize money fund. Prize money for the US Open qualifying tournament is also up 10.3 %, to $3.2 million. (1) The prize money for the wheelchair draw amounts to a total of US $350,000. The singles winners of the men and women draws receive US $31,200 and the winner of the quad singles receives US $23,400.
Naomi Osaka defeated Serena Williams in the final, 6 -- 2, 6 -- 4. During the final, Williams received three code violations, the second coming with a point penalty and the third with a game penalty. The issue started during the second set when chair umpire Carlos Ramos cited Serena for a signal that was sent from her coach. Serena said she was unaware of the signal and verbally sparred with Ramos, saying "I do n't cheat to win. I 'd rather lose. '' and "You owe me an apology. I have never cheated in my life. '' After a mistake later in the second set, Serena smashed her racket into the court. This led to her second code violation, which Serena found out about upon attempting to serve and which increased the dispute between Serena and Ramos. During the change at the 3 -- 4 mark, a discussion between Serena and Ramos broke down leading Serena to call Ramos both "a liar '' and "a thief. '' As both players were concluding the changeover and getting set, Ramos issued Serena her third code violation. This led to confusion from both players who did not appear to hear the announcement, which Ramos explained to both after summoning them over to his seat. At this point, US Open referee, Brian Earley, and WTA supervisor, Donna Kelso, were summoned to the court due to the dispute. A four minute delay occurred due to a discussion between Serena, Earley, and Kelso regarding the issues. After the delay, Serena won the next game before Osaka won the set and match.
The following are the seeded players and notable players who have withdrawn from the event. Seedings are based on ATP and WTA rankings as of August 20, 2018. Rank and points before are as of August 27, 2018.
† The player did not qualify for the tournament in 2017, but is defending points from one or more 2017 ATP Challenger Tour tournaments.
† Serena Williams was ranked 26 on the day when seeds were announced. Nevertheless she was deemed a special case and seeded 17th by the organizers because she missed a significant portion of the last 12 - month period due to pregnancy and maternity. ‡ The player did not qualify for the tournament in 2017. Accordingly, points for her 16th best result are deducted instead.
Rankings as of August 20, 2018.
Rankings as of August 20, 2018.
Rankings as of August 20, 2018.
The following players were given wildcards to the main draw based on internal selection and recent performances.
The qualifying competitions took place at USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center on 21 -- 24 August 2018.
The following players were accepted directly into the main draw using a protected ranking:
The following players were accepted directly into the main tournament, but withdrew with injuries, suspensions or for personal reasons.
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new zealand famous rugby brothers who played sevens | List of international rugby union families - wikipedia
The following is a list of related people who have played international rugby union.
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who has the biggest boat on deadliest catch | Deadliest Catch - wikipedia
Deadliest Catch is a documentary television series produced by Original Productions for the Discovery Channel. It portrays the real life events aboard fishing vessels in the Bering Sea during the Alaskan king crab, opilio crab and bairdi crab fishing seasons.
The Aleutian Islands port of Dutch Harbor, Alaska, is the base of operations for the fishing fleet. The show 's title derives from the inherent high risk of injury or death associated with the work.
Deadliest Catch premiered on the Discovery Channel on April 12, 2005, and currently airs in over 200 countries. The first season consisted of ten episodes, with the finale airing on June 14, 2005. Subsequent seasons have aired on the same April to June or July schedule every year since the original 2005 season. The 13th season premiered on April 11, 2017.
The series follows life on "the vast Bering Sea '' aboard various crab fishing boats during two of the crab fishing seasons, the October king crab season and the January opilio crab (C. opilio; often referred to as "snow crab '' or "opies '') season. The show emphasizes the dangers on deck to the fishermen (and the Discovery Channel camera crews recording their work) as crews duck heavy crab pots swinging into position, maneuver hundreds of pounds of crab across a deck strewn with hazards (i.e., holding tank hatches, uneven surfaces, maintenance access plates, wet decks), and lean over the rails to position pots for launch or retrieval as galeforce winds and high waves constantly lash the deck. The series also documents the dangers of being on a boat in the Bering Sea, in the midst of some of the coldest and stormiest waters on earth, where even a minor problem may become complex or even catastrophic with the nearest port often hundreds of miles away.
Each episode focuses on a story, situation or theme that occurs on one or more boats, while side stories delve into the backgrounds and activities of one or two crew members, particularly the "greenhorns '' (rookie crew members) on several boats. The fleet 's captains are featured prominently, highlighting their camaraderie with their fellow captains and relationships with their crews, as well as their competition with other boats in the hunt for crab. Common themes include friendly rivalries among the captains (particularly between Sig Hansen of the Northwestern, and Johnathan and Andy Hillstrand of the Time Bandit), the familial ties throughout the fleet (brothers Sig, Norm, and Edgar Hansen, who own the Northwestern; the Hillstrand brothers and Johnathan 's son Scott on the Time Bandit; brothers Keith and Monte Colburn of the Wizard), the stresses of life on the Bering Sea, and the high burnout rate among greenhorns.
Because Alaskan crab fishing is one of the most dangerous jobs in the world, the U.S. Coast Guard rescue squads stationed at Integrated Support Command Kodiak (Kodiak, Alaska) and their outpost on St. Paul Island, near the northern end of the crab fishing grounds, are frequently shown rescuing crab boat crew members who fall victim to the harsh conditions on the Bering Sea. The USCG rescue squad was featured prominently during the episodes surrounding the loss of F / V Big Valley in January 2005, the loss of F / V Ocean Challenger in October 2006, and the loss of F / V Katmai in October 2008. Original Productions keeps a camera crew stationed with the Coast Guard during the filming of the show.
The show has no on - camera host. A narrator provides commentary connecting the storylines as the show shifts from one boat to another. Discovery Channel voice artist Mike Rowe narrates the action for North American airings; UK voice artist Bill Petrie, reading from a slightly altered script, offers a regionally familiar accent for a British audience. The show transitions between boats using a mock - up radar screen that shows the positions of the boats relative to one another and to the two ends of the fishing grounds, St. Paul Island to the north and Dutch Harbor to the south.
Rowe was originally supposed to be the on - camera host as well and he appeared in taped footage as himself during the first season of shooting. As filming of the first season was nearing completion, Discovery greenlighted production on another Rowe project, Dirty Jobs, under the condition that Rowe choose only one show on which to appear on camera. As Rowe relates the story, Discovery told him that the two shows would be airing back - to - back on the same night, thus, "We ca n't have you telling us stories about six dead fishermen on camera and making a fart joke with your arm in a cow 's ass. '' Most of the footage Rowe shot during the first season became part of the first season 's "Behind the Scenes '' episode. After the third season of Deadliest Catch, Rowe began hosting a post-season behind - the - scenes miniseries entitled After the Catch, a roundtable discussion featuring the captains relating their experiences filming the preceding season 's episodes. A season 3 episode of Dirty Jobs (2007 - 2008) saw Rowe return to Alaska to take part in a job tangentially related to the fishing industry -- diesel fuel spill cleanup. Another episode that same season featured Rowe at work on board the F / V Legacy doing trawl fishing and at - sea shellfish and other seafood processing, during which Rowe made numerous references to the crab fishing of Deadliest Catch.
Because Deadliest Catch is essentially a filmed record of everyday life in a stressful working environment, the producers have to censor gestures and language deemed inappropriate for television audiences. For example, under the U.S. Television Ratings system, Deadliest Catch is rated TV - 14 with inappropriate language ("L '') as a highlighted concern. For visual disguise of such items as finger gestures, bloody injuries, or non-featured crew member anonymity, the producers use the traditional pixelization or simple blurring. However, due to the sheer volume of profanities used in the course of everyday crew member conversation, the producers occasionally employ alternate methods of censoring profanities, using sound effects such as a ship 's horn, the "clang '' of a hatch door, or a burst of radio static in place of the traditional "bleep ''.
The Behind the Scenes special provided insight on how the program is produced. A two - person TV crew lives on each boat profiled. They use handheld Sony HVR - Z5U and HVR - Z7U HDV cameras to shoot most of the series (one on the main deck, one in the wheelhouse). Additional footage is provided by four stationary cameras that are permanently mounted around the ship and are constantly recording. Shots from vantage points outside the boat are accomplished through a variety of methods, including the use of a helicopter for footage near the harbor and a cameraman on a chase boat (in season 1, the main chase boat was the Time Bandit). The crew also makes use of underwater cameras, including one attached to a crab pot for a "crab 's eye view '' of the pot being retrieved in season 2, one mounted in the main crab tank on the Northwestern beginning in season 2, and one mounted to a submersible watercraft beginning in season 3. The Season 9 "Behind the Lens '' special shows two more filming methods: divers near the boats (and on the bottom of Dutch Harbor for the king crab fleet departure), and a helicopter with a belly - mounted turret camera (same as that used to film scenes in Skyfall).
Because of a lack of space on the boats, the crews do not have an audio mixer. Audio is recorded using wireless microphones worn by the fishermen and shotgun microphones attached to the cameras. In audio post production, the sound team attempts to use actual sounds that were recorded on the boats.
Although the equipment is carefully waterproofed, the cameras are routinely damaged by corrosion, ice and accidents.
Sig Hansen, captain of the Northwestern, serves as a technical advisor to the series ' producers.
Shooting episodes of Deadliest Catch is a dangerous occupation for the camera crews on board the boats. In the early seasons, when many of the camera crews had little or no experience on crab boats, they frequently ran into dangers not normally encountered when shooting a documentary. Northwestern captain Sig Hansen told talk show host Jimmy Kimmel that he saved a cameraman 's life during the first season, screaming at him to get out of the way just seconds before a 900 - pound crab pot swinging from a crane crossed the space where the cameraman was standing. In another incident, showcased on the behind the scenes special, an inattentive cameraman had his leg fall through an open hatch on the deck of one of the boats when he unwittingly stepped into the hole, suffering three broken ribs (and, according to the cameraman, having to buy a case of beer for the entire crew as per tradition on crab boats).
Interactions between the film crew and the fishermen appear in the show occasionally. During an episode of season 4, Wizard captain Keith Colburn demanded that cameras be turned off when he got into a heated argument with his brother Monte. The cameras were turned off, but the Colburns neglected to remove their wireless mics and the subsequent exchange was recorded and featured in the episode. Also in season 4, Cornelia Marie Captain Phil Harris asked the cameraman filming him not to tell anyone else about his injuries, for fear it would stall his fishing. Later on, crew member and later acting captain Murray Gamrath, concerned for Phil 's well - being, asked a cameraman to keep an eye on him and to report any problem. During season 5, the camera crew on the Northwestern were requested not to film crew member Jake Anderson being informed of his sister 's death, which the camera crew honored.
On September 28, 2010, it was reported that three of the principal captains featured throughout the series ' run, the brothers Andy and Johnathan Hillstrand and Sig Hansen, would not return to the show due to litigation initiated by Discovery Communications involving the Hillstrands. On October 8, 2010, it was announced that the three captains had reached an agreement with Discovery and would return for the seventh season.
On January 29, 2010, as Original Productions ' crews shot footage for season 6 of the Cornelia Marie offloading C. opilio crab at St. Paul Island, Captain Phil Harris, who had earlier complained of being excessively tired, went to his stateroom to retrieve pain medicines and collapsed. Second - year Engineer Steve Ward discovered him on the floor of his stateroom, conscious but unable to move his left leg or his left hand. Ward immediately got Phil 's sons Josh and Jake to come to his stateroom while he called for paramedics. According to Thom Beers, producer and creator of Deadliest Catch, Harris insisted that the camera crews continue to film him. "We want to remember Phil as who he was, '' Beers told Zap2it.com writer Kate O'Hare. "We want to remember all the dynamics, but at the same time the guy was insistent when we were doing this, saying, ' Dude, you 've got to. We 've got to have an end to the story (about the strength and resiliency of familial bonds, especially the father / son bond). You want to film this, film this. ' '' Beers said he honored Harris ' wishes and continued to shoot as Harris was airlifted to Anchorage, Alaska, where doctors performed emergency brain surgery to relieve the pressure building up in the cranial vault and avoid further brain damage. Harris spent eleven days in ICU before succumbing to complications from his stroke on February 9, 2010.
The Soul Rebels Brass Band performed a New Orleans style Jazz Funeral for the late Captain Phil Harris on After The Catch.
Commercial fishing has long been considered one of the most dangerous jobs in America. In 2006, the Bureau of Labor Statistics ranked commercial fishing as the job occupation with the highest fatality rate with 141.7 per 100,000, almost 75 % higher than the fatality rate for pilots, flight engineers and loggers, the next most hazardous occupations. However, Alaskan king crab fishing is considered even more dangerous than the average commercial fishing job, due to the conditions on the Bering Sea during the seasons they fish for crab. According to the pilot episode, the death rate during the main crab seasons averages out to nearly one fisherman per week, while the injury rate for crews on most crab boats is nearly 100 % due to the severe weather conditions (frigid gales, rogue waves, ice formations on and around the boat) and the danger of working with such heavy machinery on a constantly rolling boat deck. Alaskan king crab fishing reported over 300 fatalities per 100,000 as of 2005, with over 80 % of those deaths caused by drowning or hypothermia.
The series ' first season was shot during the final year of the derby style king crab fishery. The subsequent seasons have been set after the change to a quota system as part of a process known as "rationalization ''. Under the old derby style, a large number of crews competed with each other to catch crab during a restrictive time window. Under the new Individual Fishing Quota (IFQ) system, established owners, such as those shown on the series, have been given quotas which they can fill at a more relaxed pace. In theory, it is intended to be safer, which was the main rationale for the change in the fishing rules. The transition to the quota system was also expected to increase the value of crab, by limiting the market of available crab. An influx of foreign crab negated some of these gains during the 2006 season. The rationalization process put many crews out of work because the owners of many small boats found their assigned quotas too small to meet operating expenses. During the first season run under the IFQ system, the fleet shrank from over 250 boats to about 89 larger boats with high quotas.
One of the series ' main features is the portrayal of the harsh life at sea, including the behavior and mannerisms of the fishermen who are engaged in a very dangerous lifestyle with little tolerance for low performance or ineptitude. Several of the series ' shows have featured "greenhorn '' fishermen who are usually the brunt of harsh criticism and sometimes bullying by veteran deckhands. In one case, a new fisherman entered a ship 's bridge to berate his captain for what he saw as unfair comments (the fisherman was fired as soon as the ship returned to port). Another filmed incident was a fight on board the fishing vessel Wizard in which a greenhorn sailor sucker punched a veteran fisherman who had been engaged in harassment and bullying. Again, the greenhorn was fired as soon as the ship hit port, leading to mixed reactions by fans of the show.
The opening theme for the U.S. TV airings is "Wanted Dead or Alive '' by Bon Jovi. An instrumental excerpt is used in the opening credits for specials and the On Deck expanded episodes. The song is not used on the official DVD releases nor in the European version of the show.
Early commercials featured a song by Cue11 (A company that makes commercials) "Run To You '' that only existed as a short snippet. Discovery, noticing great attention on their forums, asked Cue11 to create a full length version of the song featuring an 18 year old named Amanda. Commercials for season 3 shown on the Discovery Channel family of networks featured an updated and faster version of the hit Styx song "Come Sail Away '', performed by the punk rock cover band Me First and the Gimme Gimmes. Commercials for Season 7 featured the song "Ai n't No Grave '', by Johnny Cash.
Incidental music used in the episodes themselves is provided by Amygdala Music, a music production group run by Leslie Beers, wife of Deadliest Catch creator / producer Thom Beers.
Bruce Hanifan was credited as composer for the first seven seasons of Deadliest Catch and has also composed the incidental music for many other Thom Beers projects. The musical themes he created have been used in the show since the beginning.
In addition to incidental music, entire compositions written and performed by well - known recording artists are also added as "episode themes. '' An example would be the song "Always a Rebel, '' written, performed, and produced by folk - rock recording artist Vinnie James, at the request of the show 's producer, Matt Renner, when the two met in Dutch Harbor during the filming of the 2008 season of Deadliest Catch. The song appeared as the theme track to "The Final Hour, '' which was the season finale for the 2008 season. Lines of the song were inspired by accounts of life on the Bering Sea by Josh Harris of the Cornelia Marie and series director of photography Zac McFarlane.
The song "Between '' by singer / songwriter Vienna Teng was used on a few episodes during season 2.
The final four minutes of the season 6 episode "Redemption Day '' features Johnny Cash 's rendition of Sheryl Crow 's "Redemption Day ''; the song plays over a montage of the crab vessels fighting through a massive Arctic squall and of Josh Harris sitting in a waiting room with friends as doctors struggle to revive Phil Harris, whose health has suddenly taken a turn for the worse. As Josh calls his brother Jake to deliver the news that "we lost Dad, dude '', the song 's final chorus -- "Freedom '' -- repeats solemnly four times and fades out over a simple shot of the Bering Sea raging. The instrumental version of the song was used on Discovery Canada.
The show is shot aboard various fishing vessels, some of which change from season to season.
Andy Hillstrand (Opilio season)
^ 1 Harris was forced to leave during the C. opilio season in season 4 due to what turned out to be a pulmonary embolism, and his medical issues prevented him from going out during the king crab portion of season 5. Murray Gamrath relieved him as captain in both seasons. A camera crew stayed with Harris both when he was hospitalized in season 4 and after his forced departure at the start of season 5. He continued to make occasional appearances during season 5. Harris suffered a massive stroke on January 29, 2010, during filming of the C. opilio season for season 6 and died on February 9, 2010, from complications. Derrick Ray took over as captain for the remainder of the season.
^ 2 The F / V Time Bandit can be seen in the background of the behind the scenes episode serving as the main chase vessel during season 1, though she is never officially identified during the season itself.
^ 3 Following emergency propeller and shaft replacements on the Time Bandit, Andy turned over the helm to Johnathan for the final Opilio run of Season 10.
^ 1 During shooting of the first season of Deadliest Catch, the F / V Big Valley sank on January 15, 2005, sometime after 0734 Alaska Standard Time when the Coast Guard first detected her EPIRB signal. Five members of the six man crew perished; three were never found. Cache Seel was the only survivor. Discovery Channel camera crews on the Maverick and Cornelia Marie captured the first footage of the debris field, confirming that the boat had capsized and gone down. The search for the ship is featured in the episode "Dead of Winter ''.
^ 2 Not to be confused with former Chicago White Sox, Oakland Athletics, and St. Louis Cardinals manager Tony La Russa.
^ 3 Nyhammer, captain of the F / V Rollo, served as a senior deckhand on the North American during the King crab portion of season 4.
^ 4 The F / V Trailblazer was seen in the season 3 episodes "Man Overboard! '' and "Cheating Death ''. She was also featured in the fifth season.
^ 5 The F / V Vixen did have a film crew on the boat; none of the footage aired in the U.S. version, but did air in some of the international editions.
^ 1 Instead of footage of USCGC Acushnet (WMEC - 167) being shown, footage of USCGC Alex Haley (WMEC - 39) was shown.
As of the end of season 5 in 2009, a total of 69 episodes of Deadliest Catch have been shown, not counting the pilot series America 's Deadliest Season, which had four episodes. The show draws consistently high ratings for Discovery Channel; season 3 attracted more than 49 million viewers over the course of the season and over 3 million viewers per first - run episode, making it one of 2007 's most successful programs on cable TV.
Overall ratings for season 6 exceeded season 5 's by more than 10 %; as a result, Deadliest Catch regularly wins its U.S. prime time telecast timeslot (Tuesdays, 9: 00 - 10: 00 p.m. EST). Ratings for the season opener "Slow Burn '' drew a record 4.6 million viewers; on June 22, 2010, "Blown Off Course '', the first of five episodes that dealt with Phil Harris 's stroke and its impact, drew 5.2 million viewers, more than 10 % over "Slow Burn ''. On July 13, 2010, the episode "Redemption Day '', which dealt with the death of Harris at its close, set another record audience for the show with 8.5 million viewers, making the episode the third-most - viewed broadcast in Discovery Channel 's history. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Deadliest Catch was "most popular in areas that are rural, cold and close to the sea, particularly Alaska and Maine ''.
Deadliest Catch was nominated for four Primetime Emmy Awards for the 2007 television season. The series itself was nominated for Outstanding Nonfiction Series; the third - season episode "The Unforgiving Sea '' received nominations for Outstanding Cinematography For Nonfiction Programming, Outstanding Picture Editing For Nonfiction Programming, and Outstanding Sound Mixing For Nonfiction Programming (Single or Multi-camera). In 2012, the series won two of its three Emmy nominations for the eighth - season episode "I Do n't Wanna Die ''. The show was nominated for one Primetime Emmy Award for the 2016 television season at the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards ceremony.
The show was created as a regular series after two well - received pilots about Alaskan crabbing were produced by Thom Beers for the Discovery Channel.
The first pilot was a one - hour documentary entitled Deadliest Job in the World, which appeared in 1999. The show, which started with the sinking of the Rosie G (5 on board, all rescued alive), followed the Fierce Allegiance through the 1999 opilio crab season.
The second pilot was a three - part miniseries entitled America 's Deadliest Season, which premiered on July 18, 2004, and covered the 2003 - 04 king and opilio crab seasons. The miniseries followed the vessels Northwestern, Erla - N and Sea Star during king crab, and Erla - N, Saga and Arctic Dawn during opilio crab. The series also features several crises, including the half - capsized Raven (5 on board, all rescued alive), man - overboard calls from Shaman (recovered dead) and Saga (greenhorn Kevin Davis, rescued alive), and the constant threat of cold water and freezing spray.
Beers did the voiceover narration for both series. Discovery picked up the show and ordered an 8 - episode season to premiere in 2005. Beers turned the narration duties over to fellow Discovery Channel voice artist Mike Rowe, allowing Beers to continue working on new show development through his production company, Original Productions.
After the Catch is a roundtable documentary - style television mini-series that follows the captains from Deadliest Catch when they 're not fishing. The captains and crew members swap stories about the experiences and sights while fishing the Bering Sea. The spin - off series is produced in partnership with Original Productions and Silent Crow Arts. The first season aired in 2007, filmed at the Lockspot Cafe, a bar in Seattle 's Ballard neighborhood, hosted by Deadliest Catch narrator Mike Rowe. After the Catch II aired in 2008, filmed at Pratty 's Bar in Gloucester, Massachusetts and hosted by Rowe. The third season, titled After the Catch III, aired in 2009 and was filmed at RTs Longboard Bar and Grill in San Diego with Cash Cab 's Ben Bailey hosting. After the Catch IV aired in 2010, and was filmed at the Blue Nile bar in New Orleans, with Rowe returning as host.
The After the Catch miniseries was one of Discovery Channel 's highest rated miniseries in 2007 and spawned several additional after - the - series type follow - up documentaries such as Everest: After the Climb, the 2007 follow - up to Everest: Beyond the Limit.
After the Catch VI was the last season of the post-fishing mini-series. Responding in part to a challenge - in - jest made late in the season by Mike Rowe to the Captains to host a show of their own, the format for Season 9 was changed to run throughout the season 's air dates. (See The Bait below.)
The Bait is a "pregame show '' roundtable documentary - style television mini-series that previews select episodes of Deadliest Catch since season 9, filmed in Dutch Harbor, and hosted by Sig Hansen, Johnathan and Andy Hillstrand, and Keith Colburn, with narration by Deadliest Catch narrator Mike Rowe. The captains swap stories about the off - season and hints on what the viewers can expect in that night 's episode, with previews of the upcoming season in the king crab and opilio crab kickoffs. Regular features include "The Hot Seat '' (interview focused on one Captain or deckhand) and questions from celebrity fans of the show. The spin - off series is produced in partnership with Original Productions and Silent Crow Arts. The first episode, "Opening Day: King Crab '', aired on April 16, 2013.
On Deck is an expanded episode of Deadliest Catch featuring previously unaired footage, production notes, facts, and on occasion, social media comments. On Deck debuted April 23, 2013, and paralleled Season 9.
Decked is a rebroadcast episode of Deadliest Catch featuring webcam CatchChat with one or more Captains between episode segments.
A 2013 episode of MythBusters featured Johnathan Hillstrand and Junior Campbell traveling to M5 Industries in San Francisco to help bust three myths related to crab fishing: that someone can get caught in a pot 's rope as it is dumped and be dragged to the bottom (plausible), that 20 - minute naps every 6 hours can double effectiveness over a 30 - hour shift (confirmed) and that crab pots are impervious to explosives (busted).
The Discovery / Science documentary program How It 's Made showed the production of oceanographic buoys, sushi, rubber boots and industrial wire ropes in this episode featuring items used in or connected with crab fishing (although sushi seemed an odd choice). None of the captains, crew members or vessels appeared in the program.
In April 2008, Andy and Johnathan Hillstrand, co-captains of the Time Bandit, with Malcolm MacPherson, released a book titled Time Bandit: Two Brothers, the Bering Sea, and One of the World 's Deadliest Jobs (ISBN 978 - 0345503725) on their experiences as crab fishermen.
Also in April 2008, Discovery Channel released the book Deadliest Catch: Desperate Hours (ISBN 978 - 0696239427). Edited by Larry Erikson, the book contains true stories of life and death at sea, as related by the captains and deckhands featured on the series.
In December 2009, Travis Arket, deckhand of the North American, released a book titled Deadliest Waters: Bering Sea Photography (ISBN 978 - 1935359210). This book is the first photography collection to be published about Bering Sea crab fishing, and includes many people from Deadliest Catch.
In March 2010, Sig Hansen, captain of the Northwestern, released the book North by Northwestern: A Seafaring Family on Deadly Alaskan Waters (ISBN 978 - 0312591144), co-written with author Mark Sundeen. The book details the Hansen family 's history and that of Norwegian Americans in the fishing industry of the Pacific Northwest.
In April 2013, Josh and Jake Harris released the book Captain Phil Harris: The Legendary Crab Fisherman, Our Hero, Our Dad (ISBN 978 - 1451666045), co-written with best - selling author Steve Springer and Blake Chavez. The book details the hard and fast life, and death of the hard - working Cornelia Marie crab fisherman, who was described as always openhearted and infectiously friendly, a devoted friend, a loving father, a steadfast captain, and a hero to audiences across America and around the world.
In February 2008, Sig Hansen and Liquid Dragon Studios announced the upcoming release of a video game for Xbox 360 and PC inspired by the Deadliest Catch series entitled Deadliest Catch: Alaskan Storm. Liquid Dragon designers spent time with the Hansens on the Northwestern in the safety of Dutch Harbor and out on the Bering Sea to give them a sense of the real conditions that needed to be duplicated in the game. The game itself features the Northwestern, Cornelia Marie, and Sea Star as crab boats that can be chosen by the player, along with the Bering Star and the Shellfish. On June 17, 2008, the game was released in stores around North America.
A second game, titled Deadliest Catch: Sea of Chaos, was announced in June 2010 and released in November 2010. It is developed by DoubleTap Games and published by Crave Entertainment.
A mobile game developed by Tapinator, Inc. named Deadliest Catch: Seas of Fury, launched on July 13, 2015.
Discovery Communications created a spin - off called Deadliest Catch: Dungeon Cove, which premiered on the Discovery Channel on September 13, 2016. The series follows the lives of crab fisherman working off the coast of Newport, Oregon.
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who has the best record in the major league | List of Major League Baseball annual ERA Leaders - wikipedia
In baseball, earned run average (ERA) is a statistic used to evaluate pitchers, calculated as the mean of earned runs given up by a pitcher per nine innings pitched. A pitcher is assessed an earned run for each run scored by a baserunner who reached base while batting against that pitcher, whether by hit, base on balls or "walk '', or being hit by a pitched ball; an earned run can be charged after the pitcher is relieved if he allows the runner before leaving the game. Runs scored by players who reach base on errors, passed balls, or catcher interference under special circumstances are treated as unearned runs, and do not count towards the pitcher 's ERA.
Major League Baseball recognizes the player in each league with the lowest earned run average each season. The first ERA champion in the National League was George Bradley; in the National League 's inaugural 1876 season, Bradley posted a 1.23 ERA for the St. Louis Brown Stockings, allowing 78 earned runs in 573 innings pitched. The American League was established in 1901, and Hall of Fame pitcher Cy Young led that league with a 1.62 ERA for the Boston Americans during the 1901 season.
Over the course of his 17 - year major league career, Lefty Grove led the American League in ERA nine times, with a career single - season low of 2.06 for the 1931 Philadelphia Athletics. Roger Clemens has won the second-most ERA titles, capturing six in the American League and one in the National League. Sandy Koufax led the National League in ERA for five consecutive seasons (1962 -- 1966); Koufax ' five awards are the most won consecutively by any player and are tied for the most awards by a player in the National League with Christy Mathewson and Clayton Kershaw. In the American League, Walter Johnson also won five ERA titles, and Pedro Martínez has won a total of five (four American League and one National League) with two different teams.
The most recent ERA champions are Corey Kluber in the American League and Clayton Kershaw in the National League.
The lowest single - season ERA in league history was posted by Tim Keefe, whose 0.86 ERA in 105 innings pitched for the National League 's Troy Trojans in 1880 led his closest competitor by. 52 runs. In the American League, Dutch Leonard 's 0.96 ERA is a single - season record. Keefe and Leonard are the only two pitchers ever to allow less than one run per nine innings pitched in a single season. The widest margin of victory for an ERA champion is 1.96 runs, achieved when Martínez ' 1.74 ERA led Clemens ' 3.70 in the American League during the 2000 season. The largest margin of victory in the National League is 1.26 runs -- Dazzy Vance 's 2.61 ERA over Carl Hubbell 's 3.87 in 1930. The smallest margin of victory for an ERA champion is. 009 runs. Although the statistic is traditionally recorded to two decimal places by most sources, the 1988 American League title was decided by a margin of less than one hundredth of a run when Allan Anderson 's ERA of 2.446 (55 earned runs in 202 ⁄ innings) bested Teddy Higuera 's 2.455 mark (62 earned runs in 227 ⁄ innings). Other contests decided by one hundredth or less include Luis Tiant 's 1.91 ERA ahead of Gaylord Perry 's 1.92 in 1972 and Mark Fidrych (2.34) over Vida Blue (2.35) in 1976.
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when did i dont wanna live forever come out | I Do n't Wanna Live Forever - wikipedia
"I Do n't Wanna Live Forever '', alternatively titled "I Do n't Wanna Live Forever (Fifty Shades Darker) '', is a song recorded by British singer - songwriter Zayn and American singer - songwriter Taylor Swift for the soundtrack to the 2017 film Fifty Shades Darker. It was written by Swift, Sam Dew and Jack Antonoff, and produced by Antonoff. The single was released on December 9, 2016 by Universal Music Group. The music video was released on January 27, 2017.
The song 's lyrics and composition were based on situations portrayed in the film. "I Do n't Wanna Live Forever '' is an electro - R&B ballad. On the track, the pair trade "romantic overtures '', while Zayn uses a falsetto on parts of the song, and Swift ponders what the relationship means.
"I Do n't Wanna Live Forever '' is written in the key of A minor and moves at a tempo of 118 beats per minute in common time. The song follows a chord progression of F -- C -- G -- Am -- F -- C -- G -- G ♯ dim -- Am, and the vocals span two octaves, from E to E.
Nolan Feenery of Entertainment Weekly gave it a B+ rating: "Welcome to Taylor Swift 's Sexy Side. '' He also praised the vocals of both artists. Lucas Villa of AXS thought the song was not as sexy as Ellie Goulding 's "Love Me Like You Do '' or The Weeknd 's "Earned It '', writing, "Despite the neutered lyricism, Zayn saves the day and manages to maneuver his most magnificent performance to date. ''
The song upon release was available only on iTunes and Tidal. It was not serviced on Spotify upon launch but was later added the following week. In the United States, it sold 188,000 in its first week, in addition to a 25 million radio audience and 3 million streams. It debuted at number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100. It is Zayn 's second top 10 solo single and Taylor Swift 's 20th top 10, making her the 16th artist and sixth woman to do so. It debuted at number - one on the Digital Songs chart, as Zayn 's fourth song (second solo song) and Swift 's 11th song to top the chart, tying Swift with Katy Perry for the second-most in the chart 's history, behind Rihanna. It is also Zayn 's second number - one on the Digital Songs chart in 2016, making him one of only two artists to top the chart with two songs that year, along with Drake. The song later reached a new peak of number 2 on the Hot 100, behind Ed Sheeran 's "Shape of You '' with 109 million radio audience and 25.7 million streams, becoming Zayn 's second top 5 single (as solo artist), Swift 's 11th top 5 single, and the highest - charting Fifty Shades single. As of July 2017, the song sold 1,048,000 copies in the US.
Across European charts, the song debuted at number - one in Spain and Sweden, becoming Swift 's first number - one single in both countries, while becoming Zayn 's first number - one in Spain and his second number - one in Sweden. It was certified platinum there. It reached the top 10 in Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Scotland, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
The official music video of the song was released in January 27, 2017 through both Zayn and Swift 's official YouTube account at the same time, and was later uploaded through the official Fifty Shades Vevo account as well. It was directed by Grant Singer and was produced by Saul Germaine. Combined, the music video has more than 450 million views on YouTube as of September 2017.
The video starts with Zayn emerging from his car on a rainy night as the paparazzi take photos. As Zayn enters a hotel he starts singing his part and as the chorus begins he reaches the elevator with red lights and then pans over to another elevator with Swift singing her part and proceeds to her hotel room. Zayn in his room sings the chorus and Swift pours some champagne in a glass. The rest of the video is Zayn and Swift throwing objects like glasses, lamps, pillows across their rooms in anger with flashing blue and red lights. Zayn and Swift are seen standing together facing backs and singing the chorus together and looking at each other. The video ends with Swift on her bed singing the last part of the song.
The song received a nomination for Best Collaboration at the 2017 Radio Disney Music Awards. and won the award for Best Collaboration in the 2017 MTV Millennial Awards.It was also nominated for Choice Music Collaboration award in Teen Choice Awards 2017.
The music video won the MTV Video Music Award for Best Collaboration at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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how have they made kite flying a competition | Kite running - wikipedia
Kite running is the practice of running after drifting kites in the sky that have been cut loose in kite fighting. Typically the custom is that the person who captures a cut kite can keep it, so the bigger and more expensive looking the kite, the more people can usually be seen running after it to try to capture it.
Kite fighting is a popular pastime in the Indian subcontinent throughout the year and during kite flying festivals, and also in Afghanistan, Iran, in Chile and Brazil, and many other places throughout the world. In most cases, the fine string that is used to fly these kites is coated with powdered glass and flyers try to cut the string of the other kites.
When the loser 's kite string is cut, the kite drifts free with the wind until it falls to the ground. Kite running is the practice of running after these cut kites to try to capture them when they come down. Typically the custom is that the person who captures a cut kite can keep it. In cities and towns, the bigger and more expensive looking the kite, the more people can usually be seen running after it to try to capture it as their free prize.
Droves of people of all ages may run after a kite and try to capture it with the help of poles or broken off tree branches with which they try to entangle the loose string trailing with the kite. Running after and capturing these kites is often made more difficult when these drifting kites are taken long distances with the wind or fall atop trees, electric poles and houses over compound walls and fences, or in the middle of or across busy roads and railway lines.
Kite runners endanger their lives by running into the path of oncoming traffic and trains without looking down or fall from trees and buildings which they were trying to scale to get at kites that landed on top while gazing up and running after kites. They may walk around in the middle of congested towns and cities and while gazing up may be dangerously unaware of what is happening on the ground in their immediate surroundings causing injuries and collisions with traffic.
There have also been incidents with glass - coated kite strings causing injuries or damage where other people, birds, or electricity cables get entangled with the string. In particular, it is liable to slitting the throats of children participating in the Market Sankranti festival where a popular challenge is to cut other kite strings with your own. This has led to a blanket ban on glass - coated strings in Mumbai, issued on December 14, 2016.
Kite running has featured in a few books, including The Kite Runner written by Khaled Hosseini.
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what color is drax from guardians of the galaxy | Drax the Destroyer - wikipedia
Drax the Destroyer (Arthur Douglas) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer / artist Jim Starlin, the character first appeared in Iron Man # 55 (February 1973).
Arthur Douglas was a human whose family was attacked and killed by the supervillain Thanos. Needing a champion to combat Thanos, the being known as Kronos took Arthur 's spirit and placed it in a powerful new body, and Drax the Destroyer was born. Drax 's powers included enhanced strength and resilience, flight, and the ability to project energy blasts from his hands. The character often battled Thanos, and on occasion the superheroes Captain Marvel and Adam Warlock. He was also a member of the group known as the Infinity Watch.
In 2004, the character lost his flight and energy blasts, and a portion of his strength and resilience. This version of the character played a role in the crossover comic book storylines "Annihilation '' and "Annihilation: Conquest '', and became a member of the relaunched Guardians of the Galaxy. He has been featured in a variety of associated Marvel merchandise, including animated television series, action figures, and video games. Drax is portrayed by Dave Bautista in the Marvel Cinematic Universe making his first appearance in the first Guardians of the Galaxy film, and reprising his role in its 2017 sequel, and the upcoming Avengers: Infinity War.
Drax first appeared in Iron Man # 55 (February 1973), and was created by Jim Starlin. He had a recurring role in Captain Marvel vol. 1 beginning with issue # 27 (July 1973). He also appeared in Warlock # 10 (December 1975), Iron Man # 88 (July 1976), Warlock # 15 (November 1976), Logan 's Run # 6 (June 1977), Thor # 314 (December 1981), and Avengers # 219 (May 1982), before being killed by Moondragon in Avengers # 220 (June 1982).
Starlin resurrected Drax in Silver Surfer vol 3 # 35 (1990), and he had a recurring role until issue 50. After appearing in The Infinity Gauntlet # 1 -- 6 (1991), he was featured in Warlock and the Infinity Watch # 1 -- 42 (1992 -- 1995) as a member of the titular team, the Infinity Watch. The character reappeared in Warlock vol. 3 # 1 -- 4 (1998 -- 1999) and Captain Marvel vol. 4 # 4 -- 6 (2001).
Drax received an eponymous 4 issue miniseries in 2004, and was a starring character in Annihilation: Nova # 1 -- 4 (2005) and Annihilation # 1 -- 6 (2006). After a follow up appearance in Nova vol 4 # 4 -- 7 (2007) and the 2008 "Annihilation: Conquest '' storyline, he was featured as a team member in the 2008 relaunch of Guardians of the Galaxy, and appeared in the 25 issue series of the same name. The character had a small role in The Thanos Imperative # 1 -- 3 (2010), in which he was killed.
The character reappeared in Avengers Assemble issues # 4 -- 8 (June -- October 2012), with no reference to his death. He will star in Guardians of the Galaxy vol. 3, a part of the Marvel NOW! relaunch.
While driving through a desert with his wife and daughter, Arthur Douglas ' car is attacked by a spaceship piloted by Thanos, who thinks the humans have seen him. His daughter, Heather, survives the crash and is adopted by Thanos ' father, Mentor, and raised on Titan. She later becomes Moondragon.
Needing a champion to combat the threat from Thanos, Mentor and the Titan god Kronos capture Douglas ' spirit and place it in a powerful new body. He is rechristened "Drax the Destroyer '', and his sole purpose is to kill Thanos. With Iron Man, Drax battles Thanos and the Blood Brothers, but Thanos escapes. While trying to prevent Thanos from getting the Cosmic Cube, Drax 's memories are restored to him. After seeing Captain Marvel defeat Thanos, Drax attacks Captain Marvel, for robbing him of his purpose. Drax wanders space in grim contemplation, searching for a resurrected Thanos. By the time he learns that Thanos had managed to rematerialize himself, Thanos has once again been destroyed in battle with Captain Marvel, the Avengers, and Adam Warlock. Alongside Captain Marvel, Drax battles ISAAC, Stellarax, Lord Gaea, Elysius, and Chaos.
Some time later, Drax, possessed by an alien entity, battles his daughter Moondragon and the superhero Thor. After Drax recovers, he and Moondragon journey through space in search of knowledge. Eventually, they come upon the planet Ba - Banis, a world of humanoid aliens caught in a vast civil war. Moondragon uses her mental powers to quell the conflict and then decides to set herself up as the world 's goddess. Drax recognizes that her ambitions are ignoble and so sends their ship to Earth with a holographic distress message. The Avengers respond and discover Moondragon 's world of mentally enforced tranquility. Freed by the Avengers from his daughter 's mental domination, Drax advances toward her, seeking to end her menace. In order to stop him, Moondragon mentally forces Drax 's life essence to vacate his artificial body.
When Thanos is resurrected by Mistress Death, Kronos reanimates the Destroyer and grants him even greater physical power. However, Kronos does not consider the effects of Drax 's death, and the Destroyer 's mind retains the damage done by Moondragon. Alongside a multitude of other heroes, Drax helps battle Thanos and Nebula for possession of the Infinity Gauntlet. Drax is chosen by Adam Warlock to safeguard the Power Gem as part of the Infinity Watch.
After the energy vampire Rune steals the gems, the Watch members go their separate ways. Drax returns to Titan with Moondragon, who successfully petitions Kronos to restore Drax 's mind to its former acuity at the cost of some physical power. Thus, Drax is restored to his original condition. Drax is accused of the murder of Elysius and several others, but is cleared when it is discovered that the creature Syphon was manipulating him. While seeking out Moondragon, Drax enters into an altercation with Genis - Vell. In the course of this struggle, Drax is transported to the Microverse with Genis, where, for a time, he finds acceptance and happiness on the planet K'ai.
Later, Drax is seen on a prison transport ship with Paibok, Lunatik, and the Blood Brothers. The ship crashes in Alaska, and Drax attacks the others to keep them from harming innocent lives. He mistakes a young girl named Cammi for his daughter, and tries to protect her from Paibok. Drax appears to be killed, but a slimmer, smarter Drax emerges from the larger shell of the dead body. When a second prison ship arrives to recapture the prisoners, both Drax and Cammi are arrested.
Surviving Annihilus ' attack on the intergalactic prison known as the Kyln, Drax and Cammi team up with the last member of the Xandarian Nova Corps, Richard Rider. Together they fight against the advancing Annihilation Wave as Drax trains Nova to be a warrior. Drax learns that Thanos has taken Moondragon hostage, and that she will be killed if Drax pursues him. During a doomed battle between the Annihilation Wave and the United Front, Drax stays behind to fight off the invaders while Nova and the rest of the group (including Cammi) finish the evacuation. Drax fights his way to the Annihilation Wave 's mother ship, where he finds Thanos and kills him. Drax helps to free a captive Galactus, who teleports Moondragon and Drax to a far - off planet to spare them from his wrath on the Annihilation Wave. Afterwards, Moondragon says Drax just "disappeared ''. Cammi is later seen, alive, allied with one of Thanos ' powerful, miniature assistants.
When the Phalanx invade the Kree home - world, Drax is assimilated as a "select '' of the Phalanx hive mind. They dispatch him, along with Gamora, to apprehend Nova, who had fled the planet. Following Nova to Kvch, the home planet the Technarchy (parental race of the Phalanx), Drax and Gamora are freed from the Phalanx by the Technarch Tyro. Together they return to Hala where they help in the defeat of Ultron.
Star - Lord recruits Drax for the new Guardians of the Galaxy. The Guardians are forced to ally themselves with a resurrected Thanos and travel into an alternate reality known as the "Cancerverse ''. While experiencing a bout of madness, Drax attacks Thanos and is killed. Drax later reappears with the Guardians on Earth without reference to his death.
Drax 's initial incarnation 's powers included superhuman strength, stamina and resistance to physical injury as well the ability to project concussive blasts of cosmic energy from his hands. He could also travel at high speeds in outer space and hyperspace without air, food, or water. Drax also had telepathy, having used it to engage Thanos in a psychic battle and stalemating him mind to mind.
After his resurrection, his physical capabilities are greatly enhanced beyond their original levels but he suffered severe mental disability in his new incarnation. Instead of his telepathy which enabled him to track Thanos across vast distances, he now possessed the ability to sense either him or other beings who have been in recent contact with Thanos, alongside a precognitive ability to sense when beings will be in contact with Thanos in the near future. For a time, Drax possessed the Power Gem that had the potential to grant him superhuman physical and energy manipulation powers with no feasible limit. However, because of his severely - reduced intellect, he lacked the mental capacity and imagination to use the gem for anything other than bolstering his physical strength. While possessing the gem, Drax 's strength has been compared with that of the merged incarnation of the Hulk, but lacking the latter 's rage - fueled potential.
Just prior to the 2006 "Annihilation '' mini-series and continuing through the present, Drax undergoes a physical change, resulting in a much - smaller physical form, his superhuman, physical powers greatly reduced to a level comparable to those of his original form and the loss of his energy projection, flight and most any residual psionic capabilities; having just enough to glean the moments of his demise from Cammi. However, his intellect has returned to its original level, and he has taken a liking to using knives in battle. At least temporarily, he had the ability to pass through Thanos ' force field; his power levels seem to increase the closer he is to Thanos. He could also heal at an accelerated rate and had senses sharp enough to tell humans from aliens by smell, root out a skrull in disguise and detect when energy weapons were about to go off.
Dave Bautista plays Drax in the live - action 2014 Marvel Studios film Guardians of the Galaxy. In the film, Drax is an alien whose family was slaughtered by Ronan the Accuser, on the instructions of Thanos, for which Drax vows revenge. He first meets the other Guardians of the Galaxy in prison, including Gamora, whom he holds responsible for his family 's deaths because she is a daughter of Thanos. She informs him that she was raised by Thanos only after he slaughtered her own family, and bears no loyalty to him, and the two join Peter Quill in escaping prison in order to confront Ronan, whom they eventually kill. A recurring gag throughout the film is Drax 's inability to understand metaphors because Drax 's species is, according to Rocket, completely literal. Bautista reprises his role as Drax in its 2017 sequel Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, and will reprise the role in Avengers: Infinity War (2018).
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when did the united arab emirates gain independence | History of the United Arab Emirates - wikipedia
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a country on the Arabian Peninsula located on the southeastern coast of the Persian Gulf and the northwestern coast of the Gulf of Oman. The UAE consists of seven emirates and was founded on 2 December 1971 as a federation. Six of the seven emirates (Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain and Fujairah) combined on that date. The seventh, Ras Al Khaimah, joined the federation on 10 February 1972. The seven sheikhdoms were formerly known as the Trucial States, in reference to the treaty relations established with the British in the 19th Century.
Artefacts uncovered in the UAE show a long history of human habitation and regional trade including with Mesopotamia. The area was settled by a number of tribes along both the coast and interior and was Islamised in the seventh century.
A number of incursions and bloody battles took place along the coast when the Portuguese, under Albuquerque, invaded the area. Conflicts between the maritime communities of the Trucial Coast and the British led to the sacking of Ras Al Khaimah by British forces in 1809 and again in 1819, which resulted in the first of a number of British treaties with the Trucial Rulers in 1820. These treaties, including the Treaty of Perpetual Maritime Peace, signed in 1853, led to peace and prosperity along the coast which lasted until the 1930s, when the pearl trade collapsed, leading to significant hardship among the coastal communities.
A British decision, taken in early 1968, to withdraw from its involvement in the Trucial States, led to the decision to found a Federation. This was agreed between two of the most influential Trucial Rulers, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan of Abu Dhabi and Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum of Dubai. The two invited other Trucial Rulers to join the Federation. At one stage it seemed likely Bahrain and Qatar would also join the Union, but both eventually decided on independence.
Today, the UAE is a modern, oil exporting country with a highly diversified economy, with Dubai in particular developing into a global hub for tourism, retail, and finance, home to the world 's tallest building, and largest man - made seaport.
In 2011 primitive hand - axes, as well as several kinds of scrapers and perforators, were excavated at the Jebel Faya archaeological site in the United Arab Emirates. These tools resemble the types used by early modern humans in East Africa. Through the technique of Thermoluminescence dating the artefacts were placed between 100,000 and 125,000 years old. This is the earliest evidence of modern humans found anywhere outside Africa and implies modern humans left Africa much earlier than previously thought. The site of these discoveries has been preserved alongside finds of later cultures, including tombs and other finds from the Umm Al Nar, Wadi Suq and Islamic periods, at Sharjah 's Mleiha Archaeological Centre.
During the glacial maximum period, 68000 to 8000 BC, Eastern Arabia is thought to have been uninhabitable. Finds from the stone age Arabian Bifacial and Ubaid cultures (including stone arrow and axe heads as well as Ubaid pottery) show human habitation in the area from 5000 to 3100 BC. The Hafit era, producing distinctive burial sites as well as finds of Jamdat Nasr pottery, stretched from 3100 to 2500 BC.
Umm al - Nar (also known as Umm an - Nar) was a bronze age culture variously defined by archaeologists as existing around 2600 and 2000 BC in the area of the modern - day United Arab Emirates and Oman. The etymology derives from the island of the same name which lies adjacent to Abu Dhabi. The key site is well protected, but its location between a refinery and a sensitive military area means public access is currently restricted. The UAE authorities are working to improve public access to the site, and plan to make this part of the Abu Dhabi cultural locations. One element of the Umm al - Nar culture is circular tombs typically characterized by well fitted stones in the outer wall and multiple human remains within.
The Umm al - Nar culture, as indicated from inland 3rd millennium BC, covers around five or six centuries (2600 / 2500 - 2000 BC). It was followed by the Wadi Suq Culture, which dominated the region from 2000 to 1300 BC. Key archaeological sites pointing to major trading cities extant during both periods exist on both the Western and Eastern coasts of the UAE and in Oman, including Dalma, Umm Al Nar, Sufouh, Ed Dur, Tell Abraq, Shimal and Kalba. The domestication of camels and other animals took place during the Wadi Suq era, leading to increased inland settlement and the cultivation of diverse crops, including the date palm. Increasingly sophisticated metallurgy, pottery and stone carving led to more sophisticated weaponry and other implements even as evidence of strong trading links with the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia dwindled.
From 1200 BC to the advent of Islam in Eastern Arabia, through three distinctive iron ages (Iron age 1, 1200 - 1000 BC; Iron age 2, 1000 - 600 BC and Iron age 3 600 - 300 BC) and the Mleiha period (300 BC onward), the area was variously occupied by Archaemenid and other forces and saw the construction of fortified settlements and extensive husbandry thanks to the development of the falaj irrigation system.
The arrival of envoys from Muhammad in 632 heralded the conversion of the region to Islam. After Muhammad 's death, one of the major battles of the Ridda Wars was fought at Dibba, in present - day Fujairah. The defeat of the non-Muslims in this battle resulted in the triumph of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula.
In 637, Julfar (today Ras al - Khaimah) was used as a staging post for the conquest of Iran. Over many centuries, Julfar became a wealthy port and pearling centre from which dhows travelled throughout the Indian Ocean.
Portions of what is now the UAE came under the direct influence of the Ottoman Empire during the 16th century. Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century following Vasco da Gama 's route of exploration resulted in the sacking of many coastal towns by the Portuguese. Thereafter, the region was known to the British as the "Pirate Coast '', as raiders based there harassed the shipping industry despite both European and Omani navies patrolling the area from the 17th to 19th centuries. British expeditions to protect the Indian trade from raiders at Ras al - Khaimah led to campaigns against that headquarters and other harbours along the coast in 1819. The next year, a peace treaty was signed to which all the sheikhs of the coast adhered. Raids continued intermittently until 1835, when the sheikhs agreed not to engage in hostilities at sea. In 1853, they signed a treaty with the United Kingdom, under which the sheikhs (the Trucial Sheikhdoms) agreed to a "perpetual maritime truce ''. It was enforced by the United Kingdom, and disputes among sheikhs were referred to the British for settlement.
Primarily in reaction to the ambitions of other European countries, the United Kingdom and the Trucial Sheikhdoms established closer bonds in an 1892 treaty, similar to treaties entered into by the UK with other Persian Gulf principalities. The sheikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to the United Kingdom and not to enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the United Kingdom without its consent. In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help in case of land attack.
In her book "The Judicial System in The Trucial Coast '', Noora Saqr Al Falahi argues that the 1892 treaty had a profound role in isolating the country for a long time which has impeded development in comparison to other communities in the region at the time.
During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the pearling industry thrived in the relative calm at sea, providing both income and employment to the people of the Persian Gulf. It began to become a good economic resource for the local people. The First World War had a severe impact on the pearl fishery, but it was the Great Depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s, coupled with the Japanese invention of the cultured pearl, that all but destroyed it. The industry eventually faded away shortly after the Second World War, when the newly independent Government of India imposed heavy taxation on pearls imported from the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. The decline of pearling resulted in a very difficult era, with little opportunity to build any infrastructure.
In the 1930s, the first oil company teams carried out preliminary surveys. An onshore concession was granted to Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) in 1939, and an offshore concession to D'Arcy Exploration Ltd in 1952. Oil was discovered under an old pearling bed in the Persian Gulf, Umm Shaif, in 1958, and in the desert at Murban in 1960. The first cargo of crude was exported from Jabel Dhanna in Abu Dhabi in 1962. As oil revenues increased, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, undertook a massive construction program, building schools, housing, hospitals and roads. When Dubai 's oil exports commenced in 1969, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, the ruler of Dubai, was also able to use oil revenues to improve his people 's quality of life.
In 1955, the United Kingdom sided with Abu Dhabi in the latter 's dispute with Oman over the Buraimi Oasis, another territory to the south. A 1974 agreement between Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia would have settled the Abu Dhabi -- Saudi border dispute; however, the agreement has yet to be ratified by the UAE government and is not recognised by the Saudi government. The border with Oman also remains officially unsettled, but the two governments agreed to delineate the border in May 1999.
In the early 1960s, oil was discovered in Abu Dhabi, an event that led to quick unification calls made by UAE sheikdoms. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan became ruler of Abu Dhabi in 1966, and the British started losing their oil investments and contracts to U.S. oil companies.
The British had earlier started a development office that helped in some small developments in the emirates. The sheikhs of the emirates then decided to form a council to coordinate matters between them and took over the development office. They formed the Trucial States Council, and appointed Adi Bitar, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum 's legal advisor, as Secretary General and Legal Advisor to the Council. This council was terminated once the United Arab Emirates was formed.
By 1966, the British government had come to the conclusion that it could no longer afford to govern what is now the United Arab Emirates. Much deliberation took place in the British parliament, with a number of MPs arguing that the Royal Navy would not be able to defend the Trucial Sheikhdoms. Denis Healey, who, at the time, was the UK Secretary of State for Defence, reported that the British Armed Forces were severely overextended, and in some respects, dangerously under - equipped to defend the Sheikhdoms. On 24 January 1968, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson announced the decision to end the treaty relationships with the seven Trucial Sheikhdoms which had been, together with Bahrain and Qatar, under British protection. The British decision to withdraw was reaffirmed in March 1971 by Prime Minister Edward Heath.
Days after the announcement Sheikh Zayed, fearing vulnerability, tried to persuade the British to honour the protection treaties by offering to pay in full the costs of keeping the British Armed Forces in the Emirates. The British Labour government rebuffed the offer.
After Labour MP Goronwy Roberts informed Sheikh Zayed of the news of British withdrawal, the nine Persian Gulf sheikhdoms attempted to form a federation of Arab emirates. The federation was first proposed in February 1968 when the rulers of Abu Dhabi and Dubai met in the desert location of Argoub El Sedirah and agreed on the principle of Union. They announced their intention to form a coalition, extending an invitation to other Persian Gulf states to join. Later that month, in a summit meeting attended by the rulers of Bahrain, Qatar and the Trucial Coast, the government of Qatar proposed the formation of a federation of Arab Emirates to be governed by a higher council composing of nine rulers. This proposal was accepted and a declaration of union was approved. There were, however, several disagreements between the rulers on matters such as the location of the capital, the drafting of the constitution and the distribution of ministries.
Further political issues surfaced as a result of Bahrain attempting to impose a leading role in the nine - state union, as well as the emergence of a number of differences between the rulers of the Trucial Coast, Bahrain and Qatar, the latter two being in a long - running dispute over the Hawar Islands. While Dubai 's ruler, Sheikh Rashid, had a strong connection to the Qatari ruling family, including the royal intermarriage of his daughter with the son of the Qatari emir, the relationship between Abu Dhabi and Dubai (also cemented by intermarriage, Rashid 's wife was a member of Abu Dhabi 's ruling family) was to endure the break - up of the talks with both Bahrain and Qatar. Overall, there were only four meetings between the nine rulers. The last such meeting, which took place in Abu Dhabi, saw Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan elected as the first president of the federation. There were stalemates on numerous issues during the meeting, including the position of vice-president, the defence of the federation, and whether a constitution was required.
Shortly after the meeting, the Political Agent in Abu Dhabi revealed the British government 's interests in the outcome of the session, prompting Qatar to withdraw from the federation apparently over what it perceived as foreign interference in internal affairs. The nine - emirate federation was consequently disbanded despite efforts by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Britain to reinvigorate discussions. Bahrain became independent in August 1971, and Qatar in September 1971.
When the British - Trucial Sheikhdoms treaty expired on December 1, 1971, the Trucial States became fully independent sheikhdoms. Four more of the Trucial states (Ajman, Sharjah, Umm Al Quwain and Fujairah), had decided to join Abu Dhabi and Dubai in signing the UAE 's founding treaty, with a draft constitution in place drafted in record time to meet the December 2, 1971 deadline. On that date, at the Dubai Guesthouse (now known as Union House), the emirates agreed to enter into a union to be called the United Arab Emirates. Ras al - Khaimah joined later, following Iran 's swift annexation of the Tunbs islands, in early 1972.
The move to form a union took place at a time of unprecedented instability in the region, with a border dispute killing 22 in Kalba and a coup in Sharjah in January 1972. The then emir of Qatar was deposed by his cousin in February 1972.
After the 9 / 11 terrorist attacks on the United States, the UAE was identified as a major financial centre used by Al - Qaeda in transferring money to the hijackers. The nation immediately cooperated with the United States, freezing accounts tied to suspected terrorists and strongly clamping down on money laundering.
The country had already signed a military defence agreement with the United States in 1994 and one with France in 1995.
The UAE supports military operations from the United States and other coalition nations engaged in the invasion of Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003) as well as operations supporting the Global War on Terrorism for the Horn of Africa at Al Dhafra Air Base, located outside of Abu Dhabi. The air base also supported Allied operations during the 1991 Persian Gulf War and Operation Northern Watch.
On 2 November 2004, the UAE 's first president, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, died. His eldest son, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, succeeded him as ruler of Abu Dhabi. In accordance with the constitution, the UAE 's Supreme Council of Rulers elected Khalifa as president. Sheikh Mohammad bin Zayed Al Nahyan succeeded Khalifa as Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi. In January 2006, Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, the prime minister of the UAE and the ruler of Dubai, died, and Crown Prince Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum assumed both roles.
In March 2006, the United States forced the state - owned Dubai Ports World to relinquish control of terminals at six major American ports. Critics of the ports deal feared an increased risk of terrorist attack, saying the UAE had been home to two of the 9 / 11 hijackers.
In December 2006, the UAE prepared for its first election to determine half the members of UAE 's Federal National Council from 450 candidates. However, only 7000 Emirati citizens, less than 1 % of the Emirati population, were given the right to vote in the election. The exact manner of selection was opaque. Notably, women were included in the electorate.
In 2011, the Middle East saw a number of pro-democratic uprisings, popularly known as the Arab Spring. The UAE saw comparatively little unrest, but did face one high - profile case in which five pro-democracy activists were arrested on charges of insulting the president, Sheikh Khalifa, the vice president, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, and the Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi (and presumed successor to Sheikh Khalifa), Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan. The trial of the UAE Five attracted international publicity and protest from a number of human rights groups, including Amnesty International, which named the five men prisoners of conscience. The defendants were convicted and given two - to three - year prison sentences on 27 November 2011. However, all five were pardoned without comment by Sheikh Khalifa the following day.
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origin of separation of church and state in america | Separation of church and state in the United States - Wikipedia
"Separation of church and state '' is paraphrased from Thomas Jefferson and used by others expressing an understanding of the intent and function of the Establishment Clause and Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States which reads: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof... ''
The phrase "separation between church & state '' is generally traced to a January 1, 1802 letter by Thomas Jefferson, addressed to the Danbury Baptist Association in Connecticut, and published in a Massachusetts newspaper. Jefferson wrote,
Jefferson was echoing the language of the founder of the first Baptist church in America, Roger Williams who had written in 1644,
Article Six of the United States Constitution also specifies that "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ''
Jefferson 's metaphor of a wall of separation has been cited repeatedly by the U.S. Supreme Court. In Reynolds v. United States (1879) the Court wrote that Jefferson 's comments "may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the (First) Amendment. '' In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), Justice Hugo Black wrote: "In the words of Thomas Jefferson, the clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect a wall of separation between church and state. ''
However, the Court has not always interpreted the constitutional principle as absolute, and the proper extent of separation between government and religion in the U.S. remains an ongoing subject of impassioned debate.
Many early immigrant groups traveled to America to worship freely, particularly after the English Civil War and religious conflict in France and Germany. They included nonconformists like the Puritans, who were Protestant Christians fleeing religious persecution from the Anglican King of England. Despite a common background, the groups ' views on religious toleration were mixed. While some such as Roger Williams of Rhode Island and William Penn of Pennsylvania ensured the protection of religious minorities within their colonies, others like the Plymouth Colony and Massachusetts Bay Colony had established churches. The Dutch colony of New Netherland established the Dutch Reformed Church and outlawed all other worship, though enforcement was sparse. Religious conformity was desired partly for financial reasons: the established Church was responsible for poverty relief, putting dissenting churches at a significant disadvantage. This, along with many other statements should be footnoted, as it seems more like an opinion than a fact.
^ Note 1: In several colonies, the establishment ceased to exist in practice at the Revolution, about 1776; this is the date of permanent legal abolition.
^ Note 2: in 1789 the Georgia Constitution was amended as follows: "Article IV. Section 10. No person within this state shall, upon any pretense, be deprived of the inestimable privilege of worshipping God in any manner agreeable to his own conscience, nor be compelled to attend any place of worship contrary to his own faith and judgment; nor shall he ever be obliged to pay tithes, taxes, or any other rate, for the building or repairing any place of worship, or for the maintenance of any minister or ministry, contrary to what he believes to be right, or hath voluntarily engaged to do. No one religious society shall ever be established in this state, in preference to another; nor shall any person be denied the enjoyment of any civil right merely on account of his religious principles. ''
^ Note 3: From 1780 Massachusetts had a system which required every man to belong to a church, and permitted each church to tax its members, but forbade any law requiring that it be of any particular denomination. This was objected to, as in practice establishing the Congregational Church, the majority denomination, and was abolished in 1833.
^ Note 4: Until 1877 the New Hampshire Constitution required members of the State legislature to be of the Protestant religion.
^ Note 5: The North Carolina Constitution of 1776 disestablished the Anglican church, but until 1835 the NC Constitution allowed only Protestants to hold public office. From 1835 to 1876 it allowed only Christians (including Catholics) to hold public office. Article VI, Section 8 of the current NC Constitution forbids only atheists from holding public office. Such clauses were held by the United States Supreme Court to be unenforceable in the 1961 case of Torcaso v. Watkins, when the court ruled unanimously that such clauses constituted a religious test incompatible with First and Fourteenth Amendment protections.
^ Note 6: Religious tolerance for Catholics with an established Church of England was policy in the former Spanish Colonies of East and West Florida while under British rule.
^ Note 7: In Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the American Revolutionary War, the British ceded both East and West Florida back to Spain (see Spanish Florida).
^ Note 8: Tithes for the support of the Anglican Church in Virginia were suspended in 1776, and never restored. 1786 is the date of the Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom, which prohibited any coercion to support any religious body.
The Flushing Remonstrance shows support for separation of church and state as early as the mid-17th century, stating their opposition to religious persecution of any sort: "The law of love, peace and liberty in the states extending to Jews, Turks and Egyptians, as they are considered sons of Adam, which is the glory of the outward state of Holland, so love, peace and liberty, extending to all in Christ Jesus, condemns hatred, war and bondage. '' The document was signed December 27, 1657 by a group of English citizens in America who were affronted by persecution of Quakers and the religious policies of the Governor of New Netherland, Peter Stuyvesant. Stuyvesant had formally banned all religions other than the Dutch Reformed Church from being practiced in the colony, in accordance with the laws of the Dutch Republic. The signers indicated their "desire therefore in this case not to judge lest we be judged, neither to condemn least we be condemned, but rather let every man stand or fall to his own Master. '' Stuyvesant fined the petitioners and threw them in prison until they recanted. However, John Bowne allowed the Quakers to meet in his home. Bowne was arrested, jailed, and sent to the Netherlands for trial; the Dutch court exonerated Bowne.
New York Historical Society President and Columbia University Professor of History Kenneth T. Jackson describes the Flushing Remonstrance as "the first thing that we have in writing in the United States where a group of citizens attests on paper and over their signature the right of the people to follow their own conscience with regard to God - and the inability of government, or the illegality of government, to interfere with that. ''
Given the wide diversity of opinion on Christian theological matters in the newly independent American States, the Constitutional Convention believed a government sanctioned (established) religion would disrupt rather than bind the newly formed union together. George Washington wrote a letter in 1790 to the country 's first Jewish congregation, the Touro Synagogue in Newport, Rhode Island to state:
Allowing rights and immunities of citizenship. It is now no more that toleration is spoken of, as if it were by the indulgence of one class of people, that another enjoyed the exercise of their inherent natural rights. For happily the Government of the United States, which gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance requires only that they who live under its protection should demean themselves as good citizens, in giving it on all occasions their effectual support.
There were also opponents to the support of any established church even at the state level. In 1773, Isaac Backus, a prominent Baptist minister in New England, wrote against a state sanctioned religion, saying: "Now who can hear Christ declare, that his kingdom is, not of this world, and yet believe that this blending of church and state together can be pleasing to him? '' He also observed that when "church and state are separate, the effects are happy, and they do not at all interfere with each other: but where they have been confounded together, no tongue nor pen can fully describe the mischiefs that have ensued. '' Thomas Jefferson 's influential Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom was enacted in 1786, five years before the Bill of Rights.
Most Anglican ministers, and many Anglicans, were Loyalists. The Anglican establishment, where it had existed, largely ceased to function during the American Revolution, though the new States did not formally abolish and replace it until some years after the Revolution.
The phrase "(A) hedge or wall of separation between the garden of the church and the wilderness of the world '' was first used by Baptist theologian Roger Williams, the founder of the colony of Rhode Island, in his 1644 book The Bloody Tenent of Persecution. The phrase was later used by Thomas Jefferson as a description of the First Amendment and its restriction on the legislative branch of the federal government, in an 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptists (a religious minority concerned about the dominant position of the Congregationalist church in Connecticut):
Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between man and his god, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, and not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their "legislature '' should "make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, '' thus building a wall of separation between church and State. Adhering to this expression of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of conscience, I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those sentiments which tend to restore to man all his natural rights, convinced he has no natural right in opposition to his social duties.
Jefferson 's letter was in reply to a letter that he had received from the Danbury Baptist Association dated October 7, 1801. In an 1808 letter to Virginia Baptists, Jefferson used the same theme:
We have solved, by fair experiment, the great and interesting question whether freedom of religion is compatible with order in government and obedience to the laws. And we have experienced the quiet as well as the comfort which results from leaving every one to profess freely and openly those principles of religion which are the inductions of his own reason and the serious convictions of his own inquiries.
Jefferson and James Madison 's conceptions of separation have long been debated. Jefferson refused to issue Proclamations of Thanksgiving sent to him by Congress during his presidency, though he did issue a Thanksgiving and Prayer proclamation as Governor of Virginia. Madison issued four religious proclamations while President, but vetoed two bills on the grounds they violated the first amendment. On the other hand, both Jefferson and Madison attended religious services at the Capitol. Years before the ratification of the Constitution, Madison contended "Because if Religion be exempt from the authority of the Society at large, still less can it be subject to that of the Legislative Body. '' After retiring from the presidency, Madison wrote of "total separation of the church from the state. '' ""Strongly guarded as is the separation between Religion & Govt in the Constitution of the United States, '' Madison wrote, and he declared, "practical distinction between Religion and Civil Government is essential to the purity of both, and as guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States. '' In a letter to Edward Livingston Madison further expanded, "We are teaching the world the great truth that Govts. do better without Kings & Nobles than with them. The merit will be doubled by the other lesson that Religion flourishes in greater purity, without than with the aid of Govt. '' Madison 's original draft of the Bill of Rights had included provisions binding the States, as well as the Federal Government, from an establishment of religion, but the House did not pass them.
Jefferson 's opponents said his position was the destruction and the governmental rejection of Christianity, but this was a caricature. In setting up the University of Virginia, Jefferson encouraged all the separate sects to have preachers of their own, though there was a constitutional ban on the State supporting a Professorship of Divinity, arising from his own Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Some have argued that this arrangement was "fully compatible with Jefferson 's views on the separation of church and state; '' however, others point to Jefferson 's support for a scheme in which students at the university would attend religious worship each morning as evidence that his views were not consistent with strict separation. Still other scholars, such as Mark David Hall, attempt to sidestep the whole issue by arguing that American jurisprudence focuses too narrowly on this one Jeffersonian letter while failing to account for other relevant history
Jefferson 's letter entered American jurisprudence in the 1878 Mormon polygamy case Reynolds v. U.S., in which the court cited Jefferson and Madison, seeking a legal definition for the word religion. Writing for the majority, Justice Stephen Johnson Field cited Jefferson 's Letter to the Danbury Baptists to state that "Congress was deprived of all legislative power over mere opinion, but was left free to reach actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order. '' Considering this, the court ruled that outlawing polygamy was constitutional.
Jefferson and Madison 's approach was not the only one taken in the eighteenth century. Jefferson 's Statute of Religious Freedom was drafted in opposition to a bill, chiefly supported by Patrick Henry, which would permit any Virginian to belong to any denomination, but which would require him to belong to some denomination and pay taxes to support it. Similarly, the Constitution of Massachusetts originally provided that "no subject shall be hurt, molested, or restrained, in his person, liberty, or estate, for worshipping God in the manner and season most agreeable to the dictates of his own conscience... provided he doth not disturb the public peace, or obstruct others in their religious worship, '' (Article II) but also that:
the people of this commonwealth have a right to invest their legislature with power to authorize and require, and the legislature shall, from time to time, authorize and require, the several towns, parishes, precincts, and other bodies politic, or religious societies, to make suitable provision, at their own expense, for the institution of the public worship of God, and for the support and maintenance of public Protestant teachers of piety, religion and morality, in all cases where such provision shall not be made voluntarily. And the people of this commonwealth have also a right to, and do, invest their legislature with authority to enjoin upon all the subjects an attendance upon the instructions of the public teachers aforesaid, at stated times and seasons, if there be any on whose instructions they can conscientiously and conveniently attend. (Article III)
Since, in practice, this meant that the decision of who was taxable for a particular religion rested in the hands of the selectmen, usually Congregationalists, this system was open to abuse. It was abolished in 1833. The intervening period is sometimes referred to as an "establishment of religion '' in Massachusetts.
The Duke of York had required that every community in his new lands of New York and New Jersey support some church, but this was more often Dutch Reformed, Quaker or Presbyterian, than Anglican. Some chose to support more than one church. He also ordained that the tax - payers were free, having paid his local tax, to choose their own church. The terms for the surrender of New Amsterdam had provided that the Dutch would have liberty of conscience, and the Duke, as an openly divine - right Catholic, was no friend of Anglicanism. The first Anglican minister in New Jersey arrived in 1698, though Anglicanism was more popular in New York.
Connecticut had a real establishment of religion. Its citizens did not adopt a constitution at the Revolution, but rather amended their Charter to remove all references to the British Government. As a result, the Congregational Church continued to be established, and Yale College, at that time a Congregational institution, received grants from the State until Connecticut adopted a constitution in 1818 partly because of this issue.
The absence of an establishment of religion did not necessarily imply that all men were free to hold office. Most colonies had a Test Act, and several states retained them for a short time. This stood in contrast to the Federal Constitution, which explicitly prohibits the employment of any religious test for Federal office, and which through the Fourteenth Amendment later extended this prohibition to the States.
For example, the New Jersey Constitution of 1776 provides liberty of conscience in much the same language as Massachusetts (similarly forbidding payment of "taxes, tithes or other payments '' contrary to conscience). It then provides:
That there shall be no establishment of any one religious sect in this Province, in preference to another; and that no Protestant inhabitant of this Colony shall be denied the enjoyment of any civil right, merely on account of his religious principles; but that all persons, professing a belief in the faith of any Protestant sect, who shall demean themselves peaceably under the government, as hereby established, shall be capable of being elected into any office of profit or trust, or being a member of either branch of the Legislature, and shall fully and freely enjoy every privilege and immunity, enjoyed by others their fellow subjects.
This would permit a Test Act, but did not require one.
The original charter of the Province of East Jersey had restricted membership in the Assembly to Christians; the Duke of York was fervently Catholic, and the proprietors of Perth Amboy, New Jersey were Scottish Catholic peers. The Province of West Jersey had declared, in 1681, that there should be no religious test for office. An oath had also been imposed on the militia during the French and Indian War requiring them to abjure the pretensions of the Pope, which may or may not have been applied during the Revolution. That law was replaced by 1799.
The Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 provided:
And each member, before he takes his seat, shall make and subscribe the following declaration, viz:
And no further or other religious test shall ever hereafter be required of any civil officer or magistrate in this State.
Again, it provided in general that all tax - paying freemen and their sons shall be able to vote, and that no "man, who acknowledges the being of a God, be justly deprived or abridged of any civil right as a citizen, on account of his religious sentiments or peculiar mode of religious worship. ''
Article Six of the United States Constitution provides that "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States ''. Prior to the adoption of the Bill of Rights, this was the only mention of religion in the Constitution.
The first amendment to the US Constitution states "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof '' The two parts, known as the "establishment clause '' and the "free exercise clause '' respectively, form the textual basis for the Supreme Court 's interpretations of the "separation of church and state '' doctrine. Three central concepts were derived from the 1st Amendment which became America 's doctrine for church - state separation: no coercion in religious matters, no expectation to support a religion against one 's will, and religious liberty encompasses all religions. In sum, citizens are free to embrace or reject a faith, any support for religion - financial or physical - must be voluntary, and all religions are equal in the eyes of the law with no special preference or favoritism.
The First Congress ' deliberations show that its understanding of the separation of church and state differed sharply from that of their contemporaries in Europe. As 19th century Union Theological Seminary historian Philip Schaff observed:
The American separation of church and state rests upon respect for the church; the (European anticlerical) separation, on indifference and hatred of the church, and of religion itself.... The constitution did not create a nation, nor its religion and institutions. It found them already existing, and was framed for the purpose of protecting them under a republican form of government, in a rule of the people, by the people, and for the people.
An August 15, 1789 entry in Madison 's papers indicates he intended for the establishment clause to prevent the government imposition of religious beliefs on individuals. The entry says: "Mr. Madison said he apprehended the meaning of the words to be, that Congress should not establish a religion, and enforce the legal observation of it by law, nor compel men to worship God in any manner contrary to their conscience... ''
Some legal scholars, such as John Baker of LSU, theorize that Madison 's initial proposed language -- that Congress should make no law regarding the establishment of a "national religion '' -- was rejected by the House, in favor of the more general "religion '' in an effort to appease the Anti-Federalists. To both the Anti-Federalists and the Federalists, the very word "national '' was a cause for alarm because of the experience under the British crown. During the debate over the establishment clause, Rep. Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts took issue with Madison 's language regarding whether the government was a national or federal government (in which the states retained their individual sovereignty), which Baker suggests compelled Madison to withdraw his language from the debate.
Following the argument between Madison and Gerry, Rep. Samuel Livermore of New Hampshire proposed language stating that, "Congress shall make no laws touching religion or the rights of conscience. '' This raised an uproar from members, such as Rep. Benjamin Huntingdon of Connecticut and Rep. Peter Sylvester of New York, who worried the language could be used to harm religious practice.
Others, such as Rep. Roger Sherman of Connecticut, believed the clause was unnecessary because the original Constitution only gave Congress stated powers, which did not include establishing a national religion. Anti-Federalists such as Rep. Thomas Tucker of South Carolina moved to strike the establishment clause completely because it could preempt the religious clauses in the state constitutions. However, the Anti-Federalists were unsuccessful in persuading the House of Representatives to drop the clause from the first amendment.
The Senate went through several more narrowly targeted versions before reaching the contemporary language. One version read, "Congress shall make no law establishing one religious sect or society in preference to others, nor shall freedom of conscience be infringed, '' while another read, "Congress shall make no law establishing one particular religious denomination in preference to others. '' Ultimately, the Senate rejected the more narrowly targeted language.
At the time of the passage of the Bill of Rights, many states acted in ways that would now be held unconstitutional. All of the early official state churches were disestablished by 1833 (Massachusetts), including the Congregationalist establishment in Connecticut. It is commonly accepted that, under the doctrine of Incorporation -- which uses the Due Process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to hold the Bill of Rights applicable to the states -- these state churches could not be reestablished today.
Yet the provisions of state constitutions protected religious liberty, particularly the so - called freedom on conscience. During the nineteenth century (and before the incorporation of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution through the Fourteenth Amendment), litigants turned to these provisions to challenge Sunday laws (blue laws), bible - reading in schools, and other ostensibly religious regulations.
The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (Amendment XIV) is one of the post-Civil War amendments, intended to secure rights for former slaves. It includes the due process and equal protection clauses among others. The amendment introduces the concept of incorporation of all relevant federal rights against the states. While it has not been fully implemented, the doctrine of incorporation has been used to ensure, through the Due Process Clause and Privileges and Immunities Clause, the application of most of the rights enumerated in the Bill of Rights to the states.
The incorporation of the First Amendment establishment clause in the landmark case of Everson v. Board of Education has impacted the subsequent interpretation of the separation of church and state in regard to the state governments. Although upholding the state law in that case, which provided for public busing to private religious schools, the Supreme Court held that the First Amendment establishment clause was fully applicable to the state governments. A more recent case involving the application of this principle against the states was Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet (1994).
Jefferson 's concept of "separation of church and state '' first became a part of Establishment Clause jurisprudence in Reynolds v. U.S., 98 U.S. 145 (1878). In that case, the court examined the history of religious liberty in the US, determining that while the constitution guarantees religious freedom, "The word ' religion ' is not defined in the Constitution. We must go elsewhere, therefore, to ascertain its meaning, and nowhere more appropriately, we think, than to the history of the times in the midst of which the provision was adopted. '' The court found that the leaders in advocating and formulating the constitutional guarantee of religious liberty were James Madison and Thomas Jefferson. Quoting the "separation '' paragraph from Jefferson 's letter to the Danbury Baptists, the court concluded that, "coming as this does from an acknowledged leader of the advocates of the measure, it may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the amendment thus secured. ''
The centrality of the "separation '' concept to the Religion Clauses of the Constitution was made explicit in Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1 (1947), a case dealing with a New Jersey law that allowed government funds to pay for transportation of students to both public and Catholic schools. This was the first case in which the court applied the Establishment Clause to the laws of a state, having interpreted the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment as applying the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal legislature. Citing Jefferson, the court concluded that "The First Amendment has erected a wall between church and state. That wall must be kept high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach. ''
While the decision (with four dissents) ultimately upheld the state law allowing the funding of transportation of students to religious schools, the majority opinion (by Justice Hugo Black) and the dissenting opinions (by Justice Wiley Blount Rutledge and Justice Robert H. Jackson) each explicitly stated that the Constitution has erected a "wall between church and state '' or a "separation of Church from State '': their disagreement was limited to whether this case of state funding of transportation to religious schools breached that wall. Rutledge, on behalf of the four dissenting justices, took the position that the majority had indeed permitted a violation of the wall of separation in this case: "Neither so high nor so impregnable today as yesterday is the wall raised between church and state by Virginia 's great statute of religious freedom and the First Amendment, now made applicable to all the states by the Fourteenth. '' Writing separately, Justice Jackson argued that "(T) here are no good grounds upon which to support the present legislation. In fact, the undertones of the opinion, advocating complete and uncompromising separation of Church from State, seem utterly discordant with its conclusion yielding support to their commingling in educational matters. ''
In 1962, the Supreme Court addressed the issue of officially sponsored prayer or religious recitations in public schools. In Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421 (1962), the Court, by a vote of 6 - 1, determined it unconstitutional for state officials to compose an official school prayer and require its recitation in public schools, even when the prayer is non-denominational and students may excuse themselves from participation. (The prayer required by the New York State Board of Regents prior to the Court 's decision consisted of: "Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers, and our country. Amen. '') As the Court stated:
The petitioners contend, among other things, that the state laws requiring or permitting use of the Regents ' prayer must be struck down as a violation of the Establishment Clause because that prayer was composed by governmental officials as a part of a governmental program to further religious beliefs. For this reason, petitioners argue, the State 's use of the Regents ' prayer in its public school system breaches the constitutional wall of separation between Church and State. We agree with that contention, since we think that the constitutional prohibition against laws respecting an establishment of religion must at least mean that, in this country, it is no part of the business of government to compose official prayers for any group of the American people to recite as a part of a religious program carried on by government.
The court noted that it "is a matter of history that this very practice of establishing governmentally composed prayers for religious services was one of the reasons which caused many of our early colonists to leave England and seek religious freedom in America. '' The lone dissenter, Justice Potter Stewart, objected to the court 's embrace of the "wall of separation '' metaphor: "I think that the Court 's task, in this as in all areas of constitutional adjudication, is not responsibly aided by the uncritical invocation of metaphors like the "wall of separation, '' a phrase nowhere to be found in the Constitution. ''
In Epperson v. Arkansas, 393 U.S. 97 (1968), the Supreme Court considered an Arkansas law that made it a crime "to teach the theory or doctrine that mankind ascended or descended from a lower order of animals, '' or "to adopt or use in any such institution a textbook that teaches '' this theory in any school or university that received public funds. The court 's opinion, written by Justice Abe Fortas, ruled that the Arkansas law violated "the constitutional prohibition of state laws respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The overriding fact is that Arkansas ' law selects from the body of knowledge a particular segment which it proscribes for the sole reason that it is deemed to conflict with a particular religious doctrine; that is, with a particular interpretation of the Book of Genesis by a particular religious group. '' The court held that the Establishment Clause prohibits the state from advancing any religion, and that "(T) he state has no legitimate interest in protecting any or all religions from views distasteful to them. ''
In Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602 (1971), the court determined that a Pennsylvania state policy of reimbursing the salaries and related costs of teachers of secular subjects in private religious schools violated the Establishment Clause. The court 's decision argued that the separation of church and state could never be absolute: "Our prior holdings do not call for total separation between church and state; total separation is not possible in an absolute sense. Some relationship between government and religious organizations is inevitable, '' the court wrote. "Judicial caveats against entanglement must recognize that the line of separation, far from being a "wall, '' is a blurred, indistinct, and variable barrier depending on all the circumstances of a particular relationship. ''
Subsequent to this decision, the Supreme Court has applied a three - pronged test to determine whether government action comports with the Establishment Clause, known as the "Lemon Test ''. First, the law or policy must have been adopted with a neutral or non-religious purpose. Second, the principle or primary effect must be one that neither advances nor inhibits religion. Third, the statute or policy must not result in an "excessive entanglement '' of government with religion. (The decision in Lemon v. Kurtzman hinged upon the conclusion that the government benefits were flowing disproportionately to Catholic schools, and that Catholic schools were an integral component of the Catholic Church 's religious mission, thus the policy involved the state in an "excessive entanglement '' with religion.) Failure to meet any of these criteria is a proof that the statute or policy in question violates the Establishment Clause.
In 2002, a three judge panel on the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals held that classroom recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance in a California public school was unconstitutional, even when students were not compelled to recite it, due to the inclusion of the phrase "under God. '' In reaction to the case, Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, both houses of Congress passed measures reaffirming their support for the pledge, and condemning the panel 's ruling. The case was appealed to the Supreme Court, where the case was ultimately overturned in June 2004, solely on procedural grounds not related to the substantive constitutional issue. Rather, a five - justice majority held that Newdow, a non-custodial parent suing on behalf of his daughter, lacked standing to sue.
When the Louisiana state legislature passed a law requiring public school biology teachers to give Creationism and Evolution equal time in the classroom, the Supreme Court ruled that the law was unconstitutional because it was intended to advance a particular religion, and did not serve the secular purpose of improved scientific education. (See also: Creation and evolution in public education)
The display of the Ten Commandments as part of courthouse displays was considered in a group of cases decided in summer of 2005, including McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky and Van Orden v. Perry. While parties on both sides hoped for a reformulation or clarification of the Lemon test, the two rulings ended with narrow 5 -- 4 and opposing decisions, with Justice Stephen Breyer the swing vote.
On December 20, 2005, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit ruled in the case of ACLU v. Mercer County that the continued display of the Ten Commandments as part of a larger display on American legal traditions in a Kentucky courthouse was allowed, because the purpose of the display (educating the public on American legal traditions) was secular in nature. In ruling on the Mount Soledad cross controversy on May 3, 2006, however, a federal judge ruled that the cross on public property on Mount Soledad must be removed.
In what will be the case is Town of Greece v. Galloway, 12 - 696, the Supreme Court agreed to hear a case regarding whether prayers at town meetings, which are allowed, must allow various faiths to lead prayer, or whether the prayers can be predominately Christian. On May 5, 2014, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5 - 4 in favor of the Town of Greece by holding that the U.S. Constitution not only allows for prayer at government meetings, but also for sectarian prayers like predominately Christian prayers.
In 1797, the United States Senate ratified a treaty with Tripoli that stated in Article 11:
As the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion; as it has in itself no character of enmity against the laws, religion, or tranquillity, of Mussulmen; and, as the said States never entered into any war, or act of hostility against any Mahometan nation, it is declared by the parties, that no pretext arising from religious opinions, shall ever produce an interruption of the harmony existing between the two countries.
Some scholars and organizations disagree with the notion of "separation of church and state '', or the way the Supreme Court has interpreted the constitutional limitation on religious establishment. Such critics generally argue that the phrase misrepresents the textual requirements of the Constitution, while noting that many aspects of church and state were intermingled at the time the Constitution was ratified. These critics argue that the prevalent degree of separation of church and state could not have been intended by the constitutional framers. Some of the intermingling between church and state include religious references in official contexts, and such other founding documents as the United States Declaration of Independence, which references the idea of a "Creator '' and "Nature 's God '', though these references did not ultimately appear in the Constitution nor do they mention any particular religious view of a "Creator '' or "Nature 's God. ''
These critics of the modern separation of church and state also note the official establishment of religion in several of the states at the time of ratification, to suggest that the modern incorporation of the Establishment Clause as to state governments goes against the original constitutional intent. The issue is complex, however, as the incorporation ultimately bases on the passage of the 14th Amendment in 1868, at which point the first amendment 's application to the state government was recognized. Many of these constitutional debates relate to the competing interpretive theories of originalism versus modern, progressivist theories such as the doctrine of the Living Constitution. Other debates center on the principle of the law of the land in America being defined not just by the Constitution 's Supremacy Clause, but also by legal precedence, making an accurate reading of the Constitution subject to the mores and values of a given era, and rendering the concept of historical revisionism irrelevant when discussing the Constitution.
The "religious test '' clause has been interpreted to cover both elected officials and appointed ones, career civil servants as well as political appointees. Religious beliefs or the lack of them have therefore not been permissible tests or qualifications with regard to federal employees since the ratification of the Constitution. Seven states, however, have language included in their Bill of Rights, Declaration of Rights, or in the body of their constitutions that require state office - holders to have particular religious beliefs, though some of these have been successfully challenged in court. These states are Texas, Massachusetts, Maryland, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Tennessee.
The required beliefs of these clauses include belief in a Supreme Being and belief in a future state of rewards and punishments. (Tennessee Constitution Article IX, Section 2 is one such example.) Some of these same states specify that the oath of office include the words "so help me God. '' In some cases these beliefs (or oaths) were historically required of jurors and witnesses in court. At one time, such restrictions were allowed under the doctrine of states ' rights; today they are deemed to be in violation of the federal First Amendment, as applied to the states via the 14th amendment, and hence unconstitutional and unenforceable.
While sometimes questioned as possible violations of separation, the appointment of official chaplains for government functions, voluntary prayer meetings at the Department of Justice outside of duty hours, voluntary prayer at meals in U.S. armed forces, inclusion of the (optional) phrase "so help me God '' in the oaths for many elected offices, FBI agents, etc., have been held not to violate the First Amendment, since they fall within the realm of free exercise of religion.
Relaxed zoning rules and special parking privileges for churches, the tax - free status of church property, the fact that Christmas is a federal holiday, etc., have also been questioned, but have been considered examples of the governmental prerogative in deciding practical and beneficial arrangements for the society. The national motto "In God We Trust '' has been challenged as a violation, but the Supreme Court has ruled that ceremonial deism is not religious in nature. A circuit court ruling affirmed Ohio 's right to use as its motto a passage from the Bible, "With God, all things are possible '', because it displayed no preference for a particular religion.
Jeffries and Ryan (2001) argue that the modern concept of separation of church and state dates from the mid-twentieth century rulings of the Supreme Court. The central point, they argue, was a constitutional ban against aid to religious schools, followed by a later ban on religious observance in public education. Jeffries and Ryan argue that these two propositions -- that public aid should not go to religious schools and that public schools should not be religious -- make up the separationist position of the modern Establishment Clause.
Jeffries and Ryan argue that no - aid position drew support from a coalition of separationist opinion. Most important was "the pervasive secularism that came to dominate American public life, '' which sought to confine religion to a private sphere. Further, the ban against government aid to religious schools was supported before 1970 by most Protestants (and most Jews), who opposed aid to religious schools, which were mostly Catholic at the time. After 1980, however, anti-Catholic sentiment has diminished among mainline Protestants, and the crucial coalition of public secularists and Protestant churches has collapsed. While mainline Protestant denominations are more inclined towards strict separation of church and state, much evangelical opinion has now largely deserted that position. As a consequence, strict separationism is opposed today by members of many Protestant faiths, even perhaps eclipsing the opposition of Roman Catholics.
Critics of the modern concept of the "separation of church and state '' argue that it is untethered to anything in the text of the constitution and is contrary to the conception of the phrase as the Founding Fathers understood it. Philip Hamburger, Columbia Law school professor and prominent critic of the modern understanding of the concept, maintains that the modern concept, which deviates from the constitutional establishment clause jurisprudence, is rooted in American anti-Catholicism and Nativism. Briefs before the Supreme Court, including by the U.S. government, have argued that some state constitutional amendments relating to the modern conception of separation of church and state (Blaine Amendments) were motivated by and intended to enact anti-Catholicism.
J. Brent Walker, Executive Director of the Baptist Joint Committee, responded to Hamburger 's claims noting; "The fact that the separation of church and state has been supported by some who exhibited an anti-Catholic animus or a secularist bent does not impugn the validity of the principle. Champions of religious liberty have argued for the separation of church and state for reasons having nothing to do with anti-Catholicism or desire for a secular culture. Of course, separationists have opposed the Catholic Church when it has sought to tap into the public till to support its parochial schools or to argue for on - campus released time in the public schools. But that principled debate on the issues does not support a charge of religious bigotry ''
Steven Waldman notes that; "The evangelicals provided the political muscle for the efforts of Madison and Jefferson, not merely because they wanted to block official churches but because they wanted to keep the spiritual and secular worlds apart. '' "Religious freedom resulted from an alliance of unlikely partners, '' writes the historian Frank Lambert in his book The Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion in America. "New Light evangelicals such as Isaac Bachus and John Leland joined forces with Deists and skeptics such as James Madison and Thomas Jefferson to fight for a complete separation of church and state. ''
Robert N. Bellah has in his writings that although the separation of church and state is grounded firmly in the constitution of the United States, this does not mean that there is no religious dimension in the political society of the United States. He used the term "Civil Religion '' to describe the specific relation between politics and religion in the United States. His 1967 article analyzes the inaugural speech of John F. Kennedy: "Considering the separation of church and state, how is a president justified in using the word ' God ' at all? The answer is that the separation of church and state has not denied the political realm a religious dimension. ''
Robert S. Wood has argued that the United States is a model for the world in terms of how a separation of church and state -- no state - run or state - established church -- is good for both the church and the state, allowing a variety of religions to flourish. Speaking at the Toronto - based Center for New Religions, Wood said that the freedom of conscience and assembly allowed under such a system has led to a "remarkable religiosity '' in the United States that is n't present in other industrialized nations. Wood believes that the U.S. operates on "a sort of civic religion, '' which includes a generally shared belief in a creator who "expects better of us. '' Beyond that, individuals are free to decide how they want to believe and fill in their own creeds and express their conscience. He calls this approach the "genius of religious sentiment in the United States. ''
On July 26, 2017, President Donald Trump announced that the United States worships God.
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how much did we pay russia for alaska | Alaska purchase - wikipedia
The Alaska Purchase (Russian: Продажа Аляски, tr. Prodazha Alyaski) was the United States ' acquisition of Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30, 1867, by a treaty ratified by the United States Senate, and signed by president Andrew Johnson.
Russia wanted to sell its Alaskan territory, fearing that it might be seized if war broke out with the United Kingdom. Russia 's primary activities in the territory had been fur trade and missionary work among the Native Alaskans. The land added 586,412 square miles (1,518,800 km) of new territory to the United States.
Reactions to the purchase in the United States were mostly positive; some opponents called it "Seward 's Folly '' (after Secretary of State William H. Seward), while others praised the move for weakening both the UK and Russia as rivals to American commercial expansion in the Pacific region.
Originally organized as the Department of Alaska, the area was renamed the District of Alaska and the Alaska Territory before becoming the modern state of Alaska upon being admitted to the Union as a state in 1959.
Russia was in a difficult financial position and feared losing Russian America without compensation in some future conflict, especially to the British, with whom they had fought in the Crimean War (1853 -- 1856). While Alaska attracted little interest at the time, the population of nearby British Columbia started to increase rapidly a few years after hostilities ended, with a large gold rush there prompting the creation of a British crown colony on the mainland in addition to the one that was already established on Vancouver Island, where the French and British fleets had retreated after the Battle of Petropavlovsk in the Russian Far East.
The Russians decided that in any future war with Britain, their hard - to - defend colony might become a prime target, and would be easily captured. Therefore, the Russian emperor, Alexander II, decided to sell the territory. Perhaps in the hope of starting a bidding war, both the British and the Americans were approached. However, the British expressed little interest in buying Alaska. In 1859 the Russians offered to sell the territory to the United States, hoping that its presence in the region would offset the plans of Russia 's greatest regional rival, Great Britain. However, no deal was reached, as the risk of an American Civil War was a more pressing concern in Washington.
Grand Duke Konstantin, a younger brother of the Tsar, began to press for the handover of Russian America to the United States in 1857. In a memorandum to Foreign Minister Alexander Gorchakov he stated that
we must not deceive ourselves and must foresee that the United States, aiming constantly to round out their possessions and desiring to dominate undividedly the whole of North America will take the afore - mentioned colonies from us and we shall not be able to regain them.
This proposal was a topic in the higher echelons of the Russian government throughout 1857 and 1858. Konstantin 's letter was shown to his brother, Tsar Alexander II, who wrote "this idea is worth considering '' on the front page. Supporters of Konstantin 's proposal to immediately withdraw from North America included Admiral Yevfimy Putyatin and the Russian minister to the United States, Eduard de Stoeckl. Gorchakov agreed with the necessity of abandoning Russian America, but argued for a gradual process leading to its sale. He found a supporter in the naval minister and former chief manager of the Russian - American Company (RAC), Ferdinand von Wrangel. Wrangel pressed for some proceeds to be invested in the economic development of Kamchatka and the Amur Basin. The Emperor eventually sided with Gorchakov, deciding to postpone negotiations until the end of the RAC 's patent, set to expire in 1861.
Over the winter of 1859 -- 1860 de Stoeckl held meetings with American officials, though he had been instructed not to initiate discussions about the sale of the RAC assets. Communicating primarily with Assistant Secretary of State John Appleton and Senator William M. Gwin, de Stoeckl reported the interest expressed by the Americans in acquiring Russian America. While President James Buchanan kept these hearings informal, preparations were made for further negotiations. Senator Gwin tendered a hypothetical offer of five million dollars for the Russian colony, a figure Gorchakov found far too low. De Stoeckl informed Appleton and Gwin of this, the latter saying that his Congressional colleagues in Oregon and California would support a larger figure. Buchanan 's increasingly unpopular presidency forced the matter to be shelved until a new presidential election. With the oncoming American Civil War, de Stoeckl proposed a renewal of the RAC 's charter. Two of its ports were to be open to foreign traders and commercial agreements with Peru and Chile to be signed to give "a fresh jolt '' to the company.
Additionally, the Russian Crown sought to repay money to its landowners after its emancipation reform of 1861 and borrowed 15 million pounds sterling from Rothschilds at 5 % annually. When the time came to repay the loan, the Russian government was short of funds.
Russia continued to see an opportunity to weaken British power by causing British Columbia, including the Royal Navy base at Esquimalt, to be surrounded or annexed by American territory. Following the Union victory in the civil war, the Tsar instructed the Russian minister to the United States, Eduard de Stoeckl, to re-enter into negotiations with William Seward in the beginning of March 1867. President Johnson was entangled in negotiations about Reconstruction and Seward had alienated a number of Republicans, so they believed that the purchase would help divert attention from the current domestic matters. The negotiations concluded after an all - night session with the signing of the treaty at 04: 00 on March 30, 1867, with the purchase price set at $7.2 million ($1.8 billion in 2016), or about 2 cents per acre ($4.74 / km).
The notion that the purchase was unpopular among Americans is, a scholar wrote 120 years later, "one of the strongest historical myths in American history. It persists despite conclusive evidence to the contrary, and the efforts of the best historians to dispel it '', likely in part because it fits American and Alaskan writers ' view of the territory as distinct and filled with self - reliant pioneers. American public opinion was not universally positive; to some the purchase was known as "Seward 's folly '', or "Seward 's icebox. '' Newspaper editorials contended that taxpayer money had been wasted on a "Polar bear garden ''. Nonetheless, most newspaper editors argued that the U.S. would probably derive great economic benefits from the purchase; friendship with Russia was important; and it would facilitate the acquisition of British Columbia. Forty - five percent of newspapers endorsing the purchase cited the increased potential for annexing British Columbia in their support. W.H. Dall in 1872 wrote that "... there can be no doubt that the feelings of a majority of the citizens of the United States are in favor of it... '' while referring to purchasing the territories of Russia in America. A review of dozens of newspapers of the day reveals general support for the purchase, especially in California and most of the 48 major newspapers supported the purchase at the time.
The principal urban newspaper that opposed the purchase was the New York Tribune, published by Seward opponent Horace Greeley. The ongoing controversy over Reconstruction spread to other acts, such as the Alaska purchase. Some opposed the United States obtaining its first non-contiguous territory, seeing it as a colony; others saw no need to pay for land that they expected the country to obtain through manifest destiny. Historian Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer summarized the minority opinion of some American newspaper editors who opposed the purchase:
Already, so it was said, we were burdened with territory we had no population to fill. The Indians within the present boundaries of the republic strained our power to govern aboriginal peoples. Could it be that we would now, with open eyes, seek to add to our difficulties by increasing the number of such peoples under our national care? The purchase price was small; the annual charges for administration, civil and military, would be yet greater, and continuing. The territory included in the proposed cession was not contiguous to the national domain. It lay away at an inconvenient and a dangerous distance. The treaty had been secretly prepared, and signed and foisted upon the country at one o'clock in the morning. It was a dark deed done in the night... The New York World said that it was a "sucked orange. '' It contained nothing of value but furbearing animals, and these had been hunted until they were nearly extinct. Except for the Aleutian Islands and a narrow strip of land extending along the southern coast the country would be not worth taking as a gift... Unless gold were found in the country much time would elapse before it would be blessed with Hoe printing presses, Methodist chapels and a metropolitan police. It was "a frozen wilderness. ''
An Aleut name, "Alaska '', was chosen by the Americans. This name had earlier, in the Russian era, denoted the Alaska Peninsula, which the Russians had called "Аляска '' (Alyaska) (also Alyaksa is attested, especially in older sources).
Seward and many other Americans believed that Asia would become an important market for the country 's products, and expected that Alaska would serve as a base for American merchant ships. Senator Charles Sumner was unusual in expecting that the territory would be valuable on its own; having studied the records of explorers, he believed that it contained valuable animals and forests. As chair of the Foreign Relations Committee, he sponsored the bill to acquire the territory. Seward told the nation that the Russians estimated that Alaska contained about 2,500 Russians and those of mixed race (that is, a Russian father and native mother), and 8,000 indigenous people, in all about 10,000 people under the direct government of the Russian fur company, and possibly 50,000 Inuit and Alaska Natives living outside its jurisdiction. The Russians were settled at 23 trading posts, placed at accessible islands and coastal points. At smaller stations only four or five Russians were stationed to collect furs from the natives for storage and shipment when the company 's boats arrived to take it away. There were two larger towns. New Archangel, now named Sitka, had been established in 1804 to handle the valuable trade in the skins of the sea otter and in 1867 contained 116 small log cabins with 968 residents. St. Paul in the Pribilof Islands had 100 homes and 283 people and was the center of the seal fur industry. The treaty passed the United States Senate with 37 votes for versus 2 opposed.
The transfer ceremony took place in Sitka on October 18, 1867. Russian and American soldiers paraded in front of the governor 's house; the Russian flag was lowered and the American flag raised amid peals of artillery.
A description of the events was published in Finland six years later, written by a blacksmith named T. Ahllund, who had been recruited to work in Sitka only less than two years previously.
When the business with the flags was finally over, Captain of 2nd Rank Aleksei Alekseyevich Peshchurov said: "General Rousseau, by authority from His Majesty, the Emperor of Russia, I transfer to the United States the territory of Alaska. '' General Lovell Rousseau accepted the territory. (Peshchurov had been sent to Sitka as commissioner of the Russian government in the transfer of Alaska.) A number of forts, blockhouses and timber buildings were handed over to the Americans. The troops occupied the barracks; General Jefferson C. Davis established his residence in the governor 's house, and most of the Russian citizens went home, leaving a few traders and priests who chose to remain.
After the transfer, a number of Russian citizens remained in Sitka, but very soon nearly all of them decided to return to Russia, which was still possible at the expense of the Russian - American Company. Ahllund 's story "corroborates other accounts of the transfer ceremony, and the dismay felt by many of the Russians and creoles, jobless and in want, at the rowdy troops and gun - toting civilians who looked on Sitka as merely one more western frontier settlement. '' Ahllund gives a vivid account of what life was like for civilians in Sitka under U.S. rule, and it helps to explain why hardly any of the Russian subjects wanted to stay there. Moreover, Ahllund 's article is the only known description of the return voyage on the Winged Arrow, a ship especially purchased in order to transport the Russians back to their native country. "The over-crowded vessel, with crewmen who got roaring drunk at every port, must have made the voyage a memorable one. '' Ahllund mentions stops at the Sandwich (Hawaiian) Islands, Tahiti, Brazil, London, and finally Kronstadt, the port for St. Petersburg, where they arrived on August 28, 1869.
American settlers who shared Sumner 's belief in the riches of Alaska rushed to the territory, but found that much capital was required to exploit its resources, many of which were also found closer to markets in the contiguous United States. Most soon left; by 1873 Sitka 's population had declined from about 2,500 to a few hundred. The United States acquired an area twice as large as Texas, but it was not until the great Klondike gold strike in 1896 that Alaska came to be seen generally as a valuable addition to American territory.
The seal fishery was one of the chief considerations that induced the United States to purchase Alaska. It provided considerable revenue to the United States by the lease of the privilege of taking seals, in fact an amount in excess of the price paid for Alaska. From 1870 to 1890, the seal fisheries yielded 100,000 skins a year. The company to which the administration of the fisheries was entrusted by a lease from the U.S. government paid a rental of $50,000 per annum and in addition thereto $2.62 1⁄2 per skin for the total number taken. The skins were transported to London to be dressed and prepared for world markets. The business grew so large that the earnings of English laborers after the acquisition of Alaska by the United States amounted by 1890 to $12,000,000.
However, exclusive U.S. control of this resource was eventually challenged, and the Bering Sea Controversy resulted when the United States seized over 150 sealing ships flying the British flag, based out of the coast of British Columbia. The conflict between the United States and Great Britain was resolved by an arbitration tribunal in 1893. The waters of the Bering Sea were deemed to be international waters, contrary to the U.S. 's contention that they were an internal sea. The U.S. was required to make a payment to Great Britain, and both nations were required to follow regulations which were developed to preserve the resource.
Economist David R. Barker has argued that the U.S. federal government has not earned a positive financial return on the purchase of Alaska. According to Barker, tax revenue and mineral and energy royalties to the federal government have been less than federal costs of governing Alaska plus interest on the borrowed funds used for the purchase.
John M. Miller has taken the argument further, contending that U.S. oil companies that developed Alaskan petroleum resources did not earn profits sufficient to compensate for the risks they have incurred.
Other economists and scholars, including Scott Goldsmith and Terrence Cole, have criticized the metrics used to reach those conclusions, noting that most continental Western states would fail to meet the bar of "positive financial return '' using the same criteria and contending that looking at the increase in net national income, instead of simply U.S. Treasury revenue, paints a much more accurate picture of the financial return of Alaska as an investment.
In Alaska, Alaska Day celebrates the formal transfer of Alaska from Russia to the United States, which took place on October 18, 1867. The date is by the Gregorian calendar, which came into effect in Alaska the following day to replace the Julian calendar used by the Russians (the Julian calendar in the 19th century was 12 days behind the Gregorian calendar). Alaska Day is a holiday for all state workers.
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who has the lowest minimum wage in the united states | Minimum wage in the United States - Wikipedia
The minimum wage in the United States is set by US labor law and a network of state, and local laws. Employers generally must pay workers the highest minimum wage prescribed by federal, state, and local law. As of July 2016, the federal government mandates a nationwide minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. As of October 2016, there are 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. From 2014 to 2015, nine states increased their minimum wage levels through automatic adjustments, while increases in 11 other states occurred through referendum or legislative action. In real terms, the federal minimum wage peaked near $10.00 per hour in 1968, using 2014 inflation - adjusted dollars.
Beginning in January 2017, Massachusetts and Washington will have the highest state minimum wages. There is a racial difference for support of a higher minimum wage with most black and Hispanic individuals supporting a $15.00 federal minimum wage, and 54 % of whites opposing it. In 2015, about 3 percent of White, Asian, and Hispanic or Latino workers earned the federal minimum wage or less. Among Black workers, the percentage was about 4 percent.
In 1912, Massachusetts organized a commission to recommend non-compulsory minimum wages for women and children. Within eight years, at least thirteen U.S. states and the District of Columbia would pass minimum wage laws, with pressure being placed on state legislatures by the National Consumers League in a coalition with other women 's voluntary associations and organized labor. The United States Supreme Court of the Lochner era consistently invalidated compulsory minimum wage laws. Advocates for these minimum wage laws hoped that they would be upheld under the precedent of Muller v. Oregon, which had upheld maximum working hours laws for women on the grounds that women required special protection which men did not. However, the Court did not extend this principle to minimum wage laws, considering the latter as interfering with the ability of employers to freely negotiate wage contracts with employees.
In 1933, the Roosevelt administration made the first attempt at establishing a national minimum wage, when a $0.25 per hour standard was set as part of the National Industrial Recovery Act. However, in the 1935 court case Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States (295 U.S. 495), the US Supreme Court declared the act unconstitutional, and the minimum wage was abolished. In 1938, the minimum wage was re-established pursuant to the Fair Labor Standards Act, once again at $0.25 per hour ($4.23 in 2015 dollars). In 1941, the Supreme Court upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act in United States v. Darby Lumber Co., holding that Congress had the power under the Commerce Clause to regulate employment conditions.
The 1938 minimum wage law only applied to "employees engaged in interstate commerce or in the production of goods for interstate commerce, '' but in amendments in 1961 and 1966, the federal minimum wage was extended (with slightly different rates) to employees in large retail and service enterprises, local transportation and construction, state and local government employees, as well as other smaller expansions; a grandfather clause in 1990 drew most employees into the purview of federal minimum wage policy, which now set the wage at $3.80.
In 2006, voters in six states (Arizona, Colorado, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, and Ohio) approved statewide increases in the state minimum wage. The amounts of these increases ranged from $1 to $1.70 per hour and all increases were designed to annually index to inflation. Some politicians in the United States have advocated linking the minimum wage to the Consumer Price Index, thereby increasing the wage automatically each year based on increases to the Consumer Price Index. So far, Ohio, Oregon, Missouri, Vermont and Washington have linked their minimum wages to the consumer price index. Minimum wage indexing also takes place each year in Florida, San Francisco, California, and Santa Fe, New Mexico.
The federal minimum wage in the United States was reset to its current rate of $7.25 per hour in July 2009. Some U.S. territories (such as American Samoa) are exempt. Some types of labor are also exempt: employers may pay tipped labor a minimum of $2.13 per hour, as long as the hour wage plus tip income equals at least the minimum wage. Persons under the age of 20 may be paid $4.25 an hour for the first 90 calendar days of employment (sometimes known as a youth, teen, or training wage) unless a higher state minimum exists. The 2009 increase was the last of three steps of the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007, which was signed into law as a rider to the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans ' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007, a bill that also contained almost $5 billion in tax cuts for small businesses.
In April 2014, the U.S. Senate debated the Minimum Wage Fairness Act (S. 1737; 113th Congress). The bill would have amended the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) to increase the federal minimum wage for employees to $10.10 per hour over the course of a two - year period. The bill was strongly supported by President Barack Obama and many of the Democratic Senators, but strongly opposed by Republicans in the Senate and House. Later in 2014, voters in the Republican - controlled states of Alaska, Arkansas, Nebraska and South Dakota considered ballot initiatives to raise the minimum wage above the national rate of $7.25 per hour, which were successful in all 4 states. The results provided evidence that raising minimum wage has support across party lines.
Since 2012, a growing protest and advocacy movement called "Fight for $15 '', initially growing out of fast food worker strikes, has advocated for an increase in the minimum wage. On March 27, 2014, Connecticut passed legislation to raise the minimum wage from $8.70 to $10.10 by 2017, making it one of about six states to aim at or above $10.00 per hour. In 2014 and 2015, several cities, including San Francisco, Seattle, Los Angeles, and Washington passed ordinances that gradually increase the minimum wage to $15.00. In 2016, New York and California passed legislation that would gradually raise the minimum wage to $15 in each state.
As of 2017, recent legislation was passed in multiple states to raise the minimum wage a certain amount in a certain amount of time. California is set to raise their minimum wage to $15.00 / hour by January 1, 2023. Colorado is set to raise their minimum wage from $9.30 / hour to $12 / hour by January 1, 2020, raising $0.90 per year. Seattle passed legislation in 2015 for a raise in minimum wage; for employers of 500 or more employees without heath benefits, the minimum wage will be raised to $15.00 / hour by 2017, for employees with heath benefits, the minimum wage will raise to $15.00 / hour by 2018, for smaller employees the $15.00 / hour wage will be reached at different times. Seattle is one of the first cities to put in place a plan that after $15.00 / hour wage is reached, they will continue to increase minimum wage by a certain percentage every year based on inflation changes. New York has also recently passed legislation to increase their minimum wage to $15.00 / hour over time, certain counties and larger companies are set on faster plans than others. As there have only been a few places mentioned, cities and states across the United States are putting in place certain legislation to increase the minimum wage for minimum wage workers to a livable wage. Time will only tell the effects on the economy and number of jobs in those cities and states.
On June 2, 2014, the City Council of Seattle, Washington was the first city to pass a local ordinance to increase the minimum wage of the city to $15.00 per hour, which will be phased in over seven years, to be fully implemented by 2021. Numerous cities have followed Seattle 's example since. San Francisco is expected to become the first U.S. city to reach a minimum wage of $15.00 per hour on July 1, 2018. New York City 's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018. The minimum wage in Los Angeles and Washington, D.C., will be $15.00 per hour in 2020. A growing number of California cities have enacted local minimum wage ordinances, including Los Angeles, San Francisco, Oakland, Berkeley, Emeryville, Mountain View, Richmond, and San Jose.
In September 2014, the Los Angeles City Council approved a minimum salary for hotel workers of $15.37 per hour. In April 2016, The Los Angeles Times reported that there is an exemption for unionised workers, and interviewed longtime workers at unionised Sheraton Universal who make $10.00 per hour, whereas non-union employees at a non-union Hilton a few feet away make at least the $15.37 mandated by law for non-unionised employees. Similar exemptions have been adopted in San Francisco, San Jose, Oakland, and Santa Monica.
On August 18, 2015, the El Cerrito City Council directed city staff to draft a local minimum wage ordinance based on a template provided by a coalition for a county - wide minimum wage effort. The details are not final, but the Council discussed an initial increase of roughly 28 -- 36 % ($11.52 -- $12.25 or more) by January 1, 2016, with annual increases that will result in a $15.00 hourly wage rate by 2018 -- 2020. The Council did not direct staff to create small business exemptions (or any other exemptions), but a slower phase - in rate may be considered for employees of small businesses. The city will have outreach for residents and business owners to discuss the details of the proposed ordinance. Staff hopes to present a draft for The Council 's approval as early as October or November 2015.
As of December 2014, unions were exempt from recent minimum wage increases in Chicago, Illinois, SeaTac, Washington, and Milwaukee County, Wisconsin, as well as the California cities of Los Angeles, San Francisco, Long Beach, San Jose, Richmond, and Oakland. In 2016, the Washington, D.C. Council passed a minimum wage ordinance that included a union waiver, but Mayor Vincent Gray vetoed it. Later that year, the council approved an increase without the union waiver.
Since its inception the purchasing power of the minimum wage has fluctuated. The minimum wage had its highest purchasing power in 1968, when it was $1.60 per hour ($11.49 in 2017 dollars). From January 1981 to April 1990, the minimum wage was frozen at $3.35 per hour, then a record - setting minimum wage freeze. From September 1, 1997 through July 23, 2007, the federal minimum wage remained constant at $5.15 per hour, breaking the old record. From the United States Department of Labor. Employment Standards Administration. Wage and Hour Division, the source page has a clickable US map with current and projected state - by - state minimum wage rates for each state. Some government entities, such as counties and cities, observe minimum wages that are higher than the state as a whole. One notable example of this is Santa Fe, New Mexico, whose $9.50 per hour minimum wage was the highest in the nation, until San Francisco increased its minimum wage to $9.79 in 2009. Another device to increase wages, living wage ordinances, generally apply only to businesses that are under contract to the local government itself.
Since 1984, the purchasing power of the federal minimum wage has decreased. Measured in real terms (adjusted for inflation) using 1984 dollars, the real minimum wage was $3.35 in 1984, $2.33 in 1994, $1.84 in 2004, and $1.46 in 2014. If the minimum wage had been raised to $10.10 in 2014, that would have equated to $4.40 in 1984 dollars. This would have been equal to a 31 % increase in purchasing power, despite the nominal value of the minimum wage increasing by 216 % in the same time period.
The economic effects of raising the minimum wage are controversial. Adjusting the minimum wage may affect current and future levels of employment, prices of goods and services, economic growth, income inequality and poverty. The interconnection of price levels, central bank policy, wage agreements, and total aggregate demand creates a situation in which the conclusions drawn from macroeconomic analysis are highly influenced by the underlying assumptions of the interpreter.
The law of demand states that -- all else being equal -- raising the price of any particular good or service will reduce the quantity demanded. Thus, neoclassical economics argues that -- all else being equal -- raising in the minimum wage will have adverse affects on employment.
Conceptually, if an employer does not believe a worker generates value equal to or in excess of the minimum wage, that worker will not be hired or retained.
Empirical work on fast food workers in the 1990s challenged the neoclassical model. In 1994, economists David Card and Alan Krueger studied employment trends among 410 restaurants in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania following New Jersey 's minimum wage hike (from $4.25 to $5.05) in April 1992. They found "no indication that the rise in the minimum wage reduced employment. '' However, a 1995 re-analysis of the evidence by David Neumark found that the increase in New Jersey 's minimum wage actually resulted in a 4.6 % decrease in employment. Neumark 's study relied on payroll records from a sample of large fast - food restaurant chains, whereas the Card - Krueger study relied on business surveys.
Additional research conducted by David Neumark and William Wascher (which surveyed over 100 studies related to the employment effects of minimum wages) found that the majority of peer - reviewed economic research (about two - thirds) showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment -- especially for young and unskilled workers. Neumark 's analysis further found that, when looking at only the most credible research, 85 % of studies showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment.
In February 2014, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reported the theoretical effects of a federal minimum wage increase under two scenarios: an increase to $9.00 and an increase to $10.10. According to the report, approximately 100,000 jobs would be lost under the $9.00 option, whereas 500,000 jobs would be lost under the $10.10 option (with a wide range of possible outcomes).
A 2013 Center for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR) review of multiple studies since 2000 indicated that there was "little or no employment response to modest increases in the minimum wage. '' Another CEPR study in 2014 found that job creation within the United States is faster within states that raised their minimum wage. In 2014, the state with the highest minimum wage in the nation, Washington, exceeded the national average for job growth in the United States.
A 2012 study led by Joseph Sabia, professor of economics at the University of New Hampshire, estimated that the 2004 - 6 New York State minimum wage increase (from $5.15 to $6.75) resulted in a 20.2 % to 21.8 % reduction in employment for less - skilled, less - educated workers. Another study conducted by Joseph Sabia, then an assistant professor at American University, found that minimum wages were ineffective at alleviating poverty for single mothers. The study further concluded that a 10 % increase in the minimum wage was associated with an 8.8 % reduction in employment and an 11.8 % reduction in hours for uneducated single mothers.
Research conducted by Richard Burkhauser, professor emeritus of Policy Analysis at Cornell University, concluded that minimum wage increases "significantly reduce the employment of the most vulnerable groups in the working - age population -- young adults without a high school degree (aged 20 - 24), young black adults and teenagers (aged 16 - 24), and teenagers (aged 16 - 19). ''
A 2007 study by Daniel Aaronson and Eric French concluded that a 10 % increase in the minimum wage decreased low - skill employment by 2 - 4 % and total restaurant employment by 1 - 3 %.
The Economist wrote in December 2013: "A minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs... Some studies find no harm to employment from federal or state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage... High minimum wages, however, particularly in rigid labour markets, do appear to hit employment. France has the rich world 's highest wage floor, at more than 60 % of the median for adults and a far bigger fraction of the typical wage for the young. This helps explain why France also has shockingly high rates of youth unemployment: 26 % for 15 - to 24 - year - olds. ''
Conceptually -- all else being equal -- raising the minimum wage will increase the cost of labor. Thus, employers may accept lower profits, raise their prices, or both. If prices increase, consumers may demand a lesser quantity of the product, substitute other products, or switch to imported products. Marginal producers (those who are barely profitable enough to survive) may be forced out of business if they can not raise their prices sufficiently to offset the higher cost of labor. Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago research from 2007 has shown that restaurant prices rise in response to minimum wage increases.
A 2016 White House report based on "back of envelope calculations and literature review '' argued that higher hourly wages led to less crime.
A report by the Council of Economic Advisers claimed that "raising the minimum wage reduces crime by 3 to 5 percent. '' To get those numbers, the study determined that "such a minimum wage increase would have no employment impacts, with an employment elasticity of 0.1 the benefits would be somewhat lower. ''
However, In a 1987 journal article based on actual study data, Masanori Hashimoto noted that minimum wage hikes lead to increased levels of property crime in areas affected by the minimum wage after its increase. According to the article, by decreasing employment in poor communities, total legal trade and production are curtailed. The report also claimed that in order to compensate for the decrease in legal avenues for production and consumption, poor communities increasingly turn to illegal trade and activity.
Whether growth (GDP, a measure of both income and production) increases or decreases depends significantly on whether the income shifted from owners to workers results in an overall higher level of spending. The tendency of a consumer to spend their next dollar is referred to as the marginal propensity to consume or MPC. The transfer of income from higher income owners (who tend to save more, meaning a lower MPC) to lower income workers (who tend to save less, with a higher MPC) can actually lead to an increase in total consumption and higher demand for goods, leading to increased employment. Recent research has shown that higher wages lead to greater productivity.
The CBO reported in February 2014 that income (GDP) overall would be marginally higher after raising the minimum wage, indicating a small net positive increase in growth. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 and indexing it to inflation would result in a net $2 billion increase in income during the second half of 2016, while raising it to $9.00 and not indexing it would result in a net $1 billion increase in income.
An increase in the minimum wage is a form of redistribution from higher - income persons (business owners or "capital '') to lower income persons (workers or "labor '') and therefore should reduce income inequality. The CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage under either scenario described above would improve income inequality. Families with income more than 6 times the poverty threshold would see their incomes fall (due in part to their business profits declining with higher employee costs), while families with incomes below that threshold would rise.
Among hourly - paid workers In 2016, 701,000 earned the federal minimum wage and about 1.5 million earned wages below the minimum. Together, these 2.2 million workers represented 2.7 % of all hourly - paid workers.
CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage would reduce the number of persons below the poverty income threshold by 900,000 under the $10.10 option versus 300,000 under the $9.00 option.
Research conducted by David Neumark and colleagues found that minimum wages are associated with reductions in the hours and employment of low - wage workers. A separate study by the same researchers found that minimum wages tend to increase the proportion of families with incomes below or near the poverty line. Similarly, a 2002 study led by Richard Vedder, professor of economics at Ohio University, concluded that "The empirical evidence is strong that minimum wages have had little or no effect on poverty in the U.S. Indeed, the evidence is stronger that minimum wages occasionally increase poverty... ''
The CBO reported in February 2014 that "(T) he net effect on the federal budget of raising the minimum wage would probably be a small decrease in budget deficits for several years but a small increase in budget deficits thereafter. It is unclear whether the effect for the coming decade as a whole would be a small increase or a small decrease in budget deficits. '' On the cost side, the report cited higher wages paid by the government to some of its employees along with higher costs for certain procured goods and services. This might be offset by fewer government benefits paid, as some workers with higher incomes would receive fewer government transfer payments. On the revenue side, some would pay higher taxes and others less.
According to a survey conducted by economist Greg Mankiw, 79 % of economists agreed that "a minimum wage increases unemployment among young and unskilled workers. ''
A 2015 survey conducted by the University of New Hampshire Survey Center found that a majority of economists believes raising the minimum wage to $15 per hour would have negative effects on youth employment levels (83 %), adult employment levels (52 %), and the number of jobs available (76 %). Additionally, 67 % of economists surveyed believed that a $15 minimum wage would make it harder for small businesses with less than 50 employees to stay in business.
A 2006 survey conducted by economist Robert Whaples of a sample of 210 Ph. D. economists randomly selected from the American Economic Association, found that, regarding the U.S. minimum wage:
In 2014, over 600 economists signed a letter in support of increasing the minimum wage to $10.10 with research suggesting that a minimum wage increase could have a small stimulative effect on the economy as low - wage workers spend their additional earnings, raising demand and job growth. Also, seven recipients of the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences were among 75 economists endorsing an increase in the minimum wage for U.S. workers and said "the weight '' of economic research shows higher pay does n't lead to fewer jobs.
According to a February 2013 survey of the University of Chicago IGM Forum, which includes approximately 40 economists:
According to a fall 2000 survey conducted by Fuller and Geide - Stevenson, 73.5 % (27.9 % of which agreed with provisos) of American economists surveyed agreed that minimum wage laws increase unemployment among unskilled and young workers, while 26.5 % disagreed with the statement.
Economist Paul Krugman advocated raising the minimum wage moderately in 2013, citing several reasons, including:
Democratic candidates, elected officials, and activists support an increase in the minimum wage. In his 2013 State of the Union Address, President Barack Obama called for an increase in the federal minimum wage to $9 an hour; several months later, Democrats Tom Harkin and George Miller proposed legislation to increase the federal minimum wage to $10.10; and in 2015, congressional Democrats introduced a proposal to increase the federal minimum wage to $12 an hour. These efforts did not succeed, but increases in city and state minimum wages prompted congressional Democrats to continue fighting for an increase on the federal level. After much internal party debate, the party 's official platform adopted at the 2016 Democratic National Convention stated: "We should raise the federal minimum wage to $15 an hour over time and index it, give all Americans the ability to join a union regardless of where they work, and create new ways for workers to have power in the economy so every worker can earn at least $15 an hour. ''
Most Republican elected officials oppose action to increase the minimum wage, and have blocked Democratic efforts to increase the minimum wage. Republican leadership such as Speakers of the House John Boehner and Paul Ryan have opposed minimum wage increases. Some Republicans oppose having a minimum wage altogether, while a few, conversely, have supported minimum wage increases or indexing the minimum wage to inflation.
The Pew Center reported in January 2014 that 73 % of Americans supported raising the minimum wage from $7.25 to $10. By party, 53 % of Republicans and 90 % of Democrats favored this action. Pew found a racial difference for support of a higher minimum wage in 2017 with most blacks and Hispanics supporting a $15.00 federal minimum wage, and 54 % of whites opposing it.
A Lake Research Partners poll in February 2012 found the following:
This is a list of the minimum wages (per hour) in each state and territory of the United States, for jobs covered by federal minimum wage laws. If the job is not subject to the federal Fair Labor Standards Act, then state, city, or other local laws may determine the minimum wage. A common exemption to the federal minimum wage is a company having revenue of less than $500,000 per year while not engaging in any interstate commerce.
Under the federal law, workers who receive a portion of their salary from tips, such as waitstaff, are required only to have their total compensation, including tips, meet the minimum wage. Therefore, often, their hourly wage, before tips, is less than the minimum wage. Seven states, and Guam, do not allow for a tip credit. Additional exemptions to the minimum wage include many seasonal employees, student employees, and certain disabled employees as specified by the FLSA.
In addition, some counties and cities within states may observe a higher minimum wage than the rest of the state in which they are located; sometimes this higher wage will apply only to businesses that are under contract to the local government itself, while in other cases the higher minimum will be enforced across the board.
The average US minimum wage per capita (2017) is $8.49 based on the population size of each state and generally represents the average minimum wage experienced by a person working in one of the fifty US states. Cities, counties, districts, and territories are not included in the calculation. As of October 2016, there have been 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. From 2014 to 2015, nine states increased their minimum wage levels through automatic adjustments, while increases in 11 other states occurred through referendum or legislative action. Beginning in January 2017, Massachusetts and Washington state have the highest minimum wages in the country, at $11.00 per hour. New York City 's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018. -
For employees working in Prince George 's County, the minimum wage is $10.75 per hour, effective October 1, 2016, and increases to $11.50 on October 1, 2017.
For employees working in Montgomery County, the minimum wage is $11.50 per hour starting July 1, 2017. County Council bill 12 - 16 was enacted on January 17, 2017 to adjust the minimum wage to $15 and base future adjustments on the Consumer Price Index, but was later vetoed by the County Executive.
A 2016 law changed the minimum wage over the following six years. "Large '' employers have 11 or more employees, and "small '' have between 1 and 10. "Downstate '' includes Nassau, Suffolk, and Westchester Counties. NYC large employers: $11.00, NYC small employers: $10.50, Downstate employers: $10.00, Upstate employers: $9.70. As of December 31, 2017: NYC large employers: $13.00; NYC small employers: $12.00; Downstate employers: $11.00; Upstate employers: $10.40. As of December 31, 2018: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $13.50; Downstate employers: $12.00; Upstate employers: $11.10. As of December 31, 2019: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $13.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2020: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $14.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2021: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $15.00; Upstate employers: Set by Commissioner of Labor based on economic conditions, up to $15.00.
Tipped food service workers will be paid $7.50 per hour, or two - thirds of the applicable minimum wage rate rounded to the nearest $0.05, whichever is higher.
Puerto Rico also has minimum wage rates that vary according to the industry. These rates range from a minimum of $5.08 to $7.25 per hour.
In accordance with a law signed on June 27, 2016, the minimum wage will be $12.50 per hour as of July 1, 2017; $13.25 per hour as of July 1, 2018; 14.00 per hour as of July 1, 2019; and $15.00 per hour as of July 1, 2020. As of each successive July 1, the minimum wage will increase by the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers in the Washington Metropolitan Statistical Area for the preceding twelve months.
The minimum wage for tipped - employees will increase to $4.17 per hour as of July 1, 2018; $4.87 per hour as of July 1, 2019; and $5.55 per hour as of July 1, 2020.
The minimum wage established by the federal government may be paid to newly hired individuals during their first 90 calendar days of employment, students employed by colleges and universities, and individuals under 18 years of age.
The jobs that are most likely to be directly affected by the minimum wage are those which pay a wage close to the minimum.
According to the May 2006 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the four lowest - paid occupational sectors in May 2006 (when the federal minimum wage was $5.15 per hour) were the following:
Two years later, in May 2008, when the federal minimum wage was $5.85 per hour and was about to increase to $6.55 per hour in July 2008, these same sectors were still the lowest - paying, but their situation (according to Bureau of Labor Statistics data) was:
In 2006, workers in the following 13 individual occupations received, on average, a median hourly wage of less than $8.00 per hour:
In 2008, only two occupations paid a median wage less than $8.00 per hour:
According to the May 2009 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the lowest - paid occupational sectors in May 2009 (when the federal minimum wage was $7.25 per hour) were the following:
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who won beauty and the geek season 3 | Beauty and the geek Australia - Wikipedia
Beauty and the Geek Australia is an Australian reality television series on the Seven Network. It was originally hosted by Bernard Curry in the first four series and has been replaced by James Tobin as the new host. It is based on the United States program Beauty and the Geek created by Ashton Kutcher.
The premise of the show consists of a group of "Beauties '' (young women who have relied primarily on their looks) and a group of "Geeks '' (young men who have relied primarily on intellect rather than social aptitude or looks) are paired up to compete as teams for a A $ 100,000 prize.
As of 27 November 2014, 49 episodes have aired.
Xenogene later appeared in an audition episode of The X Factor singing "Thriller ''. He also appeared in the several episodes of the second season of the same series; in a pool when the Geeks were being cabana boys and in crowd scenes at the Beauty Pageant, Bachelor Auction and Wedding Ceremonies.
Episode 1: 8 October 2009 The beauties met the geeks for the first time, and are put into teams. The beauties had to teach a 5th grade class either science, mathematics, history or geography. The geeks had to perform a rap song for a nightclub audience including guest judges Molly Meldrum and Jessica Mauboy. There was no elimination, much to the surprise of the contestants.
Episode 2: 15 October 2009 The beauties studied the anatomy of the body. Meanwhile, the geeks practiced relaxing massage techniques, including developing their own signature move, which they put into practice on the beauties.
Episode 3: 22 October 2009 For many of the geeks, it was their first opportunity to go on a date when they embarked on speed dating. The beauties became budding rocket scientists when they attempted to build and launch a rocket from scratch.
Episode 4: 29 October 2009 The geeks are create a race day outfit for their beauties, including choosing a dress for dumaaaa and making the fascinator from scratch, to impress guest judges, milliner Pater Jago and Kate Waterhouse (daughter of horse trainer Gai Waterhouse). Meanwhile, the beauties brushed up on their current affairs knowledge to present a speech on a newsworthy topic.
Episode 5: 5 November 2009 The boys got a makeover in the hopes of improving their confidence. This week also contained the first team challenge, with the beauties and geeks teaming up for a special soap opera challenge with the help of Home and Away stars Ada Nicodemou and Luke Jacobz.
Episode 6: 12 November 2009 The Beauties become tour guides for a night at the museum, and the Geeks host a radio Love Hotline.
Episode 7: 19 November 2009 The Geeks teach a fitness class while the Beauties build a billy cart from scratch.
Episode 8 (Finale): 26 November 2009 The teams pair up for their own Amazing Race - inspired challenge. They receive clues and work together to track down three eliminated contestants scattered throughout Sydney. The first pair of teams to return to the mansion compete in the elimination room for the $100,000 prize.
Thursdays 8.30 pm
The second season began recording on 9 August 2010, with the first episode going to air on 21 October 2010. There were six episodes in total. The first and last ones were one and a half hours instead of just one hour.
The season was won by the pairing of Michael and Jessie.
The second season of Beauty and the Geek Australia features the same contestant structure as the first season, with one big twist; one of the "Beauties '' (Ellie) is actually a twin (Brooke; who also competes). In each challenge only one of the twins was allowed to compete and only that twin can study for that challenge. Also, Xenogene from season 1 was a background "Where 's Wally '' in at least six episodes. In no apparent order, the contestants for the second season are as follows.
Jessie Byrne, 21 NSW (Dancer) Brooke and Ellie Kelaart, 18 QLD (Ice - Cream Scooper and Menswear Consultant, respectively) Ellynie - May Rasborsek, 20 NSW (Nail Technician) Donna Thompson, 22 NSW (Hairdresser) Kara Palmieri, 20 NSW (Personal Shopper) Linette Goder, 20 WA (Promo Model) Tamika Chesser, 20 QLD (Cocktail Waitress) Nicola Cross, 21 SA (Nanny)
Michael Price, 23 QLD (National Maths Champion) George Sinapius, 22 QLD (Dinosaur Fossil Expert) Marlon Dance - Hooi, 25 SA (Completing Double Degree) Daniel Iachini, 23 SA (Molecular Biologist) Tim Young, 23 WA (Astrophysicist) David Bathie, 19 VIC (Rover Scout) Thomas Richardson - Smith, 22 VIC (Hawaiian Shirt Enthusiast) Stuart Sandow, 31 SA (Comic Collector)
Winners are in bold
Episode 1: 21 October 2010 The Geeks apply their knowledge of beauty and fashion to design and dress their Beauties in a handmade bikini which best reflects who the Geeks are for a pageant before a panel of former Miss Australia winners. The Beauties build a flying device for their Geeks to fly.
Episode 2: 28 October 2010 The Beauties have to handle creepy - crawlies in a challenge that incorporates mathematics, while the Geeks have to stand in as Cabana Boys at a five - star, luxurious hotel pool bar. In the creepy - crawlies challenge, the beauties had to transport bugs of different values to their own bowl and whoever scored 100 points worth of bugs won the challenge. Later, a second challenge was announced where beauties can gain immunity by eating a live witchetty grub. However, this winner is unable to nominate a pair for elimination.
Episode 3: 4 November 2010 The beauties have to take a Legally Blonde style challenge that involves law, while the Geeks have to pose nude for a calendar. In the Legally Blonde showcase challenge, the beauties were given a topic and were announced if they were for or against. Between the two beauties, the judge would declare a winner. Then out of the three, there was a final winner. Later, Kara 's feelings about Daniel kissing Ellie finally came out.
Episode 4: 11 November 2010 The Geek make - over special involved style, fashion, hair and personality. The geeks changed from geek to chic as they transformed very differently. The beauties had to auction off their geek and in due with the auction, the got a date. The beauties were given tasks to set the geeks to do, if not so, they would be eliminated. No one got eliminated that week.
Episode 5: 18 November 2010 The Beauties get down and dirty as they learn about history, where the Geeks have to form a boy band with Justice Crew in a local place. In the archeological dig challenge, the Beauties had to get dirty in a mud pool with items inside and needed to put them in year order. The Geeks were introduced to Justice Crew and were taught dance moves to perform to a live audience. The winner was declared by Justice Crew who they felt put a lot of energy into it.
Episode 6: 25 November 2010 The beauties had to do a spelling bee and the geeks were to declare their Cinderella with a shoe fitting, finding the correct sized shoe for their beauty among a pile of other shoes. Then the race was on with the geeks carrying their beauties in chariots to the finish line, in which Daniel and Donna were eliminated. A surprise came which no one expected, a challenge in which the beauties were a beautiful bride to their groomy geeks. The audience at the wedding voted for the best vow, dance and speech, where Marlon and Ellynie - May were eliminated. Michael and Jessie won the second season of Beauty and the Geek Australia, beating Thomas and Tamika with a score of 3 - 2 in the elimination room.
Thursdays 8.30 pm
The third season began airing on 22 September 2011, with the first episode being 90 minutes.
The third season of Beauty and the Geek Australia features the same contestant structure as the first season, with one big twist; one of the "Beauties '' is a male and the one of the geeks is a female.
Sarah Lawther, 20 NSW (Promo Model) Darlene Grace Cook, 21 NT (Casino Hostess) Ashley "Dolly '' Knight, 20 QLD (Cosmetic Tattooist) Emma Ceolin, 21 QLD (Receptionist / Miss FHM) Gaia Booker, 19 WA (Part - Time Nanny) Jacelle Kop, 20 VIC (Trainee Barmaid) Jordan Finlayson, 20 NSW (Dancer) Mackenzie Gogo Smits, 21 WA (Covergirl) Maddy Fowler, 20 NSW (Cheerleader) Troy Thompson, 21 NSW (Topless Waiter)
Lachlan Cosgrove, 22 QLD (Studying Constitutional Law) Nathan Sinclair, 19 SA (Video Game and Cosplay Addict who has Never Been Kissed) Bendeguz Daniel Devenyi - Botos, 21 NSW (Historian) Adam Marshall, 25 VIC (Remote Area Meteorologist) Colin Hockings, 23 VIC (Cambridge Scientist) Theo Bendit, 23 NSW (Mathematician) Julian Stevenson, 25 NSW (PhD Molecular Genetics) Jimmy Reilly, 26 NSW (I.T. Support Technician) Gilbert Moffatt, 19 VIC (Studying Double Degree) Helen Arnold, 26 ACT (Statistician)
^ 1 In episode 6, Maddy quit the competition due to health reasons, Jacelle (from the team "Jacelle & Theo '') was brought back to be Gilbert 's new team partner, ending the teams of both "Jacelle & Theo '' and "Maddy & Gilbert '' and beginning the new team of "Jacelle & Gilbert '' ^ 2 In episode 8, Mackenzie & Jimmy, and Jacelle & Gilbert had to nominate two teams to return to the competition instead of the usual nominating two teams to go home. Due to Maddy 's "sudden departure from the mansion '' Theo was ineligible for this nomination Jacelle & Gilbert nominated Gaia & Colin, while Mackenzie & Jimmy nominated Troy & Helen. In the end, Troy & Helen won the elimination room quiz and returned to the competition thus eliminating Gaia & Colin.
Episode 1: 22 September 2011 The geeks applied their knowledge in a "Fashion - atomy '' challenge, which involved painting on their beauties specific items of clothing and being judged by Camilla Franks. The beauties then did a "Round - the - World '' challenge by matching selected foods to the country that they are associated with on a large map of the world.
Episode 2: 29 September 2011 The beauties took part in a zoology challenge, in which they put their hand into five crates with an animal inside, feeling it, and then naming each animal. The beauties were then offered immunity in a challenge where a disk was placed in a crate with 50 000 cockroaches inside, and the beauties had to pick up the disk with their mouth. The geeks took part in a "What 's Your Number? '' challenge, which had them approaching a female (a male for Helen) and asking for their number by flirting and finding interests.
Episode 3: 6 October 2011 The beauties and the geeks take part in a hero challenge where they each had to shoot a ball of paint at pictures of geek and beauty heroes respectively, and then name the hero. The geeks later took part in a roller - skating derby challenge in which a Sydney women 's roller - derby team would try to knock them over. The last two geeks standing would then have to protect their beauties from falling over.
Episode 4: 13 October 2011 The beauties and geeks return to school as the beauties are assigned to teach a Year 7 class about either physics, chemistry, biology or volcanology. Afterwards the geeks paired up with their beauty to choreograph and perform a cheerleading routine, with the top two couples having to compete with a professional cheerleading team.
Episode 5: 20 October 2011 The beauties and geeks posed in a photoshoot which saw many of them strip down into underwear. The couple with the best photo would appear on the cover of the Famous magazine, and the geek of this couple as well as the couple that came second in the challenge would receive a makeover. After Lachlan and Helen 's makeover, each of the geeks went out on a date with a female geek (male for Helen) specifically chosen to match their interests, with the beauties having to serve them as waitresses. Afterwards they were given a choice; they had the chance to swap their beauty for their geeky date. After a lot of controversy, none of the geeks turned in their beauty for their date. As a treat there was no elimination for that week.
Episode 6: 27 October 2011 The beauties designed a comic book superhero, and the geeks then had to design and make a costume for this superhero which the beauties would have to wear on a fashion parade. The geeks introduced their partner as they came out, and the beauties then had to describe the powers that their superhero had. Following this challenge the remaining four geeks who did n't have makeovers the previous week had their turn, with some amazing results. Using their new look they participated in a "Full Monty Challenge '', involving each of them to perform a short dance dressed as The Village People at a local club with a big finale involving them stripping down to their underwear.
Episode 7: 3 November 2011 The beauties took on a spelling bee based on their respective geek 's interest. Each time they misspelled a word their geek would receive an electric shock, and if they got the same word wrong twice in a row they would be knocked out of the challenge. The geeks then took part in a biker race, which had the beauties construct a bike and sidecar for their geeks to ride in, with the first beauty to finish giving their geek an advantage in the race. The geeks were to carry members of the HOGS motorcycle gang in the sidecar, with the geek whose partner finished building the bike first having the advantage of carrying the lightest biker, and the heaviest biker riding in the bike of the geek whose partner finished last. After the race the geeks were offered immunity; the first geek to step forward to have their beauty 's name tattooed on their body would go through to next week. Lachlan took the challenge much to everyone 's surprise, getting Sarah 's name tattooed on his buttocks and consequently causing much drama in the house.
Episode 8: 10 November 2011 The beauties undertook a "Mustering Maths '' challenge, which involved them attempting to round up a group of farm animals each with a number or mathematical symbol on them into a small enclosure to make an equation that would equal 60. Later the previously eliminated geeks who did not have the chance to get makeovers re-entered the house, with each of the geeks still in the competition giving them makeovers with a time limit of two hours. The beauties then voted on which made over geek had the biggest improvement, unaware as to which who made over which geek. However, a twist was introduce so that the two winning couples of the week (Gilbert and Jacelle in the Mustering Maths challenge, and Jimmy and Mackenzie in the style challenge) had the power to nominate a couple to return to the mansion, instead of nominating a couple to be eliminated.
Episode 9: 17 November 2011 The geeks were brought into an art studio for a "Woman Appreciation '' challenge, in which they had 20 minutes to sketch a naked female model. While they were sketching her, the model kept talking casually about mundane things in her life much to their annoyance, and was generally being very distracting. However, at the end of the challenge they were told that they were not being assessed on how good their artwork is, but how much they listened, and so they were quizzed on things the model said. Afterwards the beauties had to work with their geek to find a figure or icon that represents the "London Look '', which the beauty then had to dress up as and represent in a beauty pageant.
Episode 10: 24 November 2011 The geeks and beauties returned to school as they were graded on school subjects such as Science, Home Economics and Physical Education. The couple with the lowest average grade was eliminated, and the remaining three couples would attend the school formal. At the school formal the geeks would stand in a kissing booth and the beauties had to advertise their geeks to other people attending the formal. The couples then participated in a dance battle, and following these two challenges all the attendees had to vote on which couple had the strongest bond. The top two couples from this challenge then went to the elimination room for the final time where the scores were so tight that two tie - breaker rounds were held. The end result was a score of 5 - 4 with Lachlan and Sarah winning Season 3 of Beauty and the Geek Australia over Julian and Jordan.
The fourth season began airing on 4 October 2012. This season saw some changes, including the theme song. In addition to winning the regular prize, the winner will receive two Holden Barina per one for each winning team member. Also, the nominations and eliminations room were expanded into a bigger size. This season 's big twist was that one of the geeks is a secret millionaire, and in week 3 this was revealed to be Nathan. It was also Bernard Curry 's last series as a host.
Amelia ' Millie ' Lincoln, 18 VIC (Professional Bra Fitter) Kristy Clinch, 23 QLD (Window Dresser) Jessica Zinna, 24 VIC (Stewardess) Kim Muhovics, 21 SA (Fake Tanner) Alin LingLing, 19 NSW (High Heel Collector) Courtney Sander, 19 WA (Receptionist) Bre Gorman, 18 NSW (Barbie Enthusiast / Babysitter) Chontelle Berryman, 18 VIC (Trainee Make Up Artist) Nikki Marks, 23 NSW (Nanny) Greta Guy, 22 VIC (Cocktail Waitress / Hair Removalist / Beauty Therapist)
Richard "Chard '' Oldfield, 22 NSW (Bionic Limb Expert) Jason Newell, 23 QLD (Town Planner) Nathan Hoad, 25 QLD (Programmer / IT Millionaire) Richard "Rich '' Bell, 24 VIC (Aerospace Engineer) Dane Gade, 19 VIC (Health Science Student) Matthew "Matt '' Hall, 18 NSW (Psychologist / Insect Collector) Oliver Mitchell, 22 NSW (Lawyer) Cody Davies, 19 SA (Webmaster who has Never Been Kissed) Jack Ferguson, 23 VIC (Experimentalist) Yiran Tan, 19 SA (Boy Genius / Medical Student)
^ 3 In the first half of episode 7, Kim & Rich, and Kristy & Jason had to nominate two teams to return to the competition instead of the usual nominating two teams to go home. Kim & Rich nominated Nikki & Jack, while Kristy & Jason nominated Jessica & Nathan. In the end, Nikki & Jack won the elimination room quiz and returned to the competition.
In the grand final of Beauty and the Geek Australia season 4, it involved both the beauties and the geeks to dress as if they are medieval times. Their challenges included the geeks ' ability to save their princesses by climbing a rock climbing wall and the beauties having to recite a sonnet and kiss a frog. Kristy and Jason were eliminated after this. The next lot of couples then attended a ball in which the couples had to tell the audience about their time in the mansion together while also dancing in a ballet together. Chontelle and Cody were eliminated in this challenge which then left Millie and Chard versus Dane and Alin to compete for the prize.
In the final round of Beauty and the Geek, the couples went up against each other in a quiz to see which couple knew the most about each other. Amid some controversy over the easiness of questions put to Chard & Millie, compared to Alin 's & Dane 's quiz questions, Chard & Millie were crowned the winners of Beauty and the Geek 2012.
The twist in Season 5 saw 9 beauties and 8 geeks sent to live on a tropical island with no mansion and no luxuries. An extra beauty, Courtenay, joined the team of Alex and Bella after Alex won the first challenge. This season also had two New Zealand contestants, Bella and Zac, as was advertised earlier in the year.
Emily Craig, 19 VIC (Ex-Professional Cheerleader) Sheridan Sharpe, 21 VIC (Life Saver) Temaura Lacaze, 22 QLD (Unemployed) Jenna Tonkin, 20 NSW (Lara Bingle Look - a-Like) Erin Barnett, 18 VIC (Babysitter) Kassi Kashian, 18 NSW (Trainee Spray Tanner) Ntula MacDonald, 19 WA (Shopaholic) Bella Henry, 20 NZ (Eyebrow Technician) Courtenay Williamson, 19 NSW (Wannabe WAG)
Brett d'Avoine, 24 VIC (Gamer) Brandon Cowan, 19 NSW (App Developer) Peter, 21 SA (Calibration Physicist) Michael Ando, 26 QLD (Time Traveller) Matthew Witham, 24 WA (Explosives Expert) Nathan Glover, 22 WA (IT Guru) Zac Klavs, 18 NZ (Young Historian) Alex, 24 VIC (Doctor Who Fanatic)
This season 's twist had 8 Australian Geeks paired up with 8 Las Vegas Beauties for the initial round in Vegas. Then the 7 teams that survived moved back to the new mansion back in Australia where 7 Australian Beauties are introduced to the Geeks. The Geeks must choose which beauty to progress in the competition with. The first episode aired on 9 October 2014.
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who does lydia end up with in pride and prejudice | Pride and Prejudice and Zombies (film) - wikipedia
Pride and Prejudice and Zombies (stylised as Pride + Prejudice + Zombies) is a 2016 British - American historical comedy horror film based on Seth Grahame - Smith 's 2009 novel, Pride and Prejudice and Zombies, which parodies the 1813 novel Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. The film is directed by Burr Steers, who wrote the adapted screenplay, and stars Lily James, Sam Riley, Jack Huston, Bella Heathcote, Douglas Booth, Matt Smith, Charles Dance, and Lena Headey.
The film was released by Screen Gems on February 5, 2016 in the United States, and by Lionsgate on February 11 in the United Kingdom. The film grossed just $16 million worldwide against a budget of $28 million, making it a box office bomb.
In early 19th century England, the Bennet sisters -- Elizabeth, Jane, Kitty, Lydia, and Mary -- have all been trained in the art of weaponry and martial arts in China at their father 's behest so they can defend themselves from the zombies. Mrs. Bennet only wants to see her daughters married off to wealthy suitors. The Bennets attend a country dance also attended by the rich Bingley family, where the young and handsome Bingley falls for Jane. Charles Bingley has inherited £ 100,000 (£ 5.9 million today) -- attracting Mrs. Bennet 's attention as a desirable suitor for her daughter. When zombies attack the ball, the Bennet sisters fight them off, and Colonel Darcy, a friend of Bingley 's and skilled zombie - killer, with property that pays him £ 10,000 annually (£ 590,000 today), becomes smitten with Elizabeth. On the way to the Bingleys later, Jane is attacked by a zombie and catches a fever. Darcy orders her confined in fear that she may have been bitten, but she successfully recovers.
The Bennets are visited by the overbearing Parson Collins, who proposes to Elizabeth, but states that she must give up her life as a warrior, something she refuses to do. Elizabeth meets a charming soldier named Wickham, and arranges to meet him at another ball. She travels with him to a church that is filled with zombies who feed on pig brains instead of human brains, keeping their behaviour relatively normal. Wickham believes that with these new civilised zombies, humans can coexist peacefully with them. He asks Elizabeth to elope with him, but she backs off. Elizabeth learns that Darcy convinced the Bingleys to leave to keep Bingley away from Jane. When Darcy proposes to Elizabeth, having fallen in love with her, she expresses outrage at his actions and fights him.
Darcy later writes Elizabeth a letter to apologise. He reiterates that he separated Jane and Bingley for fear that Jane only wanted to marry Bingley for his wealth, having overheard Mrs. Bennet drunkenly mention it. He also exposes Wickham 's true nature: he and Wickham were childhood friends but Wickham may have murdered Darcy 's father, squandered the inheritance he did receive and tried to elicit additional money from Darcy 's estate, then tried to elope with Darcy 's little sister for her fortune. Elizabeth learns that Wickham has taken Lydia and London has been overrun with zombies. Darcy saves Lydia and learns that Wickham is actually using the ' civilised ' zombies to create a zombie army which has overrun London based on Wickham 's planning, and will rule the country. He stops him by giving the zombies human brains, which turns them savage.
While fighting, Darcy stabs Wickham 's chest, revealing him to have been undead all along, staying civilized by consuming pig brains. Elizabeth saves Darcy from being killed by Wickham. As the two ride across the bridge, the army destroys it to keep the zombies from crossing over from London. Darcy is injured in the explosion, and Elizabeth tearfully admits her love for him. After Darcy recovers, he proposes to Elizabeth again, and this time, she agrees. The two have a joint wedding with Bingley and Jane.
In a mid-credits scene, Wickham leads a horde of zombies toward the wedding celebration with the Four Horsemen of the Zombie Apocalypse riding behind him.
The film is based on the 2009 novel of the same name, which was billed as having been co-written by Jane Austen and Seth Grahame - Smith. The project was first announced on December 10, 2009, in Variety, when it was revealed that Natalie Portman would both star in the role of Elizabeth Bennet and produce, and that Lionsgate would finance and distribute. On December 14, David O. Russell was announced as the writer and director of the film. On October 5, 2010, it was revealed that Russell had left the production due to scheduling conflicts. Russell later revealed that he had disputes with Lionsgate over the budget. The next day, it was announced that Portman had quit the role of Elizabeth Bennet, though she would still produce the film. Following Russell 's departure, Lionsgate offered Mike Newell and Matt Reeves the chance to take over from him, but both declined. On November 3, 2010, the Los Angeles Times reported that Lionsgate had held meetings with Mike White, Neil Marshall and Jeffrey Blitz as potential directors. White was hired on November 5. On January 19, 2011, it was announced that White had had to leave the film due to scheduling conflicts with a pre-existing commitment at HBO.
In February 2011, Craig Gillespie took over as director. Gillespie revealed he was attracted to the project by the mashing of genres. In May 2011, screenwriter Marti Noxon was hired to rewrite Russell 's script. On October 27, 2011, it was announced that Gillespie had left the film. The project then stalled until March 2013, when Panorama Media joined to produce, finance, and handle foreign sales. In May, it was announced that Burr Steers would take over as director. Steers did a rewrite of the script, saying that he had reinserted "all the Pride and Prejudice beats ''.
At one point, Lily Collins, Jennifer Aniston, and Rowan Atkinson were all attached to the project.
Principal photography began on September 24, 2014 at West Wycombe House & Park, Buckinghamshire. During the Halloween weekend, actors were spotted shooting some scenes at Hatfield House in Hertfordshire. In early November, crews were filming at Basing House in Old Basing. On November 13, filming shifted to Frensham in Surrey, where they shot until November 21.
The film 's soundtrack was released digitally on February 5, 2016, and physically on February 12 by Varèse Sarabande. The soundtrack features the film 's original score, composed and conducted by Fernando Velázquez.
On March 30, 2015, Screen Gems originally set the film a release date for February 19, 2016. However, on April 22, 2015, Screen Gems moved up the film 's release date to February 5, 2016. The film was released by Lionsgate in the UK on February 11, 2016.
In October 2014, Entertainment Weekly published the first photo from the production. In July 2015, Lily James, Sam Riley, Bella Heathcote, Douglas Booth, Jack Huston, Matt Smith, Burr Steers and Seth Grahame - Smith appeared at a panel at Comic - Con to promote the film, where the first trailer debuted. On October 9, 2015, the UK teaser trailer and poster were released. On October 22, 2015, Screen Gems released the first official US trailer and poster. On November 26, 2015, Lionsgate UK released a full - length trailer and the film 's first official British poster.
Pride and Prejudice and Zombies was released on DVD, Blu - ray, and 4K Ultra HD Blu - ray on May 31, 2016.
Pride and Prejudice and Zombies grossed $10.9 million in North America and $5.5 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $16.4 million, against a budget of $28 million.
The film was released in North America on February 5, 2016, alongside Hail, Caesar! and The Choice. The film was projected to gross $10 -- 12 million from 2,931 theaters in its opening weekend. It earned $300,000 from previews showing on Thursday night and $5.3 million in its opening weekend, finishing below expectations and 6th at the box office. In its third weekend it was pulled from 2,455 theaters (88 %), the third biggest drop in history at the time.
The film received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 43 %, based on 161 reviews, with an average rating of 5.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Pride and Prejudice and Zombies manages to wring a few fun moments out of its premise, but never delivers the thoroughly kooky mashup its title suggests. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 45 out of 100, based on reviews from 34 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B − '' on an A+ to F scale.
Rafer Guzmán of Newsday wrote positively about the film, giving the film three out of four stars, calling it "an unexpected and off - kilter treat, thanks to a BBC - quality cast and (un) deadpan humor. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, commenting that "PP&Z is rated PG - 13, so the zombie gore is decidedly decorous. But before repetition dulls the party, the movie gets in a few juicy innings. '' Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film two out of four stars saying "Compared with other Jane Austen movies, it is n't much, but compared with other zombie apocalypse movies, it 's an intelligent, literate effort. '' Jesse Hassenger of The A.V. Club gave the film a C, commenting "That this particular retelling of the Jane Austen novel feels like a Cliffs Notes version is understandable; that its zombie bits are equally rudimentary, though, is more disappointing. '' Clark Collis of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B, saying "If more inventive than scary, Pride and Prejudice and Zombies breathes fresh life into the hugely popular, but now desperately predictable, undead genre. '' Mark Kermode of The Guardian gave the film two out of five stars, saying "Yet torn between Austen and the undead, Steers seems unsure how straight to play either element, blunting comedy, horror and romance alike. The result lacks bite -- the one element that zombies and Austen should have in common. '' Helen O'Hara of The Daily Telegraph also gave two out of five stars, saying "If it had been more elegant in its storytelling, it could have been a fun genre crossover, but the best efforts of Steers and his cast ca n't turn the overstuffed book into a film that makes any real sense. '' Manohla Dargis of The New York Times gave the film a mixed review, saying "Both pride and prejudice still play their parts, but now in service to one tediously repeated joke: the sight of a gentleman or a lady, together or alone, playing cards or ballroom dancing, fatally swarmed by devouring zombies. ''
Christy Lemire of RogerEbert.com gave the film one and a half out of four stars, saying "Like the novel Pride and Prejudice and Zombies, the movie Pride and Prejudice and Zombies is predicated on a simple, single gimmick: It 's Pride and Prejudice... with zombies. This is a vaguely amusing idea which somehow got stretched out to an entire book, which somehow became a best seller, which inevitably means it had to be made into a film. '' Keith Uhlich of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a negative review, calling the film "Lumbering, lifeless and -- strange thing to say about a cadaver -- almost entirely charmless. '' Lindsey Bahr of the Associated Press also gave a negative review, saying "This story might have been better suited to a television adaptation. The characters would have been allowed to breathe for a beat in that case. Here, the action and violence take up the space that would have generally been used for character development. '' Stephen Whitty of New York Daily News gave the film two out of 5 stars, saying "The hungry monsters in Pride and Prejudice and Zombies are looking for nice big brains. Well, they wo n't find any here. '' Stephanie Merry of The Washington Post gave the film one and a half stars out of four, commenting "'' Pride and Prejudice and Zombies '' delivers what its title promises: a little romance and some undead villains, plus a bit of comedy. But this overly busy riff on Austen 's winning formula does n't justify all the tinkering. '' Britton Peele of The Dallas Morning News gave the film a B −, calling the film "Fun, funny, gory and yet still strangely romantic. ''
Literary scholar and Austen professor Devoney Looser stated in Entertainment Weekly magazine her opinion that the film 's first half, and especially Matt Smith 's Mr. Collins, were comic, jarring, and enjoyable. She assessed the film overall with, "I laughed a lot and I shrieked. I was wavering between B+ and A −. I 'm willing to bump it up for its originality and live with my grade - inflation reputation: A −. '' Zombie expert Clark Collis did not rate the film quite as high: "I enjoy genre movies that attempt something different -- and this does -- but I did n't find it all that scary. I 'd give it a ' B ' ''.
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who discovered the vaccine for the prevention of small pox | Smallpox vaccine - wikipedia
Smallpox vaccine, the first successful vaccine to be developed, was introduced by Edward Jenner in 1796. He followed up his observation that milkmaids who had previously caught cowpox did not later catch smallpox by showing that inoculated cowpox protected against inoculated smallpox. The word "vaccine '' is derived from Variolae vaccinae (i.e. smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox and used in the long title of his An enquiry into the causes and effects of Variolae vaccinae, known by the name of cow pox. Vaccination, the term which soon replaced cowpox inoculation and vaccine inoculation, was first used in print by Jenner 's friend, Richard Dunning in 1800. Initially, the terms vaccine / vaccination referred only to smallpox, but in 1881 Louis Pasteur proposed that to honour Jenner the terms be widened to cover the new protective inoculations being introduced.
The mortality of the severe form of smallpox -- variola major -- was very high without vaccination, up to 35 % in some outbreaks. A method of inducing immunity known as inoculation, insufflation or "variolation '' was practiced before the development of a modern vaccine and likely occurred in Africa and China well before the practice arrived in Europe. It may also have occurred in India, but this is disputed; other investigators contend the ancient Sanskrit medical texts of India do not describe these techniques. The first clear reference to smallpox inoculation was made by the Chinese author Wan Quan (1499 -- 1582) in his Douzhen xinfa (痘 疹 心 法) published in 1549. Inoculation for smallpox does not appear to have been widespread in China until the reign era of the Longqing Emperor (r. 1567 -- 1572) during the Ming Dynasty. In China, powdered smallpox scabs were blown up the noses of the healthy. The patients would then develop a mild case of the disease and from then on were immune to it. The technique did have a 0.5 -- 2.0 % mortality rate, but that was considerably less than the 20 -- 30 % mortality rate of the disease itself. Two reports on the Chinese practice of inoculation were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700; one by Dr. Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of the East India Company stationed in China and another by Clopton Havers. According to Voltaire (1742), the Turks derived their use of inoculation to neighbouring Circassia. Voltaire does not speculate on where the Circassians derived their technique from, though he reports that the Chinese have practiced it "these hundred years ''.
Variolation was also practiced throughout the latter half of the 17th century by physicians in Turkey, Persia, and Africa. In 1714 and 1716, two reports of the Ottoman Empire Turkish method of inoculation were made to the Royal Society in England, by Emmanuel Timoni, a doctor affiliated with the British Embassy in Constantinople, and Giacomo Pylarini. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, wife of the British ambassador to Ottoman Constantinople, is widely credited with introducing the process to Great Britain in 1721. Source material tells us on Montagu; "When Lady Mary was in the Ottoman Empire, she discovered the local practice of inoculation against smallpox called variolation. '' In 1718 she had her son, aged five variolated. He recovered quickly. She returned to London and had her daughter variolated in 1721 by Charles Maitland, during an epidemic of smallpox. This encouraged the British Royal Family to take an interest and a trial of variolation was carried out on prisoners in Newgate Prison. This was successful and in 1722 Princess Augusta, the Princess of Wales, allowed Maitland to vaccinate her children. The success of these variolations assured the British people that the procedure was safe.
Stimulated by a severe epidemic, variolation was first employed in North America in 1721. The practice had been known in Boston since 1706, when Cotton Mather (of Salem witch trial fame) discovered his slave, Onesimus had been inoculated while still in Africa, and many slaves imported to Boston had also received inoculations. The practice was, at first, widely criticized. However, a limited trial showed six deaths occurred out of 244 who were variolated (2.5 %), while 844 out of 5980 died of natural disease (14 %), and the process was widely adopted throughout the colonies.
The inoculation technique was documented as having a mortality rate of only one in a thousand. Two years after Kennedy 's description appeared, March 1718, Dr. Charles Maitland successfully inoculated the five - year - old son of the British ambassador to the Turkish court under orders from the ambassador 's wife Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, who four years later introduced the practice to England.
An account from letter by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu to Sarah Chiswell, dated 1 April 1717, from the Turkish Embassy describes this treatment:
The small - pox so fatal and so general amongst us is here entirely harmless by the invention of ingrafting (which is the term they give it). There is a set of old women who make it their business to perform the operation. Every autumn in the month of September, when the great heat is abated, people send to one another to know if any of their family has a mind to have the small - pox. They make parties for this purpose, and when they are met (commonly fifteen or sixteen together) the old woman comes with a nutshell full of the matter of the best sort of small - pox and asks what veins you please to have opened. She immediately rips open that you offer to her with a large needle (which gives you no more pain than a common scratch) and puts into the vein as much venom as can lye upon the head of her needle, and after binds up the little wound with a hollow bit of shell, and in this manner opens four or five veins... The children or young patients play together all the rest of the day and are in perfect health till the eighth. Then the fever begins to seize them and they keep their beds two days, very seldom three. They have very rarely above twenty or thirty in their faces, which never mark, and in eight days time they are as well as before the illness... There is no example of any one that has died in it, and you may believe I am very well satisfied of the safety of the experiment since I intend to try it on my dear little son. I am patriot enough to take pains to bring this useful invention into fashion in England, and I should not fail to write to some of our doctors very particularly about it if I knew any one of them that I thought had virtue enough to destroy such a considerable branch of their revenue for the good of mankind, but that distemper is too beneficial to them not to expose to all their resentment the hardy wight that should undertake to put an end to it. Perhaps if I live to return I may, however, have courage to war with them.
In the early empirical days of vaccination, before Pasteur 's work on establishing the germ theory and Lister 's on antisepsis and asepsis, there was considerable cross-infection. William Woodville, one of the early vaccinators and director of the London Smallpox Hospital is thought to have contaminated the cowpox matter -- the vaccine -- with smallpox matter and this essentially produced variolation. Other vaccine material was not reliably derived from cowpox, but from other skin eruptions of cattle. In modern times, an effective scientific model and controlled production were important in reducing these causes of apparent failure or iatrogenic illness.
During the earlier days of empirical experimentation in 1758, American Calvinist Jonathan Edwards died from a smallpox inoculation. Some of the earliest statistical and epidemiological studies were performed by James Jurin in 1727 and Daniel Bernoulli in 1766. In 1768 Dr John Fewster reported that variolation induced no reaction in persons who had had cowpox. Fewster was a contemporary and friend of Jenner. Dr. Rolph, another Gloucestershire physician, stated that all experienced physicians of the time were aware of this.
Edward Jenner was born in Berkeley, England. At the age of 13, he was apprenticed to apothecary Daniel Ludlow and later surgeon George Hardwick in nearby Sodbury. He observed that people who caught cowpox while working with cattle were known not to catch smallpox. Jenner assumed a causal connection but the idea was not taken up at that time. From 1770 to 1772 Jenner received advanced training in London at St Georges Hospital and as the private pupil of John Hunter, then returned to set up practice in Berkeley. When a smallpox epidemic occurred he advised the local cattle workers to be inoculated, but they told him that their previous cowpox infection would prevent smallpox. This confirmed his childhood suspicion, and he studied cowpox further, presenting a paper on it to his local medical society.
Perhaps there was already an informal public understanding of some connection between disease resistance and working with cattle. The "beautiful milkmaid '' seems to have been a frequent image in the art and literature of this period. But it is known for certain that in the years following 1770, at least six people in England and Germany (Sevel, Jensen, Jesty 1774, Rendall, Plett 1791) tested successfully the possibility of using the cowpox vaccine as an immunization for smallpox in humans. In 1796, Sarah Nelmes, a local milkmaid, contracted cowpox and went to Jenner for treatment. Jenner took the opportunity to test his theory. He inoculated James Phipps, the eight - year - old son of his gardener, with material taken from the cowpox lesions on Sarah 's hand. After a mild fever and the expected local lesion James recovered after a few days. About two months later Jenner inoculated James on both arms with material from a case of smallpox, with no effect; the boy was immune to smallpox.
Jenner sent a paper reporting his observations to the Royal Society in April 1797. Its contents are unknown. It was not submitted formally and there is no mention of it in the Society 's records. Jenner had sent the paper informally to Sir Joseph Banks, the Society 's president, who asked Everard Home for his views. His report, published for the first time in 1999, was sceptical and called for further vaccinations. These were done and in 1798 Jenner published an analysis of 23 ' cases ' including several individuals who had resisted natural exposure after previous cowpox. It is not known how many Jenner vaccinated or challenged by inoculation with smallpox virus; e.g. Case 21 included ' several children and adults '. Crucially all of at least four who Jenner deliberately inoculated with smallpox virus resisted it. These included the first and last patients in a series of arm - to - arm transfers. He concluded that cowpox inoculation was a safe alternative to smallpox inoculation, but rashly claimed that the protective effect was lifelong. This last proved to be incorrect. Jenner also tried to distinguish between ' True ' cowpox which produced the desired result and ' Spurious ' cowpox which was ineffective and / or produced severe reaction. Modern research suggests Jenner was trying to distinguish between effects caused by what would now be recognised as noninfectious vaccine, a different virus (e.g. paravaccinia / milker 's nodes), or contaminating bacterial pathogens. This caused confusion at the time, but would become important criteria in vaccine development. A further source of confusion was Jenner 's belief that fully effective vaccine obtained from cows originated in an equine disease, which he mistakenly referred to as grease. This was criticised at the time but vaccines derived from horsepox were soon introduced and later contributed to the complicated problem of the origin of vaccinia virus, the virus in present - day vaccine.
By 1800, Jenner 's work had been published in all the major European languages and had reached Benjamin Waterhouse in the United States -- an indication of rapid spread and deep interest. The introduction of the vaccine to the New World took place in Trinity, Newfoundland, in 1798 by Dr. John Clinch, boyhood friend and medical colleague of Jenner. Despite some concern about the safety of vaccination the mortality using carefully selected vaccine was close to zero, and it was soon in use all over Europe and the United States.
In 1804 the Balmis Expedition, an official Spanish mission commanded by Francisco Javier de Balmis, sailed to spread the vaccine throughout the Spanish Empire, first to the Canary Islands and on to Spanish Central America. While his deputy, José Salvany, took vaccine to the west and east coasts of Spanish South America, Balmis sailed to Manila in the Philippines and on to Canton and Macao on the Chinese coast. He returned to Spain in 1806.
The question of who first tried cowpox inoculation / vaccination can not be answered with certainty. Most, but still limited, information is available for Benjamin Jesty, Peter Plett and John Fewster. In 1774 Jesty, a farmer of Yetminster in Dorset, observing that the two milkmaids living with his family were immune to smallpox, inoculated his family with cowpox to protect them from smallpox. He attracted a certain amount of local criticism and ridicule at the time then interest waned. Attention was later drawn to Jesty, and he was brought to London in 1802 by critics jealous of Jenner 's prominence at a time when he was applying to Parliament for financial reward. During 1790 -- 92 Peter Plett, a teacher from Holstein, reported limited results of cowpox inoculation to the Medical Faculty of the University of Kiel. However, the Faculty favoured variolation and took no action. John Fewster, a surgeon friend of Jenner 's from nearby Thornbury, discussed the possibility of cowpox inoculation at meetings as early as 1765. He may have done some cowpox inoculations in 1796 at about the same time that Jenner vaccinated Phipps. However Fewster, who had a flourishing variolation practice, may have considered this option but used smallpox instead. He thought vaccination offered no advantage over variolation, but maintained friendly contact with Jenner and certainly made no claim of priority for vaccination when critics attacked Jenner 's reputation. It seems clear that the idea of using cowpox instead of smallpox for inoculation was considered, and actually tried in the late 18th century, and not just by the medical profession. Therefore, Jenner was not the first to try cowpox inoculation. However, he was the first to publish his evidence and distribute vaccine freely, provide information on selection of suitable material, and maintain it by arm - to - arm transfer. The authors of the official World Health Organization (WHO) account Smallpox and its Eradication assessing Jenner 's role wrote:
Publication of the Inquiry and the subsequent energetic promulgation by Jenner of the idea of vaccination with a virus other than variola virus constituted a watershed in the control of smallpox for which he, more than anyone else deserves the credit.
As vaccination spread, some European countries made it compulsory. Concern about its safety led to opposition and then repeal of legislation in some instances. Compulsory infant vaccination was introduced in England by the 1853 Vaccination Act. By 1871, parents could be fined for non-compliance, and then imprisoned for non-payment. This intensified opposition, and the 1898 Vaccination Act introduced a conscience clause. This allowed exemption on production of a certificate of conscientious objection signed by two magistrates. Such certificates were not always easily obtained and a further Act in 1907 allowed exemption by a statutory declaration which could not be refused. Although theoretically still compulsory, the 1907 Act effectively marked the end of compulsory infant vaccination in England.
In the United States vaccination was regulated by individual states, the first to impose compulsory vaccination being Massachusetts in 1809. There then followed sequences of compulsion, opposition and repeal in various states. By 1930 Arizona, Utah, North Dakota and Minnesota prohibited compulsory vaccination, 35 states allowed regulation by local authorities, or had no legislation affecting vaccination, whilst in ten states, including Washington D.C. and Massachusetts, infant vaccination was compulsory. Compulsory infant vaccination was regulated by only allowing access to school for those who had been vaccinated. Those seeking to enforce compulsory vaccination argued that the public good overrode personal freedom, a view supported by the U.S. Supreme Court in Jacobson v. Massachusetts in 1905, a landmark ruling which set a precedent for cases dealing with personal freedom and the public good.
Louis T. Wright, an African American and Harvard Medical School graduate (1915), introduced intradermal vaccination for smallpox for the soldiers while serving in the Army during World War I.
Until the end of the 19th century, vaccination was performed either directly with vaccine produced on the skin of calves or, particularly in England, with vaccine obtained from the calf but then maintained by arm - to - arm transfer; initially in both cases vaccine could be dried on ivory points for short term storage or transport but increasing use was made of glass capillary tubes for this purpose towards the end of the century. During this period there were no adequate methods for assessing the safety of the vaccine and there were instances of contaminated vaccine transmitting infections such as erysipelas, tetanus, septicaemia and tuberculosis. In the case of arm - to - arm transfer there was also the risk of transmitting syphilis. Although this did occur occasionally, estimated as 750 cases in 100 million vaccinations, some critics of vaccination e.g. Charles Creighton believed that uncontaminated vaccine itself was a cause of syphilis. Smallpox vaccine was the only vaccine available during this period, and so the determined opposition to it initiated a number of vaccine controversies that spread to other vaccines and into the 21st century.
Sydney Arthur Monckton Copeman, an English Government bacteriologist interested in smallpox vaccine investigated the effects on the bacteria in it of various treatments, including glycerine. Glycerine was sometimes used simply as a diluent by some continental vaccine producers. However, Copeman found that vaccine suspended in 50 % chemically - pure glycerine and stored under controlled conditions contained very few "extraneous '' bacteria and produced satisfactory vaccinations. He later reported that glycerine killed the causative organisms of erysipelas and tuberculosis when they were added to the vaccine in "considerable quantity '', and that his method was widely used on the continent. In 1896, Copeman was asked to supply "extra good calf vaccine '' to vaccinate the future Edward VIII.
Vaccine produced by Copeman 's method was the only type issued free to public vaccinators by the English Government Vaccine Establishment from 1899. At the same time the 1898 Vaccination Act banned arm - to - arm vaccination, thus preventing transmission of syphilis by this vaccine. However, private practitioners had to purchase vaccine from commercial producers. Although proper use of glycerine reduced bacterial contamination considerably the crude starting material, scraped from the skin of infected calves, was always heavily contaminated and no vaccine was totally free from bacteria. A survey of vaccines in 1900 found wide variations in bacterial contamination. Vaccine issued by the Government Vaccine Establishment contained 5,000 bacteria per gram, while commercial vaccines contained up to 100,000 per gram. The level of bacterial contamination remained unregulated until the Therapeutic Substances Act, 1925 set an upper limit of 5,000 per gram, and rejected any batch of vaccine found to contain the causative organisms of erysipelas or wound infections. Unfortunately glycerolated vaccine soon lost its potency at ambient temperatures which restricted its use in tropical climates. However, it remained in use into the 1970s where a satisfactory cold chain was available. Animals continued to be widely used by vaccine producers during the smallpox eradication campaign. A WHO survey of 59 producers, some of whom used more than one source of vaccine, found that 39 used calves, 12 used sheep and 6 used water buffalo, whilst only 3 made vaccine in cell culture and 3 in embryonated hens ' eggs. English vaccine was occasionally made in sheep during World War I but from 1946 only sheep were used.
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Leslie Collier, an English microbiologist working at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, developed a method for producing a heat - stable freeze - dried vaccine in powdered form. Collier added 0.5 % phenol to the vaccine to reduce the number of bacterial contaminants but the key stage was to add 5 % peptone to the liquid vaccine before it was dispensed into ampoules. This protected the virus during the freeze drying process. After drying the ampoules were sealed under nitrogen. Like other vaccines, once reconstituted it became ineffective after 1 -- 2 days at ambient temperatures. However, the dried vaccine was 100 % effective when reconstituted after 6 months storage at 37 ° C (99 ° F) allowing it to be transported to, and stored in, remote tropical areas. Collier 's method was increasingly used and, with minor modifications, became the standard for vaccine production adopted by the WHO Smallpox Eradication Unit when it initiated its global smallpox eradication campaign in 1967, at which time 23 of 59 manufacturers were using the Lister strain.
In a letter about landmarks in the history of smallpox vaccine, written to and quoted from by Derrick Baxby, Donald Henderson, chief of the Smallpox Eradication Unit from 1967 -- 77 wrote; "Copeman and Collier made an enormous contribution for which neither, in my opinion ever received due credit ''.
Smallpox vaccine was inoculated by scratches into the superficial layers of the skin and a wide variety of instruments was used to achieve this. They ranged from simple needles to multi-pointed and multi-bladed spring - operated instruments specifically designed for the purpose.
A major contribution to smallpox vaccination was made in the 1960s by Benjamin Rubin, an American microbiologist working for Wyeth Laboratories. Based on initial tests with textile needles with the eyes cut off transversely half - way he developed the bifurcated needle. This was a sharpened two - prong fork designed to hold one dose of reconstituted freeze - dried vaccine by capillarity. Easy to use with minimum training, cheap to produce ($5 per 1000), using four times less vaccine than other methods, and repeatedly re-usable after flame sterilization, it was used globally in the WHO Smallpox Eradication Campaign from 1968. Rubin estimated that it was used to do 200 million vaccinations per year during the last years of the campaign. Those closely involved in the campaign were awarded the "Order of the Bifurcated Needle ''. This, a personal initiative by Donald Henderson, was a lapel badge, designed and made by his daughter, formed from the needle shaped to form an "O ''. This represented "Target Zero '', the objective of the campaign.
Smallpox was eradicated by a massive international search for outbreaks, backed up with a vaccination program, starting in 1967. It was organised and co-ordinated by a World Health Organization (WHO) unit, set up and headed by Donald Henderson. The last case in the Americas occurred in 1971 (Brazil), south - east Asia (Indonesia) in 1972, and on the Indian subcontinent in 1975 (Bangladesh). After two years of intensive searches, what proved to be the last endemic case anywhere in the world occurred in Somalia, in October 1977. A Global Commission for the Certification of Smallpox Eradication chaired by Frank Fenner examined the evidence from, and visited where necessary, all countries where smallpox had been endemic. In December 1979 they concluded that smallpox had been eradicated; a conclusion endorsed by the WHO General Assembly in May 1980. However, even as the disease was being eradicated there still remained stocks of smallpox virus in many laboratories. Accelerated by two cases of smallpox in 1978, one fatal (Janet Parker), caused by an accidental and unexplained containment breach at a laboratory at the University of Birmingham Medical School, the WHO ensured that known stocks of smallpox virus were either destroyed or moved to safer laboratories. By 1979 only four laboratories were known to have smallpox virus. All English stocks held at St Mary 's Hospital, London were transferred to more secure facilities at Porton Down and then to the US at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia in 1982, and all South African stocks were destroyed in 1983. By 1984 the only known stocks were kept at the CDC in the US and the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology (VECTOR) in Koltsovo, Russia. These states report that their repositories are for possible anti bioweaponry research and insurance if some obscure reservoir of natural smallpox is discovered in the future.
Although Jenner used cowpox, the vaccine now contains a virus immunologically related to cowpox and smallpox viruses called vaccinia which causes a mild infection. The vaccine is infectious which improves its effectiveness, but causes serious complications for people with impaired immune systems (for example chemotherapy and AIDS patients, and people with eczema), and is not yet considered safe for pregnant women. A woman planning on conceiving within one month should not receive smallpox immunization until after the pregnancy. In the event of an outbreak, the woman should delay pregnancy if possible. Vaccines that only contain attenuated vaccinia viruses (an attenuated virus is one in which the pathogenicity has been decreased through serial passage) have been proposed, but some researchers have questioned the possible effectiveness of such a vaccine. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), "vaccination within 3 days of exposure will prevent or significantly lessen the severity of smallpox symptoms in the vast majority of people. Vaccination 4 to 7 days after exposure likely offers some protection from disease or may modify the severity of disease. '' This, along with vaccinations of so - called first - responders, is the current plan of action being devised by the United States Department of Homeland Security (including Federal Emergency Management Agency) in the United States.
Starting in early 2003, the United States government vaccinated 500,000 volunteer health care professionals throughout the country. Recipients were healthcare workers in emergency departments, intensive care units, anesthesiologists, and health care workers in other settings who would be crucial first - line responders in the event of a bioterrorist attack using smallpox. Many healthcare workers refused, worried about vaccine side effects, but many others volunteered. It is unclear how many actually received the vaccine.
In 2002, the Israeli Army, in a similar attempt at mass vaccination, found many soldiers unwilling to volunteer.
In May 2007, the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee of the FDA voted unanimously that a new live virus vaccine produced by Acambis, ACAM2000, is both safe and effective for use in persons at high risk of exposure to smallpox virus. However, due to the high rate of serious adverse effects, the vaccine will only be made available to the CDC (a part of the United States Department of Health and Human Services) for the Strategic National Stockpile.
Recent studies suggest the smallpox vaccine provides some level of defense against HIV. Both the smallpox vaccine and HIV exploit a receptor called CCR5, which is expressed on the surface of white blood cells. Researchers theorize that one factor in the sudden spread of HIV in the early 1980s was the result of successful eradication of smallpox in the late 1970s followed by an abrupt decline in smallpox vaccinations worldwide. The smallpox vaccine appeared to have been reducing HIV replication five-fold.
Studies also show that smallpox vaccine is associated with a tendency for reduced risk of asthma, and significantly reduced risk of malignant melanoma and infectious disease hospitalizations.
In low - income countries, having a smallpox vaccine scar has been associated with non-specific reductions of more than 40 % in overall mortality among adults. However no randomized trials testing the effect of smallpox vaccine on overall mortality and morbidity have been conducted.
In late 2001, the governments of the United States and the United Kingdom considered stockpiling smallpox vaccines, even while assuring the public that there was no "specific or credible '' threat of bioterrorism. Later, the director of State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR warned that terrorists could easily lure underpaid former Soviet researchers to turn over samples to be used as a weapon, saying "All you need is a sick fanatic to get to a populated place. The world health system is completely unprepared for this. ''
In the United Kingdom, controversy occurred regarding the company which had been contracted to supply the vaccine. This was because of the political connections of its owner, Paul Drayson, and questions over the choice of vaccine strain. The strain was different from that used in the United States. Plans for mass vaccinations in the United States stalled as the necessity of the inoculation came into question.
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the tipping point the power of context summary | The tipping point - wikipedia
The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference is the debut book by Malcolm Gladwell, first published by Little, Brown in 2000. Gladwell defines a tipping point as "the moment of critical mass, the threshold, the boiling point ''. The book seeks to explain and describe the "mysterious '' sociological changes that mark everyday life. As Gladwell states: "Ideas and products and messages and behaviors spread like viruses do ''. The examples of such changes in his book include the rise in popularity and sales of Hush Puppies shoes in the mid-1990s and the steep drop in New York City 's crime rate after 1990.
Gladwell describes the "three rules of epidemics '' (or the three "agents of change '') in the tipping points of epidemics.
"The Law of the Few '' is, as Gladwell states: "The success of any kind of social epidemic is heavily dependent on the involvement of people with a particular and rare set of social gifts ''. According to Gladwell, economists call this the "80 / 20 Principle, which is the idea that in any situation roughly 80 percent of the ' work ' will be done by 20 percent of the participants '' (see Pareto Principle). These people are described in the following ways:
The Stickiness Factor refers to the specific content of a message that renders its impact memorable. Popular children 's television programs such as Sesame Street and Blue 's Clues pioneered the properties of the stickiness factor, thus enhancing effective retention of educational content as well as entertainment value.
Human behavior is sensitive to and strongly influenced by its environment. Gladwell explains: "Epidemics are sensitive to the conditions and circumstances of the times and places in which they occur ''. For example, "zero tolerance '' efforts to combat minor crimes such as fare - beating and vandalism of the New York subway led to a decline in more violent crimes citywide. Gladwell describes the bystander effect, and explains how Dunbar 's number plays into the tipping point, using Rebecca Wells ' novel Divine Secrets of the Ya - Ya Sisterhood, evangelist John Wesley, and the high - tech firm W. L. Gore and Associates. Dunbar 's number is the maximum number of individuals in a society or group that someone can have real social relationships with, which Gladwell dubs the "rule of 150. ''
Gladwell also includes two chapters of case studies, situations in which tipping point concepts were used in specific situations. These situations include the athletic shoe company Airwalk, the diffusion model, how rumors are spread, decreasing the spread of syphilis in Baltimore, teen suicide in Micronesia, and teen smoking in the United States.
Gladwell and his co-author, John Decker, both received an estimated US $1 -- 1.5 million advance for The Tipping Point, which sold 1.7 million copies by 2006. In the wake of the book 's success, Gladwell was able to earn as much as $40,000 per lecture. Sales increased again in 2006 after the release of Gladwell 's next book, Blink.
Some of Gladwell 's analysis as to why the phenomenon of the "tipping point '' occurs (particularly in relation to his idea of the "law of the few '') and its unpredictable elements is based on the 1967 small - world experiment by social psychologist Stanley Milgram. Milgram distributed letters to 160 students in Nebraska, with instructions that they be sent to a stockbroker in Boston (not personally known to them) by passing the letters to anyone else that they believed to be socially closer to the target. The study found that it took an average of six links to deliver each letter. Of particular interest to Gladwell was the finding that just three friends of the stockbroker provided the final link for half of the letters that arrived successfully. This gave rise to Gladwell 's theory that certain types of people are key to the dissemination of information.
In 2003, Duncan Watts, a network theory physicist at Columbia University, repeated the Milgram study by using a web site to recruit 61,000 people to send messages to 18 targets worldwide. He successfully reproduced Milgram 's results (the average length of the chain was approximately six links). However, when he examined the pathways taken, he found that "hubs '' (highly connected people) were not crucial. Only 5 % of the e-mail messages had passed through one of the hubs. This casts doubt on Gladwell 's assertion that specific types of people are responsible for bringing about large levels of change.
Watts pointed out that if it were as simple as finding the individuals that can disseminate information prior to a marketing campaign, advertising agencies would presumably have a far higher success rate than they do. He also stated that Gladwell 's theory does not square with much of his research into human social dynamics performed in the last ten years.
Economist Steven Levitt and Gladwell have a running dispute about whether the fall in New York City 's crime rate can be attributed to the actions of the police department and "Fixing Broken Windows '' (as claimed in The Tipping Point). In Freakonomics, Levitt attributes the decrease in crime to two primary factors: 1) a drastic increase in the number of police officers trained and deployed on the streets and hiring Raymond W. Kelly as police commissioner (thanks to the efforts of former mayor David Dinkins) and 2) a decrease in the number of unwanted children made possible by Roe v. Wade, causing crime to drop nationally in all major cities -- "(e) ven in Los Angeles, a city notorious for bad policing ''. However psychologist Steven Pinker has suggested the second factor relies on tenuous links.
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who plays regina mills in once upon a time | Lana Parrilla - wikipedia
Lana Maria Parrilla (born July 15, 1977) is an American actress. Parrilla is best known for her roles on television and radio. She was a regular cast member in the fifth season of the ABC sitcom Spin City from 2000 to 2001. She later starred in Boomtown (2002 - 2003), Windfall (2006), Swingtown (2008) and as Doctor Eva Zambrano in the short - lived medical drama Miami Medical (2010). She also played the role of Sarah Gavin during the fourth season of the Fox series 24 in 2005. In 2011, Parrilla began starring as The Evil Queen / Regina Mills in the ABC fantasy drama series, Once Upon a Time. In 2016 Parrilla won a Teen Choice Award for Choice Sci - Fi / Fantasy TV Actress.
Parrilla was born in Brooklyn. Her father, Sam Parrilla (1943 -- 94), was a Puerto Rican - born baseball player who played professionally for 11 seasons (1963 -- 73), including one season with the Major League Philadelphia Phillies in 1970 as an outfielder. Her mother is an American painter of Sicilian descent who works in banking. Parrilla has one older sister, Deena, and a nephew named Sammy. She is also the niece of character actress Candice Azzara. Parrilla 's parents divorced when she was three years old. She spent her first ten years living with her mother, and then lived with her father. Lana Parrilla was attacked at ten years old by a dog, which left her a visible scar on the right side of her upper lip. During the time she lived with her father, he was too protective to allow her to attend a performing arts school, which delayed her acting career. Parrilla lived with her father until his murder in 1994, when she was 16 and he was 50. Her father was shot once in the chest by a 15 - year - old female assailant at point blank range and later died from the wound. After the death of her father, Parrilla moved in with her mother to Burbank, California. Parrilla visited Granada in 2007 to learn Spanish. After high school she moved to Los Angeles and attended Beverly Hills Playhouse to study acting. She also studied voice for ten years. Parrilla then began to be cast in small parts and later on, larger ones.
In her early career, Parrilla appeared in several movies, including Very Mean Men (2000), Spiders (2000), and Frozen Stars (2003). She made her television debut in 1999, on the UPN sitcom Grown Ups. In 2000, she joined the cast of the ABC comedy series Spin City, playing Angie Ordonez for one season. She left the show in 2001. After that she joined Donnie Wahlberg and Neal McDonough in the short lived crime drama Boomtown, for which she received the Imagen Award for Best Supporting Actress, for her portrayal of Teresa, a paramedic. Initially a success, Boomtown began to struggle, and Parrilla 's character became a police academy rookie, to tie her more closely to the rest of the show. "Boomtown '' was cancelled just two episodes into its second season.
Parrilla guest - starred in a number of television dramas, including JAG, Six Feet Under, Covert Affairs, Medium, The Defenders and Chase. She had a recurring role in 2004 as Officer Janet Grafton in NYPD Blue. In 2005, Parrilla took a recurring guest role on the fourth season of the Fox series 24 as Sarah Gavin, a Counter Terrorist Unit agent. After just six episodes, Lana was made a regular cast member; but in the thirteenth episode, her character was written out after she tried to thwart another character 's promotion from temporary to permanent CTU head Michelle Dessler (Reiko Aylesworth).
In 2006, Parrilla starred in the NBC summer series Windfall alongside Luke Perry, fellow former 24 cast member Sarah Wynter, and Parilla 's former Boomtown castmate Jason Gedrick. In 2007, she guest starred as Greta during the third season of ABC 's Lost in the episodes "Greatest Hits '' and "Through the Looking Glass '' In 2008, she had a leading role on the Lifetime movie The Double Life of Eleanor Kendall, in which she played Nellie, a divorcee whose identity has been stolen. Also in 2008, she starred in the CBS summer series Swingtown as Trina Decker, a woman who is part of a Swinging couple. In 2010, Parrilla had a female lead role in the Jerry Bruckheimer - produced Miami Medical on CBS, which had a short run towards the end of the 2009 -- 10 television season before it was canceled in July 2010. Windfall, Swingtown and Miami Medical were all canceled after 13 episodes.
In February 2011, she was cast as Mayor Regina Mills / The Evil Queen, in the ABC adventure fantasy drama pilot, Once Upon a Time created by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz. The series debuted in October 2011. The pilot episode was watched by 12.93 million viewers and achieved an adult 18 -- 49 rating / share of 4.0 / 10 during the first season, receiving generally favorable reviews from critics.
Parrilla 's performance also received positive reviews from critics. In 2012 and 2013, she was regarded as a promising contender for an Emmy Award in the Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series category, though she did not receive a nomination. She won the TV Guide Award for Favorite Villain and the ALMA Award for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series in 2012. Parrilla also received a nomination for Best Supporting Actress on Television from the 38th Saturn Awards.
Parrilla became engaged to boyfriend Fred Di Blasio on April 28, 2013, while in Israel. The two were married July 5, 2014, shortly before Parrilla began filming the fourth season of Once Upon a Time. Parrilla confirmed the news on her Twitter account on August 1, 2014.
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how many different types of atoms are found naturally on earth | Chemical element - wikipedia
A chemical element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei (that is, the same atomic number, or Z). 118 elements are identified, of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements. There are 80 elements that have at least one stable isotope and 38 that have exclusively radioactive isotopes, which decay over time into other elements. Iron is the most abundant element (by mass) making up Earth, while oxygen is the most common element in the Earth 's crust.
Chemical elements constitute all of the ordinary matter of the universe. However astronomical observations suggest that ordinary observable matter makes up only about 15 % of the matter in the universe: the remainder is dark matter; the composition of this is unknown, but it is not composed of chemical elements. The two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium, were mostly formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe. The next three elements (lithium, beryllium and boron) were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation, and are thus rarer than heavier elements. Formation of elements with from 6 to 26 protons occurred and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis. The high abundance of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars. Elements with greater than 26 protons are formed by supernova nucleosynthesis in supernovae, which, when they explode, blast these elements as supernova remnants far into space, where they may become incorporated into planets when they are formed.
The term "element '' is used for atoms with a given number of protons (regardless of whether or not they are ionized or chemically bonded, e.g. hydrogen in water) as well as for a pure chemical substance consisting of a single element (e.g. hydrogen gas). For the second meaning, the terms "elementary substance '' and "simple substance '' have been suggested, but they have not gained much acceptance in English chemical literature, whereas in some other languages their equivalent is widely used (e.g. French corps simple, Russian простое вещество). A single element can form multiple substances differing in their structure; they are called allotropes of the element.
When different elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, they form chemical compounds. Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals. Among the more common of such native elements are copper, silver, gold, carbon (as coal, graphite, or diamonds), and sulfur. All but a few of the most inert elements, such as noble gases and noble metals, are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form, as chemical compounds. While about 32 of the chemical elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms, most of these occur as mixtures. For example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, and native solid elements occur in alloys, such as that of iron and nickel.
The history of the discovery and use of the elements began with primitive human societies that found native elements like carbon, sulfur, copper and gold. Later civilizations extracted elemental copper, tin, lead and iron from their ores by smelting, using charcoal. Alchemists and chemists subsequently identified many more; almost all of the naturally occurring elements were known by 1900.
The properties of the chemical elements are summarized in the periodic table, which organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ("periods '') in which the columns ("groups '') share recurring ("periodic '') physical and chemical properties. Save for unstable radioactive elements with short half - lives, all of the elements are available industrially, most of them in low degrees of impurities.
The lightest chemical elements are hydrogen and helium, both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe in a ratio of around 3: 1 by mass (or 12: 1 by number of atoms), along with tiny traces of the next two elements, lithium and beryllium. Almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis. On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes, such as cosmic ray spallation. New atoms are also naturally produced on Earth as radiogenic daughter isotopes of ongoing radioactive decay processes such as alpha decay, beta decay, spontaneous fission, cluster decay, and other rarer modes of decay.
Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 82 each have at least one stable isotope (except for technetium, element 43 and promethium, element 61, which have no stable isotopes). Isotopes considered stable are those for which no radioactive decay has yet been observed. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that radioactive decay of all isotopes can be detected. Some of these elements, notably bismuth (atomic number 83), thorium (atomic number 90), and uranium (atomic number 92), have one or more isotopes with half - lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy metals before the formation of our Solar System. At over 1.9 × 10 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth - 209 (atomic number 83) has the longest known alpha decay half - life of any naturally occurring element, and is almost always considered on par with the 80 stable elements. The very heaviest elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with half - lives so short that they are not found in nature and must be synthesized.
As of 2010, there are 118 known elements (in this context, "known '' means observed well enough, even from just a few decay products, to have been differentiated from other elements). Of these 118 elements, 94 occur naturally on Earth. Six of these occur in extreme trace quantities: technetium, atomic number 43; promethium, number 61; astatine, number 85; francium, number 87; neptunium, number 93; and plutonium, number 94. These 94 elements have been detected in the universe at large, in the spectra of stars and also supernovae, where short - lived radioactive elements are newly being made. The first 94 elements have been detected directly on Earth as primordial nuclides present from the formation of the solar system, or as naturally occurring fission or transmutation products of uranium and thorium.
The remaining 24 heavier elements, not found today either on Earth or in astronomical spectra, have been produced artificially: these are all radioactive, with very short half - lives; if any atoms of these elements were present at the formation of Earth, they are extremely likely, to the point of certainty, to have already decayed, and if present in novae, have been in quantities too small to have been noted. Technetium was the first purportedly non-naturally occurring element synthesized, in 1937, although trace amounts of technetium have since been found in nature (and also the element may have been discovered naturally in 1925). This pattern of artificial production and later natural discovery has been repeated with several other radioactive naturally occurring rare elements.
List of the elements are available by name, atomic number, density, melting point, boiling point and by symbol, as well as ionization energies of the elements. The nuclides of stable and radioactive elements are also available as a list of nuclides, sorted by length of half - life for those that are unstable. One of the most convenient, and certainly the most traditional presentation of the elements, is in the form of the periodic table, which groups together elements with similar chemical properties (and usually also similar electronic structures).
The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom, and defines the element. For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their atomic nucleus; so the atomic number of carbon is 6. Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons; atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element.
The number of protons in the atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge, which in turn determines the number of electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state. The electrons are placed into atomic orbitals that determine the atom 's various chemical properties. The number of neutrons in a nucleus usually has very little effect on an element 's chemical properties (except in the case of hydrogen and deuterium). Thus, all carbon isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties because they all have six protons and six electrons, even though carbon atoms may, for example, have 6 or 8 neutrons. That is why the atomic number, rather than mass number or atomic weight, is considered the identifying characteristic of a chemical element.
The symbol for atomic number is Z.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (that is, with the same number of protons in their atomic nucleus), but having different numbers of neutrons. Thus, for example, there are three main isotopes of carbon. All carbon atoms have 6 protons in the nucleus, but they can have either 6, 7, or 8 neutrons. Since the mass numbers of these are 12, 13 and 14 respectively, the three isotopes of carbon are known as carbon - 12, carbon - 13, and carbon - 14, often abbreviated to C, C, and C. Carbon in everyday life and in chemistry is a mixture of C (about 98.9 %), C (about 1.1 %) and about 1 atom per trillion of C.
Most (66 of 94) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope. Except for the isotopes of hydrogen (which differ greatly from each other in relative mass -- enough to cause chemical effects), the isotopes of a given element are chemically nearly indistinguishable.
All of the elements have some isotopes that are radioactive (radioisotopes), although not all of these radioisotopes occur naturally. The radioisotopes typically decay into other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle. If an element has isotopes that are not radioactive, these are termed "stable '' isotopes. All of the known stable isotopes occur naturally (see primordial isotope). The many radioisotopes that are not found in nature have been characterized after being artificially made. Certain elements have no stable isotopes and are composed only of radioactive isotopes: specifically the elements without any stable isotopes are technetium (atomic number 43), promethium (atomic number 61), and all observed elements with atomic numbers greater than 82.
Of the 80 elements with at least one stable isotope, 26 have only one single stable isotope. The mean number of stable isotopes for the 80 stable elements is 3.1 stable isotopes per element. The largest number of stable isotopes that occur for a single element is 10 (for tin, element 50).
The mass number of an element, A, is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus. Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass numbers, which are conventionally written as a superscript on the left hand side of the atomic symbol (e.g. U). The mass number is always a whole number and has units of "nucleons ''. For example, magnesium - 24 (24 is the mass number) is an atom with 24 nucleons (12 protons and 12 neutrons).
Whereas the mass number simply counts the total number of neutrons and protons and is thus a natural (or whole) number, the atomic mass of a single atom is a real number giving the mass of a particular isotope (or "nuclide '') of the element, expressed in atomic mass units (u). In general, the mass number of a given nuclide differs in value slightly from its atomic mass, since the mass of each proton and neutron is not exactly 1 u; since the electrons contribute a lesser share to the atomic mass as neutron number exceeds proton number; and (finally) because of the nuclear binding energy. For example, the atomic mass of chlorine - 35 to five significant digits is 34.969 u and that of chlorine - 37 is 36.966 u. However, the atomic mass in u of each isotope is quite close to its simple mass number (always within 1 %). The only isotope whose atomic mass is exactly a natural number is C, which by definition has a mass of exactly 12, because u is defined as 1 / 12 of the mass of a free neutral carbon - 12 atom in the ground state.
The standard atomic weight (commonly called "atomic weight '') of an element is the average of the atomic masses of all the chemical element 's isotopes as found in a particular environment, weighted by isotopic abundance, relative to the atomic mass unit (u). This number may be a fraction that is not close to a whole number. For example, the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.453 u, which differs greatly from a whole number as it is an average of about 76 % chlorine - 35 and 24 % chlorine - 37. Whenever a relative atomic mass value differs by more than 1 % from a whole number, it is due to this averaging effect, as significant amounts of more than one isotope are naturally present in a sample of that element.
Chemists and nuclear scientists have different definitions of a pure element. In chemistry, a pure element means a substance whose atoms all (or in practice almost all) have the same atomic number, or number of protons. Nuclear scientists, however, define a pure element as one that consists of only one stable isotope.
For example, a copper wire is 99.99 % chemically pure if 99.99 % of its atoms are copper, with 29 protons each. However it is not isotopically pure since ordinary copper consists of two stable isotopes, 69 % Cu and 31 % Cu, with different numbers of neutrons. However, a pure gold ingot would be both chemically and isotopically pure, since ordinary gold consists only of one isotope, Au.
Atoms of chemically pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing the pure element to exist in multiple chemical structures (spatial arrangements of atoms), known as allotropes, which differ in their properties. For example, carbon can be found as diamond, which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom; graphite, which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other; graphene, which is a single layer of graphite that is very strong; fullerenes, which have nearly spherical shapes; and carbon nanotubes, which are tubes with a hexagonal structure (even these may differ from each other in electrical properties). The ability of an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as ' allotropy '.
The standard state, also known as reference state, of an element is defined as its thermodynamically most stable state at a pressure of 1 bar and a given temperature (typically at 298.15 K). In thermochemistry, an element is defined to have an enthalpy of formation of zero in its standard state. For example, the reference state for carbon is graphite, because the structure of graphite is more stable than that of the other allotropes.
Several kinds of descriptive categorizations can be applied broadly to the elements, including consideration of their general physical and chemical properties, their states of matter under familiar conditions, their melting and boiling points, their densities, their crystal structures as solids, and their origins.
Several terms are commonly used to characterize the general physical and chemical properties of the chemical elements. A first distinction is between metals, which readily conduct electricity, nonmetals, which do not, and a small group, (the metalloids), having intermediate properties and often behaving as semiconductors.
A more refined classification is often shown in colored presentations of the periodic table. This system restricts the terms "metal '' and "nonmetal '' to only certain of the more broadly defined metals and nonmetals, adding additional terms for certain sets of the more broadly viewed metals and nonmetals. The version of this classification used in the periodic tables presented here includes: actinides, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, lanthanides, transition metals, post-transition metals, metalloids, polyatomic nonmetals, diatomic nonmetals, and noble gases. In this system, the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and transition metals, as well as the lanthanides and the actinides, are special groups of the metals viewed in a broader sense. Similarly, the polyatomic nonmetals, diatomic nonmetals and the noble gases are nonmetals viewed in the broader sense. In some presentations, the halogens are not distinguished, with astatine identified as a metalloid and the others identified as nonmetals.
Another commonly used basic distinction among the elements is their state of matter (phase), whether solid, liquid, or gas, at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP). Most of the elements are solids at conventional temperatures and atmospheric pressure, while several are gases. Only bromine and mercury are liquids at 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit) and normal atmospheric pressure; caesium and gallium are solids at that temperature, but melt at 28.4 ° C (83.2 ° F) and 29.8 ° C (85.6 ° F), respectively.
Melting and boiling points, typically expressed in degrees Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere, are commonly used in characterizing the various elements. While known for most elements, either or both of these measurements is still undetermined for some of the radioactive elements available in only tiny quantities. Since helium remains a liquid even at absolute zero at atmospheric pressure, it has only a boiling point, and not a melting point, in conventional presentations.
The density at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP) is frequently used in characterizing the elements. Density is often expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g / cm). Since several elements are gases at commonly encountered temperatures, their densities are usually stated for their gaseous forms; when liquefied or solidified, the gaseous elements have densities similar to those of the other elements.
When an element has allotropes with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. For example, the three familiar allotropes of carbon (amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond) have densities of 1.8 -- 2.1, 2.267, and 3.515 g / cm, respectively.
The elements studied to date as solid samples have eight kinds of crystal structures: cubic, body - centered cubic, face - centered cubic, hexagonal, monoclinic, orthorhombic, rhombohedral, and tetragonal. For some of the synthetically produced transuranic elements, available samples have been too small to determine crystal structures.
Chemical elements may also be categorized by their origin on Earth, with the first 94 considered naturally occurring, while those with atomic numbers beyond 94 have only been produced artificially as the synthetic products of man - made nuclear reactions.
Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 84 are considered primordial and either stable or weakly radioactive. The remaining 10 naturally occurring elements possess half lives too short for them to have been present at the beginning of the Solar System, and are therefore considered transient elements. (Plutonium is usually also considered a transient element because primordial plutonium has by now decayed to almost undetectable traces.) Of these 10 transient elements, 5 (polonium, radon, radium, actinium, and protactinium) are relatively common decay products of thorium, uranium, and plutonium. The remaining 6 transient elements (technetium, promethium, astatine, francium, neptunium, and plutonium) occur only rarely, as products of rare decay modes or nuclear reaction processes involving uranium or other heavy elements.
Elements with atomic numbers 1 through 40 are all stable, while those with atomic numbers 41 through 82 (except technetium and promethium) are metastable. The half - lives of these metastable "theoretical radionuclides '' are so long (at least 100 million times longer than the estimated age of the universe) that their radioactive decay has yet to be detected by experiment. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that their radioactive decay can be detected. Three of these elements, bismuth (element 83), thorium (element 90), and uranium (element 92) have one or more isotopes with half - lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy elements before the formation of our solar system. For example, at over 1.9 × 10 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth - 209 has the longest known alpha decay half - life of any naturally occurring element. The very heaviest 24 elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with short half - lives and can not be produced as daughters of longer - lived elements, and thus they do not occur in nature at all.
The properties of the chemical elements are often summarized using the periodic table, which powerfully and elegantly organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ("periods '') in which the columns ("groups '') share recurring ("periodic '') physical and chemical properties. The current standard table contains 118 confirmed elements as of 10 April 2010.
Although earlier precursors to this presentation exist, its invention is generally credited to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, who intended the table to illustrate recurring trends in the properties of the elements. The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time as new elements have been discovered and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical behavior.
Use of the periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry, providing an extremely useful framework to classify, systematize and compare all the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has also found wide application in physics, geology, biology, materials science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, nutrition, environmental health, and astronomy. Its principles are especially important in chemical engineering.
The various chemical elements are formally identified by their unique atomic numbers, by their accepted names, and by their symbols.
The known elements have atomic numbers from 1 through 118, conventionally presented as Arabic numerals. Since the elements can be uniquely sequenced by atomic number, conventionally from lowest to highest (as in a periodic table), sets of elements are sometimes specified by such notation as "through '', "beyond '', or "from... through '', as in "through iron '', "beyond uranium '', or "from lanthanum through lutetium ''. The terms "light '' and "heavy '' are sometimes also used informally to indicate relative atomic numbers (not densities), as in "lighter than carbon '' or "heavier than lead '', although technically the weight or mass of atoms of an element (their atomic weights or atomic masses) do not always increase monotonically with their atomic numbers.
The naming of various substances now known as elements precedes the atomic theory of matter, as names were given locally by various cultures to various minerals, metals, compounds, alloys, mixtures, and other materials, although at the time it was not known which chemicals were elements and which compounds. As they were identified as elements, the existing names for anciently - known elements (e.g., gold, mercury, iron) were kept in most countries. National differences emerged over the names of elements either for convenience, linguistic niceties, or nationalism. For a few illustrative examples: German speakers use "Wasserstoff '' (water substance) for "hydrogen '', "Sauerstoff '' (acid substance) for "oxygen '' and "Stickstoff '' (smothering substance) for "nitrogen '', while English and some romance languages use "sodium '' for "natrium '' and "potassium '' for "kalium '', and the French, Italians, Greeks, Portuguese and Poles prefer "azote / azot / azoto '' (from roots meaning "no life '') for "nitrogen ''.
For purposes of international communication and trade, the official names of the chemical elements both ancient and more recently recognized are decided by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which has decided on a sort of international English language, drawing on traditional English names even when an element 's chemical symbol is based on a Latin or other traditional word, for example adopting "gold '' rather than "aurum '' as the name for the 79th element (Au). IUPAC prefers the British spellings "aluminium '' and "caesium '' over the U.S. spellings "aluminum '' and "cesium '', and the U.S. "sulfur '' over the British "sulphur ''. However, elements that are practical to sell in bulk in many countries often still have locally used national names, and countries whose national language does not use the Latin alphabet are likely to use the IUPAC element names.
According to IUPAC, chemical elements are not proper nouns in English; consequently, the full name of an element is not routinely capitalized in English, even if derived from a proper noun, as in californium and einsteinium. Isotope names of chemical elements are also uncapitalized if written out, e.g., carbon - 12 or uranium - 235. Chemical element symbols (such as Cf for californium and Es for einsteinium), are always capitalized (see below).
In the second half of the twentieth century, physics laboratories became able to produce nuclei of chemical elements with half - lives too short for an appreciable amount of them to exist at any time. These are also named by IUPAC, which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer. This practice can lead to the controversial question of which research group actually discovered an element, a question that delayed the naming of elements with atomic number of 104 and higher for a considerable amount of time. (See element naming controversy).
Precursors of such controversies involved the nationalistic namings of elements in the late 19th century. For example, lutetium was named in reference to Paris, France. The Germans were reluctant to relinquish naming rights to the French, often calling it cassiopeium. Similarly, the British discoverer of niobium originally named it columbium, in reference to the New World. It was used extensively as such by American publications prior to the international standardization (in 1950).
Before chemistry became a science, alchemists had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of atoms combining to form molecules. With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, John Dalton devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, to depict molecules.
The current system of chemical notation was invented by Berzelius. In this typographical system, chemical symbols are not mere abbreviations -- though each consists of letters of the Latin alphabet. They are intended as universal symbols for people of all languages and alphabets.
The first of these symbols were intended to be fully universal. Since Latin was the common language of science at that time, they were abbreviations based on the Latin names of metals. Cu comes from Cuprum, Fe comes from Ferrum, Ag from Argentum. The symbols were not followed by a period (full stop) as with abbreviations. Later chemical elements were also assigned unique chemical symbols, based on the name of the element, but not necessarily in English. For example, sodium has the chemical symbol ' Na ' after the Latin natrium. The same applies to "W '' (wolfram) for tungsten, "Fe '' (ferrum) for iron, "Hg '' (hydrargyrum) for mercury, "Sn '' (stannum) for tin, "K '' (kalium) for potassium, "Au '' (aurum) for gold, "Ag '' (argentum) for silver, "Pb '' (plumbum) for lead, "Cu '' (cuprum) for copper, and "Sb '' (stibium) for antimony.
Chemical symbols are understood internationally when element names might require translation. There have sometimes been differences in the past. For example, Germans in the past have used "J '' (for the alternate name Jod) for iodine, but now use "I '' and "Iod ''.
The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized, as in the preceding examples, and the subsequent letters, if any, are always lower case (small letters). Thus, the symbols for californium and einsteinium are Cf and Es.
There are also symbols in chemical equations for groups of chemical elements, for example in comparative formulas. These are often a single capital letter, and the letters are reserved and not used for names of specific elements. For example, an "X '' indicates a variable group (usually a halogen) in a class of compounds, while "R '' is a radical, meaning a compound structure such as a hydrocarbon chain. The letter "Q '' is reserved for "heat '' in a chemical reaction. "Y '' is also often used as a general chemical symbol, although it is also the symbol of yttrium. "Z '' is also frequently used as a general variable group. "E '' is used in organic chemistry to denote an electron - withdrawing group or an electrophile; similarly "Nu '' denotes a nucleophile. "L '' is used to represent a general ligand in inorganic and organometallic chemistry. "M '' is also often used in place of a general metal.
At least two additional, two - letter generic chemical symbols are also in informal usage, "Ln '' for any lanthanide element and "An '' for any actinide element. "Rg '' was formerly used for any rare gas element, but the group of rare gases has now been renamed noble gases and the symbol "Rg '' has now been assigned to the element roentgenium.
Isotopes are distinguished by the atomic mass number (total protons and neutrons) for a particular isotope of an element, with this number combined with the pertinent element 's symbol. IUPAC prefers that isotope symbols be written in superscript notation when practical, for example C and U. However, other notations, such as carbon - 12 and uranium - 235, or C - 12 and U-235, are also used.
As a special case, the three naturally occurring isotopes of the element hydrogen are often specified as H for H (protium), D for H (deuterium), and T for H (tritium). This convention is easier to use in chemical equations, replacing the need to write out the mass number for each atom. For example, the formula for heavy water may be written D O instead of H O.
Only about 4 % of the total mass of the universe is made of atoms or ions, and thus represented by chemical elements. This fraction is about 15 % of the total matter, with the remainder of the matter (85 %) being dark matter. The nature of dark matter is unknown, but it is not composed of atoms of chemical elements because it contains no protons, neutrons, or electrons. (The remaining non-matter part of the mass of the universe is composed of the even more mysterious dark energy).
The universe 's 94 naturally occurring chemical elements are thought to have been produced by at least four cosmic processes. Most of the hydrogen and helium in the universe was produced primordially in the first few minutes of the Big Bang. Three recurrently occurring later processes are thought to have produced the remaining elements. Stellar nucleosynthesis, an ongoing process, produces all elements from carbon through iron in atomic number, but little lithium, beryllium, or boron. Elements heavier in atomic number than iron, as heavy as uranium and plutonium, are produced by explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovas and other cataclysmic cosmic events. Cosmic ray spallation (fragmentation) of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen is important to the production of lithium, beryllium and boron.
During the early phases of the Big Bang, nucleosynthesis of hydrogen nuclei resulted in the production of hydrogen - 1 (protium, H) and helium - 4 (He), as well as a smaller amount of deuterium (H) and very minuscule amounts (on the order of 10) of lithium and beryllium. Even smaller amounts of boron may have been produced in the Big Bang, since it has been observed in some very old stars, while carbon has not. It is generally agreed that no heavier elements than boron were produced in the Big Bang. As a result, the primordial abundance of atoms (or ions) consisted of roughly 75 % H, 25 % He, and 0.01 % deuterium, with only tiny traces of lithium, beryllium, and perhaps boron. Subsequent enrichment of galactic halos occurred due to stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis. However, the element abundance in intergalactic space can still closely resemble primordial conditions, unless it has been enriched by some means.
On Earth (and elsewhere), trace amounts of various elements continue to be produced from other elements as products of nuclear transmutation processes. These include some produced by cosmic rays or other nuclear reactions (see cosmogenic and nucleogenic nuclides), and others produced as decay products of long - lived primordial nuclides. For example, trace (but detectable) amounts of carbon - 14 (C) are continually produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays impacting nitrogen atoms, and argon - 40 (Ar) is continually produced by the decay of primordially occurring but unstable potassium - 40 (K). Also, three primordially occurring but radioactive actinides, thorium, uranium, and plutonium, decay through a series of recurrently produced but unstable radioactive elements such as radium and radon, which are transiently present in any sample of these metals or their ores or compounds. Three other radioactive elements, technetium, promethium, and neptunium, occur only incidentally in natural materials, produced as individual atoms by nuclear fission of the nuclei of various heavy elements or in other rare nuclear processes.
Human technology has produced various additional elements beyond these first 94, with those through atomic number 118 now known.
The following graph (note log scale) shows the abundance of elements in our Solar System. The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass. Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. As physical laws and processes appear common throughout the visible universe, however, scientist expect that these galaxies evolved elements in similar abundance.
The abundance of elements in the Solar System is in keeping with their origin from nucleosynthesis in the Big Bang and a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, but the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by the breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays). Beginning with carbon, elements are produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). In general, such elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovas. Iron - 56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel - 56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy - absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with their atomic number.
The abundance of the chemical elements on Earth varies from air to crust to ocean, and in various types of life. The abundance of elements in Earth 's crust differs from that in the Solar system (as seen in the Sun and heavy planets like Jupiter) mainly in selective loss of the very lightest elements (hydrogen and helium) and also volatile neon, carbon (as hydrocarbons), nitrogen and sulfur, as a result of solar heating in the early formation of the solar system. Oxygen, the most abundant Earth element by mass, is retained on Earth by combination with silicon. Aluminum at 8 % by mass is more common in the Earth 's crust than in the universe and solar system, but the composition of the far more bulky mantle, which has magnesium and iron in place of aluminum (which occurs there only at 2 % of mass) more closely mirrors the elemental composition of the solar system, save for the noted loss of volatile elements to space, and loss of iron which has migrated to the Earth 's core.
The composition of the human body, by contrast, more closely follows the composition of seawater -- save that the human body has additional stores of carbon and nitrogen necessary to form the proteins and nucleic acids, together with phosphorus in the nucleic acids and energy transfer molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) that occurs in the cells of all living organisms. Certain kinds of organisms require particular additional elements, for example the magnesium in chlorophyll in green plants, the calcium in mollusc shells, or the iron in the hemoglobin in vertebrate animals ' red blood cells.
The concept of an "element '' as an undivisible substance has developed through three major historical phases: Classical definitions (such as those of the ancient Greeks), chemical definitions, and atomic definitions.
Ancient philosophy posited a set of classical elements to explain observed patterns in nature. These elements originally referred to earth, water, air and fire rather than the chemical elements of modern science.
The term ' elements ' (stoicheia) was first used by the Greek philosopher Plato in about 360 BCE in his dialogue Timaeus, which includes a discussion of the composition of inorganic and organic bodies and is a speculative treatise on chemistry. Plato believed the elements introduced a century earlier by Empedocles were composed of small polyhedral forms: tetrahedron (fire), octahedron (air), icosahedron (water), and cube (earth).
Aristotle, c. 350 BCE, also used the term stoicheia and added a fifth element called aether, which formed the heavens. Aristotle defined an element as:
Element -- one of those bodies into which other bodies can decompose, and that itself is not capable of being divided into other.
In 1661, Robert Boyle proposed his theory of corpuscularism which favoured the analysis of matter as constituted by irreducible units of matter (atoms) and, choosing to side with neither Aristotle 's view of the four elements nor Paracelsus ' view of three fundamental elements, left open the question of the number of elements. The first modern list of chemical elements was given in Antoine Lavoisier 's 1789 Elements of Chemistry, which contained thirty - three elements, including light and caloric. By 1818, Jöns Jakob Berzelius had determined atomic weights for forty - five of the forty - nine then - accepted elements. Dmitri Mendeleev had sixty - six elements in his periodic table of 1869.
From Boyle until the early 20th century, an element was defined as a pure substance that could not be decomposed into any simpler substance. Put another way, a chemical element can not be transformed into other chemical elements by chemical processes. Elements during this time were generally distinguished by their atomic weights, a property measurable with fair accuracy by available analytical techniques.
The 1913 discovery by English physicist Henry Moseley that the nuclear charge is the physical basis for an atom 's atomic number, further refined when the nature of protons and neutrons became appreciated, eventually led to the current definition of an element based on atomic number (number of protons per atomic nucleus). The use of atomic numbers, rather than atomic weights, to distinguish elements has greater predictive value (since these numbers are integers), and also resolves some ambiguities in the chemistry - based view due to varying properties of isotopes and allotropes within the same element. Currently, IUPAC defines an element to exist if it has isotopes with a lifetime longer than the 10 seconds it takes the nucleus to form an electronic cloud.
By 1914, seventy - two elements were known, all naturally occurring. The remaining naturally occurring elements were discovered or isolated in subsequent decades, and various additional elements have also been produced synthetically, with much of that work pioneered by Glenn T. Seaborg. In 1955, element 101 was discovered and named mendelevium in honor of D.I. Mendeleev, the first to arrange the elements in a periodic manner. Most recently, the synthesis of element 118 was reported in October 2006, and the synthesis of element 117 was reported in April 2010.
Ten materials familiar to various prehistoric cultures are now known to be chemical elements: Carbon, copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, sulfur, tin, and zinc. Three additional materials now accepted as elements, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, were recognized as distinct substances prior to 1500 AD. Phosphorus, cobalt, and platinum were isolated before 1750.
Most of the remaining naturally occurring chemical elements were identified and characterized by 1900, including:
Elements isolated or produced since 1900 include:
The first transuranium element (element with atomic number greater than 92) discovered was neptunium in 1940. Since 1999 claims for the discovery of new elements have been considered by the IUPAC / IUPAP Joint Working Party. As of January 2016, all 118 elements have been confirmed as discovered by IUPAC. The discovery of element 112 was acknowledged in 2009, and the name copernicium and the atomic symbol Cn were suggested for it. The name and symbol were officially endorsed by IUPAC on 19 February 2010. The heaviest element that is believed to have been synthesized to date is element 118, oganesson, on 9 October 2006, by the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Russia. Tennessine, element 117 was the latest element claimed to be discovered, in 2009. On 28 November 2016, scientists at the IUPAC officially recognized the names for four of the newest chemical elements, with atomic numbers 113, 115, 117, and 118.
The following sortable table shows the 118 known chemical elements.
Notes
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how big is the price is right audience | The Price Is Right (U.S. game show) - Wikipedia
The Price Is Right is an American television game show created by Bob Stewart, Mark Goodson and Bill Todman. The show revolves around contestants competing by identifying accurate pricing of merchandise to win cash and prizes. Contestants are selected from the studio audience when the announcer states the show 's famous catchphrase, "Come on down! ''
The program premiered on September 4, 1972 on CBS. Bob Barker was the series ' longest - running host from its 1972 debut until his retirement in June 2007, when Drew Carey took over. Barker was accompanied by a series of announcers, beginning with Johnny Olson, followed by Rod Roddy and then Rich Fields. In April 2011, George Gray became the announcer. The show has used several models, most notably Anitra Ford, Janice Pennington, Dian Parkinson, Holly Hallstrom and Kathleen Bradley. While retaining some elements of the original version of the show, the 1972 version has added many new distinctive gameplay elements.
The Price Is Right has aired over 8,000 episodes since its debut and is one of the longest - running network series in United States television history. In a 2007 article, TV Guide named The Price Is Right the "greatest game show of all time. '' The show 's 46th season premiered on September 18, 2017.
The gameplay of the show consists of four distinct competition elements, in which nine preliminary contestants (or six, depending on the episode 's running time) are eventually narrowed to two finalists who compete in the game 's final element, the "Showcase ''.
At the beginning of the show, four contestants are called from the audience by the announcer to take a spot in the front row behind bidding podiums, which are embedded into the front edge of the stage. This area is known as "Contestants ' Row ''. The announcer shouts "Come on down! '' after calling each selected contestant 's name, a phrase which has become a trademark of the show. The four contestants in Contestants ' Row compete in a bidding round to determine which contestant will play the next pricing game (the round is known as "One Bid, '' which gets its name and format from one of two types of bidding rounds that existed on the 1950s version of the show). A prize is shown and each contestant gives a single bid for the item. In the first One - Bid game of each episode, bidding begins with the contestant on the viewer 's left - to - right. In subsequent One - Bid rounds, the order of bidding still moves from the viewer 's left - to - right, but it begins with the contestant most recently called down. Contestants are instructed to bid in whole dollars since the retail price of the item is rounded to the nearest dollar and another contestant 's bid can not be duplicated. If a contestant thinks the others have overbid, he or she bids $1 on the item. The contestant whose bid is closest to the actual retail price of the prize without going over wins that prize and gets to play the subsequent pricing game. If all four contestants overbid, several short buzzer tones sound, the lowest bid is announced and the bids are erased. The host then instructs the contestants to re-bid below the lowest previous bid. If a contestant bids the actual retail price, a bell rings and the contestant wins a cash bonus in addition to the prize. From the introduction of the bonus in 1977 until 1998, the "perfect bid '' bonus was $100; it was permanently increased to the current $500 in 1998. On The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular, the bonus was $1,000. After each pricing game except the final one, another contestant is called to "come on down '' to fill the spot of the contestant that won the previous round. The newest contestant bids first in each One Bid round. Contestants who fail to win a One Bid round -- thus never making it onstage to play a pricing game -- receive consolation prizes, currently $300, often sponsored by companies revealed by the announcer near the end of the show, before the Showcase.
After winning the One Bid, the contestant joins the host onstage for the opportunity to win additional prizes or cash by playing a pricing game. After the pricing game ends, a new contestant is selected for Contestants ' Row and the process is repeated. Six pricing games are played on each hour - long episode; three games per episode were played in the original half - hour format. Pricing game formats vary widely, ranging from simple dilemma games in which a contestant chooses one of two options to win to complex games of chance or skill in which guessing prices increases the odds of winning. On a typical hour - long episode, two games are played for a car, one game is played for a cash prize and the other three games offer expensive household merchandise or trips. Usually, at least one of the six games involves the pricing of grocery items, while another usually involves smaller prizes that can be used to win a larger prize package. Originally, five pricing games were in the rotation. Since then, more games have been created and added to the rotation and, starting with the 60 - minute expansion in 1975, the rate at which games premiered increased. Some pricing games were eventually discontinued, while others have been a mainstay since the show 's debut in 1972. As of 2017, the rotation is among 77 games. On the 1994 syndicated version hosted by Doug Davidson, the rules of several games were modified and other aesthetic changes were made. Notably, the grocery products used in some games on the daytime version were replaced by small merchandise prizes, generally valued at less than $100. Beginning in 2008, episodes of The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular featured rule changes to some pricing games which rewarded a $1 million bonus to the contestant if specific goals were achieved while playing the pricing game.
Since the show 's expansion to 60 minutes in 1975, each episode features two playings of the Showcase Showdown, occurring after the third and sixth pricing games. Each playing features the three contestants who played the preceding pricing games spinning "The Big Wheel '' to determine who advances to the Showcase, the show 's finale. The contestants play in the order of the value of his or her winnings thus far (including the One Bid), with the contestant who has won the most spinning last.
The wheel contains 20 sections showing values from 5 ¢ to $1.00, in increments of five cents. Contestants are allowed a maximum of two spins. The first contestant spins the wheel and may choose to stop with his or her score or spin again, adding the value of the second spin to their first. The second contestant then spins the wheel and tries to match or beat the leader 's score; if he or she fails to do so, the contestant must spin again. If the second contestant 's first spin matches or beats the score of the first contestant, he or she has the option of stopping or spinning again. The third contestant then spins; if his or her score is less than the leader then he or she will be required to spin again. In the event the second or third contestant 's first spin ties the score of the leader, he or she will be given the option of spinning again as an alternative to entering a "spin - off '' as described below.
If their total score of any contestant is less than that of the current leader, is beaten by the score of any subsequent contestant, or over $1.00, the contestant is eliminated from the game. The contestant whose score is nearest to $1.00 without going over advances to the Showcase at the end of the episode. Any spin that fails to make at least one complete revolution does not count; the contestant is given the opportunity to spin again, and if the contestant has visible difficulty in physically performing the task, the host can assist them.
If the first two contestants both spin twice and go over $1.00, the last contestant automatically advances to the Showcase and is given only one spin to determine their score; this is to ensure that a contestant advances to the showcase, avoiding a potential "triple over '' scenario in which no one would advance. Any contestant whose score equals $1.00 (from either the first spin or the sum of two spins) receives a $1,000 bonus and, since December 1978, is allowed a bonus spin. The contestant wins an additional $10,000 for landing on either 5 ¢ or 15 ¢ (which are adjacent to the $1.00 space and painted green), or an additional $25,000 for landing on $1.00. From December 1978 to September 22, 2008, the bonuses were $5,000 and $10,000 for landing on a green section and the $1.00, respectively. If the wheel stops on any other amount or fails to make at least one revolution, the contestant wins no more money. The wheel is positioned on 5 ¢ prior to the bonus spin so that it can not land on a winning prize without making a complete revolution.
Two or more contestants who are tied with the leading score compete in a "spin - off ''. Each contestant is allowed one additional spin and the contestant with the higher score advances to the Showcase. Multiple spin - offs are played until the tie is broken. Those who hit $1.00 in their spin - off spin still get $1,000 and a bonus spin. If two or more contestants tie with a score of $1.00, their bonus spins also determine their spin - off score. Only the spin - off score, not any bonus money won, determines which contestant moves on to the Showcase; thus, a person who wins the $10,000 bonus for landing on 15 ¢ would still lose the spin - off if their opponent lands on 20 ¢ or more. A tie in a bonus spin spin - off means the ensuing second spin - off will be spun with no bonuses available. Each spin must make one complete revolution in order to qualify. If a player 's bonus spin spin - off does not make a complete revolution, the contestant must spin again, and the spin will be scored as in a second round of a spin - off (no bonuses).
At the end of the episode, the two contestants with the highest winnings, or since 1975 on hour - long episodes, the two Showcase Showdown winners, advance to the Showcase. A "showcase '' of prizes (currently two or three prizes) is presented and the top winner has the option of placing a bid on the total value of the showcase or passing the showcase to the runner - up, who is then required to bid. A second showcase is then presented and the contestant who had not bid on the first showcase makes his or her bid. Unlike the One Bid, the contestant bidding on the second showcase may bid the same amount as their opponent on the first showcase, since the two contestants are bidding on different prize packages. The contestant who has bid nearer to the price of their own showcase without going over wins the prizes in his or her showcase.
Any contestant who overbids is disqualified regardless of their opponent 's result. A double overbid results in neither contestant winning a showcase. Since 1974, any contestant who comes within a specified amount from the actual retail price of their own showcase without going over wins both showcases. Until 1998, the amount was less than $100. In 1998, it became the current $250 or less.
Bob Barker began hosting The Price Is Right on September 4, 1972 and completed a 35 - year tenure on June 15, 2007. Barker was hired as host while still hosting the stunt comedy show Truth or Consequences. His retirement coincided with his 50th year as a television host. His final show aired on June 15, 2007 and was repeated in primetime, leading into the network 's coverage of the 34th Daytime Emmy Awards. In addition to hosting, Barker became Executive Producer of the show in March 1988 when Frank Wayne died and continued as such until his retirement, gaining significant creative control over the series between 2000 and his 2007 retirement. He also was responsible for creating several of the show 's pricing games, as well as launching The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular primetime spin - off. Reruns of Barker 's final season were aired throughout the summer from the Monday after his final show (June 18, 2007) until the Friday before Drew Carey 's debut as host (October 12, 2007), when the season 35 finale was re-aired. During his time as host, Barker missed only one taping of four episodes; Dennis James, then hosting the syndicated nighttime version of the show, filled in for him on these shows in December 1974. After he became a noted animal rights advocate in 1981 shortly after the death of his wife Dorothy Jo, Barker signed off each broadcast, informing viewers with the public service message, "Help control the pet population: have your pets spayed or neutered. '' Carey continued the tradition upon becoming the new host.
On October 31, 2006, Barker announced that he would retire from the show at the end of season 35. In March 2007, CBS and FremantleMedia began a search for the next host of the show. Carey, who was hosting Power of 10 at the time, was chosen and, in a July 23, 2007 interview on Late Show with David Letterman, made the announcement. Carey 's first show aired October 15, 2007. Barker has made several guest appearances since Carey took over as host: on the April 16, 2009 episode to promote his autobiography, Priceless Memories; on the December 12, 2013, as part of "Pet Adoption Week '' that coincided with his 90th birthday; and on the episode which aired on April Fools ' Day in 2015, hosting the first One Bid and pricing game as part of April Fool 's Day.
The 2013 April Fools ' show featured Carey and announcer George Gray modeling the prizes while the show 's models performed hosting and announcing duties for the day. On the April Fools ' Day episode in 2014, Craig Ferguson, Carey 's former castmate from The Drew Carey Show, and Shadoe Stevens hosted and announced, swapping places with Carey and Gray respectively, who performed the same roles on the previous night 's episode of The Late Late Show.
Johnny Olson, the announcer for many Goodson - Todman shows of the era, was the program 's original announcer until his death in October 1985. Olson was replaced by Rod Roddy in February 1986, who remained with the program until shortly before his death in October 2003. Los Angeles meteorologist Rich Fields took over as the announcer in April 2004 and stayed on until the end of season 38 in August 2010. Following a change of direction and a search for an announcer with more experience in improvisational comedy, veteran TV host George Gray was confirmed as the show 's current announcer on the April 18, 2011 episode. During periods in which a permanent announcer was not filling the role, a number of announcers auditioned for the position. In addition to Roddy, Gene Wood, Rich Jeffries, and Bob Hilton auditioned to replace Olson. Former Family Feud announcer Burton Richardson, Paul Boland, and former Supermarket Sweep announcer Randy West substituted for Roddy during his illnesses. In addition to West and Richardson, Daniel Rosen, Art Sanders, Roger Rose, Don Bishop and current Wheel of Fortune announcer Jim Thornton also auditioned for the role eventually filled by Fields. Richardson substituted for Fields while he recovered from laryngitis in December 2006. In addition to Gray, TV host JD Roberto, comedians Jeff B. Davis, Brad Sherwood, and David H. Lawrence XVII, and actor / comedian Steve White also auditioned for the role.
To help display its many prizes, the show has featured several models who were known, during Barker 's time on the show, as "Barker 's Beauties ''. Some longer - tenured Barker 's Beauties included Kathleen Bradley (1990 -- 2000), Holly Hallstrom (1977 -- 1995), Dian Parkinson (1975 -- 1993), and Janice Pennington (1972 -- 2000). Pennington and Bradley were both dismissed from the program in 2000, allegedly because they had given testimony on Hallstrom 's behalf in the wrongful termination litigation she pursued against Barker and the show. Following the departures of Nikki Ziering, Heather Kozar and Claudia Jordan in the 2000s, producers decided to use a rotating cast of models (up to ten) until the middle of season 37, after which the show reverted to five regular models. Since March 2008, the models include Rachel Reynolds, Amber Lancaster and Gwendolyn Osbourne (who left in 2017); Manuela Arbeláez joined the cast in April 2009, replacing Brandi Sherwood and James O'Halloran joined the cast in December 2014. Carey does not use a collective name for the models, but refers to them by name, hoping that the models will be able to use the show as a "springboard '' to further their careers. In a change from previous policy, the models appearing on a given episode are named individually in the show 's credits and are formally referred as "The Price Is Right models '' when collectively grouped at events. Since season 37, the show often uses a guest model for certain prizes, often crossing over from another CBS property or come courtesy of the company providing the prize. Some such models have been male, especially for musical instruments, tools, trucks and motorcycles, and used in guest appearances during the Showcase. Owing to the traditionally female demographic of daytime television shows, along with the pregnancies of Reynolds and Osbourne, CBS announced that the game show would add a male model for a week during season 41, fitting with other countries with the franchise that have used an occasional male model. The show held an internet search for the man in an online competition that featured Mike Richards, the show 's executive producer, Reynolds, Lancaster, Osbourne and Arbeláez serving as judges and mentors during the web series, narrated by Gray. Viewers selected the winner in October 2012. On October 5, 2012, CBS announced that the winner of the male model online competition was Rob Wilson of Boston, Massachusetts. Wilson appeared as a model on episodes through April 15, 2014. This contest was scheduled to be repeated in 2014, with auditions taking place during the FIFA World Cup break between May and July 2014. On December 8, 2014, CBS announced that the winner of the second male model online competition was James O'Halloran.
The game show production team of Mark Goodson and Bill Todman was responsible for producing the original as well as the revival versions of the game show. Goodson - Todman staffer Bob Stewart is credited with creating the original version of The Price Is Right. Roger Dobkowitz was the producer from 1984 to 2008, having worked with the program as a production staffer since the show 's debut after graduating from San Francisco State University. Occasionally, Dobkowitz appeared on - camera when answering a question posed by the host, usually relating to the show 's history or records. When he left the show at the end of season 36, Variety reported that it was unclear whether he was retiring or was fired, although Carey indicated in a later interview with Esquire that Dobkowitz was fired. As of 2011, the show uses multiple producers, all long - time staffers. Adam Sandler (not to be confused with the actor) is the producer and director of the show. Stan Blits, who joined the show in 1980 and Sue MacIntyre are the co-producers. Kathy Greco joined the show in 1975 and became producer in 2008; she announced her retirement October 8, 2010 on the show 's website, effective at the end of the December 2010 tapings. Her last episode as producer, which aired January 27, 2011, featured a theme in tribute to her. The show 's official website featured a series of videos including an interview with Greco as a tribute to her 35 years in the days leading up to her final episode. Frank Wayne, a Goodson - Todman staffer since the 1950s, was the original executive producer of the CBS version of the show. Barker assumed that role after Wayne 's death in March 1988, as previously stated. Previous producers have included Jay Wolpert, Barbara Hunter and Phil Wayne Rossi (Wayne 's son). Michael Dimich assumed the director 's chair in June 2011. Marc Breslow, Paul Alter, Bart Eskander and Rich DiPirro each served long stints previously as director. Former associate directors Andrew Felsher and Fred Witten, as well as technical director Glenn Koch, have directed episodes strictly on a fill - in basis. Sandler began directing episodes in 2012, and became the official director in 2013. Aside from Barker, the show 's production staff remained intact after Carey became host. FremantleMedia executive Syd Vinnedge was named the program 's new executive producer, with Richards becoming co-executive producer after Dobkowitz 's departure. Richards was a candidate to replace Barker as host in 2007, before Carey was ultimately chosen. Richards succeeded Vinnedge as executive producer when the 2009 -- 10 season started, with Tracy Verna Soiseth joining Richards as co-executive producer in 2010. Vinnedge remains credited as an executive consultant to the show.
Many audience members arrive early on the day of a taping, and often camp out the night before to attend. Most have already received tickets for that day 's show, although some hope to get same - day tickets. Audience members are then given the iconic name tags with a temporary identification number, which is also written on the person 's ticket. A Social Security Number (or some national I.D. number for non-U.S. audience members) is also required to be submitted. Audience members are eventually brought through in groups of twelve for brief interviews with the production staff. Contrary to popular belief, contestant names are not chosen at random; rather, the interviews determine possible selections for the nine contestants per taping from among the pool of approximately 325 audience members. Since 1988, the minimum age for audience members has been 18; prior to 1988, teenagers and children as young as 12 were present in the audience. With few exceptions, anyone at least 18 years old who attends a taping of the show has the potential to become a contestant. Those ineligible include current candidates for political office, employees of CBS Corporation or its affiliates, RTL Group or any firm involved in offering prizes for the show. Contestants who have appeared on a different game show within the previous year or either two other game shows or any version of The Price Is Right itself within the past ten years are also ineligible. The show 's staff alerts potential contestants -- in person, on the show 's website and on the tickets themselves -- to dress in "street clothes '' and not to wear costumes, such as those used to attract attention on Let 's Make a Deal, another show that featured contestants selected from the audience. Those who have attended tapings in June 2008 noted that producers disallowed audience members from wearing fake eyeglasses designed to look similar to those worn by Carey, a restriction that has since been relaxed. Instead, contestants will often wear shirts with hand - decorated slogans. Members of the Armed Forces are often in uniform. Cell phones, tape recorders, backpacks, price lists and portable electronic devices are not allowed in the studio. Prospective contestants obtain tickets by contacting a third - party ticketing operator via the show 's website, which is promoted on - air during the broadcast. Prior to 2011, ticketing was directly through CBS, originally via mail, with online ticket access added in 2005. The mail practice ended after CBS began outsourcing ticketing to the third - party operator.
Occasionally, episodes are taped with special audience restrictions. For Memorial Day in 1991, an episode was taped with an audience composed entirely of those who had served in the Armed Forces. Similar primetime episodes were taped in 2002, honoring each branch of the United States military and a sixth episode honoring police officers and firefighters. An annual military episode has been taped starting Season 38 in 2008, originally on Veteran 's Day, but moved in Season 41 (2013) to Independence Day, features an all - military audience, a Marine band playing the winner 's service anthem, and contestants being called by rank. The 2008 episode contained a unique rule in which each One Bid featured one contestant from the Army, Navy, Air Force and Marines, and One Bid winners also won a $1,000 gift card. As each contestant won his / her way onstage, he / she was replaced by a member of the same branch of service. Most civilian attendees were retired or disabled veterans or family members of military. The 2009 version eliminated the service member from the same branch replacing another after advancing from Contestants ' Row rule. Additionally, members from the United States Coast Guard were invited to the show.
Beginning in 2009, some episodes have featured special themes with two contestants competing as teams, such as married or engaged couples for Valentine 's Day and the "Ultimate Wedding Shower '' episode. There have also been episodes with children who are minors (normally not allowed to compete) teamed with a parent (for Mother 's Day and Father 's Day) or grandparent (for Grandparents Day), as well as teen drivers and students for "Ultimate Spring Break '' and "Back to School ''. In these cases the adult player (not the minor) must make all final decisions in the game play, such as when calling numbers or prices.
Except for the 30th Anniversary Special, which was taped at Harrah 's Rio in Las Vegas, Nevada, The Price Is Right has been taped in Studio 33 in CBS Television City in Hollywood, California for its entire run. The studio, which is also used for other television productions, was renamed the Bob Barker Studio in the host 's honor on the ceremonial 5,000 th episode taped in March 1998. When Carey became host, there was talk of the show traveling in the future. The program is usually produced in about an hour, although if there is a guest involved, some tapings will last longer because of question and answer sessions by the audience and the guest, which the host usually moderates. Two episodes are usually taped each day, normally with three taping days per week (Monday through Wednesday, with one episode taped at 12: 00 pm and another at 4: 00 pm). The program is taped in advance of its airdate. For example, the show broadcast on February 28, 2008 was taped on January 16. As with many other shows that start production in the summer, the lead time varies during the season, as many as fifteen weeks to as little as one day. The audience is entertained by the announcer before taping begins and in case of guests, the guest will answer questions from the audience. After the taping session, there is a drawing for a door prize. On some episodes, all members of the audience receive a prize from a sponsor or celebrity guest; those prizes are usually mentioned in the Showcase (such as a complimentary slice of Papa John 's Pizza, an NHL Winter Classic game puck, a couples ' gift box from Hershey 's or a book authored by a guest). Television and Internet viewers have also been directed to the show 's official website to enter a drawing for a similar prize offered to all viewers or another prize related to the special offer (such as the Rock of Ages signed CD). Some episodes are taped "out - of - order '' so that a specific episode will air after other episodes have aired. Notably, the Christmas Week episodes are usually taped in early December outside of the regular rotation. An episode may be taped out - of - order if a prize package reflects a trip to an event that is taking place close to the date that episode will air (primarily with CBS properties such as the Academy of Country Music Awards, NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship, and various NFL on CBS games, most notably Super Bowl games airing on CBS since Carey took over, but other games are offered). Other episodes may be aired out - of - order because of game - related incidents or situations beyond the network 's control. Most episodes which have aired out of order have occurred when the show is taped far in advance, but in the time between the show taping and its airdate, a natural disaster took place at the trip venue. This happened in June 2005 with episodes that featured trips to New Orleans (which was later struck by Hurricane Katrina), with airdates moved to May and June 2006 and again in April 2010 with episodes that featured trips to Nashville, Tennessee (due to the May 2010 Tennessee floods), with airdates moved to September 2010.
The version of the series that began in 1972 was originally "A Mark Goodson -- Bill Todman Production '' in association with CBS. After Todman died in July 1979, the unit became known as simply Mark Goodson Productions and was announced as such on The Price Is Right from 1984 to June 2007. Today, the series is produced by FremantleMedia and copyrighted by The Price Is Right Productions, Inc., a joint venture of RTL Group and CBS. For the sake of tradition and through special permission from RTL 's subsidiary FremantleMedia, the show continued to use the Mark Goodson Productions name, logo and announcement at the end of each episode until Barker 's retirement, even after FremantleMedia purchased and absorbed the Goodson - Todman holdings. The show is now credited as a FremantleMedia production.
The Price Is Right premiered on September 4, 1972 at 10: 30 am ET (9: 30 CT) on CBS, one of three game shows to debut that day, the other two being The Joker 's Wild at 10: 00 am ET and Gambit at 11: 00 am ET. The show was first billed as The New Price Is Right to distinguish itself from the earlier / original version (1956 -- 65) hosted by Bill Cullen, but it proved so popular in its own right that, in June 1973, the producers decided to drop the word "New '' from its title. On March 26, 1973, CBS moved The Price Is Right to 3: 00 pm ET, pairing it with Match Game as part of what became the highest - rated pairing in daytime. The show remained in that time slot until August 11, 1975 when it permanently returned to the morning lineup at 10: 30am ET. During one week (September 8 -- 12, 1975), the show bumped Gambit off as it experimented with sixty - minute episodes. The result of the experiment led to the permanent expansion on November 3, 1975, moving its start time to 10: 00 am EST. On March 7, 1977, The Price Is Right moved back to 10: 30am and remained there until April 23, 1979, when it assumed its 11: 00 am EST slot, where it has been since then. The format of the show has since remained virtually unchanged. New pricing games are generally added each year, while others are removed. In addition, prizes and pricing games have kept pace with inflation, with games originally designed for four - digit prices of prizes (most often cars) to be adjusted to allow for five - digit prices. While the set has been redesigned and upgraded, the show maintained a similar aesthetic element from its premiere in 1972. In season 36, CBS began offering full episodes of the show available for free viewing on the network 's website. The show also began broadcasting in high definition with The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular primetime specials (the normal daytime version continued to air in 4: 3 standard definition). The show made the full transition to HD broadcasts beginning with season 37. During the weeks of September 28, 2009, September 20 and October 4, 2010, two new episodes aired each weekday on CBS. In 2009, the additional episodes filled a gap between the cancellation of the daytime drama Guiding Light and the debut of Let 's Make a Deal. In 2010, the extra episodes aired between the cancellation of As the World Turns and the debut of The Talk. The intervening week offered a second episode of Let 's Make a Deal. The 2009 second episode aired in the time slot vacated by Guiding Light at 10: 00 am or 3: 00 pm ET / PT, depending on the affiliate 's choice. In 2010, the second episode aired in the former As the World Turns time slot, at 2: 00 pm ET / PT.
Three syndicated versions of The Price Is Right have aired. The first two followed the same format as the half - hour daytime version but were intended to air on most stations in the early evening in the pre-prime time slot, and as such they were referred by the announcer as "the nighttime Price Is Right. ''
A weekly syndicated version debuted the week after the daytime show and continued to air until September 1980. It was distributed by Viacom Enterprises, which had started as the syndication arm of CBS. When Mark Goodson devised the revival of Price for the 1972 -- 73 season, it was intended for a nighttime broadcast under new rules for early - prime syndication and Goodson named Dennis James to host the show. (When CBS commissioned a new daily daytime version, Goodson also wanted James to host the show, but CBS wanted Barker, who was hosting Truth or Consequences at the time, to take it. Barker offered to compromise by hosting The Joker 's Wild, but CBS again insisted Barker host Price instead.)
James eventually hosted a taping day (four half - hour episodes) of the daytime show in December 1974 when Barker fell ill and was unable to participate in the episode tapings. The two versions were largely similar at the beginning, as both were called The New Price Is Right. Some games had rule differences because of the larger budget and less commercial time on the nighttime show; for example, Double Prices was played for two prizes instead of one.
This version retained the 1972 half - hour format for its entire run and never adopted the daytime show 's Double Showcase rule or the Showcase Showdown added to the daytime format when it expanded to an hour in 1975. The word "New '' was dropped from the program 's name starting in the second season, being titled simply The Price Is Right (as the daytime show was by this time as well) from that point onward, and was often referred to on the air as "the nighttime Price Is Right. '' In most of the U.S., stations carried the syndicated Price as one of several weekly programs aired in one of the time slots in the hour before prime time which were created by the 1971 FCC Prime Time Access Rule.
Though the nighttime version originally had higher ratings, by 1975, the ratings started to drop. After the fifth nighttime season in 1977, when the contract with NBC 's owned and operated stations ended, James ' contract was not renewed. CBS ' owned and operated stations picked the show up and the decision was made to hire Barker, whose Truth or Consequences was taped two years ahead and had stopped production in 1975. The series taped its 300th and final episode on March 12, 1980 and was canceled after weekly syndicated game shows had fallen out of popularity in favor of daily offerings (such as Family Feud, which expanded to daily syndication the same year The Nighttime Price Is Right ended). With a run of eight seasons, it was one of the longest - running weekly syndicated game shows of the era and the longest - running regularly scheduled prime - time version of Price (the 1957 -- 1964 run was seven seasons).
Five years later, veteran host Tom Kennedy starred in a new daily syndicated version, which also used the traditional half - hour format and was syndicated by The Television Program Source. Like the previous syndicated series, this version had a slightly larger budget than its daytime counterpart. A perfect bid during the One - Bids won that contestant a $500 bonus (compared to $100 awarded on the daytime show during the same period); this bonus would permanently carry over to the daytime show in 1998. This version used the same models as the daytime show as well as announcer Johnny Olson, who as noted above died during the season. Unlike the daytime series, which employed a series of guest announcers until a permanent replacement was decided upon, the syndicated series brought Gene Wood in to fill in for Olson. When the daytime series decided on Rod Roddy as the permanent replacement for Olson, he took over the syndicated series from Wood as well.
Like its predecessor, this syndicated edition of Price was intended to be aired in the Prime Time Access slots on local stations. However, local stations found themselves bombarded with game shows and other series looking for spots on stations in an increasingly crowded market. This often resulted in shows like Price airing anywhere that they could be fit into a station 's programming lineup, such as in the early morning period or in late - night slots. As a consequence, the show would not be able to find its intended audience and the ratings reports would reflect this.
Price was no exception, as many of the stations that bought the series placed it in these less desirable slots and the show could not find a foothold against the popular shows of the day, such as the runaway success of the syndicated Wheel of Fortune. Compared to some of the other shows on the market during this period, Price was a modest success, but it did not meet the very high expectations stations and producers had for the series. As a result, the show was not renewed beyond its first season. A total of 170 episodes were produced, and they aired in first - run from September 9, 1985 to May 30, 1986. During the six years it held the rights to Price, the Kennedy version is the only one of the three syndicated versions that was rerun by GSN.
Eight years after the cancellation of Kennedy 's Price Is Right, a new syndicated version premiered on September 12, 1994, hosted by Doug Davidson and distributed by Paramount Domestic Television. This series featured several significant changes: eliminating Contestants ' Row, a different format for the Showcase Showdown, a Showcase featuring only one contestant, a completely different set and a much larger budget (even when compared to the two previous syndicated runs) that gave contestants the potential to win up to five times what they could win on the daytime show. However, this version found even more trouble finding an audience than the two previous syndicated series did and ended its run on January 27, 1995, after only 16 weeks of first - run shows. Several stylistic elements of this series, as well as many of its music cues, were later integrated into both the daytime version and nighttime specials.
CBS attempted to break NBC 's dominance of Thursday night prime time by The Cosby Show and Family Ties with a six - episode summer series, The Price Is Right Special, beginning in August 1986. On August 23, 1996, CBS aired an hour - long 25th Anniversary Special, using the half - hour gameplay format and featuring a number of retrospective clips. The 30th Anniversary Special was recorded at Harrah 's Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas and aired on January 31, 2002. This one - time road trip enticed 5,000 potential contestants to line up for 900 available tickets, causing an incident that left one person injured. A second six - episode primetime series saluting various branches of the United States armed forces, police officers and firefighters aired during the summer of 2002, as a tribute to the heroes of the terrorist attacks of 2001. During the series The Price Is Right Salutes, spinning $1.00 in a bonus spin during the Showcase Showdown was worth $100,000 instead of the usual $10,000.
The success of the primetime series, which aired mostly in the summer, along with the rise of "million dollar '' game shows, led to CBS launching another primetime series in 2003, titled The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular. The 2007 -- 08 Writers Guild of America strike and original success in the Nielsen ratings led CBS to commission ten more episodes of the primetime series. This series introduced set changes as the show was broadcast in high definition television for the first time and the set used for these episodes (except for the black floor) was moved to the daytime show in 2008. On the primetime series, larger and more expensive prizes were generally offered than on the daytime show. The Showcase frequently offered multiple or very - expensive cars. In the first sixteen $1,000,000 Spectaculars all hosted by Barker, the payoff for landing on the $1.00 during a bonus spin in the Showcase Showdown was increased to $1 million. Beginning with the seventh special, if nobody had received a bonus spin in either Showcase Showdown, the winner of the Showcase received one bonus spin for a chance at $1 million. If both contestants overbid, an audience member was chosen at random to spin the wheel. This rule was later changed so that in the event of a double overbid, the contestant who overbid by the lower amount received the bonus spin for a chance at $1 million.
The million - dollar spin was eliminated in 2008, and instead contestants were given two ways to winning the prize. One pricing game per episode was selected as a "million - dollar game '', with a secondary objective needing to be met in order for the contestant to win the money. Contestants were also awarded the million dollar bonus if they managed to win both Showcases, and the range the players had to come within was initially increased to $1,000, then reduced to $500. This format lasted one season (2008), which was made as replacement programming.
On February 12, 2016, CBS announced that it would air three primetime Price is Right specials themed around its reality show franchises The Amazing Race, Big Brother, and Survivor along with the appearance of their respective hosts from all three franchises Phil Keoghan, Julie Chen and Jeff Probst. The episodes featured fans of the three programs playing alongside past participants from them. The specials were filmed in March 2016, and aired over three consecutive nights, May 23 -- 25, 2016.
On May 31, 2006, The Price Is Right was featured on the series Gameshow Marathon, one of seven classic game shows hosted by talk show host and actress Ricki Lake. This version combined aspects of the Barker and Davidson versions with the celebrity contestants playing three pricing games, followed by a Showcase Showdown where the two contestants with the highest scores moved on to the Showcase. The winner of the Showcase also earned a spot in Finalists ' Row. This version was announced by Fields and taped in Studio 46. It also marked the first Price Is Right episode directed by DiPirro, who replaced Eskander as the director on the daytime show in January 2009.
Road to Price is a six episode reality documentary show aired on the now - defunct CBS Innertube from September 20 to 27 in 2006. The program featured nine teenage boys driving to Los Angeles in a refurbished mini-school bus as they leave their hometown of Merrimack, New Hampshire in order to be on The Price is Right. The episode of The Price is Right featuring the cast aired September 27, 2006.
Five episodes aired on their official website priceisright.com from October 27 to November 11, 2014. The series was created in order to replace the first male Price model Rob Wilson as he pursued an acting career in the online version of the ABC daytime soap opera All My Children. During the webisode series, hopeful contestants attempt to be selected as the next male model. Judges included Mike Richards, Manuela Arbeláez, Amber Lancaster, Gwendolyn Osborne - Smith, Rachel Reynolds, Rob Wilson and former Miss America Shanna Moakler. The three finalists appeared on the CBS daytime talk show The Talk. Online voting determined the winner, and James O'Halloran became the newest cast member. He began appearing with the episode which aired December 15, 2014.
Perfect Bid: The Contestant Who Knew Too Much was released on October 13, 2017 and was directed by CJ Wallis and was produced by FortyFPS Productions and MK Ultra Productions, this documentary explores how contestant Ted Slauson became adept at memorizing the prices of the prizes and products on the show since its inception in 1972 by culminating with Slauson helping a contestant bid perfectly on a showcase in 2008 which resulted in one of the biggest controversies in game show history that was covered by Time, Esquire, TMZ and more. It also featured guest appearances by Bob Barker, Roger Dobkowitz, Kevin Pollak and Drew Carey.
As of November 2009, the show had given away approximately $250 million in cash and prizes. Furs have not been offered as prizes since Barker 's tenure as host (although wool and leather are now permitted). Several Barker - imposed prohibitions have been lifted since his departure, such as offering products made of leather or leather seats in vehicles and showing simulated meat props on barbecues and in ovens. The show has also offered couture clothing and accessories, featuring designers such as Coach Inc., Louis Vuitton and Limited Brands in an attempt to attract a younger demographic, as well as backyard play equipment such as JumpSport Trampolines and electronics such as smartphones, personal computer systems, video game systems and entertainment centers. Other prizes which have frequently appeared on the show since its beginnings include automobiles, furniture, trips and cash. The most expensive prize offered on this version of the show was a Ferrari 458 Italia Spider sports car, priced at $285,716, that appeared on the April 25, 2013 episode during "Big Money Week ''. The prize was offered during the 3 Strikes pricing game. Prior to this, the most expensive prize was a Tesla Roadster (2008) (valued at $112,845), featured on the April 22, 2010 episode in the pricing game Golden Road.
Since the show 's debut, automobiles have been a signature prize on The Price Is Right. Most hour - long episodes have two pricing games that are each played for an automobile and in most episodes (although not all), at least one showcase will include an automobile. For special episodes, such as the 5,000 th episode, there will often be more cars offered. From 1991 to 2008, almost all automobiles offered on the show were made by companies based in the United States, specifically Detroit 's Big Three (although cars made by these companies ' foreign subsidiaries or in a joint - venture with a foreign company were also offered during this era). The move was made by Barker, in his capacity as executive producer, as a sign of patriotism during the first Iraq war in 1991 and as a show of support to the American car industry, which was particularly struggling at that time. When Chrysler merged with German automaker Daimler - Benz in 1998 to form Daimler Chrysler AG (now simply Daimler AG after Chrysler split from the automaker; Chrysler is now controlled by Italian automaker Fiat), the foreign ownership of Chrysler did not affect carrying any Chrysler - related models. Since Barker 's retirement, cars made by foreign companies have been offered, most notably Honda, which has several factories throughout Ohio (the home state of Carey and former announcer Fields). Through product placement, certain episodes in 2008 and 2009 featured Honda as the exclusive automobile manufacturer for vehicles offered on that episode. The major European (Volkswagen, BMW, Daimler, Fiat and Volvo) and Asian (Hyundai - Kia, Toyota, Mitsubishi, Mazda, Nissan and Honda) manufacturers have all provided cars on the show since the ban was lifted, with premium foreign cars almost exclusively used for games that generally offer higher - priced cars, such as Golden Road and 3 Strikes. Starting around 2010, vintage and classic cars have occasionally been offered as prizes for games which do not involve pricing them. Among them have been a 1955 Chevrolet Bel Air and a 1964 Bentley S3. These cars are usually offered in games where their prices are irrelevant to gameplay, such as Hole in One and Bonus Game.
The record for the largest individual total in cash and prizes on a daytime episode is held by Christen Freeman. On the October 28, 2016 episode, which aired during Big Money Week, Freeman won $210,000 in cash during a playing of Cliff Hangers. During the episode, game rules were modified to offer a top prize of $250,000, which was reduced by $10,000 for every step the mountain climber took. In addition to her One Bid prize and an additional $1,000 won during the Showcase Showdown, Freeman 's grand total was $212,879.
The record for winnings on the primetime show is currently held by Adam Rose. On February 22, 2008, the first The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular episode since Carey became host, Rose won $20,000 playing Grand Game and won both showcases, which included a Cadillac XLR convertible in his own showcase and a Ford Escape Hybrid in his opponent 's showcase, plus a $1 million bonus for being within $1,000 of the actual retail price of his own showcase, bringing his total to $1,153,908.
Terry Kniess holds the record for the closest bid on a showcase without going over, guessing the exact price of the showcase he was given. Kniess, an avid viewer of the show, recorded and watched every episode for four months prior to when he and his wife had tickets to attend in September 2008. Kniess learned that many prizes were repeatedly used (always at the same price) and began taking notes. Kniess was selected as a contestant on September 22, 2008, lost his pricing game (the only contestant to do so that episode), made it to the final showcase and guessed the exact amount of $23,743 for his showcase. Many show staffers, including Carey, were worried that the show was rigged and that Kniess was cheating. Kniess later explained that he had seen all three items of the showcase before and knew the general prices in the thousands. The 743 he used because it was his PIN, based on his wedding date and his wife 's birth month.
Carey attributed his subdued reaction to the perfect bid by saying, "Everybody thought someone had cheated. We 'd just fired Roger Dobkowitz, and all the fan groups were upset about it... I remember asking, ' Are we ever going to air this? ' And nobody could see how we could. So I thought the show was never going to air. I thought somebody had cheated us, and I thought the whole show was over. I thought they were going to shut us down, and I thought I was going to be out of a job. '' Kniess later defended his actions, claiming that he never cheated, and in the end, was awarded his prizes. (His feat can be comparable to the actions of Michael Larson, who appeared on the 1980s CBS game show Press Your Luck, and won $110,237 by memorizing the board sequence.)
The Price Is Right has received eight Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show, in 1988, 1996, 1997, 2004, 2007, 2013, 2016 and 2018.
The Price Is Right has generally been praised and remained a stalwart in television ratings over its long history. In a 2007 article, TV Guide named the program the "greatest game show of all time. '' The introduction of the program ushered in a new era of game shows -- moving away from the knowledge - based quiz show format, creating "a noisy, carnival atmosphere that challenged cultural norms and assumptions represented in previous generations of quiz shows ''.
The show 's early reception was not as universally positive, as critics lamented the show 's stark departure from the highbrow norms of the Golden Age of Television; original nighttime host Dennis James admitted that even his own housekeeper did not watch the show for that reason, but also defended the series, saying "CBS, who never wanted game shows, just put three game shows on the air, so they know they had better join the fight or lose out, because game shows have a tremendous appeal. The critics will always look down their noses, but you ca n't have The Bell Telephone Hour on and still stay in competition (...) If you want to read books, read books. ''
Since the mid-1990s, the program production company and in some cases the executive producer (both Barker and Richards, the executive producer since September 2009) have been sued by numerous women. Most of the lawsuits involved models and other staff members in cases of sexual harassment, wrongful termination and racial discrimination. Allegations of sexual harassment brought by Dian Parkinson led to Barker calling a press conference to admit a past consensual sexual relationship with her, while denying any harassment, explaining that she was only angry with him for calling off the relationship. Barker was widowed in 1981 following the death of his wife, Dorothy Jo. It has also been alleged that Barker and senior staff created a hostile work environment, particularly to those who testified for the plaintiffs suing Barker. Responding to the controversy just before his retirement, Barker told William Keck of USA Today, "They 've (the women who have sued Barker) been such a problem. I do n't want to say anything about them. They 're disgusting; I do n't want to mention them. '' The Barker - era lawsuits, except for one, were settled out of court. After Barker dropped his slander suit against Hallstrom, she eventually countersued and received millions in settlement. There is one lawsuit pending in litigation: a sexual harassment suit involving Lanisha Cole, filed in September 2011.
The Plinko board is often used by RTL Group - licensed lottery promotions, CBS affiliates and Fremantle 's Ludia video game division to promote the show. For the promotions, two fishing lines (one on each side of the board, hanging from the side down towards the center slot) are used to rig the game so the dropped chip always lands in the $10,000 slot. After an advertisement for the show 's Ludia video game was taped, the wires were mistakenly left in place for the 1: 00 pm taping of The Price Is Right on July 22, 2008. As a contestant was playing the game, three consecutive chips she dropped landed in the $10,000 slot. As the fourth chip was being dropped, a co-producer realized that the wires were still in place and stopped the chip as it bounced down the board, informing Carey of the situation. The wires were removed and the entire segment was re-shot for the show from the point where the contestant began dropping chips. CBS Standards and Practices allowed the contestant to keep the $30,000 won prior to the removal of the wires as well as the money won with the five chips after the mistake had been corrected. However, the segment that aired (when the show was broadcast on December 5, 2008) did not refer to the mistake or the amount of money won prior to the removal of the wires.
The show aired a 40th Anniversary Special on September 4, 2012. The entire audience was made up of former contestants. Barker did not appear, stating that he believed that he had been excluded for criticizing some of the prizes given away after Carey became host, such as a trip to the Calgary Stampede rodeo. Although he did not appear in person, vintage clips of Barker hosting the show were shown during the episode. Barker appeared on the show twice afterwards, once in December 2013 during Pet Adoption Week, celebrating his 90th birthday, and again on April 1, 2015 as the guest host for the first pricing game, part of an April Fool 's Day storyline involving Carey and Plinko being kidnapped to Let 's Make a Deal.
The Price Is Right has expanded beyond television to home and casino - based games.
A four - disc DVD box set, titled The Best of "The Price Is Right, '' was released on March 25, 2008. The set features four episodes of the 1956 -- 1965 Bill Cullen series, 17 episodes of the Barker 1972 -- 1975 daytime series and the final five daytime episodes hosted by Barker. In accordance with Barker 's animal - rights wishes, which remain in effect beyond his retirement, any episodes with fur coats as prizes can not be aired or released into home media formats. This includes the first three daytime shows recorded in 1972, plus most of the 1970s syndicated run.
Seven board games have been produced. One of them was a variation of a card game, using prizes and price tags from the 1956 version. The second was based more closely on the original version of the show.
Three games were produced during the 1970s by Milton Bradley, with Contestants ' Row, some pricing games and, in the case of the third version, a spinner for the Big Wheel. In the first two versions, decks of cards had various grocery items, small prizes and larger prizes. The third version simply had cards for each game that included ten sets of "right '' answers, all using the same price choices. The instruction book specified what color cards were necessary for each round.
The 1986 version, again by Milton Bradley, was similar in scope to the earlier version, with new prizes and more games, but lacking the Big Wheel, similar to the Davidson version. The instruction book refers to Contestants ' Row as the "Qualifying Round '' and the pricing games as "Solo Games. '' The book also instructs players to use items priced under $100 as One Bids. The 1998 version of the game, by Endless Games, was virtually identical to the 1986 release, with the same games, prizes and even the same prices. The only changes were that the number tiles were made of cardboard bits instead of plastic and the cars from the deck of prizes with four - digit prices were removed.
The 2004 version, again by Endless Games, was a complete departure from previous home versions. Instead of different prize cards and games, the game consisted of everything needed to play 45 games and enough materials to create all the games not technically included if the "host '' wished to and knew their rules. The Big Wheel spinner was also restored, this time with the numbers in the correct order. Additionally, the prices, instead of being random numbers that could change each time the game was played, were actual prices taken from episodes of the TV show. To fit everything in the box, grocery items and prizes were listed in the instruction book and games were played on dry erase boards. A spinner determined the game to be played next, although its use was not necessarily required if the "host '' wished to build his own game lineup, or even use a pricing game not included in the lineup.
In 1990, GameTek created a Price Is Right computer game for the DOS and Commodore 64 platforms and other systems to fit in their line of other game show games. A handheld Tiger game was made in 1998 with four pricing games. A DVD game with 12 pricing games, live casino show host Todd Newton and video of prizes taken directly from the show was produced by Endless Games in 2005. A 2008 DVD edition, also from Endless Games, featured many changes based on season 36 and included seven new games: Half Off, More or Less, Swap Meet, Secret X, That 's Too Much, Coming or Going and Hole in One. It also featured both host Drew Carey and announcer Rich Fields. CBS.com featured an online Price Is Right - based game in the late - 1990s, which was plugged in the closing credits of each episode. The game consisted of choosing which of the four bidders in Contestant 's Row was closest to the price of a prize without going over. Additionally, Mobliss provides a suite of pricing games for cellular phones.
On March 26, 2008, Ludia (in connection with Ubisoft) launched The Price Is Right video game for PC. A version for the Wii and Nintendo DS platforms was released in September 2008, while a version for the iOS was released in November 2008. The show 's announcer, Fields, was the host of the computer version. The virtual set in the game resembles the set used in seasons 31 to 34. Ludia announced that all three platforms will receive a new version of the video game that was previewed at the Target Bullseye Lounge during the Electronic Entertainment Expo trade show on June 2 -- 4, 2009. The Price Is Right 2010 Edition was released on September 22, 2009. In the fall of 2010, Ludia developed a multi-player version for Facebook. A third Ludia adaptation, The Price Is Right Decades, featuring set designs, pricing games and prizes taken from the 1970s through 2000s; was initially released for the Wii in October 2011, with an Xbox 360 and iOS release following in November and December. The Price Is Right 2010 Edition and The Price Is Right Decades have also been released as downloads within the PlayStation Store for the PlayStation 3 in May 2010 and April 2012, respectively. Irwin Toys released an electronic tabletop version in 2008 featuring Contestant 's Row, the Big Wheel, a physical Plinko board with chips, Showcases and seven pricing games. Jakks Pacific released a Plug It in and Play version of The Price Is Right in 2009, featuring Carey and Fields.
A series of video slot machines were manufactured for North American casinos by International Game Technology. Although gameplay varies by machine, each feature themes and motifs found on the show, including the Showcase Showdown, with themes used following Carey 's start as host. Others feature pricing games as gameplay elements, including Plinko, Cliff Hangers, Punch a Bunch, Dice Game, and Money Game.
A scratchcard version of the game is being offered by several U.S. and Canadian lotteries, featuring adaptations of Plinko, Cliff Hangers, the Showcase Showdown and the Showcase. The top prize varies with each version.
After the 30th anniversary episode taped in Las Vegas in 2002, Harrah 's and RTL Group began producing live licensed shows (dubbed The Price Is Right Live!) at their venues, with several performers, including Roger Lodge, Newton and Gray hosting, with West, Rosen and Dave Walls announcing.
Schwartz, David; Ryan, Steve & Wostbrock, Fred (1999). The Encyclopedia of TV Game Shows (3rd ed.). New York: Facts on File. ISBN 0 - 8160 - 3846 - 5.
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who sang just want to dance the night away | Dance the Night Away (the Mavericks song) - wikipedia
"Dance the Night Away '' is a 1998 song written by Raul Malo and recorded by American country band The Mavericks, on their fifth studio album Trampoline (1998). The song was also released as a single in 1998. It reached number 63 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart and number 4 on the UK Singles Chart.
The music video is set in a supermarket in America. It starts off like any general day in the supermarket, however once the music starts lots of things happen as The Mavericks play throughout the video, A security guard tries to find the band in the different locations, one shopper is sitting and eating some of the stock, girls playing trombones and trumpets, a set of dancers dancing down the aisles, an elderly couple with a dummy in the child seat and a man who plays a keyboard madly, even the staff get involved in the dancing while the security guard tries to find the band playing but by the end he gives up as the music ends with the band looking into the security cameras.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what is the highest halftime score in the nba | List of highest - scoring NBA games - wikipedia
In basketball, points are used to keep track of the score in a game. Points can be accumulated by making field goals (worth two points from within the three - point line or three points from beyond the three - point line) or free throws (worth one point). The team that records the most points at the end of a game is declared the game 's winner. If the game is still tied at the end of regulation play, additional overtime period (s) are played in order to determine the winner.
Teams only averaged around 80 points per game in the years following the founding of the National Basketball Association (NBA) in 1946. Before the introduction of the shot clock, teams often ran out the clock by passing the ball more frequently after they established a lead in a game. If one team chose to stall, the other team (especially if behind) would often commit fouls to regain possession. This resulted in very low - scoring games with many fouls, affecting attendance by making fans irritable. Starting in the 1954 -- 55 season, the NBA implemented a 24 - second shot clock. If the offensive team fails to hit the rim with the ball within the allotted time, they would lose possession. This innovation resulted in much higher scoring games. All of the highest - scoring games in the NBA have happened during the shot - clock era.
The highest - scoring regular season game is the triple - overtime game between the Detroit Pistons and the Denver Nuggets on December 13, 1983. The two teams combined to score 370 points, with the Pistons defeating the Nuggets 186 -- 184. An NBA - record four players scored over 40 points in the game, including the Nuggets ' Kiki Vandeweghe with a game - high 51. The two teams also set several other NBA records, including the most points scored by one team (186 points), the most points scored by a losing team (184), the most field goals by two teams (142), most field goals by one team (74) and most assists by two teams (93).
The highest - scoring regular season game in regulation was between the Golden State Warriors and the Denver Nuggets on November 2, 1990. In that game, Golden State defeated Denver 162 -- 158. The Warriors ' Chris Mullin scored a game - high 38 points. The Nuggets were coached by Doug Moe from 1980 to 1990 and Paul Westhead from 1990 to 1992, both of whom employed a run and gun offensive strategy, which focuses on attempting a high number of field goals while also conceding a large number of points on defense. In fact, Moe 's and Westhead 's Nuggets were participants in five of the ten highest - scoring regular season games in NBA history. The Warriors were coached by Don Nelson from 1988 to 1995 and 2006 to 2010. He employed Nellie Ball, a style of run and gun that uses smaller, more athletic players to outrun opponents. Another notable high scoring regular season game is a March 2, 1962 game between the Philadelphia Warriors and the New York Knicks. In that game, the Warriors ' Wilt Chamberlain scored an NBA - record 100 points.
The highest - scoring playoff game is the double - overtime game between the Portland Trail Blazers and the Phoenix Suns on May 11, 1992. The two teams combined to score 304 points, with the Trail Blazers defeating the Suns 153 -- 151. The Suns ' Kevin Johnson scored a game - high 35 points, with 12 other players also scoring in double figures. The highest - scoring playoff game in regulation occurred when the San Antonio Spurs defeated the Denver Nuggets with a score of 152 -- 133 for a combined score of 285 points on April 26, 1983. In that game, the Spurs ' George Gervin scored a game - high 42 points.
Most of the highest - scoring games happened before the 1995 -- 96 season, when the average scoring (points per game) per team was always in the 100s. Until the emergence of ' small ball ' in 2013, the average had dropped down to the 90s. Only two post-1995 games make the top - ten lists of both the regular season and playoffs: a May 10, 2003 game between the Dallas Mavericks and the Sacramento Kings and a December 7, 2006 game between the Phoenix Suns and New Jersey Nets. Both the Mavericks and the Suns were coached by Nelson and Mike D'Antoni respectively, both of whom also made use of the run and gun style.
Below are the top 10 highest - scoring playoff games. Four of the games happened before the 1979 -- 80 season, the season in which the three - point line was first implemented.
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location of japan in relation to other countries | Geography of Japan - Wikipedia
Japan is an island nation in East Asia comprising a volcanic archipelago extending along the continent 's Pacific coast. It lies between 24 ° to 46 ° north latitude and from 123 ° to 146 ° east longitude. Japan is southeast of the Russian Far East, separated by the Sea of Okhotsk; slightly east of the Korean Peninsula, separated by the Sea of Japan; and east - northeast of China and Taiwan, separated by the East China Sea. The closest neighboring country to Japan is Russia.
The major islands, sometimes called the "Home Islands '', are (from north to south) Hokkaido, Honshu (the "mainland ''), Shikoku and Kyushu. There are 6,852 islands in total, including the Nansei Islands, the Nanpo Islands and islets, with 430 islands being inhabited and others uninhabited. In total, as of 2006, Japan 's territory is 377,923.1 km (145,916.9 sq mi), of which 374,834 km (144,724 sq mi) is land and 3,091 km (1,193 sq mi) water.
Location: Eastern Asia, island chain between the North Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan, east of the Korean Peninsula.
Map references: Asia, Oceania
Area:
Land boundaries: the ocean
Coastline: 29,751 km (18,486 mi)
Maritime claims:
Climate: varies from tropical in south to cool temperate in north
Terrain: mostly rugged and mountainous, can easily be compared to Norway, both having about 70 % of their land in the mountains.
Natural resources: small deposits of coal, oil, iron, and minerals. Major fishing industry.
Land use:
Irrigated land: 25,000 km2 (2010)
Total renewable water resources: 430 km (2011)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic / industrial / agricultural):
About 73 % of Japan is mountainous, with a mountain range running through each of the main islands. Japan 's highest mountain is Mount Fuji, with an elevation of 3,776 m (12,388 ft). Japan 's forest cover rate is 68.55 % since the mountains are heavily forested. The only other developed nations with such a high forest cover percentage are Finland and Sweden.
Since there is little level ground, many hills and mountainsides at lower elevations around towns and cities are often cultivated. As Japan is situated in a volcanic zone along the Pacific deeps, frequent low - intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive earthquakes occur several times a century. Hot springs are numerous and have been exploited as an economic capital by the leisure industry.
The mountainous islands of the Japanese archipelago form a crescent off the eastern coast of Asia. They are separated from the mainland by the Sea of Japan, which historically served as a protective barrier. The country consists of four major islands: Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu; with more than 6,500 adjacent smaller islands and islets ("island '' defined as land more than 100 m in circumference), including the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands in the Nanpō Islands, and the Satsunan Islands, Okinawa Islands, and Sakishima Islands of the Ryukyu Islands.
The national territory also includes the Volcano Islands (Kazan Retto) such as Iwo Jima, located some 1,200 kilometers south of mainland Tokyo. A territorial dispute with Russia, dating from the end of World War II, over the two southernmost of the Kuril Islands, Etorofu and Kunashiri, and the smaller Shikotan Island and Habomai Islands northeast of Hokkaido remains a sensitive spot in Japanese -- Russian relations (as of 2005). Excluding disputed territory, the archipelago covers about 377,000 square kilometers. No point in Japan is more than 150 kilometers from the sea.
The four major islands are separated by narrow straits and form a natural entity. The Ryukyu Islands curve 970 kilometers southward from Kyūshū.
The distance between Japan and the Korean Peninsula, the nearest point on the Asian continent, is about 200 kilometers at the Korea Strait. Japan has always been linked with the continent through trade routes, stretching in the north toward Siberia, in the west through the Tsushima Islands to the Korean Peninsula, and in the south to the ports on the south China coast.
The Japanese islands are the summits of mountain ridges uplifted near the outer edge of the continental shelf. About 73 percent of Japan 's area is mountainous, and scattered plains and intermontane basins (in which the population is concentrated) cover only about 27 percent. A long chain of mountains runs down the middle of the archipelago, dividing it into two halves, the "face '', fronting on the Pacific Ocean, and the "back '', toward the Sea of Japan. On the Pacific side are steep mountains 1,500 to 3,000 meters high, with deep valleys and gorges.
Central Japan is marked by the convergence of the three mountain chains -- the Hida, Kiso, and Akaishi mountains -- that form the Japanese Alps (Nihon Arupusu), several of whose peaks are higher than 3,000 meters. The highest point in the Japanese Alps is Mount Kita at 3,193 meters. The highest point in the country is Mount Fuji (Fujisan, also erroneously called Fujiyama), a volcano dormant since 1707 that rises to 3,776 meters above sea level in Shizuoka Prefecture. On the Sea of Japan side are plateaus and low mountain districts, with altitudes of 500 to 1,500 meters.
None of the populated plains or mountain basins are extensive in area. The largest, the Kantō Plain, where Tokyo is situated, covers only 13,000 square kilometers. Other important plains are the Nōbi Plain surrounding Nagoya, the Kinai Plain in the Osaka -- Kyoto area, the Sendai Plain around the city of Sendai in northeastern Honshū, and the Ishikari Plain on Hokkaidō. Many of these plains are along the coast, and their areas have been increased by reclamation throughout recorded history.
The small amount of habitable land has prompted significant human modification of the terrain over many centuries. Land was reclaimed from the sea and from river deltas by building dikes and drainage, and rice paddies were built on terraces carved into mountainsides. The process continued in the modern period with extension of shorelines and building of artificial islands for industrial and port development, such as Port Island in Kobe and the new Kansai International Airport in Osaka Bay. Hills and even mountains have been razed to provide flat areas for housing.
Rivers are generally steep and swift, and few are suitable for navigation except in their lower reaches. Although most rivers are less than 300 kilometers in length, their rapid flow from the mountains provides a valuable, renewable resource: hydroelectric power generation. Japan 's hydroelectric power potential has been exploited almost to capacity. Seasonal variations in flow have led to extensive development of flood control measures. Most of the rivers are very short. The longest, the Shinano River, which winds through Nagano Prefecture to Niigata Prefecture and flows into the Sea of Japan, is only 367 kilometers long. The largest freshwater lake is Lake Biwa, northeast of Kyoto.
Extensive coastal shipping, especially around the Seto Inland Sea (Seto Naikai), compensates for the lack of navigable rivers. The Pacific coastline south of Tokyo is characterized by long, narrow, gradually shallowing inlets produced by sedimentation, which has created many natural harbors. The Pacific coastline north of Tokyo, the coast of Hokkaidō, and the Sea of Japan coast are generally unindented, with few natural harbors.
In November 2008, Japan filed a request to expand its claimed continental shelf. In April 2012, the U.N. Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf recognized around 310,000 square kilometres (120,000 sq mi) of seabed around Okinotorishima, giving Japan priority over access to seabed resources in nearby areas. According to U.N. Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, the approved expansion is equal to about 82 % of Japan 's total land area. The People 's Republic of China and South Korea have opposed Japan 's claim because they view Okinotorishima not as an island, but as a group of rocks.
Most regions of Japan, such as much of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, belong to the temperate zone with humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by four distinct seasons. However, its climate varies from cool humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) in the north such as northern Hokkaido, to warm tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification Af) in the south such as Ishigaki in the Yaeyama Islands.
The two primary factors influences in Japan 's climate are a location near the Asian continent and the existence of major oceanic currents. Two major ocean currents affect Japan: the warm Kuroshio Current (Black Current; also known as the Japan Current); and the cold Oyashio Current (Parent Current; also known as the Okhotsk Current). The Kuroshio Current flows northward on the Pacific side of Japan and warms areas as north as the South Kantō region; a small branch, the Tsushima Current, flows up the Sea of Japan side. The Oyashio Current, which abounds in plankton beneficial to coldwater fish, flows southward along the northern Pacific, cooling adjacent coastal areas. The intersection of these currents at 36 north latitude is a bountiful fishing ground.
Japan 's varied geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones.
Japan is generally a rainy country with high humidity. Because of its wide range of latitude, seasonal winds and different types of ocean currents, Japan has a variety of climates, with a latitude range of the inhabited islands from 24 ° to 46 ° north, which is comparable to the range between Nova Scotia and The Bahamas in the east coast of North America. Tokyo is at about 35 degrees north latitude, comparable to that of Tehran, Athens, or Las Vegas.
Regional climatic variations range from humid continental in the northern island of Hokkaido extending down through northern Japan to the Central Highland, then blending with and eventually changing to a humid subtropical climate on the Pacific Coast and ultimately reaching tropical rainforest climate on the Yaeyama Islands of the Ryukyu Islands. Climate also varies dramatically with altitude and with location on the Pacific Ocean or on the Sea of Japan.
Northern Japan has warm summers but long, cold winters with heavy snow. Central Japan in its elevated position, has hot, humid summers and moderate to short winters with some areas having very heavy snow, and southwestern Japan has long, hot, humid summers and mild winters. The generally humid, temperate climate exhibits marked seasonal variation such as the blooming of the spring cherry blossoms, the calls of the summer cicada and fall foliage colors that are celebrated in art and literature.
The climate from June to September is marked by hot, wet weather brought by tropical airflows from the Pacific Ocean and Southeast Asia. These airflows are full of moisture and deposit substantial amounts of rain when they reach land. There is a marked rainy season, beginning in early June and continuing for about a month. It is followed by hot, sticky weather. Five or six typhoons pass over or near Japan every year from early August to early October, sometimes resulting in significant damage. Annual precipitation averages between 1,000 and 2,500 mm (40 and 100 in) except for the areas such as Kii Peninsula and Yakushima Island which is Japan 's wettest place with the annual precipitation being one of the world 's highest at 4,000 to 10,000 mm.
Maximum precipitation, like the rest of East Asia, occurs in the summer months except on the Sea of Japan coast where strong northerly winds produce a maximum in late autumn and early winter. Except for a few sheltered inland valleys during December and January, precipitation in Japan is above 25 millimetres (1 in) of rainfall equivalent in all months of the year, and in the wettest coastal areas it is above 100 millimetres (4 in) per month throughout the year.
In winter, the Siberian High develops over the Eurasian land mass and the Aleutian Low develops over the northern Pacific Ocean. The result is a flow of cold air southeastward across Japan that brings freezing temperatures and heavy snowfalls to the central mountain ranges facing the Sea of Japan, but clear skies to areas fronting on the Pacific.
Mid June to mid July is generally the rainy season in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, excluding Hokkaidō since the seasonal rain front or baiu zensen (梅雨 前線) dissipates in northern Honshu before reaching Hokkaido. In Okinawa, the rainy season starts early in May and continues until mid June. Unlike the rainy season in mainland Japan, it rains neither everyday nor all day long during the rainy season in Okinawa. Between July and October, typhoons, grown from tropical depressions generated near the equator, can attack Japan with furious rainstorms.
The warmest winter temperatures are found in the Nanpō and Bonin Islands, which enjoy a tropical climate due to the combination of latitude, distance from the Asian mainland, and warming effect of winds from the Kuroshio, as well as the Volcano Islands (at the latitude of the southernmost of the Ryukyu Islands, 24 ° N). The coolest summer temperatures are found on the northeastern coast of Hokkaidō in Kushiro and Nemuro Subprefectures.
Sunshine, in accordance with Japan 's uniformly heavy rainfall, is generally modest in quantity, though no part of Japan receives the consistently gloomy fogs that envelope the Sichuan Basin or Taipei. Amounts range from about six hours per day in the Inland Sea coast and sheltered parts of the Pacific Coast and Kantō Plain to four hours per day on the Sea of Japan coast of Hokkaidō. In December there is a very pronounced sunshine gradient between the Sea of Japan and Pacific coasts, as the former side can receive less than 30 hours and the Pacific side as much as 180 hours. In summer, however, sunshine hours are lowest on exposed parts of the Pacific coast where fogs from the Oyashio current create persistent cloud cover similar to that found on the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin.
As an island nation, Japan has the 7th longest coastline in the world. A few prefectures are landlocked: Gunma, Tochigi, Saitama, Nagano, Yamanashi, Gifu, Shiga, and Nara. As Mt. Fuji and the coastal Japanese Alps provide a rain shadow, Nagano and Yamanashi Prefectures receive the least precipitation in Honshu, though it still exceeds 900 millimetres (35 in) annually. A similar effect is found in Hokkaido, where Okhotsk Subprefecture receives as little as 750 millimetres (30 in) per year. All other prefectures have coasts on the Pacific Ocean, Sea of Japan, Seto Inland Sea or have a body of salt water connected to them. Two prefectures -- Hokkaido and Okinawa -- are composed entirely of islands.
The hottest temperature ever measured in Japan, 41.0 ° C (105.8 ° F), occurred in Shimanto, Kochi on August 12, 2013.
Environment - current issues: In the 2006 environment annual report, the Ministry of Environment reported that current major issues are: global warming and preservation of the ozone layer, conservation of the atmospheric environment, water and soil, waste management and recycling, measures for chemical substances, conservation of the natural environment and the participation in the international cooperation.
Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic - Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes (Basel Convention), Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection (Montreal Protocol), Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73 / 78), Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands (Ramsar Convention), Whaling signed and ratified: Climate Change - Kyoto Protocol
Ten percent of the world 's active volcanoes -- forty in the early 1990s (another 148 were dormant) -- are found in Japan, which lies in a zone of extreme crustal instability. As many as 1,500 earthquakes are recorded yearly, and magnitudes of 4 to 7 are common. Minor tremors occur almost daily in one part of the country or another, causing slight shaking of buildings. Major earthquakes occur infrequently; the most famous in the twentieth century was the great Kantō earthquake of 1923, in which 130,000 people died. Undersea earthquakes also expose the Japanese coastline to danger from tsunamis (津波).
On March 11, 2011 Japan was subject to a devastating magnitude 9.0 earthquake and a massive tsunami as a result. The March 11 quake was the largest ever recorded in Japan and is the world 's fourth largest earthquake to strike since 1900, according to the U.S. Geological Service. It struck offshore about 371 kilometres (231 mi) northeast of Tokyo and 130 kilometres (81 mi) east of the city of Sendai, and created a massive tsunami that devastated Japan 's northeastern coastal areas. At least 100 aftershocks registering a 6.0 magnitude or higher have followed the main shock. At least 15,000 people died as a result.
Japan has become a world leader in research on causes and prediction of earthquakes. The development of advanced technology has permitted the construction of skyscrapers even in earthquake - prone areas. Extensive civil defence efforts focus on training in protection against earthquakes, in particular against accompanying fire, which represents the greatest danger.
Another common hazard are several typhoons that reach Japan from the Pacific every year and heavy snowfall during winter in the snow country regions, causing landslides, flooding, and avalanches.
Japan is informally divided into eight regions. Each contains several prefectures, except the Hokkaido region, which covers only Hokkaido Prefecture.
The region is not an official administrative unit, but has been traditionally used as the regional division of Japan in a number of contexts: for example, maps and geography textbooks divide Japan into the eight regions, weather reports usually give the weather by region, and many businesses and institutions use their home region as part of their name (Kinki Nippon Railway, Chūgoku Bank, Tohoku University, etc.). While Japan has eight High Courts, their jurisdictions do not correspond to the eight regions.
This is a list of the extreme points of Japan, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
The only part of Japan with antipodes over land are the Ryukyu Islands, though the islands off the western coast of Kyūshū are close.
The northernmost antipodal island in the Ryukyu Island chain, Nakanoshima, is opposite the Brazilian coast near Capão da Canoa. The other islands south to the Straits of Okinawa correspond to southern Brazil, with Gaja Island being opposite the outskirts of Santo Antônio da Patrulha, Takarajima with Jua, Amami Ōshima covering the villages of Carasinho and Fazenda Pae João, Ginoza, Okinawa with Palmas, Paraná, the Kerama Islands with Pato Branco, Tonaki Island with São Lourenço do Oeste, and Kume Island corresponding to Palma Sola. The main Daitō Islands correspond to near Guaratuba, with Oki Daitō Island near Apiaí.
The Sakishima Islands beyond the straits are antipodal to Paraguay, from the Brazilian border almost to Asunción, with Ishigaki overlapping San Isidro de Curuguaty, and the uninhabited Senkaku Islands surrounding Villarrica.
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who played the thursday night football game tonight | Thursday Night Football - Wikipedia
12 (NFL Network seasons) 4 (CBS seasons) 2 (NBC seasons)
Thursday Night Football (or simply TNF) is the branding used for broadcasts of National Football League (NFL) games that broadcast primarily on Thursday nights, and occasionally on Saturdays in the later portion of the season. Most of the games kick off at 8: 25 p.m. Eastern Time.
Debuting on November 23, 2006, the telecasts were originally part of NFL Network 's Run to the Playoffs package, which consisted of eight total games broadcast on Thursday and Saturday nights (five on Thursdays, and three on Saturdays, originally branded as Saturday Night Football) during the latter portion of the season. Since 2012, the TNF package has begun during the second week of the NFL season; the NFL Kickoff Game and the Thanksgiving primetime game are both broadcast as part of NBC Sports ' Sunday Night Football contract and are not included in Thursday Night Football, although the Thanksgiving primetime game was previously part of the package from 2006 until 2011.
At its launch, the package proved highly controversial mainly due to the relative unavailability of NFL Network at the time; the league used the games as leverage to encourage television providers to carry NFL Network on their basic service tiers, rather than in premium, sports - oriented packages that required subscribers to pay a higher fee; although, as with all other national cable telecasts of NFL games, the league 's own regulations require the games to be syndicated to over-the - air television stations in the local markets of the teams. These issues were magnified in 2007, when a game that saw the New England Patriots close out a perfect regular season was simulcast nationally on both CBS and NBC, in addition to NFL Network and the local stations that the game was sold to, following concerns from politicians and other critics.
In 2014, production of the Thursday Night Football games was taken over by CBS Sports under a one - year deal. As part of the deal, CBS would carry nine Thursday night games (which were simulcast on NFL Network) and lend its primary broadcast team, consisting of Jim Nantz and Phil Simms, to cover the remaining Thursday telecasts airing exclusively on NFL Network. In addition, NFL Network extended the length of the Thursday telecasts to Week 16 of the season, and added a new Saturday doubleheader split between CBS and NFL Network. On January 18, 2015, CBS and NFL Network extended the same arrangement for a second season. On February 1, 2016, the NFL announced that CBS and NBC would split the broadcast television portion of the Thursday Night Football schedule for the 2016 and 2017 seasons, with each network broadcasting 5 games per year in simulcast with NFL Network. CBS will air the first 5 games and NBC will air the other 5 games. Additionally, games televised by CBS and NBC are steamed via Amazon 's Prime Video as part of an agreement for the 2017 season.
The games are broadcast on radio via Westwood One, which syndicates the broadcasts to its partner radio stations around the United States. It also airs on Fox Sports Latin America, ESPN Brasil and Esporte Interativo. In Canada, it is simultaneously aired on CTV Two and TSN, the former simsubbing the CBS and NBC feeds, while the NFL Network feed is replaced with alternate programming, mainly consecutive episodes of NFL Top 10.
The NFL Network 's coverage was not the first time that NFL games were covered on Thursday or Saturday. Prior to the new contract, ESPN carried a handful of sporadic Thursday night games (usually those displaced from Sunday night) and the broadcast networks used to air several national games on Saturday afternoons in mid-to - late December after the college football regular season ended. Incidentally, the only reason the league is even allowed to televise football games on Saturday night stems from a legal loophole: the league 's antitrust exemption, the Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961, was written when the NFL regular season ended in mid-December, and as such, it contains specific language that prohibits televising NFL games in most markets on Friday nights and all day on Saturdays between the second week of September and the second week of December, to protect high school and college football. Since most high school and college seasons have ended by mid-December, other than bowl games, there has been little desire to close this loophole, even though the regular season has expanded well beyond mid-December since the law 's passage.
In 2005, when the NFL negotiated a new set of television contracts, Comcast - owned OLN offered to pay $450 million for an eight - year contract to carry NFL prime time games. In exchange, Comcast planned to add NFL Network to its digital cable lineup. The channel was added, but NFL Network decided to air the games itself, foregoing a rights fee. The other television deals generated $3.735 billion per year over an eight - year period for CBS, Fox, NBC, ESPN and DirecTV (owner of the out - of - market sports package NFL Sunday Ticket).
Thursday Night Football debuted on November 23, 2006, with the Kansas City Chiefs handing the visiting Denver Broncos a 19 -- 10 Thanksgiving defeat. Each of the game broadcasts were titled either Thursday Night Football or Saturday Night Football, depending on the night on which it aired. This format carried over to the 2007 season.
Starting in 2008, NFL Network eliminated all but one of the Saturday night games and started their Thursday night package three weeks earlier. This was done to accommodate the earlier schedule and the league 's antitrust exemption that prohibits Saturday games from being held for most of the season. In the following season, all references to Saturday Night Football were dropped, and any games that are not played on Thursday (such as in 2016, two Christmas weekend games and an NFL International Series game) have since been branded as "special editions '' of Thursday Night Football, and later Thursday Night Special or NFL Network Special. The Thanksgiving matchup was moved from NFL Network to NBC 's Sunday Night Football package as part of the new broadcast contract after the 2011 season. During Super Bowl week in 2012, it was announced that the Thursday Night Football package would expand from eight to 13 games and air on NFL Network, again soliciting and rejecting offers from Turner Sports and Comcast.
In January 2014, it was reported that the NFL was planning to sub-license a package of up to eight Thursday Night Football games to another broadcaster for the 2014 NFL season. The league had negotiated with its existing broadcast partners, along with Turner Sports. These eight games were to be simulcast by NFL Network, and reports indicated that ESPN planned to place the games on ABC in the event it won the rights, bringing the NFL back to the network for the first time since Super Bowl XL and the move of Monday Night Football to ESPN in 2006. The remaining games would remain exclusive to NFL Network, due to carriage contracts with TV providers requiring at least eight NFL games to air exclusively on the channel per - season. The decision came as the league wished to heighten the profile of its Thursday night games, which had suffered from relatively lower viewership and advertising revenue in comparison to other games.
On February 5, 2014, the NFL announced that CBS had acquired the partial rights to Thursday Night Football for the 2014 season. Under the agreement, all of the Thursday Night Football telecasts would be produced by CBS Sports and called by the network 's primary announcing team of Jim Nantz and Phil Simms. The first eight games of the season were simulcast nationally on NFL Network and CBS; the remaining games in the package only aired nationally on NFL Network, but per league broadcast polices, were simulcast on local stations in the participating teams ' markets. CBS affiliates were given right of first refusal to air the local simulcast before it is offered to another station (as had occurred in Cincinnati, Ohio where the market 's NBC affiliate WLWT aired a game between the Bengals and the Cleveland Browns instead of CBS affiliate WKRC - TV). A Saturday doubleheader was also added on Week 16: NFL Network aired the early game, while CBS aired the second, prime time game.
The NFL considered CBS 's bid to be the most attractive, owing to the network 's overall ratings stature (CBS had been the highest - rated broadcast network in the U.S. since the 2005 - 06 television season), a commitment to aggressively promote the Thursday games across its properties, and its plans to utilize CBS Sports ' top NFL talent and production staff across all of the games in the package to ensure a major improvement in quality over the previous, in - house productions. CBS staff also cited experience with its joint coverage of the NCAA Men 's basketball tournament with Turner Sports as an advantage in its collaboration with NFL Network staff, as talent from both networks collaborate on pre-game, halftime and post-game coverage. During the games, a distinct graphics package co-branded with both CBS and NFL Network logos is used, certain players on each team wear microphones, and 4K cameras are used to allow zoom - in shots during instant replays.
With the move of selected games to CBS, media executives expected more major match - ups to appear on Thursday Night Football than in previous years in order to attract better viewership; in the past, Thursday Night Football had been criticized for often featuring games between lesser and poorer - performing teams. CBS and the NFL unveiled the games scheduled for Thursday Night Football in April 2014; CBS 's slate of games featured a number of major divisional rivalries, including New York Giants -- Washington, Green Bay -- Minnesota, and its opening game on September 11, 2014, featuring the Pittsburgh Steelers and the Baltimore Ravens.
In the wake of the controversy surrounding Ravens player Ray Rice (who had been removed from the team and suspended from the NFL earlier in the week following the discovery of footage showing the player physically assaulting his wife, Janay, who was engaged to Rice at the time the security camera footage was recorded), changes were made to pre-game coverage on the first game in order to accommodate additional interviews and discussion related to the incident. Among these changes were the removal of an introductory segment featuring Rihanna (who was similarly assaulted by fellow performer Chris Brown in 2009) performing her song "Run This Town ''. Following complaints by Rihanna on Twitter regarding the removal, the song was pulled entirely from future broadcasts.
The rights were negotiated under a one - year contract valued at $275 million; on January 18, 2015, the NFL announced that it would renew the arrangement with CBS for the 2015 season, with its value increasing to around $300 million.
In November 2015, The Hollywood Reporter reported that in response to the success of the package under CBS, the NFL was planning to negotiate a long - term contract for Thursday Night Football, with CBS, Fox, NBC, and Turner Sports showing interest. The New York Post reported that this deal would also include the sale of a stake in NFL Network itself.
On December 16, 2015, it was reported that the NFL was shopping the Thursday Night Football package as a one - year deal with an option for a second year, similarly to the current arrangement with CBS; the league also requested that bidders outline goals for "growing '' NFL Network. The league was also reportedly interested in selling non-exclusive digital rights to simulcast the games to another partner, such as Amazon.com, Apple Inc., Google, or Yahoo! (which exclusively streamed an International Series as part of a trial during the 2015 season, but would shut down its original video content service in January 2016). In January 2016, it was reported that the NFL was considering splitting the Thursday Night Football package across multiple broadcasters in tandem with the possibility of expanding the overall package to 17 games. It was also reported that ESPN and Turner Sports were not interested in the package due to its short - term nature, and that Fox was attempting to outbid CBS.
On February 1, 2016, the NFL announced that Thursday Night Football would be shared between CBS, NBC, and NFL Network for the 2016 and 2017 seasons. CBS and NBC will each air five games (resulting in a schedule of 10 games on broadcast TV in comparison to 8 under the previous deal), followed by an additional eight games exclusively on NFL Network to satisfy NFL Network 's retransmission consent contracts with cable providers; the eight NFL Network - exclusive games included six Thursday contests, a Sunday morning International Series contest, and a Christmas afternoon game. As with the previous contract, all games will be simulcast by NFL Network. Commissioner Roger Goodell stated that the league was "thrilled to add NBC to the Thursday Night Football mix, a trusted partner with a proven track record of success broadcasting NFL football in primetime, and look forward to expanding with a digital partner for what will be a unique tri-cast on broadcast, cable and digital platforms. '' On April 5, 2016, it was revealed that Twitter had acquired non-exclusive worldwide digital streaming rights to the 10 broadcast television TNF games. The collaboration will also include streaming content on Twitter 's Periscope service, such as behind the scenes access.
Rogers Media, who owns television rights to the Thursday Night Football package in Canada through the end of the 2016 season but has not yet acquired digital rights (the majority of the NFL 's media rights in Canada are owned by Rogers 's rival, Bell Media), successfully forced Twitter to block the game streams in that country, overriding the league 's insistence that the free stream be global. Due to the streaming deal, over-the - top television providers PlayStation Vue and Sling TV are also required to black out the simulcast of the games on NFL Network.
The first game produced by NBC Sports was broadcast exclusively on NFL Network on November 3, 2016, while the first game simulcast nationally on NBC aired on November 17. A cappella group Pentatonix recorded a reworked version of their song "Sing '' ("Weekend Go '') to serve as the opening theme song for NBC 's Thursday Night Football telecasts, NBC also commissioned new instrumental theme music by Jimmy Greco, "Ca n't Hold Us Down '', which was performed by members of the orchestra from the Broadway musical Hamilton. Both were retained for NBC 's games in 2017.
On April 4, 2017, it was announced that Amazon.com had acquired non-exclusive streaming rights to the 10 broadcast television games for the 2017 season over their Amazon Prime Video service, under a deal valued at $50 million, a five-fold increase over the $10 million paid by Twitter. The streams will be exclusive to paid Prime subscribers. The deal includes $30 million worth of promotion. Amazon planned several special features for its inaugural game, including broadcasting alternate feeds with Spanish, Portuguese and British English commentary (the last of which being intended for those unfamiliar with the rules and terminology of American football), and a pre-show hosted by Tiki Barber and Curtis Stone that featured presentations of NFL merchandise available for purchase on Amazon.
The November 16, 2017 telecast between the Pittsburgh Steelers and Tennessee Titans was the first NFL broadcast to intentionally use the Skycam as its primary camera angle, as opposed to the usual sideline camera that has been used since telecasts of NFL games began in 1939. NBC Sports had previously switched to a skycam - only presentation for portions of two Sunday night games earlier that season because of fog and smoke (and, sixteen years prior, during its coverage of the XFL); positive reaction to the impromptu change prompted NBC to experiment with using the strategy for the full game.
The initial NFL Network team consisted of HBO Sports ' Bryant Gumbel as play - by - play announcer, NBC Sports ' Cris Collinsworth as the color commentator for the Thursday telecasts, and Dick Vermeil replacing Collinsworth for Saturday telecasts. In 2007, Collinsworth replaced Vermeil alongside Gumbel for all games.
Gumbel left the network after the 2007 season and his then - HBO colleague Bob Papa, who is also the radio voice of the New York Giants, was brought in to replace him. Collinsworth stayed on until the end of the 2008 season, then left to take over for the retiring John Madden as lead analyst on NBC Sunday Night Football. NFL Network replaced him with Matt Millen, who returned to broadcasting in 2009, and then added former ESPN analyst Joe Theismann for 2010.
For 2011, then ESPN now CBS play - by - play man Brad Nessler took over the Thursday night broadcast. He was joined by NFL Network draft analyst and NBC Notre Dame color man Mike Mayock, and the pairing spent three seasons calling games.
As a result of CBS taking over production responsibilities for the Thursday Night Football broadcasts, its number one broadcast team of Jim Nantz and Phil Simms took over the broadcast booth. With NBC adding games in 2016, Al Michaels and Cris Collinsworth, the broadcast team of NBC Sunday Night Football, are required under league contract to do the same. NBC had initially hired former Monday Night Football play - by - play man Mike Tirico for Thursdays before the league nixed the idea of any separate broadcast teams for Sunday and Thursday nights. Tirico would eventually call three Sunday Night Football games, including the Thanksgiving night game which is in the SNF package, in order for NBC to allow Michaels over a week 's rest before the end of the season. Tirico would also call the December 22, 2016 TNF game alongside Collinsworth, as well as two NBC - produced Thursday Night Special game broadcasts on December 18 and Christmas Day, respectively, both alongside former USFL and NFL quarterback Doug Flutie. On May 31, 2017, it was announced that Mike Tirico would replace Al Michaels full - time for NBC 's Thursday Night Football games.
For 2017, CBS hired Tony Romo as its lead color commentator. Numerous complications needed to be resolved, namely Romo 's reluctance to cover both Sunday and Thursday nights as required under the Thursday Night Football contract, and the fact that Simms remains under contract with CBS through the next several years. However, the network confirmed via press release that Romo 's duties would include Sunday and Thursday games.
Each game telecast is preceded on NFL Network by TNF GameDay, which broadcasts live from the site of each game and currently features Rich Eisen as its host, with Steve Mariucci, Deion Sanders, Michael Irvin and either Marshall Faulk or Kurt Warner as analysts. The show generally begins two hours before game time (6: 00 p.m. Eastern Time).
The game proper is preceded by a pre-game show; CBS games are preceded by Thursday Night Kickoff, hosted by James Brown, Bill Cowher, and Deion Sanders. NBC games are preceded by Football Night in America (renamed in reference of the host city of the game, such as Football Night in Tampa), hosted by Mike Tirico, Tony Dungy, and Rodney Harrison. CBS joined Thursday Night Kickoff at 7: 30 p.m. Eastern Time during its games. This resulted in some controversy among viewers and the producers of syndicated programming in the locally programmed timeslot before network primetime, where the pre-game affects programs such as Wheel of Fortune, Jeopardy! and Entertainment Tonight (all distributed by CBS 's sister syndication division CBS Television Distribution), along with several other programs, which then require pre-emption or slotting on lower - profile alternate timeslots or stations to air in markets where they are carried by CBS or NBC affiliates in order to accommodate the Thursday games.
Westwood One provides national radio broadcasts of the Thursday Night Football games, with Ian Eagle calling play - by - play, Tony Boselli handling color analysis and Hub Arkush as the sideline reporter. Boomer Esiason, the Monday Night Football analyst for Westwood One, is a regular substitute should Boselli be unavailable due to other commitments (in some cases, Esiason would call the Thursday night game if he is unavailable for the previous / next Monday night game and / or if the Thursday game is in close proximity to his New York home.)
This list shows the National Football League teams ' all - time standings in the games they played on Thursday Night Football since 2006.
Standings are current as of November 16, 2017.
defeated Tennessee 40 - 17
† St. Louis Rams, 1995 -- 2015 ‡ San Diego Chargers, 1961 -- 2016
Upon the original launch of the Thursday and Saturday night games, few television service providers carried the NFL Network due to disputes during the network 's terms in its carriage contracts during negotiations. These disputes were magnified throughout the 2007 season, as two high - profile matchups were to be broadcast by the network. The first was a matchup between the Dallas Cowboys and Green Bay Packers which was scheduled for the week after Thanksgiving and saw both teams at 10 - 1, vying for the top seed in the NFC, and the second was Week 17 Saturday night game between the New England Patriots and the New York Giants, where the Patriots had a chance to become the first team since the 1972 Miami Dolphins to end a regular season undefeated.
In the first case, fans were displeased that a matchup between two teams at such a critical point in the season was not available on broadcast television except in the Dallas and Green Bay markets. To avoid such a problem with the potential sixteenth victory for the Patriots, CBS and NBC bought broadcast rights to the game so it could be seen by a nationwide audience on both cable and broadcast television. This ended up causing another controversy, however, as the move by the networks infringed on the exclusivity that would normally have been enjoyed by WWOR - TV in New York City and WCVB - TV in Boston, which were the Giants ' and Patriots ' respective local over-the - air broadcasters for cable - televised games (the game aired on these stations, as well as on WCBS - TV, WNBC, WBZ - TV and WHDH in the teams ' market areas).
Thursday Night Football games on NFL Network are among the lowest - rated nationally televised NFL broadcasts. Critics have argued that the games televised on Thursday Night Football have been of lower quality than other prime time games, as they often featured match - ups between lesser or poor - performing teams, and that the shortened rest between games triggered by Thursday games also has an effect on their overall quality. In an analysis by Sports on Earth writer Aaron Roberts, it was determined that most Thursday games were of average or above - average quality in comparison to normal, non-prime time games, but that this was "by design '' due to the leverage of other NFL broadcasters on how games are scheduled throughout the season (which traditionally prioritizes "major '' games for either late - afternoon or Sunday and Monday nights).
The move of selected games to CBS brought improved ratings: the inaugural game was the highest - rated program of the night, with an audience share of 13.7 and an average of 20.7 million viewers, representing a 108 % increase in ratings over the first NFL Network game in 2013. The game, whose ratings were boosted by coverage of the Ray Rice scandal, also brought CBS its highest prime time ratings on a Thursday night since May 2006. While lower, at 9.6 million viewers, the Week 3 game between the Atlanta Falcons and Tampa Bay Buccaneers was also the highest - rated program of the night. The first four games of the package, however, featured blowout victories. In total, average viewership of the games increased from around 7 million to around 11.8 million in the 2014 season.
Controversy over ratings and the quality of play in Thursday night contests escalated when on November 28, 2016, a report circulated that the league was considering ending the franchise. The NFL, however, denied this rumor. The subsequent game on December 1, 2016 between the Dallas Cowboys and the Minnesota Vikings was the highest rated Thursday Night Football of the season.
During the 2016 season, current and former players including Richard Sherman, J.J. Watt, and Charles Woodson expressed their dislikes for Thursday Night Football, with Richard Sherman calling it a "poopfest ''.
As mentioned, a team needing to play a Thursday night game can result in a shortened rest period for players between games. On October 6, 2014, Arian Foster, then of the Houston Texans, made a statement considering it hypocritical for the NFL to emphasize the safety of players (particularly in regards to concussions) while allowing its players to play a game on only three days ' rest, which he considered to be equally "dangerous ''. Richard Sherman of the Seattle Seahawks has also voiced displeasure about Thursday night games reducing prep time, and wrote a 2016 editorial for The Players ' Tribune about the games. Sherman 's 2017 season would end on November 9, 2017 during a Thursday night game against the Arizona Cardinals, when he ruptured his Achilles tendon.
On January 29, 2015, the NFL released its health and safety report, which states that an average of 4.8 injuries were sustained during Thursday games compared to 6.9 injuries per game on Sundays and Mondays.
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when do the red hot chili peppers tour | Red Hot Chili Peppers - Wikipedia
Red Hot Chili Peppers are an American funk rock band formed in Los Angeles in 1983. The group 's musical style primarily consists of rock with an emphasis on funk, as well as elements from other genres such as punk rock and psychedelic rock. When played live, their music incorporates elements of jam band due to the improvised nature of many of their performances. Currently, the band consists of founding members vocalist / rhythm guitarist Anthony Kiedis and bassist Flea, longtime drummer Chad Smith, and former touring guitarist Josh Klinghoffer. Red Hot Chili Peppers are one of the best - selling bands of all time with over 80 million records sold worldwide, have been nominated for sixteen Grammy Awards, of which they have won six, and are the most successful band in alternative rock radio history, currently holding the records for most number - one singles (13), most cumulative weeks at number one (85) and most top - ten songs (25) on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart. In 2012, they were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
The band 's original lineup, originally named Tony Flow and the Miraculously Majestic Masters of Mayhem, featured guitarist Hillel Slovak and drummer Jack Irons, alongside Kiedis and Flea. Because of commitments to other bands, Slovak and Irons did not play on the band 's self - titled debut album (1984). Slovak performed on the second and third albums, Freaky Styley (1985) and The Uplift Mofo Party Plan (1987), but he died from a heroin overdose in 1988. As a result of his friend 's death, Irons chose to leave the group. After short - lived replacements at guitar and drums, John Frusciante and Chad Smith joined in 1988. The lineup of Flea, Kiedis, Frusciante, and Smith was the longest - lasting and recorded five studio albums beginning with Mother 's Milk (1989). In 1990, the group signed with Warner Bros. Records and recorded the album Blood Sugar Sex Magik (1991) under producer Rick Rubin. This album became the band 's first commercial success, but Frusciante grew uncomfortable with the band 's popularity and left abruptly in 1992 in the middle of the Blood Sugar Sex Magik Tour.
After two temporary guitarists, Dave Navarro joined the group in 1993 and played on their subsequent album, One Hot Minute (1995). Although commercially successful, the album failed to match the critical or popular acclaim of Blood Sugar Sex Magik, selling less than half as much as its predecessor. Navarro was fired from the band in 1998. Frusciante, fresh out of drug rehabilitation, rejoined the band that same year at Flea 's request. The reunited quartet returned to the studio to record Californication (1999), which became the band 's biggest commercial success with 16 million copies worldwide. That album was followed three years later by By the Way (2002), and then four years later by the double album Stadium Arcadium (2006), their first number - one album in America. After a world tour, the group went on an extended hiatus. Frusciante announced he was amicably leaving the band in 2009 to focus on his solo career. Klinghoffer, who had worked both as a sideman for the band on their Stadium Arcadium tour and on Frusciante 's solo projects, replaced him. The band 's tenth studio album, I 'm with You, was released in 2011 and topped the charts in 18 different countries. The band released their eleventh studio album, The Getaway, in 2016. The album was produced by Danger Mouse, marking the first time since 1989 's Mother 's Milk that the Red Hot Chili Peppers had not worked with Rubin, and topped the charts in ten different countries.
Red Hot Chili Peppers were formed in Los Angeles by singer Anthony Kiedis, guitarist Hillel Slovak, bassist Flea, and drummer Jack Irons, all of whom were classmates from Fairfax High School. Originally going under the band name of Tony Flow and the Miraculously Majestic Masters of Mayhem, their first performance was at the Rhythm Lounge club to a crowd of approximately 30 people, opening for Gary and Neighbor 's Voices. Inspired by punk funk acts like The Contortions and Defunkt, they "wrote '' for the occasion, which involved the band improvising music while Kiedis rapped a poem he had written called "Out in L.A. ''. At the time, Slovak and Irons were already committed to another group, What Is This? however, the performance was so lively, that the band was asked to return the following week. Due to this unexpected success, the band changed its name to Red Hot Chili Peppers, playing several more shows at various LA clubs and musical venues. Six songs from these initial shows were on the band 's first demo tape.
In November 1983, manager Lindy Goetz struck a seven - album deal with EMI America and Enigma Records. Two weeks earlier however, What Is This? had also obtained a record deal with MCA. Slovak and Irons still considered the Red Hot Chili Peppers as only a side project and so in December 1983 they quit to focus on What Is This?. Instead of dissolving the band, Kiedis and Flea recruited new members. Cliff Martinez, a friend of Flea 's and member from the punk band, The Weirdos, was the new replacement for Irons. The band held auditions for a new guitarist but decided after a few practices that Weirdos guitarist Dix Denney did not fit. Kiedis described the two final candidates, Mark Nine and Jack Sherman, respectively as a "hip avant - garde art school refugee '' and a nerd looking guy with a combed - back Jewfro with an unknown background. Musically Sherman clicked right away with Flea and Martinez and was hired as Slovak 's replacement.
The band released their eponymous debut album, The Red Hot Chili Peppers on August 10, 1984. Though the album did not set sales records, airplay on college radio and MTV helped to build a fan base, and the album ultimately sold 300,000 copies. Gang of Four guitarist Andy Gill, who produced the album "did n't embrace (the band 's) musical aesthetic or ideology, argued constantly with the band over the record 's sound. '' Kiedis recalled, that "Andy 's thing was having a hit at all costs, but it was such a mistake to have an agenda. '' Despite the misgivings of Kiedis and Flea, Gill pushed the band to play with a cleaner, crisper, more radio - friendly sound. The band was disappointed in the record 's overall sound, feeling it was overly polished and as if it had "gone through a sterilizing Goody Two - shoes machine ''. The album included backing vocals by Gwen Dickey, the singer for the successful 1970s disco funk group Rose Royce. The band embarked on a grueling tour during which they performed sixty shows in sixty - four days. During the tour, continuing musical and lifestyle tension between Kiedis and Sherman complicated the transition between concert and daily band life. When the tour ended in October 1984, Sherman was fired. Hillel Slovak, who had just quit What Is This?, would re-join the band in early 1985.
George Clinton produced the next album, Freaky Styley (1985). Clinton combined various elements of punk and funk into the band 's repertoire, allowing their music to incorporate a variety of distinct styles. The album featured Maceo Parker and Fred Wesley on many of the album 's tracks. The band often indulged in heavy heroin use while recording the album, which influenced the lyrics and musical direction of the album. The band had a much better relationship with Clinton than with Gill, but Freaky Styley, released on August 16, 1985, also achieved little success, failing to make an impression on any chart. The subsequent tour was also considered unproductive by the band. Despite the lack of success, the band was satisfied with Freaky Styley; Kiedis reflected, that "it so surpassed anything we thought we could have done that we were thinking we were on the road to enormity. '' The band appeared in the 1986 movie Thrashin ' (directed by David Winters and starring Josh Brolin) playing the song "Blackeyed Blonde '' from Freaky Styley. During this time the band also appeared in the movie Tough Guys starring Burt Lancaster and Kirk Douglas performing the song "Set It Straight '' at a Los Angeles nightclub.
In spring 1986, the band decided to begin work on their upcoming album. EMI gave the band a budget of $5,000 to record a demo tape, and the band chose to work with producer Keith Levene, because he shared the band 's interest in drugs. Levene and Slovak decided to put aside $2,000 of the budget to spend on heroin and cocaine, which created tension between the band members. Martinez ' "heart was no longer in the band '', but he did not quit, so Kiedis and Flea fired him. After the firing of Martinez in April 1986, original drummer Jack Irons rejoined the band to Kiedis, Flea, and Slovak 's great surprise, which marked the first time all four founding members were together since 1983. During the recording and subsequent tour of Freaky Styley, Kiedis and Slovak were dealing with debilitating heroin addictions. Due to his addiction, Kiedis "did n't have the same drive or desire to come up with ideas or lyrics '' and appeared at rehearsal "literally asleep ''. Flea, Slovak and Irons informed Kiedis to clean up his drug habit or be fired from the band.
The band won the LA Weekly "Band of the Year Award '', which prompted Kiedis to get clean in order to continue making music. Kiedis called his mother in Michigan for guidance and she promptly sent him to drug rehabilitation. After Kiedis completed his stint in rehab, he felt a "whole new wave of enthusiasm '' due to his sobriety and wrote the lyrics to "Fight Like a Brave '' on the plane ride home. After a month away from the band, he rejoined Red Hot Chili Peppers in Los Angeles to record the group 's next album, The Uplift Mofo Party Plan (1987). The Chili Peppers attempted to hire Rick Rubin to produce their third album, but he declined. The band eventually hired Michael Beinhorn from the art funk project Material, the band 's last choice. Kiedis sat down with producer Michael Beinhorn to discuss the recording of the album; Kiedis planned to record the album in ten days and write the songs during the recording sessions. Songs began to form quickly, and the album took shape, blending the same funk feel and rhythms as Freaky Styley, with a harder, more immediate approach to punk rock.
The album was recorded in the basement of the Capitol Records Building. The recording process for the album was difficult; Kiedis would frequently disappear to seek drugs. After fifty days of sobriety, Kiedis decided to take drugs again to celebrate his new music. His drug use "made a mess of the early recording process '', but the band still had an enjoyable time recording the album. The band was musically inspired by the return of their original drummer Jack Irons, who added "such an important and different element to our chemistry. '' Slovak helped Kiedis record his vocals on the album. In between takes, Slovak would run around the studio out of excitement and say "This is the most beautiful thing we 've ever done. ''
On September 29, 1987, The Uplift Mofo Party Plan was released, becoming their first album to appear on any chart. Although it peaked at only No. 148 on the Billboard 200, this was a significant success compared to the first two. During this period however, Kiedis and Slovak had both developed serious drug addictions, often abandoning the band, each other, and their significant others for days on end. Slovak 's addiction led to his death on June 25, 1988, not long after the conclusion of the Uplift tour. Kiedis fled the city and did not attend Slovak 's funeral (referenced in the song "This Is the Place '' from 2002 's By the Way), considering the situation to be surreal and dreamlike. After returning to L.A. following his departure after Slovak 's death, Kiedis, Flea, Irons and manager Lindy Goetz had a meeting to figure out what to do next. Irons decided he had to leave the group, saying that he did not want to be part of a group where his friends were dying. Irons, who would battle through years of depression, went on to become a member of Seattle grunge band Pearl Jam many years later. With Slovak dead and Irons quitting, Kiedis and Flea debated whether they should continue making music, but ultimately decided to move ahead, hoping to continue what Slovak "helped build. ''
After losing two of the original band members, Flea and Kiedis started looking for musicians to fill those spots. Shortly after Irons ' departure they chose as Slovak 's replacement DeWayne "Blackbyrd '' McKnight, former member of Parliament - Funkadelic and who at one point briefly filled in for Slovak, when he was temporarily fired. D.H. Peligro of the punk rock outfit Dead Kennedys replaced Irons. Kiedis and Flea had been friends of Peligro for many years and even had a joke band together called Three Little Butt Hairs. With a new lineup set, Kiedis decided to enter rehab to fix his drug problem. Kiedis entered a rehab facility in Van Nuys called ASAP. After two weeks into Kiedis ' rehab he was taken by his counselor, Bob Timmons, to finally visit Slovak 's grave. Kiedis had no desire to be there; however, Timmons urged him to talk to Slovak. Within minutes, Kiedis had opened up and could not stop crying. Thirty days later, Kiedis left rehab and was ready to resume his career with the band. Three dates into the tour, McKnight was fired, because the chemistry was not there with the other three. McKnight was with the band long enough to record one song, "Blues For Meister '' (drums were performed by Jack Irons -- bass and drums were recorded before Hillel 's death), a song sung by Flea. McKnight was so unhappy about being fired he threatened to burn down Kiedis ' house.
Shortly after McKnight 's firing, Peligro introduced Kiedis and Flea to a young teenage guitarist named John Frusciante. Kiedis actually had met Frusciante a year earlier outside of one of the band 's shows. Frusciante was originally directed to audition for the band Thelonious Monster, but Kiedis said that he knew right away that Frusciante would be in his band. An avid Red Hot Chili Peppers fan, Frusciante was, according to Flea, "a really talented and knowledgeable musician. He (Frusciante) knows all the shit I do n't know. I basically know nothing about music theory and he 's studied it to death, inside and out. He 's a very disciplined musician -- all he cares about are his guitar and his cigarettes. '' Frusciante performed his first show with the band on September 17, 1988. The new lineup immediately began writing music for the next album and went on a short tour dubbed the Turd Town Tour, although in November, Kiedis and Flea felt the need to fire drummer Peligro due to his own drug and alcohol problems. Much like McKnight, Peligro did not take the news well. Flea stayed in bed for days after making the decision. Years later, Kiedis said firing Peligro was one of the toughest things the band ever had to do, although Kiedis became a major part of Peligro 's road to sobriety, which began right after he was fired.
The Chili Peppers were again without a drummer and were forced to hold open auditions. Denise Zoom, a friend of the band, suggested Chad Smith, claiming he was the best drummer she had ever seen. The band agreed to audition Smith, but he was late and the last drummer to audition. Kiedis recalled the first time he saw Smith by saying, "I spied this big lummox walking down the street with a really bad Guns N ' Roses hairdo and clothes that were not screaming I 've got style ''. Smith was a six - foot three - inch tall drummer who, according to Flea, "lit a fire under our asses ''. From the moment they started jamming, Smith and Flea instantly found chemistry. Smith was a hard - hitting musician with whom the Chili Peppers believed they would create a strong relationship. Kiedis said the audition with Smith "left the band in a state of frenzied laughter, that we could n't shake out of for a half an hour ''. Smith was so much different from the other three. Kiedis, Flea and Frusciante were heavily influenced by punk rock, whereas Smith 's taste in heavy metal music and his biker appearance contrasted with their punk rock views. Kiedis informed Smith he would be hired on one condition: as an initiation to the band, Smith had to cut his long hair. He refused, though Kiedis was not about to argue with the much larger Smith. Smith was hired as the band 's fourth drummer on December 3, 1988.
Unlike the stop - start sessions for The Uplift Mofo Party Plan (1987), where Kiedis would frequently disappear to seek drugs, pre-production for Mother 's Milk (1989) went smoothly. The band recorded basic tracks during March and early April 1989 at Hully Gully studios in Silver Lake; songs like "Knock Me Down '' were formed from jam sessions without any input from returning producer Michael Beinhorn while "Sexy Mexican Maid '', "Stone Cold Bush '' and "Taste the Pain '' (which was recorded prior to Smith joining and features Fishbone drummer Philip "Fish '' Fisher) were written with Peligro. Although there had been stress and conflict during the recording of other Chili Peppers albums, the Mother 's Milk sessions were especially uncomfortable due to Beinhorn 's incessant desire to create a hit. Frusciante and Kiedis were frustrated with the producer 's attitude. In April 1989, the Chili Peppers embarked on a short tour to break in the new lineup.
Released on August 16, 1989, Mother 's Milk peaked at number 52 on the U.S. Billboard 200. The record failed to chart in the United Kingdom and Europe, but climbed to number 33 in Australia. "Knock Me Down '' reached number six on the U.S. Modern Rock Tracks whereas "Higher Ground '' charted at number eleven; the latter of the two ultimately proved to be more successful, reaching number fifty - four in the UK and forty - five in Australia and France. Mother 's Milk was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in late March 1990 -- it is now certified platinum -- and was the first Chili Peppers album to ship over 500,000 units.
In 1990, after the success of Mother 's Milk, the group decided they had had enough of EMI and entered a major label bidding war ultimately signing with Warner Bros. Records and hired Rick Rubin to produce their then - untitled fifth album. Rubin would go on to produce five of the band 's subsequent studio albums, but originally turned the band down in 1987 because of Anthony 's and Hillel 's drug problems. This time, in 1990, Rubin felt the band was in a better place and much more focused. The writing process for this album was far more productive than it had been for Mother 's Milk, with Kiedis stating, "(every day), there was new music for me to lyricize ''.
The band spent six months recording a new album, with long periods of rehearsal, songwriting, and incubating ideas. However, Rubin was dissatisfied with a regular recording studio, thinking the band would work better in a less orthodox setting, believing it would enhance their creative output. Rubin suggested the mansion magician Harry Houdini once lived in, to which they agreed. A crew was hired to set up a recording studio and other equipment required for production in the house. The band decided that they would remain inside the mansion for the duration of recording, though according to Kiedis, Smith was convinced the location was haunted, and refused to stay. He would, instead, come each day by motorcycle. Smith himself disputes this account, and instead claims the real reason he did not stay at The Mansion was because he wanted to be with his wife. Frusciante, however, disagreed with Smith, and said "There are definitely ghosts in the house, '' and Frusciante felt they were "very friendly. We (the band) have nothing but warm vibes and happiness everywhere we go in this house. '' Rubin is the current owner of the studio known as The Mansion. During production, the band agreed to let Flea 's brother - in - law document the creative process on film. When the album 's recording was complete, the Chili Peppers released the film, titled Funky Monks. The band was unable to decide on the title of the album, but to Rubin, one particular song title stuck out: "Blood Sugar Sex Magik ''. Although it was not a featured song, Rubin believed it to be "clearly the best title ''.
On September 24, 1991, Blood Sugar Sex Magik was released. "Give It Away '' was released as the first single; it eventually became one of the band 's biggest and most well known songs, winning a Grammy Award in 1992 for "Best Hard Rock Performance With Vocal '' and became the band 's first number one single on the Modern Rock chart The ballad "Under the Bridge '' was released as a second single, and went on to reach No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, the highest the band has reached on that chart as of 2016, and became one of the band 's most recognizable songs. Other singles such as "Breaking the Girl '' and "Suck My Kiss '' also charted well.
The album sold over 12 million copies. Blood Sugar Sex Magik was listed at number 310 on the Rolling Stone magazine list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and in 1992 it rose to No. 3 on the U.S. album charts, almost a year after its release. The band kicked off their Blood Sugar Sex Magik tour which featured Nirvana, Pearl Jam and Smashing Pumpkins, three of that era 's biggest up and coming bands in alternative music, as opening acts.
The unexpected success instantly turned Red Hot Chili Peppers into rock stars. Frusciante was blindsided by his newfound fame, and struggled to cope with it. Soon after the album 's release, he began to develop a dislike for the band 's popularity and personal problems between Kiedis and Frusciante began to unfold. Kiedis recalled that he and Frusciante used to get into heated discussions backstage after concerts: "John would say, ' We 're too popular. I do n't need to be at this level of success. I would just be proud to be playing this music in clubs like you guys were doing two years ago. ' '' The final dates with Frusciante were a mess and Frusciante was so disconnected from the group, often changing the way he played on certain songs, which further got under Kiedis ' skin. Unknown to others, Frusciante was also starting his own drug habit at the time and was shutting himself off from everyone except for his girlfriend. Frusciante abruptly quit the band hours before a show during the Blood Sugar Japanese tour in May 1992. The band reached out to Dave Navarro, who had just split from Jane 's Addiction, but who was involved in his own personal drug battles. The group held rehearsals with Zander Schloss, though after a few days they decided he was not the right fit either. Guitarist Arik Marshall, of Los Angeles band Marshall Law, was hired to replace Frusciante and the band headlined the Lollapalooza festival in 1992. Marshall would also appear in the music videos for "Breaking the Girl '', "If You Have to Ask '' and on The Simpsons fourth - season finale, "Krusty Gets Kancelled ''.
In September 1992, the Peppers, with Marshall, performed "Give It Away '' at the MTV Video Music Awards. The band was nominated for seven awards including Video of the Year (which they did not obtain); however, they did manage to win three other awards, including Viewer 's Choice. On February 24, 1993, the band, along with George Clinton & the P. Funk All - Stars and Weapon of Choice, performed "Give It Away '' at the Grammy Awards, a song which won the band their first Grammy later that evening. The performance marked the end of the Blood Sugar Sex Magik tour and Marshall 's final performance with the band. The band had planned to begin a follow - up to Blood Sugar Sex Magik with Marshall. However, when it came time to play music, Marshall was always busy, so the band decided that Marshall failed to fit with their future plans and he was dismissed.
With Marshall gone, the band decided to hold open auditions (which they considered a huge mess), but which however did lead to an encounter with Buckethead. The band enjoyed his rehearsal even though he claimed to have never heard of them; Flea felt he did not fit the feel of the band. Still without a guitarist, Kiedis was out one night at a local club and spotted Jesse Tobias of the Los Angeles - based band Mother Tongue. Kiedis felt like he had the right vibe for the band and he was recruited to be the new guitarist after a few auditions. However, his tenure with the band did not last long, with the rest of the band stating that "the chemistry was n't right ''. It was at this same time that Smith informed the band that Navarro was now ready to join the band. When offered the spot this time he accepted.
Navarro first appeared with the band at Woodstock ' 94. The band opened their set wearing enormous light bulb costumes attached precariously to chrome metallic suits, making it near - impossible for them to play their instruments. Navarro hated the idea but went with it. The performance saw the debut of new songs such as "Warped '', "Aeroplane '', and "Pea '' although the songs were in the beginning stages and the lyrics were very different from the final versions. The band followed up their performance at Woodstock with a brief tour, which included headlining appearances at the Pukkelpop and Reading Festivals as well two performances as the opening act for The Rolling Stones. According to Kiedis, however, opening for the Stones was a horrible experience. While externally, the band appeared to be settled, the relationship between the three established members and Navarro had begun to deteriorate. His differing musical background made performing difficult as they began playing together, and continued to be an issue over the next year. Navarro admitted he did not care for funk music or jamming. Kiedis was also struggling with his heroin addiction; he had been through a dental procedure in Beverly Hills, in which an addictive sedative, Valium, was used; this caused him to relapse, and he once again became dependent on drugs, although the band would not find this out until later.
Navarro 's joining and Kiedis 's continued drug addiction had a profound effect on the band and the subsequent sound of their next album, One Hot Minute (1995). With Frusciante no longer present for collaboration, songs were written at a far slower rate. Working with Frusciante had been something Kiedis took for granted: "John had been a true anomaly when it came to song writing. He made it even easier than Hillel to create music, even though I 'd known Hillel for years. I just figured that was how all guitar players were, that you showed them your lyrics and sang a little bit and the next thing you knew you had a song. That did n't happen right off the bat with Dave. '' To compensate, Kiedis and bassist Flea took several vacations together, during which entire songs were conceived and with Kiedis often absent from recording due to his drug problems or struggling to come up with lyrics, Flea took a much bigger role in the writing process; coming up with ideas for many songs including full lyrics and even singing lead on his own song, "Pea ''.
Navarro 's only album with the band was One Hot Minute, released on September 12, 1995 after many delays and setbacks. Navarro 's guitar work had created a stylistic departure in the band 's sound, which was now characterized by prominent use of heavy metal guitar riffs and hints of psychedelic rock. The band described the album as a darker, sadder record compared to their previous material, which was not as universally well - received as Blood Sugar Sex Magik. Many of the lyrics written by Kiedis were drug - related, including the lead single, "Warped, '' which left Kiedis stunned that nobody else in the band picked up on his lyrics that he was using again. Broken relationships and deaths of friends and family also played a major role in the album 's darker tone and lyrics. The ballad, "Tearjerker, '' was written about Kurt Cobain, while "Transcending '', which was written by Flea, was about longtime friend, River Phoenix; and the single "Shallow Be Thy Game '' took shots at religion. Despite mixed reviews, the album was a commercial success. Selling eight million copies worldwide, it spawned the band 's third No. 1 single, the ballad "My Friends '', and enjoyed chart success with the songs "Warped '' and "Aeroplane ''. This iteration of the band appeared on several soundtracks. "I Found Out '', a John Lennon cover, was featured on Working Class Hero: A Tribute to John Lennon. The Ohio Players cover, "Love Rollercoaster '', was featured on the Beavis and Butthead Do America soundtrack, and was released as a single.
The band began its tour for One Hot Minute in Europe on September 27, 1995 and played 16 shows. A US tour was to follow but was postponed after Chad Smith broke his wrist. The band considered carrying on with the tour even at one point considering Jack Irons as a replacement for Smith but there just was not enough time to rehearse with anyone new and the dates were rescheduled for early 1996. The band spent most of 1996 playing shows in the United States and Europe. By 1997, for the first time, the band cancelled many shows. Most of this was again due to problems within the band. Flea at that point was exhausted, tired of playing the same songs each night and was seriously talking about quitting the band while Kiedis had recently been involved in a motorcycle accident which left one arm in a sling and created yet another drug relapse due to his use of painkillers. Even Navarro was back to using drugs. 1997 saw the band playing just one show. This was at the very first Fuji Rock Festival on July 26, 1997. A massive typhoon hit that day but the band played anyway. They played through an 8 - song set before having to cut the show short due to the storm. This would be the final show with Navarro and due to Flea 's previous comments left many speculating if it was the end of the band.
After making attempts to carry on with Navarro and record a follow - up to One Hot Minute, things were not working out, and due to Navarro 's drug problems and lack of effort in wanting to create new music and chemistry on the road, the band felt it was time to part ways. In April 1998 it was announced that Navarro had left the band due to creative differences; Kiedis stated that the decision was "mutual ''. Reports at the time, however, indicated Navarro 's departure came after he attended a band practice under the influence of drugs, which at one point involved him falling backwards over his own amp.
In the years following his departure from the band, it became public that John Frusciante had developed a heroin addiction, which left him in poverty and near death. Frusciante had lost contact with most of his friends. However, Flea always remained in contact, and he helped talk Frusciante into admitting himself to Las Encinas Drug Rehabilitation Center in January 1998. He concluded the process in February of that year and began renting a small apartment in Silver Lake. He acquired many injuries and problems in the years of his addiction, some requiring surgery, including permanent scarring on his arms, a restructured nose, and an oral infection, which led to his teeth being removed and replaced with dental implants.
After Navarro 's departure in early 1998, Red Hot Chili Peppers were on the verge of breaking up. Flea told Kiedis, "the only way I could imagine carrying on (with Red Hot Chili Peppers) is if we got John back in the band. '' Kiedis was surprised and thought there was no way Frusciante would ever want to work with him as the two still had unresolved personal problems from when Frusciante quit in 1992. With Frusciante free of his addictions and ailments, Kiedis and Flea thought it was an appropriate time to invite him back. In April 1998, when Flea visited him at his home and asked him to rejoin the band, Frusciante began sobbing and said "nothing would make me happier in the world. '' Flea decided to contact Anthony and have him meet with John to try and resolve any personal problems that the two might have had. Flea was relieved to find out that both had no bad blood towards each other and were once again excited to make music together. Within the week and, for the first time in six years, the reunited foursome jump - started the newly reunited Red Hot Chili Peppers. Anthony Kiedis said of the situation: "For me, that was the defining moment of what would become the next six years of our lives together. That was when I knew that this was the real deal, that the magic was about to happen again. Suddenly we could all hear, we could all listen, and instead of being caught up in our finite little balls of bullshit, we could all become players in that great universal orchestra again. ''
Despite the band 's elation, Frusciante was both mentally and physically torn. Frusciante had not played with the band since his departure and other than his solo albums had not picked up a guitar in years. He had lost his guitars in a house fire from which he barely escaped, and experienced a difficult time resuming his prior life. Nonetheless, the group began jamming in Flea 's garage and it did not take long for Frusciante to regain his talent; new songs began to roll out. Frusciante 's return restored a key component of the Chili Peppers ' sound, as well as a healthy morale. He brought with him his deep devotion to music, which affected the band 's recording style during the sessions which produced their next album. Frusciante has frequently stated that his work on Californication was his favorite. On June 8, 1999, after more than a year of production and meticulous practice, Californication was released as the band 's seventh studio album. The album ultimately sold over 16 million copies and became the band 's most successful recording to date. Californication contained fewer rap - driven songs than its predecessors, instead integrating textured, consistent, and melodic guitar riffs, vocals and bass - lines. The record produced three more number one modern rock hits, "Scar Tissue '', "Otherside '' and "Californication ''. Californication gained positive critical acceptance in contrast to its less popular predecessor, One Hot Minute, and was a greater success worldwide. While many critics credited the success of the album to Frusciante 's return, they also noted that Kiedis ' vocals had also greatly improved. It was later listed at number 399 on the Rolling Stone magazine list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.
In July 1999, as part of the band 's two - year - long international world tour in support of their new album, Red Hot Chili Peppers played at Woodstock 1999, which became infamous for the violence that resulted. Some 10 minutes before the show, they were asked by Jimi Hendrix 's stepsister to play a cover of her brother 's songs. After some hesitation due to not having performed the song in years, the band decided to play his classic "Fire '', which they had covered on Mother 's Milk. Coincidentally, about two thirds of the way into the band 's set, the closing set of the three - day concert, a small fire escalated into full - fledged vandalism and resulted in the intervention of riot control squads. The disruption escalated into violence when nearby property including ATMs and several semi-tractor trailers were looted and destroyed. Kiedis felt that "It was clear that this situation had nothing to do with Woodstock anymore. It was n't symbolic of peace and love, but of greed and cashing in... We woke up to papers and radio stations vilifying us for playing ' Fire '. '' The tour also originated the band 's first concert DVD, 2001 's Off the Map.
The writing and formation of the band 's next album, By the Way began immediately following the culmination of Californication 's world tour, in spring 2001. As with Californication, much of the creation took place in the band members ' homes, and other locations of practice, such as a recording studio stage. Kiedis recalled of the situation: "We started finding some magic and some music and some riffs and some rhythms and some jams and some grooves, and we added to it and subtracted from it and pushed it around and put melodies to it. '' Frusciante and Kiedis would collaborate for days straight, discussing and sharing guitar progressions and lyrics. For Kiedis, "writing By the Way... was a whole different experience from Californication. John was back to himself and brimming with confidence. ''
Before recording By the Way (2002), the Chili Peppers decided that they would again have Rick Rubin produce the album. In the past, Rubin had given the band creative freedom on their recording material; this was something they thought essential for the album to be unique, and could only occur with his return. Originally the album was headed in a much different direction than the final production. The album started out as a group of fast, hardcore punk songs, which Rubin rejected. Frusciante also wanted a darker, 1980s UK pop / new wave sound mixed in with 1980s hardcore. The recording process was tough for Flea, who felt like an outsider in the band and that his role was being diminished due to a musical power struggle with Frusciante. Flea wanted to create more funk - inspired songs, while Frusciante felt that the band had overused their funk side. Flea considered quitting the band after the album, but the two eventually worked out all their problems.
By the Way was released on July 9, 2002 and produced four singles; "By the Way '', "The Zephyr Song '', "Ca n't Stop '' and "Universally Speaking ''. The album was their most subdued album to date, focusing primarily on melodic ballads as opposed to their classic rap - driven funk. Frusciante also concentrated on a more layered texture on many of the songs, often adding keyboard parts, that featured low in the mix, and also writing string arrangements for songs such as "Midnight '' and "Minor Thing ''. The album was followed by an eighteen month - long world tour. The European leg of the By the Way tour produced the band 's second full - length concert DVD, Live at Slane Castle, recorded at Slane Castle in Ireland on August 23, 2003. The band released their first full - length live album, Live in Hyde Park; recorded during their performances in Hyde Park, London. More than 258,000 fans paid over $17,100,000 for tickets over three nights, a 2004 record; the event ranked No. 1 on Billboard 's Top Concert Boxscores of 2004.
In November 2003, the Chili Peppers released their Greatest Hits album, which featured two new songs, "Fortune Faded '' and "Save the Population ''. The two songs were selected out of sessions that generated fifteen tracks and Smith later said the band had hopes to use along with new compositions to create a full album after finishing the tour, but the idea was vetoed by Frusciante because his musical influences and styles had evolved and he wanted to do something new.
In 2006 the band released the Grammy award - winning Stadium Arcadium produced by Rick Rubin. Although 38 songs were created with the intention of being released as three separate albums spaced six months apart, the band instead chose to release a 28 - track double album, and released nine of the ten as B -- sides. It was their first album to debut at No. 1 on the US charts, where it stayed for two weeks, and debuted at number one in the UK and 25 other countries. Stadium Arcadium sold over seven million units.
The record 's first single, "Dani California '', was the band 's fastest - selling single, debuting on top of the Modern Rock chart in the U.S., peaking at No. 6 on the Billboard Hot 100, and reaching No. 2 in the UK. "Tell Me Baby '', released next, also topped the charts in 2006. "Snow ((Hey Oh)) '' was released in late 2006, breaking multiple records by 2007. The song became their eleventh number one single, giving the band a cumulative total of 81 weeks at number one. It was also the first time three consecutive singles by the band made it to number one. "Desecration Smile '' was released internationally in February 2007 and reached number 27 on the UK charts. "Hump de Bump '' was planned to be the next single for the US, Canada, and Australia only, but due to positive feedback from the music video, it was released as a worldwide single in May 2007.
The band began another world tour in support of Stadium Arcadium in 2006, beginning with promotional concerts in Europe and culminating in a two - month - long European tour from late May to mid-July. During this tour Frusciante 's friend and frequent musical collaborator Josh Klinghoffer joined the touring band, contributing guitar parts, back up vocals, and keyboards. Klinghoffer 's presence allowed the live performances of songs to sound more like the recorded versions, in which Frusciante laid down multiple tracks himself. The group toured North America from early August to early November, returning to Europe later in November for a second leg, that ran until mid-December. The Chili Peppers began 2007 with a second North American leg, this time including Mexico, from mid-January to mid-March. This was followed by April shows in various cities in Australia and New Zealand and concerts in Japan in early June. The Peppers concluded their tour with a third European leg from late June to late August. They appeared at the Live Earth concert at London 's Wembley Stadium on July 7, 2007. The band appeared at several festivals, including Denmarks Roskilde festival, Ireland 's Oxegen in July 2006, Lollapalooza in August 2006 in Grant Park, Chicago, a subsequent set at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in Indio, California in late April 2007 and in August 2007 they appeared as one of three headliners at the Reading and Leeds festivals along with Razorlight and Smashing Pumpkins.
In February 2007, Stadium Arcadium won five Grammys: Best Rock Album, Best Rock Song ("Dani California ''), Best Rock Performance by a Duo Or Group With Vocal ("Dani California ''), Best Boxed Or Special Limited Edition Package, and Best Producer (Rick Rubin). Rolling Stone 's ' 100 Best Albums of the Decade (2000 -- 2009) ' included Stadium Arcadium at No. 74.
Following the last leg of the Stadium Arcadium tour, the band members took an extended break. Kiedis attributed this to the band being worn out from their years of nonstop work since Californication (1999). The band 's only recording during this time was in 2008 with George Clinton on his latest album George Clinton and His Gangsters of Love. Accompanied by Kim Manning, the band recorded a new version of Shirley and Lee 's classic "Let the Good Times Roll ''. The song would become the last song the band would record with Frusciante.
Kiedis, who had recently become a father, was looking forward to the time off and taking care of his son Everly Bear and possibly creating a short television series called Spider and Son, which was set to recap his autobiography. Flea began taking music theory classes at the University of Southern California, and revealed plans to release a mainly instrumental solo record, that was being recorded in his home; guest musicians include Patti Smith and a choir from the Silverlake Conservatory. Flea also joined Thom Yorke of Radiohead in the supergroup Atoms for Peace. Frusciante continued his solo career and released his solo album, The Empyrean. Chad Smith worked with Sammy Hagar, Joe Satriani, and Michael Anthony in the supergroup Chickenfoot, as well as on his solo project, Chad Smith 's Bombastic Meatbats. The band planned to remain on hiatus for "a minimum of one year ''.
In October 2009 the band officially ended their hiatus and minus Frusciante, entered the studio to begin writing for their tenth studio album. The band was joined by Josh Klinghoffer, who to the public was still the band 's backup touring guitarist, although it was later confirmed, that he was already an official member and Frusciante 's replacement with Frusciante having quit the band on July 29, 2009. An official announcement on Frusciante 's departure was n't made until December 2009. Frusciante explained on his MySpace page, that there was no drama or anger about him leaving the band this time, and that the other members were very supportive and understanding. Frusciante said he felt his musical interests had led him in a different direction, and that he needed to fully focus his efforts on his solo career.
The band, with Josh Klinghoffer on guitar, made their live comeback on January 29, 2010, paying tribute to Neil Young with a cover of "A Man Needs a Maid '' at MusiCares. After months of speculation, in February 2010 Klinghoffer was officially confirmed by Chad Smith as Frusciante 's full - time replacement.
The band officially began recording their tenth studio album with producer Rick Rubin in September 2010. According to Rubin, the band recorded enough material to release a second double album, following Stadium Arcadium but ultimately decided not to. Rubin notes, "it was painful not to share all of the material that we had, but we felt it would be too much. We really wanted it to be twelve songs but it ended up being fourteen just because nobody could agree on which twelve. '' The recording process lasted until March 2011. Many of the songs were written between October 2009 and August 2010 and according to Flea around 60 -- 70 songs were written in the ten months prior to entering the studio to record the album.
In July 2011, the band kicked off a trio of invitation - only warm - up dates in California. These were the first shows the band played since August 2007 and their first official shows with Josh as their lead guitarist.
I 'm with You, the band 's tenth studio album was released in the United States in August 2011. The album topped the charts in 18 different countries although failed to provide the band with their second straight number one debut in the U.S. The album was met with mostly positive reviews from the critics. The album 's first single, "The Adventures of Rain Dance Maggie '' was released a month earlier and went on to become the band 's twelfth number one hit single, topping their own record. Kreayshawn was tapped to direct the music video for the single, however due to unknown reasons, the video shot by Kreayshawn went unreleased and a second video directed by Marc Klasfeld was released in its place. "Monarchy of Roses '', "Look Around '' and "Did I Let You Know '', released only in Brazil, followed as singles / music videos. "Brendan 's Death Song '' would be the next single and released during the summer of 2012.
The band kicked off a monthlong promotional tour in August 2011 starting in Asia. On August 30, 2011, the band appeared on movie screens throughout the world via satellite from Cologne, Germany performing the entire new album in sequence, minus "Even You Brutus '' and adding "Give It Away '' and "Me and My Friends ''. The band officially kicked off the I 'm with You Tour on September 11, 2011, the next day, on September 12, they played in Costa Rica. On December 31, 2011 the band was hired by Roman Abramovich for a reported £ 5m to perform at his New Year 's Eve celebration at his estate on the Caribbean island of St Bart 's, and the show included a special appearance from Toots Hibbert of Toots and the Maytals as they played a rendition of "Louie Louie '' together. The tour lasted into 2013 and was one of the band 's biggest to date. All shows from the upcoming world tour were made available to purchase as downloads through LiveChiliPeppers.com. The North American leg of the tour, which was expected to begin on January 19, 2012, had to be postponed due to a surgery Kiedis went to resolve multiple foot injuries he had suffered through since the Stadium Arcadium tour. The first U.S. leg of the tour, including dates in Canada, kicked off in March 2012 and lasted into June, followed by summer shows in Europe, while the rest of the already scheduled U.S. dates took place in August and then from September through November 2012. Jack Irons and Cliff Martinez again joined the band during their performance of August 12, 2012 of "Give it Away '' in Los Angeles. Following the I 'm with You World Tour, the band set out on another small tour consisting mostly of festivals in the United States however the tour expanded to dates in South America as well for November. Flea along with Chili Peppers touring percussionist, Mauro Refosco spent the band 's break keeping busy with their side - project Atoms For Peace, who had many dates throughout the world scheduled from July to November 2013.
The band was nominated for two MTV Europe Music Awards for Best Rock Band and Best Live Artist and nominated for Best Group at the 2012 People 's Choice Awards I 'm with You was also nominated for a 2012 Grammy Award for Best Rock Album.
The band released 2011 Live EP on March 29, 2012. The EP a free five live song MP3 download through their website. The five songs were selected by Chad Smith from the band 's 2011 European live albums, which were released for purchase through their website as well. On April 14, 2012, the band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. May 1, 2012 saw the release of digital download only Rock & Roll Hall of Fame Covers EP, which consisted of previously released studio and live covers of artists that influenced the band. In addition to their newly released live performances, starting in August 2012, the band started to put out a collection of singles from the I 'm With You Sessions. The singles, which contained two songs each and total 17 songs were made available on 7 - inch vinyl, digital download and CD. All of the singles were eventually released together as I 'm Beside You LP on November 29, 2013 as a Record Store Day exclusive.
The band concluded the I 'm with You World Tour in April 2013. The tour ranked 15th on Billboard 's "Top 25 Tours '' list of 2012. Following the end of the tour, the band headed back out on the road the next month for another lengthy tour which included their first ever shows in Alaska, Paraguay, the Philippines and Puerto Rico.
The Chili Peppers joined Bruno Mars as performers at the Super Bowl XLVIII halftime show on February 2, 2014, to which a record 115.3 million viewers tuned in. The band 's performance was met with mixed reviews from fans, the media, and even musicians towards Flea and Klinghoffer for performing to pre-recorded music; Flea responded that it was a NFL rule for bands to pre-record music due to time and technical issues, and that the band agreed because it was a once in a lifetime opportunity. He said Kiedis ' vocals were completely live and the band pre-recorded "Give it Away '' during rehearsals.
In June 2014 the band wrapped up their tour which began in May 2013; since September 2011 they had played 158 shows on their two tours, the longest span of touring in their history without a real break. 2012 - 13 Live EP was released on July 1, 2014 through their website as a free download. Like the 2011 Live EP, five songs were selected by Chad Smith from the band 's tour as a way to announce the official conclusion of the tour.
On November 17, 2014, Anthony Kiedis announced that the band would be returning to the studio in December to record their newly written album. He said that he hoped for the album to contain 13 songs, however it is likely they will "put 10 more songs on top of that ''. A few days later in an interview with David Fricke, Kiedis confirmed that Rick Rubin would not be producing the band 's next record and for the first time since 1989 they would work with someone else. Flea broke the news on Twitter in January 2015 that Danger Mouse would be the producer. The following month Flea suffered a broken arm during a skiing trip which delayed the recording of the album for over six months. In an October 2015 interview with Rolling Stone, Kiedis gave an update on the band 's next album. The following month, Chad Smith posted in a video to a fan page on Twitter saying that he expected the new album to be finished in May or June 2016 which would be around the same time that the band would be in the midst of their summer festival tour. In December 2015, Flea said that the album was recorded and they were waiting on Kiedis to track the vocals. Kiedis gave an update two months later in February 2016 saying they were near completion of the album. Chad Smith posted an image on Twitter on March 21, 2016 stating that work has begun with Nigel Godrich mixing the new album. The following day it was reported that Elton John would appear on the album. The band announced on May 2, 2016 that "Dark Necessities '', the first single from their upcoming album, would be released on May 5, 2016. On May 5, 2016, it was announced that the band 's eleventh album would be entitled The Getaway, and would be released on June 17, 2016 Kiedis in a May 9, 2016 interview on BBC Radio 2 said of the album that lyrically many of the songs were influenced by a two - year relationship that fell apart like a nuclear bomb. "Dark Necessities '' became the band 's 25th top - ten single on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart, a record they hold over U2 who currently has 23 top - ten singles.
On February 3, 2016, "Circle of the Noose '', one of the band 's most sought after unreleased songs and the only song recorded with Dave Navarro for the follow - up album to One Hot Minute before he was fired from the band, was leaked to the internet. The rough mix was recorded on March 16, 1998. Dave Navarro, who in 1997 said it was one of the greatest songs he ever played on, tweeted "WOW what a trip down memory lane '' in response to the leak. Three days following the leak of the unreleased Navarro era song, the band played "Aeroplane '' live for the first time since July 26, 1997, making it the first One Hot Minute song besides "Pea '' (a song featuring only Flea) to be performed by the Chili Peppers since Navarro 's departure from the band.
On 14 May, the band was forced to cancel their headline slot at the annual KROQ Weenie Roast, as Kiedis was hospitalized prior to the band appearing on stage, due to severe stomach pain. Flea, alongside Klinghoffer and Smith, made an announcement on the stage as they were due to appear. It was confirmed that Kiedis was suffering from intestinal flu and was expected to make a full recovery soon however the band was forced to postpone their iHeartRadio album preview show on May 17, 2016 until May 26, 2016. The band returned to the stage on May 22, 2016 in Columbus, OH.
On 26 May, the band released "The Getaway '', the title track on their upcoming album, on their YouTube channel. While not a single (it was originally the band 's choice to be the first single until they went with "Dark Necessities '' at the suggestion of Danger Mouse), the song was made available for purchase the following day and was also being given away as a free download for those who pre-order the new album. The music video for "Dark Necessities '', directed by actress Olivia Wilde, was released on June 16, 2016. "Go Robot '', the song management and the band 's label originally wanted as the first single, is expected to be the second single released from the album. "We Turn Red '' was released on the band 's YouTube page on June 9, 2016.
The Getaway made its debut at number 2 on the Billboard 200 chart however failed to dethrone Drake who had the number one album for eight consecutive weeks. The Getaway outsold Drake its opening week with album sales of 108,000 to 33,000 (actually placing him at 4th in sales for the week) though due to album streaming, Drake managed to top the band for the top position in the charts.
On July 1, 2016, the Live In Paris EP was released exclusively through the music streaming website Deezer. "Go Robot '' was announced as the second single from The Getaway. On July 26, 2016, the band members started to post images from the set of the music video.
The Getaway was re-issued on limited edition pink vinyl on September 27, 2016 as part of 10 Bands 1 Cause. All money from sales of the re-issue will go to Gilda 's Club NYC an organization that provides community support for both those diagnosed with cancer and their caretakers. It is named after comedian Gilda Radner.
In August 2016, "Dark Necessities '' became the band 's 13th number - one single on the Alternative Songs chart. The band has held the record since 2006 's "Snow ((Hey Oh)) '' and extended their lead over runner - up Linkin Park (11). The song was also the band 's 25th top ten single on the Alternative Songs chart, extending their record over runner - up U2 (23). It also became only the fourth song ever to top the Mainstream Rock, Alternative Songs and Adult Alternative charts.
The music video for "Go Robot '' was released on September 8, 2016. The video is heavily inspired by the 1970s movie Saturday Night Fever.
The band kicked off the headlining portion of The Getaway World Tour in September 2016 with the North American leg, featuring Jack Irons, the band 's original drummer as an opening act on all dates, beginning in January 2017. The tour is expected to last well into 2017.
Chad Smith announced on November 13, 2016 that "Sick Love '' would be the third single released from The Getaway and a music video was coming soon. The animated video, directed and illustrated by Beth Jeans Houghton (Kiedis ' ex-girlfriend), was released on December 4, 2016.
Anthony Kiedis was asked in a December 2016 interview if he ever plans to retire and he said that he expects to be writing music until the day he dies. "We might always be writing music, writing songs... I ca n't imagine that going away. I want to write a song today, tomorrow. That 's quite a satisfying thing to do. I think about it all the time, there 's so many things that I want to sing, melodies, and lyrics. So, if you have people you want to work with for a lifetime, there 's no reason you ca n't write songs until the day you die. ''
Dave Rat, the band 's sound engineer since February 1991, announced that following the band 's show of January 22, 2017 he would no longer be working with the band. "I truly love Flea, Anthony, Chad, Josh and all my dear and close friends I consider family both on the road now and those that have moved on to other adventures over the years. I am pretty happy to say that I have dedicated significant time documenting touring with Peppers in journals but also have thousands of amazing photos spanning decades of smiles and challenges '' Rat said.
"Goodbye Angels '' was released as the fourth single from The Getaway on April 4, 2017. The band shot the music video for the song at their show in Atlanta on April 14, 2017 and it was released on May 9, 2017.
During the band 's show on June 25, 2017 in Grand Rapids, Kiedis dedicated "Soul to Squeeze '' to his father, Blackie Dammett who is currently battling dementia. Dammett was the long time manager of the band 's fanclub and ran their website. Kiedis said "If you could be so kind. My father is fixin ' to die and that 's OK. He 's had a wild, great journey and a helluva colourful badass life but he 's sick and he 's gon na to die now... He 's pretty lost; he 's just a spirit but I would like for everyone just to take ten seconds to send him some love, to send his spirit some love because pretty soon he will be sailing on and I would appreciate it if his home town could send him love for a whole ten seconds of love. Let 's give it up. Ten! Thank you. '' Flea also had a moment of silence for Hillel Slovak, who died 29 years earlier. Following the moment of silence, Jack Irons joined his former band onstage for a performance of Jimi Hendrix 's "Fire '' as a tribute to Slovak.
In a June 2017 interview with Eddie Trunk, Chad Smith said he had discussions with Flea about how much longer the band could continue touring. "I was like, ' I do n't know! ' I want to make records, I still love making records, but the touring part... I do n't know if we can continue. I mean, three of us are 54 years old -- Anthony, me and Flea. Josh is 38 or 39, so he 's a young man. But I do n't know if we can continue to do the long tours -- the year, year - and - a-half we normally do. That 's a good question. We all have families and different things, your priorities shift a little bit. You kinda see that what 's gon na work for you maybe does n't necessarily work for other bands. But again, we 're just so grateful that people want to come and see us play, and we love to perform. I do n't know in the future how that 's gon na look. We pride ourselves in putting out a really amazing performance. You want people to just walk away and be like, ' Wow, I have n't seen anything like that! ' and when you ca n't do that anymore, you got ta really stop and go, ' We 're not gon na be sitting on stools up there playing our songs. ' '' On July 18, 2017 in an interview with TMZ, Flea said of the band possibly retiring "that 's just silly talk. We never look past the immediate future but um, were on tour right now, we 're rockin ' out, we 're feeling the spirit, letting the music move us and to be honest since the day we started this band nearly 35 years ago, i 've never ever known what 's next or what 's around the corner or anything and I think that the power of the band lies in that kinda just staying in the moment and staying with the energy that 's moving.
The Getaway World Tour concluded on October 18, 2017. The tour consisted of 151 shows lasting a year and almost five months. The band will headline a few festivals in South America in March 2018.
The band performed a short set at the 2017 Stand Up for Heroes fundraiser at The Theater at Madison Square Garden in New York City on November 7, 2017. The show also featured comedians Jon Stewart, John Oliver, Conan O'Brien and Trevor Noah. The fundraiser was for the Bob Woodruff Foundation, which supports injured veterans and their families. "The Red Hot Chili Peppers bring so much energy to the stage and are one of my favorite bands '' Bob Woodruff said. On December 14, 2017, the band will headline the Band Together 2 Benefit Concert at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco. Money raised from the concert goes to the Tipping Point Emergency Relief Fund which since 2005 has raised $150 million to educate, employ, house and support those in need in the Bay Area.
On March 18, 2017, frontman Anthony Kiedis gave an interview with a Vancouver radio station and indicated that, for band 's follow - up to The Getaway, they were likely to work with Danger Mouse again as their producer. He said, "I think it 's good to work with the same guy again to um, you know you had your freshman experience. I think we owe it to ourselves to start from the beginning with this guy and see what we can accomplish. ''
In a December 2017 interview with ABC News, drummer Chad Smith stated that "there 's not gon na be any more touring '' in 2018, and that the Red Hot Chili Peppers will spend most of the year focusing on their twelfth studio album. He explained, "We 're just gon na take a break for the rest of this year, and then we 'll start up (and) probably write some more songs next year. Hopefully (we 'll) make a record at some point. That 's the plan. ''
The band 's mix of hard rock, funk and hip hop has been recognized as being influential to genres such as funk metal, rap metal, rap rock and nu metal. In a 2002 interview with Penthouse, Anthony Kiedis stated "We were early in creating the combination of hardcore funk with hip - hop - style vocals. We became, maybe, an inspiration to Limp Bizkit, Kid Rock, Linkin Park -- all these other bands that are doing that now. ''
In October 2004, Kiedis released his autobiography Scar Tissue. It tells his life story from birth in 1962 until 2004. The book follows many major events for Kiedis such as growing up in Los Angeles, coming in contact with drugs at a young age, forming the band, and the troubling drug addictions he experienced during his career.
In May 2009, Kiedis was honored with the Stevie Ray Vaughan Award at the fifth annual MusiCares event for his dedication and support of the MusiCares MAP Fund and for his commitment to helping other addicts with the addiction and recovery process. Kiedis ' fellow band members, minus Frusciante were on hand to pay tribute and under the name, ' The Insects ', Kiedis, Smith, Flea along with Ron Wood, Josh Klinghoffer and Ivan Neville performed a brief set of cover songs.
The band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on April 14, 2012 by actor / comedian Chris Rock, who is a longtime friend and fan of the band. The induction lineup was Kiedis, Flea, Smith, Klinghoffer, Frusciante, Slovak (who was represented by his brother James), Irons and Martinez. Frusciante did not attend the ceremony. Smith said "We asked him, he said, ' I 'm just not really comfortable with that, but good luck and thanks for inviting me. ' He 's the kind of guy, I think, that once he 's finished with something he 's just on to the next phase of his life. The Chili Peppers are not really on his radar right now. '' Despite recording one album with the band, Dave Navarro and Jack Sherman were the only two former recording band members not inducted. Kiedis explained that Navarro, who appeared to be fine with not being included, was better suited for induction as a member of Jane 's Addiction, the band he was best known for. Sherman on the other hand was angry about not being included and spoke out about the band 's induction blaming the band for not including him or Navarro by saying he was told only original members, current members and those who played on multiple albums were eligible for induction (although this has proven to not be the case with other inductees). "It appeared to be a politically correct way of omitting Dave Navarro and I for whatever reasons they have that are probably the band 's and not the Hall 's, '' Sherman also said "It 's really painful to see all this celebrating going on and be excluded. I 'm not claiming that I 've brought anything other to the band... but to have soldiered on under arduous conditions to try to make the thing work, and I think that 's what you do in a job, looking back. And that 's been dishonored. I 'm being dishonored, and it sucks. '' During his induction speech, Smith made sure to thank all of the band members, past and present including Sherman, Navarro along D.H. Peligro (whom he accidentally called H.R. Peligro) and Arik Marshall for the contributions they brought to the band. At 32, Klinghoffer was the youngest artist ever to be inducted into the hall of fame passing Stevie Wonder, who was 38 at the time of his induction. The band performed three songs; "By the Way '', "Give it Away '' and "Higher Ground '', which included Irons and Martinez on drums. It was the first time Kiedis and Flea had performed with Irons in 24 years and Martinez in 26 years. Near the end of the ceremony, the band was joined by George Clinton, Michael Hampton, Slash, Billie Joe Armstrong, Tre Cool, Ronnie Wood and Kenney Jones for a performance of "Higher Ground ''.
In 2012, three of the band 's albums Blood Sugar Sex Magik, Californication, and By the Way were ranked among Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time ranked at 310, 399, and 304 respectively.
The band released their book, Fandemonium on November 18, 2014. The book is dedicated to the band 's fans throughout the world. To promote the book, Kiedis, Flea and Smith did some in store book signings at Barnes & Noble in Los Angeles and New York. On November 20, Kiedis appeared on The Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon sitting in the entire show with The Roots and performing some Chili Peppers songs while also promoting the book.
Kiedis received the George and Ira Gershwin Award for Lifetime Musical Achievement, presented at the UCLA Spring Sing on May 16, 2015. Following his acceptance speech, he was joined on stage by Josh Klinghoffer for an acoustic performance of "Otherside '', "If You Want Me to Stay '' (a song the Chili Peppers had not performed in almost 30 years), and "By the Way ''.
The mini game Tekken Force, in the video game Tekken 4, four of the enemies in the final stage are named ' Anthony the Assassin ', ' John the Assassin ', ' Flea the Assassin ' and ' Chad the Assassin ', named after the lineup of the band at the time.
In 1990, the band appeared in PSA ads for Rock the Vote, a non-profit organization in the United States geared toward increasing voter turnout in the United States Presidential Election among voters ages 18 to 24. That same year Kiedis appeared in a television special where he discussed his love for the ocean and raising awareness for ocean pollution. Since their beginning, the band has been very outspoken about the environment, supporting various environmental causes and including their views of the environment in lyrics.
The band was invited by the Beastie Boys and the Milarepa Fund to perform at the Tibetan Freedom Concert in June 1996 in San Francisco. They also performed at the June 1998 Washington DC concert as well. The concerts, which were held worldwide, were to support the cause of Tibetan independence.
In September 2005, the band performed "Under the Bridge '' at the ReAct Now: Music & Relief benefit which was held to raise money for the victims of Hurricane Katrina. The live event, which was broadcast on various television states, raised $30 million.
In July 2007, the band performed on behalf of former U.S. Vice President Al Gore who personally invited the band to perform at the London version of his Live Earth concerts which were held to raise awareness towards global warming and solving the most critical environmental issues of our time. Gore said on getting the band to perform "I was pushing and pushing them that no matter how difficult it was, that it was important. ''
In October 2008, Flea appeared in a Vote for Change ad voicing his support for Barack Obama for president of the United States in the upcoming election.
The band performed a free concert in downtown Cleveland, Ohio on April 15, 2012 in support of President Obama 's re-election campaign. The requirement for getting into the concert was agreeing to volunteer for the Obama 2012 phone bank. The event quickly met its capacity limit after being announced.
On May 11, 2013, the band performed a special concert in Portland, Oregon for the Dalai Lama as part of the Dalai Lama Environmental Summit. According to the press release "The musical element of this event is intended to be a display of joyful celebration and an inspiration to future generations to care for our planet. The Red Hot Chili Peppers have been great supporters of the Tibetan cause, of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, and of the need to work to protect and preserve our environment. ''
The band, especially Flea, has been very outspoken towards guns and gun violence sometimes speaking out about the issue during the band 's concerts. In 2013, on his Twitter page, Flea posted "why anyone would ever want to own an automatic weapon I will never ever understand. it 's a pathetic useless concept for sick people. Automatic, semi automatic, I do n't care. I 'm against em... Melt em all down turn em into sculptures there is no need for them on earth. in many countries the cops have no guns and they do perfectly fine. No civilians should be allowed to have guns. none. and i dont think the cops should have guns either. change the constitution. ''
On January 10, 2015, the band performed their first show of the new year, for the Sean Penn & Friends Help Haiti Home fundraiser in support of the J / P Haitian Relief Organization.
On September 18, 2015 the band were among over 120 entertainers and celebrities to sign up and announce that they would be voting for Bernie Sanders in the 2016 presidential election.
The band performed at a fundraiser event at The Belly Up Tavern in Solana Beach on September 27, 2015. The set featured a mixture of songs from the band 's more recent albums and older songs that have not been performed in over 15 years. The band previously performed at the 600 capacity venue in 1986. The Fundraiser was in support of the nonprofit San Diego Foundation and tickets for the 21 and over show cost $1,000 of which $750 is tax deductible). All money was donated to A Reason To Survive (ARTS), Heartbeat Music Academy, San Diego Young Artists Music Academy, and the Silverlake Conservatory of Music.
On October 17, 2015, Kiedis and Flea hosted the annual benefit for the Silverlake Conservatory of Music. The band performed a special rare acoustic set and John Legend headlined the event which also includes dinner and a silent auction. Only 300 tickets were available costing $2,500 each.
On February 5, 2016, the band headlined a fundraiser concert in support of presidential candidate Bernie Sanders.
On April 13, 2016, the band performed at a private function on behalf of Facebook and Napster founder Sean Parker for his launch of The Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy.
On April 29, 2016, Chad Smith and Will Ferrell hosted the Red Hot Benefit Comedy + Music Show & Quinceanera. The benefit featured a performance by the Chili Peppers along with comedy acts selected by Ferrell and Funny or Die. A portion of the proceeds went to Ferrell 's Cancer for College and Smith 's Silverlake Conservatory of Music.
Red Hot Chili Peppers ' musical style has been characterized under funk rock, alternative rock, funk metal and rap rock, with influences from hard, psychedelic and punk rock. The band 's influences include Defunkt, Parliament - Funkadelic, Jimi Hendrix, The Misfits, James Brown, Gang of Four, Bob Marley, Big Boys, Bad Brains, Sly and the Family Stone, Ohio Players, Queen, Stevie Wonder, Elvis Presley, Deep Purple, The Beach Boys, Black Flag, Ornette Coleman, Led Zeppelin, Yes, Fugazi, Fishbone, Marvin Gaye, Billie Holiday, Santana, Elvis Costello, The Stooges, The Clash, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Devo, and Miles Davis.
Kiedis provided multiple vocal styles. His primary approach up to Blood Sugar Sex Magik was spoken verse and rapping. Complemented with traditional vocals, he helped the band maintain a consistent style. As the group matured, notably with Californication (1999) the group reduced the number of rapped verses. By the Way contained only two rap - driven - verse / melodic chorus form. Kiedis ' more recent style was developed through ongoing coaching.
Original guitarist Slovak 's style was strongly based on blues and funk. Slovak was primarily influenced by hard rock artists such as Jimi Hendrix, Kiss and Led Zeppelin. His playing method was highly based on improvisation, a style commonly used in funk music. He also was noted for his aggressive playing style; he would often play with such force, that his fingers would "come apart ''. Kiedis observed that his playing evolved during his time away from the group in What Is This?, with Slovak adopting a more fluid style featuring "sultry '' elements as opposed to his original hard rock techniques. On The Uplift Mofo Party Plan (1987), Slovak experimented with genres outside of traditional funk music including reggae and speed metal. His guitar riffs would often serve as the basis of the group 's songs, with the other members writing their parts to complement his guitar work. His melodic riff featured in the song "Behind the Sun '' inspired the group to create "pretty '' songs with an emphasis on melody. Kiedis describes the song as "pure Hillel inspiration ''. Slovak also used a talk box on songs such as "Green Heaven '' and "Funky Crime '', in which he would sing into a tube while playing to create psychedelic effects.
Frusciante 's musical style has evolved over the course of his career. His guitar playing employs melody and emotion rather than virtuosity. Although virtuoso influences can be heard throughout his career, he has said that he often minimizes this. Frusciante brought a melodic and textured sound, notably on Californication (1999), By the Way (2002) and Stadium Arcadium (2006). This contrasts with his previous abrasive approach in Mother 's Milk, as well as his dry, funky and more docile arrangements on Blood Sugar Sex Magik. On Californication (1999) and By the Way (2002), Frusciante derived the technique of creating tonal texture through chord patterns from post-punk guitarist Vini Reilly of The Durutti Column, and bands such as Fugazi and The Cure. On By The Way, he wanted lead guitar to be something you could sing, his guitar playing was then influenced by John McGeoch of Siouxsie and the Banshees, Johnny Marr of The Smiths and Bernard Sumner of Joy Division. He initially wanted to take another direction and intended the record to be made up of "these punky, rough songs '', drawing inspiration from early punk artists such as The Germs and The Damned. However, this was discouraged by producer Rick Rubin, and he instead built upon Californication 's (1999) melodically driven style. During the recording of Stadium Arcadium (2006), he moved away from his New Wave influences and concentrated on emulating flashier guitar players such as Hendrix and Van Halen.
Navarro brought his own sound to the band during his tenure, with his style based on heavy metal, progressive rock and psychedelia.
Current guitarist Klinghoffer 's style employs a wide range of his own unconventional guitar effects and vocal treatments. In his debut Chili Peppers album, I 'm With You (2011), he focused heavily on producing a textured, emotional sound to complement the vocals and atmosphere of each song. He has stated that he is a huge fan of jazz and funk, which does express itself in many of the album 's tracks.
Flea 's electric bass style can be considered an amalgamation of funk, psychedelic, punk, and hard rock. The groove - heavy, low - tuned melodies, played through either finger - picking, or slapping, contributed to their signature style. While Flea 's slap bass style was prominent in earlier albums, albums after Blood Sugar Sex Magik have more melodic and funk - driven bass lines. He has also used double stops on some newer songs. Flea 's bass playing has changed considerably throughout the years. When he joined Fear, his technique centered largely around traditional punk rock bass lines, however he was to change this style, when Red Hot Chili Peppers formed. He began to incorporate a "slap '' bass style, that drew influence largely from Bootsy Collins. Blood Sugar Sex Magik saw a notable shift in style as it featured none of his signature technique but rather styles, that focused more on traditional and melodic roots. His intellectual beliefs, on how to play the instrument, were also altered: "I was trying to play simply on Blood Sugar Sex Magik because I had been playing too much prior to that, so I thought, ' I 've really got to chill out and play half as many notes '. When you play less, it 's more exciting -- there 's more room for everything. If I do play something busy, it stands out, instead of the bass being a constant onslaught of notes. Space is good. ''
Drummer Smith blends rock with funk. He mixes funk, rock, metal and jazz to his beats. Influences include Buddy Rich to John Bonham. He brought a different sound to Mother 's Milk, playing tight and fast. In Blood Sugar Sex Magik, he displays greater power. He is recognized for his ghost notes, his beats and his fast right foot. MusicRadar put him in sixth place on their list of the "50 Greatest Drummers Of All Time '', behind Mike Portnoy, Neil Peart, Keith Moon, Rich and Bonham.
Through the years, Kiedis ' lyrics covered a variety of topics, which shifted as time progressed. Early in the group 's career, Kiedis wrote mostly comical songs filled with sexual innuendos as well as songs inspired by friendship and the band members ' personal experiences. However, after the death of his close friend and bandmate Hillel Slovak, Kiedis ' lyrics became much more introspective and personal, as exemplified by the Mother 's Milk (1989) song "Knock Me Down '', which was dedicated to Slovak along with the Blood Sugar Sex Magik (1991) song, "My Lovely Man ''.
When the band recorded One Hot Minute (1995) Kiedis had turned to drugs once again, which resulted in darker lyrics. He began to write about anguish, and the self mutilating thoughts he would experience as a result of his heroin and cocaine addiction. The album also featured tributes to close friends the band lost during the recording process including Kurt Cobain on the song "Tearjerker '' and River Phoenix, on the song "Transcending ''.
After witnessing Frusciante 's recovery from his heroin addiction, Kiedis wrote many songs inspired by rebirth and the meaning of life on Californication (1999). He was also intrigued by the life lessons, that the band had learned, including Kiedis ' experience with meeting a young mother at the YMCA, who was attempting to battle her crack addiction while living with her infant daughter.
On By the Way (2002), Kiedis was lyrically influenced by love, his girlfriend, and the emotions expressed when one fell in love. Drugs also played an integral part in Kiedis ' writings, as he had only been sober since December 2000. Tracks like "This Is the Place '' and "Do n't Forget Me '' expressed his intense dislike for narcotics and the harmful physical and emotional effects they caused him. Stadium Arcadium (2006) continued the themes of love and romance; Kiedis stated, that "love and women, pregnancies and marriages, relationship struggles -- those are real and profound influences on this record. And it 's great, because it was n't just me writing about the fact that I 'm in love. It was everybody in the band. We were brimming with energy based on falling in love. '' I 'm With You (2011) again featured Kiedis writing about the loss of a close friend this time in the song "Brendan 's Death Song '', a tribute to club owner Brendan Mullen who gave the band some of their earliest shows and showed support to them throughout their career.
Themes within Kiedis ' repertoire include love and friendship, teenage angst, good - time aggression, various sexual topics and the link between sex and music, political and social commentary (Native American issues in particular), romance, loneliness, globalization and the cons of fame and Hollywood, poverty, drugs, alcohol, dealing with death, and California.
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extinction lowers the number of species in a habitat called | Extinction - wikipedia
In biology, extinction is the termination of an organism or of a group of organisms (taxon), normally a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point. Because a species ' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears '' (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence,
More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to have died out. Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one - thousandth of one percent described.
Through evolution, species arise through the process of speciation -- where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche -- and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition. The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established. A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance, although some species, called living fossils, survive with virtually no morphological change for hundreds of millions of years.
Mass extinctions are relatively rare events; however, isolated extinctions are quite common. Only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the current high rate of extinctions. Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented. Some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal species may become extinct by 2100.
A dagger symbol (†) placed next to the name of a species or other taxon is often done to indicate its status as extinct.
A species is extinct when the last existing member dies. Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when there are no surviving individuals that can reproduce and create a new generation. A species may become functionally extinct when only a handful of individuals survive, which can not reproduce due to poor health, age, sparse distribution over a large range, a lack of individuals of both sexes (in sexually reproducing species), or other reasons.
Pinpointing the extinction (or pseudoextinction) of a species requires a clear definition of that species. If it is to be declared extinct, the species in question must be uniquely distinguishable from any ancestor or daughter species, and from any other closely related species. Extinction of a species (or replacement by a daughter species) plays a key role in the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis of Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge.
In ecology, extinction is often used informally to refer to local extinction, in which a species ceases to exist in the chosen area of study, but may still exist elsewhere. This phenomenon is also known as extirpation. Local extinctions may be followed by a replacement of the species taken from other locations; wolf reintroduction is an example of this. Species which are not extinct are termed extant. Those that are extant but threatened by extinction are referred to as threatened or endangered species.
Currently an important aspect of extinction is human attempts to preserve critically endangered species. These are reflected by the creation of the conservation status "extinct in the wild '' (EW). Species listed under this status by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) are not known to have any living specimens in the wild, and are maintained only in zoos or other artificial environments. Some of these species are functionally extinct, as they are no longer part of their natural habitat and it is unlikely the species will ever be restored to the wild. When possible, modern zoological institutions try to maintain a viable population for species preservation and possible future reintroduction to the wild, through use of carefully planned breeding programs.
The extinction of one species ' wild population can have knock - on effects, causing further extinctions. These are also called "chains of extinction ''. This is especially common with extinction of keystone species.
Extinction of a parent species where daughter species or subspecies are still extant is called pseudoextinction or phyletic extinction. Effectively, the old taxon vanishes, transformed (anagenesis) into a successor, or split into more than one (cladogenesis).
Pseudoextinction is difficult to demonstrate unless one has a strong chain of evidence linking a living species to members of a pre-existing species. For example, it is sometimes claimed that the extinct Hyracotherium, which was an early horse that shares a common ancestor with the modern horse, is pseudoextinct, rather than extinct, because there are several extant species of Equus, including zebra and donkey. However, as fossil species typically leave no genetic material behind, one can not say whether Hyracotherium evolved into more modern horse species or merely evolved from a common ancestor with modern horses. Pseudoextinction is much easier to demonstrate for larger taxonomic groups.
The coelacanth, a fish related to lungfish and tetrapods, was considered to have been extinct since the end of the Cretaceous Period until 1938 when a specimen was found, off the Chalumna River (now Tyolomnqa) on the east coast of South Africa. Museum curator Marjorie Courtenay - Latimer discovered the fish among the catch of a local angler, Captain Hendrick Goosen, on December 23, 1938. A local chemistry professor, JLB Smith, confirmed the fish 's importance with a famous cable: "MOST IMPORTANT PRESERVE SKELETON AND GILLS = FISH DESCRIBED ''.
Far more recent possible or presumed extinctions of species which may turn out still to exist include the thylacine, or Tasmanian tiger (Thylacinus cynocephalus), the last known example of which died in Hobart Zoo in Tasmania in 1936; the Japanese wolf (Canis lupus hodophilax), last sighted over 100 years ago; the ivory - billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis), last sighted for certain in 1944; and the slender - billed curlew (Numenius tenuirostris), not seen since 2007.
As long as species have been evolving, species have been going extinct. It is estimated that over 99.9 % of all species that ever lived are extinct. The average lifespan of a species is 1 -- 10 million years, although this varies widely between taxa. There are a variety of causes that can contribute directly or indirectly to the extinction of a species or group of species. "Just as each species is unique '', write Beverly and Stephen C. Stearns, "so is each extinction... the causes for each are varied -- some subtle and complex, others obvious and simple ''. Most simply, any species that can not survive and reproduce in its environment and can not move to a new environment where it can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. Extinction of a species may come suddenly when an otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when toxic pollution renders its entire habitat unliveable; or may occur gradually over thousands or millions of years, such as when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. Extinction may occur a long time after the events that set it in motion, a phenomenon known as extinction debt.
Assessing the relative importance of genetic factors compared to environmental ones as the causes of extinction has been compared to the debate on nature and nurture. The question of whether more extinctions in the fossil record have been caused by evolution or by catastrophe is a subject of discussion; Mark Newman, the author of Modeling Extinction, argues for a mathematical model that falls between the two positions. By contrast, conservation biology uses the extinction vortex model to classify extinctions by cause. When concerns about human extinction have been raised, for example in Sir Martin Rees ' 2003 book Our Final Hour, those concerns lie with the effects of climate change or technological disaster.
Currently, environmental groups and some governments are concerned with the extinction of species caused by humanity, and they try to prevent further extinctions through a variety of conservation programs. Humans can cause extinction of a species through overharvesting, pollution, habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species (such as new predators and food competitors), overhunting, and other influences. Explosive, unsustainable human population growth is an essential cause of the extinction crisis. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 784 extinctions have been recorded since the year 1500, the arbitrary date selected to define "recent '' extinctions, up to the year 2004; with many more likely to have gone unnoticed. Several species have also been listed as extinct since 2004.
If adaptation increasing population fitness is slower than environmental degradation plus the accumulation of slightly deleterious mutations, then a population will go extinct. Smaller populations have fewer beneficial mutations entering the population each generation, slowing adaptation. It is also easier for slightly deleterious mutations to fix in small populations; the resulting positive feedback loop between small population size and low fitness can cause mutational meltdown.
Limited geographic range is the most important determinant of genus extinction at background rates but becomes increasingly irrelevant as mass extinction arises. Limited geographic range is a cause both of small population size and of greater vulnerability to local environmental catastrophes.
Extinction rates can be affected not just by population size, but by any factor that affects evolvability, including balancing selection, cryptic genetic variation, phenotypic plasticity, and robustness. A diverse or deep gene pool gives a population a higher chance in the short term of surviving an adverse change in conditions. Effects that cause or reward a loss in genetic diversity can increase the chances of extinction of a species. Population bottlenecks can dramatically reduce genetic diversity by severely limiting the number of reproducing individuals and make inbreeding more frequent.
Purebred wild species evolved to a specific ecology can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution -- i.e., uncontrolled hybridization, introgression genetic swamping which leads to homogenization or out - competition from the introduced (or hybrid) species. Endemic populations can face such extinctions when new populations are imported or selectively bred by people, or when habitat modification brings previously isolated species into contact. Extinction is likeliest for rare species coming into contact with more abundant ones; interbreeding can swamp the rarer gene pool and create hybrids, depleting the purebred gene pool (for example, the endangered wild water buffalo is most threatened with extinction by genetic pollution from the abundant domestic water buffalo). Such extinctions are not always apparent from morphological (non-genetic) observations. Some degree of gene flow is a normal evolutionarily process, nevertheless, hybridization (with or without introgression) threatens rare species ' existence.
The gene pool of a species or a population is the variety of genetic information in its living members. A large gene pool (extensive genetic diversity) is associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense selection. Meanwhile, low genetic diversity (see inbreeding and population bottlenecks) reduces the range of adaptions possible. Replacing native with alien genes narrows genetic diversity within the original population, thereby increasing the chance of extinction.
Habitat degradation is currently the main anthropogenic cause of species extinctions. The main cause of habitat degradation worldwide is agriculture, with urban sprawl, logging, mining and some fishing practices close behind. The degradation of a species ' habitat may alter the fitness landscape to such an extent that the species is no longer able to survive and becomes extinct. This may occur by direct effects, such as the environment becoming toxic, or indirectly, by limiting a species ' ability to compete effectively for diminished resources or against new competitor species.
Habitat degradation through toxicity can kill off a species very rapidly, by killing all living members through contamination or sterilizing them. It can also occur over longer periods at lower toxicity levels by affecting life span, reproductive capacity, or competitiveness.
Habitat degradation can also take the form of a physical destruction of niche habitats. The widespread destruction of tropical rainforests and replacement with open pastureland is widely cited as an example of this; elimination of the dense forest eliminated the infrastructure needed by many species to survive. For example, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. Another example is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling.
Diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. Global warming has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing unwelcome competition to other species that previously occupied that area. Sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. Vital resources including water and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction.
In the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to: extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, inter-species competition, inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions (particularly sudden changes) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. Recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction (many people would say premature extinction) of some species, either as a new mega-predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. Such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally (e.g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food) and sometimes accidentally (e.g. rats escaping from boats). In most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. Invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. Human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. According to the "overkill hypothesis '', the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as Australia (40,000 years before present), North and South America (12,000 years before present), Madagascar, Hawaii (300 -- 1000 CE), and New Zealand (1300 -- 1500 CE), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before, and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques.
Coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another; for example, the extinction of parasitic insects following the loss of their hosts. Coextinction can also occur when a species loses its pollinator, or to predators in a food chain who lose their prey. "Species coextinction is a manifestation of the interconnectedness of organisms in complex ecosystems... While coextinction may not be the most important cause of species extinctions, it is certainly an insidious one ''. Coextinction is especially common when a keystone species goes extinct. Models suggest that coextinction is the most common form of biodiversity loss. There may be a cascade of coextinction across the trophic levels. Such effects are most severe in mutualistic and parasitic relationships. An example of coextinction is the Haast 's eagle and the moa: the Haast 's eagle was a predator that became extinct because its food source became extinct. The moa were several species of flightless birds that were a food source for the Haast 's eagle.
Extinction as a result of climate change has been confirmed by fossil studies. Particularly, the extinction of amphibians during the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse, 305 million years ago. A 2003 review across 14 biodiversity research centers predicted that, because of climate change, 15 -- 37 % of land species would be "committed to extinction '' by 2050. The ecologically rich areas that would potentially suffer the heaviest losses include the Cape Floristic Region, and the Caribbean Basin. These areas might see a doubling of present carbon dioxide levels and rising temperatures that could eliminate 56,000 plant and 3,700 animal species. Climate change has also been found to be a factor in habitat loss and desertification.
There have been at least five mass extinctions in the history of life on earth, and four in the last 350 million years in which many species have disappeared in a relatively short period of geological time. A massive eruptive event is considered to be one likely cause of the "Permian -- Triassic extinction event '' about 250 million years ago, which is estimated to have killed 90 % of species then existing. There is also evidence to suggest that this event was preceded by another mass extinction, known as Olson 's Extinction. The Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event (K - Pg) occurred 66 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period, and is best known for having wiped out non-avian dinosaurs, among many other species.
According to a 1998 survey of 400 biologists conducted by New York 's American Museum of Natural History, nearly 70 % believed that the Earth is currently in the early stages of a human - caused mass extinction, known as the Holocene extinction. In that survey, the same proportion of respondents agreed with the prediction that up to 20 % of all living populations could become extinct within 30 years (by 2028). A 2014 special edition of Science declared there is widespread consensus on the issue of human - driven mass species extinctions.
Biologist E.O. Wilson estimated in 2002 that if current rates of human destruction of the biosphere continue, one - half of all plant and animal species of life on earth will be extinct in 100 years. More significantly, the current rate of global species extinctions is estimated as 100 to 1000 times "background '' rates (the average extinction rates in the evolutionary time scale of planet Earth), while future rates are likely 10,000 times higher. However, some groups are going extinct much faster. Biologists Paul R. Ehrlich and Stuart Pimm, among others, contend that human population growth and overconsumption are the main drivers of the modern extinction crisis.
For much of history, the modern understanding of extinction as the end of a species was incompatible with the prevailing worldview. Through the 18th century, much of Western society adhered to the belief that the world was created by God and as such was complete and perfect. This concept reached its heyday in the 1700s with the peak popularity of a theological concept called the Great Chain of Being, in which all life on earth, from the tiniest microorganism to God, is linked in a continuous chain. The extinction of a species was impossible under this model, as it would create gaps or missing links in the chain and destroy the natural order. Thomas Jefferson was a firm supporter of the Great Chain of Being and an opponent of extinction, famously denying the extinction of the wooly mammoth on the grounds that nature never allows a race of animals to become extinct.
A series of fossils were discovered in the late 17th century that appeared unlike any living species. As a result, the scientific community embarked on a voyage of creative rationalization, seeking to understand what had happened to these species within a framework that did not account for total extinction. In October 1686, Robert Hooke presented an impression of a nautilus to the Royal Society that was more than two feet in diameter, and morphologically distinct from any known living species. Hooke theorized that this was simply because the species lived in the deep ocean and no one had discovered them yet. While he contended that it was possible a species could be "lost '', he thought this highly unlikely. Similarly, in 1695, Thomas Molyneux published an account of enormous antlers found in Ireland that did not belong to any extant taxa in that area. Molyneux reasoned that they came from the North American moose and that the animal had once been common on the British Isles. Rather than suggest that this indicated the possibility of species going extinct, he argued that although organisms could become locally extinct, they could never be entirely lost and would continue to exist in some unknown region of the globe. Using the antlers as evidence for this position, Molyneux described how moose had continued to exist in North America even as they were lost to the British Isles. The antlers were later confirmed to be from the extinct Irish elk Megaloceros. Hooke and Molyneux 's line of thinking was difficult to disprove. When parts of the world had not been thoroughly examined and charted, scientists could not rule out that animals found only in the fossil record were not simply "hiding '' in unexplored regions of the Earth.
Georges Cuvier is credited with establishing the modern conception of extinction in a 1796 lecture to the French Institute, though he would spend most of his career trying to convince the wider scientific community of his theory. Cuvier was a well - regarded geologist, lauded for his ability to reconstruct the anatomy of an unknown species from a few fragments of bone. His primary evidence for extinction came from mammoth skulls found in the Paris basin. Cuvier recognized them as distinct from any known living species of elephant, and argued that it was highly unlikely such an enormous animal would go undiscovered. In 1812, Cuvier, along with Alexandre Bronigniart & Geoffroy Saint - Hilaire, mapped the strata of the Paris basin. They saw alternating saltwater and freshwater deposits, as well as patterns of the appearance and disappearance of fossils throughout the record. From these patterns, Cuvier inferred historic cycles of catastrophic flooding, extinction, and repopulation of the earth with new species.
Cuvier 's fossil evidence showed that very different life forms existed in the past than those that exist today, a fact that was accepted by most scientists. The primary debate focused whether this turnover caused by extinction was gradual or abrupt in nature. Cuvier understood extinction to be the result of cataclysmic events that wipe out huge numbers of species, as opposed to the gradual decline of a species over time. His catastrophic view of the nature of extinction garnered him many opponents in the newly emerging school of uniformitarianism.
Jean - Baptist Lamarck, a gradualist and colleague of Cuvier, saw the fossils of different life forms as evidence of the mutable character of species. While Lamarck did not deny the possibility of extinction, he believed that it was exceptional and rare and that most of the change in species over time was due to gradual change. Unlike Cuvier, Lamarck was skeptical that catastrophic events of a scale large enough to cause total extinction were possible. In his geological history of the earth titled Hydrogeologie, Lamarck instead argued that the surface of the earth was shaped by gradual erosion and deposition by water, and that species changed over time in response to the changing environment.
Charles Lyell, a noted geologist and founder of uniformitarianism, believed that past processes should be understood using present day processes. Like Lamarck, Lyell acknowledged that extinction could occur, noting the total extinction of the dodo and the extirpation of indigenous horses to the British Isles. He similarly argued against mass extinctions, believing that any extinction must be a gradual process. Lyell also showed that Cuvier 's original interpretation of the Parisian strata was incorrect. Instead of the catastrophic floods inferred by Cuvier, Lyell demonstrated that patterns of saltwater and freshwater deposits, like those seen in the Paris basin, could be formed by a slow rise and fall of sea levels.
The concept of extinction was integral to Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species, with less fit lineages disappearing over time. For Darwin, extinction was a constant side effect of competition. Because of the wide reach of On the Origin of Species, it was widely accepted that extinction occurred gradually and evenly (a concept we now refer to as background extinction). It was not until 1982, when David Raup and Jack Sepkoski published their seminal paper on mass extinctions, that Cuvier was vindicated and catastrophic extinction was accepted as an important mechanism. The current understanding of extinction is a synthesis of the cataclysmic extinction events proposed by Cuvier, and the background extinction events proposed by Lyell and Darwin.
Extinction is an important research topic in the field of zoology, and biology in general, and has also become an area of concern outside the scientific community. A number of organizations, such as the Worldwide Fund for Nature, have been created with the goal of preserving species from extinction. Governments have attempted, through enacting laws, to avoid habitat destruction, agricultural over-harvesting, and pollution. While many human - caused extinctions have been accidental, humans have also engaged in the deliberate destruction of some species, such as dangerous viruses, and the total destruction of other problematic species has been suggested. Other species were deliberately driven to extinction, or nearly so, due to poaching or because they were "undesirable '', or to push for other human agendas. One example was the near extinction of the American bison, which was nearly wiped out by mass hunts sanctioned by the United States government, to force the removal of Native Americans, many of whom relied on the bison for food.
Biologist Bruce Walsh of the University of Arizona states three reasons for scientific interest in the preservation of species: genetic resources, ecosystem stability, and ethics; and today the scientific community "stress (es) the importance '' of maintaining biodiversity.
In modern times, commercial and industrial interests often have to contend with the effects of production on plant and animal life. However, some technologies with minimal, or no, proven harmful effects on Homo sapiens can be devastating to wildlife (for example, DDT). Biogeographer Jared Diamond notes that while big business may label environmental concerns as "exaggerated '', and often cause "devastating damage '', some corporations find it in their interest to adopt good conservation practices, and even engage in preservation efforts that surpass those taken by national parks.
Governments sometimes see the loss of native species as a loss to ecotourism, and can enact laws with severe punishment against the trade in native species in an effort to prevent extinction in the wild. Nature preserves are created by governments as a means to provide continuing habitats to species crowded by human expansion. The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity has resulted in international Biodiversity Action Plan programmes, which attempt to provide comprehensive guidelines for government biodiversity conservation. Advocacy groups, such as The Wildlands Project and the Alliance for Zero Extinctions, work to educate the public and pressure governments into action.
People who live close to nature can be dependent on the survival of all the species in their environment, leaving them highly exposed to extinction risks. However, people prioritize day - to - day survival over species conservation; with human overpopulation in tropical developing countries, there has been enormous pressure on forests due to subsistence agriculture, including slash - and - burn agricultural techniques that can reduce endangered species 's habitats.
Antinatalist philosopher David Benatar concludes that any popular concern about non-human species extinction usually arises out of concern about how the loss of a species will impact human wants and needs, that "we shall live in a world impoverished by the loss of one aspect of faunal diversity, that we shall no longer be able to behold or use that species of animal. '' He notes that typical concerns about possible human extinction, such as the loss of individual members, are not considered in regards to non-human species extinction.
The poliovirus is now confined to small parts of the world due to extermination efforts.
Dracunculus medinensis, a parasitic worm which causes the disease dracunculiasis, is now close to eradication thanks to efforts led by the Carter Center.
Treponema pallidum pertenue, a bacterium which causes the disease yaws, is in the process of being eradicated.
Biologist Olivia Judson has advocated the deliberate extinction of certain disease - carrying mosquito species. In a September 25, 2003 New York Times article, she advocated "specicide '' of thirty mosquito species by introducing a genetic element which can insert itself into another crucial gene, to create recessive "knockout genes ''. She says that the Anopheles mosquitoes (which spread malaria) and Aedes mosquitoes (which spread dengue fever, yellow fever, elephantiasis, and other diseases) represent only 30 species; eradicating these would save at least one million human lives per annum, at a cost of reducing the genetic diversity of the family Culicidae by only 1 %. She further argues that since species become extinct "all the time '' the disappearance of a few more will not destroy the ecosystem: "We 're not left with a wasteland every time a species vanishes. Removing one species sometimes causes shifts in the populations of other species -- but different need not mean worse. '' In addition, anti-malarial and mosquito control programs offer little realistic hope to the 300 million people in developing nations who will be infected with acute illnesses this year. Although trials are ongoing, she writes that if they fail: "We should consider the ultimate swatting. ''
Biologist E.O. Wilson has advocated the eradication of several species of mosquito, including malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Wilson stated, "I 'm talking about a very small number of species that have co-evolved with us and are preying on humans, so it would certainly be acceptable to remove them. I believe it 's just common sense. ''
Some, such as Harvard geneticist George M. Church, believe that ongoing technological advances will let us "bring back to life '' an extinct species by cloning, using DNA from the remains of that species. Proposed targets for cloning include the mammoth, the thylacine, and the Pyrenean ibex. For this to succeed, enough individuals would have to be cloned, from the DNA of different individuals (in the case of sexually reproducing organisms) to create a viable population. Though bioethical and philosophical objections have been raised, the cloning of extinct creatures seems theoretically possible.
In 2003, scientists tried to clone the extinct Pyrenean ibex (C. p. pyrenaica). This attempt failed: of the 285 embryos reconstructed, 54 were transferred to 12 mountain goats and mountain goat - domestic goat hybrids, but only two survived the initial two months of gestation before they too died. In 2009, a second attempt was made to clone the Pyrenean ibex: one clone was born alive, but died seven minutes later, due to physical defects in the lungs.
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how many times did michael jordan win dpoy | Michael Jordan - wikipedia
Michael Jeffrey Jordan (born February 17, 1963), also known by his initials, MJ, is an American retired professional basketball player, businessman, and principal owner and chairman of the Charlotte Hornets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Jordan played 15 seasons in the NBA for the Chicago Bulls and Washington Wizards. His biography on the NBA website states: "By acclamation, Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. '' Jordan was one of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation and was considered instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s.
Jordan played three seasons for coach Dean Smith at the University of North Carolina. As a freshman, he was a member of the Tar Heels ' national championship team in 1982. Jordan joined the Bulls in 1984 as the third overall draft pick. He quickly emerged as a league star, entertaining crowds with his prolific scoring. His leaping ability, demonstrated by performing slam dunks from the free throw line in slam dunk contests, earned him the nicknames Air Jordan and His Airness. He also gained a reputation for being one of the best defensive players in basketball. In 1991, he won his first NBA championship with the Bulls, and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993, securing a "three - peat ''. Although Jordan abruptly retired from basketball before the beginning of the 1993 -- 94 NBA season and started a new career playing minor league baseball, he returned to the Bulls in March 1995 and led them to three additional championships in 1996, 1997, and 1998, as well as a then - record 72 regular - season wins in the 1995 -- 96 NBA season. Jordan retired for a second time in January 1999, but returned for two more NBA seasons from 2001 to 2003 as a member of the Wizards.
Jordan 's individual accolades and accomplishments include five Most Valuable Player (MVP) Awards, ten All - NBA First Team designations, nine All - Defensive First Team honors, fourteen NBA All - Star Game appearances, three All - Star Game MVP Awards, ten scoring titles, three steals titles, six NBA Finals MVP Awards, and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award. Among his numerous accomplishments, Jordan holds the NBA records for highest career regular season scoring average (30.12 points per game) and highest career playoff scoring average (33.45 points per game). In 1999, he was named the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN, and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press 's list of athletes of the century. Jordan is a two - time inductee into the Basketball Hall of Fame, having been enshrined in 2009 for his individual career, and again in 2010 as part of the group induction of the 1992 United States men 's Olympic basketball team ("The Dream Team ''). He became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2015.
Jordan is also known for his product endorsements. He fueled the success of Nike 's Air Jordan sneakers, which were introduced in 1985 and remain popular today. Jordan also starred in the 1996 film Space Jam as himself. In 2006, he became part - owner and head of basketball operations for the then - Charlotte Bobcats, buying a controlling interest in 2010. In 2015, Jordan became the first billionaire NBA player in history as a result of the increase in value of NBA franchises. He is the third - richest African - American, behind Oprah Winfrey and Robert F. Smith.
Jordan was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Deloris (née Peoples), who worked in banking, and James R. Jordan Sr., an equipment supervisor. His family moved to Wilmington, North Carolina, when he was a toddler.
Jordan is the fourth of five children. He has two older brothers, Larry Jordan and James R. Jordan, Jr., one older sister, Deloris, and one younger sister, Roslyn. Jordan 's brother James retired in 2006 as the Command Sergeant Major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the U.S. Army.
Jordan attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington, where he highlighted his athletic career by playing basketball, baseball, and football. He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year, but at 5'11 '' (1.80 m), he was deemed too short to play at that level. His taller friend, Harvest Leroy Smith, was the only sophomore to make the team.
Motivated to prove his worth, Jordan became the star of Laney 's junior varsity squad, and tallied several 40 - point games. The following summer, he grew four inches (10 cm) and trained rigorously. Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster, Jordan averaged about 20 points per game over his final two seasons of high school play. As a senior, he was selected to the McDonald 's All - American Team after averaging a triple - double: 29.2 points, 11.6 rebounds, and 10.1 assists.
Jordan was recruited by numerous college basketball programs, including Duke, North Carolina, South Carolina, Syracuse, and Virginia. In 1981, Jordan accepted a basketball scholarship to North Carolina, where he majored in cultural geography.
As a freshman in coach Dean Smith 's team - oriented system, he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13.4 points per game (ppg) on 53.4 % shooting (field goal percentage). He made the game - winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown, which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing. Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career. During his three seasons at North Carolina, he averaged 17.7 ppg on 54.0 % shooting, and added 5.0 rebounds per game (rpg). He was selected by consensus to the NCAA All - American First Team in both his sophomore (1983) and junior (1984) seasons. After winning the Naismith and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984, Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA draft. The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick, after Hakeem Olajuwon (Houston Rockets) and Sam Bowie (Portland Trail Blazers). One of the primary reasons why Jordan was not drafted sooner was because the first two teams were in need of a center. However, Trail Blazers general manager Stu Inman contended that it was not a matter of drafting a center, but more a matter of taking Sam Bowie over Jordan, in part because Portland already had Clyde Drexler, who was a guard with similar skills to Jordan. ESPN, citing Bowie 's injury - laden college career, named the Blazers ' choice of Bowie as the worst draft pick in North American professional sports history. Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986.
During his rookie season in the NBA, Jordan averaged 28.2 ppg on 51.5 % shooting. He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas, and appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the heading "A Star Is Born '' just over a month into his professional career. Jordan was also voted in as an All - Star starter by the fans in his rookie season. Controversy arose before the All - Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players -- led by Isiah Thomas -- were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving. This led to a so - called "freeze - out '' on Jordan, where players refused to pass the ball to him throughout the game. The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play, and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year. The Bulls finished the season 38 -- 44 and lost to the Milwaukee Bucks in four games in the first round of the playoffs.
Jordan 's second season was cut short when he broke his foot in the third game of the year, causing him to miss 64 games. Despite Jordan 's injury and a 30 -- 52 record (at the time it was fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history), the Bulls made the playoffs. Jordan recovered in time to participate in the playoffs and performed well upon his return. Against a 1985 -- 86 Boston Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history, Jordan set the still - unbroken record for points in a playoff game with 63 in Game 2. The Celtics, however, managed to sweep the series.
Jordan had completely recovered in time for the 1986 -- 87 season, and he had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history. He joined Wilt Chamberlain as the only two players to score 3,000 points in a season, averaging a league high 37.1 points on 48.2 % shooting. In addition, Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess, as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocked shots in a season. Despite Jordan 's success, Magic Johnson won the league 's Most Valuable Player Award. The Bulls reached 40 wins, and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year. However, they were again swept by the Celtics.
Jordan again led the league in scoring during the 1987 -- 88 season, averaging 35.0 ppg on 53.5 % shooting and won his first league MVP Award. He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year, as he had averaged 1.6 blocks and a league high 3.16 steals per game. The Bulls finished 50 -- 32, and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan 's career, as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. However, the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons, who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the "Bad Boys ''.
In the 1988 -- 89 season, Jordan again led the league in scoring, averaging 32.5 ppg on 53.8 % shooting from the field, along with 8 rpg and 8 assists per game (apg). The Bulls finished with a 47 -- 35 record, and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals, defeating the Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way. The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit The Shot over Craig Ehlo at the buzzer in the fifth and final game of the series. However, the Pistons again defeated the Bulls, this time in six games, by utilizing their "Jordan Rules '' method of guarding Jordan, which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball.
The Bulls entered the 1989 -- 90 season as a team on the rise, with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant, and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson. Jordan averaged a league leading 33.6 ppg on 52.6 % shooting, to go with 6.9 rpg and 6.3 apg in leading the Bulls to a 55 -- 27 record. They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals after beating the Bucks and Philadelphia 76ers. However, despite pushing the series to seven games, the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season.
In the 1990 -- 91 season, Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31.5 ppg on 53.9 % shooting, 6.0 rpg, and 5.5 apg for the regular season. The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season. With Scottie Pippen developing into an All - Star, the Bulls had elevated their play. The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs. They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival, the Detroit Pistons, awaited them. However, this time the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four - game sweep.
The Bulls advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history to face the Los Angeles Lakers, who had Magic Johnson and James Worthy, two formidable opponents. The Bulls won the series four games to one, and compiled an outstanding 15 -- 2 playoff record along the way. Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when, attempting a dunk, Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid-air to lay the shot into the basket. In his first Finals appearance, Jordan posted per game averages of 31.2 points on 56 % shooting from the field, 11.4 assists, 6.6 rebounds, 2.8 steals, and 1.4 blocks. Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award, and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy.
Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991 -- 92 season, establishing a 67 -- 15 record, topping their franchise record from 1990 -- 91. Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with averages of 30.1 points, 6.4 rebounds and 6.1 assists per game on 52 % shooting. After winning a physical 7 - game series over the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in 6 games, the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals. The media, hoping to recreate a Magic -- Bird rivalry, highlighted the similarities between "Air '' Jordan and Clyde "The Glide '' during the pre-Finals hype. In the first game, Jordan scored a Finals - record 35 points in the first half, including a record - setting six three - point field goals. After the sixth three - pointer, he jogged down the court shrugging as he looked courtside. Marv Albert, who broadcast the game, later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying, "I ca n't believe I 'm doing this. '' The Bulls went on to win Game 1, and defeat the Blazers in six games. Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row and finished the series averaging 35.8 ppg, 4.8 rpg, and 6.5 apg, while shooting 53 % from the floor.
In the 1992 -- 93 season, despite a 32.6 ppg, 6.7 rpg, and 5.5 apg campaign, Jordan 's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley. Coincidentally, Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals. The Bulls won their third NBA championship on a game - winning shot by John Paxson and a last - second block by Horace Grant, but Jordan was once again Chicago 's leader. He averaged a Finals - record 41.0 ppg during the six - game series, and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards. He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series, including 40 or more points in 4 consecutive games. With his third Finals triumph, Jordan capped off a seven - year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships, but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non-basketball hassles in his life.
During the Bulls ' playoff run in 1993, controversy arose when Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City, New Jersey, the night before a game against the New York Knicks. In that same year, he admitted that he had to cover $57,000 in gambling losses, and author Richard Esquinas wrote a book claiming he had won $1.25 million from Jordan on the golf course. In 2005, Jordan talked to Ed Bradley of the CBS evening show 60 Minutes about his gambling and admitted that he made some reckless decisions. Jordan stated, "Yeah, I 've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I 've pushed the envelope. Is that compulsive? Yeah, it depends on how you look at it. If you 're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family, then yeah. '' When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it jeopardized his livelihood or family, Jordan replied, "No. ''
On October 6, 1993, Jordan announced his retirement, citing a loss of desire to play the game. Jordan later stated that the death of his father three months earlier also shaped his decision. Jordan 's father was murdered on July 23, 1993, at a highway rest area in Lumberton, North Carolina, by two teenagers, Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery, who carjacked the luxury vehicle. The assailants were traced from calls that they made on James Jordan 's cell phone. The two criminals were caught, convicted at trial, and sentenced to life in prison. Jordan was close to his father; as a child he had imitated his father 's proclivity to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work. He later adopted it as his own signature, displaying it each time he drove to the basket. In 1996, he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father.
In his 1998 autobiography For the Love of the Game, Jordan wrote that he had been preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992. The added exhaustion due to the Dream Team run in the 1992 Olympics solidified Jordan 's feelings about the game and his ever - growing celebrity status. Jordan 's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world.
Jordan then further surprised the sports world by signing a minor league baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 7, 1994. He reported to spring training in Sarasota, Florida, and was assigned to the team 's minor league system on March 31, 1994. Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father, who had always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player. The White Sox were another team owned by Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf, who continued to honor Jordan 's basketball contract during the years he played baseball.
In 1994, Jordan played for the Birmingham Barons, a Double - A minor league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox, batting. 202 with three home runs, 51 runs batted in, 30 stolen bases, 114 strikeouts, 51 base on balls, and 11 errors. He also appeared for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the 1994 Arizona Fall League, batting. 252 against the top prospects in baseball. On November 1, 1994, his number 23 was retired by the Bulls in a ceremony that included the erection of a permanent sculpture known as The Spirit outside the new United Center.
In the 1993 -- 94 season, the Bulls, without Jordan, achieved a 55 -- 27 record, and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs. But the 1994 -- 95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier. Struggling at mid-season to ensure a spot in the playoffs, Chicago was 31 -- 31 at one point in mid-March. The team received help, however, when Jordan decided to return to the NBA for the Bulls.
In March 1995, Jordan decided to quit baseball due to the ongoing Major League Baseball strike, as he wanted to avoid becoming a potential replacement player. On March 18, 1995, Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two - word press release: "I 'm back. '' The next day, Jordan took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis, scoring 19 points. The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since 1975. Although he could have opted to wear his normal number in spite of the Bulls having retired it, Jordan instead wore number 45, as he had while playing baseball.
Although he had not played an NBA game in a year and a half, Jordan played well upon his return, making a game - winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back. He then scored 55 points in the next game against the Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28, 1995. Boosted by Jordan 's comeback, the Bulls went 13 -- 4 to make the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Orlando Magic. At the end of Game 1, Orlando 's Nick Anderson stripped Jordan from behind, leading to the game - winning basket for the Magic; he would later comment that Jordan "did n't look like the old Michael Jordan '' and that "No. 45 does n't explode like No. 23 used to. ''
Jordan responded by scoring 38 points in the next game, which Chicago won. Before the game, Jordan decided that he would resume wearing his former number, 23, immediately. The Bulls were fined $25,000 for failing to report the impromptu number change to the NBA. Jordan was fined an additional $5,000 for opting to wear white shoes as the rest of the Bulls wore black. He averaged 31 points per game in the series, but Orlando won the series in 6 games.
Freshly motivated by the playoff defeat, Jordan trained aggressively for the 1995 -- 96 season. Strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman, the Bulls dominated the league, starting the season 41 -- 3, and eventually finishing with the then - best regular season record in NBA history (later surpassed by the 2015 -- 16 Golden State Warriors): 72 -- 10. Jordan led the league in scoring with 30.4 ppg, and won the league 's regular season and All - Star Game MVP awards.
In the playoffs, the Bulls lost only three games in four series (Miami Heat 3 -- 0, New York Knicks 4 -- 1, Orlando Magic 4 -- 0). They defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4 -- 2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship. Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time, surpassing Magic Johnson 's three Finals MVP awards. He also achieved only the second sweep of the MVP Awards in the All - Star Game, regular season and NBA Finals, Willis Reed having achieved the first, during the 1969 -- 70 season. Because this was Jordan 's first championship since his father 's murder, and it was won on Father 's Day, Jordan reacted very emotionally upon winning the title, including a memorable scene of him crying on the locker room floor with the game ball.
In the 1996 -- 97 season, the Bulls started out 69 -- 11, but missed out on a second consecutive 70 - win season by losing their final two games to finish 69 -- 13. However, this year Jordan was beaten for the NBA MVP Award by Karl Malone. The Bulls again advanced to the Finals, where they faced Malone and the Utah Jazz. The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan 's career. He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a buzzer - beating jump shot. In Game 5, with the series tied at 2, Jordan played despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus. In what is known as the "Flu Game '', Jordan scored 38 points, including the game - deciding 3 - pointer with 25 seconds remaining. The Bulls won 90 -- 88 and went on to win the series in six games. For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances, Jordan received the Finals MVP award. During the 1997 NBA All - Star Game, Jordan posted the first triple double in All - Star Game history in a victorious effort; however, he did not receive the MVP award.
Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62 -- 20 record in the 1997 -- 98 season. Jordan led the league with 28.7 points per game, securing his fifth regular - season MVP award, plus honors for All - NBA First Team, First Defensive Team and the All - Star Game MVP. The Bulls won the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season, including surviving a seven - game series with the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals with the Knicks. After winning, they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals.
The Bulls returned to the Delta Center for Game 6 on June 14, 1998, leading the series 3 -- 2. Jordan executed a series of plays, considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history. With the Bulls trailing 86 -- 83 with 41.9 seconds remaining in the fourth quarter, Phil Jackson called a timeout. When play resumed, Jordan received the inbound pass, drove to the basket, and hit a shot over several Jazz defenders, cutting the Utah lead to 86 -- 85. The Jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to forward Karl Malone, who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman. Malone jostled with Rodman and caught the pass, but Jordan cut behind him and took the ball out of his hands for a steal. Jordan then dribbled down the court and paused, eyeing his defender, Jazz guard Bryon Russell. With 10 seconds remaining, Jordan started to dribble right, then crossed over to his left, possibly pushing off Russell, although the officials did not call a foul. With 5.2 seconds left, Jordan gave Chicago an 87 -- 86 lead with a game - winning jumper, the climactic shot of his Bulls career. Afterwards, John Stockton missed a game - winning three - pointer. Jordan and the Bulls won their sixth NBA championship and second three - peat. Once again, Jordan was voted the Finals MVP, having led all scorers averaging 33.5 points per game, including 45 in the deciding Game 6. Jordan 's six Finals MVPs is a record; Shaquille O'Neal, Magic Johnson, LeBron James and Tim Duncan are tied for second place with three apiece. The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history. Game 6 also holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history.
With Phil Jackson 's contract expiring, the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming, and being in the latter stages of an owner - induced lockout of NBA players, Jordan retired for the second time on January 13, 1999. On January 19, 2000, Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player, but as part owner and President of Basketball Operations for the Washington Wizards. Jordan 's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive. He controlled all aspects of the Wizards ' basketball operations, and had the final say in all personnel matters. Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed. He managed to purge the team of several highly paid, unpopular players (such as forward Juwan Howard and point guard Rod Strickland), but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA draft to select high schooler Kwame Brown, who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons.
Despite his January 1999 claim that he was "99.9 % certain '' that he would never play another NBA game, in the summer of 2001 Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback, this time with his new team. Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter, Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training, holding several invitation - only camps for NBA players in Chicago. In addition, Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach, Doug Collins, as Washington 's coach for the upcoming season, a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return.
On September 25, 2001, Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards, indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks. In an injury - plagued 2001 -- 02 season, he led the team in scoring (22.9 ppg), assists (5.2 apg), and steals (1.42 spg). However, torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan 's season after only 60 games, the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994 -- 95 season. Jordan started 53 of his 60 games for the season, averaging 24.3 points, 5.4 assists, and 6.0 rebounds, and shooting 41.9 % from the field in his 53 starts. His last seven appearances were in a reserve role, in which he averaged just over 20 minutes per game.
Playing in his 14th and final NBA All - Star Game in 2003, Jordan passed Kareem Abdul - Jabbar as the all - time leading scorer in All - Star Game history (a record since broken by Kobe Bryant). That year, Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games, starting in 67 of them. He averaged 20.0 points, 6.1 rebounds, 3.8 assists, and 1.5 steals per game. He also shot 45 % from the field, and 82 % from the free throw line. Even though he turned 40 during the season, he scored 20 or more points 42 times, 30 or more points nine times, and 40 or more points three times. On February 21, 2003, Jordan became the first 40 - year - old to tally 43 points in an NBA game. During his stint with the Wizards, all of Jordan 's home games at the MCI Center were sold out, and the Wizards were the second most - watched team in the NBA, averaging 20,172 fans a game at home and 19,311 on the road. However, neither of Jordan 's final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the Wizards, and Jordan was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him. At several points he openly criticized his teammates to the media, citing their lack of focus and intensity, notably that of the number one draft pick in the 2001 NBA draft, Kwame Brown.
With the recognition that 2002 -- 03 would be Jordan 's final season, tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA. In his final game at his old home court, the United Center in Chicago, Jordan received a four - minute standing ovation. The Miami Heat retired the number 23 jersey on April 11, 2003, even though Jordan never played for the team. At the 2003 All - Star Game, Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy McGrady and Allen Iverson, but refused both. In the end, he accepted the spot of Vince Carter, who decided to give it up under great public pressure.
Jordan played in his final NBA game on April 16, 2003 in Philadelphia. After scoring only 13 points in the game, Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and with his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers, 75 -- 56. Just after the start of the fourth quarter, the First Union Center crowd began chanting "We want Mike! '' After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins, Jordan finally rose from the bench and re-entered the game, replacing Larry Hughes with 2: 35 remaining. At 1: 45, Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers ' Eric Snow, and stepped to the line to make both free throws. After the second foul shot, the 76ers in - bounded the ball to rookie John Salmons, who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later, stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench. Jordan received a three - minute standing ovation from his teammates, his opponents, the officials and the crowd of 21,257 fans.
Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal - winning American basketball teams. He won a gold medal as a college player in the 1984 Summer Olympics. The team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing, Sam Perkins, Chris Mullin, Steve Alford, and Wayman Tisdale. Jordan led the team in scoring, averaging 17.1 ppg for the tournament.
In the 1992 Summer Olympics, he was a member of the star - studded squad that included Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, and David Robinson and was dubbed the "Dream Team ''. Jordan was the only player to start all 8 games in the Olympics. Playing limited minutes due to the frequent blowouts, Jordan averaged 14.9 ppg, finishing second on the team in scoring. Jordan and fellow Dream Team members Patrick Ewing and Chris Mullin are the only American men 's basketball players to win Olympic gold medals as amateurs and professionals.
After his third retirement, Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position as Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards. However, his previous tenure in the Wizards ' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard "Rip '' Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse (although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002). On May 7, 2003, Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan as Washington 's President of Basketball Operations. Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed, and that if he knew he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards.
Jordan kept busy over the next few years. He stayed in shape, played golf in celebrity charity tournaments, and spent time with his family in Chicago. He also promoted his Jordan Brand clothing line and rode motorcycles. Since 2004, Jordan has owned Michael Jordan Motorsports, a professional closed - course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two Suzukis in the premier Superbike championship sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) until the end of the 2013 season. In 2006, Jordan and his wife Juanita pledged $5 million to Chicago 's Hales Franciscan High School. The Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America.
On June 15, 2006, Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats, becoming the team 's second - largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson. As part of the deal, Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation, with the title "Managing Member of Basketball Operations. '' Despite Jordan 's previous success as an endorser, he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte 's marketing campaigns. A decade earlier, Jordan had made a bid to become part - owner of Charlotte 's original NBA team, the Charlotte Hornets, but talks collapsed when owner George Shinn refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations.
In February 2010, it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats. As February wore on, it became apparent that Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George Postolos were the leading contenders for ownership of the team. On February 27, the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with Jordan and his group, MJ Basketball Holdings, to buy the team pending NBA approval. On March 17, the NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved Jordan 's purchase, making him the first former player to become the majority owner of an NBA team. It also made him the league 's only African - American majority owner of an NBA team.
During the 2011 NBA lockout, The New York Times wrote that Jordan led a group of 10 to 14 hardline owners who wanted to cap the players ' share of basketball - related income at 50 percent and as low as 47. Journalists observed that, during the labor dispute in 1998, Jordan had told Washington Wizards then - owner Abe Pollin, "If you ca n't make a profit, you should sell your team. '' Jason Whitlock of FoxSports.com called Jordan a "sellout '' wanting "current players to pay for his incompetence. '' He cited Jordan 's executive decisions to draft disappointing players Kwame Brown and Adam Morrison.
During the 2011 -- 12 NBA season that was shortened to 66 games by the lockout, the Bobcats posted a 7 -- 59 record. Their. 106 winning percentage was the worst in NBA history. "I 'm not real happy about the record book scenario last year. It 's very, very frustrating '', Jordan said later that year.
Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing as a small forward (the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards), and as a point guard. Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer. With the Bulls, he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds, including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests. His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash - talk and well - known work ethic. As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan, management had to trade away players who were not "tough enough '' to compete with him in practice. To help improve his defense, he spent extra hours studying film of opponents. On offense, he relied more upon instinct and improvisation at game time. Noted as a durable player, Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986 -- 87 to 2001 -- 02, when he injured his right knee. He played all 82 games nine times. Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson, Walter Davis, and Jerry West as influences. Confirmed at the start of his career, and possibly later on, Jordan had a special "Love of the Game Clause '' written into his contract (unusual at the time) which allowed him to play basketball against anyone at any time, anywhere.
Jordan had a versatile offensive game. He was capable of aggressively driving to the basket, as well as drawing fouls from his opponents at a high rate; his 8,772 free throw attempts are the ninth - highest total of all time. As his career progressed, Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark fadeaway jump shot, using his leaping ability to "fade away '' from block attempts. According to Hubie Brown, this move alone made him nearly unstoppable. Despite media criticism as a "selfish '' player early in his career, Jordan 's 5.3 assists per game also indicate his willingness to defer to his teammates. After shooting under 30 % from three - point range in his first five seasons in the NBA, including a career - low 13 % in the 1987 -- 88 season, Jordan improved to a career - high 50 % in the 1994 -- 95 season. The three - point shot became more of a focus of his game from 1994 -- 95 to 1996 -- 97, when the NBA shortened its three - point line to 22 ft (6.7 m) (from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m)). His three - point field - goal percentages ranged from 35 % to 43 % in seasons in which he attempted at least 230 three - pointers between 1989 -- 90 and 1996 -- 97. For a guard, Jordan was also a good rebounder (6.2 per game).
In 1988, Jordan was honored with the NBA 's Defensive Player of the Year Award and became the first NBA player to win both the Defensive Player of the Year and MVP awards in a career (since equaled by Hakeem Olajuwon, David Robinson, and Kevin Garnett; Olajuwon is the only player other than Jordan to win both during the same season). In addition, he set both seasonal and career records for blocked shots by a guard, and combined this with his ball - thieving ability to become a standout defensive player. He ranks third in NBA history in total steals with 2,514, trailing John Stockton and Jason Kidd. Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan 's defensive contributions than his offensive ones. He was also known to have strong eyesight; broadcaster Al Michaels said that he was able to read baseball box scores on a 27 - inch television clearly from about 50 feet away.
Jordan 's marked talent was clear from his rookie season. In his first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks, Jordan received a prolonged standing ovation, a rarity for an opposing player. After Jordan scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20, 1986, Celtics star Larry Bird described him as "God disguised as Michael Jordan. ''
Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons (NBA record) and tied Wilt Chamberlain 's record of seven consecutive scoring titles. He was also a fixture on the NBA All - Defensive First Team, making the roster nine times (NBA record shared with Gary Payton, Kevin Garnett and Kobe Bryant). Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30.1 and 33.4 points per game, respectively. By 1998, the season of his Finals - winning shot against the Jazz, he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer. In the regular season, Jordan was the Bulls ' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs, Jordan would always demand the ball at crunch time. Jordan 's total of 5,987 points in the playoffs is the second - highest in NBA history. He retired with 32,292 points in regular season play, placing him fourth on the NBA 's all - time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Karl Malone, and Kobe Bryant.
With five regular - season MVPs (tied for second place with Bill Russell -- only Kareem Abdul - Jabbar has won more, with six), six Finals MVPs (NBA record), and three All - Star MVPs, Jordan is the most decorated NBA player. Jordan finished among the top three in regular - season MVP voting a record 10 times, and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996. He is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship, an NBA championship, and an Olympic gold medal (doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men 's basketball teams). Since 1976, the year of the NBA 's merger with the American Basketball Association, Jordan and Pippen are the only two players to win six NBA Finals playing for one team. In the All - Star Game fan ballot, Jordan received the most votes nine times, more than any other player.
Many of Jordan 's contemporaries say that Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. In 1999, an ESPN survey of journalists, athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century, above such luminaries as Babe Ruth and Muhammad Ali. Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press 's December 1999 list of 20th century athletes. In addition, the Associated Press voted him as the greatest basketball player of the 20th century. Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of Sports Illustrated a record 50 times. In the September 1996 issue of Sport, which was the publication 's 50th anniversary issue, Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years.
Jordan 's athletic leaping ability, highlighted in his back - to - back slam dunk contest championships in 1987 and 1988, is credited by many with having influenced a generation of young players. Several current NBA All - Stars have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while growing up, including LeBron James and Dwyane Wade. In addition, commentators have dubbed a number of next - generation players "the next Michael Jordan '' upon their entry to the NBA, including Anfernee "Penny '' Hardaway, Grant Hill, Allen Iverson, Kobe Bryant, LeBron James, Vince Carter, and Dwyane Wade. Although Jordan was a well - rounded player, his "Air Jordan '' image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills, defense, and fundamentals of young players, a fact Jordan himself has lamented.
I think it was the exposure of Michael Jordan; the marketing of Michael Jordan. Everything was marketed towards the things that people wanted to see, which was scoring and dunking. That Michael Jordan still played defense and an all - around game, but it was never really publicized.
Although Jordan has done much to increase the status of the game, some of his impact on the game 's popularity in America appears to be fleeting. Television ratings in particular increased only during his time in the league, and Finals ratings have not returned to the level reached during his last championship - winning season.
In August 2009, the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts, opened a Michael Jordan exhibit that contained items from his college and NBA careers, as well as from the 1992 "Dream Team ''. The exhibit also has a batting glove to signify Jordan 's short career in minor league baseball. After Jordan received word of his acceptance into the Hall of Fame, he selected Class of 1996 member David Thompson to present him. As Jordan would later explain during his induction speech in September 2009, growing up in North Carolina, he was not a fan of the Tar Heels, and greatly admired Thompson, who played at rival North Carolina State. He was inducted into the Hall in September, with several former Bulls teammates in attendance, including Scottie Pippen, Dennis Rodman, Charles Oakley, Ron Harper, Steve Kerr, and Toni Kukoč. Two of Jordan 's former coaches, Dean Smith and Doug Collins, were also among those present. His emotional reaction during his speech -- when he began to cry -- was captured by Associated Press photographer Stephan Savoia and would later become widely shared on social media as the Crying Jordan Internet meme. In 2016, President Barack Obama honored Jordan with a Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Jordan married Juanita Vanoy in September 1989, and they had two sons, Jeffrey Michael and Marcus James, and a daughter, Jasmine. Jordan and Vanoy filed for divorce on January 4, 2002, citing irreconcilable differences, but reconciled shortly thereafter. They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29, 2006, commenting that the decision was made "mutually and amicably ''. It is reported that Juanita received a $168 million settlement (equivalent to $200 million in 2016), making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement on public record at the time.
In 1991, Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park, Illinois, to build a 56,000 square foot mansion, which was completed four years later. Jordan listed his Highland Park mansion for sale in 2012. Both of his sons attended Loyola Academy, a private Roman Catholic high school located in Wilmette, Illinois. Jeffrey graduated as a member of the 2007 graduating class and played his first collegiate basketball game on November 11, 2007, for the University of Illinois. After two seasons, Jeffrey left the Illinois basketball team in 2009. He later rejoined the team for a third season, then received a release to transfer to the University of Central Florida, where Marcus was attending. Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year at Loyola Academy and graduated in 2009. He began attending UCF in the fall of 2009, and played three seasons of basketball for the school.
On July 21, 2006, a judge in Cook County, Illinois, determined that Jordan did not owe his alleged former lover Karla Knafel $5 million in a breach of contract claim. Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $250,000 to keep their relationship a secret. Knafel claimed Jordan promised her $5 million for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991. A DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child.
He proposed to his longtime girlfriend, Cuban - American model Yvette Prieto, on Christmas 2011, and they were married on April 27, 2013, at Bethesda - by - the - Sea Episcopal Church. It was announced on November 30, 2013, that the two were expecting their first child together. On February 11, 2014, Prieto gave birth to identical twin daughters named Victoria and Ysabel.
Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history. He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike, Coca - Cola, Chevrolet, Gatorade, McDonald 's, Ball Park Franks, Rayovac, Wheaties, Hanes, and MCI. Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade, appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991, including the "Be Like Mike '' commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan.
Nike created a signature shoe for him, called the Air Jordan. One of Jordan 's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon. In the commercials Lee, as Blackmon, attempted to find the source of Jordan 's abilities and became convinced that "it 's got ta be the shoes ''. The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of "shoe - jackings '' where people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint. Subsequently, Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the "Jordan Brand ''. The company features an impressive list of athletes and celebrities as endorsers. The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina, Cal, Georgetown, and Marquette.
Jordan also has been associated with the Looney Tunes cartoon characters. A Nike commercial shown during 1992 's Super Bowl XXVI featured Jordan and Bugs Bunny playing basketball. The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action / animated film Space Jam, which starred Jordan and Bugs in a fictional story set during the former 's first retirement from basketball. They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI. Jordan also made an appearance in the music video of Michael Jackson 's "Jam '' (1992).
Jordan 's yearly income from the endorsements is estimated to be over forty million dollars. In addition, when Jordan 's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point, the Bulls regularly sold out both their home and road games. Due to this, Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of US $30 million per season. An academic study found that Jordan 's first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market capitalization of his client firms of more than $1 billion.
Most of Jordan 's endorsement deals, including his first deal with Nike, were engineered by his agent, David Falk. Jordan has described Falk as "the best at what he does '' and that "marketing-wise, he 's great. He 's the one who came up with the concept of ' Air Jordan. ' ''
In June 2010, Jordan was ranked by Forbes magazine as the 20th-most powerful celebrity in the world with $55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010. According to the Forbes article, Jordan Brand generates $1 billion in sales for Nike. In June 2014, Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire, after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80 % to 89.5 %. On January 20, 2015, Jordan was honored with the Charlotte Business Journal 's Business Person of the Year for 2014. In 2017, he became a part owner of the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball. As of April 2017, his current net worth is estimated at $1.31 billion by Forbes. Jordan is the third - richest African - American as of 2017, behind Oprah Winfrey and Robert F. Smith.
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how many lidl stores in republic of ireland | List of supermarket chains in Ireland - wikipedia
This is the list of supermarket chains in Ireland.
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causes of the anglo ndebele war of 1893 to 1894 pdf | First Matabele War - wikipedia
Rhodesia
The First Matabele War was fought between 1893 and 1894 in modern day Zimbabwe. It pitted the British South Africa Company against the Ndebele (Matabele) Kingdom. Lobengula, king of the Ndebele, had tried to avoid outright war with the company 's pioneers because he and his advisors were mindful of the destructive power of European - produced weapons on traditional Matabele impis (units of Zulu warriors) attacking in massed ranks. Lobengula had 80,000 spearmen and 20,000 riflemen, armed with Martini - Henry rifles, which were modern arms at that time. However, poor training meant that these were not used effectively. The British South Africa Company had no more than 750 troops in the British South Africa Company 's Police, with an undetermined number of possible colonial volunteers and an additional 700 Tswana (Bechuana) allies. Cecil Rhodes, who was Prime Minister of the Cape Colony and Leander Starr Jameson, the Administrator of Mashonaland also tried to avoid war to prevent loss of confidence in the future of the territory. Matters came to a head when Lobengula approved a raid to forcibly extract tribute from a Mashona chief in the district of the town of Fort Victoria, which inevitably led to a clash with the Company.
The British government agreed that the British South Africa Company would administer the territory stretching from the Limpopo to the Zambezi under royal charter. Queen Victoria signed the charter in 1889. Cecil Rhodes used this document in 1890 to justify sending the Pioneer Column, a group of settlers protected by well - armed British South Africa Company 's Police (BSAP) and guided by the big game hunter Frederick Selous, through Matabeleland and into Shona territory to establish Fort Salisbury (now Harare).
Throughout 1891 and 1892, Lobengula ensured that his raiding parties were directed away from their main target areas of Mashonaland and so precluded possible clashes between his zealous young commanders and the white settlers. However, in 1893, a chief in the Victoria district named Gomara refused tribute, asserting that he was now under the protection of the laws of the settlers. In order to save face, Lobengula was impelled to send a raiding party of several thousand warriors to bring his vassal to heel. The raiding party destroyed several villages and murdered many of the inhabitants. (In this they were more restrained than usual as they generally abducted the suitably aged young men and women and killed everyone else.) However, the local British South Africa Company administration felt that they had to intervene to avoid losing the confidence of the local people who complained that they were not being given any support against the raid. As a result the Company officials demanded from the raiders that they leave immediately. The Ndebele refused and in the hostilities that developed the Ndebele sustained about 40 casualties; this led to their withdrawal. King Lobengula had given stern warning to his fighters when they started the raid. "If you shed one drop of the white man 's blood on this raid into Mashonaland, I will have every one of you killed when you return ''.
There was a delay of just over two months (August to October) while Jameson corresponded with Rhodes in Cape Town and considered how to amass enough troops to undertake an invasion of Matabeleland.
BSAP columns rode from Fort Salisbury and Fort Victoria, and combined at Iron Mine Hill, around the centre point of the country, on 16 October 1893. Together the force totalled about 700 men, commanded by Major Patrick Forbes and equipped with five Maxim machine guns. Forbes ' combined column moved on the Matabele king 's capital at Bulawayo, to the south - west. An additional force of 700 Bechuanas marched on Bulawayo from the south under Khama III, the most influential of the Bamangwato chiefs, and a staunch ally of the British. The Matabele army mobilised to prevent Forbes from reaching the city, and twice engaged the column as it approached: on 25 October, 3,500 warriors assaulted the column near the Shangani River. Lobengula 's troops were well - drilled and formidable by pre-colonial African standards, but the pioneers ' Maxim guns, which had never before been used in battle, far exceeded expectations, according to an eyewitness "mow (ing) them down literally like grass ''. By the time the Matabele withdrew, they had suffered around 1,500 fatalities; the BSAP, on the other hand, had lost only four men.
A week later, on 1 November, 2,000 Matabele riflemen and 4,000 warriors attacked Forbes at Bembesi, about 50 kilometres (30 mi) north - east of Bulawayo, but again they were no match for the crushing firepower of the major 's Maxims: about 2,500 more Matabele were killed. Lobengula fled Bulawayo as soon as he heard the news from Bembesi; in keeping with traditional custom, he and his subjects torched the royal town as they went. In the resultant conflagration, the city 's large store of ivory, gold and other treasure was destroyed, and its ammunition magazine exploded. The flames were still rising when the whites marched into the settlement the next day; they set up base in the "White Man 's Camp '' already present, and nailed the company flag and the Union Jack to a tree. The reconstruction of Bulawayo began almost as soon as the fires were out, with a new Company - run city rising atop the ruins of Lobengula 's former residence.
The column of Khama 's men from the south had reached the Tati River, and won a victory on the Singuesi river on 2 November. Advanced scouts for the colonial forces, including Burnham and Selous, reached Bulawayo that same day, only to watch as Lobengula blew up his arsenal of ammunition rather than allow it to be captured by the company. The town, mostly made up of wood - beam huts with mud (dagga) walls, was largely destroyed. On 3 November, Bulawayo was reached by the Victoria column from Mashonaland, accompanied by Jameson and Sir John Willoughby. By this time, Lobengula and his warriors were in full flight towards the Zambezi. An attempt was made to induce Lobengula to surrender, but no replies were received to the messages. The United Salisbury Column later arrived in Bulawayo, and on 13 November, Major Patrick Forbes organized his column and started in pursuit of Lobengula.
The pursuing party was delayed by difficult routes and heavy rains, and did not catch up with Lobengula until December 3. Major Allan Wilson, in command of thirty - four troopers known as the Shangani Patrol, crossed the Shangani river and bivouacked close to Lobengula 's quarters. In the night the river rose, and early the next morning the Matabele surrounded the Shangani Patrol, overwhelming Wilson and his followers. 31 men of the Shangani Patrol perished in the encounter, while the remaining three (American scouts Frederick Russell Burnham and Pearl "Pete '' Ingram, and an Australian named Gooding) crossed the swollen river under orders from Wilson, and returned to Forbes to request reinforcements. However, Forbes ' forces were unable to cross the river in time.
Lobengula would die from smallpox on 22 or 23 January 1894. Meanwhile, the Ndebele warriors gradually succumbed to the company 's superior firepower. Soon after the king 's death, the Ndebele izinDuna submitted to the British South Africa Company. Charges were later made in the British House of Commons against the company, accusing them of having provoked the Ndebele in order to secure their territory. However, after enquiry the company was exonerated from the charge by Lord Ripon, the Colonial Secretary.
Following the end of the war, one of Lobengula 's izinDuna said that just before Forbes ' column had reached the Shangani on 3 December 1893, the king had attempted to buy the pioneers off. According to this story, two Matabele messengers, Petchan and Sehuloholu, had been given a box of gold sovereigns, and instructed to intercept the column before it reached the river. They were to tell the whites that the king admitted defeat, and offered this money in tribute if the BSAP would turn back. "Gold is the only thing that will stop the white men, '' Lobengula reportedly said. Petchan and Sehuloholu reportedly reached the column on 2 December 1893, and gave the money and the message to two men in the rear guard. No man who had been attached to the column confirmed this, but company authorities thought it unlikely that the Matabele would simply invent such a story. Two officers ' batmen were accused of accepting the gold, then keeping it for themselves and not passing on the message. The evidence against them was inconclusive, but they were found guilty and sentenced to 14 years ' hard labour by the Resident Magistrate. They were released after two years, however, because the maximum term the Magistrate could give was three months; the convictions were ultimately quashed altogether on a re-assessment of the evidence by the High Commissioner 's legal team. The truth of the matter has never been conclusively resolved.
In every step taken by the company, the guiding hand was that of Cecil Rhodes, a fact which received recognition when the company 's territory officially received the name "Rhodesia '' on May 3, 1895. During this year there was great activity in exploiting Matabeleland, with "Stands '' or plots being sold at extraordinary prices in Bulawayo. Within nine months the rebuilt town of Bulawayo had a population of 1,900 colonials with over 2,000 more prospectors in the various goldfields. A new company, the African Transcontinental Company, was founded under the auspices of Col. Frank Rhodes, brother of Cecil, with the ultimate purpose of connecting the Cape with Cairo. The railway from Cape Town passed Mafeking, and approached the Rhodesian frontier, reaching Bulawayo in 1897. The east coast line to connect Salisbury (now Harare) with Beira, Mozambique (then Portuguese East Africa Colony) was completed in 1899.
The First Matabele War was the first wartime use of a Maxim gun by Britain and it proved to have a decisive impact. In less than optimal situations, such as hilly or mountainous terrain or dense vegetation with poor lines of sight, the Maxim gun resulted in little direct impact on enemy deaths. But as a psychological weapon, the Maxim gun was truly phenomenal. It generated a sense of fear in the Ndebele and made the British South Africa Police seem invincible. In one engagement, for example, 50 company soldiers with just four Maxim guns fought off 5,000 Ndebele warriors.
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discuss the salient features of federal form of government of india | Delhi - Wikipedia
Delhi (/ ˈdɛli /, Hindustani pronunciation: (d̪ɪlliː) Dilli), officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT), is a city and a union territory of India. It is bordered by Haryana on three sides and by Uttar Pradesh to the east. The NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres (573 sq mi). According to the 2011 census, Delhi city 's proper population was over 11 million, the second highest in India after Mumbai, while the whole NCT 's population was about 16.8 million. Delhi 's urban area is now considered to extend beyond the NCT boundary to include an estimated population of over 26 million people, making it the world 's second largest urban area. As of 2016 recent estimates of the metro economy of its urban area have ranked Delhi either the top or second most productive metro area of India. Delhi is the second wealthiest city after Mumbai in India, with a total wealth of $450 billion and home to 18 billionaires and 23,000 millionaires.
Delhi has been continuously inhabited since the 6th century BC. Through most of its history, Delhi has served as a capital of various kingdoms and empires. It has been captured, ransacked and rebuilt several times, particularly during the medieval period, and modern Delhi is a cluster of a number of cities spread across the metropolitan region. A union territory, the political administration of the NCT of Delhi today more closely resembles that of a state of India, with its own legislature, high court and an executive council of ministers headed by a Chief Minister. New Delhi is jointly administered by the federal government of India and the local government of Delhi, and is the capital of the NCT of Delhi. Delhi hosted the first and ninth Asian Games in 1951 and 1982 respectively, 1983 NAM Summit, 2010 Men 's Hockey World Cup, 2010 Commonwealth Games, 2012 BRICS Summit and was one of the major host cities of the 2011 Cricket World Cup.
Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region (NCR), which is a unique ' interstate regional planning ' area created by the National Capital Region Planning Board Act of 1985.
There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name Delhi. One of them is derived from Dhillu or Dilu, a king who built a city at this location in 50 BC and named it after himself. Another legend holds that the name of the city is based on the Hindi / Prakrit word dhili (loose) and that it was used by the Tomaras to refer to the city because the Iron Pillar of Delhi had a weak foundation and had to be moved. The coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal. According to the Bhavishya Purana, King Prithiviraja of Indraprastha built a new fort in the modern - day Purana Qila area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom. He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort dehali. Some historians believe that the name is derived from Dilli, a corruption of the Hindustani words dehleez or dehali -- both terms meaning ' threshold ' or ' gateway ' -- and symbolic of the city as a gateway to the Gangetic Plain. Another theory suggests that the city 's original name was Dhillika.
The people of Delhi are referred to as Delhiites or Dilliwalas. The city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern Indo - Aryan languages. Examples include:
The area around Delhi was probably inhabited before the second millennium BC and there is evidence of continuous inhabitation since at least the 6th century BC. The city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata. According to Mahabharata, this land was initially a huge mass of forests called ' Khandavaprastha ' which was burnt down to build the city of Indraprastha. The earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya period (c. 300 BC); in 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (273 -- 235 BC) was discovered near Srinivaspuri. Remains of eight major cities have been discovered in Delhi. The first five cities were in the southern part of present - day Delhi. King Anang Pal of the Tomara dynasty founded the city of Lal Kot in AD 736. Prithviraj Chauhan conquered Lal Kot in 1178 and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora.
The king Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated in 1192 by Muhammad Ghori, a Muslim invader from Afghanistan, who made a concerted effort to conquer northern India. By 1200, native Hindu resistance had begun to crumble, the dominance of foreign Turkic Muslim dynasties in north India was to last for the next five centuries. The slave general of Ghori, Qutb - ud - din Aibak was given the responsibility of governing the conquered territories of India and then Ghori returned to his capital, Ghor. He died in 1206 AD. He had no heirs and so his generals declared themselves independent in different parts of his empire. Qutb - ud - din assumed control of Ghori 's Indian possessions. He laid the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mamluk Dynasty. he began construction of the Qutb Minar and Quwwat - al - Islam (Might of Islam) mosque, the earliest extant mosque in India. It was his successor, Iltutmish (1211 -- 36), who consolidated the Turkic conquest of northern India. Razia Sultan, daughter of Iltutmish, succeeded him as the Sultan of Delhi. She is the first and only woman to rule over Delhi.
For the next three hundred years, Delhi was ruled by a succession of Turkic and an Afghan, Lodhi dynasty. They built several forts and townships that are part of the seven cities of Delhi. Delhi was a major centre of Sufism during this period. The Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi) was overthrown in 1290 by Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji (1290 -- 1320). Under the second Khalji ruler, Ala - ud - din Khalji, the Delhi sultanate extended its control south of the Narmada River in the Deccan. The Delhi sultanate reached its greatest extent during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325 -- 1351). In an attempt to bring the whole of the Deccan under control, he moved his capital to Daulatabad, Maharashtra in central India. However, by moving away from Delhi he lost control of the north and was forced to return to Delhi to restore order. The southern provinces then broke away. In the years following the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351 -- 1388), the Delhi sultanate rapidly began to lose its hold over its northern provinces. Delhi was captured and sacked by Timur in 1398, who massacred 100,000 captives. Delhi 's decline continued under the Sayyid dynasty (1414 -- 1451), until the sultanate was reduced to Delhi and its hinterland. Under the Afghan Lodhi dynasty (1451 -- 1526), the Delhi sultanate recovered control of the Punjab and the Gangetic plain to once again achieve domination over Northern India. However, the recovery was short - lived and the sultanate was destroyed in 1526 by Babur, founder of the Mughal dynasty.
Babur, was a descendant of Genghis Khan and Timur, from the Fergana Valley in modern - day Uzbekistan. In 1526, he invaded India, defeated the last Lodhi sultan in the First Battle of Panipat and founded the Mughal Empire that ruled from Delhi and Agra. The Mughal dynasty ruled Delhi for more than three centuries, with a sixteen - year hiatus during the reigns of Sher Shah Suri and Hemu from 1540 to 1556. In 1553, the Hindu king Hemu acceded to the throne of Delhi by defeating forces of Mughal Emperor Humayun at Agra and Delhi. However, the Mughals re-established their rule after Akbar 's army defeated Hemu during the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556. Shah Jahan built the seventh city of Delhi that bears his name Shahjahanabad, which served as the capital of the Mughal Empire from 1638 and is today known as the Old City or Old Delhi.
After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughal Empire 's influence declined rapidly as the Hindu Maratha Empire from Deccan Plateau rose to prominence. In 1737, Maratha forces sacked Delhi following their victory against the Mughals in the First Battle of Delhi. In 1739, the Mughal Empire lost the huge Battle of Karnal in less than three hours against the numerically outnumbered but militarily superior Persian army led by Nader Shah of Persia. After his invasion, he completely sacked and looted Delhi, carrying away immense wealth including the Peacock Throne, the Daria - i - Noor, and Koh - i - Noor. The Mughals, severely further weakened, could never overcome this crushing defeat and humiliation which also left the way open for more invaders to come, including eventually the British. Nader eventually agreed to leave the city and India after forcing the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah I to beg him for mercy and granting him the keys of the city and the royal treasury. A treaty signed in 1752 made Marathas the protectors of the Mughal throne in Delhi.
In 1757, the Afghan ruler, Ahmad Shah Durrani, sacked Delhi. He returned to Afghanistan leaving a Mughal puppet ruler in nominal control. The Marathas again occupied Delhi in 1758, and were in control until their defeat in 1761 at the third battle of Panipat when the city was captured again by Ahmad Shah. However, in 1771, the Marathas established a protectorate over Delhi when the Maratha ruler, Mahadji Shinde, recaptured Delhi and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II was installed as a puppet ruler in 1772. In 1783, Sikhs under Baghel Singh captured Delhi and Red Fort but due to the treaty signed, Sikhs withdrew from Red Fort and agreed to restore Shah Alam II as the emperor. In 1803, during the Second Anglo - Maratha War, the forces of British East India Company defeated the Maratha forces in the Battle of Delhi.
During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Delhi fell to the forces of East India Company after a bloody fight known as the Siege of Delhi. The city came under the direct control of the British Government in 1858. It was made a district province of the Punjab. In 1911, it was announced that the capital of British held territories in India was to be transferred from Calcutta to Delhi. The name "New Delhi '' was given in 1927, and the new capital was inaugurated on 13 February 1931. New Delhi, also known as Lutyens ' Delhi, was officially declared as the capital of the Union of India after the country gained independence on 15 August 1947. During the partition of India, thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees, mainly from West Punjab fled to Delhi, while many Muslim residents of the city migrated to Pakistan. Migration to Delhi from the rest of India continues (as of 2013), contributing more to the rise of Delhi 's population than the birth rate, which is declining.
The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 and the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 created the Union Territory of Delhi from the its predecessor the Chief Commissioner 's Province of Delhi. The Constitution (Sixty - ninth Amendment) Act, 1991 declared the Union Territory of Delhi to be formally known as the National Capital Territory of Delhi. The Act gave Delhi its own legislative assembly along Civil lines, though with limited powers.
In December 2001, the Parliament of India building in New Delhi was attacked by armed militants, killing six security personnel. India suspected Pakistan - based militant groups were behind the attack, which caused a major diplomatic crisis between the two countries. There were further terrorist attacks in Delhi in October 2005 and September 2008, resulting in a total of 103 deaths.
Delhi is located at 28 ° 37 ′ N 77 ° 14 ′ E / 28.61 ° N 77.23 ° E / 28.61; 77.23, and lies in Northern India. It borders the Indian states of Haryana on the north, west and south and Uttar Pradesh (UP) to the east. Two prominent features of the geography of Delhi are the Yamuna flood plains and the Delhi ridge. The Yamuna river was the historical boundary between Punjab and UP, and its flood plains provide fertile alluvial soil suitable for agriculture but are prone to recurrent floods. The Yamuna, a sacred river in Hinduism, is the only major river flowing through Delhi. The Hindon River separates Ghaziabad from the eastern part of Delhi. The Delhi ridge originates from the Aravalli Range in the south and encircles the west, north - east and north - west parts of the city. It reaches a height of 318 m (1,043 ft) and is a dominant feature of the region.
The National Capital Territory of Delhi covers an area of 1,484 km (573 sq mi), of which 783 km (302 sq mi) is designated rural, and 700 km (270 sq mi) urban therefore making it the largest city in terms of area in the country. It has a length of 51.9 km (32 mi) and a width of 48.48 km (30 mi).
Delhi is included in India 's seismic zone - IV, indicating its vulnerability to major earthquakes.
Delhi features an atypical version of the humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa) bordering a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh). The warm season lasts from 21 March to 15 June with an average daily high temperature above 39 ° C (102 ° F). The hottest day of the year is 22 May, with an average high of 46 ° C (115 ° F) and low of 30 ° C (86 ° F). The cold season lasts from 26 November to 9 February with an average daily high temperature below 20 ° C (68 ° F). The coldest day of the year is 4 January, with an average low of 2 ° C (36 ° F) and high of 14 ° C (57 ° F). In early March, the wind direction changes from north - westerly to south - westerly. From April to October the weather is hot. The monsoon arrives at the end of June, along with an increase in humidity. The brief, mild winter starts in late November, peaks in January and heavy fog often occurs.
Temperatures in Delhi usually range from 2 to 47 ° C (35.6 to 116.6 ° F), with the lowest and highest temperatures ever recorded being − 2.2 and 48.4 ° C (28.0 and 119.1 ° F) respectively. The annual mean temperature is 25 ° C (77 ° F); monthly mean temperatures range from 13 to 32 ° C (55 to 90 ° F). The highest temperature recorded in July was 45 ° C (113 ° F) in 1931. The average annual rainfall is approximately 886 mm (34.9 in), most of which falls during the monsoon in July and August. The average date of the advent of monsoon winds in Delhi is 29 June.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) Delhi was the most polluted city in the world in 2014. In 2016 WHO downgraded Delhi to eleventh - worst in the urban air quality database. According to one estimate, air pollution causes the death of about 10,500 people in Delhi every year. During 2013 -- 14, peak levels of fine particulate matter (PM) in Delhi increased by about 44 %, primarily due to high vehicular and industrial emissions, construction work and crop burning in adjoining states. It has the highest level of the airborne particulate matter, PM2. 5 considered most harmful to health, with 153 micrograms. Rising air pollution level has significantly increased lung - related ailments (especially asthma and lung cancer) among Delhi 's children and women. The dense smog in Delhi during winter season results in major air and rail traffic disruptions every year. According to Indian meteorologists, the average maximum temperature in Delhi during winters has declined notably since 1998 due to rising air pollution.
Environmentalists have criticised the Delhi government for not doing enough to curb air pollution and to inform people about air quality issues. Most of Delhi 's residents are unaware of alarming levels of air pollution in the city and the health risks associated with it; however, as of 2015, awareness, particularly among the foreign diplomatic community and high - income Indians, was noticeably increasing. Since the mid-1990s, Delhi has undertaken some measures to curb air pollution -- Delhi has the third highest quantity of trees among Indian cities and the Delhi Transport Corporation operates the world 's largest fleet of environmentally friendly compressed natural gas (CNG) buses. In 1996, the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) started a public interest litigation in the Supreme Court of India that ordered the conversion of Delhi 's fleet of buses and taxis to run on compressed natural gas (CNG) and banned the use of leaded petrol in 1998. In 2003, Delhi won the United States Department of Energy 's first ' Clean Cities International Partner of the Year ' award for its "bold efforts to curb air pollution and support alternative fuel initiatives ''. The Delhi Metro has also been credited for significantly reducing air pollutants in the city.
However, according to several authors, most of these gains have been lost, especially due to stubble burning, a rise in the market share of diesel cars and a considerable decline in bus ridership. According to CSE and System of Air Quality Weather Forecasting and Research (SAFAR), burning of agricultural waste in nearby Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh regions results in severe intensification of smog over Delhi. The state government of Uttar Pradesh is considering imposing a ban on crop burning to reduce pollution in Delhi NCR and an environmental panel has appealed to India 's Supreme Court to impose a 30 % cess on diesel cars.
The Circles of Sustainability assessment of Delhi gives a marginally more favourable impression of the ecological sustainability of the city only because it is based on a more comprehensive series of measures than only air pollution. Part of the reason that the city remains assessed at basic sustainability is because of the low resource - use and carbon emissions of its poorer neighbourhoods.
As of July 2007, the National Capital Territory of Delhi comprises nine districts, 27 tehsils, 59 census towns, 300 villages, and three statutory towns, the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) -- 1,397.3 km or 540 sq mi, the New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) -- 42.7 km or 16 sq mi and the Delhi Cantonment Board (DCB) -- 43 km or 17 sq mi).
Since the trifurcation of the DMC at the start of 2012, Delhi has been run by five local municipal corporations: the North Delhi, South Delhi and East Delhi Municipal Corporations, the New Delhi Municipal Council and Delhi Cantonment Board. In July of that year, shortly after the MCD trifurcation, the Delhi Government increased the number of districts in Delhi from nine to eleven.
Delhi (civic administration) was ranked 5th out of 21 Cities for best governance & administrative practices in India in 2014. It scored 3.6 on 10 compared to the national average of 3.3.
Delhi houses the Supreme Court of India and the regional Delhi High Court along with the Small Causes Court for civil cases; the Magistrate Court and the Sessions Court for criminal cases has jurisdiction over Delhi. The city is administratively divided into eleven police - zones which are subdivided into 95 local police stations.
As a first - level administrative division, the National Capital Territory of Delhi has its own Legislative Assembly, Lieutenant Governor, council of ministers and Chief Minister. Members of the legislative assembly are directly elected from territorial constituencies in the NCT. The legislative assembly was abolished in 1956, after which direct federal control was implemented until it was re-established in 1993. The Municipal corporation handles civic. administration for the city as part of the Panchayati Raj Act. The Government of India and the Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi jointly administer New Delhi, where both bodies are located. The Parliament of India, the Rashtrapati Bhavan (Presidential Palace), Cabinet Secretariat and the Supreme Court of India are located in the municipal district of New Delhi. There are 70 assembly constituencies and seven Lok Sabha (Indian parliament 's lower house) constituencies in Delhi. The Indian National Congress (Congress) formed all the governments in Delhi until the 1990s, when the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), led by Madan Lal Khurana, came to power. In 1998, the Congress returned to power under the leadership of Sheila Dikshit, who was subsequently re-elected for 3 consecutive terms. But in 2013, the Congress was ousted from power by the newly formed Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) led by Arvind Kejriwal forming the government with outside support from the Congress. However, that government was short - lived, collapsing only after 49 days. Delhi was then under President 's rule till February 2015. On 10 February 2015, the Aam Aadmi Party returned to power after a landslide victory, winning 67 out of the 70 seats in the Delhi Legislative Assembly.
Since 2011 Delhi has three municipal bodies
In 2017 BJP became victorious in all the three corporations
Delhi is the largest commercial centre in northern India. As of 2016 recent estimates of the economy of the Delhi urban area have ranged from $167 to $370 billion (PPP metro GDP) ranking it either the most or second-most productive metro area of India. The nominal GSDP of the NCT of Delhi for 2016 - 17 was estimated at ₹ 6,224 billion (US $97 billion), 13 % higher than in 2015 -- 16.
As per the Economic survey of Delhi (2005 -- 2006), the tertiary sector contributes 70.95 % of Delhi 's gross SDP followed by secondary and primary sectors with 25.20 % and 3.85 % contributions respectively. Delhi 's workforce constitutes 32.82 % of the population, and increased by 52.52 % between 1991 and 2001. Delhi 's unemployment rate decreased from 12.57 % in 1999 -- 2000 to 4.63 % in 2003. In December 2004, 636,000 people were registered with various employment exchange programmes in Delhi. In 2001 the total workforce in national and state governments and the quasi-government sector was 620,000, and the private sector employed 219,000. Key service industries are information technology, telecommunications, hotels, banking, media and tourism. Construction, power, health and community services and real estate are also important to the city 's economy. Delhi has one of India 's largest and fastest growing retail industries. Manufacturing also grew considerably as consumer goods companies established manufacturing units and headquarters in the city. Delhi 's large consumer market and the availability of skilled labour has also attracted foreign investment. In 2001, the manufacturing sector employed 1,440,000 workers and the city had 129,000 industrial units.
Delhi 's municipal water supply is managed by the Delhi Jal Board (DJB). As of June 2005, it supplied 650 million gallons per day (MGD), whereas the estimated consumption requirement is 963 MGD. The shortfall is met by private and public tube wells and hand pumps. At 240 MGD, the Bhakra storage is DJB 's largest water source, followed by the Yamuna and Ganges rivers. Delhi 's groundwater level is falling and its population density is increasing, so residents often encounter acute water shortage. Research on Delhi suggests that up to half of the city 's water use is unofficial groundwater. In Delhi, daily domestic solid waste production is 8000 tonnes which is dumped at three landfill locations by MCD. The daily domestic waste water production is 470 MGD and industrial waste water is 70 MGD. A large portion of the sewage flows untreated into the Yamuna river.
The city 's electricity consumption is about 1,265 kWh per capita but the actual demand is higher. In Delhi power distribution is managed by Tata Power Distribution and BSES Yamuna & Rajdhani since 2002. The Delhi Fire Service runs 43 fire stations that attend about 15,000 fire and rescue calls per year. The state - owned Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL) and private enterprises such as Vodafone, Airtel, Idea Cellular, Reliance Infocomm, Aircel, Reliance Jio and Tata Docomo provide telephone and cell phone services to the city. Cellular coverage is available in GSM, CDMA, 3G and 4G.
Indira Gandhi International Airport, situated to the southwest of Delhi, is the main gateway for the city 's domestic and international civilian air traffic. In 2015 -- 16, the airport handled more than 48 million passengers, making it the busiest airport in India and South Asia. Terminal 3, which cost ₹ 96.8 billion (US $1.5 billion) to construct between 2007 and 2010, handles an additional 37 million passengers annually.
The Delhi Flying Club, established in 1928 with two de Havilland Moth aircraft named Delhi and Roshanara, was based at Safdarjung Airport which started operations in 1929, when it was the Delhi 's only airport and the second in India. The airport functioned until 2001, however in January 2002 the government closed the airport for flying activities because of security concerns following the New York attacks in September 2001. Since then, the club only carries out aircraft maintenance courses and is used for helicopter rides to Indira Gandhi International Airport for VIP including the president and the prime minister.
A second airport open for commercial flights has been suggested either by expansion of Meerut Airport or construction of a new airport in Greater Noida.
Delhi has the highest road density of 2103 km / 100 km in India.
Buses are the most popular means of road transport catering to about 60 % of Delhi 's total demand. Delhi has one of India 's largest bus transport systems. Buses are operated by the state - owned Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC), which owns the largest fleet of compressed natural gas (CNG) - fueled buses in the world. Personal vehicles especially cars also form a major chunk of vehicles plying on Delhi roads. Delhi has the highest number of registered cars compared to any other metropolitan city in India. Taxis, auto rickshaws, and cycle rickshaws also ply on Delhi roads in large numbers.
Important Roads in Delhi
Some roads and expressways serve as important pillars of Delhi 's road infrastructure:
National Highways Passing Through Delhi
Delhi is connected by Road to various parts of the country through several National Highways:
Delhi is a major junction in the Indian railway network and is the headquarters of the Northern Railway. The five main railway stations are New Delhi railway station, Old Delhi Railway Station, Hazrat Nizamuddin Railway Station, Anand Vihar Railway Terminal and Sarai Rohilla. The Delhi Metro, a mass rapid transit system built and operated by Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC), serves many parts of Delhi and the neighbouring cities Faridabad, Gurgaon, Noida and Ghaziabad. As of August 2011, the metro consists of six operational lines with a total length of 189 km (117 mi) and 146 stations, and several other lines are under construction. The Phase - I was built at a cost of US $2.3 billion and the Phase - II was expected to cost an additional ₹ 216 billion (US $3.4 billion). Phase - II has a total length of 128 km and was completed by 2010. Delhi Metro completed 10 years of operation on 25 December 2012. It carries millions of passengers every day. In addition to the Delhi Metro, a suburban railway, the Delhi Suburban Railway exists.
The Delhi Metro is a rapid transit system serving Delhi, Faridabad, Gurgaon, Noida and Ghaziabad in the National Capital Region of India. Delhi Metro is the world 's 10th largest metro system in terms of length. Delhi Metro was India 's second modern public transportation system, which has revolutionised travel by providing a fast, reliable, safe, and comfortable means of transport. The network consists of six lines with a total length of 189.63 kilometres (117.83 miles) with 142 stations, of which 35 are underground, five are at - grade, and the remainder are elevated. All stations have escalators, lifts, and tactile tiles to guide the visually impaired from station entrances to trains. There are 18 designated parking sites at Metro stations to further encourage use of the system. In March 2010, DMRC partnered with Google India (through Google Transit) to provide train schedule and route information to mobile devices with Google Maps. It has a combination of elevated, at - grade, and underground lines, and uses both broad gauge and standard gauge rolling stock. Four types of rolling stock are used: Mitsubishi - ROTEM Broad gauge, Bombardier MOVIA, Mitsubishi - ROTEM Standard gauge, and CAF Beasain Standard gauge. The Phase - I of Delhi Metro was built at a cost of US $2.3 billion and the Phase - II was expected to cost an additional ₹ 216 billion (US $3.4 billion). Phase - II has a total length of 128 km and was completed by 2010. Delhi Metro completed 10 years of operation on 25 December 2012. It carries millions of passengers every day. In addition to the Delhi Metro, a suburban railway, the Delhi Suburban Railway exists.
Delhi Metro is being built and operated by the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited (DMRC), a state - owned company with equal equity participation from Government of India and Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi. However, the organisation is under the administrative control of Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India. Besides construction and operation of Delhi Metro, DMRC is also involved in the planning and implementation of metro rail, monorail, and high - speed rail projects in India and providing consultancy services to other metro projects in the country as well as abroad. The Delhi Metro project was spearheaded by Padma Vibhushan E. Sreedharan, the Managing Director of DMRC and popularly known as the "Metro Man '' of India. He famously resigned from DMRC taking moral responsibility for a metro bridge collapse, which took five lives. Sreedharan was awarded the prestigious Legion of Honour by the French Government for his contribution to Delhi Metro.
Metro services are being extended to important hubs in the cities that are close to offices, colleges, and tourist spots. This will facilitate easy conveyance for the citizens, who otherwise have to rely on public buses that are heavily crowded and are often stuck in traffic jams.
The 08 RRTS Corridors have been proposed by National Capital Region Planning Board (NCRPB) to facilitate the people travelling from nearby cities in NCR to Delhi. The three main corridors in the first phase are as follows which are expected to become operational before 2019:
Remaining five corridors are also approved by National Capital Region Planning Board but are planned in the second phase.
As of 2007, private vehicles account for 30 % of the total demand for transport. Delhi has 1922.32 km of road length per 100 km, one of the highest road densities in India. It is connected to other parts of India by five National Highways: NH 1, 2, 8, 10 and 24. The city 's road network is maintained by MCD, NDMC, Delhi Cantonment Board, Public Works Department (PWD) and Delhi Development Authority. The Delhi - Gurgaon Expressway connects Delhi with Gurgaon and the international airport. "The Delhi - Faridabad Skyway ''. connects Delhi with the neighbouring industrial town of Faridabad. The DND Flyway and Noida - Greater Noida Expressway connect Delhi with the suburbs of Noida and Greater Noida. Delhi 's rapid rate of economic development and population growth has resulted in an increasing demand for transport, creating excessive pressure on the city 's transport infrastructure. As of 2008, the number of vehicles in the metropolitan region, Delhi NCR, is 11.2 million (11.2 million). In 2008, there were 85 cars in Delhi for every 1,000 of its residents.
To meet the transport demand, the State and Union government constructed a mass rapid transit system, including the Delhi Metro. In 1998, the Supreme Court of India ordered that all public transport vehicles in Delhi must be fuelled by compressed natural gas (CNG). Buses are the most popular means of public transport, catering to about 60 % of the total demand. The state - owned Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC) is a major bus service provider which operates the world 's largest fleet of CNG - fuelled buses. Delhi Bus Rapid Transit System runs between Ambedkar Nagar and Delhi Gate.
According to the 2011 census of India, the population of NCT of Delhi is 16,753,235. The corresponding population density was 11,297 persons per km with a sex ratio of 866 women per 1000 men, and a literacy rate of 86.34 %. In 2004, the birth rate, death rate and infant mortality rate per 1000 population were 20.03, 5.59 and 13.08 respectively. In 2001, the population of Delhi increased by 285,000 as a result of migration and by 215,000 as a result of natural population growth, which made Delhi one of the fastest growing cities in the world. Dwarka Sub City, Asia 's largest planned residential area, is located within the National Capital Territory of Delhi. Urban expansion has resulted in Delhi 's urban area now being considered as extending beyond NCT boundaries to incorporate towns and cities of neighbouring states including Gurgaon and Faridabad of Haryana, and Ghaziabad and Noida of Uttar Pradesh, the total population estimated by the United Nations at over 26 million. According to the UN this makes Delhi urban area the world 's second largest, after Tokyo, although Demographia declares the Jakarta urban area to be the second largest. The 2011 census provided two figures for urban area population: 16,314,838 within the NCT boundary, and 21,753,486 for the Extended Urban Area.
Hinduism is Delhi 's predominant religious faith, with 81.68 % of Delhi 's population, followed by Islam (12.86 %), Sikhism (3.40 %), Jainism (0.99 %), Christianity (0.87 %), and Buddhism (0.11 %). Other minority religions include Zoroastrianism, Baha'ism and Judaism.
According to the 50th report of the commissioner for linguistic minorities in India, which was submitted in 2014, Hindi is Delhi 's most spoken language, with 80.94 % speakers, followed by Punjabi (7.14 %), Urdu (6.31 %) and Bengali (1.50 %). Hindi is also the official language of Delhi while Urdu and Punjabi have been declared as the additional official languages. 5.61 % of the Delhites speak different languages.
According to the Directorate of Education, GNCTD the following languages are taught in schools in Delhi under the three - language formula:
First Language: Hindi / Urdu / English Second Language: English Third language: Urdu / Punjabi / Bengali / Sindhi / Tamil / Telugu / Malayalam / Kannada / Gujarati / Marathi / Arabic / Persian
Around 22 % of the population of Delhi lives in slum areas with "inadequate provision of basic services ''. Majority of these slums has inadequate provisions to the basic facilities and according to DUSIB report 16 % of people do n't use toilets and almost 22 % of the people do open defecation.
Delhi 's culture has been influenced by its lengthy history and historic association as the capital of India, Although a strong Punjabi Influence can be seen in language, Dress and Cuisine brought by the large number of refugees who came following the partition in 1947 the recent migration from other parts of India has made it a melting pot. This is exemplified by many significant monuments in the city. Delhi is also identified as the location of Indraprastha, the ancient capital of the Pandavas. The Archaeological Survey of India recognises 1200 heritage buildings and 175 monuments as national heritage sites. In the Old City, the Mughals and the Turkic rulers constructed several architecturally significant buildings, such as the Jama Masjid -- India 's largest mosque built in 1656 and the Red Fort. Three World Heritage Sites -- the Red Fort, Qutab Minar and Humayun 's Tomb -- are located in Delhi. Other monuments include the India Gate, the Jantar Mantar -- an 18th - century astronomical observatory -- and the Purana Qila -- a 16th - century fortress. The Laxminarayan temple, Akshardham temple, Bangla Sahib the Bahá'í Lotus temple and the ISKCON temple are examples of modern architecture. Raj Ghat and associated memorials houses memorials of Mahatma Gandhi and other notable personalities. New Delhi houses several government buildings and official residences reminiscent of British colonial architecture, including the Rashtrapati Bhavan, the Secretariat, Rajpath, the Parliament of India and Vijay Chowk. Safdarjung 's Tomb is an example of the Mughal gardens style. Some regal havelis (palatial residences) are in the Old City.
Lotus Temple, is a Bahá'í House of Worship completed in 1986. Notable for its flowerlike shape, it serves as the Mother Temple of the Indian subcontinent and has become a prominent attraction in the city. The Lotus Temple has won numerous architectural awards and been featured in hundreds of newspaper and magazine articles. Like all other Bahá'í Houses of Worship, is open to all regardless of religion, or any other distinction, as emphasised in Bahá'í texts. The Bahá'í laws emphasise that the spirit of the House of Worship be that it is a gathering place where people of all religions may worship God without denominational restrictions. The Bahá'í laws also stipulate that only the holy scriptures of the Bahá'í Faith and other religions can be read or chanted inside in any language; while readings and prayers can be set to music by choirs, no musical instruments can be played inside. Furthermore, no sermons can be delivered, and there can be no ritualistic ceremonies practised.
Chandni Chowk, a 17th - century market, is one of the most popular shopping areas in Delhi for jewellery and Zari saris. Delhi 's arts and crafts include, Zardozi -- an embroidery done with gold thread -- and Meenakari -- the art of enamelling.
Delhi 's association and geographic proximity to the capital, New Delhi, has amplified the importance of national events and holidays like Republic Day, Independence Day (15 August) and Gandhi Jayanti. On Independence Day, the Prime Minister addresses the nation from the Red Fort. Most Delhiites celebrate the day by flying kites, which are considered a symbol of freedom. The Republic Day Parade is a large cultural and military parade showcasing India 's cultural diversity and military strength. Over the centuries, Delhi has become known for its composite culture, and a festival that symbolises this is the Phool Walon Ki Sair, which takes place in September. Flowers and pankhe -- fans embroidered with flowers -- are offered to the shrine of the 13th - century Sufi saint Khwaja Bakhtiyar Kaki and the Yogmaya temple, both situated in Mehrauli.
Religious festivals include Diwali (the festival of lights), Mahavir Jayanti, Guru Nanak 's Birthday, Raksha Bandhan, Durga Puja, Holi, Lohri, Chauth, Krishna Janmastami, Maha Shivratri, Eid ul - Fitr, Moharram and Buddha Jayanti. The Qutub Festival is a cultural event during which performances of musicians and dancers from all over India are showcased at night, with the Qutub Minar as a backdrop. Other events such as Kite Flying Festival, International Mango Festival and Vasant Panchami (the Spring Festival) are held every year in Delhi. The Auto Expo, Asia 's largest auto show, is held in Delhi biennially. The New Delhi World Book Fair, held biennially at the Pragati Maidan, is the second largest exhibition of books in the world. Delhi is often regarded as the "Book Capital '' of India because of high readership. India International Trade Fair (IITF), organised by ITPO is the biggest cultural and shopping fair of Delhi which takes place in November each year and is visited by more than 15 lakh people.
As India 's national capital and centuries old Mughal capital, Delhi influenced the food habits of its residents and is where Mughlai cuisine originated. Along with Indian cuisine, a variety of international cuisines are popular among the residents. The dearth of food habits among the city 's residents created a unique style of cooking which became popular throughout the world, with dishes such as Kebab, biryani, tandoori. The city 's classic dishes include butter chicken, dal makhani, shahi paneer, aloo chaat, chaat, dahi bhalla, kachori, gol gappe, samosa, chole bhature, chole kulche, gulab jamun, jalebi and lassi.
The fast living habits of Delhi 's people has motivated the growth of street food outlets. A trend of dining at local dhabas is popular among the residents. High - profile restaurants have gained popularity in recent years, among the popular restaurants are the Karim Hotel, the Punjab Grill and Bukhara. The Gali Paranthe Wali (the street of fried bread) is a street in Chandni Chowk particularly for food eateries since the 1870s. Almost the entire street is occupied by fast food stalls or street vendors. It has nearly become a tradition that almost every prime minister of India has visited the street to eat paratha at least once. Other Indian cuisines are also available in this area even though the street specialises in north Indian food.
According to Euromonitor International, Delhi ranked as 28th most visited city in the world and first in India by foreign visitors in 2015. There are numerous tourist attractions in Delhi, both historic and modern. The three UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Delhi, Qutb Complex, Red Fort and Humayun 's Tomb are among the finest examples of Indo - Islamic architecture. Another prominent landmark of Delhi is India Gate, a 1931 built war memorial to soldiers of British Indian Army who died during First World War. Delhi has several famous places of worship of various religions. One of the largest Hindu temple complexes in the world, Akshardham is a major tourist attraction in the city. Other famous religious sites include Lal Mandir, Laxminarayan Temple, Gurudwara Bangla Sahib, Lotus Temple, Jama Masjid and ISKCON Temple. Delhi is also a hub for shopping of all kinds. Connaught Place, Chandni Chowk, Khan Market and Dilli Haat are some of the major retail markets in Delhi. Major shopping malls include Select Citywalk, DLF Promenade, DLF Emporio, Metro Walk and Ansal Plaza.
Private schools in Delhi -- which use either English or Hindi as the language of instruction -- are affiliated to one of three administering bodies, the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE) or the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). In 2004 -- 05, approximately 15.29 lakh (1.529 million) students were enrolled in primary schools, 8.22 lakh (0.822 million) in middle schools and 6.69 lakh (0.669 million) in secondary schools across Delhi. Female students represented 49 % of the total enrolment. The same year, the Delhi government spent between 1.58 % and 1.95 % of its gross state domestic product on education.
Schools and higher educational institutions in Delhi are administered either by the Directorate of Education, the NCT government or private organisations. In 2006, Delhi had 165 colleges, five medical colleges and eight engineering colleges, seven major universities and nine deemed universities.
The premier management colleges of Delhi such as Faculty of Management Studies (Delhi) and Indian Institute of Foreign Trade rank the best in India. All India Institute of Medical Sciences Delhi is a premier medical school for treatment and research. National Law University, Delhi is a prominent law school and is affiliated to the Bar Council of India.
Delhi Technological University (formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology, Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and National Law University, Delhi are the only state universities. University of Delhi, Jawaharlal Nehru University and Jamia Millia Islamia are the central universities, and Indira Gandhi National Open University is for distance education. As of 2008, about 16 % of all Delhi residents possessed at least a college graduate degree.
As the capital of India, Delhi is the focus of political reportage, including regular television broadcasts of Parliament sessions. Many national media agencies, including the state - owned Press Trust of India, Media Trust of India and Doordarshan, is based in the city. Television programming includes two free terrestrial television channels offered by Doordarshan, and several Hindi, English, and regional - language cable channels offered by multi system operators. Satellite television has yet to gain a large quantity of subscribers in the city.
Print journalism remains a popular news medium in Delhi. The city 's Hindi newspapers include Navbharat Times, Hindustan Dainik, Punjab Kesari, Pavitra Bharat, Dainik Jagran, Dainik Bhaskar, Amar Ujala and Dainik Desbandhu. Amongst the English language newspapers, The Hindustan Times, with a daily circulation of over a million copies, is the single largest daily. Other major English newspapers include Times of India, The Hindu, Indian Express, Business Standard, The Pioneer, The Statesman, and The Asian Age. Regional language newspapers include the Malayalam daily Malayala Manorama and the Tamil dailies Dinamalar and Dinakaran.
Radio is a less popular mass medium in Delhi, although FM radio has gained popularity since the inauguration of several new stations in 2006. A number of state - owned and private radio stations broadcast from Delhi.
Delhi has hosted many major international sporting events, including the first and also the ninth Asian Games, the 2010 Hockey World Cup, the 2010 Commonwealth Games and the 2011 Cricket World Cup. Delhi lost bidding for the 2014 Asian Games, and considered making a bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics. However, sports minister Manohar Singh Gill later stated that funding infrastructure would come before a 2020 bid. There are indications of a possible 2028 bid.
The 2010 Commonwealth Games, which ran from 3 to 14 October 2010, was one of the largest sports event held in India. The opening ceremony of the 2010 Commonwealth Games was held at the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, the main stadium of the event, in New Delhi at 7: 00 pm Indian Standard Time on 3 October 2010. The ceremony featured over 8,000 performers and lasted for two and a half hours. It is estimated that ₹ 3.5 billion (US $55 million) were spent to produce the ceremony. Events took place at 12 competition venues. 20 training venues were used in the Games, including seven venues within Delhi University. The rugby stadium in Delhi University North Campus hosted rugby games for Commonwealth Games. The mess left behind after the Commonwealth Games prompted Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to replace Sports and Youth Affairs minister Manohar Singh Gill with Ajay Maken in 19 January 2011 Cabinet reshuffle.
Cricket and football are the most popular sports in Delhi. There are several cricket grounds, or maidans, located across the city. The Feroz Shah Kotla Ground (known commonly as the Kotla) is one of the oldest cricket grounds in India and is a venue for international cricket matches. It is the home ground of the Delhi cricket team, which represents the city in the Ranji Trophy, the premier Indian domestic first - class cricket championship. The Delhi cricket team has produced several world - class international cricketers such as Virender Sehwag, Virat Kohli, Gautam Gambhir, Madan Lal, Chetan Chauhan, Ishant Sharma and Bishan Singh Bedi to name a few. The Railways and Services cricket teams in the Ranji Trophy also play their home matches in Delhi, in the Karnail Singh Stadium and the Harbax Singh Stadium respectively. The city is also home to the Indian Premier League team Delhi Daredevils, who play their home matches at the Kotla, and was the home to the Delhi Giants team (previously Delhi Jets) of the now defunct Indian Cricket League.
Ambedkar Stadium, a football stadium in Delhi which holds 21,000 people, was the venue for the Indian football team 's World Cup qualifier against UAE on 28 July 2012. Delhi hosted the Nehru Cup in 2007 and 2009, in both of which India defeated Syria 1 -- 0. In the Elite Football League of India, Delhi 's first professional American football franchise, the Delhi Defenders played its first season in Pune. Buddh International Circuit in Greater Noida, a suburb of Delhi, formerly hosted the Formula 1 Indian Grand Prix. The Indira Gandhi Arena is also in Delhi.
Delhi is a member of the Asian Network of Major Cities 21.
Current Regional and Professional Sports Teams from Delhi
Irani Trophy
Vijay Hazare Trophy
Former Regional and Professional Sports Teams from Delhi
In February 2014, the Government of India approved Delhi 's bid for World Heritage City status. The historical city of Shahjahanabad and Lutyens ' Bungalow Zone in New Delhi were cited in the bid. A team from UNESCO was scheduled to visit Delhi in September 2014 to validate its claims. INTACH acted as the nodal agency for the bid. The announcement of accepted cities was to be made in June 2015. However, the Government of India withdrew its nomination on 21 May 2015.
Government
General information
1 Tokyo - Yokohama 2 Shanghai 3 Jakarta 4 Delhi 5 Seoul - Incheon
6 Karachi 7 Guangzhou 8 Beijing 9 Shenzhen 7 Mexico City
11 São Paulo 12 Lagos 13 Mumbai 14 Cairo 15 New York
16 Osaka 17 Moscow 18 Wuhan 19 Chengdu 20 Dhaka
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of the heart of the soul and of the cross the utopian experience | Of the Heart, of the Soul and of the Cross: the Utopian Experience - wikipedia
Of the Heart, of the Soul and of the Cross: The Utopian Experience is the debut album by American hip hop group P.M. Dawn. It was recorded at Berwick Street Studios and Gee Street Studios in London. The album features soul vocals and stream - of - consciousness raps by Prince Be and unconventional samples by producer DJ Minutemix.
Of the Heart, of the Soul and of the Cross was released by Gee Street Records in September 1991 to rave reviews from music critics. It became an immediate commercial success with the help of its single "Set Adrift on Memory Bliss '', which was also praised by critics. The album produced four hits and sold 850,000 copies by 1993. Of the Heart, of the Soul and of the Cross has sold one million copies.
In 1989, P.M. Dawn 's debut single "Ode to a Forgetful Mind '' was released by Warlock Records, but it went unnoticed. The label that released the single in England, Gee Street Records, found greater success. Gee Street mixed and marketed the song so that it earned considerable attention from music reviewers, and P.M. Dawn found themselves courted not just by Gee Street 's head, John Baker, but also by most of the major record labels in England. Gee Street brought the group to London in 1990 to record tracks for an album, however, the label found itself facing bankruptcy during the recording. The entire Gee Street operation -- along with P.M. Dawn 's contract -- was sold to the highest bidder, Island Records. Island issued a few more singles in England before releasing Of the Heart, of the Soul and of the Cross: The Utopian Experience as P.M. Dawn 's debut album.
Of the Heart, of the Soul and of the Cross featured the international hit "Set Adrift on Memory Bliss '', which sampled the Spandau Ballet song "True '', and featured a cameo by Spandau Ballet singer Tony Hadley in the music video of the song. "Set Adrift on Memory Bliss '' hit # 1 the week of November 30, 1991, and holds the distinction of being the first # 1 song on the Billboard Hot 100 chart following the introduction of Nielsen SoundScan to the singles charts. The song also reached # 3 in the United Kingdom. "Paper Doll, '' which was one of the early singles Island released in England to test the waters for the band, was released in the U.S. as a follow - up to "Set Adrift on Memory Bliss, '' and peaked at # 28 in early 1992. "Paper Doll '' is said well over 100 times in the song, which makes it second only to M.C. Hammer 's "Pray '' which holds the record for the most times a title is repeated in an American Top 40 hit (147).
Of the Heart, of the Soul and of the Cross received rave reviews from critics. In The Village Voice, Robert Christgau wrote that Prince Be 's escapist raps were skilled, thoughtful, and eccentric, while the music 's varied synthesis was the most intelligently conceived since Prince: "It 's got total outreach -- moving effortlessly from speech to song, the quiet storm of sweet hooks and soft beats surprises like prime Big Star or XTC, only it 's never brittle or arch. '' Spin magazine 's Jonathan Bernstein said P.M. Dawn had effortlessly consolidated artistic and commercial sounds with a combination of substantial rap, lushly appealing music, and impressive vocal arrangements on their debut record, which he wrote "comes out of nowhere and ends up on the front stoop soundtrack of the summer. '' James Bernard from Entertainment Weekly felt that Prince Be 's melodic, innovative lyrics and DJ Minutemix 's unconventional sounds sounded sincere without being sappy, while drawing on influences from Jimi Hendrix and Prince without having either artist 's sexual laments. Greg Kot, writing in the Chicago Tribune, found the songs memorable, artful, and infused with the silly raps of De La Soul, the compelling dance grooves of Soul II Soul, and the atmospheric acid rock of Lenny Kravitz.
Of the Heart, of the Soul and of the Cross was voted the fifth best album of the year in The Village Voice 's annual Pazz & Jop critics poll for 1991. Christgau, the poll 's creator, ranked it third on his own list. It was also named the tenth best album of 1991 by Spin magazine, and by Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times. In his year - end list for The New York Times, Jon Pareles ranked it the fourth best album of 1991 and wrote that P.M. Dawn have found a synthesis of pop, hip hop, and spirituality that has eluded artists such as Prince.
In a retrospective review, Q magazine called Of the Heart, of the Soul and of the Cross a beautiful, unconventional album that expanded the creative possibilities of hip hop and featured songs that "had little or nothing to do with the ' hood, but everything to do with Utopia ''. Allmusic 's Steve Huey said that the album was a "startling reimagination '' of hip hop 's possibilities, even though it was not "embraced by the entire hip hop community. '' He felt that it still sounds radically innovative as proof that pop, R&B, and hip hop styles could be merged for creative rather than commercial purposes. In The Encyclopedia of Popular Music, Colin Larkin wrote that the album showed P.M. Dawn growing "out of the De La Soul comparisons that had previously plagued them '' and becoming "one of the most concise, creative forces in rap / dance. '' Alex Remington of The Huffington Post said that it was "definitely a rap album, albeit one unlike anything released in the years to come... Heard today, the album sounds like a time capsule from a more expansive era, and it stands the test of time. ''
All songs written by Attrell Cordes, except where noted.
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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when was dark side of the moon written | The Dark Side of the Moon - wikipedia
The Dark Side of the Moon is the eighth studio album by English rock band Pink Floyd, released on 1 March 1973 by Harvest Records. The album built on ideas explored in earlier recordings and live shows, but lacks the extended instrumental excursions that characterised their earlier work. Its themes explore conflict, greed, the passage of time, and mental illness, the latter partly inspired by the deteriorating mental state of founding member and principal contributor, Syd Barrett.
Developed during live performances, an early version was premiered several months before recording began; new material was recorded in two sessions in 1972 and 1973 at Abbey Road in London. The group used some advanced recording techniques at the time, including multitrack recording and tape loops. Analogue synthesizers were prominent in several tracks, and snippets from recorded interviews with Pink Floyd 's road crew and others provided philosophical quotations throughout. Engineer Alan Parsons was responsible for many distinctive sonic aspects and the recruitment of singer Clare Torry. The album 's iconic sleeve was designed by Storm Thorgerson; following keyboardist Richard Wright 's request for a "simple and bold '' design, it depicts a prism spectrum, representing the band 's lighting and the record 's themes.
The Dark Side of the Moon was a commercial and critical success. It topped the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart for a week and remained in the chart for 741 weeks from 1973 to 1988. With an estimated 45 million copies sold, it is Pink Floyd 's most successful album and one of the best - selling worldwide. It has been remastered and re-released several times, and covered in its entirety by several acts. It produced two singles, "Money '' and "Us and Them ''. It is often ranked as one of the greatest albums of all time.
Following Meddle in 1971, Pink Floyd assembled for a tour of Britain, Japan and the United States in December of that year. In a band meeting at drummer Nick Mason 's home in Camden, bassist Roger Waters proposed that a new album could form part of the tour. Waters ' idea was for an album that dealt with things that "make people mad '', focusing on the pressures faced by the band during their arduous lifestyle, and dealing with the apparent mental problems suffered by former band member Syd Barrett. The band had explored a similar idea with 1969 's The Man and The Journey. In an interview for Rolling Stone, guitarist David Gilmour said: "I think we all thought -- and Roger definitely thought -- that a lot of the lyrics that we had been using were a little too indirect. There was definitely a feeling that the words were going to be very clear and specific. ''
Generally, all four members agreed that Waters ' album concept unified by a single theme was a good idea. Waters, Gilmour, Mason and keyboardist Richard Wright participated in the writing and production of the new material, and Waters created the early demo tracks at his Islington home in a small studio built in his garden shed. Parts of the new album were taken from previously unused material; the opening line of "Breathe '' came from an earlier work by Waters and Ron Geesin, written for the soundtrack of The Body, and the basic structure of "Us and Them '' borrowed from an original composition by Wright for Zabriskie Point. The band rehearsed at a warehouse in London owned by The Rolling Stones, and then at the Rainbow Theatre in Finsbury Park, London. They also purchased extra equipment, which included new speakers, a PA system, a 28 - track mixing desk with a four channel quadraphonic output, and a custom - built lighting rig. Nine tonnes of kit was transported in three lorries; this would be the first time the band had taken an entire album on tour. The album had been given the provisional title of Dark Side of the Moon (an allusion to lunacy, rather than astronomy). However, after discovering that that title had already been used by another band, Medicine Head, it was temporarily changed to Eclipse. The new material premièred at The Dome in Brighton, on 20 January 1972, and after the commercial failure of Medicine Head 's album the title was changed back to the band 's original preference.
Dark Side of the Moon: A Piece for Assorted Lunatics, as it was then known, was performed in the presence of an assembled press on 17 February 1972 -- more than a year before its release -- at the Rainbow Theatre, and was critically acclaimed. Michael Wale of The Times described the piece as "... bringing tears to the eyes. It was so completely understanding and musically questioning. '' Derek Jewell of The Sunday Times wrote "The ambition of the Floyd 's artistic intention is now vast. '' Melody Maker was, however, less enthusiastic: "Musically, there were some great ideas, but the sound effects often left me wondering if I was in a bird - cage at London zoo. '' However, the following tour was praised by the public. The new material was performed live, in the same order in which it would eventually be recorded, but obvious differences between the live version, and the recorded version released a year later, included the lack of synthesizers in tracks such as "On the Run '', and Bible readings that were later replaced by Clare Torry 's non-lexical vocables on "The Great Gig in the Sky ''.
The band 's lengthy tour through Europe and North America gave them the opportunity to make continual improvements to the scale and quality of their performances. Work on the album was interrupted in late February when the band travelled to France and recorded music for French director Barbet Schroeder 's film, La Vallée. They then performed in Japan and returned to France in March to complete work on the film. After a series of dates in North America, the band flew to London to begin recording the album, from 24 May to 25 June. More concerts in Europe and North America followed before the band returned on 9 January 1973 to complete work on the album.
The Dark Side of the Moon built upon experiments Pink Floyd had attempted in their previous live shows and recordings, but lacks the extended instrumental excursions which, according to critic David Fricke, had become characteristic of the band after founding member Syd Barrett left in 1968. Gilmour, Barrett 's replacement, later referred to those instrumentals as "that psychedelic noodling stuff '', and with Waters cited 1971 's Meddle as a turning - point towards what would be realised on the album. The Dark Side of the Moon 's lyrical themes include conflict, greed, the passage of time, death, and insanity, the latter inspired in part by Barrett 's deteriorating mental state; he had been the band 's principal composer and lyricist. The album is notable for its use of musique concrète and conceptual, philosophical lyrics, as found in much of the band 's other work.
Each side of the album is a continuous piece of music. The five tracks on each side reflect various stages of human life, beginning and ending with a heartbeat, exploring the nature of the human experience, and (according to Waters) "empathy ''. "Speak to Me '' and "Breathe '' together stress the mundane and futile elements of life that accompany the ever - present threat of madness, and the importance of living one 's own life -- "Do n't be afraid to care ''. By shifting the scene to an airport, the synthesizer - driven instrumental "On the Run '' evokes the stress and anxiety of modern travel, in particular Wright 's fear of flying. "Time '' examines the manner in which its passage can control one 's life and offers a stark warning to those who remain focused on mundane aspects; it is followed by a retreat into solitude and withdrawal in "Breathe (Reprise) ''. The first side of the album ends with Wright and vocalist Clare Torry 's soulful metaphor for death, "The Great Gig in the Sky ''. Opening with the sound of cash registers and loose change, the first track on side two, "Money '', mocks greed and consumerism using tongue - in - cheek lyrics and cash - related sound effects (ironically, "Money '' has been the most commercially successful track from the album, with several cover versions produced by other bands). "Us and Them '' addresses the isolation of the depressed with the symbolism of conflict and the use of simple dichotomies to describe personal relationships. "Any Colour You Like '' concerns the lack of choice one has in a human society. "Brain Damage '' looks at a mental illness resulting from the elevation of fame and success above the needs of the self; in particular, the line "and if the band you 're in starts playing different tunes '' reflects the mental breakdown of former bandmate Syd Barrett. The album ends with "Eclipse '', which espouses the concepts of alterity and unity, while forcing the listener to recognise the common traits shared by humanity.
The album was recorded at Abbey Road Studios, in two sessions, between May 1972 and January 1973. The band were assigned staff engineer Alan Parsons, who had worked as assistant tape operator on Atom Heart Mother, and who had also gained experience as a recording engineer on the Beatles ' Abbey Road and Let It Be. The recording sessions made use of some of the most advanced studio techniques of the time; the studio was capable of 16 - track mixes, which offered a greater degree of flexibility than the eight - or four - track mixes they had previously used, although the band often used so many tracks that to make more space available second - generation copies were made.
Beginning on 1 June, the first track to be recorded was "Us and Them '', followed six days later by "Money ''. Waters had created effects loops from recordings of various money - related objects, including coins thrown into a food - mixing bowl taken from his wife 's pottery studio, and these were later re-recorded to take advantage of the band 's decision to record a quadraphonic mix of the album (Parsons has since expressed dissatisfaction with the result of this mix, attributed to a lack of time and the paucity of available multi-track tape recorders). "Time '' and "The Great Gig in the Sky '' were the next pieces to be recorded, followed by a two - month break, during which the band spent time with their families and prepared for an upcoming tour of the US. The recording sessions suffered regular interruptions; Waters, a supporter of Arsenal F.C., would often break to see his team compete, and the band would occasionally stop work to watch Monty Python 's Flying Circus on the television, leaving Parsons to work on material recorded up to that point. Gilmour has, however, disputed this claim; in an interview in 2003 he said: "We would sometimes watch them but when we were on a roll, we would get on. ''
Returning from the US in January 1973, they recorded "Brain Damage '', "Eclipse '', "Any Colour You Like '' and "On the Run '', while fine - tuning the work they had already laid down in the previous sessions. A foursome of female vocalists was assembled to sing on "Brain Damage '', "Eclipse '' and "Time '', and saxophonist Dick Parry was booked to play on "Us and Them '' and "Money ''. With director Adrian Maben, the band also filmed studio footage for Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii. Once the recording sessions were complete, the band began a tour of Europe.
The album features metronomic sound effects during "Speak to Me '', and tape loops opening "Money ''. Mason created a rough version of "Speak to Me '' at his home, before completing it in the studio. The track serves as an overture and contains cross-fades of elements from other pieces on the album. A piano chord, replayed backwards, serves to augment the build - up of effects, which are immediately followed by the opening of "Breathe ''. Mason received a rare solo composing credit for "Speak to Me ''.
The sound effects on "Money '' were created by splicing together Waters ' recordings of clinking coins, tearing paper, a ringing cash register, and a clicking adding machine, which were used to create a 7 - beat effects loop (later adapted to four tracks in order to create a "walk around the room '' effect in quadraphonic presentations of the album). At times the degree of sonic experimentation on the album required the engineers and band to operate the mixing console 's faders simultaneously, in order to mix down the intricately assembled multitrack recordings of several of the songs (particularly "On the Run '').
Along with the conventional rock band instrumentation, Pink Floyd added prominent synthesizers to their sound. For example, the band experimented with an EMS VCS 3 on "Brain Damage '' and "Any Colour You Like '', and a Synthi A on "Time '' and "On the Run ''. They also devised and recorded unconventional sounds, such as an assistant engineer running around the studio 's echo chamber (during "On the Run ''), and a specially treated bass drum made to simulate a human heartbeat (during "Speak to Me '', "On the Run '', "Time '' and "Eclipse ''). This heartbeat is most prominent as the intro and the outro to the album, but it can also be heard sporadically on "Time '' and "On the Run ''. "Time '' features assorted clocks ticking, then chiming simultaneously at the start of the song, accompanied by a series of Rototoms. The recordings were initially created as a quadraphonic test by Parsons, who recorded each timepiece at an antique clock shop. Although these recordings had not been created specifically for the album, elements of this material were eventually used in the track.
Several tracks, including "Us and Them '' and "Time '', demonstrated Richard Wright 's and David Gilmour 's ability to harmonise their voices. In the 2003 Classic Albums documentary The Making of The Dark Side of the Moon, Waters attributed this to the fact that their voices sounded extremely similar. To take advantage of this, Parsons utilised studio techniques such as the double tracking of vocals and guitars, which allowed Gilmour to harmonise with himself. The engineer also made prominent use of flanging and phase shifting effects on vocals and instruments, odd trickery with reverb, and the panning of sounds between channels (most notable in the quadraphonic mix of "On the Run '', when the sound of the Hammond B3 organ played through a Leslie speaker rapidly swirls around the listener).
The album 's credits include Clare Torry, a session singer and songwriter, and a regular at Abbey Road. She had worked on pop material and numerous cover albums, and after hearing one of those albums Parsons invited her to the studio to sing on Wright 's composition "The Great Gig in the Sky ''. She declined this invitation as she wanted to watch Chuck Berry perform at the Hammersmith Odeon, but arranged to come in on the following Sunday. The band explained the concept behind the album, but were unable to tell her exactly what she should do. Gilmour was in charge of the session, and in a few short takes on a Sunday night Torry improvised a wordless melody to accompany Wright 's emotive piano solo. She was initially embarrassed by her exuberance in the recording booth, and wanted to apologise to the band -- only to find them delighted with her performance. Her takes were then selectively edited to produce the version used on the track. For her contribution she was paid £ 30, equivalent to about £ 360 in 2018, but in 2004 she sued EMI and Pink Floyd for songwriting royalties, arguing that her contribution to "The Great Gig in the Sky '' was substantial enough to be considered co-authorship. The High Court agreed with her, but the terms of the settlement were not disclosed. All post-2005 pressings therefore credit Wright and Torry jointly for the song.
Snippets of voices between and over the music are another notable feature of the album. During recording sessions, Waters recruited both the staff and the temporary occupants of the studio to answer a series of questions printed on flashcards. The interviewees were placed in front of a microphone in a darkened Studio 3, and shown such questions as "What 's your favourite colour? '' and "What 's your favourite food? '', before moving on to themes more central to the album (such as madness, violence, and death). Questions such as "When was the last time you were violent? '', followed immediately by "Were you in the right? '', were answered in the order they were presented. Roger "The Hat '' Manifold proved difficult to find, and was the only contributor recorded in a conventional sit - down interview, as by then the flashcards had been mislaid. Waters asked him about a violent encounter he had had with another motorist, and Manifold replied "... give ' em a quick, short, sharp shock... '' When asked about death he responded "live for today, gone tomorrow, that 's me... '' Another roadie, Chris Adamson, who was on tour with Pink Floyd, recorded the snippet which opens the album: "I 've been mad for fucking years -- absolutely years ''. The band 's road manager Peter Watts (father of actress Naomi Watts) contributed the repeated laughter during "Brain Damage '' and "Speak to Me ''. His second wife, Patricia "Puddie '' Watts (now Patricia Gleason), was responsible for the line about the "geezer '' who was "cruisin ' for a bruisin ' '' used in the segue between "Money '' and "Us and Them '', and the words "I never said I was frightened of dying '' heard halfway through "The Great Gig in the Sky ''.
Perhaps the most notable responses "I am not frightened of dying. Any time will do: I do n't mind. Why should I be frightened of dying? There 's no reason for it -- you 've got to go sometime '' and closing words "there is no dark side in the moon, really. As a matter of fact it 's all dark '' came from the studios ' Irish doorman, Gerry O'Driscoll. Paul and Linda McCartney were also interviewed, but their answers were judged to be "trying too hard to be funny '', and were not included on the album. McCartney 's Wings bandmate Henry McCullough contributed the line "I do n't know, I was really drunk at the time ''.
Following the completion of the dialogue sessions, producer Chris Thomas was hired to provide "a fresh pair of ears ''. Thomas 's background was in music, rather than engineering. He had worked with Beatles producer George Martin, and was acquainted with Pink Floyd 's manager Steve O'Rourke. All four members of the band were engaged in a disagreement over the style of the mix, with Waters and Mason preferring a "dry '' and "clean '' mix which made more use of the non-musical elements, and Gilmour and Wright preferring a subtler and more "echoey '' mix. Thomas later claimed there were no such disagreements, stating "There was no difference in opinion between them, I do n't remember Roger once saying that he wanted less echo. In fact, there were never any hints that they were later going to fall out. It was a very creative atmosphere. A lot of fun. '' Although the truth remains unclear, Thomas 's intervention resulted in a welcome compromise between Waters and Gilmour, leaving both entirely satisfied with the end product. Thomas was responsible for significant changes to the album, including the perfect timing of the echo used on "Us and Them ''. He was also present for the recording of "The Great Gig in the Sky '' (although Parsons was responsible for hiring Torry). Interviewed in 2006, when asked if he felt his goals had been accomplished in the studio, Waters said:
When the record was finished I took a reel - to - reel copy home with me and I remember playing it for my wife then, and I remember her bursting into tears when it was finished. And I thought, "This has obviously struck a chord somewhere '', and I was kinda pleased by that. You know when you 've done something, certainly if you create a piece of music, you then hear it with fresh ears when you play it for somebody else. And at that point I thought to myself, "Wow, this is a pretty complete piece of work '', and I had every confidence that people would respond to it.
The album was originally released in a gatefold LP sleeve designed by Hipgnosis and George Hardie. Hipgnosis had designed several of the band 's previous albums, with controversial results; EMI had reacted with confusion when faced with the cover designs for Atom Heart Mother and Obscured by Clouds, as they had expected to see traditional designs which included lettering and words. Designers Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell were able to ignore such criticism as they were employed by the band. For The Dark Side of the Moon, Richard Wright instructed them to come up with something "smarter, neater -- more classy ''. The prism design was inspired by a photograph that Thorgerson had seen during a brainstorming session with Powell.
The artwork was created by their associate, George Hardie. Hipgnosis offered the band a choice of seven designs, but all four members agreed that the prism was by far the best. The final design depicts a glass prism dispersing light into colour. The design represents three elements: the band 's stage lighting, the album lyrics, and Wright 's request for a "simple and bold '' design. The spectrum of light continues through to the gatefold -- an idea that Waters came up with. Added shortly afterwards, the gatefold design also includes a visual representation of the heartbeat sound used throughout the album, and the back of the album cover contains Thorgerson 's suggestion of another prism recombining the spectrum of light, facilitating interesting layouts of the sleeve in record shops. The light band emanating from the prism on the album cover has six colours, missing indigo compared to the traditional division of the spectrum into red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Inside the sleeve were two posters and two pyramid - themed stickers. One poster bore pictures of the band in concert, overlaid with scattered letters to form PINK FLOYD, and the other an infrared photograph of the Great Pyramids of Giza, created by Powell and Thorgerson.
Since the departure of founder member Barrett in 1968, the burden of lyrical composition had fallen mostly on Waters. He is therefore credited as the author of the album 's lyrics, making The Dark Side of the Moon the first of five consecutive Pink Floyd albums with lyrics credited to him alone. The band were so confident of the quality of the words that, for the first time, they printed them on the album 's sleeve. "Roger 's concerns in it are not out of date, '' remarked Gilmour on the album 's twentieth anniversary. "He did a fantastic job with those words. Then, Roger was always more verbal than the rest of us, who had no great confidence in our lyric - writing. Probably, in hindsight, we should have stuck at it: the roots of our problems were being set back then. But we all got the credit and money that we were happy with. ''
As the quadraphonic mix of the album was not then complete, the band (with the exception of Wright) boycotted the press reception held at the London Planetarium on 27 February. The guests were, instead, presented with a quartet of life - sized cardboard cut - outs of the band, and the stereo mix of the album was presented through a poor - quality public address system. Generally, however, the press were enthusiastic; Melody Maker 's Roy Hollingworth described side one as "so utterly confused with itself it was difficult to follow '', but praised side two, writing: "The songs, the sounds, the rhythms were solid and sound, Saxophone hit the air, the band rocked and rolled, and then gushed and tripped away into the night. '' Steve Peacock of Sounds wrote: "I do n't care if you 've never heard a note of the Pink Floyd 's music in your life, I 'd unreservedly recommend everyone to The Dark Side of the Moon ''. In his 1973 review for Rolling Stone magazine, Loyd Grossman declared Dark Side "a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites, but demands involvement ''. In his 1981 review of the album, Robert Christgau found its lyrical ideas clichéd and its music pretentious, but called it a "kitsch masterpiece '' that can be charming with highlights such as taped speech fragments, Parry 's saxophone, and studio effects which enhance Gilmour 's guitar solos.
The Dark Side of the Moon was released first in the US on 1 March 1973, and then in the UK on 16 March. It became an instant chart success in Britain and throughout Western Europe; by the following month, it had gained a gold certification in the US. Throughout March 1973 the band played the album as part of their US tour, including a midnight performance at Radio City Music Hall in New York City on 17 March before an audience of 6,000. The album reached the Billboard Top LP 's & Tape chart 's number one spot on 28 April 1973, and was so successful that the band returned two months later for another tour.
Much of the album 's early American success is attributed to the efforts of Pink Floyd 's US record company, Capitol Records. Newly appointed chairman Bhaskar Menon set about trying to reverse the relatively poor sales of the band 's 1971 studio album Meddle. Meanwhile, disenchanted with Capitol, the band and manager O'Rourke had been quietly negotiating a new contract with CBS president Clive Davis, on Columbia Records. The Dark Side of the Moon was the last album that Pink Floyd were obliged to release before formally signing a new contract. Menon 's enthusiasm for the new album was such that he began a huge promotional advertising campaign, which included radio - friendly truncated versions of "Us and Them '' and "Time ''. In some countries -- notably the UK -- Pink Floyd had not released a single since 1968 's "Point Me at the Sky '', and unusually "Money '' was released as a single on 7 May, with "Any Colour You Like '' on the B - side. It reached number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 in July 1973. A two - sided white label promotional version of the single, with mono and stereo mixes, was sent to radio stations. The mono side had the word "bullshit '' removed from the song -- leaving "bull '' in its place -- however, the stereo side retained the uncensored version. This was subsequently withdrawn; the replacement was sent to radio stations with a note advising disc jockeys to dispose of the first uncensored copy. On 4 February 1974, a double A-side single was released with "Time '' on one side, and "Us and Them '' on the opposite side. Menon 's efforts to secure a contract renewal with Pink Floyd were in vain however; at the beginning of 1974, the band signed for Columbia with a reported advance fee of $1 M (in Britain and Europe they continued to be represented by Harvest Records).
The Dark Side of the Moon became one of the best - selling albums of all time and is in the top 25 of a list of best - selling albums in the United States. Although it held the number one spot in the US for only a week, it remained in the Billboard album chart for 741 weeks. The album re-appeared on the Billboard charts with the introduction of the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart in May 1991, and has been a perennial feature since then. In the UK, it is the seventh - best - selling album of all time and the highest selling album never to reach number one.
In the US the LP was released before the introduction of platinum awards on 1 January 1976. It therefore held only a gold disc until 16 February 1990, when it was certified 11 × platinum. On 4 June 1998 the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album 15 × platinum, denoting sales of fifteen million in the United States -- making it their biggest - selling work there (The Wall is 23 × platinum, but as a double album this signifies sales of 11.5 million). "Money '' has sold well as a single, and as with "Time '', remains a radio favourite; in the US, for the year ending 20 April 2005, "Time '' was played on 13,723 occasions, and "Money '' on 13,731 occasions. Industry sources suggest that worldwide sales of the album total about 45 million. "On a slow week '' between 8,000 and 9,000 copies are sold, and a total of 400,000 were sold in 2002, making it the 200th - best - selling album of that year -- nearly three decades after its initial release. The album has sold 9,502,000 copies in the US since 1991 when Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales for Billboard. To this day, it occupies a prominent spot on Billboard 's Pop Catalog Chart. It reached number one when the 2003 hybrid CD / SACD edition was released and sold 800,000 copies in the US. On the week of 5 May 2006 The Dark Side of the Moon achieved a combined total of 1,716 weeks on the Billboard 200 and Pop Catalog charts. One in every fourteen people in the US under the age of 50 is estimated to own, or to have owned, a copy. Upon a chart rule change in 2009 allowing catalogue titles to re-enter the Billboard 200, The Dark Side of the Moon returned to the chart at number 189 on 12 December of that year for its 742nd charting week. It has continued to sporadically appear on the Billboard 200 since then, reaching 900 weeks on the chart in April 2015.
"The combination of words and music hit a peak, '' explained Gilmour. "All the music before had not had any great lyrical point to it. And this one was clear and concise. The cover was also right. I think it 's become like a benevolent noose hanging behind us. Throughout our entire career, people have said we would never top the Dark Side record and tour. But The Wall earned more in dollar terms. ''
In 1979, The Dark Side of the Moon was released as a remastered LP by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab, and in April 1988 on their "Ultradisc '' gold CD format. The album was released by EMI on the then - new compact disc format in 1984, and in 1992 it was re-released as a remastered CD in the box set Shine On. This version was re-released as a 20th anniversary box set edition with postcards the following year. The cover design was again by Storm Thorgerson, the designer of the original 1973 cover. On some pressings, a faintly audible orchestral version of the Beatles ' "Ticket to Ride '' can be heard after "Eclipse '' over the album 's closing heartbeats.
The original quadraphonic mix, created by Alan Parsons, was commissioned by EMI but never endorsed by Pink Floyd, as Parsons was disappointed with his mix. To celebrate the album 's 30th anniversary, an updated surround version was released in 2003. The band elected not to use Parsons ' quadraphonic mix (done shortly after the original release), and instead had engineer James Guthrie create a new 5.1 channel surround sound mix on the SACD format. Guthrie had worked with Pink Floyd since co-producing and engineering their eleventh album, The Wall, and had previously worked on surround versions of The Wall for DVD - Video and Waters ' In the Flesh for SACD. Speaking in 2003, Alan Parsons expressed some disappointment with Guthrie 's SACD mix, suggesting that Guthrie was "possibly a little too true to the original mix '', but was generally complimentary. The 30th - anniversary edition won four Surround Music Awards in 2003, and has since sold more than 800,000 copies. The cover image was created by a team of designers including Storm Thorgerson. The image is a photograph of a custom - made stained glass window, built to match the exact dimensions and proportions of the original prism design. Transparent glass, held in place by strips of lead, was used in place of the opaque colours of the original. The idea is derived from the "sense of purity in the sound quality, being 5.1 surround sound... '' The image was created out of a desire to be "the same but different, such that the design was clearly DSotM, still the recognisable prism design, but was different and hence new ''.
The Dark Side of the Moon was also re-released in 2003 on 180 - gram virgin vinyl (mastered by Kevin Gray at AcousTech Mastering) and included slightly different versions of the original posters and stickers that came with the original vinyl release, along with a new 30th anniversary poster. In 2007 the album was included in Oh, by the Way, a box set celebrating the 40th anniversary of Pink Floyd, and a DRM - free version was released on the iTunes Store. In 2011 the album was re-released as part of the Why Pink Floyd...? campaign, featuring a remastered version of the album along with various other material.
The success of the album brought wealth to all four members of the band; Richard Wright and Roger Waters bought large country houses, and Nick Mason became a collector of upmarket cars. Some of the profits were invested in the production of Monty Python and the Holy Grail. Engineer Alan Parsons received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Engineered Recording, Non-Classical for The Dark Side of the Moon, and he went on to have a successful career as a recording artist with the Alan Parsons Project. Although Waters and Gilmour have on occasion downplayed his contribution to the success of the album, Mason has praised his role. In 2003, Parsons reflected: "I think they all felt that I managed to hang the rest of my career on Dark Side of the Moon, which has an element of truth to it. But I still wake up occasionally, frustrated about the fact that they made untold millions and a lot of the people involved in the record did n't. ''
Part of the legacy of The Dark Side of the Moon is in its influence on modern music, the musicians who have performed cover versions of its songs, and even in modern urban myths. Its release is often seen as a pivotal point in the history of rock music, and comparisons are sometimes drawn between Pink Floyd and Radiohead -- specifically their 1997 album OK Computer -- which has been called The Dark Side of the Moon of the 1990s, owing to the fact that both albums share themes relating to the loss of a creative individual 's ability to function in the modern world.
The Dark Side of the Moon has frequently appeared on rankings of the greatest albums of all - time. In 1987, Rolling Stone listed the record 35th on its "Top 100 Albums of the Last 20 Years '', and sixteen years later, in 2003 the album polled in 43rd position on the magazine 's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time ''. In 2012, The Dark Side of the Moon was voted 43rd again on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time ''. In 2006, it was voted "My Favourite Album '' by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation 's audience. NME readers voted the album eighth in their 2006 "Best Album of All Time '' online poll, and in 2009, Planet Rock listeners voted the album the "greatest of all time ''. The album is also number two on the "Definitive 200 '' list of albums, made by the National Association of Recording Merchandisers "in celebration of the art form of the record album ''. It came 29th in The Observer 's 2006 list of "The 50 Albums That Changed Music '', and 37th in The Guardian 's 1997 list of the "100 Best Albums Ever '', as voted for by a panel of artists and music critics. The album 's cover has been lauded by critics and listeners alike, VH1 proclaiming it the fourth greatest in history, and Planet Rock listeners the greatest of all time. In 2013, The Dark Side of the Moon was selected for preservation in the United States National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress for being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. In 2014, readers of Rhythm voted it the seventh most influential progressive drumming album.
One of the more notable covers of The Dark Side of the Moon is Return to the Dark Side of the Moon: A Tribute to Pink Floyd. Released in 2006, the album is a progressive rock tribute featuring artists such as Adrian Belew, Tommy Shaw, Dweezil Zappa, and Rick Wakeman. In 2000, The Squirrels released The Not So Bright Side of the Moon, which features a cover of the entire album. The New York dub collective Easy Star All - Stars released Dub Side of the Moon in 2003 and Dubber Side of the Moon in 2010. The group Voices on the Dark Side released the album Dark Side of the Moon a Cappella, a complete a cappella version of the album. The bluegrass band Poor Man 's Whiskey frequently play the album in bluegrass style, calling the suite Dark Side of the Moonshine. A string quartet version of the album was released in 2004. In 2009, The Flaming Lips released a track - by - track remake of the album in collaboration with Stardeath and White Dwarfs, and featuring Henry Rollins and Peaches as guest musicians. Industrial metal band Ministry called their seventh studio album Dark Side of the Spoon as a play of word to The Dark Side of the Moon with reference to heroin, as several members of the band suffered from long - term addiction to said substance at the time.
Several notable acts have covered the album live in its entirety, and a range of performers have used samples from The Dark Side of the Moon in their own material. Jam - rock band Phish performed a semi-improvised version of the entire album as part their show on 2 November 1998 in West Valley City, Utah. Progressive metal band Dream Theater have twice covered the album in their live shows, and in May 2011 Mary Fahl released From the Dark Side of the Moon, a song - by - song "re-imagining '' of the album. Milli Vanilli used the tape loops from Pink Floyd 's "Money '' to open their track "Money '', followed by Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch on Music for the People.
Dark Side of the Rainbow and Dark Side of Oz are two names commonly used in reference to rumours (circulated on the Internet since at least 1994) that The Dark Side of the Moon was written as a soundtrack for the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. Observers playing the film and the album simultaneously have reported apparent synchronicities, such as Dorothy beginning to jog at the lyric "no one told you when to run '' during "Time '', and Dorothy balancing on a tightrope fence during the line "balanced on the biggest wave '' in "Breathe ''. David Gilmour and Nick Mason have both denied a connection between the two works, and Roger Waters has described the rumours as "amusing ''. Alan Parsons has stated that the film was not mentioned during production of the album.
All lyrics written by Roger Waters.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Notes
Footnotes
Bibliography
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where have i been in the united states | List of wars involving the United States - wikipedia
This is a list of wars involving the United States of America.
(1775 -- 1783)
Location: Eastern North America, Gibraltar, India, Caribbean Sea, and the Atlantic
Spain
Iroquois
Watauga Association Catawba Lenape Choctaw
Dutch Republic
Mysore
Iroquois
Cherokee
Part of the American Indian Wars
Location: Old Southwest
Part of the American Indian Wars
Location: Northwest Territory
Location: Massachusetts
Location: Western Pennsylvania
Location: Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean
Co-belligerent: Great Britain
Location: Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Tripoli.
Location: Territory of Orleans
Supported by: Haiti
Part of the American Indian Wars and the War of 1812
Location: Northwest River Ohio
Location: Eastern and Central North America
Tecumseh 's Confederacy
Treaty of Ghent; Status quo ante bellum with no boundary changes
Location: Southern United States
Location: Mediterranean Sea and the Barbary states.
Part of the Seminole Wars and the American Indian Wars
Location: Pensacola, Florida
Spanish Florida
Part of the American Indian Wars and the Mexican Indian Wars
Location: Texas
Mexico
Republic of Texas United States
Part of the American Indian Wars
Location: Missouri River
Part of Piracy in the Mediterranean
Location: Off Greece, Aegean Sea
Part of the American Indian Wars
Location: Illinois and Michigan Territory
Part of the Sumatran expeditions
Location: Aceh Sultanate
Part of the American Indian Wars
Location: Illinois and Michigan Territory
Part of the Seminole Wars and the American Indian Wars Location: Florida, United States
Part of the Sumatran expeditions Location: Aceh Sultanate
Location: Maine and New Brunswick
Part of the African Slave Trade Patrol Location: Ivory Coast
Location: Texas, New Mexico, California and Mexico
Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Oregon
Part of the Texas -- Indian wars Location: Southwestern United States
Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Washington
Part of the Fiji Expeditions (1855) Location: Fiji
Location: Rogue Valley
Part of the Seminole Wars and the American Indian Wars (1855 -- 1858) Location: Pensacola, Florida
Part of the American Indian Wars (1855 -- 1858) Location: Washington Territory
Part of the Opium Wars (1856 -- 1859) Location: China
Part of the Mormon wars (1857 -- 1858) Location: Utah Territory and Wyoming
Part of the American Indian Wars (1858 -- 1866) Location: New Mexico
Part of the Fiji Expeditions (1859) Location: Fiji
Part of pre-Civil War conflicts (1859) Location: West Virginia
Location: Texas and Mexico
Confederate States
Mexico
Part of the American Indian Wars (1860) Location: Pyramid Lake, Nevada
Location: United States
Location: Arizona
Location: Minnesota and Dakota
Location: Colorado, Wyoming, and Nebraska
Location: Kanmon Straits
Locations: Oregon, Nevada, California, and Idaho
Location: Powder River State
Location: Powder River State
Location: Southern Formosa (Taiwan)
Location: Western United States
Location: Ganghwado
Location: California and Oregon
Location: Texas
Location: Texas and Mexico
Location: Montana, Dakota and Wyoming
Location: Texas and Oklahoma
Location: Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana
Location: Idaho, Oregon, and Wyoming
Location: Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota and Montana
Location: Idaho
Location: Mexico
Location: Colorado
Location: South Dakota
Location: Texas and Mexico
Location: Arizona and Mexico
Location: Samoa
Location: Cuba, Puerto Rico, Philippines and Guam
Location: Philippines
1902 - 1906 United States
Limited Foreign Support: Empire of Japan
1902 - 1906 Tagalog Republic
Philippines
Location: China
Location: Oklahoma
Location: Mexico -- United States border
Location: Cuba
Location: Nicaragua
Location: Utah and Colorado
Location: Mexico
Location: Haiti
Location: Dominican Republic
Location: Europe, Africa, Asia, Middle East, the Pacific Islands, and coast of North and South America
British Empire
Russia United States China Italy Japan Serbia Montenegro Romania Belgium Greece Portugal Brazil
Location: Russia, Mongolia, and Iran
Japan Czechoslovakia Greece Poland United States France Romania Serbia Italy China
Location: Utah
Location: Europe, Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Southeast Asia, Middle East, Mediterranean, North Africa, North and South America
Location: Korea
Pathet Lao North Vietnam Supported by: Soviet Union China
Location: Lebanon
Location: Cuba
Location: Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos
Soviet Union
Location: Thailand
Pathet Lao Khmer Rouge (until 1978) Supported by: North Vietnam (until 1976) Vietnam (from 1976) People Republic of China (1971 -- 1978) Malayan Communist Party North Korea
Location: Korean Demilitarized Zone
Location: Dominican Republic
Location: Bolivia
Other Supports
Khmer Rouge Khmer Rumdo Khmer Việt Minh North Vietnam Việt Cộng
Other Supports
Location: Zaire
Angola Cuba Soviet Union
Location: Iran
Location: Gulf of Sidra
Location: Lebanon
Hezbollah
Islamic Unification Movement
Location: Grenada
Location: Libya
Location: Persian Gulf
Location: Mediterranean Sea
Location: Panama
Location: Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Israel
Location: Iraq
Location: Somalia
Location: Bosnia and Herzegovina
Herzeg - Bosnia Croatia
United States Belgium Canada Denmark France Germany Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Portugal Spain Turkey United Kingdom
Location: Haiti
Location: Serbia
Location: Sudan and Afghanistan
Location: Afghanistan
Allied groups HIG al - Qaeda IJU
Taliban splinter groups
2001 invasion: Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
Location: Iraq
MNF -- I
Islamic State of Iraq al - Qaeda in Iraq Mahdi Army Special Groups IAI Ansar al - Sunnah
Iraq
Location: Pakistan
Pakistan
Daesh
Location: Somalia and Northeastern Kenya
Daesh Alleged support: Eritrea
Location: Indian Ocean
Location: Libya
Anti-Gaddafi rebels
(2011 - 2017)
Location: Uganda
United States
Uganda
DR Congo
Central African Republic
South Sudan
Location: Iraq
Iran Hezbollah
Location: Syria
Democratic Federation of Northern Syria
CJTF - OIR Members: United Kingdom France Australia Canada Jordan Denmark Netherlands Belgium Lebanon Morocco Saudi Arabia UAE Qatar Bahrain
Turkey
Israel (limited involvement; against Hezbollah and government forces only)
Formerly: Free Syrian Army (2011 - 2017)
al - Qaeda linked groups:
Partial Support: Qatar UAE Saudi Arabia
Supported by: Russia Iran Hezbollah China
Location: Yemen
AQAP
IS - affiliated groups:
Location: Libya
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what is the official state flower of florida | List of Florida state symbols - wikipedia
The following are official state symbols of the U.S. state of Florida, as defined by state statutes. The majority of the symbols were chosen after 1950; only the two oldest symbols -- the state flower (chosen in 1909), and the state bird (chosen in 1927), and the state nickname (chosen in 1970) -- are not listed in the 2010 Florida Statutes. Under the Florida Statutes, all state symbols fall under the purview of the Executive Branch (Title IV), Secretary of State (Chapter 15), as part of the Secretary of State 's role as "Chief Cultural Officer. ''
State quarter for Florida
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who is the oldest president to be elected | List of presidents of the United States by age - wikipedia
This is a list of presidents of the United States by age. The first table charts the age of each United States president at the time of presidential inauguration (first inauguration if elected to multiple and consecutive terms), upon leaving office, and at the time of death. Each president 's lifespan (age at death) is measured in two ways, to allow for the differing number of leap days that each experienced. The first figure is the number of days between the president 's date of birth and date of death, allowing for leap days; in parentheses, the same period is given in years and days, with the years being the number of whole years that the president lived, and the days being the number of days since the last birthday. Where the president is still living, their lifespan is calculated up to February 11, 2018. The second table includes those presidents who had the distinction among their peers of being the oldest living president, and charts both when they became and ceased to be oldest living.
The median age upon accession to the presidency is roughly 55 years and 6 months. This is about how old Benjamin Harrison was at the time of his inauguration. The youngest person to assume the office was Theodore Roosevelt, who became president at the age of 7004156620000000000 ♠ 42 years, 322 days, following William McKinley 's assassination; the oldest was Donald Trump, who was 7004257880000000000 ♠ 70 years, 220 days old at his inauguration. The youngest person to be elected president was John F. Kennedy, at 7004158690000000000 ♠ 43 years, 163 days of age on election day; the oldest was Ronald Reagan, who was 7004269370000000000 ♠ 73 years, 274 days old at the time of his election to a second term.
Assassinated three years into his term, John F. Kennedy was the youngest at the time of leaving office (7004169780000000000 ♠ 46 years, 177 days); the youngest president to leave office at the conclusion of a normal transition was Theodore Roosevelt (7004183900000000000 ♠ 50 years, 128 days). The oldest at the time of leaving office was Ronald Reagan (7004284730000000000 ♠ 77 years, 349 days).
Born on May 29, 1917, John F. Kennedy was younger than four of his successors, the greatest number to date: Lyndon Johnson (8 years, 9 months, and 2 days); Ronald Reagan (6 years, 3 months, and 23 days); Richard Nixon (4 years, 4 months, and 16 days); and Gerald Ford (3 years, 10 months, and 15 days).
Born on February 11, 1911, Ronald Reagan was older than four of his predecessors, the greatest number to date: Richard Nixon (1 year, 11 months, and 7 days); Gerald Ford (2 years, 5 months, and 8 days); John F. Kennedy (6 years, 3 months, and 23 days); and Jimmy Carter (13 years, 7 months, and 25 days).
Three presidents -- Donald Trump, George W. Bush, and Bill Clinton -- were born in 1946 (all within the span of 9 weeks). This is the only calendar year in which three presidents have been born. Two presidents -- James K. Polk and Warren G. Harding -- were born on November 2 (70 years apart). This is the only day of the year having the birthday of multiple presidents.
The oldest living U.S. president is George H.W. Bush, born June 12, 1924 (age 7004342120000000000 ♠ 93 years, 244 days). The second oldest, Jimmy Carter, has the distinction of having the longest post-presidency in U.S. history, currently at 7004135360000000000 ♠ 37 years, 22 days. The youngest living president is Barack Obama, born August 4, 1961 (age 7004206450000000000 ♠ 56 years, 191 days). On November 25, 2017, Bush also became the longest - lived president, surpassing the lifespan of Gerald Ford, who died at the age of 7004341330000000000 ♠ 93 years, 165 days on December 26, 2006. The shortest - lived president to have died by natural causes (thereby excluding John F. Kennedy and James A. Garfield, who were both assassinated) was James K. Polk, who died of cholera at the age of 7004195830000000000 ♠ 53 years, 225 days; only 103 days after leaving office.
Six U.S. presidents have lived into their 90s. They are (in order of birth):
Of the 44 persons who have served as president, 24 have become the oldest such individual of their time. Herbert Hoover held this distinction for the longest period of any, from the death of Calvin Coolidge in January 1933 until his own death 31 years later. Lyndon B. Johnson held it for the shortest, from the death of Harry S. Truman in December 1972 until his own death only 27 days later.
On three occasions the oldest living president lost this distinction not by his death, but by the inauguration of a president who was older. Theodore Roosevelt (born 1858) lost this distinction when William Taft (born 1857) was inaugurated, then four years later Taft lost it when Woodrow Wilson (born 1856) was inaugurated. More recently, Richard Nixon (born 1913) ceased being the oldest living president when Ronald Reagan (born 1911) was inaugurated. Furthermore, although Theodore Roosevelt was the youngest ever to become both the oldest living president (at age 50) and a former president (at age 51), he was the only living president or former president by the end of his term. Consequently, Taft was the oldest living president twice: first during his presidency (having succeeded the younger Roosevelt), and a second time after Wilson (his successor as president but an older man) died. Gerald Ford was the oldest individual to acquire this distinction at the age of 90.
On seven occasions, the oldest living president has acquired this distinction during his term in office. In the cases of John Adams, Ulysses S. Grant, Theodore Roosevelt, Herbert Hoover and Richard Nixon, this happened at the same time as their becoming the only living president; in the cases of Andrew Jackson and Benjamin Harrison, the only other living president at the time was a younger predecessor (John Quincy Adams and Grover Cleveland respectively).
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where does the fox and the hound take place | The Fox and the Hound - wikipedia
The Fox and the Hound is a 1981 American animated drama film produced by Walt Disney Productions and loosely based on the novel of the same name by Daniel P. Mannix. The 24th Disney animated feature film, the film tells the story of two unlikely friends, a red fox named Tod and a hound dog named Copper, who struggle to preserve their friendship despite their emerging instincts and the surrounding social pressures demanding them to be adversaries. Directed by Ted Berman, Richard Rich, and Art Stevens, the film features the voices of Mickey Rooney, Kurt Russell, Pearl Bailey, Jack Albertson, Sandy Duncan, Jeanette Nolan, Pat Buttram, John Fiedler, John McIntire, Dick Bakalyan, Paul Winchell, Keith Mitchell, and Corey Feldman.
The Fox and the Hound was released to theaters on July 10, 1981 to financial success. At the time of release it was the most expensive animated film produced to date, costing $12 million. It was re-released to theaters on March 25, 1988. A direct - to - video followup, The Fox and the Hound 2, was released to DVD on December 12, 2006.
After a young red fox is orphaned, Big Mama the owl, with the help of her friends Dinky the finch and Boomer the woodpecker, arranges for him to be adopted by a kindly farmer named Widow Tweed. Tweed names him Tod, because he reminds her of a toddler. Meanwhile, her neighbor, a hunter named Amos Slade, brings home a young hound puppy named Copper and introduces him to his hunting dog Chief. One day, Tod and Copper meet and become playmates, vowing to remain "friends forever ''. Slade grows frustrated at Copper for constantly wandering off to play, and places him on a leash. While playing with Copper outside his doghouse, Tod awakens Chief. Slade and Chief chase Tod until they are stopped by Tweed. After an argument, Slade threatens to kill Tod if he trespasses on his farm again. Hunting season comes and Slade takes his dogs into the wilderness for the interim. Meanwhile, Big Mama, Dinky, and Boomer attempt to explain to Tod that his friendship with Copper will not continue, as they are natural enemies, but Tod naively refuses to believe them, hoping that he and Copper will remain friends forever.
As months pass, Tod and Copper both reach adulthood. Copper has become an experienced hunting dog, while Tod has grown up into a handsome fox. On the night of Copper 's return, Tod sneaks over to visit him. Copper explains that while he still values Tod as a friend, he is now a hunting dog and things are different. Their conversation awakens Chief, who alerts Slade. In the ensuing chase Copper catches Tod. Against better judgement, Copper lets Tod go and diverts Chief and Slade. Tod tries escaping onto a railroad track, but is caught and pursued by Chief as a train approaches the tracks. Tod ducks under the train, but Chief is struck by the train and falls into the river below, breaking his leg. Angered by this, Copper and Slade blame Tod for the accident and vow vengeance. Tweed, realizing that Tod is no longer safe with her, takes him on a drive and leaves him at a game preserve.
Tod 's first night alone in the woods proves disastrous, as he inadvertently trespasses into an irritable old badger 's den. Thankfully, a friendly porcupine offers Tod shelter. That same night, Slade and Copper plan to poach Tod. The next morning, Big Mama finds Tod and introduces him to a female fox named Vixey. Wanting to impress her, Tod tries to catch a fish, but fails due to his lack of survival skills. Vixey and the other animals laugh at him, but Big Mama straightens the matter by directing Tod to be himself. The two foxes reconcile and Vixey helps Tod adapt to life in the forest.
Meanwhile, Slade and Copper trespass into the preserve to hunt Tod. As Tod manages to escape Slade 's leghold traps, Copper and Slade pursue both foxes. They hide in their burrow while Slade tries trapping them by setting fire to the other end of the burrow. The foxes narrowly escape without getting burned as Slade and Copper chase them up the top of a hill until they reach a waterfall. There, Slade and Copper close in for the kill, but a large bear suddenly emerges from the bushes and attacks Slade. Slade trips and falls into one of his own traps, dropping his gun slightly out of reach. Copper tries fighting the bear but is no match for it. Not willing to let his former friend die, Tod intervenes and fights the bear until they both fall down the waterfall.
With the bear gone, a bewildered Copper approaches Tod as he lies exhausted near the bank of a waterfall - created lake. When Slade appears, Copper positions himself in front of Tod to prevent Slade from shooting him, refusing to move away. Slade lowers his gun and leaves with Copper. Tod and Copper share one last smile before parting. At home, Tweed nurses Slade back to health while the dogs rest. Copper, before resting, smiles as he remembers the day when he first met Tod. On a hill, Vixey joins Tod as they look down on the homes of Slade and Tweed.
Wolfgang Reitherman read the original novel and found it particularly touching because one of his sons had once owned a pet fox years before. He decided that it would make for a good animated feature for which production began in spring 1977. The title was initially reported as The Fox and the Hounds, but the filmmakers dropped the plural as the story began to focus more and more on the two leads. Reitherman was the film 's original director along with Art Stevens as co-director. A power struggle between the two directors and co-producer Ron Miller broke out between them over key sections of the film with Miller supporting the younger Stevens. Miller instructed Reitherman to surrender reins over the junior personnel, but Reitherman resisted due to a lack of trust in the young animators.
In an earlier version of the film, Chief was slated to die as he did in the novel. However, the scene was modified to have Chief survive with a cast on his back paw. Animator Ron Clements, who had briefly transitioned into the story department, protested that "Chief has to die. The picture does n't work if he just breaks his leg. Copper does n't have motivation to hate the fox. '' Likewise, younger members of the story team pleaded with Stevens to have Chief killed. Stevens countered that "Geez, we never killed a main character in a Disney film and we 're not starting now! '' The younger crew members took the problem to upper management who would also back Stevens. Ollie Johnston 's test animation of Chief stomping around the house with his leg in a cast was eventually kept, and Randy Cartwright re-animated the scene where Copper finds Chief 's body and had him animate Chief 's eyes opening and closing so the audience knew that he was not dead.
Another fight erupted when Reitherman, in thinking the film lacked a strong second act, decided to add a musical sequence of two swooping cranes voiced by Phil Harris and Charo who would sing a silly song titled "Scoobie - Doobie Doobie Doo, Let Your Body Turn Goo '' to Tod after he was dropped in the forest. Charo has recorded the song and voice tracks which were storyboarded, and live - action reference footage was shot of her in a sweaty pink leotard. However, the scene was strongly disliked by studio personnel who felt the song was a distraction from the main plot with Stevens stating "We ca n't let that sequence in the movie! It 's totally out of place! '' Stevens notified studio management and after many story conferences, the scene was removed. Reitherman later walked into Stevens 's office, slumped in a chair, and said, "I dunno, Art, maybe this is a young man 's medium. '' He later moved on to undeveloped projects such as Catfish Bend and died in a car accident in 1985.
By late 1978, Frank Thomas, Ollie Johnston, and Cliff Nordberg had completed their animation. Thomas had animated scenes of Tod and Cooper using dialogue Larry Clemmons had written and recorded with the child actors. This project would mark the last film to have the involvement of the Disney 's Nine Old Men who had retired early during production, and animation was turned over the next generation of directors and animators, which included John Lasseter, John Musker, Ron Clements, Glen Keane, Tim Burton, Brad Bird, Henry Selick, Chris Buck, and Mark Dindal, all of whom would finalize the animation and complete the film 's production. These animators had moved through the in - house animation training program, and would play an important role in the Disney Renaissance of the 1980s and 1990s.
However, the transition between the old guard and the new resulted in arguments over how to handle the film. Reitherman had his own ideas on the designs and layouts that should be used, but the newer team backed Stevens. Animator Don Bluth animated several scenes including of Widow Tweed milking her cow, Abigail, while his team worked on the rest of the sequence, and when Tweed fires at Amos Slade 's automobile. Nevertheless, Bluth and the new animators felt that Reitherman was too stern and out of touch, and on his 42nd birthday, September 13, 1979, Bluth, along with Gary Goldman and John Pomeroy, entered Ron Miller 's office and turned in their resignation. Following their resignations, 13 animators followed suit in their resignations. Though Bluth and his team had animated substantial scenes, they asked not to receive screen credit. With 17 % of the animators now gone, Miller ordered all of the resigning animators off the studio lot by noon of that same day and would later push the release of The Fox and the Hound from Christmas 1980 to summer 1981. New animators were hired and promoted to fill the ranks. To compensate for the lack of experience of the new animators, much of the quality control would rely upon a corp of veteran assistant animators. Four years after production started, the film was finished with approximately 360,000 drawings, 110,000 painted cels and 1,100 painted backgrounds making up the finished product. A total of 180 people, including 24 animators, worked on the film.
Early into production, the principal characters such as young Tod and Copper, Big Mama, and Amos Slade had already been cast. The supporting characters were cast by Disney voice regulars including Pat Buttram for Chief, Paul Winchell for Boomer, and Mickey Rooney for adult Tod who had just finished filming Pete 's Dragon. Jeanette Nolan was the second choice for Widow Tweed after Helen Hayes turned down the part. The last role to be cast was for adult Cooper. Jackie Cooper had auditioned for the role, but left the project when he demanded more money than the studio was willing to pay. While filming the Elvis television film, former Disney child actor Kurt Russell was cast following a reading that had impressed the filmmakers, and completed his dialogue in two recording sessions.
The soundtrack album for the film was released in 1981 by Walt Disney Records. It contains songs written by Stan Fidel, Jim Stafford, and Jeffrey Patch.
The Fox and the Hound was first released on North American VHS on March 4, 1994 as the last video of the "Walt Disney Classics '' collection (it was not included in the "Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection '') and in the UK in 1995. On May 2, 2000, it was released to Region 1 DVD for the first time under the "Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection ''. A 25th anniversary special edition DVD was released on October 10, 2006.
The Fox and the Hound was released on Blu - ray Disc on August 9, 2011 to commemorate the film 's 30th anniversary. The film was released in a 3 - disc Blu - ray / DVD Combo pack alongside its direct - to video followup The Fox and the Hound 2 in a 2 - movie Collection Edition. Featuring a new digital restoration, the Blu - ray transfer presents the film for the first time in 1.66: 1 widescreen and also features 5.1 DTS - HD Master Audio. The Fox and the Hound 2 is presented in 1.78: 1 widescreen and features the same sound as the first film. A DVD - only edition was also released on the same day.
In The Animated Movie Guide, Jerry Beck considered the film "average '', though he praises the voice work of Pearl Bailey as Big Mama, and the extreme dedication to detail shown by animator Glen Keane in crafting the fight scene between Copper, Tod, and the bear. In his book The Disney Films, Leonard Maltin also notes that the fight scene between Copper, Tod, and the bear received great praise in the animation world. However, Maltin felt the film relied too much on "formula cuteness, formula comedy relief, and even formula characterizations ''. Overall, he considered the film "charming '' stating that it is "warm, and brimming with personable characters '' and that it "approaches the old Disney magic at times. ''
Craig Butler from All Movie Guide stated that the film was a "warm and amusing, if slightly dull, entry in the Disney animated canon. '' He also called it "conventional and generally predictable '' with problems in pacing. However, he praised the film 's climax and animation, as well as the ending. His final remark is that "Two of the directors, Richard Rich and Ted Berman, would next direct The Black Cauldron, a less successful but more ambitious project. '' Richard Corliss of Time, praised the film for an intelligent story about prejudice. He argued that the film shows that biased attitudes can poison even the deepest relationships, and the film 's bittersweet ending delivers a powerful and important moral message to audiences.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times also praised the film, saying that "for all of its familiar qualities, this movie marks something of a departure for the Disney studio, and its movement is in an interesting direction. The Fox and the Hound is one of those relatively rare Disney animated features that contains a useful lesson for its younger audiences. It 's not just cute animals and frightening adventures and a happy ending; it 's also a rather thoughtful meditation on how society determines our behavior. '' TV Guide gave the film four out of five stars, saying that "The animation here is better than average (veteran Disney animators Wolfgang Reitherman and Art Stevens supervised the talents of a new crop of artists that developed during a 10 - year program at the studio), though not quite up to the quality of Disney Studios in its heyday. Still, this film has a lot of "heart '' and is wonderful entertainment for both kids and their parents. Listen for a number of favorites among the voices. ''
Michael Scheinfeld of Common Sense Media gave the film 's quality a rating of 4 out of 5 stars, stating that the film "develops into a thoughtful examination of friendship and includes some mature themes, especially loss. ''
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film received a 69 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.6 / 10 based on 26 reviews. The website 's consensus states that "The Fox and the Hound is a likeable, charming, unassuming effort that manages to transcend its thin, predictable plot ''.
In its original release, The Fox and the Hound grossed $39.9 million in domestic grosses. Its distributor rentals were reported to be $14.2 million while its international rentals grossed $43 million. The film was re-released theatrically on March 25, 1988, where it grossed $23.5 million. The Fox and the Hound has had a lifetime gross of $63.5 million across its original release and reissue.
The film was awarded a Golden Screen Award (German: Goldene Leinwand) in 1982. In the same year, it was also nominated for a Young Artist Award and the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film.
As well as adaptations of the film itself, comic strips featuring the characters also appeared in stories unconnected to the film. Examples include The Lost Fawn, in which Copper uses his sense of smell to help Tod find a fawn who has gone astray; The Chase, in which Copper must safeguard a sleepwalking Chief; and Feathered Friends, in which the birds Dinky and Boomer have to go to desperate lengths to save one of Widow Tweed 's chickens from a wolf.
A comic adaptation of the film, drawn by Richard Moore, was published in newspapers as part of Disney 's Treasury of Classic Tales. A comic - book titled The Fox and the Hound followed, with new adventures of the characters. Since 1981 and up to 2007, a few Fox and the Hound Disney comics stories were produced in Italy, Netherlands, Brazil, France, and the United States.
A direct - to - video followup, The Fox and the Hound 2, was released to DVD on December 12, 2006. The film takes place during the youth of Tod and Copper, before the events of the later half of the first film. The story - line involves Copper being tempted to join a band of singing stray dogs, thus threatening his friendship with Tod. The film was critically panned, with critics calling it a pale imitation of its predecessor.
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who plays lorraine on back to the future | Lea Thompson - wikipedia
Lea Katherine Thompson (born May 31, 1961) is an American actress, television director, and television producer. She is known for her role as Lorraine Baines in the Back to the Future trilogy and as the title character in the 1990s NBC sitcom Caroline in the City. Other films for which she is known include All the Right Moves (1983), Red Dawn (1984), Howard the Duck (1986) Some Kind of Wonderful (1987), and The Beverly Hillbillies (1993). From 2011 - 2017, she co-starred as Kathryn Kennish in the Freeform (formerly ABC Family) series Switched at Birth.
Thompson was born in Rochester, Minnesota, one of five children of Clifford and Barbara Barry Thompson. She has two sisters, Coleen Goodrich and Shannon Katona and two brothers, Andrew (Ballet dancer) and Barry. Her mother is of Irish descent.
She studied ballet as a girl and danced professionally by the age of 14, winning scholarships to the American Ballet Theatre, the San Francisco Ballet, and the Pennsylvania Ballet. Told she did not have the right body to become a prima ballerina by Mikhail Baryshnikov himself, she changed her focus to acting.
At the time, she was 20 years old and dancing professionally with American Ballet Theatre 's Studio Company (then known as ABT II) and when it came time to decide if she would move to the main company, Baryshnikov who was the Artistic Director at the time told her "You 're a lovely dancer, but you 're too stocky. '' In her words, that was "my epiphany when I decided to stop dancing and not be a ballet dancer. It was a wonderful moment because I could 've been banging my head against the wall for another 10 years. ''
Moving to New York at age 20, she performed in a number of Burger King advertisements in the 1980s along with Sarah Michelle Gellar and Elisabeth Shue, her eventual co-star in Back to the Future Part II and Back to the Future Part III.
Thompson made her home - media screen debut in 1982 as Cecily "Sissy '' Loper in the interactive live - action video game MysteryDisc: Murder, Anyone? and her movie debut in 1983, with Jaws 3 - D. She recalled the film as "the very first movie I ever got, but I lied and said I had done a couple of other movies, so when I showed up, I really knew absolutely nothing. Also, I had said that I knew how to water - ski. And I did not. So I had, like, five days to learn really, really complicated water - skiing things, because I had to fit into the Sea World water - skiing show. I do n't even know how to swim! '' She followed this with All the Right Moves (1983), Red Dawn (1984), and The Wild Life (1984).
Thompson 's most famous role is that of Lorraine Baines McFly in the Back to the Future trilogy, with the first film released in 1985. Thompson 's character is the mother of Marty McFly, played by Michael J. Fox, whom Marty meets when she is a 1950s adolescent age after he travels back in time: he has to avoid having Lorraine fall in love with him instead of with his future father, George (Crispin Glover), which leads to awkward scenes where Lorraine is attracted to him.
In 1986, Thompson starred in SpaceCamp and Howard the Duck (film). For the latter film, she sang several songs on the soundtrack in character, as musician Beverly Switzler, who was the lead vocalist for a band called Cherry Bomb. The recordings appeared on the soundtrack album and on singles. Rounding out film appearances in the late 1980s, Thompson starred in Some Kind of Wonderful, Casual Sex?, and The Wizard of Loneliness. She also had a prominent role in the 1989 TV film Nightbreaker, for which she was nominated for a CableACE Award. In the early 1990s, Thompson starred as the mother of the eponymous character in Dennis the Menace (1993), the villainess in The Beverly Hillbillies (1993), and a snooty ballet instructor in The Little Rascals (1994). She also appeared in several TV films throughout the 1990s, including The Substitute Wife (1994) and The Right To Remain Silent (1996).
Thompson found moderate critical and popular success as the star of the NBC sitcom Caroline in the City from 1995 to 1999. In 1996, Thompson received a People 's Choice Award for Favorite Female Performer in a New TV Series, while her show won for Favorite New TV Comedy Series. Thompson also starred in a A Will of their Own, a 1998 American television mini-series directed by Karen Arthur. The film follows six generations of females within one family, and their struggle for power and independence in America. The film debuted on October 18, 1998 on the NBC network to strong critical reviews.
After a break from acting, Thompson went on to star in several Broadway plays. She later appeared in a TV series called For the People, which only lasted one season. She then starred in a TV film, Stealing Christmas (2003), starring Tony Danza and Betty White. Thompson also appeared in several episodes of the dramedy series Ed and in a guest role for one episode in 2004 on NBC 's Law & Order: Special Victims Unit; she played a woman whose embryos were stolen.
In 2005, Thompson began a series of made - for - TV films for the Hallmark Channel, in which she plays Jane Doe, an ex-secret agent turned housewife, who helps the government solve mysteries. Thompson directed two films from the Jane Doe series -- Jane Doe: The Harder They Fall and Jane Doe: Eye of the Beholder.
Thompson was a featured singer on Celebrity Duets and the second contestant eliminated in 2006. In April 2007 she starred in another television film, A Life Interrupted, which premiered on Lifetime television.
Thompson guest - starred on the show Head Case in January 2008. She appeared in the TV film Final Approach, which debuted in the U.S. on May 24, 2008. Her film credits include Exit Speed, Spy School, Splinterheads, and Adventures of a Teenage Dragon Slayer. She starred in the television movie The Christmas Clause, which received good reviews and ratings.
Thompson stars in Mystery Case Files: Shadow Lake, an adventure game released in November 2012 by Big Fish Games. Thompson 's daughter Madeline Deutch plays a paranormal television - series host.
From 2011 - 2017, Thompson starred in the ABC Family series Switched at Birth, about a family realizing their 16 - year - old daughter is not biologically theirs and was switched with another baby at the hospital.
In 2014, Thompson was a competitor on the nineteenth season of Dancing with the Stars. She was paired with professional dancer Artem Chigvintsev. The couple was eliminated in the quarterfinals, finishing sixth place. She also played Irene Steele in the 2014 film Left Behind.
On April 27, 2017, Thompson was cast in the upcoming film Little Women, a modern adaption of Louisa May Alcott 's novel of the same name, to be written and directed by Clare Niederpruem who will be making her directorial debut. The film will also star her former Switched at Birth co-star Lucas Grabeel, Ian Bohen and Sarah Davenport. Thompson is set to portray Marmee March, the mother who helps her daughters Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy navigate the struggles and heartbreaks of adolescence and adulthood. The film will be released in 2018 to coincide with the book 's 150th anniversary publishing date.
She has been married to film director Howard Deutch since 1989. They met on the set of Some Kind of Wonderful (1987).
Thompson and Deutch have two daughters, Madelyn and Zoey, with whom she sang on stage in the Bye Bye Birdie production for the 16th annual Alzheimer 's Association "A Night at Sardi 's '' in March 2008.
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what is go back to where you came from about | Go Back to Where You Came from - Wikipedia
Go Back To Where You Came From is a Logie Award - winning Australian TV documentary series, produced by Cordell Jigsaw Productions and broadcast in 2011 (Season 1), 2012 (Season 2) and 2015 (Season 3) on SBS.
The series followed two parties, each of six Australians, all members having differing opinions on Australia 's asylum seeker debate, being taken on a journey in reverse to that which refugees have taken to reach Australia.
The six Australian participants were Gleny Rae, Adam Hartup, Raquel Moore, Darren Hassan, Raye Colbey, and Roderick Schneider. Deprived of their wallets, phones and passports, they board a leaky refugee boat (from which they are rescued mid-ocean), experience immigration raids in Malaysia, live in Kakuma Refugee Camp in far north - west Kenya, visit slums in Jordan before ultimately making it to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Iraq, protected by UN Peacekeepers and the US military. In the final episode, the participants are debriefed for their response to the experiences.
The celebrity participants for the 2012 season was Peter Reith, Angry Anderson, Allan Asher, Catherine Deveny, Mike Smith and Imogen Bailey. The participants were placed on a rickety boat bound for Christmas Island.
Over three episodes, the six Australians also experienced mortal danger on the streets of the world 's deadliest cities -- from the sweltering, war - torn capital of Somalia, Mogadishu, to the riotous streets of Kabul, freezing amidst the mountains of Afghanistan. They also travelled to the Christmas Island Detention Centre.
The six participants for the 2015 Season were Davy (former refugee), Kim (' Stop the Boats ' Facebook campaigner), Nicole (detention centre whistle blower), Jodi and Renee (sisters with opposing views) and Andrew (tough - talking school teacher).
On its premiere night, the series became the number one trending topic on Twitter worldwide.
Go Back To Where You Came From 's viewing figures made it the highest - rating programme for SBS in 2011. An estimated 524,000 metropolitan viewers watched the first episode, followed by 569,000 for the second and 600,000 for the third.
The broadcaster subsequently held a televised forum event to reflect on the series and the public debate about asylum seekers.
Episode 1
Episode 2
Episode 3
Episode 1
Episode 2
Episode 3
The series has had international versions after the concept was sold to the following countries:
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why is there not a test for nucleic acids | Nucleic acid sequence - wikipedia
A nucleic acid sequence is a succession of letters that indicate the order of nucleotides within a DNA (using GACT) or RNA (GACU) molecule. By convention, sequences are usually presented from the 5 ' end to the 3 ' end. For DNA, the sense strand is used. Because nucleic acids are normally linear (unbranched) polymers, specifying the sequence is equivalent to defining the covalent structure of the entire molecule. For this reason, the nucleic acid sequence is also termed the primary structure.
The sequence has capacity to represent information. Biological deoxyribonucleic acid represents the information which directs the functions of a living thing.
Nucleic acids also have a secondary structure and tertiary structure. Primary structure is sometimes mistakenly referred to as primary sequence. Conversely, there is no parallel concept of secondary or tertiary sequence.
Nucleic acids consist of a chain of linked units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three subunits: a phosphate group and a sugar (ribose in the case of RNA, deoxyribose in DNA) make up the backbone of the nucleic acid strand, and attached to the sugar is one of a set of nucleobases. The nucleobases are important in base pairing of strands to form higher - level secondary and tertiary structure such as the famed double helix.
The possible letters are A, C, G, and T, representing the four nucleotide bases of a DNA strand -- adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine -- covalently linked to a phosphodiester backbone. In the typical case, the sequences are printed abutting one another without gaps, as in the sequence AAAGTCTGAC, read left to right in the 5 ' to 3 ' direction. With regards to transcription, a sequence is on the coding strand if it has the same order as the transcribed RNA.
One sequence can be complementary to another sequence, meaning that they have the base on each position in the complementary (i.e. A to T, C to G) and in the reverse order. For example, the complementary sequence to TTAC is GTAA. If one strand of the double - stranded DNA is considered the sense strand, then the other strand, considered the antisense strand, will have the complementary sequence to the sense strand.
Comparing and determining % difference between two nucleotide sequences.
While A, T, C, and G represent a particular nucleotide at a position, there are also letters that represent ambiguity which are used when more than one kind of nucleotide could occur at that position. The rules of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) are as follows:
These symbols are also valid for RNA, except with U (uracil) replacing T (thymine).
Apart from adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T) and uracil (U), DNA and RNA also contain bases that have been modified after the nucleic acid chain has been formed. In DNA, the most common modified base is 5 - methylcytidine (m5C). In RNA, there are many modified bases, including pseudouridine (Ψ), dihydrouridine (D), inosine (I), ribothymidine (rT) and 7 - methylguanosine (m7G). Hypoxanthine and xanthine are two of the many bases created through mutagen presence, both of them through deamination (replacement of the amine - group with a carbonyl - group). Hypoxanthine is produced from adenine, xanthine from guanine. Similarly, deamination of cytosine results in uracil.
In biological systems, nucleic acids contain information which is used by a living cell to construct specific proteins. The sequence of nucleobases on a nucleic acid strand is translated by cell machinery into a sequence of amino acids making up a protein strand. Each group of three bases, called a codon, corresponds to a single amino acid, and there is a specific genetic code by which each possible combination of three bases corresponds to a specific amino acid.
The central dogma of molecular biology outlines the mechanism by which proteins are constructed using information contained in nucleic acids. DNA is transcribed into mRNA molecules, which travels to the ribosome where the mRNA is used as a template for the construction of the protein strand. Since nucleic acids can bind to molecules with complementary sequences, there is a distinction between "sense '' sequences which code for proteins, and the complementary "antisense '' sequence which is by itself nonfunctional, but can bind to the sense strand.
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleotide sequence of a given DNA fragment. The sequence of the DNA of a living thing encodes the necessary information for that living thing to survive and reproduce. Therefore, determining the sequence is useful in fundamental research into why and how organisms live, as well as in applied subjects. Because of the importance of DNA to living things, knowledge of a DNA sequence may be useful in practically any biological research. For example, in medicine it can be used to identify, diagnose and potentially develop treatments for genetic diseases. Similarly, research into pathogens may lead to treatments for contagious diseases. Biotechnology is a burgeoning discipline, with the potential for many useful products and services.
RNA is not sequenced directly. Instead, it is copied to a DNA by reverse transcriptase, and this DNA is then sequenced.
Current sequencing methods rely on the discriminatory ability of DNA polymerases, and therefore can only distinguish four bases. An inosine (created from adenosine during RNA editing) is read as a G, and 5 - methyl - cytosine (created from cytosine by DNA methylation) is read as a C. With current technology, it is difficult to sequence small amounts of DNA, as the signal is too weak to measure. This is overcome by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification.
Once a nucleic acid sequence has been obtained from an organism, it is stored in silico in digital format. Digital genetic sequences may be stored in sequence databases, be analyzed (see Sequence analysis below), be digitally altered and be used as templates for creating new actual DNA using artificial gene synthesis.
Digital genetic sequences may be analyzed using the tools of bioinformatics to attempt to determine its function.
The DNA in an organism 's genome can be analyzed to diagnose vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a child 's paternity (genetic father) or a person 's ancestry. Normally, every person carries two variations of every gene, one inherited from their mother, the other inherited from their father. The human genome is believed to contain around 20,000 - 25,000 genes. In addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes biochemical tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders.
Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins. Usually, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person 's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder. Several hundred genetic tests are currently in use, and more are being developed.
In bioinformatics, a sequence alignment is a way of arranging the sequences of DNA, RNA, or protein to identify regions of similarity that may be due to functional, structural, or evolutionary relationships between the sequences. If two sequences in an alignment share a common ancestor, mismatches can be interpreted as point mutations and gaps as insertion or deletion mutations (indels) introduced in one or both lineages in the time since they diverged from one another. In sequence alignments of proteins, the degree of similarity between amino acids occupying a particular position in the sequence can be interpreted as a rough measure of how conserved a particular region or sequence motif is among lineages. The absence of substitutions, or the presence of only very conservative substitutions (that is, the substitution of amino acids whose side chains have similar biochemical properties) in a particular region of the sequence, suggest that this region has structural or functional importance. Although DNA and RNA nucleotide bases are more similar to each other than are amino acids, the conservation of base pairs can indicate a similar functional or structural role.
Computational phylogenetics makes extensive use of sequence alignments in the construction and interpretation of phylogenetic trees, which are used to classify the evolutionary relationships between homologous genes represented in the genomes of divergent species. The degree to which sequences in a query set differ is qualitatively related to the sequences ' evolutionary distance from one another. Roughly speaking, high sequence identity suggests that the sequences in question have a comparatively young most recent common ancestor, while low identity suggests that the divergence is more ancient. This approximation, which reflects the "molecular clock '' hypothesis that a roughly constant rate of evolutionary change can be used to extrapolate the elapsed time since two genes first diverged (that is, the coalescence time), assumes that the effects of mutation and selection are constant across sequence lineages. Therefore, it does not account for possible difference among organisms or species in the rates of DNA repair or the possible functional conservation of specific regions in a sequence. (In the case of nucleotide sequences, the molecular clock hypothesis in its most basic form also discounts the difference in acceptance rates between silent mutations that do not alter the meaning of a given codon and other mutations that result in a different amino acid being incorporated into the protein.) More statistically accurate methods allow the evolutionary rate on each branch of the phylogenetic tree to vary, thus producing better estimates of coalescence times for genes.
Frequently the primary structure encodes motifs that are of functional importance. Some examples of sequence motifs are: the C / D and H / ACA boxes of snoRNAs, Sm binding site found in spliceosomal RNAs such as U1, U2, U4, U5, U6, U12 and U3, the Shine - Dalgarno sequence, the Kozak consensus sequence and the RNA polymerase III terminator.
Peng found the existence of long - range correlations in the non-coding base pair sequences of DNA. In contrast, such correlations seem not to appear in coding DNA sequences.
In Bioinformatics, a sequence entropy, also known as sequence complexity or information profile, is a numerical sequence providing a quantitative measure of the local complexity of a DNA sequence, independently of the direction of processing. The manipulations of the information profiles enable the analysis of the sequences using alignment - free techniques, such as for example in motif and rearrangements detection.
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a bit that can change over time is called a | Modulation - wikipedia
In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal that typically contains information to be transmitted. Most radio systems in the 20th century used frequency modulation (FM) or amplitude modulation (AM) to make the carrier carry the radio broadcast.
In general telecommunications, modulation is a process of conveying message signal, for example, a digital bit stream or an analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. Modulation of a sine waveform transforms a narrow frequency range baseband message signal into a moderate to high frequency range passband signal, one that can pass through a filter.
A modulator is a device that performs modulation. A demodulator (sometimes detector or demod) is a device that performs demodulation, the inverse of modulation. A modem (from modulator -- demodulator) can perform both operations.
The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog baseband (or lowpass) signal, for example an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog bandpass channel at a different frequency, for example over a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV network channel.
The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog communication channel, for example over the public switched telephone network (where a bandpass filter limits the frequency range to 300 -- 3400 Hz) or over a limited radio frequency band.
Analog and digital modulation facilitate frequency division multiplexing (FDM), where several low pass information signals are transferred simultaneously over the same shared physical medium, using separate passband channels (several different carrier frequencies).
The aim of digital baseband modulation methods, also known as line coding, is to transfer a digital bit stream over a baseband channel, typically a non-filtered copper wire such as a serial bus or a wired local area network.
The aim of pulse modulation methods is to transfer a narrowband analog signal, for example, a phone call over a wideband baseband channel or, in some of the schemes, as a bit stream over another digital transmission system.
In music synthesizers, modulation may be used to synthesize waveforms with an extensive overtone spectrum using a small number of oscillators. In this case, the carrier frequency is typically in the same order or much lower than the modulating waveform (see frequency modulation synthesis or ring modulation synthesis).
In analog modulation, the modulation is applied continuously in response to the analog information signal.
Common analog modulation techniques are:
In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated by a discrete signal. Digital modulation methods can be considered as digital - to - analog conversion and the corresponding demodulation or detection as analog - to - digital conversion. The changes in the carrier signal are chosen from a finite number of M alternative symbols (the modulation alphabet).
A simple example: A telephone line is designed for transferring audible sounds, for example, tones, and not digital bits (zeros and ones). Computers may, however, communicate over a telephone line by means of modems, which are representing the digital bits by tones, called symbols. If there are four alternative symbols (corresponding to a musical instrument that can generate four different tones, one at a time), the first symbol may represent the bit sequence 00, the second 01, the third 10 and the fourth 11. If the modem plays a melody consisting of 1000 tones per second, the symbol rate is 1000 symbols / second, or baud. Since each tone (i.e., symbol) represents a message consisting of two digital bits in this example, the bit rate is twice the symbol rate, i.e. 2000 bits per second. This is similar to the technique used by dial - up modems as opposed to DSL modems.
According to one definition of digital signal, the modulated signal is a digital signal. According to another definition, the modulation is a form of digital - to - analog conversion. Most textbooks would consider digital modulation schemes as a form of digital transmission, synonymous to data transmission; very few would consider it as analog transmission.
The most fundamental digital modulation techniques are based on keying:
In QAM, an in - phase signal (or I, with one example being a cosine waveform) and a quadrature phase signal (or Q, with an example being a sine wave) are amplitude modulated with a finite number of amplitudes and then summed. It can be seen as a two - channel system, each channel using ASK. The resulting signal is equivalent to a combination of PSK and ASK.
In all of the above methods, each of these phases, frequencies or amplitudes are assigned a unique pattern of binary bits. Usually, each phase, frequency or amplitude encodes an equal number of bits. This number of bits comprises the symbol that is represented by the particular phase, frequency or amplitude.
If the alphabet consists of M = 2 N (\ displaystyle M = 2 ^ (N)) alternative symbols, each symbol represents a message consisting of N bits. If the symbol rate (also known as the baud rate) is f S (\ displaystyle f_ (S)) symbols / second (or baud), the data rate is N f S (\ displaystyle Nf_ (S)) bit / second.
For example, with an alphabet consisting of 16 alternative symbols, each symbol represents 4 bits. Thus, the data rate is four times the baud rate.
In the case of PSK, ASK or QAM, where the carrier frequency of the modulated signal is constant, the modulation alphabet is often conveniently represented on a constellation diagram, showing the amplitude of the I signal at the x-axis, and the amplitude of the Q signal at the y - axis, for each symbol.
PSK and ASK, and sometimes also FSK, are often generated and detected using the principle of QAM. The I and Q signals can be combined into a complex - valued signal I+jQ (where j is the imaginary unit). The resulting so called equivalent lowpass signal or equivalent baseband signal is a complex - valued representation of the real - valued modulated physical signal (the so - called passband signal or RF signal).
These are the general steps used by the modulator to transmit data:
At the receiver side, the demodulator typically performs:
As is common to all digital communication systems, the design of both the modulator and demodulator must be done simultaneously. Digital modulation schemes are possible because the transmitter - receiver pair has prior knowledge of how data is encoded and represented in the communications system. In all digital communication systems, both the modulator at the transmitter and the demodulator at the receiver are structured so that they perform inverse operations.
Non-coherent modulation methods do not require a receiver reference clock signal that is phase synchronized with the sender carrier signal. In this case, modulation symbols (rather than bits, characters, or data packets) are asynchronously transferred. The opposite is coherent modulation.
The most common digital modulation techniques are:
MSK and GMSK are particular cases of continuous phase modulation. Indeed, MSK is a particular case of the sub-family of CPM known as continuous - phase frequency shift keying (CPFSK) which is defined by a rectangular frequency pulse (i.e. a linearly increasing phase pulse) of one - symbol - time duration (total response signaling).
OFDM is based on the idea of frequency - division multiplexing (FDM), but the multiplexed streams are all parts of a single original stream. The bit stream is split into several parallel data streams, each transferred over its own sub-carrier using some conventional digital modulation scheme. The modulated sub-carriers are summed to form an OFDM signal. This dividing and recombining help with handling channel impairments. OFDM is considered as a modulation technique rather than a multiplex technique since it transfers one bit stream over one communication channel using one sequence of so - called OFDM symbols. OFDM can be extended to multi-user channel access method in the orthogonal frequency - division multiple access (OFDMA) and multi-carrier code division multiple access (MC - CDMA) schemes, allowing several users to share the same physical medium by giving different sub-carriers or spreading codes to different users.
Of the two kinds of RF power amplifier, switching amplifiers (Class D amplifiers) cost less and use less battery power than linear amplifiers of the same output power. However, they only work with relatively constant - amplitude - modulation signals such as angle modulation (FSK or PSK) and CDMA, but not with QAM and OFDM. Nevertheless, even though switching amplifiers are completely unsuitable for normal QAM constellations, often the QAM modulation principle are used to drive switching amplifiers with these FM and other waveforms, and sometimes QAM demodulators are used to receive the signals put out by these switching amplifiers.
Automatic digital modulation recognition in intelligent communication systems is one of the most important issues in software defined radio and cognitive radio. According to incremental expanse of intelligent receivers, automatic modulation recognition becomes a challenging topic in telecommunication systems and computer engineering. Such systems have many civil and military applications. Moreover, blind recognition of modulation type is an important problem in commercial systems, especially in software defined radio. Usually in such systems, there are some extra information for system configuration, but considering blind approaches in intelligent receivers, we can reduce information overload and increase transmission performance. Obviously, with no knowledge of the transmitted data and many unknown parameters at the receiver, such as the signal power, carrier frequency and phase offsets, timing information, etc., blind identification of the modulation is made fairly difficult. This becomes even more challenging in real - world scenarios with multipath fading, frequency - selective and time - varying channels.
There are two main approaches to automatic modulation recognition. The first approach uses likelihood - based methods to assign an input signal to a proper class. Another recent approach is based on feature extraction.
The term digital baseband modulation (or digital baseband transmission) is synonymous to line codes. These are methods to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog baseband channel (a.k.a. lowpass channel) using a pulse train, i.e. a discrete number of signal levels, by directly modulating the voltage or current on a cable or serial bus. Common examples are unipolar, non-return - to - zero (NRZ), Manchester and alternate mark inversion (AMI) codings.
Pulse modulation schemes aim at transferring a narrowband analog signal over an analog baseband channel as a two - level signal by modulating a pulse wave. Some pulse modulation schemes also allow the narrowband analog signal to be transferred as a digital signal (i.e., as a quantized discrete - time signal) with a fixed bit rate, which can be transferred over an underlying digital transmission system, for example, some line code. These are not modulation schemes in the conventional sense since they are not channel coding schemes, but should be considered as source coding schemes, and in some cases analog - to - digital conversion techniques.
Analog - over-analog methods
Analog - over-digital methods
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the city of constantinople was renamed istanbul to | Names of Istanbul - wikipedia
The city of Istanbul has been known by a number of different names. The most notable names besides the modern Turkish name are Byzantium, Constantinople, and Stamboul. Different names are associated with different phases of its history and with different languages.
According to Pliny the Elder the first name of Byzantium was Lygos. This may have been the name of a Thracian settlement situated on the site of the later city, near the point of the peninsula (Sarayburnu).
Byzantion (Βυζάντιον), Latinized as Byzantium, was founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 667 BC. The name is believed to be of Thracian or Illyrian origin and thus to predate the Greek settlement. It may be derived from a Thracian or Illyrian personal name, Byzas. Ancient Greek legend refers to a legendary king of that name as the leader of the Megarean colonists and eponymous founder of the city.
After its fall, the name "Byzantine Empire '' started being used by the West to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire whose capital the city had been. This usage was introduced by the German historian Hieronymus Wolf in 1555, a century after the empire had ceased to exist. During the time of the empire, the term Byzantium was used only for the city, not for the empire that it ruled.
The city was called Augusta Antonina for a brief period in the 3rd century AD. The Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 -- 211) conferred the name in honor of his son Antoninus, the later Emperor Caracalla.
Before the Roman emperor Constantine the Great made the city the new eastern capital of the Roman Empire on May 11, 330, he undertook a major construction project, essentially rebuilding the city on a monumental scale, partly modeled after Rome. Names of this period included ἡ Νέα, δευτέρα Ῥώμη "the New, second Rome '', Alma Roma Ἄλμα Ῥώμα, Βυζαντιάς Ῥώμη, ἑῴα Ῥώμη "Eastern Rome '', Roma Constantinopolitana.
The Third Canon of the First Council of Constantinople (360) refers to the city as New Rome.
The term "New Rome '' lent itself to East -- West polemics, especially in the context of the Great Schism, when it was used by Greek writers to stress the rivalry with (the original) Rome. New Rome is also still part of the official title of the Patriarch of Constantinople.
Kōnstantinoúpolis (Κωνσταντινούπολις), Constantinopolis in Latin and Constantinople in English, was the name by which the city became soon more widely known, in honour of Constantine the Great who established it as his capital. It is first attested in official use under Emperor Theodosius II (408 -- 450). It remained the principal official name of the city throughout the Byzantine period, and the most common name used for it in the West until the early 20th century. It was also used (including its Kostantiniyye variant) by the Ottoman Empire until the advent of the Republic of Turkey.
Besides Constantinople, the Byzantines referred to the city with a large range of honorary appellations, such as the "Queen of Cities '' (Βασιλὶς τῶν πόλεων), also as an adjective, Βασιλεύουσα, the ' Reigning City '. In popular speech, the most common way of referring to it came to be simply the City (Greek: hē Polis, ἡ Πόλις, Modern Greek: i Poli, η Πόλη). This usage, still current today in colloquial Greek and Armenian (Պոլիս, pronounced "Polis '' or "Bolis '' in the Western Armenian dialect prevalent in the city), also became the source of the later Turkish name, Istanbul (see below).
Kostantiniyye (Arabic, Persian قسطنطنية, translit. Qusṭanṭīniyya, Ottoman Turkish قسطنطينيه, translit. Ḳosṭanṭīnīye) is the name by which the city came to be known in the Islamic world. It is an Arabic calqued form of Constantinople, with an Arabic ending meaning ' place of ' instead of the Greek element - polis. After the Ottoman conquest of 1453, it was used as the most formal official name in Ottoman Turkish, and remained in use throughout most of the time up to the fall of the Empire in 1923. However, during some periods Ottoman authorities favoured other names (see below).
The modern Turkish name İstanbul (pronounced (isˈtanbuɫ)) (Ottoman Turkish: استانبول ) is attested (in a range of variants) since the 10th century, at first in Armenian and Arabic (without the initial İ -) and then in Turkish sources. It derives from the Greek phrase "στην Πόλη '' "(stimˈboli), meaning "in the city '' or "to the city '', reinterpreted as a single word; a similar case is Stimboli, Crete. It is thus based on the common Greek usage of referring to Constantinople simply as The City (see above).
The incorporation of parts of articles and other particles into Greek placenames was common even before the Ottoman period: Navarino for earlier Avarino, Satines for Athines, etc. Similar examples of modern Turkish placenames derived from Greek in this fashion are İzmit, earlier İznikmit, from Greek Nicomedia, İznik from Greek Nicaea ((iz nikea)), Samsun (s'Amison from "se '' and "Amisos ''), and İstanköy for the Greek island Kos (from is tin Ko). The occurrence of the initial i - in these names, including Istanbul 's, is largely secondary epenthesis to break up syllabic consonant clusters, prohibited by the phonotactic structure of Turkish, as seen in Turkish istasyon from French station or ızgara from the Greek schára.
İstanbul was the common name for the city in normal speech in Turkish even before the conquest of 1453, but in official use by the Ottoman authorities other names, such as Kostantiniyye, were preferred in certain contexts. Thus, Kostantiniyye was used on coinage up to the late 17th and then again in the 19th century. The Ottoman chancelery and courts used Kostantiniyye as part of intricate formulae in expressing the place of origin of formal documents, such as be-Makam - ı Darü 's - Saltanat - ı Kostantiniyyetü'l - Mahrusâtü'l - Mahmiyye. In 19th century Turkish book - printing it was also used in the impressum of books, in contrast to the foreign use of Constantinople. At the same time, however, İstanbul too was part of the official language, for instance in the titles of the highest Ottoman military commander (İstanbul ağası) and the highest civil magistrate (İstanbul efendisi) of the city. İstanbul and several other variant forms of the same name were also widely used in Ottoman literature and poetry.
Names other than استانبول (İstanbul) had become obsolete in the Turkish language during the late Ottoman / early republican periods. However, Constantinople was still used when writing the city 's name in Latin script. In 1928, the Turkish alphabet was changed from Arabic script to Latin script. After that, Turkey started to urge other countries to use Turkish names for Turkish cities, instead of other transliterations to Latin script that had been used in the Ottoman times. Letters or packages sent to "Constantinople '' instead of "Istanbul '' were no longer delivered by Turkey 's PTT, which contributed to the eventual worldwide adoption of the new name.
In English the name is usually written "Istanbul ''. In modern Turkish the name is written "İstanbul '' (dotted i / İ and dotless ı / I being two distinct letters in the Turkish alphabet).
Stamboul or Stambul is a variant form of İstanbul. Greek for ' the town '. Like Istanbul itself, forms without the initial i - are attested from early on in the Middle Ages, first in Arabic sources of the 10th century and Armenian ones of the 12th. Some early sources also attest to an even shorter form Bulin, based on the Greek word Poli (n) alone without the preceding article. (This latter form lives on in modern Armenian.) The word - initial i - arose in the Turkish name as an epenthetic vowel to break up the St - consonant cluster, prohibited in Turkish phonotactics.
Stamboul was used in Western languages as an equivalent of İstanbul, until the time it was replaced by the official new usage of the Turkish form in the 1930s. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Western European and American sources often used Constantinople to refer to the metropolis as a whole, but Stamboul to refer to the central parts located on the historic peninsula, i.e. Byzantine - era Constantinople inside the walls.
Islambol (اسلامبول, Full of Islam) or Islambul (find Islam) or Islam (b) ol (old Turkic: be Islam), both in the Turkish language, were folk - etymological adaptations of Istanbul created after the Ottoman conquest of 1453 to express the city 's new role as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. It is first attested shortly after the conquest, and its invention was ascribed by some contemporary writers to Sultan Mehmed II himself. Some Ottoman sources of the 17th century, most notably Evliya Çelebi, describe it as the common Turkish name of the time. Between the late 17th and late 18th centuries, it was also in official use. The first use of the word "Islambol '' on coinage took place in 1703 (1115 AH) during the reign of Sultan Ahmed III. The term Kostantiniyye still appeared, however, into the 20th century.
Ottomans and foreign contemporaries, especially in diplomatic correspondence, referred to the Ottoman imperial government with particular honorifics. Among them are the following:
The "Gate of Felicity '', the "Sublime Gate '', and the "Sublime Porte '' were literally places within the Ottoman Sultans ' Topkapı Palace, and were used metonymically to refer to the authorities located there, and hence for the central Ottoman imperial administration. Modern historians also refer to government by these terms, similar to popular usage of Whitehall in Britain. The sublime Gate is not inside Topkapı palace; the administration building whose gate is named Bâb - ı Âlî is between Agia Sofia and Beyazit mosque, a huge building.
Many peoples neighboring on the Byzantine Empire used names expressing concepts like "The Great City '', "City of the Emperors '', "Capital of the Romans '' or similar. During the 10th to 12th century Constantinople was one of the largest two cities in the world, the other being Baghdad.
The medieval Vikings, who had contacts with the Byzantine empire through their expansion through eastern Europe (Varangians) used the Old Norse name Miklagarðr (from mikill ' big ' and garðr ' wall ' or ' stronghold '), later Miklagard and Micklegarth. This name lives on in the modern Icelandic name Mikligarður and Faroese Miklagarður.
East and South Slavic languages referred to the city as Tsarigrad or Carigrad, ' City of the Tsar (King) ', from the Slavonic words tsar (' Caesar ' or ' King ') and grad (' city '). Cyrillic: Царьград, Цариград. This was presumably a calque on a Greek phrase such as Βασιλέως Πόλις (Basileos Polis), ' the city of the emperor (king) '. The term is still occasionally used in Bulgarian, whereas it has become archaic in Russian, and Macedonian. In Croatian, Serbian and Slovene, Carigrad is a living alternative name for the modern city, as well as being used when referring to the historic capital of the medieval Roman Empire or the Ottoman Empire. In Czech (a West Slavic language) this Slavic name is used in the form Cařihrad (used in the 19th century, now only occasionally). It was also borrowed from the Slavic languages into Romanian in the form Țarigrad, though Constantinopole remained the far more widely preferred term.
Besides Kustantiniyyah, Persian, Arabic and other languages of the Islamic world used names based on the title Cesar (' Emperor '), as in Persian and Urdu Kayser - i Zemin, or on the ethnic name Rum (' Romans '), as in Arabic Rūmiyyat al - kubra (' Great City of the Romans ') or Persian Takht - e Rum (' Throne of the Romans ').
The city is referred as Kostandina or Kostantina (an alteration of Kostantiniyye) and more often as its short form Kosta (קושטה) or Kostán in most Judaeo - Spanish publications during the Ottoman period. Kosta was the name for the entire province of Istanbul, while the word Estambol was used for the area of the old city and Pera. Today the word Kosta is restricted only for historical purposes and is no more in common use.
The word Estambol has widened in meaning to include exclusively the entire European side of Istanbul. The Asian side is usually not considered as Estambol, however the expression la civdad de Estambol would encompass the boundaries of the present - day city. There are few expression denoting the Asian side. Anatol, from Anatolia and Asya, meaning Asia are common words to denote the Asian side of Istanbul. Moreover, el otro lado (literally the other side) is a quite simplistic and descriptory expression for the Asian side of Istanbul, especially for those living in the European side. Those living in the Asian side however do not use this expression to denote the European side, but simply call it Estambol. The inhabitants are called Estambulí or Estambullí.
In Hebrew, the city was sometimes referred to as "Kushtandina '' קושטנדינה, and sometimes "Kushtandina Rabati '' קושטנדינה רבתי, literally, Great Kushtandina, or shortened to "Kushta '' קושטא, probably due to a distorted pronunciation of the Judaeo - Spanish Kostandina. This usage was common among non-Sephardic Jews until the early 20th century; however, in present - day Israel it has virtually disappeared, replaced by the Hebrew transliteration of the Turkish "Istanbul '' (איסטנבול).
Present - day Chinese use transcriptions of the name Istanbul (Yisitanbu'er 伊斯坦布尔 or Yisitanbao 伊 斯坦 堡) when referring to the modern city.
Most modern Western languages have adopted the name Istanbul for the modern city during the 20th century, following the current usage in the Turkish Republic. However, many languages also preserve other, traditional names. Greeks continue to call the city Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολη Konstantinupoli in Modern Greek) or simply "The City '' (η Πόλη i Poli). Languages that use forms based on Stamboul include Russian, Polish (though the alternative form of Istambuł is also universally accepted and employed in many translations), Latvian, Lithuanian, Georgian and Albanian. The Albanian form is Stamboll; the Spanish form is Estambul; the Portuguese form is Istambul, with an m instead of an n. Armenian uses Bolis, based on the Greek Poli (s) ' City '. Icelandic preserves the old Norse name Mikligarður, though the form Istanbúl is generally used. In Slovene Carigrad is still largely used and often preferred over the official name.
İnalcık, Halil (1997). "Istanbul ''. In van Donzel, E.; Lewis, B.; Phellat, Ch. Encyclopaedia of Islam. 4 (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. pp. 224 -- 248. ISBN 9789004057456.
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mama's gonna buy you a mockingbird song | Hush, Little Baby - wikipedia
"Hush, Little Baby '' is a traditional lullaby, thought to have been written in the Southern United States. Like most folk songs, the author and date of origin are unknown. The lyrics promise all kinds of rewards to the child if he or she is quiet. The simple structure allows more verses to be added ad lib.
The song has been performed and recorded by many artists including Joan Baez, Regina Spektor, Nina Simone, The Weavers and the Mormon Tabernacle Choir. Additionally, the song has been adapted into pop songs such as Maurice King 's "Hambone, '' Inez and Charlie Foxx 's "Mockingbird '' and Bo Diddley 's eponymous song "Bo Diddley '', as well as Eminem 's "Mockingbird. ''
Aretha Franklin, Carly Simon, James Taylor, Etta James, Taj Mahal and Dusty Springfield have each recorded "Mockingbird '', which is an R&B variant of the song. "Mockingbird '' was featured humorously as a car travel song in the films National Lampoon 's Vacation (1983) and Dumb & Dumber (1994).
"Hush Little Baby '' has also been used in the play The Miracle Worker, about Helen Keller and Annie Sullivan.
2016 saw this song recorded by violinist Vov Dylan for the album "World Lullabies '' which is acting as a fundraiser for Starlight Foundation.
There are several versions of the song, but the most common lyrics are:
Hush, little Baby, do n't say a word, Mama 's gon na buy you a Mockingbird. And if that mockingbird do n't sing, Mama 's gon na buy you a diamond ring. And if that diamond ring turns brass, Mama 's gon na buy you a looking glass. And if that looking glass is broke, Mama 's gon na buy you a billy goat, And if that billy goat wo n't pull, Mama 's gon na buy you a cart and a bull. And if that cart and bull turn over, Mama 's gon na buy you a dog named Rover. And if that dog named Rover wo n't bark, Mama 's gon na buy you a horse and a cart. And if that horse and cart fall down, You 'll still be the sweetest little baby in town.
An Armenian language version exists in the 2017 album My First Armenian Songbook. Lyrics under copyright.
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actress that plays boo on orange is the new black | Lea DeLaria - wikipedia
Lea DeLaria (born May 23, 1958) is an American comedian, actress, and jazz musician. DeLaria is credited with being the first openly gay comic to appear on a late - night talk show with her 1993 appearance on The Arsenio Hall Show. She is best known for her portrayal of inmate Carrie "Big Boo '' Black on Netflix original series Orange Is the New Black.
DeLaria was born in Belleville, Illinois, the daughter of Jerry Jean (née Cox), a homemaker, and Robert George DeLaria, a jazz pianist and social worker. Her paternal grandparents were Italian. She attended kindergarten through eighth grade at St. Mary 's Elementary School in Belleville, and has referenced her Catholic upbringing in her performances.
DeLaria 's stand - up career began in 1982 when she moved to San Francisco and performed raunchy stand - up comedy in the Mission District. Discussing her stand up, Delaria says, "This is who I am, when I 'm up there. This is it. I 'm a big butch dyke. That 's who I am. And I 'm a friendly one. I 'm a big butch dyke with a smile on my face. ''
In 1986, DeLaria directed "Ten Percent Revue '', a musical revue with songs related to homosexuality and most of which reflect pride in being gay. "Ten Percent Revue '' was performed in Boston, San Francisco, Provincetown, Philadelphia, and Atlanta. Many shows were sold out.
In 1988, DeLaria starred in "Dos Lesbos '', a musical comedy about two lesbians dealing with the issues of living together. The show received very favorable reviews nationwide.
DeLaria starred in "Girl Friday: We 're Funny That Way '', a musical comedy, in 1989.
When DeLaria appeared on The Arsenio Hall Show in 1993, she was the first openly gay comic to appear on a late - night talk - show. While appearing on the show, DeLaria said, "Hello everybody, my name is Lea DeLaria, and it 's great to be here, because it 's the 1990s! It 's hip to be queer! I 'm a big dyke. '' DeLaria later said she had been told that she should not have used the term dyke on the air. Hall later defended her, saying, "If she wants to call herself a dyke, that 's her business. ''
In December 1993, DeLaria hosted Comedy Central 's Out There, the first all - gay stand - up comedy special.
DeLaria is also known for her touring "musical comedy about perverts '', Dos Lesbos (1987 -- 1989), as well as Girl Friday, a comedy she conceived, wrote, directed and starred in, and which won the 1989 Golden Gull for Best Comedy Group in Provincetown, Massachusetts.
DeLaria has released two CD recordings of her comedy, Bulldyke in a China Shop (1994) and Box Lunch (1997). She has also written a humorous book entitled Lea 's Book of Rules for the World.
DeLaria appeared as Jane in the 1998 Off Broadway production of Paul Rudnick 's The Most Fabulous Story Ever Told, "a gay retelling of the Bible. '' Entertainment Weekly said "a star is born with Lea DeLaria '' of her "showstopping '' performance as Hildy Esterhazy in the 1998 Broadway revival of On the Town.
DeLaria subsequently played Eddie and Dr. Scott in the 2000 Broadway revival of The Rocky Horror Show, and can be heard on the cast recording. DeLaria appeared in a number of films, including Edge of Seventeen and The First Wives Club
DeLaria integrates musical performance into her stand - up comedy, focusing on traditional and modern be-bop jazz. In 2001 she released a CD of jazz standards called Play It Cool. This was followed by the album Double Standards in 2003, and by The Very Best of Lea DeLaria in 2008.
In 2001, DeLaria was the voice of Helga Phugly on the short - lived, animated sitcom, The Oblongs. In 1999 DeLaria played the recurring role of Madame Delphina on the ABC soap opera One Life to Live, returning in 2008 as both Delphina and Professor Delbert Fina. She continued to portray Delphina on a recurring basis until 2011.
In 2008, Warner Records released The Live Smoke Sessions, DeLaria 's first recording focused on "timeless pop standards '' such as "Down With Love, '' "Night and Day, '' "Love Me or Leave Me '' and "Come Rain or Come Shine. '' She noted, "I styled this CD on the old school live recordings... It is my hope that this CD will take you back to 1948 and the Village Vanguard. So please let me invite you to mix a cocktail and enjoy a smoke while you sit back and soak up the swing. ''
In November 2008, DeLaria completed a tour of Australia, playing Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Brisbane. She also frequently collaborates with comedian Maggie Cassella, most notably on an annual Christmas cabaret show in Toronto, Ontario which also sometimes tours to several other North American cities. In July 2010, her version of "All That Jazz '' was used on So You Think You Can Dance. DeLaria is currently performing in Prometheus Bound at the American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Since 2013, she has appeared in the Netflix Original Orange Is the New Black as the recurring character prison inmate Carrie ' Big Boo ' Black.
On February 14, 2015, DeLaria received the Equality Illinois Freedom Award for her work as "a cutting - edge performer who has used her talent to entertain and enlighten millions of Americans, '' said Bernard Cherkasov, CEO of Equality Illinois. On receiving the award at the 2015 Equality Illinois Gala in Chicago, DeLaria said, "As an out performer for over 33 years who has made it her life 's work to change peoples perception of butch, queer and LGBT, it is an honor for me to receive such recognition from my home state. I feel I 'm doing Belleville proud. Go Maroons! ''
In January 2015, DeLaria became engaged to fashion editor Chelsea Fairless after two and a half years of dating. The two met through Fairless 's friend, actress Emma Myles, who plays Leanne in Orange is the New Black. In January 2017, DeLaria confirmed she and Fairless had separated.
Shortly after the election of Donald Trump as U.S. President, DeLaria was criticized for a profanity - laden post on Instagram in which she appeared to call for violence against people who supported Donald Trump. She later deleted the post.
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who was hot lips houlihan's boyfriend on mash | List of M * a * S * H characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters from the M * A * S * H franchise, covering the various fictional characters appearing in the novel MASH: A Novel About Three Army Doctors and its sequels, the 1970 film adaptation of the novel, and the television series M * A * S * H, AfterMASH, W * A * L * T * E * R, and Trapper John, M.D..
M * A * S * H is a popular media franchise revolving around the staff of the 4077th Mobile Army Surgical Hospital as they attempt to maintain sanity during the harshness of the Korean War.
Captain Benjamin Franklin "Hawkeye '' Pierce was played by Donald Sutherland in the film and by Alan Alda on television. Between long sessions of treating wounded patients, he is found making wisecracks, drinking heavily, carousing, womanizing, and pulling pranks on the people around him, especially Frank Burns and "Hot Lips '' Houlihan. Although just one of an ensemble of characters in author Richard Hooker 's MASH: A Novel About Three Army Doctors, in the television series Hawkeye became the center of the M * A * S * H unit 's medical activity. In the television series, he becomes the Chief Surgeon of the unit early in the first season.
Pierce was born and raised in New England, most often mentioning Crabapple Cove, Maine, with a few references to Vermont. The character at times refers to having a sister, but at other times says he is an only child. His mother is deceased, and he is close to his father. In the film, Hawkeye is married with children, but in the TV series he is a bachelor and something of a ladies ' man. He was given the nickname "Hawkeye '' by his father, from the character in the novel The Last of the Mohicans, "the only book my old man ever read. '' His birth name is taken from a member of Hooker 's own family named Franklin Pierce.
He attended Androscoggin College. In the book and the film, Hawkeye had played football in college; in the series, he is non-athletic. After completing his medical residency, he was drafted into the U.S. Army Medical Corps and sent to serve at the 4077th Mobile Army Surgical Hospital (MASH) during the Korean War. Alda said of Pierce, "Some people think he was very liberal. But he was also a traditional conservative. I mean, he wanted nothing more than to have people leave him alone so he could enjoy his martini, you know? Government should get out of his liquor cabinet ''.
Pierce has little tolerance for military red tape and customs, feeling they get in the way of his doing his job, and has little respect for most Regular Army personnel. He never wears rank insignia on his fatigues, never polishes his combat boots, and when he wears his Class A uniform, does not wear any of the decorations to which he is entitled. On occasion, he assumes temporary command of the 4077th in the absence or disability of Colonels Blake or Potter.
As a surgeon, he does not like the use of firearms and he refuses to carry a sidearm as required by regulations when serving as Officer of the Day. When ordered by Colonel Potter to carry his issue pistol on a trip to an aid station and they are ambushed on the road, he fires it into the air rather than at their attackers.
In the series finale, "Goodbye, Farewell, and Amen '', Hawkeye experiences a mental breakdown when a Korean woman responds to his frantic demand that she quiet her infant child lest enemy soldiers hear it and discover them, by suffocating it. When the Korean Armistice is announced, he states his intention to return to Crabapple Cove to be a local doctor who has the time to get to know his patients, instead of contending with the endless flow of casualties he faced during his time in Korea. In Hooker 's two sequels, M * A * S * H Goes to Maine and M * A * S * H Mania, Hawkeye returns to live in Crabapple Cove.
Captain John Francis Xavier McIntyre appears in the novels, the film (played by Elliott Gould), the M * A * S * H TV series (Wayne Rogers), and the Trapper John, M.D. series (Pernell Roberts). He is one of the main characters in the M * A * S * H TV series during the first three seasons, and the central character of the latter series. His nickname comes from an incident in which he was caught having sex with a woman in the lavatory aboard a Boston & Maine Railway train; who claimed in her defense that "he trapped me! ''
In the book and the film, Trapper John is a graduate of Dartmouth College (having played quarterback on the school 's football team) and serves as thoracic surgeon of the 4077th. In the film, he has a dry, sardonic deadpan sense of humor, while in the M * A * S * H TV series he is more of a class clown. Trapper spends much of his time on the series engaging in mischief with Hawkeye Pierce, with the two playing practical jokes on majors Frank Burns and "Hot Lips '' Houlihan, drinking, and trying to seduce women. While Trapper expresses great love for his wife and daughters, he also fraternizes with the nurses a great deal, with no pretense of fidelity.
In the film, Hawkeye and Trapper are given roughly equal focus, but in the TV series the character became more of a sidekick to the character of Hawkeye. This frustrated Rogers, and in combination with a dispute over the terms of the contract for the fourth season, he quit the show; the character of Trapper was abruptly transferred back to the U.S. between seasons. The character of B.J. Hunnicutt was created to replace him.
The character returned to television in 1979 in the medical drama series Trapper John, M.D. Now played by Pernell Roberts, the character is depicted in the then - present day as Chief of Surgery at a San Francisco hospital. This version of the character is in continuity with the film rather than the TV series, but no other characters from either production appear in this series, making Trapper John the only M * A * S * H character to be depicted on - screen in (what was then) the present day. Trapper John, along with The Mary Tyler Moore Show 's Lou Grant, thus became one of a handful of 1970s television characters to be successfully adapted from situation comedy to drama.
Captain B.J. Hunnicutt is played by Mike Farrell in the TV show. He replaced Trapper John, both in his position within the unit and as an ally of Hawkeye Pierce and a foil of Frank Burns, appearing in all but one episode of the rest of the series. Although he glibly answers that the initials "B.J. '' stand for "anything you want '', he tells Hawkeye that the initials are derived from the names of his parents, Bea and Jay.
Hunnicutt resided in Mill Valley, California before he was drafted. He was educated at Stanford University and was a member of the Tau Phi Epsilon fraternity. He is a third - generation doctor in his family. He went through his military training at Fort Sam Houston.
He is devoted to his wife Peg (née Hayden) who writes many letters to him while he is in Korea. The couple have a daughter, Erin, who was born shortly before B.J. left for Korea. His status as faithful family man contrasts him with the philandering Trapper John, and he is also more reserved than his predecessor, often serving as the voice of reason when Hawkeye goes too far. Nonetheless, he also participates in and initiates practical jokes, such as secretly switching Major Winchester 's clothing for that of other soldiers to make him think he is gaining or losing weight. On other occasions, B.J. encourages members of the 4077th to play jokes on each other, starting escalating joke wars for his own amusement, with neither side knowing that he is the instigator. Unfortunately, this has often backfired on him when both parties he was pranking find out and retaliate.
While he assumes the same general disregard for military discipline exhibited by both Hawkeye and Trapper, B.J. professes stronger moral values. For example, in the episode "Preventative Medicine '' he refuses to participate in a scheme to relieve an overzealous officer of command by performing an unnecessary appendectomy on him. He is a skilled surgeon, willing to take extraordinary measures to save a patient, such as in "Heroes, '' where he undertakes an experimental procedure he had read about in a medical journal, using a primitive open - chest defibrillator and open - chest heart massage.
He actively avoids the finality of farewells, but when the 4077th is disbanded in the series finale, he is last seen riding his Indian motorcycle away from camp, while Hawkeye sees from a helicopter that B.J. has arranged painted white stones into the word "GOODBYE '', visible from the air.
Lieutenant Colonel Henry Braymore Blake is introduced in the 1968 novel M * A * S * H and is also a character in the film (played by Roger Bowen) and television series (played by McLean Stevenson). He is a surgeon and the original commanding officer of the 4077th M * A * S * H unit. He is beloved for his down - to - earth, laid - back manner by many under his command, especially Hawkeye and Trapper John (with whom he drinks, flouts regulations, and chases women), and scorned for it by those who prefer strict military discipline, such as Frank Burns and Margaret "Hot Lips '' Houlihan.
In the film, he is a career Army physician, having been commissioned prior to World War II. In the television series, he is a reservist called up to active duty and taken from his private practice in Bloomington, Illinois. Henry attended University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign, where he was the football team athletic trainer. He tells Hawkeye he has "a great practice back home '', but a "routine '' one, and that by serving in Korea, he is doing more doctoring than he would otherwise do in a lifetime. While Henry is in command of the 4077th, his wife -- called Mildred in earlier episodes, Lorraine in later ones (the reason is never explained) -- gives birth to a son back in Bloomington. Henry would never meet his son.
Henry is a good man and a capable surgeon, but an ineffectual commanding officer. Company clerk Radar can usually anticipate his wishes and turn them into efficient military orders, but Henry often gets flustered when an important decision needs to be made. In the "Rainbow Bridge '' episode, he has to decide whether to send his doctors into enemy territory for an exchange of wounded prisoners, but hems and haws then tells his doctors, "Whatever you guys decide is fine with me. '' His strength as a commander is an ability to maintain the morale of his unit, which he does through heartfelt talk and indulgence of the lunacy that is a hallmark of the 4077th. This success is demonstrated by the unit 's outstanding 97 % casualty survival rate.
When McLean Stevenson decided to leave the show at the end of the third season, his character was scripted to be discharged and sent home, as a way to write him out of the series. However, the producers added a final scene to his last episode, in which it is reported that Blake 's plane has been shot down, with no survivors. This scene was kept secret from most of the cast until just before filming so that they would respond more authentically to the news.
Colonel Sherman Tecumseh Potter appears in the M * A * S * H and AfterMASH television series. He was portrayed by Harry Morgan, and replaced the departing character of Henry Blake as commander of the 4077th M * A * S * H. The character appeared in every subsequent episode with only three exceptions.
Potter is from Hannibal, Missouri, one - quarter Cherokee and possesses a passion and fondness for horses. He lied about his age to enlist at 15 (though this age does not conform to continuity, as it would mean he would be only around 50 during the Korean War, though he later comments that he is 62), joining the US Army horse cavalry as a private during World War I and subsequently rose to the rank of sergeant. During combat in World War I, in the Argonne Forest, he was "lost for three days, taken prisoner, head shaved and beaten to a pulp ''. At the Battle of Château - Thierry, he was mustard gassed, leaving him blind for a month in a French hospital. Another time, several of his teeth were knocked out by his German captors, for which he was later awarded a Purple Heart. After the war, he went to medical school, and began his service as an Army doctor in 1932, serving in World War II. One of his most cherished possessions is his Good Conduct Medal, an award "only given to enlisted men '', Potter explains to Radar while unpacking. It is framed and hangs behind his desk during his tenure at the 4077th. Potter is married to Mildred, and they have only one daughter and one grandson in some episodes, while in others he has multiple children and grandchildren.
Potter was created as a different type of commanding officer than his predecessor: a "Regular Army '' career officer, and close to retirement. But despite his stern military bearing, Potter is a relatively relaxed and laid - back commander, not above involving himself in camp hijinks and understanding the need for fun and games to boost morale during wartime, particularly in the high - pressure atmosphere of a MASH. In fact, when Hawkeye and B.J. invite Potter to their tent for a post-surgery drink, he is very affable and complimentary of their brewing skills, even giving them tips on how to improve their gin still and make more booze. He also has his eccentricities, including a love of horses from his cavalry days and an ability to use his Regular Army connections to the unit 's advantage. Unlike Blake, he is not afraid to put his foot down when the camp 's antics get out of hand, but this is more out of not wanting to see his troops get into trouble outside of the camp. In addition, Potter, who had been handling administrative work prior to his assignment to the 4077th, possesses formidable skills as a surgeon and for keeping morale high in the operating room.
Potter is well - liked by his subordinates, especially Radar, who comes to see him as a mentor and father figure after Blake 's transfer stateside and subsequent death. Potter receives more respect than Blake did from Major Houlihan, but Major Burns harbors a grudge against him after being passed over for command. In turn, Potter holds Burns ' feigned military bearing and subpar medical skills in contempt. Potter takes pride in the competency of the rest of the medical staff despite their antics. Burns ' replacement Major Winchester has a grudging respect for Potter, even though their respective personalities are often at odds with one another. Potter initially takes a hard line against Klinger 's attempts to get discharged, but is convinced to let him continue cross-dressing, and eventually assigns him to be his new company clerk. As an indication of their respect for him, in the final episode Hawkeye and B.J. formally salute Potter as he leaves the camp, one of the few times either is shown doing so.
The character also appeared as a central character in AfterMASH, a spin - off starring the three cast members who had voted (unsuccessfully) to continue the first series. Potter became chief of staff and chief of surgery of the fictional General Pershing VA Hospital in River Bend, Missouri, where he is joined by Klinger and his wife Soon - Lee, and Father Mulcahy. Among the resident in - patients is one of Potter 's subordinates from World War I, who addresses him as "Sarge '' as opposed to his retired rank of colonel.
Major Franklin Delano Marion "Frank '' Burns is the main antagonist in the film (played by Robert Duvall) and the first five seasons of the television series (Larry Linville). Burns first appeared in the original novel, where he had the rank of captain. (He is also known as "Ferret Face '', a nickname first pinned on him by his brother.)
In the novel, Burns is a well - off doctor who attended medical school, but whose training as a surgeon was limited to an apprenticeship with his father in Fort Wayne, Indiana. Nonetheless, he maintains a dismissive attitude toward his better - trained colleagues, blaming others for his own failures. He unjustly accuses a rookie orderly of killing one of his patients and nearly kills another patient, earning him retaliatory assaults from Duke and Trapper John. His medical incompetence causes Colonel Blake to instead assign Trapper John as Chief Surgeon. After the "Swampmen '' learn that Burns is having an affair with Major Margaret O'Houlihan, Hawkeye taunts him about it, baiting him to attack just as Blake enters the tent. The next day, Burns is permanently sent away for psychiatric evaluation in a straitjacket, shot full of tranquilizers.
In the film and in the subsequent TV series, Frank Burns ' rank is that of major. The film version includes elements of the novel 's Major Jonathan Hobson, a very religious man who prays for all souls to be saved. In the TV series, he is very high - strung, with a penchant for uttering what are often bizarre or redundant cliches and malapropisms; one example is from "The Interview '' (season 4, episode 24), in which Burns describes marriage as "the headstone of American society ''.
In the TV series, Burns is a firm believer in military discipline and continues to fancy himself a superior surgeon, but his actions invariably reveal his incompetence and require one of the other surgeons to prevent him from making fatal mistakes. Though by military rank Burns is second - in - command of the unit, he is outranked in medical matters by Hawkeye, who reluctantly accepts appointment by Blake as Chief Surgeon. Burns longs for command of the 4077th himself, and resorts to underhanded means to achieve this end, such as filing misleading complaints about Blake and unsuccessfully preventing Hawkeye and Trapper from testifying in his defense. When Burns is left in command of the unit (per military regulations), he generally micromanages camp operations, just for the sake of being in command, but demonstrates a profound lack of military competence as well. In "The Novocaine Mutiny '', Burns is left in temporary command when the 4077th is inundated with a deluge of casualties. Burns and Hawkeye recount opposing versions of the events. Burns claims that he was performing superior work even going so far as to donate blood to a critically wounded soldier in between treating patients and performing the Last Rites benediction in Latin for the deceased after Father Mulcahy passed out from exhaustion. Burns further asserts that the other surgeons could not keep up with him and complained that he was pushing them too hard. In Hawkeye 's presumably far more accurate account, Burns was borderline hysterical, and performed his duties with signature incompetence, which resulted in the near - deaths of multiple casualties. After being confronted by Hawkeye, Burns was knocked unconscious by the operating room door. In any early episode, however, before his character becomes more of a buffoon, he demonstrates himself to be an efficient though, again, micromanaging commander. In another episode, "A Smattering of Intelligence '', Burns is gullible enough to believe that the US Army Corps of Engineers is going to make MASH hospitals amphibious.
In addition to his gullibility, Burns was shown to be incredibly greedy, selfish and occasionally childish; he is involved in a prescription kickback racket, falsifies his income taxes, and dabbles in the stock market. He is also overly suspicious of Koreans, going as far as to claim that South Koreans are communist infiltrators and hustlers, and is openly racist against Native Americans (although Colonel Potter, being part Cherokee, sternly puts a stop to that early on). Despite his ongoing affair with Major Houlihan, he is unwilling to divorce his wife because all his money, stocks and his house are in her name. In one episode, his greed is such that he turns down a transfer to another unit because he is tricked by Hawkeye and Trapper into thinking there is gold in the hills near the camp. He has twice applied for a Purple Heart for being "wounded '' in combat; first for slipping in the shower, second for getting an eggshell fragment in his eye. Both medals are stolen by Hawkeye and given to people who earned them: an underage Marine (played by Ron Howard) and a Korean mother and her infant son who had been shot just before she gave birth. (The incident with an eggshell fragment was based on an actual incident during the Vietnam War.) An example of his childishness is when Burns is passed over for command of the 4077th in favor of Colonel Potter; Frank has a temper tantrum and runs away until he gets cold, tired and hungry.
Burns 's only friend in the unit is head nurse Major Houlihan, with whom he has an ongoing affair that they believe is discreet, but which is common knowledge in the camp. They share a disdain for the "un-military '' doctors, against whom they conspire ineffectively. His wife eventually hears of the affair and threatens him with divorce; he denies it, describing Houlihan as an "old war horse '' and an "army mule with bosoms '', beginning a rift that leads to her engagement to Donald Penobscott, a handsome lieutenant colonel stationed in Tokyo. Burns starts acting crazy after Houlihan 's engagement -- he drinks up all of Hawkeye 's booze; he cleans out Hawkeye and BJ 's poker winnings of $200; he confesses that he wants to have affairs with two other nurses besides Houlihan: Nurse Kellye and a "little red - haired nurse ''; he nearly blows himself up with a grenade; he "captures '' a Korean family and their ox and almost fires his carbine in Potter 's office at the suggestion that he is heading for a Section Eight discharge.
Following Houlihan 's marriage, Burns suffers a mental breakdown while on a week 's leave in Seoul. He accosts a female WAC, a female Red Cross worker, and an army general and his wife in a hot bath, mistaking the couple for the Penobscotts. He is transferred stateside for psychiatric evaluation, but although the 4077th is delighted to be rid of him, Burns seems to have the last laugh. He telephones to claim he has been cleared of all charges, promoted to lieutenant colonel and assigned to a veteran 's hospital in his hometown. Burns ' departure from the series stemmed from Linville 's frustration with the character, which he felt offered no further opportunities for development. Nothing is known about the character 's fate post show.
Major Margaret J "Hot Lips '' Houlihan appears in the novel, the film (played by Sally Kellerman), and the TV series (Loretta Swit). She is the regular - army head nurse of the 4077th, and begins allied with Major Frank Burns against the more civilian doctors of the unit. Later in the series, particularly after the departure of Burns, she becomes a more sympathetic character, softening her attitude while still serving as a foil for their antics.
Margaret is an army brat, born in an Army base hospital, the daughter of career artillery officer "Howitzer Al '' Houlihan. She entered nursing school in 1938 and graduated in 1942 when she joined the Army. She served in World War II but it is unknown if she served stateside or overseas. She is the head nurse of the 4077th M * A * S * H, the highest - ranking female officer in the unit, and fiercely protective of the women under her command. The character was inspired by two real - life Korean War MASH head nurses: "Hotlips '' Hammerly, an attractive blonde of similar disposition, and Janie Hall.
Her nickname "Hot Lips '' has different origins in the original novel, film, and TV show. In the novel, the phrase is first used by Trapper John McIntyre, when he is flirting with Margaret after learning about her affair with Frank Burns. Calling her "Hot Lips '', Trapper suggests that they should get together since he has become Chief Surgeon and she is the Chief Nurse. In the film, the nickname originates from a scene in which she has a tryst with Burns. Unbeknownst to them, a hidden PA microphone is broadcasting their conversation to the whole camp, including her growl to Frank, "kiss my hot lips ''. In the TV show, the origin of her nickname is never shown or explained in detail, though it seems to refer to various aspects of her passionate nature. Midway through the series, the "Hot Lips '' nickname phases out, with characters addressing her as either Margaret or Major Houlihan, though her nickname is still referenced occasionally. For instance, in the sixth - season episode "Patent 4077 '', when Margaret is in a bad mood after losing her wedding ring, a nurse describes her as "Hot Lips Houlihan: Blonde land mine ''. In the seventh - season episode "None Like It Hot '', after Margaret talks about a bathtub that is supposed to be kept secret, Hawkeye says to her, "Would you please keep your hot lips sealed? '', and in the second part of the two - part eighth - season episode "Good Bye, Radar '', Radar says, "Wow! Hot Lips! '' after he is kissed by Margaret.
Early on in the TV series, she is a stern "by - the - book '' head nurse, but willingly goes against regulations for her own gain. She uses her sex appeal to her professional advantage as well as personal satisfaction, as shown by her relationship with Frank Burns. In early seasons she had several liaisons with visiting colonels or generals who were "old friends ''. She is an experienced surgical nurse, so although she thoroughly disapproves of the surgeons ' off - duty tomfoolery, she is able to set her personal feelings aside to appreciate their skills, such as when she came down with appendicitis and asked that Hawkeye, not Burns, perform the surgery if needed.
In later years she becomes a more relaxed and less criticizing member of the unit, tempering her authority with humanity. Key episodes in this development include the season 5 episode "The Nurses '', in which she plays the role of a stern disciplinarian, but breaks down in front of her nurses revealing how hurt she is by their disdain for her; and "Comrades In Arms '' (season 6), in which Hawkeye and Margaret make peace as they endure an artillery barrage together while lost in the wilderness. Drinking problems appear to run in her family. She once told Frank that half of her salary went to support her mother; half of that money went towards drying her out, the other half for bail money (her mother was a kleptomaniac). Although the series presumes that she is an only child, in the same episode she tells Frank about her younger sister who was engaged to be married.
Her long - standing affair with Frank ends with her engagement and subsequent marriage to Lieutenant Colonel Donald Penobscott. The marriage does not last long; she later finds out a visiting nurse had had an affair with him. Though he promises to work things out with her, he has himself permanently transferred to San Francisco, and she divorces him, regaining her self - confidence. In the wake of her split with Burns, she becomes more comfortable with at least some of the unit 's more unorthodox ways and as time progresses, becomes a willing participant in some of the hijinks. Despite their long - running mutual antagonism, Hawkeye and Margaret come to develop respect and affection for each other, reflected in a long passionate farewell kiss in the final episode. She returns to the US to take a position in an Army hospital.
In the series of novels co-written with (or ghost - written by) William E. Butterworth, Houlihan reappears as the twice - widowed Margaret Houlihan Wachauf Wilson, both husbands having expired on the nuptial bed through excessive indulgence in her still - outstanding physical charms. Her career has taken a new direction as the reverend head of the "God Is Love In All Forms Christian Church, Incorporated '', a cult or sect with the unusual distinction that its entire congregation consists of gay men. Most of these are extremely flamboyant and the Reverend Mother herself is conspicuously glitzy and glittery. However, it appears that Margaret genuinely cares for her flock and is not merely shaking them down in pursuit of material gain.
Major Charles Emerson Winchester III is a supporting protagonist in the television series, played by David Ogden Stiers. He was introduced in the show 's sixth season as a replacement for Frank Burns, both in the unit 's surgical team and as a foil for Hawkeye and B.J. Though Winchester did embody some antagonistic qualities similar to that of Burns, he proved over the course of his time on the series to be a very different character than his predecessor, being far more intelligent, humane, and kind.
Charles Winchester was born in his grandmother 's house in the Boston, Massachusetts, neighborhood of Beacon Hill, and is part of a very wealthy family of Republican Boston Brahmins. After finishing his secondary studies at Choate, he graduated summa cum laude class of ' 43 from Harvard College (where he lettered in Crew and Polo), completed his M.D. at Harvard Medical in Boston in 1948, and worked at Massachusetts General Hospital. Before he was drafted to join the US Army during the Korean War, he was on track to become Chief of Cardio / Thoracic Surgery.
Winchester 's commanding officer transferred him to the 4077th in retaliation for the major 's gloating attitude about beating him at cribbage to tune of a $672.17 debt (equivalent to about $6,100 in 2016). Assigned to quarters in "the swamp '' with Hawkeye and B.J., Winchester found the conditions there appalling, calling the camp "an inflamed boil on the buttocks of the world ''. Keeping with the show 's tradition of replacement characters who are in some way the antithesis of their predecessors, Winchester is as skilled a surgeon as Burns was inept, and he is as cultured as Burns was low - brow. Indeed, in one episode during a verbal joust with Pierce and Hunnicutt, Winchester is able to match them true story for true story due to his cultured upbringing and skill, culminating in him revealing he even once dated Audrey Hepburn to the astonishment and chagrin of B.J. and Hawkeye. However, Winchester still has to adjust to the realities of field medicine. Although the character was originally intended to develop a romance with Houlihan, the chemistry between the two was not there, so Charles and Margaret maintain a platonic, professional friendship.
Winchester is often adversarial with Hawkeye and B.J., but joins forces with them if it is justified. He has a keen but dry sense of humor, and enjoys practical jokes as well as the occasional prank to get revenge on his bunkmates for something they did or for his own amusement. Behind his snobbery, he was raised with a sense of noblesse oblige and was capable of profound -- albeit sometimes misguided -- acts of kindness. For example, in "Death Takes a Holiday '' he anonymously gifts an orphanage with expensive chocolates and is initially outraged to find that they have been sold on the black market, then chagrined to learn that the chocolate bars were sold to buy staple goods, reflecting that "It is I who should be sorry. It is sadly inappropriate to give dessert to a child who has had no meal. '' In "Morale Victory '' he sends for a copy of the score for Ravel 's Piano Concerto for the Left Hand to give encouragement to a pianist who can no longer play with his injured right hand. In another episode, he stands up for a wounded soldier whose comrades and commanding officer mock his stuttering, encouraging the young man to live up to his intellectual potential. At the end of the episode, he listens to a recorded letter from his sister Honoria, who turns out to likewise be a stutterer. Classical music is one of his great loves, helping him to maintain his morale. In the series finale, following the sudden death of the Chinese POWs he has been teaching a work by Mozart, Winchester states that music has transformed into a haunting reminder of the horrors of the war. After the war, he returns to Boston where the position of Chief of Thoracic Surgery at a prestigious hospital awaits him.
Corporal Walter Eugene O'Reilly, best known as Radar O'Reilly, appears in the novels, film, and TV series. He also appeared in two episodes of AfterMASH, and starred in the television pilot W * A * L * T * E * R. The character was portrayed by Gary Burghoff in both the film and on television, the only regular character played by a single actor. His full name is never given in the original novel or film, but on the TV series it is Walter Eugene O'Reilly. The later novels by Richard Hooker and William Butterworth give his full name as J. Robespierre O'Reilly.
Radar is from Ottumwa, Iowa, and joined the army right out of high school. He seems to have extra-sensory perception, appearing at his commander 's side before being called and finishing his sentences. He also has exceptionally good hearing, able to hear helicopters before anyone else, and to tell from the rotor sounds if they are coming in loaded or not. It was these abilities that earned him the nickname "Radar ''. The character is inspired by company clerk Don Shaffer, who also was born in Ottumwa and nicknamed "Radar '' by his compatriots, and who served alongside Hornberger in Korea.
In the film, Radar was portrayed as worldly and sneaky, a characterization that carried into the early part of the series. He carries with him a pocketful of passes for any potential scam that might arise, and has a racket of selling tickets for spying through a peephole into the nurses ' shower. Another time, he cons nearly every member of MASH 4077 into buying mail order shoes. He is known for his tremendous appetite for heaping portions of food, is not averse to drinking Henry Blake 's brandy and smoking his cigars when the colonel is off - duty, and he occasionally drinks the moonshine liquor that Hawkeye and Trapper make in their still.
Soon after the pilot episode, Burghoff noted that the other characters were changing from the film portrayals and decided to follow. He and Gelbart evolved Radar into a naïve farm boy, who still sleeps with his teddy bear and whose favorite beverage is Nehi brand grape soda. He has a virginal awkwardness with women, and a fondness for superhero comic books. He runs the camp public address system and radio station, which are often used in minor gags; in one episode he transmits messages to a Navy carrier by Morse code. He frequently looks to the doctors for advice, and increasingly regards Henry Blake and then Sherman Potter as father figures, having lost his own elderly father at a young age. Radar is also one of the very few people Hawkeye Pierce has ever saluted (an event that occurred after Radar was wounded during a trip to Seoul and was given a Purple Heart), showing just how much Pierce respects him. Radar is promoted to Second Lieutenant as the result of a poker game debt ("Lt. Radar O'Reilly ''), but soon returns to Corporal after discovering that life as a commissioned officer is more complicated than he had originally thought.
Burghoff appeared in every episode of the show 's first three seasons. After season three, doing the series had become a strain on the actor 's family life, and he had his contract changed to limit his appearances to 13 episodes per season out of the usual 24. By season seven, Burghoff started experiencing burnout and decided it was time to quit; he finished season seven, then returned the next season for a two - part farewell episode titled "Good - Bye Radar '' in which Radar was granted a hardship discharge after the death of his Uncle Ed to help on the family farm, which he accepted after being satisfied that Klinger could replace him.
In 1984, Burghoff starred in W * A * L * T * E * R, a television movie that was to serve as the pilot for a spin - off series. In that movie and proposed series, the O'Reilly family farm had failed and Radar had moved to St. Louis and become a police officer. Production never proceeded past the pilot, which aired once on CBS.
1st Lieutenant (later Captain) Francis John Patrick Mulcahy, S.J. -- the order of his given names was not presented consistently in the series -- appears in the novel, film (played by René Auberjonois) and TV series (played William Christopher, except the pilot). He is a Roman Catholic priest, and serves as a US Army chaplain assigned to the 4077th. He was played by George Morgan in the pilot episode of the series, but the producers decided that a quirkier individual was needed for the role.
In the novel and film, Mulcahy is familiarly known by the nickname "Dago Red '', a derogatory reference to his Italian - Irish ancestry and the sacramental wine used in Roman Catholic Communion. While most of the staff is not religious, they treat Mulcahy with some respect. It is Mulcahy who alerts the doctors that the camp dentist "Painless '' is severely depressed. Afterwards, Mulcahy reluctantly helps the doctors to stage the famous "Last Supper '' faux suicide, to convince Painless that he should continue with life. He is bewildered by the doctors ' amoral pranks and womanizing behavior. When Radar places a hidden microphone inside Hot Lips ' tent as she and Frank Burns have sex, members of the camp listen in, and Mulcahy at first mistakes their conversation (and noises) for an episode of The Bickersons, leaving abruptly when he realizes otherwise.
He is from Philadelphia and is frequently seen wearing a Loyola sweatshirt. He has a sibling Kathy, who is a Catholic nun: he impishly refers to her as "my sister the Sister ''. His sister 's religious name is Theresa. He is an amateur boxer and boxing fan; an old priest and mentor in Jesuit school taught his students that boxing built character. There is a running joke that Mulcahy always wins the betting pools. On one occasion, when asked how he knows what bet to place, he looks to the sky with a smile. His luck at poker is unremarkable, however. He donates his winnings to the local orphanage.
Mulcahy understands that many of his "flock '' are non-religious or have other faiths, and does not evangelize them overtly. Rather than lecturing from authority, he seeks to teach by example ("Blood Brothers ''), or by helping someone see the error of their ways ("Identity Crisis ''). Although his quiet faith in God is unshakable, Mulcahy is often troubled over whether his role as chaplain and religious leader has importance compared to the doctors ' obvious talent for saving lives. (This is despite being told by Cardinal Reardon, a prelate visiting Korea to evaluate the effectiveness of the chaplains serving there, that "you 're a tough act to follow. '') This leads him to periodically prove himself, such as volunteering for a dangerous mission to demonstrate his courage to a soldier who had shot himself in the foot to get out of combat duty ("Mulcahy 's War ''), and putting himself in harm 's way to retrieve or negotiate for medical supplies ("Tea and Empathy '', "Out of Gas ''). He is repeatedly passed over for promotion, but eventually rises to the rank of Captain after Colonel Potter intercedes on his behalf ("Captains Outrageous '').
Although he is ordained as a Catholic priest, Mulcahy demonstrates a familiarity with other faiths, such as offering a prayer in Hebrew for a wounded Jewish soldier ("Cowboy '') and explaining the rituals of a Buddhist wedding to other attendees from the camp ("Ping Pong '').
In the series finale, while releasing POWs from a holding pen in the path of an artillery barrage, he is nearly killed and loses most of his hearing when a shell explodes at close range. He tells his friends that he intends to work with the deaf following the war, but only B.J. knows why, and helps him conceal this handicap from them.
Father Mulcahy was one of three regular M * A * S * H characters to star in the spin - off AfterMASH, with William Christopher joining Harry Morgan and Jamie Farr. The show was set at the fictional General Pershing VA Hospital in Missouri, where he served as chaplain. An experimental procedure was said to have restored most of his hearing.
Corporal (later Sergeant) Maxwell Q. "Max '' Klinger appears in the television series M * A * S * H and the spin - off AfterMASH, played by actor Jamie Farr. He serves as an orderly / corpsman / sentry and later company clerk assigned to the 4077th. Klinger was the first main character introduced on M * A * S * H not to have appeared in either the original novel or the subsequent film. Despite the writers giving him an Ashkenazi - sounding name, Klinger is an Arab - American of Lebanese descent from Toledo, Ohio (like Farr himself). As for Klinger 's religion, in an early show, Klinger said he gave up being an atheist for Lent, but did not specify a denomination. In real life, Jamie Farr is a devout Antiochian (Greek) Orthodox. In other episodes, Klinger pleads with Allah to help him out of a jam.
The character 's original defining characteristic was his continual attempts to gain a Section 8 psychiatric discharge from the Army, by habitually wearing women 's clothing and engaging in other "crazy '' stunts. His first appearance was in the fourth episode, "Chief Surgeon Who? ''; in that episode 's original script, Klinger was an effeminate gay man, but the writers later agreed that it would be more interesting to have Klinger be heterosexual, but wear dresses in an attempt to gain a Section 8 discharge. He makes it a point to play up his antics to visiting high - ranking officers in an attempt to gain their sympathy and convince them that he is unfit to serve. When Colonel Potter takes command, Klinger immediately tries the same with him, but Potter sees through the scam immediately. Series writer Larry Gelbart stated during the M * A * S * H 30th Anniversary Reunion special that Klinger 's antics were inspired by stories of Lenny Bruce attempting to dodge his own military service by dressing himself as a U.S. Navy WAVE. In the second half of the two - part episode "Bug Out '', which inaugurated the fifth season, Klinger reveals that it took him three years to accumulate his collection of dresses, implying that he was cross dressing before the Korean conflict began.
Klinger eventually gives up his attempts at a Section 8 when he is picked by Colonel Potter to become the company clerk following Radar 's discharge. He is later promoted to Sergeant ("Promotion Commotion '') and begins to take his duties even more seriously; the writers had decided to "tap into his street skills '' to flesh out his character. In the eighth - season episode "Dear Uncle Abdul '', Klinger writes to his uncle -- who successfully used cross-dressing to stay out of the Army -- about the crazy goings - on in camp, ending with the reflection "It 's no wonder I never got a Section Eight -- there 's nothing special about me; everybody here is crazy! '' Klinger is a fan of the Toledo Mud Hens, an actual minor league baseball team, and occasionally voices his high opinion of the hot dogs at Tony Packo 's, an actual Toledo restaurant.
In the third - season episode "Springtime '', Klinger marries his girlfriend, Laverne Esposito, via radio. In season six he receives a Dear John letter from Laverne saying she has found another man, whom she later breaks up with, then becoming engaged to Klinger 's supposed best friend. In the final episodes of the series, Klinger gets engaged to Soon Lee Han (Rosalind Chao), a Korean refugee. She refuses to leave Korea until she finds her family, leading to the irony that although the end of the war means Klinger is free to return to the U.S., he chooses to stay with her.
In AfterMASH, it is revealed that Max and Soon Lee found her family and helped them reestablish themselves as farmers, then moved together to the U.S. to settle down. However, she faced racial discrimination and he turned to bookmaking, and is only able to escape prison time when Sherman Potter offers a character reference and hires him as his assistant at the veteran 's hospital in Missouri where he now works.
Lieutenant Colonel (later Colonel) Sam Flagg is played by Edward Winter. Col. Flagg is an American intelligence agent. His behavior is paranoid and irrational and he appears to the staff of the 4077th Mobile Army Surgical Hospital to be mentally unstable; the fact that he seriously injures himself deliberately to advance an investigation seems proof of that. ("Questionable '' acts included jumping out of Sherman Potter 's office window, and re-breaking his arm with the camp 's X-ray machine). At one point, he tries to inflitrate Counter Intelligence Corps headquarters by crashing his jeep into a brick wall and setting himself on fire. (When told this, Hawkeye responds, "Is this guy available for kids ' parties? '') In that episode, to get into the 4077th, he orders a helicopter pilot to crash and then twice breaks his own arm. He alternately claims to be affiliated with the CIA, the CIC, or the CID (it is worth noting that the latter was formed only in 1971, while the M * A * S * H series is set at the time of the Korean War, which dates 1950 -- 1953), and occasionally all at once, depending on to whom he is speaking. Example: "I 'm with the CIA, but I tell people I 'm with the CIC, so they think I 'm with the CID. '' In the episode "The Abduction of Margaret Houlihan '', Flagg has also stated that he also once posed as a showgirl at a nightclub called the Sands in Las Vegas for six weeks as part of an assignment. Hawkeye claims to have seen him in this disguise during that time, saying that Flagg was the only showgirl at the Sands carrying a machine gun. Other aliases include Major Brooks, Lieutenant Carter, Ensign Troy, and Captain Louise Klein. Majors Frank Burns and Margaret Houlihan, both vicious McCarthy - style anti-Communists, follow his assignments with great interest, but are unable to "buddy up '' to him as they hope. As Flagg says, "Nobody can get the truth out of me because even I do n't know what it is. I keep myself in a constant state of utter confusion. ''
Flagg investigates a penicillin heist in the episode "White Gold ''. During his investigation, he reveals his notes on the camp 's personnel to Lt. Colonel Henry Blake. The red marks next to Trapper 's and Hawkeye 's names means they are considered to be "unfriendlies '' while a yellow mark next to Blake 's name means, "work on it. '' Flagg later attempts to steal the 4077 's penicillin for himself in order to trade it on the black market for information. He is thwarted by Hawkeye and Trapper who drug him and perform an unnecessary appendectomy in order to keep Flagg bedridden long enough to steal back and safeguard their penicillin.
Attitude towards Flagg differed among the members of the 4077th. Hawkeye, Trapper, and B.J. refused to be intimidated by him, frequently deriding him to his face. Burns, Radar and Father Mulcahy were somewhat afraid of him, and Henry Blake often allowed himself to be manipulated by his bullying. Flagg would meet his match in Colonel Potter, who refused to allow Flagg to manipulate him with words ("I 'm not fond of personal abuse, Colonel. I was in this man 's Army when the only thumb you cared about was the one you had in your mouth! ''). Flagg on one occasion countered this by circumventing Potter and obtaining, in effect, his written permission through I Corps to interrogate a wounded North Korean soldier. It was Major Winchester, however, who orchestrated the end of Flagg 's machinations by duping him into believing that a weekly bridge game with two South Korean officials was a Communist plot. When Flagg attempted to arrest the officials, they threatened to report him to I Corps. Flagg was never seen again after this.
Flagg 's paranoia is so acute that he even accuses Major Burns twice of being a Communist agent on the grounds that Burns has seen a performance of the Bolshoi Ballet in Tokyo and is reading Reader 's Digest, which Flagg notes would be "Red 's Digest '' if the 3rd, 5th, and 6th letters were eliminated. A running gag is Burns almost being beaten up by Flagg -- when Burns calls Flagg crazy, Flagg threatens to rip Burns ' heart out. Another time, Burns tries to buddy up to Flagg by slapping him on the shoulder. Flagg icily tells Burns "My father touched me like that once. To this day, he still has to wear orthopedic shirts. ''
Edward Winter 's first appearance on M * A * S * H is in the second - season episode "Deal Me Out '', in which he plays a CID captain named Halloran, and is listed in the credits as such. In the fourth - season episode "Quo Vadis, Captain Chandler? '' -- the next episode in which both Flagg and Sidney Freedman appear -- Flagg greets Sidney with the statement "We played poker once, '' to which Sidney replies, "Oh sure; with Intelligence, right? '' M * A * S * H often used recurring actors to portray different characters (Including Dick O'Neill, Tim O'Connor, Ted Gehring, and numerous Asian - American actors), however, the example of Capt. Halloran can be explained as one of Flagg 's many aliases.
Colonel Flagg appears in seven M * A * S * H episodes: "Deal Me Out '' (as Capt. Halloran), "A Smattering of Intelligence '', "Officer of the Day '', "White Gold '', "Quo Vadis, Captain Chandler? '', "The Abduction of Margaret Houlihan '', and "Rally ' Round the Flagg, Boys ''. In "A Smattering of Intelligence '' his first name is given as "Sam ''; a running gag is that his rank insignia is the same as that of the Commanding Officer of MASH 4077 either Lt. Col. or Colonel, although he first appears as a Captain; both his rank and his last name may be covers.
Flagg 's final appearance was in the episode "Rally ' Round the Flagg, Boys '', in which he offered Major Winchester a transfer back to the States in exchange for information on Hawkeye following Pierce 's decision to operate on a critically wounded North Korean ahead of an American GI. Under the appearance of cooperation, Winchester proceeded to ensnare Flagg in an elaborate trap that culminated in Flagg attempting to arrest the mayor and chief of police of Uijeongbu falsely assuming them to be Communists. With Potter, Hawkeye, Winchester, and two M.P. 's on hand to bear witness to Flagg 's folly, the South Korean officials threaten that through their military connections, they will see to it Flagg is severely disciplined. Hawkeye delightedly intones, "You 're gon na lose your magic decoder ring for this one! '' Flagg still falsely believes that the two are commie spies and that this goes to the top brass, forcing him to escape. Flagg does not appear on the show again, implying that he may have been severely punished for or at least mollified by his actions.
Flagg resurfaces a few years after the war, in a Hannibal, Missouri courtroom (as seen in the AfterMASH episode "Trials ''), in which he uses the name Flagg and asserts employment with an intelligence organization "which has initials and its members are allowed to carry firearms in their shoes. ''
Ken Levine, a writer for both M * A * S * H and AfterMASH, wrote in 2011, "We loved writing Col. Flagg (the hilarious Ed Winter) but always felt there was a danger in going to that well too often. So we tried to use him sparingly (once a season or every other season). He was incredibly funny but that character was very broad and we did n't want him to wear out his welcome. ''
Lieutenant Colonel Donald Penobscott was played by two actors, Beeson Carroll and former football player and Tarzan actor Mike Henry. Donald is introduced in name only at the start of the fifth season. Tall, dark, handsome, and muscular, he is a graduate of West Point who Major Margaret "Hot Lips '' Houlihan (Loretta Swit) meets while she is on leave in Tokyo. She falls madly in love with him on the spot, and he quickly asks her to marry him. Margaret promptly accepts, leading to a falling out with her former flame Frank Burns.
Penobscott is not actually seen until the season - ending episode "Margaret 's Marriage '', wherein Donald (played by Carroll) arrives to marry Margaret at the 4077th. Hawkeye and B.J. have a bachelor party for him, and after he passes out from drunkenness, the hosts, also inebriated, decide to play a joke on Penobscott by plastering him from his chest to his toes, intending to tell him that he had broken both his legs during the night. The cast is still on during the wedding ceremony, and he is unable to move without assistance. The wedding is cut short by incoming wounded, which leaves Donald in the mess hall, unable to move in his body cast. As Margaret leaves for her honeymoon, they make a halfhearted attempt to tell her that the cast could be removed, but she does n't hear them over the sound of the helicopter they are departing in.
He is not seen again until the sixth - season episode "The M * A * S * H Olympics '', in which Donald (played this time by Henry) arrives to visit Margaret and ends up taking part in the 4077th 's amateur Olympics competition; he almost wins a race against portly Sgt. First Class Ames, but Penobscott trips over himself while showing off.
He is mentioned frequently throughout the 6th and 7th seasons, particularly in reference to problems Margaret and Donald are having. For example, in the episode "In Love and War '', a new nurse arrives at the 4077th. After saying she was recently involved with a colonel named Donald, Margaret comes to the conclusion that Donald has cheated on her, and she flies into a rage against the nurse. In "Comrades in Arms '', Margaret receives a letter from Donald that was meant for another woman -- a letter that says unkind things about Margaret and hints at Donald having an affair with the other woman. Finally, in the season 7 episode "Peace on Us '', Margaret announces she 's getting a divorce. Margaret receives her official divorce decree from Donald in the episode "Hot Lips is Back in Town ''.
Major Sidney Theodore Freedman, played by Allan Arbus, is a psychiatrist frequently summoned in cases of mental health problems. His name is a play on that of psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. When Radar was written out of the series, the writers considered adding Sidney Freedman as a regular character. However, Allan Arbus did n't want to commit to be anything other than a guest star, so the character remained an occasionally recurring character. In the M * A * S * H 30th Anniversary Special that aired on Fox in 2002, Arbus was the only non-regular cast member to be featured on the special.
Freedman 's first appearance was in the episode "Radar 's Report ''. He visited the camp to do a psychiatric evaluation of Klinger, who was aiming for a Section 8 discharge (as always). After Freedman had finished the report, he quietly took Klinger in for an interview and told him that while he is obviously not mentally ill, Freedman was willing to declare him a transvestite and a homosexual. This label would not leave him, though; as Sidney put it: "From now on, you go through life on high heels. '' Klinger vociferously denied, "I ai n't any of those things! I 'm just crazy! '' Klinger 's discharge was uniformly dropped, and Freedman left the camp. In this first appearance in the series, Dr. Freedman 's first name was Milton instead of Sidney.
Freedman appears in 12 M * A * S * H episodes: "Radar 's Report '' (as Milton Freedman), "Deal Me Out '', "O.R. '', "Quo Vadis, Captain Chandler? '', "Dear Sigmund '', "Hawk 's Nightmare '', "War of Nerves '' (in which he qualified for a Purple Heart by being wounded while performing therapy follow - up on one of his patients), "The Billfold Syndrome '', "Goodbye, Cruel World '', "Bless You, Hawkeye '', "Pressure Points '', and the series finale, "Goodbye, Farewell and Amen ''. He is also mentioned, but does not appear onscreen, in the episodes "Mad Dogs and Servicemen, '' "Heal Thyself '', "A Holy Mess '', and "Trick or Treatment ''.
In the episode "O.R. '', Freedman told those gathered in the operating room, "Ladies and gentlemen, take my advice: Pull down your pants and slide on the ice. '' He repeated that advice in the series finale, following his treatment of Hawkeye, who had finally cracked under the strain of the war. Freedman led Hawkeye to stop suppressing the memory of seeing a Korean mother smothering her crying baby in an effort to keep it silent, so that a nearby Chinese patrol would not find and kill or capture their group. (In Hawkeye 's suppression, he had ' remembered ' that the mother had killed a ' chicken ', until Freedman brought the true memory into the light.) He convinced a reluctant Hawkeye that the best thing for him now was to return to duty for the last days of the war.
After leaving Korea and the Army, Dr. Freedman accepts a post at the University of Chicago. The AfterMASH episode "Madness to His Method '' has as its frame Colonel Potter writing a letter in Missouri about the episode 's situation to an unseen Freedman.
Captain Oliver Harmon "Spearchucker '' Jones originally appears in the novel MASH, and was portrayed by Fred Williamson in the movie and Timothy Brown in the television series. Spearchucker was shown during several episodes during the first season of the series. His full name was never mentioned in the series. The character 's middle name was Harmon in the film and Wendell in the novels. He is a board - certified neurosurgeon in the film, and in the episode in which Hawkeye becomes chief surgeon, Spearchucker 's specialty is indicated as he struggles to do surgery and when he asks Hawkeye for help he says "anything outside of the brain and I 'm dead ''.
Dr. Jones was one of the original Swampmen with Trapper, Hawkeye, and Frank Burns, and was the sole black surgeon at the 4077th. In the pilot episode, to raise funds for Ho - Jon 's education, Trapper "jokingly '' suggests selling Spearchucker. During his brief run on the show, it was implied that he and nurse Ginger Bayliss (played by Odessa Cleveland) were romantically involved.
Spearchucker 's role was limited. It is implied he assisted Hawkeye and Trapper in their schemes on the sidelines. The producers decided to drop the character after the first few episodes reasoning that they would n't be able to write enough meaningful episodes for Spearchucker if they were concentrating on Hawkeye and Trapper. Some accounts assert the producers were unable to find evidence for black Army surgeons in Korea; there were, however, a number of black surgeons who served in the U.S. military at the time.
"Spearchucker '' Jones was also a character in both the novel M * A * S * H (and its sequels) by Richard Hooker and Robert Altman 's movie. In each, the Spearchucker character is a superior surgeon who was also a stand - out collegiate athlete ("Spearchucker, '' a common racial slur, is said to refer in this case to his javelin - throwing prowess). Initially, he is transferred to the 4077th to help them win a football game (Jones is said to have played with the NFL 's San Francisco 49ers) against a rival outfit. It is established in the novel that Jones is from Duke Forrest 's hometown of Forest Park, Georgia, and knew Duke 's father. Duke makes racist comments about Jones, causing Hawkeye and Trapper to punish Duke. In the novel, it is related that while a poorly paid resident, he had been scouted by the Philadelphia Eagles playing semi-professional football in New Jersey for extra cash, and had been signed by the Eagles, playing with them until he was drafted. (Coincidentally, Timothy Brown played most of his nine - year NFL career with Philadelphia, and was selected to the team 's Honor Roll in 1990.)
In the sequel novels, particularly M * A * S * H Goes to Maine, Jones joins the other doctors in their practice in Spruce Harbor, Maine, becoming a highly successful doctor and prominent citizen.
Captain "Ugly '' John Black was portrayed by Carl Gottlieb in the movie, and John Orchard in the TV series. The character on the television show was an anesthesiologist from Australia, often depicted wearing an Australian Slouch hat. In the book, he was an American who had "trained in the States with McIntyre. '' In the film, he is an American (as he can be seen wearing the insignia of a U.S. Army Captain), but his background is not discussed. In the TV series, Ugly John was present only in the first season. He began as a significant supporting member of the cast, often engaged in poker games with Hawkeye and Trapper, but by the end of the season he was rarely seen outside brief O.R. scenes. Ugly John was never seen living in "The Swamp '' and there was no fifth bunk, though it was the only quarters for subordinate male officers ever seen. In the episode "Sometimes You Hear the Bullet '', Hawkeye says that he shares a tent with three other doctors. The script was likely written before Spearchucker was dropped and the writers presumably overlooked editing that line of dialogue. However, Ugly John was still a recurring character, and may have been one of the "three other doctors. '' John Orchard later returned to the show for the Season 8 episode "Captains Outrageous '', this time playing a drunken and corrupt Australian Military Policeman "Sgt. Muldoon ''.
Played by Odessa Cleveland on the TV series, Ginger is one of few nurses to have a recurring, speaking role in the series as the same character. Ginger appears to be a competent nurse who is well - liked by the medical staff, but occasionally runs afoul of Frank Burns who blames her for his mistakes, leading to Hawkeye and Trapper coming to her defense by pulling pranks on Frank.
Ginger is a commissioned Lieutenant, but is not a stickler for rules or military discipline like Major Houlihan. She is frequently seen fraternizing with Trapper and Spearchucker, even playing a game of "strip dominoes '' with the latter in the first - season episode, "Chief Surgeon Who? ''.
In the first - season episode, "Major Fred C. Dobbs '', Ginger is working with Frank in the O.R. When Frank botches his work, he blames Ginger and tells Maj. Houlihan that Ginger is, "an incompetent bungler. I never want her at my table again! '' Ginger is brought to tears by Frank 's verbal assault prompting Hawkeye and Trapper to encase Frank 's right arm in plaster capped with a metal hook while Frank is sleeping.
One of Ginger 's most prominent roles comes in the season 2 episode, "Dear Dad... Three '' where a wounded soldier requests that he be given blood only from white donors. Hawkeye and Trapper decide to teach him a lesson by tinting his skin darker while he is sedated and subsequently referring to him as "boy '' and bringing him fried chicken and watermelon to eat. When Ginger is doing her rounds in post-op, she looks at his chart and says, "They 've got you down as white. Good job, baby! '' When he angrily lashes out at her, she pulls rank on him, warning, "I 'm a lieutenant, soldier. I do n't care if you are passing, watch your mouth. '' Later, when Trapper and Hawkeye explain to the soldier that all blood is the same, he reflects upon his behavior. As he prepares to depart the 4077th to rejoin his unit, he thanks the doctors then turns and salutes Ginger, who returns the salute and wishes him well.
Ginger 's last appearance was in the season 4 episode, "The Late Captain Pierce ''. All told, Cleveland appeared in 25 episodes of M * A * S * H spanning seasons 1 - 4.
1st Lieutenant Maria "Dish '' Schneider was played by Jo Ann Pflug in the film and (as Lt. Maggie Dish) by Karen Philipp in the series. She was a nurse at the 4077th MASH during the Korean War.
Dish 's role in the finished film was limited, as a large portion of her role did not make the final cut. The same thing happened to the character in the television series. After being prominently featured as Hawkeye 's love interest in the pilot, she appeared in only one further episode (Episode 1 / 11) before leaving the show entirely. However, she continued to be featured in the opening credit montage sequence (wherein the M * A * S * H staff run toward approaching helicopters) for most of the show 's run.
1st Lt. Kealani Kellye was portrayed by Kellye Nakahara. She appeared in 86 episodes of the series, more episodes than some main characters, such as Henry Blake and Trapper John. The character grew steadily from a background (often non-speaking) character in the first season, to a speaking character with a character arc of her own, culminating in the season 11 episode "Hey, Look Me Over '' which was primarily about the character. In her first appearances, her name changed several times before it finally settled on "Nurse Kellye ''; for example, she was referred to as "Nurse Able '' in her first appearance in "A Full Rich Day ''. The first name "Kealani '' was never spoken on screen, but according to interviews with the actress, that was the first name used on set when referring to the character. On several occasions, though, she is called "Lt. Nakahara, '' notably in the season 10 episode "The Birthday Girls, '' and in the last regular episode of season 11, the final episode filmed, "As Time Goes By, '' Major Houlihan refers to Kellye as "Lt. Nakahara ''.
Originally from Honolulu, she described herself as "part Chinese, part Hawaiian '' in Episode 8 / 11 "Life Time '' and speaks Japanese, as revealed in "Communication Breakdown ''. She had great pride in her Asian American heritage and frequently took umbrage at racial slurs leveled by Frank Burns. Her family lives in Honolulu according to her statements in the final episode.
Nakahara joined Morgan, Christopher and Farr on AfterMASH, albeit off - camera, as the recurring voice of the public address system at the V.A. hospital.
Staff Sergeant Luther Wilson Rizzo was played by G.W. Bailey. In the show, he was the sergeant in charge of the motor pool. While originally written to be from New York City, when the producers heard Bailey 's southern accent in his first dailies his character was moved to Louisiana. He was known for his slow, deep, Louisiana drawl (Bailey himself is in fact Texan) and his slightly disheveled look. Though the motor pool seemed to function well, it did so despite Rizzo 's casual work style and frequent naps. His philosophy on success in the army was that it was possible to never do work, so long as your superiors do n't see you enjoy yourself: "Where else (but the Army) can you be a bum and get paid for it? ''
In the Season 10 episode "Promotion Commotion '', Rizzo was one of three 4077th enlisted who appeared before a promotion board consisting of Hawkeye, B.J., and Winchester. He was not promoted, but made it clear that he was American "with an American wife and American son (Billy Bubba). '' In Episode 10 / 21 his first name is given as "Wilson ''.
Rizzo enjoys shooting craps, and seems to win more than he loses. He also is the camp loan shark, getting Charles on his hook at one point to the extent he had to have money sent from home to clear his debt with the cigar - chewing sergeant.
Sergeant Rizzo is known to carry a grudge. On one occasion, he borrowed a deactivated hand grenade from Igor and used it to scare B.J. out of the shower after B.J. had given him a hard time. He had harsh words with Winchester when the latter, acting as motor pool officer, required him to completely disassemble a jeep 's engine and lay it out on white sheets, for no good reason that Rizzo could see. There was little doubt of the malicious delight he took in "Goodbye, Farewell and Amen '' while driving Winchester out of the deactivated camp in a garbage truck to start his trip home.
In the series finale, at the 4077th 's final dinner Rizzo claimed that he would be going home to work on a new moneymaking venture: breeding frogs to sell to French restaurants. This is a minor error; Rizzo had re-enlisted in the Army in a previous episode.
Staff Sergeant Zelmo Zale was portrayed by Johnny Haymer. Zale is the supply sergeant for the 4077th MASH and also is the camp 's electrician; he is shown trying to keep the camp 's generator going until it blows up. He is responsible for repairing the juke box in the officers ' club after the Marines bust it up. In the episode "Patent 4077 '', Zale describes himself a master craftsman. He mentions in one episode that he is from Brooklyn, which was the reason he did n't know what people who were heading to California in the late 1840s were looking for, when quizzed. He makes his first appearance in the Season 2 episode, "For Want of a Boot '', and his final appearance in the Season 8 episode, "Good - Bye Radar '' (which also marked Gary Burghoff 's last appearance on the show as Corporal Radar O'Reilly). Zale 's name is mentioned for the final time in "Yes Sir, That 's Our Baby ''. A running gag is his feud with Maxwell Klinger -- once Klinger hit Zale for insulting the Toledo Mud Hens and is put on KP for a whole month. Another time Major Burns manipulates Klinger and Zale into a boxing match, which results in Burns being knocked out by both men.
Sparky (Sgt. Pryor) is the mostly unseen telephone / radio operator at headquarters. His nickname is probably a carry - over from the days of telegraphy. ("Sparks '' is a similar nickname, as used, for instance, by Ellie 's father in the film Contact.) Radar almost always needs to go through Sparky when he makes a call to Seoul, Japan, or the U.S. (Sparky seems to be at his desk round the clock.) Sometimes, for special calls, Sparky requires a bribe to arrange the connection. The character is seen and heard only once, in the first - season episode "Tuttle ''. This is also the only time his rank and real name are mentioned. He is portrayed by Dennis Fimple, who plays him with a noticeable U.S. - Southern accent.
Ho - Jon was portrayed by Kim Atwood in the film, and Patrick Adiarte in the series. In the original novel, Ho - Jon is described as a 17 - year - old Korean, tall, thin, bright, Christian, and living in Seoul. He is drafted into the South Korean army, subsequently wounded and sent back to the 4077th for treatment. After rehabilitation, he resumes his position as "Swampboy ''. The Swampmen, who are very fond of Ho - Jon, arrange to have him sent to Hawkeye 's old college in the US. To raise funds, Trapper grows a beard, poses as Jesus Christ (complete with a cross mounted on a jeep or hanging from a helicopter), and autographs thousands of photos which the Swampmen sell for a buck apiece. In M * A * S * H Goes to Maine, Ho - Jon is briefly seen again, having pursued a successful career in university administration. In M * A * S * H Mania he is shown to have become the Director of Admissions at Androscoggin College (Hawkeye 's alma mater).
In the film, Ho - Jon is drafted, and Hawkeye drives him to the induction center. The Korean doctor who examines Ho - Jon discovers that Hawkeye has given him drugs to induce hypertension and tachycardia (so that he will fail the induction physical). Ho - Jon is last seen in the film being led away by South Korean soldiers while the doctor tells Hawkeye that he has seen through the trick.
In the screenplay, Ho - Jon is wounded and sent to the 4077th; however, his surgery is unsuccessful, and he dies. The completed film omits this storyline, although a scene showing Ho - Jon in the operating room remains with overdubbed dialogue (Houlihan: "That man 's a prisoner of war, Doctor. '' Trapper: "So are you, Sweetheart, but you do n't know it. '') and a scene showing a jeep driving off with the deceased Ho - Jon, causing a brief pause in the poker game.
In the pilot episode Ho - Jon is accepted at Hawkeye 's old college, just as in the novel. In the TV version, the doctors raise funds for him by raffling off a weekend pass to Tokyo with Nurse Dish.
In the episode "I Hate a Mystery '', Ho - Jon steals many valuable items and Hawkeye 's poker winnings in order to bribe the border guards to bring his family down from the North. This contrasts with an incident in the pilot where he receives his college acceptance letter and leaves to tell his parents, who presumably live nearby.
Roy Goldman is a corpsman who is assigned various duties at the 4077th. His name was not used for several seasons, and in an early season, while with another soldier, he is referred to as either Carter or Willis (it is not clear which of the two is which). He is also referred to in one episode as Fred. Later the name "Goldman '' was firmly established as his own. He is usually seen in a non-medical setting (such as guard duty), though he also does chores within the hospital. Goldman appears off and on throughout the run of series, usually when a soldier is needed for a random line or reaction. When Hawkeye walks into the mess tent naked, for example, Goldman is the first one to notice, dropping his metal tray in shock. He rarely has more than one or two lines, though in the episode "The Red / White Blues '', his reaction to a medication is an important plot point and he speaks quite a bit more. (It is hinted in that episode that he is Jewish.) The character was played by an actor not coincidentally named Roy Goldman.
Like Roy, he is a corpsman, and he is frequently seen together with Roy. Sometimes he is a jeep driver. Dennis has glasses and straight hair, and usually has a mustache. Dennis rarely speaks beyond a few words. In one episode, "Officer of the Day '', he appears with another soldier and his last name is said to be Carter or Willis (it is unclear who is being referred to). One of those names, however, applies to Roy Goldman (see above), thus one can assume that the name was merely a one - time usage. In the episode "Dr. Pierce and Mr. Hyde '', Dennis is General Clayton 's jeep driver, and it is uncertain, in that instance, whether he is based at the 4077th or not.
Private Igor Straminsky was generally portrayed by actor Jeff Maxwell, although Peter Riegert played him in two sixth - season episodes. He debuted in the second season and appeared on and off up until the series finale. He has appeared in more episodes than any recurring character except Nurse Kellye.
Igor 's role was often to serve food out in the mess and therefore also to serve as the foil for a lot of the complaints about the state of the food. He is also sometimes tasked with duties with Radar, as seen in the episode "Mulcahy 's War ''. As a comic relief buffoon he takes the part of Frank Burns as the village idiot.
In "Promotion Commotion '', Igor relentlessly tries to impress Hawkeye and B.J., so he can be promoted to Corporal. He once mentioned to Father Mulcahy that he sets aside three dollars from each salary payment for the local orphanage.
In "The Price of Tomato Juice, '' Igor identifies himself as "Maxwell, '' (a goof on the part of actor Jeff Maxwell) and Major Frank Burns also refers to him as "Maxwell '' in the following line of dialogue.
Igor became a fan favorite with both the fan base and the network. In later seasons, his roles were expanding, making him more of a recurring cast member.
The announcer on the public address system is heard throughout the film and in most episodes of the series. In the film, the voice is that of David Arkin. There were a few different voices in the series, among them Todd Susman 's and Sal Viscuso 's. (Viscuso is sometimes incorrectly listed as having been the P.A. announcer in the film.) In the series, it is unknown where on the base the P.A. announcer is posted, as Radar is the only one seen in control of the radio and P.A. system. In the episode "A Full Rich Day '', Blake says, "Tony, hit it, '' cueing the national anthem of Luxembourg over the P.A. -- Tony could have been the name of the announcer starting a record or the name of a "live '' pianist.
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what are the top 10 largest cities in the world by population | List of cities proper by Population - wikipedia
This article lists the most populous cities in the world defined according to the concept of "city proper ''. A city proper is a locality defined according to legal or political boundaries and an administratively recognised urban status that is usually characterised by some form of local government. Cities proper and their boundaries and population data may not include suburbs.
World Urbanization Prospects, a UN publication, defines population of a city proper as "the population living within the administrative boundaries of a city or controlled directly from the city by a single authority. '' The book continues to say that "city proper as defined by administrative boundaries may not include suburban areas where an important proportion of the population working or studying in the city lives. '' This definition does not give an accurate picture of the urban area or metropolitan area of cities. Using this strictly administrative definition, many cities will be included on this list that are smaller than their urban area. However, many Chinese cities included govern territories that extend well beyond the traditional "city proper '' into suburban and rural areas.
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when did at home pregnancy tests come out | Pregnancy test - wikipedia
A pregnancy test attempts to determine whether or not a woman is pregnant. Indicative markers are found in blood and urine, and pregnancy tests require sampling one of these substances. The first of these markers to be discovered, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), was discovered in 1930 to be produced by the syncytiotrophoblast cells of the fertilised ova (eggs).
While hCG is a reliable marker of pregnancy, it can not be detected until after implantation; this results in false negatives if the test is performed during the very early stages of pregnancy. HCG can be detected via blood 8 days after fertilization of the egg, and in the urine 10 days after.
Obstetric ultrasonography may also be used to detect pregnancy. Obstetric ultrasonography was first practiced in the 1960s; the first home test kit for hCG was invented in 1968. The kits went on the market in the United States and Europe in the mid-1970s.
The test for pregnancy which can give the quickest result after fertilisation is a rosette inhibition assay for early pregnancy factor (EPF). EPF can be detected in blood within 48 hours of fertilization. However, testing for EPF is expensive and time - consuming.
Most chemical tests for pregnancy look for the presence of the beta subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the blood or urine. hCG can be detected in urine or blood after implantation, which occurs six to twelve days after fertilization. Quantitative blood (serum beta) tests can detect hCG levels as low as 1 mIU / mL, while urine test strips have published detection thresholds of 10 mIU / mL to 100 mIU / mL, depending on the brand. Qualitative blood tests generally have a threshold of 25 mIU / mL, and so are less sensitive than some available home pregnancy tests. Most home pregnancy tests are based on lateral - flow technology.
With obstetric ultrasonography the gestational sac sometimes can be visualized as early as four and a half weeks of gestation (approximately two and a half weeks after ovulation) and the yolk sac at about five weeks ' gestation. The embryo can be observed and measured by about five and a half weeks. The heartbeat may be seen as early as six weeks, and is usually visible by seven weeks ' gestation.
A systematic review published in 1998 showed that home pregnancy test kits, when used by experienced technicians, are almost as accurate as professional laboratory testing (97.4 %). When used by consumers, however, the accuracy fell to 75 %: the review authors noted that many users misunderstood or failed to follow the instructions included in the kits. Improper usage may cause both false negatives and false positives.
False negative readings can occur when testing is done too early. Quantitative blood tests and the most sensitive urine tests usually begin to detect hCG shortly after implantation, which can occur anywhere from 6 to 12 days after ovulation. hCG levels continue to rise through the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, so the chances of false negative test results diminish with time (gestation age). Less sensitive urine tests and qualitative blood tests may not detect pregnancy until three or four days after implantation. Menstruation occurs on average 14 days after ovulation, so the likelihood of a false negative is low once a menstrual period is late.
Ovulation may not occur at a predictable time in the menstrual cycle, however. A number of factors may cause an unexpectedly early or late ovulation, even for women with a history of regular menstrual cycles. Using ovulation predictor kits (OPKs), or charting the fertility signs of cervical mucus or basal body temperature give a more accurate idea of when to test than day - counting alone.
The accuracy of a pregnancy test is most closely related to the day of ovulation, not of the act of intercourse or insemination that caused the pregnancy. It is normal for sperm to live up to five days in the fallopian tubes, waiting for ovulation to occur. It could take up to 12 further days for implantation to occur, meaning even the most sensitive pregnancy tests may give false negatives up to 17 days after the act that caused the pregnancy. Because some home pregnancy tests have high hCG detection thresholds (up to 100 mIU / mL), it may take an additional three or four days for hCG to rise to levels detectable by these tests -- meaning false negatives may occur up to three weeks after the act of intercourse or insemination that causes pregnancy.
False positive test results may occur for several reasons, including errors of test application, use of drugs containing the hCG molecule, and non-pregnant production of the hCG molecule. Urine tests can be falsely positive in those that are taking the medications: chlorpromazine, phenothiazines and methadone among others.
Spurious evaporation lines may appear on many home pregnancy tests if read after the suggested 3 -- 5 minute window or reaction time, independent of an actual pregnancy. False positives may also appear on tests used past their expiration date.
A woman who has been given an hCG injection as part of infertility treatment will test positive on pregnancy tests that assay hCG, regardless of her actual pregnancy status. However, some infertility drugs (e.g., clomid) do not contain the hCG hormone.
Some diseases of the liver, cancers, and other medical conditions may produce elevated hCG and thus cause a false positive pregnancy test. These include choriocarcinoma and other germ cell tumors, IgA deficiencies, heterophile antibodies, enterocystoplasties, gestational trophoblastic diseases (GTD), and gestational trophoblastic neoplasms.
Pregnancy tests may be used to determine the viability of a pregnancy. Serial quantitative blood tests may be done, usually 3 -- 4 days apart. Below an hCG level of 1,200 mIU / ml the hCG usually doubles every 48 -- 72 hours, though a rise of 50 -- 60 % is still considered normal. Between 1,200 and 6,000 mIU / ml serum the hCG usually takes 72 -- 90 hours to double, and above 6,000 mIU / ml, the hCG often takes more than four days to double. Failure to increase normally may indicate an increased risk of miscarriage or a possible ectopic pregnancy.
Ultrasound is also a common tool for determining viability. A lower than expected heart rate or missed development milestones may indicate a problem with the pregnancy. Diagnosis should not be made from a single ultrasound, however. Inaccurate estimations of fetal age and inaccuracies inherent in ultrasonic examination may cause a scan to be interpreted negatively. If results from the first ultrasound scan indicate a problem, repeating the scan 7 -- 10 days later is reasonable practice.
Records of attempts at pregnancy testing have been found as far back as the ancient Greek and ancient Egyptian cultures. The ancient Egyptians watered bags of wheat and barley with the urine of a possibly pregnant woman. Germination indicated pregnancy. The type of grain that sprouted was taken as an indicator of the fetus 's sex. Hippocrates suggested that a woman who had missed her period should drink a solution of honey in water at bedtime: resulting abdominal distention and cramps would indicate the presence of a pregnancy. Avicenna and many physicians after him in the Middle Ages performed uroscopy, a nonscientific method to evaluate urine.
Selmar Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek introduced testing based on the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in 1928. Early studies of hCG had concluded that it was produced by the pituitary gland. In the 1930s, Georgeanna Jones discovered that hCG was produced not by the pituitary gland, but by the placenta. This discovery was important in relying on hCG as an early marker of pregnancy. In the Aschheim and Zondek test, an infantile female mouse was injected subcutaneously with urine of the person to be tested, and the mouse later was killed and dissected. Presence of ovulation indicated that the urine contained hCG and meant that the person was pregnant. A similar test was developed using immature rabbits. Here, too, killing the animal to check her ovaries was necessary. An improvement arrived with the frog test, introduced by Lancelot Hogben, which still was used in the 1950s and allowed the frog to remain alive and be used repeatedly: a female frog was injected with serum or urine of the patient; if the frog produced eggs within the next 24 hours, the test was positive. This was called the Bufo test, named after the toad genus Bufo, which was originally used for the test. Other species of toads and frogs have been used later on.
Hormonal pregnancy tests such as Primodos and Duogynon were used in the 1960s and 1970s in the UK and Germany. These tests involved taking a dosed amount of hormones, and observing the response a few days later. A pregnant woman does not react, as she is producing the hormones in pregnancy; a woman not pregnant responds to the absence of the hormone by beginning a new menstrual cycle. While the test was (is) generally considered accurate, research advancements have replaced it with simpler techniques.
Immunologic pregnancy tests were introduced in 1960 when Wide and Gemzell presented a test based on in - vitro hemagglutination inhibition. This was a first step away from in - vivo pregnancy testing and initiated a series of improvements in pregnancy testing leading to the contemporary at - home testing. Direct measurement of antigens, such as hCG, was made possible after the invention of the radioimmunoassay in 1959. Radioimmunoassays require sophisticated apparatus and special radiation precautions and are expensive.
Organon International obtained the first patent on a home pregnancy test in 1969, two years after product designer Margaret Crane noticed that the laboratory testing procedure was relatively simple and made a prototype. The product became available in Canada in 1971, and the United States in 1977, after delays caused by concerns over sexual morality and the ability of women to perform test and cope with the results without a doctor.
Another home pregnancy testing kit was based on the work of Judith Vaitukaitis and Glenn Braunstein, who developed a sensitive hCG assay at the National Institutes of Health. That test went onto the market in 1978. In the 1970s, the discovery of monoclonal antibodies led to the development of the relatively simple and cheap immunoassays, such as agglutination - inhibition - based assays and sandwich ELISA, used in modern home pregnancy tests. Tests are now so cheap that they can be mass - produced in a general publication and used for advertising.
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who was most impacted by tax increases in massachusetts in 1786 | History of Protestantism in the United States - wikipedia
Christianity was introduced with the first European settlers beginning in the 16th and 17th centuries. Colonists from Northern Europe introduced Protestantism in its Anglican and Reformed forms to Plymouth Colony, Massachusetts Bay Colony, New Netherland, Virginia Colony, and Carolina Colony. The first arrivals were adherents to Anglicanism, Congregationalism, Presbyterianism, Lutheranism, Quakerism, Anabaptism and the Moravian Church from British, German, Dutch, and Nordic stock. America emerged as a Protestant majority nation, with significant minorities of Roman Catholics and Jews.
Altogether, Protestants comprised the majority of the population until 2012 when the Protestant share of U.S. population dropped to 48 %, thus ending its status as religion of the majority. The decline is attributed mainly to the dropping membership of the Mainline Protestant churches, while Evangelical Protestant and Black churches are stable or continue to grow. Today, 46.5 % of the United States population is either Mainline Protestant, Evangelical Protestant, or a Black church attendee.
A small group of Pilgrims settled the Plymouth Colony in Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1620, seeking refuge from conflicts in England which led up to the English Civil War.
The Puritans, a much larger group than the Pilgrims, established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 with 400 settlers. Puritans were English Protestants who wished to reform and purify the Church of England in the New World of what they considered to be unacceptable residues of Roman Catholicism. Within two years, an additional 2,000 settlers arrived. Beginning in 1630, some 20,000 Puritans emigrated as families to New England to gain the liberty to worship as they chose. Theologically, the Puritans were "non-separating Congregationalists ''. The Puritans created a deeply religious, socially tight - knit and politically innovative culture that is still present in the modern United States. They hoped this new land would serve as a "redeemer nation ''. By the mid-18th century, the Puritans were known as Congregationalists.
The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings before local magistrates followed by county court trials to prosecute people accused of witchcraft in Essex, Suffolk and Middlesex counties of colonial Massachusetts, between February 1692 and May 1693. Over 150 people were arrested and imprisoned. Church leaders finally realized their mistake, ended the trials, and never repeated them.
In 1619, the Anglican Church was formally established as the official religion in the colony, and would remain so until it was disestablished shortly after the American Revolution. Establishment meant that local tax funds paid the parish costs, and that the parish had local civic functions such as poor relief. The upper class planters controlled the vestry, which ran the parish and chose the minister. The church in Virginia was controlled by the Bishop of London, who sent priests and missionaries but there were never enough, and they reported very low standards of personal morality.
The colonists were typically inattentive, uninterested, and bored during church services, according to the ministers, who complained that the people were sleeping, whispering, ogling the fashionably dressed women, walking about and coming and going, or at best looking out the windows or staring blankly into space. There were too few ministers for the widely scattered population, so ministers encouraged parishioners to become devout at home, using the Book of Common Prayer for private prayer and devotion (rather than the Bible). This allowed devout Anglicans to lead an active and sincere religious life apart from the unsatisfactory formal church services. The stress on personal piety opened the way for the First Great Awakening, which pulled people away from the established church. By the 1760s, dissenting Protestants, especially Baptists and Methodists, were growing rapidly and started challenging the Anglicans for moral leadership.
Roger Williams, who preached religious tolerance, separation of church and state, and a complete break with the Church of England, was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and founded Rhode Island Colony, which became a haven for other religious refugees from the Puritan community. Some migrants who came to Colonial America were in search of the freedom to practice forms of Christianity which were prohibited and persecuted in Europe. Since there was no state religion, in fact there was not yet a state, and since Protestantism had no central authority, religious practice in the colonies became diverse.
The Religious Society of Friends formed in England in 1652 around leader George Fox. Quakers were severely persecuted in England for daring to deviate so far from Anglicanism. This reign of terror impelled Friends to seek refuge in New Jersey in the 1670s, formally part of New Netherland, where they soon became well entrenched. In 1681, when Quaker leader William Penn parlayed a debt owed by Charles II to his father into a charter for the Province of Pennsylvania, many more Quakers were prepared to grasp the opportunity to live in a land where they might worship freely. By 1685, as many as 8,000 Quakers had come to Pennsylvania. Although the Quakers may have resembled the Puritans in some religious beliefs and practices, they differed with them over the necessity of compelling religious uniformity in society.
Pennsylvania Germans are inaccurately known as Pennsylvania Dutch from a misunderstanding of "Pennsylvania Deutsch '', the group 's German language name. The first group of Germans to settle in Pennsylvania arrived in Philadelphia in 1683 from Krefeld, Germany, and included Mennonites and possibly some Dutch Quakers.
The efforts of the founding fathers to find a proper role for their support of religion -- and the degree to which religion can be supported by public officials without being inconsistent with the revolutionary imperative of freedom of religion for all citizens -- is a question that is still debated in the country today.
American Anti-Catholicism has its origins in the Reformation. Because the Reformation was based on an effort to correct what it perceived to be errors and excesses of the Catholic Church, it formed strong positions against the Roman clerical hierarchy and the Papacy in particular. These positions were brought to the New World by British colonists who were predominantly Protestant, and who opposed not only the Roman Catholic Church but also the Church of England which, due to its perpetuation of Catholic doctrine and practices, was deemed to be insufficiently reformed, see also Ritualism. Because many of the British colonists, such as the Puritans, were fleeing religious persecution, early American religious culture exhibited a more extreme anti-Catholic bias of these Protestant denominations, thus were Roman Catholics forbidden from holding public office.
Monsignor Ellis wrote that a universal anti-Catholic bias was "vigorously cultivated in all the thirteen colonies from Massachusetts to Georgia '' and that Colonial charters and laws contained specific proscriptions against Roman Catholics. Ellis also wrote that a common hatred of the Roman Catholic Church could unite Anglican clerics and Puritan ministers despite their differences and conflicts.
Against a prevailing view that 18th - century Americans had not perpetuated the first settlers ' passionate commitment to their faith, scholars now identify a high level of religious energy in colonies after 1700. According to one expert, religion was in the "ascension rather than the declension ''; another sees a "rising vitality in religious life '' from 1700 onward; a third finds religion in many parts of the colonies in a state of "feverish growth. '' Figures on church attendance and church formation support these opinions. Between 1700 and 1740, an estimated 75 - 80 % of the population attended churches, which were being built at a headlong pace.
By 1780 the percentage of adult colonists who adhered to a church was between 10 - 30 %, not counting slaves or Native Americans. North Carolina had the lowest percentage at about 4 %, while New Hampshire and South Carolina were tied for the highest, at about 16 %.
Evangelicalism is difficult to date and to define. Scholars have argued that, as a self - conscious movement, evangelicalism did not arise until the mid-17th century, perhaps not until the Great Awakening itself. The fundamental premise of evangelicalism is the conversion of individuals from a state of sin to a "new birth '' through preaching of the Word. The Great Awakening refers to a northeastern Protestant revival movement that took place in the 1730s and 1740s.
The first generation of New England Puritans required that church members undergo a conversion experience that they could describe publicly. Their successors were not as successful in reaping harvests of redeemed souls. The movement began with Jonathan Edwards, a Massachusetts preacher who sought to return to the Pilgrims ' strict Calvinist roots. British preacher George Whitefield and other itinerant preachers continued the movement, traveling across the colonies and preaching in a dramatic and emotional style. Followers of Edwards and other preachers of similar religiosity called themselves the "New Lights, '' as contrasted with the "Old Lights, '' who disapproved of their movement. To promote their viewpoints, the two sides established academies and colleges, including Princeton and Williams College. The Great Awakening has been called the first truly American event.
The supporters of the Awakening and its evangelical thrust -- Presbyterians, Baptists and Methodists -- became the largest American Protestant denominations by the first decades of the 19th century. By the 1770s, the Baptists were growing rapidly both in the north (where they founded Brown University), and in the South. Opponents of the Awakening or those split by it -- Anglicans, Quakers, and Congregationalists -- were left behind.
The Revolution split some denominations, notably the Church of England, whose ministers were bound by oath to support the king, and the Quakers, who were traditionally pacifists. Religious practice suffered in certain places because of the absence of ministers and the destruction of churches, but in other areas, religion flourished.
The American Revolution inflicted deeper wounds on the Church of England in America than on any other denomination because the King of England was the head of the church. The Book of Common Prayer offered prayers for the monarch, beseeching God "to be his defender and keeper, giving him victory over all his enemies, '' who in 1776 were American soldiers as well as friends and neighbors of American Anglicans. Loyalty to the church and to its head could be construed as treason to the American cause. Patriotic American Anglicans, loathing to discard so fundamental a component of their faith as The Book of Common Prayer, revised it to conform to the political realities.
Another result of this was that the first constitution of an independent Anglican Church in the country bent over backwards to distance itself from Rome by calling itself the Protestant Episcopal Church, incorporating in its name the term, Protestant, that Anglicans elsewhere had shown some care in using too prominently due to their own reservations about the nature of the Church of England, and other Anglican bodies, vis - à - vis later radical reformers who were happier to use the term Protestant.
After independence the American states were obliged to write constitutions establishing how each would be governed. For three years, from 1778 to 1780, the political energies of Massachusetts were absorbed in drafting a charter of government that the voters would accept.
One of the most contentious issues was whether the state would support the church financially. Advocating such a policy were the ministers and most members of the Congregational Church, which had been established, and hence had received public financial support, during the colonial period. The Baptists, who had grown strong since the Great Awakening, tenaciously adhered to their ancient conviction that churches should receive no support from the state.
The Constitutional Convention chose to support the church and Article Three authorized a general religious tax to be directed to the church of a taxpayers ' choice. Despite substantial doubt that Article Three had been approved by the required two thirds of the voters, in 1780 Massachusetts authorities declared it and the rest of the state constitution to have been duly adopted. Such tax laws also took effect in Connecticut and New Hampshire.
In 1788, John Jay urged the New York Legislature to require office - holders to renounce foreign authorities "in all matters ecclesiastical as well as civil. ''.
During the Second Great Awakening, Protestantism grew and took root in new areas, along with new Protestant denominations such as Adventism, the Restoration Movement, and groups such as Mormonism. While the First Great Awakening was centered on reviving the spirituality of established congregations, the Second Great Awakening (1800 -- 1830s), unlike the first, focused on the unchurched and sought to instill in them a deep sense of personal salvation as experienced in revival meetings.
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Bishop Francis Asbury led the American Methodist movement as one of the most prominent religious leaders of the young republic. Traveling throughout the eastern seaboard, Methodism grew quickly under Asbury 's leadership into one of the nation 's largest and most influential denominations.
The principal innovation produced by the revivals was the camp meeting. The revivals were organized by Presbyterian ministers who modeled them after the extended outdoor communion seasons, used by the Presbyterian Church in Scotland, which frequently produced emotional, demonstrative displays of religious conviction. In Kentucky, the pioneers loaded their families and provisions into their wagons and drove to the Presbyterian meetings, where they pitched tents and settled in for several days.
When assembled in a field or at the edge of a forest for a prolonged religious meeting, the participants transformed the site into a camp meeting. The religious revivals that swept the Kentucky camp meetings were so intense and created such gusts of emotion that their original sponsors, the Presbyterians, soon repudiated them. The Methodists, however, adopted and eventually domesticated camp meetings and introduced them into the eastern United States, where for decades they were one of the evangelical signatures of the denomination.
In October 1801, members of the Danbury Baptists Associations wrote a letter to the new president - elect Thomas Jefferson. Baptists, being a minority in Connecticut, were still required to pay fees to support the Congregationalist majority. The Baptists found this intolerable. The Baptists, well aware of Jefferson 's own unorthodox beliefs, sought him as an ally in making all religious expression a fundamental human right and not a matter of government largesse.
In his January 1, 1802 reply to the Danbury Baptist Association Jefferson summed up the First Amendment 's original intent, and used for the first time anywhere a now - familiar phrase in today 's political and judicial circles: the amendment established a "wall of separation between church and state. '' Largely unknown in its day, this phrase has since become a major Constitutional issue. The first time the U.S. Supreme Court cited that phrase from Jefferson was in 1878, 76 years later.
The Christianity of the black population was grounded in evangelicalism. The Second Great Awakening has been called the "central and defining event in the development of Afro - Christianity. '' During these revivals Baptists and Methodists converted large numbers of blacks. However, many were disappointed at the treatment they received from their fellow believers and at the backsliding in the commitment to abolish slavery that many white Baptists and Methodists had advocated immediately after the American Revolution.
When their discontent could not be contained, forceful black leaders followed what was becoming an American habit -- they formed new denominations. In 1787, Richard Allen and his colleagues in Philadelphia broke away from the Methodist Church and in 1815 founded the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church, which, along with independent black Baptist congregations, flourished as the century progressed.
The first American movement to abolish slavery came in the spring of 1688 when German and Dutch Quakers of Mennonitedescent in Germantown, Pennsylvania (now part of Philadelphia) wrote a two - page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church, the Society of Friends. Though the Quaker establishment took no immediate action, the 1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, was an unusually early, clear and forceful argument against slavery and initiated the process of banning slavery in the Society of Friends (1776) and Pennsylvania (1780).
The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage was the first American abolition society, formed 14 April 1775, in Philadelphia, primarily by Quakers who had strong religious objections to slavery.
After the American Revolutionary War, Quaker and Moravian advocates helped persuade numerous slaveholders in the Upper South to free their slaves. Theodore Weld, an evangelical minister, and Robert Purvis, a free African American, joined Garrison in 1833 to form the Anti-Slavery Society (Faragher 381). The following year Weld encouraged a group of students at Lane Theological Seminary to form an anti-slavery society. After the president, Lyman Beecher, attempted to suppress it, the students moved to Oberlin College. Due to the students ' anti-slavery position, Oberlin soon became one of the most liberal colleges and accepted African American students. Along with Garrison, were Northcutt and Collins as proponents of immediate abolition. These two ardent abolitionists felt very strongly that it could not wait and that action needed to be taken right away.
After 1840 "abolition '' usually referred to positions like Garrison 's; it was largely an ideological movement led by about 3000 people, including free blacks and people of color, many of whom, such as Frederick Douglass, and Robert Purvis and James Forten in Philadelphia, played prominent leadership roles. Abolitionism had a strong religious base including Quakers, and people converted by the revivalist fervor of the Second Great Awakening, led by Charles Finney in the North in the 1830s. Belief in abolition contributed to the breaking away of some small denominations, such as the Free Methodist Church.
Evangelical abolitionists founded some colleges, most notably Bates College in Maine and Oberlin College in Ohio. The well - established colleges, such as Harvard, Yale and Princeton, generally opposed abolition, although the movement did attract such figures as Yale president Noah Porter and Harvard president Thomas Hill.
One historian observed that ritualist churches separated themselves from heretics rather than sinners; he observed that Episcopalians and Lutherans also accommodated themselves to slavery. (Indeed, one southern Episcopal bishop was a Confederate general.) There were more reasons than religious tradition, however, as the Anglican Church had been the established church in the South during the colonial period. It was linked to the traditions of landed gentry and the wealthier and educated planter classes, and the Southern traditions longer than any other church. In addition, while the Protestant missionaries of the Great Awakening initially opposed slavery in the South, by the early decades of the 19th century, Baptist and Methodist preachers in the South had come to an accommodation with it in order to evangelize with farmers and artisans. By the Civil War, the Baptist and Methodist churches split into regional associations because of slavery.
After O'Connell's failure, the American Repeal Associations broke up; but the Garrisonians rarely relapsed into the "bitter hostility '' of American Protestants towards the Roman Church. Some antislavery men joined the Know Nothings in the collapse of the parties; but Edmund Quincy ridiculed it as a mushroom growth, a distraction from the real issues. Although the Know - Nothing legislature of Massachusetts honored Garrison, he continued to oppose them as violators of fundamental rights to freedom of worship.
The abolitionist movement was strengthened by the activities of free African - Americans, especially in the black church, who argued that the old Biblical justifications for slavery contradicted the New Testament. African - American activists and their writings were rarely heard outside the black community; however, they were tremendously influential to some sympathetic white people, most prominently the first white activist to reach prominence, William Lloyd Garrison, who was its most effective propagandist. Garrison 's efforts to recruit eloquent spokesmen led to the discovery of ex-slave Frederick Douglass, who eventually became a prominent activist in his own right.
The "secularization of society '' is attributed to the time of the Enlightenment. In the United States, religious observance is much higher than in Europe, and the United States ' culture leans conservative in comparison to other western nations, in part due to the Christian element.
Liberal Christianity, exemplified by some theologians, sought to bring to churches new critical approaches to the Bible. Sometimes called liberal theology, liberal Christianity is an umbrella term covering movements and ideas within 19th - and 20th - century Christianity. New attitudes became evident, and the practice of questioning the nearly universally accepted Christian orthodoxy began to come to the forefront.
In the post -- World War I era, Liberalism was the faster - growing sector of the American church. Liberal wings of denominations were on the rise, and a considerable number of seminaries held and taught from a liberal perspective as well. In the post -- World war II era, the trend began to swing back towards the conservative camp in America 's seminaries and church structures.
Christian fundamentalism began as a movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to reject influences of secular humanism and source criticism in modern Christianity. In reaction to liberal Protestant groups that denied doctrines considered fundamental to these conservative groups, they sought to establish tenets necessary to maintaining a Christian identity, the "fundamentals, '' hence the term fundamentalist.
Especially targeting critical approaches to the interpretation of the Bible, and trying to blockade the inroads made into their churches by secular scientific assumptions, the fundamentalists grew in various denominations as independent movements of resistance to the drift away from historic Christianity.
Over time, the movement divided, with the label Fundamentalist being retained by the smaller and more hard - line group (s). Evangelical has become the main identifier of the groups holding to the movement 's moderate and earliest ideas.
By the 1850s, Roman Catholics had become the country 's largest single denomination. Between 1860 and 1890 the population of Roman Catholics in the United States tripled through immigration; by the end of the decade it would reach 7 million. These huge numbers of immigrant Catholics came from Ireland, Southern Germany, Italy, Poland and Eastern Europe. This influx would eventually bring increased political power for the Roman Catholic Church and a greater cultural presence, led at the same time to a growing fear of the Catholic "menace. '' As the 19th century wore on animosity waned, Protestant Americans realized that Roman Catholics were not trying to seize control of the government. Nonetheless, fears continued into the 20th century that there was too much "Catholic influence '' on the government.
Anti-Catholic animus in the United States reached a peak in the 19th century when the Protestant population became alarmed by the influx of Catholic immigrants. Fearing the end of time, some American Protestants who believed they were God 's chosen people, went so far as to claim that the Catholic Church was the Whore of Babylon in the Book of Revelation.
The resulting "Nativist '' movement, which achieved prominence in the 1840s, was whipped into a frenzy of anti-Catholicism that led to mob violence, the burning of Catholic property, and the killing of Catholics.
This violence was fed by claims that Catholics were destroying the culture of the United States. Irish Catholic immigrants were blamed for raising the taxes of the country as well as for spreading violence and disease.
The nativist movement found expression in a national political movement called the Know - Nothing Party of the 1850s, which (unsuccessfully) ran former president Millard Fillmore as its presidential candidate in 1856.
The Catholic parochial school system developed in the early - to - mid-19th century partly in response to what was seen as anti-Catholic bias in American public schools. The recent wave of newly established Protestant schools is sometimes similarly attributed to the teaching of evolution (as opposed to creationism) in public schools.
Most states passed a constitutional amendment, called "Blaine Amendments, forbidding tax money be used to fund parochial schools, a possible outcome with heavy immigration from Catholic Ireland after the 1840s. In 2002, the United States Supreme Court partially vitiated these amendments, in theory, when they ruled that vouchers were constitutional if tax dollars followed a child to a school, even if it were religious. However, no state school system had, by 2009, changed its laws to allow this.
The Scopes Monkey Trial was an American legal case that tested the Butler Act, which made it unlawful, in any state - funded educational establishment in Tennessee, "to teach any theory that denies the story of the Divine Creation of man as taught in the Bible, and to teach instead that man has descended from a lower order of animals. '' This is often interpreted as meaning that the law forbade the teaching of any aspect of the theory of evolution. The case was a critical turning point in the United States ' creation - evolution controversy.
After the passage of the Butler Act, the American Civil Liberties Union financed a test case, where a Dayton, Tennesseehigh school teacher named John Scopes intentionally violated the Act. Scopes was charged on May 5, 1925 with teaching evolution from a chapter in a textbook which showed ideas developed from those set out in Charles Darwin 's book On the Origin of Species. The trial pitted two of the pre-eminent legal minds of the time against one another; three - time presidential candidate, Congressman and former Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan headed up the prosecution and prominent trial attorney Clarence Darrow spoke for the defense. The famous trial was made infamous by the fictionalized accounts given in the 1955 play Inherit the Wind, the 1960 film adaptation, and the 1965, 1988, and 1999 television films of the same title.
In the U.S. and elsewhere in the world, there has been a marked rise in the evangelical movement. It began in the colonial era in the revivals of the First Great Awakening and the Second Great Awakening in 1830 - 50. Balmer explains that:
The 1950s saw a boom in the Evangelical church in America. The post -- World War II prosperity experienced in the U.S. also had its effects on the church. Church buildings were erected in large numbers, and the Evangelical church 's activities grew along with this expansive physical growth. In the southern U.S., the Evangelicals, represented by leaders such as Billy Graham, have experienced a notable surge displacing the caricature of the pulpit pounding country preachers of fundamentalism. The stereotypes have gradually shifted.
Evangelicals are as diverse as the names that appear: Billy Graham, Chuck Colson, J. Vernon McGee, or Jimmy Carter -- or even Evangelical institutions such as Gordon - Conwell Theological Seminary (Boston) or Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (Chicago). Although there exists a diversity in the Evangelical community worldwide, the ties that bind all Evangelicals are still apparent: a "high view '' of Scripture, belief in the Deity of Christ, the Trinity, salvation by grace through faith, and the bodily resurrection of Christ, to mention a few.
Pentecostalism arose and developmented in 20th - century Christianity. The Pentecostal movement had its roots in the Pietism and the Holiness movement, and arose out of the meetings in 1906 at an urban mission on Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles, California
The Azusa Street Revival and was led by William J. Seymour, an African American preacher and began with a meeting on April 14, 1906 at the African Methodist Episcopal Church and continued until roughly 1915. The revival was characterized by ecstatic spiritual experiences accompanied by speaking in tongues, dramatic worship services, and inter-racial mingling. It was the primary catalyst for the rise of Pentecostalism, and as spread by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there.
Many Pentecostals embrace the term Evangelical, while others prefer "Restorationist ''. Within classical Pentecostalism there are three major orientations: Wesleyan - Holiness, Higher Life, and Oneness.
Pentecostalism would later birth the Charismatic movement within already established denominations; some Pentecostals use the two terms interchangeably. Pentecostalism claims more than 250 million adherents worldwide. When Charismatics are added with Pentecostals the number increases to nearly a quarter of the world 's 2 billion Christians.
Data from the Pew Research Center that as of 2013, about 1.6 million adult Jews identify themselves as Christians, most are Protestant. According to same data most of the Jews who identify themselves as some sort of Christian (1.6 million) were raised as Jews or are Jews by ancestry. A 2015 study estimated some 450,000 American Muslims convert to Christianity, most of whom belong to an evangelical or Pentecostal community.
The Federal Council of Churches, founded in 1908, marked the first major expression of a growing modern ecumenical movement among Christians in the United States. It was active in pressing for reform of public and private policies, particularly as they impacted the lives of those living in poverty, and developed a comprehensive and widely debated Social Creed which served as a humanitarian "bill of rights '' for those seeking improvements in American life.
In 1950, the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA (usually identified as National Council of Churches, or NCC) represented a dramatic expansion in the development of ecumenical cooperation. It was a merger of the Federal Council of Churches, the International Council of Religious Education, and several other interchurch ministries. Today, the NCC is a joint venture of 35 Christian denominations in the United States with 100,000 local congregations and 45,000,000 adherents. Its member communions include Mainline Protestant, Orthodox, African - American, Evangelical and historic Peace churches. The NCC took a prominent role in the Civil Rights movement, and fostered the publication of the widely usedRevised Standard Version of the Bible, followed by an updated New Revised Standard Version, the first translation to benefit from the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The organization is headquartered in New York City, with a public policy office in Washington, DC. The NCC is related fraternally to hundreds of local and regional councils of churches, to other national councils across the globe, and to the World Council of Churches. All of these bodies are independently governed.
Carl McIntire led in organizing the American Council of Christian Churches (ACCC), now with 7 member bodies, in September 1941. It was a more militant and fundamentalist organization set up in opposition to what became the National Council of Churches. The organization is headquartered in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. The ACCC is related fraternally to the International Council of Christian Churches. McIntire invited the Evangelicals for United Action to join with them, but those who met in St. Louis declined the offer.
First meeting in Chicago, Illinois in 1941, a committee was formed with Wright as chairman. A national conference for United Action Among Evangelicals was called to meet in April 1942. The National Association of Evangelicals was formed by a group of 147 people who met in St. Louis, Missouri on April 7 -- 9, 1942. The organization was called the National Association of Evangelicals for United Action, soon shortened to the National Association of Evangelicals (NEA). There are currently 60 denominations with about 45,000 churches in the organization. The organization is headquartered in Washington, D.C. The NEA is related fraternally the World Evangelical Fellowship.
A less popular option was the neo-orthodox movement, which affirmed a higher view of Scripture than liberalism but did not tie the doctrines of the Christian faith to precise theories of Biblical inspiration. If anything, thinkers in this camp denounced such quibbling as a dangerous distraction from the duties of Christian discipleship. Neo-orthodoxy's highly contextual modes of reasoning often rendered its main premises incomprehensible to American thinkers and it was frequently dismissed as unrealistic.
As the center of community life, Black churches held a leadership role in the Civil Rights Movement. Their history as a focal point for the Black community and as a link between the Black and White worlds made them natural for this purpose.
Martin Luther King Jr. was but one of many notable Black ministers involved in the movement. He helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1957), serving as its first president. King received the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to end segregation and racial discrimination through non-violent civil disobedience. He was assassinated in 1968.
Ralph David Abernathy, Bernard Lee, Fred Shuttlesworth, C.T. Vivian and Jesse Jackson are among the many notable minister - activists. They were especially important during the later years of the movement in the 1950s and 1960s.
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what does the book of numbers in the bible mean | Book of Numbers - wikipedia
The Book of Numbers (from Greek Ἀριθμοί, Arithmoi; Hebrew: בְּמִדְבַּר , Bəmiḏbar, "In the desert (of) '') is the fourth book of the Hebrew Bible, and the fourth of five books of the Jewish Torah. The book has a long and complex history, but its final form is probably due to a Priestly redaction (i.e., editing) of a Yahwistic source made some time in the early Persian period (5th century BCE). The name of the book comes from the two censuses taken of the Israelites.
Numbers begins at Mount Sinai, where the Israelites have received their laws and covenant from God and God has taken up residence among them in the sanctuary. The task before them is to take possession of the Promised Land. The people are counted and preparations are made for resuming their march. The Israelites begin the journey, but they "murmur '' at the hardships along the way, and about the authority of Moses and Aaron. For these acts, God destroys approximately 15,000 of them through various means. They arrive at the borders of Canaan and send spies into the land. Upon hearing the spies ' fearful report concerning the conditions in Canaan, the Israelites refuse to take possession of it. God condemns them to death in the wilderness until a new generation can grow up and carry out the task. The book ends with the new generation of Israelites in the Plain of Moab ready for the crossing of the Jordan River.
Numbers is the culmination of the story of Israel 's exodus from oppression in Egypt and their journey to take possession of the land God promised their fathers. As such it draws to a conclusion the themes introduced in Genesis and played out in Exodus and Leviticus: God has promised the Israelites that they shall become a great (i.e. numerous) nation, that they will have a special relationship with Yahweh their god, and that they shall take possession of the land of Canaan. Numbers also demonstrates the importance of holiness, faithfulness and trust: despite God 's presence and his priests, Israel lacks faith and the possession of the land is left to a new generation.
Most commentators divide Numbers into three sections based on locale (Mount Sinai, Kadesh - Barnea and the plains of Moab), linked by two travel sections; an alternative is to see it as structured around the two generations of those condemned to die in the wilderness and the new generation who will enter Canaan, making a theological distinction between the disobedience of the first generation and the obedience of the second.
God orders Moses, in the wilderness of Sinai, to number those able to bear arms -- of all the men "from twenty years old and upward, '' and to appoint princes over each tribe. A total of 603,550 Israelites are found to be fit for military service. The tribe of Levi is exempted from military service and therefore not included in the census. Moses consecrates the Levites for the service of the Tabernacle in the place of the first - born sons, who hitherto had performed that service. The Levites are divided into three families, the Gershonites, the Kohathites, and the Merarites, each under a chief. The Kohathites were headed by Eleazar, son of Aaron, while the Gershonites and Merarites were headed by Aaron 's other son, Ithamar. Preparations are then made for resuming the march to the Promised Land. Various ordinances and laws are decreed.
The Israelites set out from Sinai. The people murmur against God and are punished by fire; Moses complains of their stubbornness and is ordered to choose seventy elders to assist him in the government of the people. Miriam and Aaron insult Moses at Hazeroth, which angers God; Miriam is punished with leprosy and is shut out of camp for seven days, at the end of which the Israelites proceed to the desert of Paran on the border of Canaan. Twelve spies are sent out into Canaan and come back to report to Moses. Joshua and Caleb, two of the spies, report that the land is abundant and is "flowing with milk and honey '', but the other spies say that it is inhabited by giants, and the Israelites refuse to enter the land. Yahweh decrees that the Israelites will be punished for their loss of faith by having to wander in the wilderness for 40 years.
Moses is ordered by God to make plates to cover the altar. The children of Israel murmur against Moses and Aaron on account of the destruction of Korah 's men and are stricken with the plague, with 14,700 perishing. Aaron and his family are declared by God to be responsible for any iniquity committed in connection with the sanctuary. The Levites are again appointed to help in the keeping of the Tabernacle. The Levites are ordered to surrender to the priests a part of the tithes taken to them.
Miriam dies at Kadesh Barnea and the Israelites set out for Moab, on Canaan 's eastern border. The Israelites blame Moses for the lack of water. Moses is ordered by God to speak to a rock but initially disobeys, and is punished by the announcement that he shall not enter Canaan. The king of Edom refuses permission to pass through his land and they go around it. Aaron dies on Mount Hor. The Israelites are bitten by Fiery flying serpents for speaking against God and Moses. A brazen serpent is made to ward off these serpents.
The Israelites arrive on the plains of Moab. A new census gives the total number of males from twenty years and upward as 601,730, and the number of the Levites from the age of one month and upward as 23,000. The land shall be divided by lot. The daughters of Zelophehad, their father having no sons, are to share in the allotment. Moses is ordered to appoint Joshua as his successor. Prescriptions for the observance of the feasts and the offerings for different occasions are enumerated. Moses orders the Israelites to massacre the people of Midian. The Reubenites and the Gadites request Moses to assign them the land east of the Jordan. Moses grants their request after they promise to help in the conquest of the land west of the Jordan. The land east of the Jordan is divided among the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half - tribe of Manasseh. Moses recalls the stations at which the Israelites halted during their forty years ' wanderings and instructs the Israelites to exterminate the Canaanites and destroy their idols. The boundaries of the land are spelled out; the land is to be divided under the supervision of Eleazar, Joshua, and twelve princes, one of each tribe.
The majority of modern biblical scholars believe that the Torah (the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) reached its present form in the post-Exilic period (i.e., after c. 520 BCE), based on pre-existing written and oral traditions and "contemporary geographical and demographic details but even more importantly from contemporary political realities ''. The five books are often described as being drawn from four "sources '' - schools of writers rather than individuals - the Yahwist and the Elohist (frequently treated as a single source), the Priestly source and the Deuteronomist. There is ongoing dispute over the origins of the non-Priestly source (s), but it is generally agreed that the Priestly source is post-exilic.
David A. Clines, in his influential The Themes of the Pentateuch (1978), identified the overarching theme of the five books as the partial fulfilment of a promise made by God to the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. The promise has three elements: posterity (i.e., descendants -- Abraham is told that his descendants will be as innumerable as the stars), divine - human relationship (Israel is to be God 's chosen people), and land (the land of Canaan, cursed by Noah immediately after the Deluge).
The theme of the divine - human relationship is expressed, or managed, through a series of covenants (meaning treaties, legally binding agreements) stretching from Genesis to Deuteronomy and beyond. The first is the covenant between God and Noah immediately after the Deluge in which God agrees never again to destroy the Earth with water. The next is between God and Abraham, and the third between God and all Israel at Mount Sinai. In this third covenant, unlike the first two, God hands down an elaborate set of laws (scattered through Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers), which the Israelites are to observe; they are also to remain faithful to Yahweh, the god of Israel, meaning, among other things, that they must put their trust in his help.
The theme of descendants marks the first event in Numbers, the census of Israel 's fighting men: the huge number which results (over 600,000) demonstrates the fulfillment of God 's promise to Abraham of innumerable descendants, as well as serving as God 's guarantee of victory in Canaan. As chapters 1 -- 10 progress, the theme of God 's presence with Israel comes to the fore: these chapters describe how Israel is to be organised around the Sanctuary, God 's dwelling - place in their midst, under the charge of the Levites and priests, in preparation for the conquest of the land.
The Israelites then set out to conquer the land, but almost immediately they refuse to enter it, and Yahweh condemns the whole generation who left Egypt to die in the wilderness. The message is clear: failure was not due to any fault in the preparation, because Yahweh had foreseen everything, but to Israel 's sin of unfaithfulness. In the final section, the Israelites of the new generation follow Yahweh 's instructions as given through Moses and are successful in all they attempt. The last five chapters are exclusively concerned with land: instructions for the extermination of the Canaanites, the demarcation of the boundaries of the land, how the land is to be divided, holy cities for the Levites and "cities of refuge '', the problem of pollution of the land by blood, and regulations for inheritance when a male heir is lacking.
Jewish translations:
Christian translations:
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which of the following u.s. territories or protectorates is in the north pacific ocean | British Overseas territories - wikipedia
The British Overseas Territories (BOT) or alternatively, United Kingdom 's Overseas Territories (UKOTs), are 14 territories under the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United Kingdom. They are the parts of the British Empire that have not been granted independence or have voted to remain British territories. These territories do not form part of the United Kingdom and, with the exception of Gibraltar, are not part of the European Union. Most of the inhabited territories are internally self - governing, with the UK retaining responsibility for defence and foreign relations. The rest are either uninhabited or have a transitory population of military or scientific personnel. They share the British monarch (Elizabeth II) as head of state.
The term "British Overseas Territory '' was introduced by the British Overseas Territories Act 2002, replacing the term British Dependent Territory, introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981. Prior to 1 January 1983, the territories were officially referred to as British Crown Colonies. With the exceptions of the British Antarctic Territory and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (which host only officials and research station staff) and the British Indian Ocean Territory (used as a military base), the Territories retain permanent civilian populations. Permanent residency for the 7,000 or so civilians living in the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia is limited to citizens of the Republic of Cyprus.
Collectively, the Territories encompass a population of about 250,000 people and a land area of about 667,018 square miles (1,727,570 km). The vast majority of this land area, 660,000 square miles (1,700,000 km), constitutes the almost uninhabited British Antarctic Territory, while the largest territory by population, Bermuda, accounts for almost a quarter of the total BOT population. At the other end of the scale, three territories have no civilian population; the Antarctic territory, the British Indian Ocean Territory (from which the Chagos Islanders were controversially removed) and South Georgia. Pitcairn Islands, settled by the survivors of the Mutiny on the Bounty, is the smallest settled territory with 49 inhabitants, while the smallest by land area is Gibraltar on the southern tip of the Iberian peninsula. The United Kingdom participates in the Antarctic Treaty System and, as part of a mutual agreement, the British Antarctic Territory is recognised by four of the other sovereign nations making claims to Antarctic territory.
Although the Crown dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man are also under the sovereignty of the British monarch, they are in a different constitutional relationship with the United Kingdom. The British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies are themselves distinct from the Commonwealth realms, a group of 15 independent countries (and the United Kingdom) each having Elizabeth II as their reigning monarch, and from the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of 52 countries mostly with historic links to the British Empire (which also includes all Commonwealth realms).
As of August 2014 the Minister responsible for the Territories excluding the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar and the Sovereign Base Areas is Tariq Ahmad, Minister of State for the Commonwealth and the UN. The other three territories are the responsibility of Sir Alan Duncan MP, Minister of State for Europe and the Americas.
The fourteen British Overseas Territories are:
Early colonies, in the sense of English subjects residing in lands hitherto outside the control of the English government, were generally known as "Plantations ''.
The first, unofficial, colony was Newfoundland, where English fishermen routinely set up seasonal camps in the 16th century. It is now a province of Canada known as Newfoundland and Labrador. It retains strong cultural ties with Britain.
English colonisation of North America began officially in 1607 with the settlement of Jamestown, the first successful permanent colony in Virginia (a term that was then applied generally to North America). Its offshoot, Bermuda, was settled inadvertently after the wrecking of the Virginia company 's flagship there in 1609, with the Virginia Company 's charter extended to officially include the archipelago in 1612. St. George 's town, founded in Bermuda in that year, remains the oldest continuously inhabited British settlement in the New World (with some historians stating that -- its formation predating the 1619 conversion of "James Fort '' into "Jamestown '' -- St. George 's was actually the first successful town the English established in the New World). Bermuda and Bermudians have played important, sometimes pivotal, but generally underestimated or unacknowledged roles in the shaping of the English and British trans - Atlantic Empires. These include maritime commerce, settlement of the continent and of the West Indies, and the projection of naval power via the colony 's privateers, among other areas.
The growth of the British Empire in the 19th century, to its territorial peak in the 1920s, saw Britain acquire nearly one quarter of the world 's land mass, including territories with large indigenous populations in Asia and Africa. From the mid-nineteenth century to the early twentieth century, the larger settler colonies -- in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa -- first became self - governing colonies and then achieved independence in all matters except foreign policy, defence and trade. Separate self - governing colonies federated to become Canada (in 1867), Australia (in 1901), South Africa (in 1910), and Rhodesia (in 1965). These and other large self - governing colonies had become known as Dominions by the 1920s. The Dominions achieved almost full independence with the Statute of Westminster (1931).
Through a process of decolonisation following the Second World War, most of the British colonies in Africa, Asia and the Caribbean gained independence. Some colonies became Commonwealth realms, retaining the British monarch as their own head of state. Most former colonies and protectorates became member states of the Commonwealth of Nations, a non-political, voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people.
After the independence of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in Africa in 1980 and British Honduras (now Belize) in Central America in 1981, the last major colony that remained was Hong Kong, with a population of over 5 million. With 1997 approaching, the United Kingdom and China negotiated the Sino - British Joint Declaration, which led to the whole of Hong Kong becoming a "special administrative region '' of China in 1997, subject to various conditions intended to guarantee the preservation of Hong Kong 's capitalist economy and its way of life under British rule for at least 50 years after the handover. George Town in the Cayman Islands has consequently become the largest city in the Overseas Territories.
In 2002, the British Parliament passed the British Overseas Territories Act 2002. This reclassified the UK 's dependent territories as overseas territories and, with the exception of those people solely connected with the Sovereign Base Areas of Cyprus, restored full British citizenship to their inhabitants.
The head of state in the overseas territories is the British monarch, Elizabeth II. The Queen 's role in the territories is in her role as Queen of the United Kingdom, and not in right of each territory. The Queen appoints a representative in each territory to exercise her executive power. In territories with a permanent population, a Governor is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the British Government, usually a retired senior military officer, or a senior civil servant. In territories without a permanent population, a Commissioner is usually appointed to represent the Queen. Exceptionally, in the overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, an Administrator is appointed to be the Governor 's representative in each of the two distant parts of the territory, namely Ascension Island and Tristan da Cunha.
The role of the Governor is to act as the de facto head of state, and they are usually responsible for appointing the head of government, and senior political positions in the territory. The Governor is also responsible for liaising with the UK Government, and carrying out any ceremonial duties. A Commissioner has the same powers as a Governor, but also acts as the head of government.
All the overseas territories have their own system of government, and localised laws. The structure of the government appears to be closely correlated to the size and political development of the territory.
Each overseas territory has its own legal system independent of the United Kingdom. The legal system is generally based on English common law, with some distinctions for local circumstances. Each territory has its own attorney general, and court system. For the smaller territories, the UK may appoint a UK - based lawyer or judge to work on legal cases. This is particularly important for cases involving serious crimes and where it is impossible to find a jury who will not know the defendant in a small population island.
Many of them, such as Isle of Man, Cayman Islands and Bermuda are used as tax havens and as flags of convenience for ships as part of the Red Ensign group.
The Pitcairn sexual assault trial of 2004 is an example of how the UK may choose to provide the legal framework for particular cases where the territory can not do so alone.
A joint ministerial council of UK ministers, and the leaders of the Overseas Territories has been held annually since 2012 to provide representation between UK Government departments and Overseas Territory Governments.
The Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) has the responsibility of looking after the interests of all overseas territories except the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, which comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defence. Within the FCO, the general responsibility for the territories is handled by the Overseas Territories Directorate.
In 2012, the FCO published The Overseas Territories: security, success and sustainability which set out Britain 's policy for the Overseas Territories, covering six main areas:
Britain and the overseas territories do not have diplomatic representations, although the governments of the overseas territories with indigenous populations all retain a representative office in London. The United Kingdom Overseas Territories Association (UKOTA) also represents the interests of the territories in London. The governments in both London and territories occasionally meet to mitigate or resolve disagreements over the process of governance in the territories and levels of autonomy.
Britain provides financial assistance to the overseas territories via the Department for International Development. Currently only Montserrat and Saint Helena receive budgetary aid (i.e. financial contribution to recurrent funding). Several specialist funds are made available by the UK, including:
The territories have no official representation in the UK Parliament, but have informal representation through the All - Party Parliamentary Group, and can petition the UK Government through the Directgov e-Petitions website. Only Gibraltar has representation in the European Parliament and it shares its Member with the region of South West England.
Two national parties, UKIP and the Liberal Democrats, have endorsed calls for direct representation of overseas territories in the UK Parliament, as well as backbench members of the Conservative Party and Labour Party.
Foreign affairs of the overseas territories are handled by the FCO in London. Some territories maintain diplomatic officers in nearby countries for trade and immigration purposes. Several of the territories in the Americas maintain membership within the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, the Caribbean Community, the Caribbean Development Bank, Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency, and the Association of Caribbean States. The territories are members of the Commonwealth of Nations through the United Kingdom. The inhabited territories compete in their own right at the Commonwealth Games, and three of the territories (Bermuda, the Cayman Islands and the British Virgin Islands) sent teams to the 2008 Summer Olympics.
Gibraltar is the only overseas territory that is part of the European Union (EU), although it is not part of the European Customs Union, the European Tax Policy, the European Statistics Zone or the Common Agriculture Policy. Gibraltar is not a member of the European Union in its own right. The Sovereign Base Areas in Cyprus are not part of the European Union, but they are the only British overseas territory to use the euro as official currency. None of the other Overseas Territories are members of the EU, the main body of EU law does not apply and, although certain slices of EU law are applied to those territories as part of the EU 's Association of Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT Association), they are not commonly enforceable in local courts. The OCT Association also provides overseas territories with structural funding for regeneration projects.
Since the return of full British citizenship to most ' belongers ' of overseas territories (mainly since the British Overseas Territories Act 2002), the citizens of those territories hold concurrent European Union citizenship, giving them rights of free movement across all EU member states.
Several nations dispute the UK 's sovereignty in the following overseas territories:
None of the overseas territories has its own nationality status, and all citizens are classed as British Overseas Territories citizens (BOTC). They do, however, have legislative independence over immigration, and holding the status of a BOTC does not automatically give a person a right of abode in any of the territories, as it depends on the territory 's immigration laws. A territory may issue Belonger status to allow a person classed as a BOTC to reside in the territory that they have close links with. Non-BOTC citizens may acquire Belonger status to reside in a particular territory (and may subsequently become naturalised BOTC if they wish).
Historically, most inhabitants of the British Empire held the status of British subject, which was usually lost upon independence. From 1949, British subjects in the United Kingdom and the remaining colonies became citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies. However changes in British immigration and nationality law between 1962 and 1983 saw the creation of a separate British Dependent Territories citizenship (BDTC) with effect from January 1983. Citizens in most territories were stripped of full British citizenship. This was mainly to prevent a mass exodus of the citizens of Hong Kong to the UK before the agreed handover to China in 1997. Exception was made for the Falkland Islands, which had been invaded in 1982 by Argentina. Full British citizenship was soon returned to the people of Gibraltar having regard to the friction with Spain.
However, the British Overseas Territories Act 2002 replaced British Dependent Territory citizenship with British Overseas Territories citizenship (BOTC), and restored full British citizenship to all BOTCs except those from Akrotiri and Dhekelia. This restored to BOTCs the right to reside in the UK.
British citizens, however, do not have an automatic right to reside in any of the Overseas Territories. Some territories prohibit immigration, and any visitors are required to seek the permission of the territory 's government to live in the territory.
Defence of the Overseas Territories is the responsibility of the UK. Many of the overseas territories are used as military bases by the UK and its allies.
Most of the languages other than English spoken in the territories contain a large degree of English, either as a root language, or in codeswitching, e.g. Llanito. They include:
Forms of English:
The many British overseas territories use a varied assortment of currencies, including the euro, pound, US dollar, NZ dollar, or their own currencies, which may be pegged to one of these.
Euro
European Central Bank
Pound sterling
Bank of England
Falkland Islands pound (parity with pound sterling) Pound sterling (widely circulated and accepted universally)
Government of the Falkland Islands
Gibraltar pound (parity with Pound sterling) Pound sterling (widely circulated and accepted universally) Euro (accepted unofficially in most establishments)
Government of Gibraltar
Saint Helenian pound (parity with Pound Sterling) United States dollar (accepted unofficially on Ascension Island)
Government of Saint Helena
United States dollar Bahamian dollar (accepted unofficially in the Turks and Caicos Islands)
US Federal Reserve
Eastern Caribbean dollar (pegged to US dollar at 2.7 ECD = 1USD)
Eastern Caribbean Central Bank
Bermudian dollar (parity with US dollar) United States dollar (widely circulated and accepted universally)
Bermuda Monetary Authority
Cayman Islands dollar (pegged to US dollar at 1KYD = 1.2 USD)
Cayman Islands Monetary Authority
New Zealand dollar United States dollar (accepted unofficially) Pound sterling is also accepted. Pitcairn Islands dollar (parity with New Zealand dollar; commemorative issue only)
Reserve Bank of New Zealand
United States dollar (de facto) Pound sterling (de jure)
US Federal Reserve Bank of England
Part of the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha.
Each overseas territory has been granted its own flag and coat of arms by the British monarch. Traditionally, the flags follow the Blue Ensign design, with the Union Flag in the canton, and the territory 's coat of arms in the fly. Exceptions to this are Bermuda which uses a Red Ensign; British Antarctic Territory which uses a White Ensign; British Indian Ocean Territory which uses a Blue Ensign with wavy lines to symbolise the sea; and Gibraltar which uses a banner of its coat of arms (the flag of the city of Gibraltar).
Akrotiri and Dhekelia and Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha are the only British overseas territories without their own flag. The Union Flag is used in these territories.
Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands and the Cayman Islands are the only British Overseas Territories with recognised National Olympic Committees (NOCs); the British Olympic Association is recognised as the appropriate NOC for athletes from the other territories, and thus athletes who hold a British passport are eligible to represent Great Britain at the Olympic Games.
Shara Proctor from Anguilla, Delano Williams from the Turks and Caicos Islands, Jenaya Wade - Fray from Bermuda and Georgina Cassar from Gibraltar strived to represent Team GB at the London 2012 Olympics. Proctor, Wade - Fray and Cassar qualified for Team GB, with Williams missing the cut, however wishing to represent the UK in 2016.
The Gibraltar national football team was accepted into UEFA in 2013 in time for the 2016 European Championships. It has also applied to be part of FIFA and hopes to be accepted in time for eligibility for the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifying.
The British Overseas Territories have more biodiversity than the entire UK mainland. There are at least 180 endemic plant species in the overseas territories as opposed to only 12 on the UK mainland. Responsibility for protection of biodiversity and meeting obligations under international environmental conventions is shared between the UK Government and the local governments of the territories.
Two areas, Henderson Island in the Pitcairn Islands as well as the Gough and Inaccessible Islands of Tristan Da Cunha are listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and two other territories, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and Saint Helena are on the United Kingdom 's tentative list for future UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Gibraltar 's Gorham 's Cave Complex is also found on the UK 's tentative UNESCO World Heritage Site list.
The three regions of biodiversity hotspots situated in the British Overseas Territories are the Caribbean Islands, the Mediterranean Basin and the Oceania ecozone in the Pacific.
The UK created the largest continuous marine protected areas in the world, the Chagos Marine Protected Area, and announced in 2015 funding to establish a new, larger, reserve around the Pitcairn Islands.
In January 2016, the UK government announced the intention to create a marine protected area around Ascension Island. The protected area would be 234,291 square kilometers, half of which would be closed to fishing.
A Stoplight Parrotfish in Princess Alexandra Land and Sea National Park, Providenciales, Turks and Caicos Islands
Penguins in South Georgia, 2010.
Henderson Island in the Pitcairn Islands
Rothera Research Station.
Click on a coloured area to see an article about English in that country or region
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what was unique about the united states commitment to the north atlantic treaty organization | NATO - wikipedia
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO / ˈneɪtoʊ /; French: Organisation du Traité de l'Atlantique Nord; OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 29 North American and European countries. The organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949. NATO constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its independent member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party. NATO Headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons, Belgium.
Since its founding, the admission of new member states has increased the alliance from the original 12 countries to 29. The most recent member state to be added to NATO is Montenegro on 5 June 2017. NATO currently recognizes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Macedonia and Ukraine as aspiring members. An additional 21 countries participate in NATO 's Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70 % of the global total. Members have committed to reach or maintain defense spending of at least 2 % of GDP by 2024.
On 4 March 1947 the Treaty of Dunkirk was signed by France and the United Kingdom as a Treaty of Alliance and Mutual Assistance in the event of a possible attack by Germany or the Soviet Union in the aftermath of World War II. In 1948, this alliance was expanded to include the Benelux countries, in the form of the Western Union, also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organization (BTO), established by the Treaty of Brussels. Talks for a new military alliance which could also include North America resulted in the signature of the North Atlantic Treaty on 4 April 1949 by the member states of the Western Union plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland.
The North Atlantic Treaty was largely dormant until the Korean War initiated the establishment of NATO to implement it, by means of an integrated military structure: This included the formation of Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) in 1951, which adopted the Western Union 's military structures and plans. In 1952 the post of Secretary General of NATO was established as the organization 's chief civilian, the first major NATO maritime exercises began; Exercise Mainbrace, and Greece and Turkey acceded. In 1955 West Germany was also incorporated into NATO, which resulted in the creation of the Soviet - dominated Warsaw Pact, delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War.
Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defense against a prospective Soviet invasion -- doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of France from NATO 's military structure in 1966. In 1982 the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance.
The collapse of the Warsaw Pact in 1989 - 1991 removed the de facto main adversary of NATO and caused a strategic re-evaluation of NATO 's purpose, nature, tasks, and their focus on the continent of Europe. This shift started with the 1990 signing in Paris of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe between NATO and the Soviet Union, which mandated specific military reductions across the continent that continued after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991. At that time, European countries accounted for 34 percent of NATO 's military spending; by 2012, this had fallen to 21 percent. NATO also began a gradual expansion to include newly autonomous Central and Eastern European nations, and extended its activities into political and humanitarian situations that had not formerly been NATO concerns.
After the fall of the Berlin Wall in Germany in 1989, the organization conducted its first military interventions in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995 and later Yugoslavia in 1999 during the breakup of Yugoslavia. Politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, most of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. Article 5 of the North Atlantic treaty, requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the September 11 attacks, after which troops were deployed to Afghanistan under the NATO - led ISAF. The organization has operated a range of additional roles since then, including sending trainers to Iraq, assisting in counter-piracy operations and in 2011 enforcing a no - fly zone over Libya in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 1973. The less potent Article 4, which merely invokes consultation among NATO members, has been invoked five times following incidents in the Iraq War, Syrian Civil War, and annexation of Crimea.
The first post-Cold War expansion of NATO came with German reunification on 3 October 1990, when the former East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance. As part of post-Cold War restructuring, NATO 's military structure was cut back and reorganized, with new forces such as the Headquarters Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps established. The changes brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union on the military balance in Europe were recognized in the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, which was signed in 1999. The policies of French President Nicolas Sarkozy resulted in a major reform of France 's military position, culminating with the return to full membership on 4 April 2009, which also included France rejoining the NATO Military Command Structure, while maintaining an independent nuclear deterrent.
Between 1994 and 1997, wider forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbors were set up, like the Partnership for Peace, the Mediterranean Dialogue initiative and the Euro - Atlantic Partnership Council. In 1998, the NATO -- Russia Permanent Joint Council was established. Between 1999 and 2017 NATO incorporated the following Central and Eastern European countries, including several former communist states: the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Albania, Croatia and Montenegro.
The Russian intervention in Crimea in 2014 lead to strong condemnation by NATO nations and the creation of a new "spearhead '' force of 5,000 troops at bases in Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria. At the subsequent 2014 Wales summit, the leaders of NATO 's member states formally committed for the first time spend the equivalent of at least 2 % of their gross domestic products on defence by 2024, which had previously been only an informal guideline.
No military operations were conducted by NATO during the Cold War. Following the end of the Cold War, the first operations, Anchor Guard in 1990 and Ace Guard in 1991, were prompted by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Airborne early warning aircraft were sent to provide coverage of southeastern Turkey, and later a quick - reaction force was deployed to the area.
The Bosnian War began in 1992, as a result of the breakup of Yugoslavia. The deteriorating situation led to United Nations Security Council Resolution 816 on 9 October 1992, ordering a no - fly zone over central Bosnia and Herzegovina, which NATO began enforcing on 12 April 1993 with Operation Deny Flight. From June 1993 until October 1996, Operation Sharp Guard added maritime enforcement of the arms embargo and economic sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 28 February 1994, NATO took its first wartime action by shooting down four Bosnian Serb aircraft violating the no - fly zone.
On 10 and 11 April 1994, during the Bosnian War, the United Nations Protection Force called in air strikes to protect the Goražde safe area, resulting in the bombing of a Bosnian Serb military command outpost near Goražde by two US F - 16 jets acting under NATO direction. This resulted in the taking of 150 U.N. personnel hostage on 14 April. On 16 April a British Sea Harrier was shot down over Goražde by Serb forces. A two - week NATO bombing campaign, Operation Deliberate Force, began in August 1995 against the Army of the Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica massacre.
NATO air strikes that year helped bring the Yugoslav wars to an end, resulting in the Dayton Agreement in November 1995. As part of this agreement, NATO deployed a UN-mandated peacekeeping force, under Operation Joint Endeavor, named IFOR. Almost 60,000 NATO troops were joined by forces from non-NATO nations in this peacekeeping mission. This transitioned into the smaller SFOR, which started with 32,000 troops initially and ran from December 1996 until December 2004, when operations were then passed onto European Union Force Althea. Following the lead of its member nations, NATO began to award a service medal, the NATO Medal, for these operations.
In an effort to stop Slobodan Milošević 's Serbian - led crackdown on KLA separatists and Albanian civilians in Kosovo, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1199 on 23 September 1998 to demand a ceasefire. Negotiations under US Special Envoy Richard Holbrooke broke down on 23 March 1999, and he handed the matter to NATO, which started a 78 - day bombing campaign on 24 March 1999. Operation Allied Force targeted the military capabilities of what was then the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. During the crisis, NATO also deployed one of its international reaction forces, the ACE Mobile Force (Land), to Albania as the Albania Force (AFOR), to deliver humanitarian aid to refugees from Kosovo.
Though the campaign was criticized for high civilian casualties, including bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Milošević finally accepted the terms of an international peace plan on 3 June 1999, ending the Kosovo War. On 11 June, Milošević further accepted UN resolution 1244, under the mandate of which NATO then helped establish the KFOR peacekeeping force. Nearly one million refugees had fled Kosovo, and part of KFOR 's mandate was to protect the humanitarian missions, in addition to deterring violence. In August -- September 2001, the alliance also mounted Operation Essential Harvest, a mission disarming ethnic Albanian militias in the Republic of Macedonia. As of 1 December 2013, 4,882 KFOR soldiers, representing 31 countries, continue to operate in the area.
The US, the UK, and most other NATO countries opposed efforts to require the UN Security Council to approve NATO military strikes, such as the action against Serbia in 1999, while France and some others claimed that the alliance needed UN approval. The US / UK side claimed that this would undermine the authority of the alliance, and they noted that Russia and China would have exercised their Security Council vetoes to block the strike on Yugoslavia, and could do the same in future conflicts where NATO intervention was required, thus nullifying the entire potency and purpose of the organization. Recognizing the post-Cold War military environment, NATO adopted the Alliance Strategic Concept during its Washington summit in April 1999 that emphasized conflict prevention and crisis management.
The September 11 attacks in the United States caused NATO to invoke Article 5 of the NATO Charter for the first time in the organization 's history. The Article says that an attack on any member shall be considered to be an attack on all. The invocation was confirmed on 4 October 2001 when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty. The eight official actions taken by NATO in response to the attacks included Operation Eagle Assist and Operation Active Endeavour, a naval operation in the Mediterranean Sea which is designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction, as well as enhancing the security of shipping in general which began on 4 October 2001.
The alliance showed unity: On 16 April 2003, NATO agreed to take command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), which includes troops from 42 countries. The decision came at the request of Germany and the Netherlands, the two nations leading ISAF at the time of the agreement, and all nineteen NATO ambassadors approved it unanimously. The handover of control to NATO took place on 11 August, and marked the first time in NATO 's history that it took charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area.
ISAF was initially charged with securing Kabul and surrounding areas from the Taliban, al Qaeda and factional warlords, so as to allow for the establishment of the Afghan Transitional Administration headed by Hamid Karzai. In October 2003, the UN Security Council authorized the expansion of the ISAF mission throughout Afghanistan, and ISAF subsequently expanded the mission in four main stages over the whole of the country.
On 31 July 2006, the ISAF additionally took over military operations in the south of Afghanistan from a US - led anti-terrorism coalition. Due to the intensity of the fighting in the south, in 2011 France allowed a squadron of Mirage 2000 fighter / attack aircraft to be moved into the area, to Kandahar, in order to reinforce the alliance 's efforts. During its 2012 Chicago Summit, NATO endorsed a plan to end the Afghanistan war and to remove the NATO - led ISAF Forces by the end of December 2014. ISAF was disestablished in December 2014 and replaced by the follow - on training Resolute Support Mission
In August 2004, during the Iraq War, NATO formed the NATO Training Mission -- Iraq, a training mission to assist the Iraqi security forces in conjunction with the US led MNF - I. The NATO Training Mission - Iraq (NTM - I) was established at the request of the Iraqi Interim Government under the provisions of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546. The aim of NTM - I was to assist in the development of Iraqi security forces training structures and institutions so that Iraq can build an effective and sustainable capability that addresses the needs of the nation. NTM - I was not a combat mission but is a distinct mission, under the political control of NATO 's North Atlantic Council. Its operational emphasis was on training and mentoring. The activities of the mission were coordinated with Iraqi authorities and the US - led Deputy Commanding General Advising and Training, who was also dual - hatted as the Commander of NTM - I. The mission officially concluded on 17 December 2011.
Turkey invoked the first Article 4 meetings in 2003 at the start of the Iraq War. Turkey also invoked this article twice in 2012 during the Syrian Civil War, after the downing of an unarmed Turkish F - 4 reconnaissance jet, and after a mortar was fired at Turkey from Syria, and again in 2015 after threats by Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant to its territorial integrity.
Beginning on 17 August 2009, NATO deployed warships in an operation to protect maritime traffic in the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean from Somali pirates, and help strengthen the navies and coast guards of regional states. The operation was approved by the North Atlantic Council and involves warships primarily from the United States though vessels from many other nations are also included. Operation Ocean Shield focuses on protecting the ships of Operation Allied Provider which are distributing aid as part of the World Food Programme mission in Somalia. Russia, China and South Korea have sent warships to participate in the activities as well. The operation seeks to dissuade and interrupt pirate attacks, protect vessels, and abetting to increase the general level of security in the region.
During the Libyan Civil War, violence between protestors and the Libyan government under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi escalated, and on 17 March 2011 led to the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which called for a ceasefire, and authorized military action to protect civilians. A coalition that included several NATO members began enforcing a no - fly zone over Libya shortly afterwards, beginning with Opération Harmattan by the French Air Force on March 19.
On 20 March 2011, NATO states agreed on enforcing an arms embargo against Libya with Operation Unified Protector using ships from NATO Standing Maritime Group 1 and Standing Mine Countermeasures Group 1, and additional ships and submarines from NATO members. They would "monitor, report and, if needed, interdict vessels suspected of carrying illegal arms or mercenaries ''.
On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no - fly zone from the initial coalition, while command of targeting ground units remained with the coalition 's forces. NATO began officially enforcing the UN resolution on 27 March 2011 with assistance from Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. By June, reports of divisions within the alliance surfaced as only eight of the 28 member nations were participating in combat operations, resulting in a confrontation between US Defense Secretary Robert Gates and countries such as Poland, Spain, the Netherlands, Turkey, and Germany to contribute more, the latter believing the organization has overstepped its mandate in the conflict. In his final policy speech in Brussels on 10 June, Gates further criticized allied countries in suggesting their actions could cause the demise of NATO. The German foreign ministry pointed to "a considerable (German) contribution to NATO and NATO - led operations '' and to the fact that this engagement was highly valued by President Obama.
While the mission was extended into September, Norway that day announced it would begin scaling down contributions and complete withdrawal by 1 August. Earlier that week it was reported Danish air fighters were running out of bombs. The following week, the head of the Royal Navy said the country 's operations in the conflict were not sustainable. By the end of the mission in October 2011, after the death of Colonel Gaddafi, NATO planes had flown about 9,500 strike sorties against pro-Gaddafi targets. A report from the organization Human Rights Watch in May 2012 identified at least 72 civilians killed in the campaign. Following a coup d'état attempt in October 2013, Libyan Prime Minister Ali Zeidan requested technical advice and trainers from NATO to assist with ongoing security issues.
NATO has twenty - nine members, mainly in Europe and North America. Some of these countries also have territory on multiple continents, which can be covered only as far south as the Tropic of Cancer in the Atlantic Ocean, which defines NATO 's "area of responsibility '' under Article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty. During the original treaty negotiations, the United States insisted that colonies such as the Belgian Congo be excluded from the treaty. French Algeria was however covered until their independence on 3 July 1962. Twelve of these twenty - nine are original members who joined in 1949, while the other seventeen joined in one of seven enlargement rounds.
From the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, France pursued a military strategy of independence from NATO under a policy dubbed "Gaullo - Mitterrandism ''. Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated the return of France to the integrated military command and the Defence Planning Committee in 2009, the latter being disbanded the following year. France remains the only NATO member outside the Nuclear Planning Group and unlike the United States and the United Kingdom, will not commit its nuclear - armed submarines to the alliance. Few members spend more than two percent of their gross domestic product on defence, with the United States accounting for three quarters of NATO defense spending.
New membership in the alliance has been largely from Central and Eastern Europe, including former members of the Warsaw Pact. Accession to the alliance is governed with individual Membership Action Plans, and requires approval by each current member. NATO currently has two candidate countries that are in the process of joining the alliance: Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Macedonia. In NATO official statements, the Republic of Macedonia is always referred to as the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia '', with a footnote stating that "Turkey recognizes the Republic of Macedonia under its constitutional name ''. Though Macedonia completed its requirements for membership at the same time as Croatia and Albania, who joined NATO in 2009, its accession was blocked by Greece pending a resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute. In order to support each other in the process, new and potential members in the region formed the Adriatic Charter in 2003. Georgia was also named as an aspiring member, and was promised "future membership '' during the 2008 summit in Bucharest, though in 2014, US President Barack Obama said the country was not "currently on a path '' to membership.
Russia continues to oppose further expansion, seeing it as inconsistent with understandings between Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and European and American negotiators that allowed for a peaceful German reunification. NATO 's expansion efforts are often seen by Moscow leaders as a continuation of a Cold War attempt to surround and isolate Russia, though they have also been criticised in the West. A June 2016 Levada poll found that 68 % of Russians think that deploying NATO troops in the Baltic states and Poland -- former Eastern bloc countries bordering Russia -- is a threat to Russia. Ukraine 's relationship with NATO and Europe has been politically divisive, and contributed to "Euromaidan '' protests that saw the ousting of pro-Russian President Viktor Yanukovych in 2014. In March 2014, Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk reiterated the government 's stance that Ukraine is not seeking NATO membership. Ukraine 's president subsequently signed a bill dropping his nation 's nonaligned status in order to pursue NATO membership, but signaled that it would hold a referendum before seeking to join. Ukraine is one of eight countries in Eastern Europe with an Individual Partnership Action Plan. IPAPs began in 2002, and are open to countries that have the political will and ability to deepen their relationship with NATO.
A 2006 study in the journal Security Studies argued that NATO enlargement contributed to democratic consolidation in Central and Eastern Europe.
The Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme was established in 1994 and is based on individual bilateral relations between each partner country and NATO: each country may choose the extent of its participation. Members include all current and former members of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Euro - Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) was first established on 29 May 1997, and is a forum for regular coordination, consultation and dialogue between all fifty participants. The PfP programme is considered the operational wing of the Euro - Atlantic Partnership. Other third countries also have been contacted for participation in some activities of the PfP framework such as Afghanistan.
The European Union (EU) signed a comprehensive package of arrangements with NATO under the Berlin Plus agreement on 16 December 2002. With this agreement, the EU was given the possibility to use NATO assets in case it wanted to act independently in an international crisis, on the condition that NATO itself did not want to act -- the so - called "right of first refusal ''. For example, Article 42 (7) of the 1982 Treaty of Lisbon specifies that "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power ''. The treaty applies globally to specified territories whereas NATO is restricted under its Article 6 to operations north of the Tropic of Cancer. It provides a "double framework '' for the EU countries that are also linked with the PfP programme.
Additionally, NATO cooperates and discusses its activities with numerous other non-NATO members. The Mediterranean Dialogue was established in 1994 to coordinate in a similar way with Israel and countries in North Africa. The Istanbul Cooperation Initiative was announced in 2004 as a dialog forum for the Middle East along the same lines as the Mediterranean Dialogue. The four participants are also linked through the Gulf Cooperation Council.
Political dialogue with Japan began in 1990, and since then, the Alliance has gradually increased its contact with countries that do not form part of any of these cooperation initiatives. In 1998, NATO established a set of general guidelines that do not allow for a formal institutionalisation of relations, but reflect the Allies ' desire to increase cooperation. Following extensive debate, the term "Contact Countries '' was agreed by the Allies in 2000. By 2012, the Alliance had broadened this group, which meets to discuss issues such as counter-piracy and technology exchange, under the names "partners across the globe '' or "global partners ''. Australia and New Zealand, both contact countries, are also members of the AUSCANNZUKUS strategic alliance, and similar regional or bilateral agreements between contact countries and NATO members also aid cooperation. Colombia is the NATO 's latest partner and Colombia has access to the full range of cooperative activities NATO offers to partners; Colombia became the first and only Latin American country to cooperate with NATO.
All agencies and organizations of NATO integrated into either the civilian administrative or military executive roles. For the most part they perform roles and functions that directly or indirectly support the security role of the alliance as a whole.
The civilian structure includes:
The military structure includes:
The organizations and agencies of NATO include:
The NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO PA) is a body that sets broad strategic goals for NATO, which meets at two session per year. NATO PA interacts directly with the parliamentary structures of the national governments of the member states which appoint Permanent Members, or ambassadors to NATO. The NATO Parliamentary Assembly is made up of legislators from the member countries of the North Atlantic Alliance as well as thirteen associate members. It is however officially a different structure from NATO, and has as aim to join together deputies of NATO countries in order to discuss security policies on the NATO Council.
Similar organizations:
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five application software based on windows operating system | Windows Vista - wikipedia
Windows Vista is an operating system that was produced by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business desktops, laptops, tablet PCs and media center PCs. Development was completed on 8 November 2006, and over the following three months, it was released in stages to computer hardware and software manufacturers, business customers and retail channels. On 30 January 2007, it was released worldwide and was made available for purchase and download from the Windows Marketplace. The release of Windows Vista came more than five years after the introduction of its predecessor, Windows XP, the longest time span between successive releases of Microsoft Windows desktop operating systems.
New features of Windows Vista include an updated graphical user interface and visual style dubbed Aero, a new search component called Windows Search, redesigned networking, audio, print and display sub-systems, and new multimedia tools such as Windows DVD Maker. Vista aimed to increase the level of communication between machines on a home network, using peer - to - peer technology to simplify sharing files and media between computers and devices. Windows Vista included version 3.0 of the. NET Framework, allowing software developers to write applications without traditional Windows APIs.
Microsoft 's primary stated objective with Windows Vista was to improve the state of security in the Windows operating system. One common criticism of Windows XP and its predecessors was their commonly exploited security vulnerabilities and overall susceptibility to malware, viruses and buffer overflows. In light of this, Microsoft chairman Bill Gates announced in early 2002 a company - wide "Trustworthy Computing initiative '', which aimed to incorporate security into every aspect of software development at the company. Microsoft stated that it prioritized improving the security of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 above finishing Windows Vista, thus delaying its completion.
While these new features and security improvements have garnered positive reviews, Vista has also been the target of much criticism and negative press. Criticism of Windows Vista has targeted its high system requirements, its more restrictive licensing terms, the inclusion of a number of then - new DRM technologies aimed at restricting the copying of protected digital media, lack of compatibility with some pre-Vista hardware and software, longer boot time, and the number of authorization prompts for User Account Control. As a result of these and other issues, Windows Vista had seen initial adoption and satisfaction rates lower than Windows XP. However, with an estimated 330 million Internet users as of January 2009, it had been announced that Vista usage had surpassed Microsoft 's pre-launch two - year - out expectations of achieving 200 million users. At the release of Windows 7 (October 2009), Windows Vista (with approximately 400 million Internet users) was the second most widely used operating system on the Internet with an approximately 19 % market share, the most widely used being Windows XP with an approximately 63 % market share. In May 2010, Windows Vista 's market share had an estimated range from 15 % to 26 %. On 22 October 2010, Microsoft ceased sales of retail copies of Windows Vista, and the OEM sales for Vista ceased a year later. In May 2018, Vista 's market share was 0.28 %.
On March 14, 2017, Microsoft made an emergency security patch to Windows Vista that addresses a vulnerability that was then exploited almost two months later by the WannaCry ransomware attack. Extended support for Windows Vista ended on 11 April, 2017.
Microsoft began work on Windows Vista, known at the time by its codename Longhorn, in May 2001, five months before the release of Windows XP. It was originally expected to ship sometime late in 2003 as a minor step between Windows XP and Blackcomb, which was planned to be the company 's next major operating system release. Gradually, "Longhorn '' assimilated many of the important new features and technologies slated for Blackcomb, resulting in the release date being pushed back several times in 3 years. In some builds of Longhorn, their license agreement said "For the Microsoft product codenamed "Whistler '' ". Many of Microsoft 's developers were also re-tasked to build updates to Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 to strengthen security. Faced with ongoing delays and concerns about feature creep, Microsoft announced on 27 August 2004, that it had revised its plans. For this reason, Longhorn was reset to start work on componentizing the Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1 codebase, and over time re-incorporating the features that would be intended for an actual operating system release. However, some previously announced features such as WinFS were dropped or postponed, and a new software development methodology called the Security Development Lifecycle was incorporated in an effort to address concerns with the security of the Windows codebase, which is programmed in C, C++ and assembly. Longhorn became known as Vista in 2005.
The early development stages of Longhorn were generally characterized by incremental improvements and updates to Windows XP. During this period, Microsoft was fairly quiet about what was being worked on, as their marketing and public relations focus was more strongly focused on Windows XP, and Windows Server 2003, which was released in April 2003. Occasional builds of Longhorn were leaked onto popular file sharing networks such as IRC, BitTorrent, eDonkey and various newsgroups, and so most of what is known about builds prior to the first sanctioned development release of Longhorn in May 2003, is derived from these builds.
After several months of relatively little news or activity from Microsoft with Longhorn, Microsoft released Build 4008, which had made an appearance on the Internet around 28 February 2003. It was also privately handed out to a select group of software developers. As an evolutionary release over build 3683, it contained a number of small improvements, including a modified blue "Plex '' theme and a new, simplified Windows Image - based installer that operates in graphical mode from the outset, and completed an install of the operating system in approximately one third the time of Windows XP on the same hardware. An optional "new taskbar '' was introduced that was thinner than the previous build and displayed the time differently.
The most notable visual and functional difference, however, came with Windows Explorer. The incorporation of the Plex theme made blue the dominant color of the entire application. The Windows XP - style task pane was almost completely replaced with a large horizontal pane that appeared under the toolbars. A new search interface allowed for filtering of results, searching of Windows help, and natural - language queries that would be used to integrate with WinFS. The animated search characters were also removed. The "view modes '' were also replaced with a single slider that would resize the icons in real - time, in list, thumbnail, or details mode, depending on where the slider was. File metadata was also made more visible and more easily editable, with more active encouragement to fill out missing pieces of information. Also of note was the conversion of Windows Explorer to being a. NET application.
Most builds of Longhorn and Vista were identified by a label that was always displayed in the bottom - right corner of the desktop. A typical build label would look like "Longhorn Build 3663. Lab06_N. 020728 - 1728 ''. Higher build numbers did not automatically mean that the latest features from every development team at Microsoft was included. Typically, a team working on a certain feature or subsystem would generate their own working builds which developers would test with, and when the code was deemed stable, all the changes would be incorporated back into the main development tree at once. At Microsoft, a number of "Build labs '' exist where the compilation of the entirety of Windows can be performed by a team. The name of the lab in which any given build originated is shown as part of the build label, and the date and time of the build follows that. Some builds (such as Beta 1 and Beta 2) only display the build label in the version information dialog (Winver). The icons used in these builds are from Windows XP.
At the Windows Hardware Engineering Conference (WinHEC) in May 2003, Microsoft gave their first public demonstrations of the new Desktop Window Manager and Aero. The demonstrations were done on a revised build 4015 which was never released. A number of sessions for developers and hardware engineers at the conference focused on these new features, as well as the Next - Generation Secure Computing Base (previously known as "Palladium ''), which at the time was Microsoft 's proposed solution for creating a secure computing environment whereby any given component of the system could be deemed "trusted ''. Also at this conference, Microsoft reiterated their roadmap for delivering Longhorn, pointing to an "early 2005 '' release date.
By 2004, it had become obvious to the Windows team at Microsoft that they were losing sight of what needed to be done to complete the next version of Windows and ship it to customers. Internally, some Microsoft employees were describing the Longhorn project as "another Cairo '' or "Cairo.NET '', referring to the Cairo development project that the company embarked on through the first half of the 1990s, which never resulted in a shipping operating system (though nearly all the technologies developed in that time did end up in Windows 95 and Windows NT). Microsoft was shocked in 2005 by Apple 's release of Mac OS X Tiger. It offered only a limited subset of features planned for Longhorn, in particular fast file searching and integrated graphics and sound processing, but appeared to have impressive reliability and performance compared to contemporary Longhorn builds. Most Longhorn builds had major Explorer. exe system leaks which prevented the OS from performing well, and added more confusion to the development teams in later builds with more and more code being developed which failed to reach stability.
In a 23 September 2005 front - page article on The Wall Street Journal, Microsoft co-president Jim Allchin, who had overall responsibility for the development and delivery of Windows, explained how development of Longhorn had been "crashing into the ground '' due in large part to the haphazard methods by which features were introduced and integrated into the core of the operating system, without a clear focus on an end - product. Allchin went on to explain how in December 2003, he enlisted the help of two other senior executives, Brian Valentine and Amitabh Srivastava, the former being experienced with shipping software at Microsoft, most notably Windows Server 2003, and the latter having spent his career at Microsoft researching and developing methods of producing high - quality testing systems. Srivastava employed a team of core architects to visually map out the entirety of the Windows operating system, and to proactively work towards a development process that would enforce high levels of code quality, reduce interdependencies between components, and in general, "not make things worse with Vista ''. Since Microsoft decided that Longhorn needed to be further componentized, work started on the Omega - 13 series builds where they would componentize existing Windows Server 2003 source code, and over time add back functionality as development progressed. Future Longhorn builds would start from Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1 and continue from there.
This change, announced internally to Microsoft employees on 26 August 2004, began in earnest in September, though it would take several more months before the new development process and build methodology would be used by all of the development teams. A number of complaints came from individual developers, and Bill Gates himself, that the new development process was going to be prohibitively difficult to work within.
By approximately November 2004, the company had considered several names for the final release, ranging from simple to fanciful and inventive. In the end, Microsoft chose Windows Vista as confirmed on 22 July 2005, believing it to be a "wonderful intersection of what the product really does, what Windows stands for, and what resonates with customers, and their needs. '' Group Project Manager Greg Sullivan told Paul Thurrott "You want the PC to adapt to you and help you cut through the clutter to focus on what 's important to you. That 's what Windows Vista is all about: "bringing clarity to your world. '' (a reference to the three marketing points of Vista -- Clear, Connected, Confident), so you can focus on what matters to you. ". Microsoft co-president Jim Allchin also loved the name, saying that "Vista '' creates the right imagery for the new product capabilities and inspires the imagination with all the possibilities of what can be done with Windows -- making people 's passions come alive. ''
After Longhorn was named Windows Vista in November 2004, an unprecedented beta - test program was started, involving hundreds of thousands of volunteers and companies. In September of that year, Microsoft started releasing regular Community Technology Previews (CTP) to beta testers from July 2005 to February 2006. The first of these was distributed at the 2005 Microsoft Professional Developers Conference, and was subsequently released to beta testers and Microsoft Developer Network subscribers. The builds that followed incorporated most of the planned features for the final product, as well as a number of changes to the user interface, based largely on feedback from beta testers. Windows Vista was deemed feature - complete with the release of the "February CTP, '' released on 22 February 2006, and much of the remainder of the work between that build and the final release of the product focused on stability, performance, application and driver compatibility, and documentation. Beta 2, released in late May, was the first build to be made available to the general public through Microsoft 's Customer Preview Program. It was downloaded by over five million people. Two release candidates followed in September and October, both of which were made available to a large number of users.
At the Intel Developer Forum on 9 March 2006, Microsoft announced a change in their plans to support EFI in Windows Vista. The UEFI 2.0 specification (which replaces EFI 1.10) was not completed until early 2006, and at the time of Microsoft 's announcement, no firmware manufacturers had completed a production implementation which could be used for testing. As a result, the decision was made to postpone the introduction of UEFI support to Windows; support for UEFI on 64 - bit platforms was postponed until Vista Service Pack 1 and Windows Server 2008 and 32 - bit UEFI would not be supported, as Microsoft does not expect many such systems to be built as the market moves to 64 - bit processors.
While Microsoft had originally hoped to have the consumer versions of the operating system available worldwide in time for Christmas 2006, it announced in March 2006 that the release date would be pushed back to January 2007 in order to give the company -- and the hardware and software companies that Microsoft depends on for providing device drivers -- additional time to prepare. Because a release to manufacturing (RTM) build is the final version of code shipped to retailers and other distributors, the purpose of a pre-RTM build is to eliminate any last "show - stopper '' bugs that may prevent the code from responsibly being shipped to customers, as well as anything else that consumers may find annoying. Thus, it is unlikely that any major new features would be introduced; instead, work would focus on Vista 's "fit - and - finish ''. In just a few days, developers had managed to drop Vista 's bug count from over 2470 on 22 September to just over 1400 by the time RC2 shipped in early October. However, they still had a way to go before Vista was ready to RTM. Microsoft 's internal processes required Vista 's bug count to drop to 500 or fewer before the product could go into escrow for RTM. For most of the pre-RTM builds, those 32 - bit editions are only released.
On 14 June 2006, Windows developer Philip Su posted a blog entry which decried the development process of Windows Vista, stating that "The code is way too complicated, and that the pace of coding has been tremendously slowed down by overbearing process. '' The same post also described Windows Vista as having approximately 50 million lines of code, with about 2,000 developers working on the product. During a demonstration of the speech recognition feature new to Windows Vista at Microsoft 's Financial Analyst Meeting on 27 July 2006, the software recognized the phrase "Dear mom '' as "Dear aunt ''. After several failed attempts to correct the error, the sentence eventually became "Dear aunt, let 's set so double the killer delete select all ''. A developer with Vista 's speech recognition team later explained that there was a bug with the build of Vista that was causing the microphone gain level to be set very high, resulting in the audio being received by the speech recognition software being "incredibly distorted ''.
Windows Vista build 5824 (October 17, 2006) was supposed to be the RTM release, but a bug, which destroyed any system that was upgraded from Windows XP, prevented this, damaging development and lowering the chance that it would hit its January 2007 deadline.
Development of Windows Vista came to an end when Microsoft announced that it had been finalized on November 8, 2006, and was concluded by co-president of Windows development, Jim Allchin. The RTM 's build number had also jumped to 6000 to reflect Vista 's internal version number, NT 6.0. Jumping RTM build numbers is common practice among consumer - oriented Windows versions, like Windows 98 (build 1998), Windows 98 SE (build 2222), Windows Me (build 3000) or Windows XP (build 2600), as compared to the business - oriented versions like Windows 2000 (build 2195) or Server 2003 (build 3790). On November 16, 2006, Microsoft made the final build available to MSDN and Technet Plus subscribers. A business - oriented Enterprise edition was made available to volume license customers on 30 November. Windows Vista was launched for general customer availability on January 30, 2007.
Windows Vista introduced several features and functionality not present in its predecessors.
Vista includes technologies such as ReadyBoost and ReadyDrive, which employ fast flash memory (located on USB flash drives and hybrid hard disk drives) to improve system performance by caching commonly used programs and data. This manifests itself in improved battery life on notebook computers as well, since a hybrid drive can be spun down when not in use. Another new technology called SuperFetch utilizes machine learning techniques to analyze usage patterns to allow Windows Vista to make intelligent decisions about what content should be present in system memory at any given time. It uses almost all the extra RAM as disk cache. In conjunction with SuperFetch, an automatic built - in Windows Disk Defragmenter makes sure that those applications are strategically positioned on the hard disk where they can be loaded into memory very quickly with the least amount of physical movement of the hard disk 's read - write heads.
As part of the redesign of the networking architecture, IPv6 has been fully incorporated into the operating system and a number of performance improvements have been introduced, such as TCP window scaling. Earlier versions of Windows typically needed third - party wireless networking software to work properly, but this is not the case with Vista, which includes more comprehensive wireless networking support.
For graphics, Vista introduces a new Windows Display Driver Model and a major revision to Direct3D. The new driver model facilitates the new Desktop Window Manager, which provides the tearing - free desktop and special effects that are the cornerstones of Windows Aero. Direct3D 10, developed in conjunction with major graphics card manufacturers, is a new architecture with more advanced shader support, and allows the graphics processing unit to render more complex scenes without assistance from the CPU. It features improved load balancing between CPU and GPU and also optimizes data transfer between them. WDDM also provides video content playback that rivals typical consumer electronics devices. It does this by making it easy to connect to external monitors, providing for protected HD video playback and increasing overall video playback quality. For the first time in Windows, graphics processing unit (GPU) multitasking is possible, enabling users to run more than one GPU - intensive application simultaneously.
At the core of the operating system, many improvements have been made to the memory manager, process scheduler and I / O scheduler. The Heap Manager implements additional features such as integrity checking in order to improve robustness and defend against buffer overflow security exploits, although this comes at the price of breaking backward compatibility with some legacy applications. A Kernel Transaction Manager has been implemented that enables applications to work with the file system and Registry using atomic transaction operations.
Improved security was a primary design goal for Vista. Microsoft 's Trustworthy Computing initiative, which aims to improve public trust in its products, has had a direct effect on its development. This effort has resulted in a number of new security and safety features and an Evaluation Assurance Level rating of 4 +.
User Account Control, or UAC is perhaps the most significant and visible of these changes. UAC is a security technology that makes it possible for users to use their computer with fewer privileges by default, with a view to stopping malware from making unauthorized changes to the system. This was often difficult in previous versions of Windows, as the previous "limited '' user accounts proved too restrictive and incompatible with a large proportion of application software, and even prevented some basic operations such as looking at the calendar from the notification tray. In Windows Vista, when an action is performed that requires administrative rights (such as installing / uninstalling software or making system - wide configuration changes), the user is first prompted for an administrator name and password; in cases where the user is already an administrator, the user is still prompted to confirm the pending privileged action. Regular use of the computer such as running programs, printing, or surfing the Internet does not trigger UAC prompts. User Account Control asks for credentials in a Secure Desktop mode, in which the entire screen is dimmed, and only the authorization window is active and highlighted. The intent is to stop a malicious program misleading the user by interfering with the authorization window, and to hint to the user the importance of the prompt.
Testing by Symantec Corporation has proven the effectiveness of UAC. Symantec used over 2,000 active malware samples, consisting of backdoors, keyloggers, rootkits, mass mailers, trojan horses, spyware, adware, and various other samples. Each was executed on a default Windows Vista installation within a standard user account. UAC effectively blocked over 50 percent of each threat, excluding rootkits. 5 percent or less of the malware that evaded UAC survived a reboot.
Internet Explorer 7 's new security and safety features include a phishing filter, IDN with anti-spoofing capabilities, and integration with system - wide parental controls. For added security, ActiveX controls are disabled by default. Also, Internet Explorer operates in a protected mode, which operates with lower permissions than the user and runs in isolation from other applications in the operating system, preventing it from accessing or modifying anything besides the Temporary Internet Files directory. Microsoft 's anti-spyware product, Windows Defender, has been incorporated into Windows, providing protection against malware and other threats. Changes to various system configuration settings (such as new auto - starting applications) are blocked unless the user gives consent.
Whereas prior releases of Windows supported per - file encryption using Encrypting File System, the Enterprise and Ultimate editions of Vista include BitLocker Drive Encryption, which can protect entire volumes, notably the operating system volume. However, BitLocker requires approximately a 1.5 - gigabyte partition to be permanently not encrypted and to contain system files in order for Windows to boot. In normal circumstances, the only time this partition is accessed is when the computer is booting, or when there is a Windows update that changes files in this area, which is a legitimate reason to access this section of the drive. The area can be a potential security issue, because a hexadecimal editor (such as dskprobe. exe), or malicious software running with administrator and / or kernel level privileges would be able to write to this "Ghost Partition '' and allow a piece of malicious software to compromise the system, or disable the encryption. BitLocker can work in conjunction with a Trusted Platform Module (TPM) cryptoprocessor (version 1.2) embedded in a computer 's motherboard, or with a USB key. However, as with other full disk encryption technologies, BitLocker is vulnerable to a cold boot attack, especially where TPM is used as a key protector without a boot PIN being required too.
A variety of other privilege - restriction techniques are also built into Vista. An example is the concept of "integrity levels '' in user processes, whereby a process with a lower integrity level can not interact with processes of a higher integrity level and can not perform DLL -- injection to a processes of a higher integrity level. The security restrictions of Windows services are more fine - grained, so that services (especially those listening on the network) have no ability to interact with parts of the operating system they do not need to. Obfuscation techniques such as address space layout randomization are used to increase the amount of effort required of malware before successful infiltration of a system. Code integrity verifies that system binaries have not been tampered with by malicious code.
As part of the redesign of the network stack, Windows Firewall has been upgraded, with new support for filtering both incoming and outgoing traffic. Advanced packet filter rules can be created that can grant or deny communications to specific services.
The 64 - bit versions of Vista require that all device drivers be digitally signed, so that the creator of the driver can be identified.
While much of the focus of Vista 's new capabilities highlighted the new user - interface, security technologies, and improvements to the core operating system, Microsoft also adding new deployment and maintenance features:
Windows Vista includes a large number of new application programming interfaces. Chief among them is the inclusion of version 3.0 of the. NET Framework, which consists of a class library and Common Language Runtime and OS / 2 environment just like its NT predecessors. Version 3.0 includes four new major components:
These technologies are also available for Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 to facilitate their introduction to and usage by developers and end users.
There are also significant new development APIs in the core of the operating system, notably the completely re-designed audio, networking, print, and video interfaces, major changes to the security infrastructure, improvements to the deployment and installation of applications ("ClickOnce '' and Windows Installer 4.0), new device driver development model ("Windows Driver Foundation ''), Transactional NTFS, mobile computing API advancements (power management, Tablet PC Ink support, SideShow) and major updates to (or complete replacements of) many core subsystems such as Winlogon and CAPI.
There are some issues for software developers using some of the graphics APIs in Vista. Games or programs built solely on the Windows Vista - exclusive version of DirectX, version 10, can not work on prior versions of Windows, as DirectX 10 is not available for previous Windows versions. Also, games that require the features of D3D9Ex, the updated implementation of DirectX 9 in Windows Vista are also incompatible with previous Windows versions. According to a Microsoft blog, there are three choices for OpenGL implementation on Vista. An application can use the default implementation, which translates OpenGL calls into the Direct3D API and is frozen at OpenGL version 1.4, or an application can use an Installable Client Driver (ICD), which comes in two flavors: legacy and Vista - compatible. A legacy ICD disables the Desktop Window Manager, a Vista - compatible ICD takes advantage of a new API, and is fully compatible with the Desktop Window Manager. At least two primary vendors, ATI and NVIDIA provided full Vista - compatible ICDs. However, hardware overlay is not supported, because it is considered as an obsolete feature in Vista. ATI and NVIDIA strongly recommend using compositing desktop / Framebuffer Objects for same functionality.
Windows Vista is the first Microsoft operating system:
Some notable Windows XP features and components have been replaced or removed in Windows Vista, including several shell and Windows Explorer features, multimedia features, networking related functionality, Windows Messenger, NTBackup, the network Windows Messenger service, HyperTerminal, MSN Explorer, Active Desktop, and the replacement of NetMeeting with Windows Meeting Space. Windows Vista also does not include the Windows XP "Luna '' visual theme, or most of the classic color schemes that have been part of Windows since the Windows 3. x era. The "Hardware profiles '' startup feature has also been removed, along with support for older motherboard technologies like the EISA bus, APM and Game port support (though on the 32 - bit version game port support can be enabled by applying an older driver). IP over FireWire (TCP / IP over IEEE 1394) has been removed as well. The IPX / SPX protocol has also been removed, although it can be enabled by a third - party plug - in.
Windows Vista shipped in six different editions. These are roughly divided into two target markets, consumer and business, with editions varying to cater for specific sub-markets. For consumers, there are three editions, with two available for economically more developed countries. Windows Vista Starter edition is aimed for low powered computers with availability only in emerging markets. Windows Vista Home Basic is intended for budget users. Windows Vista Home Premium covers the majority of the consumer market, and contains applications for creating and using multimedia. The home editions can not join a Windows Server domain. For businesses, there are three editions as well. Windows Vista Business is specifically designed for small and medium - sized enterprises, while Windows Vista Enterprise is only available to customers participating in Microsoft 's Software Assurance program. Windows Vista Ultimate contains the complete feature - set of both the Home and Business (combination of both Home Premium and Enterprise) editions, as well as a set of Windows Ultimate Extras, and is aimed at enthusiasts.
All editions except Windows Vista Starter support both 32 - bit (x32) and 64 - bit (x64) processor architectures.
In the European Union, Home Basic N and Business N versions are also available. These come without Windows Media Player, due to EU sanctions brought against Microsoft for violating anti-trust laws. Similar sanctions exist in South Korea.
Windows Vista has four distinct visual styles.
Computers capable of running Windows Vista are classified as Vista Capable and Vista Premium Ready. A Vista Capable or equivalent PC is capable of running all editions of Windows Vista although some of the special features and high - end graphics options may require additional or more advanced hardware. A Vista Premium Ready PC can take advantage of Vista 's high - end features.
Windows Vista 's Basic and Classic interfaces work with virtually any graphics hardware that supports Windows XP or 2000; accordingly, most discussion around Vista 's graphics requirements centers on those for the Windows Aero interface. As of Windows Vista Beta 2, the NVIDIA GeForce 6 series and later, the ATI Radeon 9500 and later, Intel 's GMA 950 and later integrated graphics, and a handful of VIA chipsets and S3 Graphics discrete chips are supported. Although originally supported, the GeForce FX 5 series has been dropped from newer drivers from NVIDIA. The last driver from NVIDIA to support the GeForce FX series on Vista was 96.85. Microsoft offered a tool called the Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor to assist Windows XP and Vista users in determining what versions of Windows their machine is capable of running. The required server connections for this utility are no longer available. Although the installation media included in retail packages is a 32 - bit DVD, customers needing a CD - ROM or customers who wish for a 64 - bit install media are able to acquire this media through the Windows Vista Alternate Media program. The Ultimate edition includes both 32 - bit and 64 - bit media. The digitally downloaded version of Ultimate includes only one version, either 32 - bit or 64 - bit, from Windows Marketplace.
The maximum amount of RAM that Windows Vista can support varies, depending on both its edition and its processor architecture, as shown in the table.
The maximum number of logical processors in a PC that Windows Vista supports is: 32 for 32 - bit; 64 for 64 - bit.
The maximum number of physical processors in a PC that Windows Vista supports is: 2 for Business, Enterprise, and Ultimate, and 1 for Starter, Home Basic, and Home Premium.
Microsoft occasionally releases updates such as service packs for its Windows operating systems to fix bugs, improve performance and add new features.
Windows Vista Service Pack 1 (SP1) was released on 4 February 2008, alongside Windows Server 2008 to OEM partners, after a five - month beta test period. The initial deployment of the service pack caused a number of machines to continually reboot, rendering the machines unusable. This temporarily caused Microsoft to suspend automatic deployment of the service pack until the problem was resolved. The synchronized release date of the two operating systems reflected the merging of the workstation and server kernels back into a single code base for the first time since Windows 2000. MSDN subscribers were able to download SP1 on 15 February 2008. SP1 became available to current Windows Vista users on Windows Update and the Download Center on 18 March 2008. Initially, the service pack only supported five languages -- English, French, Spanish, German and Japanese. Support for the remaining 31 languages was released on 14 April 2008.
A white paper, published by Microsoft on 29 August 2007, outlined the scope and intent of the service pack, identifying three major areas of improvement: reliability and performance, administration experience, and support for newer hardware and standards.
One area of particular note is performance. Areas of improvement include file copy operations, hibernation, logging off on domain - joined machines, JavaScript parsing in Internet Explorer, network file share browsing, Windows Explorer ZIP file handling, and Windows Disk Defragmenter. The ability to choose individual drives to defragment is being reintroduced as well.
Service Pack 1 introduced support for some new hardware and software standards, notably the exFAT file system, 802.11 n wireless networking, IPv6 over VPN connections, and the Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol.
Booting a system using Extensible Firmware Interface on x64 systems was also introduced; this feature had originally been slated for the initial release of Vista but was delayed due to a lack of compatible hardware at the time. Booting from a GUID Partition Table -- based hard drive greater than 2.19 TB is supported (x64 only).
Two areas have seen changes in SP1 that have come as the result of concerns from software vendors. One of these is desktop search; users will be able to change the default desktop search program to one provided by a third party instead of the Microsoft desktop search program that comes with Windows Vista, and desktop search programs will be able to seamlessly tie in their services into the operating system. These changes come in part due to complaints from Google, whose Google Desktop Search application was hindered by the presence of Vista 's built - in desktop search. In June 2007, Google claimed that the changes being introduced for SP1 "are a step in the right direction, but they should be improved further to give consumers greater access to alternate desktop search providers ''. The other area of note is a set of new security APIs being introduced for the benefit of antivirus software that currently relies on the unsupported practice of patching the kernel (see Kernel Patch Protection).
An update to DirectX 10, named DirectX 10.1, marked mandatory several features that were previously optional in Direct3D 10 hardware. Graphics cards will be required to support DirectX 10.1. SP1 includes a kernel (6001.18000) that matches the version shipped with Windows Server 2008.
The Group Policy Management Console (GPMC) was replaced by the Group Policy Object Editor. An updated downloadable version of the Group Policy Management Console was released soon after the service pack.
SP1 enables support for hotpatching, a reboot - reduction servicing technology designed to maximize uptime. It works by allowing Windows components to be updated (or "patched '') while they are still in use by a running process. Hotpatch - enabled update packages are installed via the same methods as traditional update packages, and will not trigger a system reboot.
Service Pack 2 for Windows Vista was released to manufacturing on 28 April 2009, and released to Microsoft Download Center and Windows Update on 26 May 2009. In addition to a number of security and other fixes, a number of new features have been added. However, it did not include Internet Explorer 8. Windows Vista Service Pack 2 build number is 6002.18005. 090410 - 1830.
Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 share a single service pack binary, reflecting the fact that their code bases were joined with the release of Server 2008. Service Pack 2 is not a cumulative update meaning that Service Pack 1 must be installed first.
Platform Update for Windows Vista was released on 27 October 2009. It includes major new components that shipped with Windows 7, as well as updated runtime libraries. It requires Service Pack 2 of Windows Vista or Windows Server 2008 and is listed on Windows Update as a Recommended download.
The Platform Update allows application developers to target both Windows Vista and Windows 7. It consists of the following components:
Some updates are available as separate releases for both Windows XP and Windows Vista:
Although extensive, the Platform Update does not bring Windows Vista to the level of features and performance offered by Windows 7. For example, even though Direct3D 11 runtime will be able to run on D3D9 - class hardware and WDDM drivers using "feature levels '' first introduced in Direct3D 10.1, Desktop Window Manager has not been updated to use Direct3D 10.1.
In July 2011, Microsoft released Platform Update Supplement for Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008, which contains several bug fixes and performance improvements.
In July 2008, Microsoft introduced a web - based advertising campaign called the "Mojave Experiment '', that depicts a group of people who are asked to evaluate the newest operating system from Microsoft, calling it Windows ' Mojave '. Participants are first asked about Vista, if they have used it, and their overall satisfaction with Vista on a scale of 1 to 10. They are then shown a demo of some of the new operating system 's features, and asked their opinion and satisfaction with it on the same 1 to 10 scale. After respondents rate "Mojave '', they are then told that they were really shown a demo of Windows Vista. The object was to test "A theory: If people could see Windows Vista firsthand, they would like it. '' According to Microsoft, the initial sample of respondents rated Vista an average of 4.4 out of 10, and Mojave received an average of 8.5, with no respondents rating Mojave lower than they originally rated Windows Vista before the demo. The "experiment '' has been criticized for deliberate selection of positive statements and not addressing all aspects of Vista.
Amid the negative reviews and reception, there were also positive reviews of Vista, most notably among PC gamers and the advantages brought about with DirectX 10, which allowed for better gaming performance and more realistic graphics, as well as support for many new capabilities brought about in new video cards and GPUs. However, many DirectX 9 games initially showed a drop in frame rate compared to that experienced in Windows XP. In mid-2008, benchmarks suggested that Vista SP1 was on par with (or better than) Windows XP in terms of game performance. Peter Bright of Ars Technica wrote that, in spite of its delays and feature cuts, Windows Vista is "a huge evolution in the history of the NT platform (...) The fundamental changes to the platform are of a scale not seen since the release of NT. '' In a continuation of his previous assessment, Bright would go on to state that "Vista is not simply XP with a new skin; core parts of the OS have been radically overhauled, and virtually every area has seen significant refinement. In terms of the magnitude and extent of these changes, Vista represents probably the biggest leap that the NT platform has ever seen. Never before have significant subsystems been gutted and replaced in the way they are in Vista. ''
Windows Vista received the "Best of CES '' award at the Consumer Electronics Show in 2007.
In its first year of availability, PC World rated it as the biggest tech disappointment of 2007, and it was rated by InfoWorld as No. 2 of Tech 's all - time 25 flops. Microsoft 's then much smaller competitor Apple noted that, despite Vista 's far greater sales, its own did not seem to have suffered after its release, and would later invest in advertising mocking Vista 's unpopularity with users.
Computer manufactures such as Dell, Lenovo, and Hewlett - Packard released their newest computers with Windows Vista pre-installed; however, after the negative reception of the operating system, they also began selling their computers with Windows XP CDs included because of a drop in sales.
A Gartner research report predicted that Vista business adoption in 2008 would overtake that of XP during the same time frame (21.3 % vs. 16.9 %) while IDC had indicated that the launch of Windows Server 2008 served as a catalyst for the stronger adoption rates. As of January 2009, Forrester Research had indicated that almost one third of North American and European corporations had started deploying Vista. At a May 2009 conference, a Microsoft Vice President said "Adoption and deployment of Windows Vista has been slightly ahead of where we had been with XP '' for big businesses.
Within its first month, 20 million copies of Vista were sold, double the amount of Windows XP sales within its first month in October 2001, five years earlier. Shortly after however, due to Vista 's relatively low adoption rates and continued demand for Windows XP, Microsoft decided to sell Windows XP until 30 June 2008, instead of the previously planned date of 31 January 2008. There were reports of Vista users "downgrading '' their operating systems, as well as reports of businesses planning to skip Vista. A study conducted by ChangeWave in March 2008 showed that the percentage of corporate users who were "very satisfied '' with Vista was dramatically lower than other operating systems, with Vista at 8 %, compared to the 40 % who said they were "very satisfied '' with Windows XP.
The internet - usage market share for Windows Vista after two years of availability, in January 2009, was 20.61 %. This figure combined with World Internet Users and Population Stats yielded a user base of roughly 330 million, which exceeded Microsoft 's two - year post launch expectations by 130 million. The internet user base reached before the release of its successor (Windows 7) was roughly 400 million according to the same statistical sources.
Windows Vista has received a number of negative assessments. Criticism targets include protracted development time (5 -- 6 years), more restrictive licensing terms, the inclusion of a number of technologies aimed at restricting the copying of protected digital media, and the usability of the new User Account Control security technology. Moreover, some concerns have been raised about many PCs meeting "Vista Premium Ready '' hardware requirements and Vista 's pricing.
While in 2005 Microsoft claimed "nearly all PCs on the market today will run Windows Vista '', the higher requirements of some of the "premium '' features, such as the Aero interface, affected many upgraders. According to the UK newspaper The Times in May 2006, the full set of features "would be available to less than 5 percent of Britain 's PC market ''; however, this prediction was made several months before Vista was released. This continuing lack of clarity eventually led to a class action against Microsoft as people found themselves with new computers that were unable to use the new software to its full potential despite the assurance of "Vista Capable '' designations. The court case has made public internal Microsoft communications that indicate that senior executives have also had difficulty with this issue. For example, Mike Nash (Corporate Vice President, Windows Product Management) commented, "I now have a $2,100 e-mail machine '' because his laptop 's lack of an appropriate graphics chip so hobbled Vista.
Criticism of upgrade licenses pertaining to Windows Vista Starter through Home Premium was expressed by Ars Technica 's Ken Fisher, who noted that the new requirement of having a prior operating system already installed was going to cause irritation for users who reinstall Windows on a regular basis. It has been revealed that an Upgrade copy of Windows Vista can be installed clean without first installing a previous version of Windows. On the first install, Windows will refuse to activate. The user must then reinstall that same copy of Vista. Vista will then activate on the reinstall, thus allowing a user to install an Upgrade of Windows Vista without owning a previous operating system. As with Windows XP, separate rules still apply to OEM versions of Vista installed on new PCs: Microsoft asserts that these versions are not legally transferable (although whether this conflicts with the right of first sale has yet to be clearly decided legally).
Initially, the cost of Windows Vista was also a source of concern and commentary. A majority of users in a poll said that the prices of various Windows Vista editions posted on the Microsoft Canada website in August 2006 make the product too expensive. A BBC News report on the day of Vista 's release suggested that, "there may be a backlash from consumers over its pricing plans -- with the cost of Vista versions in the US roughly half the price of equivalent versions in the UK. '' Since the release of Vista in 2006, Microsoft has reduced the retail, and upgrade price point of Vista. Originally, Vista Ultimate was priced at $399, and Home Premium Vista at $239. These prices have since been reduced to $319 and $199 respectively.
Windows Vista supports additional forms of DRM restrictions. One aspect of this is the Protected Video Path, which is designed so that "premium content '' from HD DVD or Blu - ray Discs may mandate that the connections between PC components be encrypted. Depending on what the content demands, the devices may not pass premium content over non-encrypted outputs, or they must artificially degrade the quality of the signal on such outputs or not display it at all. Drivers for such hardware must be approved by Microsoft; a revocation mechanism is also included, which allows Microsoft to disable drivers of devices in end - user PCs over the Internet. Peter Gutmann, security researcher and author of the open source cryptlib library, claims that these mechanisms violate fundamental rights of the user (such as fair use), unnecessarily increase the cost of hardware, and make systems less reliable (the "tilt bit '' being a particular worry; if triggered, the entire graphic subsystem performs a reset) and vulnerable to denial - of - service attacks. However, despite several requests for evidence supporting such claims Peter Gutmann has never supported his claims with any researched evidence. Proponents have claimed that Microsoft had no choice but to follow the demands of the movie studios, and that the technology will not actually be enabled until after 2010; Microsoft also noted that content protection mechanisms have existed in Windows as far back as Windows ME, and that the new protections will not apply to any existing content (only future content).
Although User Account Control (UAC) is an important part of Vista 's security infrastructure, as it blocks software from silently gaining administrator privileges without the user 's knowledge, it has been widely criticized for generating too many prompts. This has led many Vista UAC users to consider it troublesome, with some consequently either turning the feature off or (for Windows Vista Enterprise or Windows Vista Ultimate users) putting it in auto - approval mode. Responding to this criticism, Microsoft altered the implementation to reduce the number of prompts with SP1. Though the changes have resulted in some improvement, it has not alleviated the concerns completely.
For Windows 8 licenses acquired through an OEM, a user may downgrade to the equivalent edition of Windows Vista. Customers licensed for use of Windows 8 Enterprise are generally licensed for Windows 8 Pro, which may be downgraded to Windows Vista Business. End users of licenses of Windows 7 acquired through OEM or volume licensing may downgrade to the equivalent edition of Windows Vista. Downgrade rights are not offered for Starter, Home Basic or Home Premium editions of Windows 7.
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how did political changes in england affect colonial governments | Colony of Virginia - wikipedia
The Colony of Virginia, chartered in 1606 and settled in 1607, was the first enduring English colony in North America, following failed proprietary attempts at settlement on Newfoundland by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1583, and the subsequent further south Roanoke Island (modern eastern North Carolina) by Sir Walter Raleigh in the late 1580s.
The founder of the new colony was the Virginia Company, with the first two settlements in Jamestown on the north bank of the James River and Popham Colony on the Kennebec River in modern - day Maine, both in 1607. The Popham colony quickly failed due to a famine, disease, and conflict with local Native American tribes in the first two years. Jamestown occupied land belonging to the Powhatan Confederacy, and was also at the brink of failure before the arrival of a new group of settlers and supplies by ship in 1610. Tobacco became Virginia 's first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns.
In 1624, the Virginia Company 's charter was revoked by King James I, and the Virginia colony was transferred to royal authority as a crown colony. After the English Civil War in the 1640s and 50s, the Virginia colony was nicknamed "The Old Dominion '' by King Charles II for its perceived loyalty to the English monarchy during the era of the Protectorate and Commonwealth of England..
From 1619 to 1775 / 1776, the colonial legislature of Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown on the James River remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699; from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg. The colony experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacon 's Rebellion of 1676.
After declaring independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1775, before the Declaration of Independence was officially adopted, the Virginia colony became the Commonwealth of Virginia, one of the original thirteen states of the United States, adopting as its official slogan "The Old Dominion ''. The entire modern states of West Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana and Illinois, and portions of Ohio and Western Pennsylvania were later created from the territory encompassed, or claimed by, the colony of Virginia at the time of further American independence in July 1776.
The name "Virginia '' is the oldest designation for English claims in North America. In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe to explore what is now the North Carolina coast, and they returned with word of a regional king (weroance) named Wingina, who ruled a land supposedly called Wingandacoa.
The name Virginia for a region in North America may have been originally suggested by Sir Walter Raleigh, named for Queen Elizabeth I, in approximately 1584. In addition the term Wingandacoa may have influenced the name Virginia. '' On his next voyage, Raleigh learned that while the chief of the Secotans was indeed called Wingina, the expression wingandacoa heard by the English upon arrival actually meant "What good clothes you wear! '' in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. "Virginia '' was originally a term used to refer to North America 's entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel (close to Cape Fear) north to 48th parallel. This area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia.
The colony was also known as the Virginia Colony, the Province of Virginia, and occasionally as the Dominion and Colony of Virginia or His Majesty 's Most Ancient Colloney and Dominion of Virginia
In gratitude for the loyalty of Virginians to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of "Old Dominion ''. The colony seal stated from Latin, ' Behold, Virginia gives the fifth ", with Virginia claimed as the fifth English dominion after England, France, Scotland and Ireland.
The state of Virginia maintains "Old Dominion '' as its state nickname. The athletic teams of the University of Virginia are known as the "Cavaliers, '' referring to supporters of Charles II, and Virginia has another state public university called "Old Dominion University ''.
Although Spain, France, Sweden, and the Netherlands all had competing claims to the region, none of these prevented the English from becoming the first European power to colonize successfully the Mid-Atlantic coastline. Earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia (San Miguel de Gualdape, 1526 -- 27; several Spanish missions in Georgia between 1568 and 1684), South Carolina (Santa Elena, 1566 -- 87), North Carolina (Joara, 1567 -- 68) and Virginia (Ajacán Mission, 1570 -- 71); and by the French in South Carolina (Charlesfort, 1562 -- 63). Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, the French were establishing settlements in what is now Canada (Charlesbourg - Royal briefly occupied 1541 -- 43; Port Royal, established in 1605).
In 1585, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonisation mission to the island of Roanoke (in present - day North Carolina), with over 100 male setters. However, when Sir Francis Drake arrived at the colony in summer 1586, the colonists opted to return to England, due to lack of supply ships, abandoning the colony. Supply ships arrived at the now - abandoned colony later in 1586; 15 soldiers were left behind to hold the island, however no trace of these men was later found.
In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to again attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The expedition leader, John White, returned to England for supplies that same year but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned. The houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, it remains a mystery and has come to be known as the "Lost Colony ''. Two English children were born in this colony; the first was named Virginia Dare -- Dare County, North Carolina, was named in honor of the baby, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island.
Following the failure of an earlier colonisation attempt, in the early 1600s, England resumed attempts to set up a number of colonies. This time jointstock companies were used rather than giving extensive grants to a landed proprietor such as Gilbert or Raleigh..
James granted a proprietary charter to two competing branches of the Virginia Company, which were supported by investors. These were the Plymouth Company and the London Company. By the terms of the charter, the Plymouth Company was permitted to establish a colony of 100 miles (160 km) square between the 38th parallel and the 45th parallel (roughly between Chesapeake Bay and the current U.S. -- Canada border). The London Company was permitted to establish between the 34th parallel and the 41st parallel (approximately between Cape Fear and Long Island Sound), and also owned a large portion of Atlantic and Inland Canada. In the area of overlap, the two companies were not permitted to establish colonies within one hundred miles of each other. During 1606, each company organized expeditions to establish settlements within the area of their rights.
The London company formed Jamestown in its exclusive territory, whilst the Plymouth colony formed the Popham Colony in its exclusive territory near what is now Phippsburg, Maine.
The London Company hired Captain Christopher Newport to lead its expedition. On December 20, 1606, he set sail from England with his flagship, the Susan Constant, and two smaller ships, the Godspeed, and the Discovery, with 105 men and boys, plus 39 sailors. After an unusually long voyage of 144 days, they arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay and came ashore at the point where the southern side of the bay meets the Atlantic Ocean, an event that has come to be called the "First Landing ''. They erected a cross and named the point of land Cape Henry, in honor of Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, the eldest son of King James.
Their instructions were to select a location inland along a waterway where they would be less vulnerable to the Spanish or other Europeans also seeking to establish colonies. They sailed westward into the Bay and reached the mouth of Hampton Roads, stopping at a location now known as Old Point Comfort. Keeping the shoreline to their right, they then ventured up the largest river, which they named the James, for their king. After exploring at least as far upriver as the confluence of the Appomattox River at present - day Hopewell, they returned downstream to Jamestown Island, which offered a favorable defensive position against enemy ships and deep water anchorage adjacent to the land. Within two weeks they had constructed their first fort and named their settlement Jamestown.
In addition to securing gold and other precious minerals to send back to the waiting investors in England, the survival plan for the Jamestown colonists depended upon regular supplies from England and trade with the Native Americans. The location they selected was largely cut off from the mainland and offered little game for hunting, no fresh drinking water, and very limited ground for farming. Captain Newport returned to England twice, delivering the First Supply and the Second Supply missions during 1608, and leaving the Discovery for the use of the colonists. However, death from disease and conflicts with the Natives Americans took a fearsome toll of the colonists. Despite attempts at mining minerals, growing silk, and exporting the native Virginia tobacco, no profitable exports had been identified, and it was unclear whether the settlement would survive financially.
The Powhatan Confederacy was a confederation of numerous linguistically related tribes in the eastern part of Virginia. The Powhatan Confederacy controlled a territory known as Tsenacommacah, which roughly corresponded with the Tidewater region of Virginia. It was in this territory that the English established Jamestown. At the time of the English arrival, the Powhatan were led by the paramount chief Wahunsenacawh.
On May 31, 1607, about 100 men and boys left England for what is now Maine. Approximately three months later, the group landed on a wooded peninsula where the Kennebec River meets the Atlantic Ocean and began building Fort St. George. By the end of the year, due to limited resources, half of the colonists returned to England. Late the next year, the remaining 45 sailed home, and the Plymouth company fell dormant.
In 1609, with the abandonment of the Plymouth Company settlement, the London Company 's Virginia charter was adjusted to include the territory north of the 34th parallel and south of the 39th parallel, with its original coastal grant extended "from sea to sea ''. Thus, at least according to James I 's writ, the Virginia Colony in its original sense extended to the coast of the Pacific Ocean, in what is now California, with all the states in between (Kentucky, Missouri, Colorado, Utah, etc.) belonging to Virginia. For practical purposes, though, the colonists rarely ventured far inland to what was known as "The Virginia Wilderness '', although the concept itself helped renew the interest of investors, and additional funds enabled an expanded effort, known as the Third Supply.
For the Third Supply, the London Company had a new ship built. The Sea Venture was specifically designed for emigration of additional colonists and transporting supplies. It became the flagship of the Admiral of the convoy, Sir George Somers. The Third Supply was the largest to date, with eight other ships joining the Sea Venture. The new Captain of the Sea Venture was the mission 's Vice-Admiral, Christopher Newport. Hundreds of new colonists were aboard the ships. However, weather was to drastically affect the mission.
A few days out of London, the nine ships of the third supply mission encountered a massive hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean. They became separated during the three days the storm lasted. Admiral Somers had the new Sea Venture, carrying most of the supplies of the mission, deliberately driven aground onto the reefs of Bermuda to avoid sinking. However, while there was no loss of life, the ship was wrecked beyond repair, stranding its survivors on the uninhabited archipelago, to which they laid claim for England.
The survivors at Bermuda eventually built two smaller ships and most of them continued on to Jamestown, leaving a few on Bermuda to secure the claim. The Company 's possession of Bermuda was made official in 1612, when the third and final charter extended the boundaries of ' Virginia ' far enough out to sea to encompass Bermuda. Bermuda has since been known officially also as The Somers Isles (in commemoration of Admiral Somers). The shareholders of the Virginia Company spun off a second company, the Somers Isles Company, which administered Bermuda from 1615 to 1684.
Upon their arrival at Jamestown, the survivors of the Sea Venture discovered that the 10 - month delay had greatly aggravated other adverse conditions. Seven of the other ships had arrived carrying more colonists, but little in the way of food and supplies. Combined with a drought, and hostile relations with the Native Americans, the loss of the supplies that had been aboard the Sea Venture resulted in the Starving Time in late 1609 to May 1610, during which over 80 % of the colonists perished. Conditions were so adverse it appears, from skeletal evidence, that the survivors engaged in cannibalism. The survivors from Bermuda had brought few supplies and food with them, and it appeared to all that Jamestown must be abandoned and it would be necessary to return to England.
During this time, perhaps 5000 Virginians died of disease or were killed in the Indian massacre of 1622.
Samuel Argall was the captain of one of the seven ships of the Third Supply that had arrived at Jamestown in 1609 after becoming separated from the Sea Venture, whose fate was unknown. Depositing his passengers and limited supplies, he returned to England with word of the plight of the colonists at Jamestown. The King authorized another leader, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, later better known as "Lord Delaware '', to have greater powers, and the London Company organized another supply mission. They set sail from London on April 1, 1610.
Just after the survivors of the Starving Time and those who had joined them from Bermuda had abandoned Jamestown, the ships of the new supply mission sailed up the James River with food, supplies, a doctor, and more colonists. Lord Delaware was determined that the colony was to survive, and he intercepted the departing ships about 10 miles (16 km) downstream of Jamestown. The colonists thanked Providence for the Colony 's salvation.
West proved far harsher and more belligerent toward the Indians than any of his predecessors, engaging in wars of conquest against them. He first sent Gates to drive off the Kecoughtan from their village on July 9 1610, then gave Chief Powhatan an ultimatum to either return all English subjects and property, or face war. Powhatan responded by insisting that the English either stay in their fort or leave Virginia. Enraged, De la Warr had the hand of a Paspahegh captive cut off and sent him to the paramount chief with another ultimatum: Return all English subjects and property, or the neighboring villages would be burned. This time, Powhatan did not even respond.
On August 9, 1610, tired of waiting for a response from Powhatan, West sent George Percy with 70 men to attack the Paspahegh capital, burning the houses and cutting down their cornfields. They killed 65 to 75, and captured one of Wowinchopunk 's wives and her children. Returning downstream, the English threw the children overboard and shot out "their Braynes in the water ''. The queen was put to the sword in Jamestown. The Paspahegh never recovered from this attack and abandoned their town. Another small force sent with Samuel Argall against the Warraskoyaks found that they had already fled, but he destroyed their abandoned village and cornfields as well. This event triggered the first Anglo - Powhatan War.
Among the individuals who had briefly abandoned Jamestown was John Rolfe, a Sea Venture survivor who had lost his wife and son in Bermuda. He was a businessman from London who had some untried seeds for new, sweeter strains of tobacco with him, as well as some untried marketing ideas. It would turn out that John Rolfe held the key to the Colony 's economic success. By 1612, Rolfe 's new strains of tobacco had been successfully cultivated and exported, establishing a first cash crop for export. Plantations and new outposts sprung up, initially both upriver and downriver along the navigable portion of the James, and thereafter along the other rivers and waterways of the area. The settlement at Jamestown could finally be considered permanently established.
A period of peace followed the marriage in 1614 of colonist John Rolfe to Pocahontas, the daughter of Algonquian chief Powhatan.
The relations with the Natives took a turn for the worse after the death of Pocahontas in England and the return of John Rolfe and other colonial leaders in May 1617. Disease, poor harvests and the growing demand for tobacco lands caused hostilities to escalate.
After Wahunsenacawh 's death in 1618, he was soon succeeded by his own younger brother, Opechancanough. He maintained friendly relations with the Colony on the surface, negotiating with them through his warrior Nemattanew, but by 1622, after Nemattanew had been slain, Opechancanough was ready to order a limited surprise attack on them, hoping to persuade them to move on and settle elsewhere.
Chief Opechancanough organized and led a well - coordinated series of surprise attacks on multiple English settlements along both sides of a 50 - mile (80 km) long stretch of the James River, which took place early on the morning of March 22, 1622. This event came to be known as the Indian Massacre of 1622 and resulted in the deaths of 347 colonists (including men, women, and children) and the abduction of many others. The Massacre caught most of the Virginia Colony by surprise and virtually wiped out several entire communities, including Henricus and Wolstenholme Town at Martin 's Hundred.
Jamestown was spared from destruction, however, due to a Virginia Indian boy named Chanco who, after learning of the planned attacks from his brother, gave warning to colonist Richard Pace with whom he lived. Pace, after securing himself and his neighbors on the south side of the James River, took a canoe across river to warn Jamestown, which narrowly escaped destruction, although there was no time to warn the other settlements.
A year later, Captain William Tucker and Dr. John Potts worked out a truce with the Powhatan and proposed a toast using liquor laced with poison. 200 Virginia Indians were killed or made ill by the poison and 50 more were slaughtered by the colonists. For over a decade, the English settlers killed Powhatan men and women, captured children and systematically razed villages, seizing or destroying crops.
By 1634, a six - mile - long palisade was completed across the Virginia Peninsula. The new palisade provided some security from attacks by the Virginia Indians for colonists farming and fishing lower on the Peninsula from that point.
On April 18, 1644, Opechancanough again tried to force the colonists to abandon the region with another series of coordinated attacks, killing almost 500 colonists. However, this was a much less devastating portion of the growing population than had been the case in the 1622 attacks.
The forces of Royal Governor of Virginia William Berkeley captured the old warrior in 1646, variously thought to be between 90 and 100 years old. In October, while a prisoner, Opechancanough was killed by a soldier (shot in the back) assigned to guard him.
In 1620, a successor to the Plymouth Company sent colonists to the New World aboard the Mayflower. Known as Pilgrims, they successfully established a settlement in what became Massachusetts. The portion of what had been Virginia north of the 40th parallel became known as New England, according to books written by Captain John Smith, who had made a voyage there.
In 1624, the charter of the Virginia Company was revoked by King James I and the Virginia Colony was transferred to royal authority in the form of a crown colony. Subsequent charters for the Maryland Colony in 1632 and to the eight Lords Proprietor of the Province of Carolina in 1663 and 1665 further reduced the Virginia Colony to roughly the coastal borders it held until the American Revolution. (The exact border with North Carolina was disputed until surveyed by William Byrd II in 1728.)
After twelve years of peace following the Indian Wars of 1622 - 1632, another Anglo -- Powhatan War began on March 18, 1644, as a last effort by the remnants of the Powhatan Confederacy, still under Opechancanough, to dislodge the English settlers of the Virginia Colony. Around 500 colonists were killed, but that number represented a relatively low percent of the overall population, as opposed to the earlier massacre (the 1622 attack had wiped out a third; that of 1644 barely a tenth). However, Opechancanough, still preferring to use Powhatan tactics, did not make any major follow - up to this attack.
This was followed by a last effort by the settlers to decimate the Powhatan. In July, they marched against the Pamunkey, Chickahominy, and Powhatan proper; and south of the James, against the Appomattoc, Weyanoke, Warraskoyak, and Nansemond, as well as two Carolina tribes, the Chowanoke and Secotan.
In February 1645, the colony ordered the construction of three frontier forts: Fort Charles at the falls of the James, Fort James on the Chickahominy, and Fort Royal at the falls of the York. In August, Governor William Berkeley stormed Opechancanough 's stronghold and captured him. All captured males in the village over age 11 were deported to Tangier Island. Opechancanough, around 92 years old, was taken to Jamestown where he was shot in the back by a guard. Opechancanough 's death resulted in the disintegration of the Powhatan Confederacy into its component tribes, whom the colonists continued to attack. In March 1646, the colony decided to build a fourth frontier fort, Fort Henry, at the falls of the Appomattox, where the modern city of Petersburg is located.
In the peace treaty of October 1646, the new weroance, Necotowance, and the subtribes formerly in the Confederacy, each became tributaries to the King of England. At the same time, a racial frontier was delineated between Indian and English settlements, with members of each group forbidden to cross to the other side except by special pass obtained at one of the newly erected border forts. The extent of the Virginia colony open to patent by English colonists was defined as: All the land between the Blackwater and York rivers, and up to the navigable point of each of the major rivers - which were connected by a straight line running directly from modern Franklin on the Blackwater, northwesterly to the Appomattoc village beside Fort Henry, and continuing in the same direction to the Monocan village above the falls of the James, where Fort Charles was built, then turning sharp right, to Fort Royal on the York (Pamunkey) river. Necotowance thus ceded the English vast tracts of still - uncolonized land, much of it between the James and Blackwater. English settlements on the peninsula north of the York and below the Poropotank were also allowed, as they had already been there since 1640.
Although the newer, Puritan colonies, most notably Massachusetts, were dominated by Parliamentarians, the older colonies sided with the Crown. The Virginia Company 's two settlements, Virginia and Bermuda (Bermuda 's Independent Puritans were expelled as the Eleutheran Adventurers, settling the Bahamas under William Sayle), Antigua and Barbados were conspicuous in their loyalty to the Crown, and were singled out by the Rump Parliament in An Act for prohibiting Trade with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego in October, 1650. This dictated that
due punishment (be) inflicted upon the said Delinquents, do Declare all and every the said persons in Barbada 's, Antego, Bermuda 's and Virginia, that have contrived, abetted, aided or assisted those horrid Rebellions, or have since willingly joyned with them, to be notorious Robbers and Traitors, and such as by the Law of Nations are not to be permitted any maner of Commerce or Traffique with any people whatsoever; and do forbid to all maner of persons, Foreiners, and others, all maner of Commerce, Traffique and Correspondency whatsoever, to be used or held with the said Rebels in the Barbada 's, Bermuda 's, Virginia and Antego, or either of them.
The Act also authorised Parliamentary privateers to act against English vessels trading with the rebellious colonies: "All Ships that Trade with the Rebels may be surprized. Goods and tackle of such ships not to be embezeled, till judgement in the Admiralty; Two or three of the Officers of every ship to be examined upon oath. ''
Virginia 's population swelled with Cavaliers during and after the English Civil War. Despite the resistance of the Virginia Cavaliers, Virginian Puritan Richard Bennett was made Governor answering to Cromwell in 1652, followed by two more nominal "Commonwealth Governors ''. Nonetheless, the colony was rewarded for its loyalty to the Crown by Charles the II following the Restoration when he dubbed it the Old Dominion.
With the Restoration in 1660 the Governorship returned to its previous holder, Sir William Berkeley.
In 1676, Bacon 's Rebellion challenged the political order of the colony. While a military failure, its handling did result in Governor Berkeley being recalled to England.
In 1679, the Treaty of Middle Plantation was signed.
The largest and richest and most influential of the American colonies was Virginia, where conservatives were in full control of the colonial and local governments. At the local level, Church of England parishes handled many local affairs, and they in turn were controlled not by the minister, but rather by a closed circle of rich landowners who comprised the parish vestry. Ronald L. Heinemann emphasizes the ideological conservatism of Virginia, while noting there were also religious dissenters who were gaining strength by the 1760s:
In actual practice, colonial Virginia never had a bishop to represent God nor a hereditary aristocracy with titles like ' duke ' or ' baron '. However it did have a royal governor appointed by the king, as well as a powerful landed gentry. The status quo was strongly reinforced by what Jefferson called "feudal and unnatural distinctions '' that were vital to the maintenance of aristocracy in Virginia. He targeted laws such as entail and primogeniture by which the oldest son inherited all the land. As a result increasingly large plantations, worked by white tenant farmers and by black slaves, gained in size and wealth and political power in the eastern ("Tidewater '') tobacco areas. Maryland and South Carolina had similar hierarchical systems, as did New York and Pennsylvania. During the Revolutionary era, all such laws were repealed by the new states. The most fervent Loyalists left for Canada or Britain or other parts of the Empire. They introduced primogeniture in Upper Canada (Ontario) in 1792, and it lasted until 1851. Such laws lasted in England until 1926.
As the English expanded out from Jamestown, encroachment of the new arrivals and their ever - growing numbers on what had been Indian lands resulted in several conflicts with the Virginia Indians. For much of the 17th century, English contact and conflict was mostly with the Algonquian peoples that populated the coastal regions, primarily the Powhatan Confederacy. Following a series of wars and the decline of the Powhatan as a political entity, the colonists expanded westward in the late 17th and 18th centuries, encountering the Shawnee, Iroquoian - speaking peoples such as the Nottoway, Meherrin, Iroquois and Cherokee, as well as Siouan - speaking peoples such as the Tutelo, Saponi, and Occaneechi.
As the English settlements expanded beyond the Tidewater territory traditionally occupied by the Powhatan, they encountered new groups with which there had been minimal relations with the Colony.
In the late 17th century, the Iroquois Confederacy expanded into the Western region of Virginia as part of the Beaver Wars. They arrived shortly before the English settlers, and displaced the resident Siouan tribes.
Lt. Gov. Alexander Spotswood made further advances in policy with the Virginia Indians along the frontier. In 1714, he established Fort Christanna to help educate and trade with several tribes with which the colony had friendly relations, as well as to help protect them from hostile tribes. In 1722, he negotiated the Treaty of Albany.
The cultural geography of colonial Virginia gradually evolved, with a variety of settlement and jurisdiction models experimented with. By the late 17th century and into the 18th century, the primary settlement pattern was based on plantations (to grow tobacco), farms, and some towns (mostly ports or courthouse villages).
The fort at Jamestown, founded in 1607, remained the primary settlement of the colonists for several years. A few strategic outposts were constructed, including Fort Algernon (1609) at the entrance to the James River.
Early attempts to occupy strategic locations already inhabited by natives at what is now Richmond and Suffolk failed owing to native resistance.
A short distance farther up the James, in 1611, Thomas Dale began the construction of a progressive development at Henricus on and about what was later known as Farrars Island. Henricus was envisioned as possible replacement capital for Jamestown, and was to have the first college in Virginia. (The ill - fated Henricus was destroyed during the Indian Massacre of 1622). In addition to creating the new settlement at Henricus, Dale also established the port town of Bermuda Hundred, as well as "Bermuda Cittie '' (sic) in 1613, now part of Hopewell, Virginia. He began the excavation work at Dutch Gap, using methods he had learned while serving in Holland.
Once tobacco had been established as an export cash crop, investors became more interested and groups of them united to create largely self - sufficient "hundreds. '' The term "hundred '' is a traditional English name for an administrative division of a shire (or county) to define an area which would support one hundred heads of household. In the colonial era in Virginia, the "hundreds '' were large developments of many acres, necessary to support land hungry tobacco crops. The "hundreds '' were required to be at least several miles from any existing community. Soon, these patented tracts of land sprung up along the rivers. The investors sent shiploads of settlers and supplies to Virginia to establish the new developments. The administrative centers of Virginia 's hundreds were essentially small towns or villages, and were often palisaded for defense.
An example was Martin 's Hundred, located downstream from Jamestown on the north bank of the James River. It was sponsored by the Martin 's Hundred Society, a group of investors in London. It was settled in 1618, and Wolstenholme Towne was its administrative center, named for Sir John Wolstenholme, one of the investors.
Bermuda Hundred (now in Chesterfield County) and Flowerdew Hundred (now in Prince George County) are other names which have survived over centuries. Others included Berkeley Hundred, Bermuda Nether Hundred, Bermuda Upper Hundred, Smith 's Hundred, Digges Hundred, West Hundred and Shirley Hundred (and, in Bermuda, Harrington Hundreds).
Including the creation of the "hundreds '', the various incentives to investors in the Virginia Colony finally paid off by 1617. By this time, the colonists were exporting 50,000 pounds of tobacco to England a year and were beginning to generate enough profit to ensure the economic survival of the colony.
In 1619, the plantations and developments were divided into four "incorporations '' or "citties '' (sic), as they were called. These were Charles Cittie, Elizabeth Cittie, Henrico Cittie, and James Cittie, which included the relatively small seat of government for the colony at Jamestown Island. Each of the four "citties '' (sic) extended across the James River, the main conduit of transportation of the era. Elizabeth Cittie, know initially as Kecoughtan (a Native word with many variations in spelling by the English), also included the areas now known as South Hampton Roads and the Eastern Shore.
In 1634, a new system of local government was created in the Virginia Colony by order of the King of England. Eight shires were designated, each with its own local officers. Within a few years, the shires were renamed counties, a system which has remained to the present day.
In 1630, under the governorship of John Harvey, the first settlement on the York River was founded. In 1632, the Virginia legislature voted to build a fort to link Jamestown and the York River settlement of Chiskiack and protect the colony from Indian attacks. In 1634, a palisade was built near Middle Plantation. This wall stretched across the peninsula between the York and James rivers and protected the settlements on the eastern side of the lower Peninsula from Indians. The wall also served to contain cattle.
In 1699, a new capital was established and built at Middle Plantation, soon renamed Williamsburg.
In the period following the English Civil War, the exiled King Charles II of England hoped to shore up the loyalty of several of his supporters by granting them a significant area of mostly uncharted land to control as a Proprietary in Virginia (a claim that would only be valid were the king to return to power). While under the jurisdiction of the Virginia Colony, the proprietary maintained complete control of the granting of land within that territory (and revenues obtained from it) until after the American Revolution. The grant was for the land between the Rappahannock and Potomac Rivers, which included the titular Northern Neck, but as time went on also would include all of what is today Northern Virginia and into West Virginia. Due to ambiguities of the text of the various grants causing disputes between the proprietary and the colonial government, the tract was finally demarcated via the Fairfax Line in 1746.
In the initial years under the Virginia Company, the colony was governed by a council, headed by a council President. From 1611 to 1618, under the orders of Sir Thomas Dale, the settlers of the colony were under a regime of martial law that became known as Dale 's Code.
Under a charter from the company in 1618, a new model of governance was put in place in 1619, which created a new House of Burgesses. On July 30, 1619, burgesses met at Jamestown Church as the first elected representative legislative assembly in the New World. The legal system in the colony was thereafter based around the English common law.
For much of the history of the Royal Colony, the formal appointed governor was absentee, often remaining in England. In his stead, a series of acting or Lieutenant Governors who were physically present held actual authority. In the later years of its history, as it became increasingly civilized, more governors made the journey.
The first settlement in the colony, Jamestown, served as the capital and main port of entry from its founding until 1699. During this time, a series of statehouses (capitols) were used and subsequently consumed by fires (both accidental, and in the case of Bacon 's Rebellion, intentional). Following such a fire, in 1699 the capital was relocated inland, away from the swampy clime of Jamestown to Middle Plantation, soon to be renamed Williamsburg.
The capital of Virginia remained in Williamsburg, until it was moved further inland to Richmond in 1779 during the American Revolution.
The entrepreneurs of the Virginia Company experimented with a number of means of making the colony profitable. The orders sent with the first colonists instructed that they search for precious metals (specifically gold). While no gold was found, various products were sent back, including pitch and clapboard. In 1608, early attempts were made at breaking the Continental hold on glassmaking through the creation of a glassworks. In 1619, the colonist built the first ironworks in North America.
In 1612, settler John Rolfe planted tobacco obtained from Bermuda (during his stay there as part of the Third Supply). Within a few years, the crop proved extremely lucrative in the European market. As the English increasingly used tobacco products, tobacco in the American colonies became significant economic force, especially in the tidewater region surrounding the Chesapeake Bay.
Vast plantations were built along the rivers of Virginia, and social / economic systems developed to grow and distribute this cash crop. Some elements of this system included the importation and employment of slaves to grow crops. Planters would then fill large hogsheads with tobacco and convey them to inspection warehouses. In 1730, the Virginia House of Burgesses standardized and improved quality of tobacco exported by establishing the Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730, which required inspectors to grade tobacco at 40 specified locations.
England supplied the great majority of colonists. In 1608, the first Poles and Slovaks arrived as part of a group of skilled craftsmen. In 1619, the first Africans arrived, though the concept of racially based slavery did not evolve for several decades. In the mid-17th century, French Huguenots arrived in the colony. In the early 18th century, German specialists arrived to establish the Germanna settlement. Scots and Scots - Irish settled on the Virginia frontier. Some Welsh arrived including the ancestors of Thomas Jefferson.
With the boom in tobacco planting, there was a severe shortage of laborers to work the labor - intensive crop. One method to solve the shortage was through the usage of indentured servants.
By the 1640s, legal documents started to define the changing nature of indentured servants and their status as servants. In 1640, John Punch was sentenced to lifetime servitude as punishment for trying to escape from his master Hugh Gwyn. This is the earliest legal sanctioning of slavery in Virginia. After this trial, the relationship between indentured servants and their masters changed, as planters saw permanent servitude a more appealing and profitable prospect than seven - year indentures.
As many indentured workers were illiterate, especially Africans, there were opportunities for abuse by planters and other indenture holders. Some ignored the expiration of servants ' indentured contracts and tried to keep them as lifelong workers. One example is with Anthony Johnson, who argued with Robert Parker, another planter, over the status of John Casor, formerly an indentured servant of his. Johnson argued that his indenture was for life and Parker had interfered with his rights. The court ruled in favor of Johnson and ordered that Casor be returned to him, where he served the rest of his life as a slave. Such documented cases marked the transformation of Negroes from indentured servants into slaves.
In the late 17th century, the Royal African Company, which was established by the King of England to supply the great demand for labor to the colonies, had a monopoly on the provision of African slaves to the colony. As plantation agriculture was established earlier in Barbados, in the early years, slaves were shipped from Barbados (where they were seasoned) to the colonies of Virginia and Carolina.
In 1619, the Anglican Church was formally established as the official religion in the colony, and would remain so until shortly after the American Revolution. Establishment meant that local tax funds paid the parish costs, and that the parish had local civic functions such as poor relief. The upper class planters controlled the vestry, which ran the parish and chose the minister. The church in Virginia was controlled by the Bishop of London, who sent priests and missionaries, but there were never enough, and they reported very low standards of personal morality. By the 1760s, dissenting Protestants, especially Baptists and Methodists, were growing rapidly and started challenging the Anglicans for moral leadership.
The first printing press used in Virginia began operation in Jamestown on June 8, 1680, though within a few years it was shut down by the Governor and Crown of England for want of a license. It was not until 1736 that the first newspaper, the Virginia Gazette, began circulation under printer William Parks of Williamsburg.
The Syms - Eaton Academy, started in 1634, became the first free public school in America. Private tutors were often favored among those families who could afford them.
For most of the 17th century, a university education for settlers of Virginia required a journey to England or Scotland. Such journeys were undertaken by wealthy young men. In the early years, many settlers received their education prior to immigrating to the colony.
In 1693, the College of William and Mary was founded at Middle Plantation (soon renamed Williamsburg). The college included a common school for Virginia Indians, supplemented by local pupils, which lasted until a 1779 overhaul of the institution 's curriculum. The college, located in the capital and heart of the Tidewater region, dominated the colony 's intellectual climate until after independence.
After 1747, some Virginians began to attend institutions at Princeton and Philadelphia. Generations began to move west into the Piedmont and Blue Ridge areas. It is in this region of Virginia that two future Presbyterian colleges trace their origins to lower level institutions founded in this time period. First, what would become Hampden -- Sydney College was founded in 1775, immediately prior to the American Revolution. Likewise, Augusta Academy was a classical school that would evolve into Washington and Lee University (though would not grant its first bachelor 's degree until 1785).
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who lead the british in the french and indian war | French and Indian War - wikipedia
British victory
Great Britain
Iroquois Confederacy
France
Wabanaki Confederacy
The French and Indian War (1754 -- 63) comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years ' War of 1756 -- 63. It pitted the colonies of British America against those of New France. Both sides were supported by military units from their parent countries of Great Britain and France, as well as by American Indian allies. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 settlers, compared with 2 million in the British North American colonies. The outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. The European nations declared war on one another in 1756 following months of localized conflict, escalating the war from a regional affair into an intercontinental conflict.
The name French and Indian War is used mainly in the United States. It refers to the two main enemies of the British colonists: the royal French forces and the various American Indian forces allied with them. The British colonists were supported at various times by the Iroquois, Catawba, and Cherokee, and the French colonists were supported by Wabanaki Confederacy members Abenaki and Mi'kmaq, and Algonquin, Lenape, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Shawnee, and Wyandot.
British and other European historians use the term the Seven Years ' War, as do English - speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête (the War of the Conquest) or (rarely) the Fourth Intercolonial War.
Fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne within present - day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, during which Virginia militiamen under the command of 22 - year - old George Washington ambushed a French patrol.
In 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four - way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the main effort by Braddock proved a disaster; he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, 1755 and died a few days later. British operations failed in the frontier areas of Pennsylvania and New York during 1755 - 57 due to a combination of poor management, internal divisions, effective Canadian scouts, French regular forces, and Indian warrior allies. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, and they ordered the expulsion of the Acadians (1755 -- 64) soon afterwards. Orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander - in - Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians were expelled, both those captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty. Indians likewise were driven off the land to make way for settlers from New England.
The British colonial government fell in the region of modern Nova Scotia after several disastrous campaigns in 1757, including a failed expedition against Louisbourg and the Siege of Fort William Henry; this last was followed by Indians torturing and massacring their British victims. William Pitt came to power and significantly increased British military resources in the colonies at a time when France was unwilling to risk large convoys to aid the limited forces that they had in New France, preferring to concentrate their forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theater of the war. Between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada (part of New France). They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec (1759). The British later lost the Battle of Sainte - Foy west of Quebec (1760), but the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris (1763).
The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo - French conflict. France ceded to Great Britain its territory east of the Mississippi. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River (including New Orleans) to its ally Spain in compensation for Spain 's loss to Britain of Florida. (Spain had ceded Florida to Britain in exchange for the return of Havana, Cuba.) France 's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, confirming Great Britain 's position as the dominant colonial power in eastern North America.
The conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King William 's War or Queen Anne 's War. There had already been a King George 's War in the 1740s during King George 's reign, so British colonists named this conflict after their opponents and it became known as the French and Indian War. This traditional name continues as the standard in the United States, but it obscures the fact that Indians fought on both sides of the conflict and that this was part of the Seven Years ' War, a much larger conflict between France and Great Britain. American historians generally use the traditional name or sometimes the Seven Years ' War. Less frequently used names for the war include the Fourth Intercolonial War and the Great War for the Empire.
In Europe, the North American theater of the Seven Years ' War usually is not given a separate name. The entire international conflict is known as the Seven Years ' War. "Seven Years '' refers to events in Europe, from the official declaration of war in 1756 to the signing of the peace treaty in 1763. These dates do not correspond with the fighting on mainland North America which was largely concluded in six years, from the Battle of Jumonville Glen in 1754 to the capture of Montreal in 1760.
Canadians refer to both the European and North American conflicts as the Seven Years ' War (Guerre de Sept Ans). French Canadians also use the term "War of Conquest '' (Guerre de la Conquête), since it is the war in which Canada was conquered by the British and became part of the British Empire.
At this time, North America east of the Mississippi River was largely claimed by either Great Britain or France. Large areas had no colonial settlements. The French population numbered about 75,000 and was heavily concentrated along the St. Lawrence River valley, with some also in Acadia (present - day New Brunswick and parts of Nova Scotia), including Île Royale (present - day Cape Breton Island). Fewer lived in New Orleans, Biloxi, Mississippi, Mobile, Alabama, and small settlements in the Illinois Country, hugging the east side of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. French fur traders and trappers traveled throughout the St. Lawrence and Mississippi watersheds, did business with local Indian tribes, and often married Indian women. Traders married daughters of chiefs, creating high - ranking unions.
British settlers outnumbered the French 20 to 1 with a population of about 1.5 million ranged along the eastern coast of the continent from Nova Scotia and Newfoundland in the north to Georgia in the south. Many of the older colonies had land claims that extended arbitrarily far to the west, as the extent of the continent was unknown at the time when their provincial charters were granted. Their population centers were along the coast, yet the settlements were growing into the interior. Nova Scotia had been captured from France in 1713, and it still had a significant French - speaking population. Britain also claimed Rupert 's Land where the Hudson 's Bay Company traded for furs with local Indian tribes.
In between the French and British colonists, large areas were dominated by Indian tribes. To the north, the Mi'kmaqs and the Abenakis were engaged in Father Le Loutre 's War and still held sway in parts of Nova Scotia, Acadia, and the eastern portions of the province of Canada, as well as much of Maine. The Iroquois Confederation dominated much of Upstate New York and the Ohio Country, although Ohio also included Algonquian - speaking populations of Delaware and Shawnee, as well as Iroquoian - speaking Mingos. These tribes were formally under Iroquois rule and were limited by them in their authority to make agreements.
The Southeast interior was dominated by Siouan - speaking Catawbas, Muskogee - speaking Creeks and Choctaw, and the Iroquoian - speaking Cherokee tribes. When war broke out, the French colonists used their trading connections to recruit fighters from tribes in western portions of the Great Lakes region, which was not directly subject to the conflict between the French and British; these included the Hurons, Mississaugs, Ojibwas, Winnebagos, and Potawatomi. The British colonists were supported in the war by the Iroquois Six Nations and also by the Cherokees, until differences sparked the Anglo - Cherokee War in 1758. In 1758, the Pennsylvania government successfully negotiated the Treaty of Easton in which a number of tribes in the Ohio Country promised neutrality in exchange for land concessions and other considerations. Most of the other northern tribes sided with the French, their primary trading partner and supplier of arms. The Creeks and Cherokees were subject to diplomatic efforts by both the French and British to gain either their support or neutrality in the conflict.
By this time, Spain claimed only the province of Florida in eastern North America; it controlled Cuba and other territories in the West Indies that became military objectives in the Seven Years ' War. Florida 's European population was a few hundred, concentrated in St. Augustine and Pensacola.
At the start of the war, no French regular army troops were stationed in North America, and few British troops. New France was defended by about 3,000 troupes de la marine, companies of colonial regulars (some of whom had significant woodland combat experience). The colonial government recruited militia support when needed. Most British colonies mustered local militia companies to deal with Indian threats, generally ill trained and available only for short periods, but they did not have any standing forces. Virginia, by contrast, had a large frontier with several companies of British regulars.
The colonial governments were used to operating independently of one another and of the government in London, a situation that complicated negotiations with Indian tribes, whose territories often encompassed land claimed by multiple colonies. After the war began, the leaders of the British Army establishment tried to impose constraints and demands on the colonial administrations.
New France 's Governor - General Roland - Michel Barrin de La Galissonière was concerned about the incursion and expanding influence in the Ohio Country of British colonial traders such as George Croghan. In June 1747, he ordered Pierre - Joseph Céloron to lead a military expedition through the area. Its objectives were:
Céloron 's expedition force consisted of about 200 Troupes de la marine and 30 Indians, and they covered about 3,000 miles (4,800 km) between June and November 1749. They went up the St. Lawrence, continued along the northern shore of Lake Ontario, crossed the portage at Niagara, and followed the southern shore of Lake Erie. At the Chautauqua Portage near Barcelona, New York, the expedition moved inland to the Allegheny River which it followed to the site of Pittsburgh. There Céloron buried lead plates engraved with the French claim to the Ohio Country. Whenever he encountered British colonial merchants or fur - traders, he informed them of the French claims on the territory and told them to leave.
Céloron 's expedition arrived at Logstown where the Indians in the area informed him that they owned the Ohio Country and that they would trade with the British colonists regardless of the French. He continued south until his expedition reached the confluence of the Ohio and the Miami rivers which lay just south of the village of Pickawillany, the home of the Miami chief known as "Old Briton ''. Céloron threatened Old Briton with severe consequences if he continued to trade with British colonists, but Old Briton ignored the warning. Céloron returned disappointedly to Montreal in November 1749.
Céloron wrote an extensively detailed report. "All I can say is that the Natives of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French, '' he wrote, "and are entirely devoted to the English. I do n't know in what way they could be brought back. '' Even before his return to Montreal, reports on the situation in the Ohio Country were making their way to London and Paris, each side proposing that action be taken. Massachusetts governor William Shirley was particularly forceful, stating that British colonists would not be safe as long as the French were present.
In 1749, the British government gave land to the Ohio Company of Virginia for the purpose of developing trade and settlements in the Ohio Country. The grant required that it settle 100 families in the territory and construct a fort for their protection. But the territory was also claimed by Pennsylvania, and both colonies began pushing for action to improve their respective claims. In 1750, Christopher Gist explored the Ohio territory, acting on behalf of both Virginia and the company, and he opened negotiations with the Indian tribes at Logstown. He completed the 1752 Treaty of Logstown in which the local Indians agreed to terms through their "Half - King '' Tanacharison and an Iroquois representative. These terms included permission to build a strong house at the mouth of the Monongahela River on the modern site of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. By the late 17th century, the Iroquois had pushed many tribes out of the Ohio Valley, and they laid claim to it as their hunting ground by right of conquest.
The War of the Austrian Succession (better known as King George 's War) formally ended in 1748 with the signing of the Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle which was primarily focused on resolving issues in Europe. The issues of conflicting territorial claims between British and French colonies were turned over to a commission, but it reached no decision. Frontier areas were claimed by both sides, from Nova Scotia and Acadia in the north to the Ohio Country in the south. The disputes also extended into the Atlantic Ocean, where both powers wanted access to the rich fisheries of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland.
Governor - General of New France Marquis de la Jonquière died on March 17, 1752, and he was temporarily replaced by Charles le Moyne de Longueuil. His permanent replacement was to be the Marquis Duquesne, but he did not arrive in New France until 1752 to take over the post. The continuing British activity in the Ohio territories prompted Longueuil to dispatch another expedition to the area under the command of Charles Michel de Langlade, an officer in the Troupes de la Marine. Langlade was given 300 men, including French - Canadians and warriors of the Ottawa tribe. His objective was to punish the Miami people of Pickawillany for not following Céloron 's orders to cease trading with the British. On June 21, the French war party attacked the trading centre at Pickawillany, capturing three traders and killing 14 Miami Indians, including Old Briton. He was reportedly ritually cannibalized by some Indians in the expedition party.
In the spring of 1753, Paul Marin de la Malgue was given command of a 2,000 - man force of Troupes de la Marine and Indians. His orders were to protect the King 's land in the Ohio Valley from the British. Marin followed the route that Céloron had mapped out four years earlier. Céloron, however, had limited the record of French claims to the burial of lead plates, whereas Marin constructed and garrisoned forts. He first constructed Fort Presque Isle on Lake Erie 's south shore near Erie, Pennsylvania, and he had a road built to the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek. He then constructed a second fort at Fort Le Boeuf in Waterford, Pennsylvania), designed to guard the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek. As he moved south, he drove off or captured British traders, alarming both the British and the Iroquois. Tanaghrisson was a chief of the Mingo Indians, who were remnants of Iroquois and other tribes who had been driven west by colonial expansion. He intensely disliked the French whom he accused of killing and eating his father. He traveled to Fort Le Boeuf and threatened the French with military action, which Marin contemptuously dismissed.
The Iroquois sent runners to the manor of William Johnson in upstate New York, who was the British Superintendent for Indian Affairs in the New York region and beyond. Johnson was known to the Iroquois as Warraghiggey, meaning "he who does great things. '' He spoke their languages and had become a respected honorary member of the Iroquois Confederacy in the area, and he was made a colonel of the Iroquois in 1746; he was later commissioned as a colonel of the Western New York Militia.
The Indian representatives and Johnson met with Governor Clinton and officials from some of the other American colonies at Albany, New York. Mohawk Chief Hendrick was the speaker of their tribal council, and he insisted that the British abide by their obligations and block French expansion. Clinton did not respond to his satisfaction, and Hendrick said that the "Covenant Chain '' was broken, a long - standing friendly relationship between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British Crown.
Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an investor in the Ohio Company which stood to lose money if the French held their claim. He ordered 21 year - old Major George Washington (whose brother was another Ohio Company investor) of the Virginia Regiment to warn the French to leave Virginia territory in October 1753. Washington left with a small party, picking up Jacob Van Braam as an interpreter, Christopher Gist (a company surveyor working in the area), and a few Mingos led by Tanaghrisson. On December 12, Washington and his men reached Fort Le Boeuf.
Jacques Legardeur de Saint - Pierre succeeded Marin as commander of the French forces after Marin died on October 29, and he invited Washington to dine with him. Over dinner, Washington presented Saint - Pierre with the letter from Dinwiddie demanding an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country. Saint - Pierre said, "As to the Summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it. '' He told Washington that France 's claim to the region was superior to that of the British, since René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had explored the Ohio Country nearly a century earlier.
Washington 's party left Fort Le Boeuf early on December 16 and arrived in Williamsburg on January 16, 1754. He stated in his report, "The French had swept south '', detailing the steps which they had taken to fortify the area, and their intention to fortify the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers.
Even before Washington returned, Dinwiddie had sent a company of 40 men under William Trent to that point where they began construction of a small stockaded fort in the early months of 1754. Governor Duquesne sent additional French forces under Claude - Pierre Pecaudy de Contrecœur to relieve Saint - Pierre during the same period, and Contrecœur led 500 men south from Fort Venango on April 5, 1754. These forces arrived at the fort on April 16, but Contrecœur generously allowed Trent 's small company to withdraw. He purchased their construction tools to continue building what became Fort Duquesne.
Dinwiddie had ordered Washington to lead a larger force to assist Trent in his work, and Washington learned of Trent 's retreat while he was en route. Mingo sachem Tanaghrisson had promised support to the British, so Washington continued toward Fort Duquesne and met with him. He then learned of a French scouting party in the area, so he combined Tanaghrisson 's force with his own and surprised the Canadians on May 28 in what became known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen. They killed many of the Canadians, including their commanding officer Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, whose head was reportedly split open by Tanaghrisson with a tomahawk. Historian Fred Anderson suggests that Tanaghrisson was acting to gain the support of the British and to regain authority over his own people. They had been inclined to support the French, with whom they had long trading relationships. One of Tanaghrisson 's men told Contrecoeur that Jumonville had been killed by British musket fire.
Historians generally consider the Battle of Jumonville Glen as the opening battle of the French and Indian War in North America, and the start of hostilities in the Ohio valley.
Following the battle, Washington pulled back several miles and established Fort Necessity, which the Canadians attacked under the command of Jummonville 's brother at the Battle of Fort Necessity on July 3. Washington surrendered and negotiated a withdrawal under arms. One of his men reported that the Canadian force was accompanied by Shawnee, Delaware, and Mingo warriors -- just those whom Tanaghrisson was seeking to influence.
News of the two battles reached England in August. After several months of negotiations, the government of the Duke of Newcastle decided to send an army expedition the following year to dislodge the French. They chose Major General Edward Braddock to lead the expedition. Word of the British military plans leaked to France well before Braddock 's departure for North America. In response, King Louis XV dispatched six regiments to New France under the command of Baron Dieskau in 1755. The British sent out their fleet in February 1755, intending to blockade French ports, but the French fleet had already sailed. Admiral Edward Hawke detached a fast squadron to North America in an attempt to intercept them.
In a second British action, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on June 8, 1755, capturing her and two troop ships. The British harassed French shipping throughout 1755, seizing ships and capturing seamen. These actions contributed to the eventual formal declarations of war in spring 1756.
An early important political response to the opening of hostilities was the convening of the Albany Congress in June and July, 1754. The goal of the congress was to formalize a unified front in trade and negotiations with various Indians, since allegiance of the various tribes and nations was seen to be pivotal in the war that was unfolding. The plan that the delegates agreed to was neither ratified by the colonial legislatures nor approved of by the crown. Nevertheless, the format of the congress and many specifics of the plan became the prototype for confederation during the War of Independence.
The British formed an aggressive plan of operations for 1755. General Braddock was to lead the expedition to Fort Duquesne, while Massachusetts governor William Shirley was given the task of fortifying Fort Oswego and attacking Fort Niagara, and Sir William Johnson was to capture Fort St. Frédéric at present - day Crown Point, New York. Lieutenant Colonel Robert Monckton was to capture Fort Beauséjour to the east, on the frontier between Nova Scotia and Acadia.
Braddock led about 1,500 army troops and provincial militia on an expedition in June 1755 to take Fort Duquesne, with George Washington as one of his aides. The expedition was a disaster. It was attacked by French soldiers and Indian warriors ambushing them from up in trees and behind logs, and Braddock called for a retreat. He was killed and approximately 1,000 British soldiers were killed or injured. The remaining 500 British troops retreated to Virginia, led by George Washington. Two future opponents in the American Revolutionary War played key roles in organizing the retreat: Washington and Thomas Gage.
The French acquired a copy of the British war plans, including the activities of Shirley and Johnson. Shirley 's efforts to fortify Oswego were bogged down in logistical difficulties, exacerbated by his inexperience in managing large expeditions. In conjunction, Shirley was made aware that the French were massing for an attack on Fort Oswego in his absence when he planned to attack Fort Niagara. As a response, he left garrisons at Oswego, Fort Bull, and Fort Williams, the last two located on the Oneida Carry between the Mohawk River and Wood Creek at present - day Rome, New York. Supplies were cached at Fort Bull for use in the projected attack on Niagara.
Johnson 's expedition was better organized than Shirley 's, which was noticed by New France 's governor the Marquis de Vaudreuil. He had primarily been concerned about the extended supply line to the forts on the Ohio, and he had sent Baron Dieskau to lead the defenses at Frontenac against Shirley 's expected attack. Vaudreuil saw Johnson as the larger threat and sent Dieskau to Fort St. Frédéric to meet that threat. Dieskau planned to attack the British encampment at Fort Edward at the upper end of navigation on the Hudson River, but Johnson had strongly fortified it, and Dieskau 's Indian support was reluctant to attack. The two forces finally met in the bloody Battle of Lake George between Fort Edward and Fort William Henry. The battle ended inconclusively, with both sides withdrawing from the field. Johnson 's advance stopped at Fort William Henry, and the French withdrew to Ticonderoga Point, where they began the construction of Fort Carillon (later renamed Fort Ticonderoga after British capture in 1759).
Colonel Monckton captured Fort Beauséjour in June 1755 in the sole British success that year, cutting off the French fortress at Louisbourg from land - based reinforcements. To cut vital supplies to Louisbourg, Nova Scotia 's Governor Charles Lawrence ordered the deportation of the French - speaking Acadian population from the area. Monckton 's forces, including companies of Rogers ' Rangers, forcibly removed thousands of Acadians, chasing down many who resisted and sometimes committing atrocities. More than any other factor, cutting off supplies to Louisbourg led to its demise. The Acadian resistance was sometimes quite stiff, in concert with Indian allies including the Mi'kmaq, with ongoing frontier raids against Dartmouth and Lunenburg, among others. The only clashes of any size were at Petitcodiac in 1755 and at Bloody Creek near Annapolis Royal in 1757, other than the campaigns to expel the Acadians ranging around the Bay of Fundy, on the Petitcodiac and St. John rivers, and Île Saint - Jean.
Following the death of Braddock, William Shirley assumed command of British forces in North America, and he laid out his plans for 1756 at a meeting in Albany in December 1755. He proposed renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Point, and Duquesne, with attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec. His plan, however, got bogged down by disagreements and disputes with others, including William Johnson and New York 's Governor Sir Charles Hardy, and consequently gained little support.
Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with Lord Loudoun, with Major General James Abercrombie as his second in command. Neither of these men had as much campaign experience as the trio of officers whom France sent to North America. French regular army reinforcements arrived in New France in May 1756, led by Major General Louis - Joseph de Montcalm and seconded by the Chevalier de Lévis and Colonel François - Charles de Bourlamaque, all experienced veterans from the War of the Austrian Succession. On May 18, 1756, England formally declared war on France, which expanded the war into Europe and came to be known as the Seven Years ' War.
Governor Vaudreuil had ambitions to become the French commander in chief, in addition to his role as governor, and he acted during the winter of 1756 before those reinforcements arrived. Scouts had reported the weakness of the British supply chain, so he ordered an attack against the forts which Shirley had erected at the Oneida Carry. In the Battle of Fort Bull, French forces destroyed the fort and large quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder. They set back any British hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario and endangered the Oswego garrison, already short on supplies. French forces in the Ohio valley also continued to intrigue with Indians throughout the area, encouraging them to raid frontier settlements. This led to ongoing alarms along the western frontiers, with streams of refugees returning east to get away from the action.
The new British command was not in place until July. Abercrombie arrived in Albany but refused to take any significant actions until Loudoun approved them, and Montcalm took bold action against his inertia. He built on Vaudreuil 's work harassing the Oswego garrison and executed a strategic feint by moving his headquarters to Ticonderoga, as if to presage another attack along Lake George. With Abercrombie pinned down at Albany, Montcalm slipped away and led the successful attack on Oswego in August. In the aftermath, Montcalm and the Indians under his command disagreed about the disposition of prisoners ' personal effects. The Europeans did not consider them prizes and prevented the Indians from stripping the prisoners of their valuables, which angered the Indians.
Loudoun was a capable administrator but a cautious field commander, and he planned one major operation for 1757: an attack on New France 's capital of Quebec. He left a sizable force at Fort William Henry to distract Montcalm and began organizing for the expedition to Quebec. He was then ordered to attack Louisbourg first by William Pitt, the Secretary of State responsible for the colonies. The expedition was beset by delays of all kinds but was finally ready to sail from Halifax, Nova Scotia in early August. In the meantime, French ships had escaped the British blockade of the French coast, and a fleet awaited Loudoun at Louisbourg which outnumbered the British fleet. Faced with this strength, Loudoun returned to New York amid news that a massacre had occurred at Fort William Henry.
French irregular forces (Canadian scouts and Indians) harassed Fort William Henry throughout the first half of 1757. In January, they ambushed British rangers near Ticonderoga. In February, they launched a raid against the position across the frozen Lake George, destroying storehouses and buildings outside the main fortification. In early August, Montcalm and 7,000 troops besieged the fort, which capitulated with an agreement to withdraw under parole. When the withdrawal began, some of Montcalm 's Indian allies attacked the British column because they were angry about the lost opportunity for loot, killing and capturing several hundred men, women, children, and slaves. The aftermath of the siege may have contributed to the transmission of smallpox into remote Indian populations, as some Indians were reported to have traveled from beyond the Mississippi to participate in the campaign and returned afterward. Modern writer William Nester believes that the Indians might have been exposed to European carriers, although no proof exists.
Vaudreuil and Montcalm were minimally resupplied in 1758, as the British blockade of the French coastline limited French shipping. The situation in New France was further exacerbated by a poor harvest in 1757, a difficult winter, and the allegedly corrupt machinations of François Bigot, the intendant of the territory. His schemes to supply the colony inflated prices and were believed by Montcalm to line his pockets and those of his associates. A massive outbreak of smallpox among western Indian tribes led many of them to stay away from trading in 1758. The disease probably spread through the crowded conditions at William Henry after the battle; yet the Indians blamed the French for bringing "bad medicine '' as well as denying them prizes at Fort William Henry.
Montcalm focused his meager resources on the defense of the St. Lawrence, with primary defenses at Carillon, Quebec, and Louisbourg, while Vaudreuil argued unsuccessfully for a continuation of the raiding tactics that had worked quite effectively in previous years. The British failures in North America combined with other failures in the European theater and led to Newcastle 's fall from power along with the Duke of Cumberland, his principal military advisor.
Newcastle and Pitt joined in an uneasy coalition in which Pitt dominated the military planning. He embarked on a plan for the 1758 campaign that was largely developed by Loudoun. He had been replaced by Abercrombie as commander in chief after the failures of 1757. Pitt 's plan called for three major offensive actions involving large numbers of regular troops supported by the provincial militias, aimed at capturing the heartlands of New France. Two of the expeditions were successful, with Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg falling to sizable British forces.
The Forbes Expedition was a British campaign in September -- October 1758, with 6,000 troops led by General John Forbes sent to drive out the French from the contested Ohio Country. The French withdrew from Fort Duquesne and left the British in control of the Ohio River Valley. The great French fortress at Louisbourg in Nova Scotia was captured after a siege.
The third invasion was stopped with the improbable French victory in the Battle of Carillon, in which 3,600 Frenchmen defeated Abercrombie 's force of 18,000 regulars, militia, and Indian allies outside the fort which the French called Carillon and the British called Ticonderoga. Abercrombie saved something from the disaster when he sent John Bradstreet on an expedition that successfully destroyed Fort Frontenac, including caches of supplies destined for New France 's western forts and furs destined for Europe. Abercrombie was recalled and replaced by Jeffery Amherst, victor at Louisbourg.
The French had generally poor results in 1758 in most theaters of the war. The new foreign minister was the duc de Choiseul, and he decided to focus on an invasion of Britain to draw British resources away from North America and the European mainland. The invasion failed both militarily and politically, as Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New France and sent funds to Britain 's mainland ally of Prussia, while the French Navy failed in the 1759 naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay. In one piece of good fortune, some French supply ships did manage to depart France and elude the British blockade of the French coast.
British victories continued in all theaters in the Annus Mirabilis of 1759: the British captured Ticonderoga, James Wolfe defeated Montcalm at Quebec in a battle that claimed the lives of both commanders, and a British victory at Fort Niagara cut off the French frontier forts to the west and south. The victory was made complete in 1760; the British did suffer a defeat outside Quebec City in the Battle of Sainte - Foy, but they prevented the arrival of French relief ships in the naval Battle of the Restigouche while armies marched on Montreal from three sides.
Governor Vaudreuil in Montreal negotiated a capitulation with General Amherst in September 1760. Amherst granted his requests that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, to own property, and to remain undisturbed in their homes. The British provided medical treatment for the sick and wounded French soldiers, and French regular troops were returned to France aboard British ships with an agreement that they were not to serve again in the present war.
Most of the fighting ended in continental North America in 1760, although it continued in Europe between France and Britain. The notable exception was the French seizure of St. John 's, Newfoundland. General Amherst heard of this surprise action and immediately dispatched troops under his nephew William Amherst, who regained control of Newfoundland after the Battle of Signal Hill in September 1762. Many troops from North America were reassigned to participate in further British actions in the West Indies, including the capture of Spanish Havana when Spain belatedly entered the conflict on the side of France, and a British expedition against French Martinique in 1762 led by Major General Robert Monckton.
General Amherst also oversaw the transition of French forts to British control in the western lands. The policies which he introduced in those lands disturbed large numbers of Indians and contributed to Pontiac 's Rebellion in 1763. This series of attacks on frontier forts and settlements required the continued deployment of British troops, and it was not resolved until 1766.
The war in North America officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, and war in the European theater was settled by the Treaty of Hubertusburg on 15 February 1763. The British offered France the choice of surrendering either its continental North American possessions east of the Mississippi or the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, which had been occupied by the British. France chose to cede the former but was able to negotiate the retention of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, along with fishing rights in the area. They viewed the economic value of the Caribbean islands ' sugar cane to be greater and easier to defend than the furs from the continent. French philosopher Voltaire referred to Canada disparagingly as nothing more than a few acres of snow. The British, however, were happy to take New France, as defence of their North American colonies would no longer be an issue; they also had ample places from which to obtain sugar. Spain traded Florida to Britain in order to regain Cuba, but they also gained Louisiana from France, including New Orleans, in compensation for their losses. Great Britain and Spain also agreed that navigation on the Mississippi River was to be open to vessels of all nations.
The war changed economic, political, governmental, and social relations among the three European powers, their colonies, and the people who inhabited those territories. France and Britain both suffered financially because of the war, with significant long - term consequences.
Britain gained control of French Canada and Acadia, colonies containing approximately 80,000 primarily French - speaking Roman Catholic residents. The deportation of Acadians beginning in 1755 made land available to immigrants from Europe and migrants from the colonies to the south. The British resettled many Acadians throughout its North American provinces, but many went to France, and some went to New Orleans, which they had expected to remain French. Some were sent to colonize places as diverse as French Guiana and the Falkland Islands, but these efforts were unsuccessful. Others migrated to places such as Saint - Domingue or fled to New Orleans after the Haitian Revolution. The Louisiana population contributed to the founding of the modern Cajun population. (The French word "Acadien '' changed to "Cadien '' then to "Cajun ''.)
Following the treaty, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on October 7, 1763 which outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory, and it continues to govern relations to some extent between the government of modern Canada and the First Nations. Included in its provisions was the reservation of lands west of the Appalachian Mountains to its Indian population, a demarcation that was only a temporary impediment to a rising tide of westward - bound settlers. The proclamation also contained provisions that prevented civic participation by the Roman Catholic Canadians. The Quebec Act addressed this and other issues in 1774, raising concerns in the largely Protestant Thirteen Colonies over the advance of "popery. '' The Act maintained French Civil law, including the seigneurial system, a medieval code removed from France within a generation by the French Revolution.
The Seven Years ' War nearly doubled Great Britain 's national debt. The Crown sought sources of revenue to pay it off and attempted to impose new taxes on its colonies. These attempts were met with increasingly stiff resistance, until troops were called in to enforce the Crown 's authority. These acts ultimately led to the start of the American Revolutionary War.
France attached comparatively little value to its North American possessions, apart from the highly profitable sugar - producing Antilles islands which it retained. Minister Choiseul considered that he had made a good deal at the Treaty of Paris, and Voltaire wrote that Louis XV had lost "a few acres of snow ''. For France, however, the military defeat and the financial burden of the war weakened the monarchy and contributed to the advent of the French Revolution in 1789.
For some of the Indian tribes, the elimination of French power in North America meant the disappearance of a strong ally, although other tribes were not so affected. The Ohio Country was now more available to colonial settlement, due to the construction of military roads by Braddock and Forbes. The Spanish takeover of the Louisiana territory was not completed until 1769, and it had modest repercussions. The British takeover of Spanish Florida resulted in the westward migration of Indian tribes who did not want to do business with them. This migration also caused a rise in tensions between the Choctaw and the Creek, historic enemies who were now competing for land. The change of control in Florida also prompted most of its Spanish Catholic population to leave. Most went to Cuba, including the entire governmental records from St. Augustine, although some Christianized Yamasee were resettled to the coast of Mexico.
France returned to North America in 1778 with the establishment of a Franco - American alliance against Great Britain in the American War of Independence. This time, France succeeded in prevailing over Great Britain in what historian Alfred A. Cave describes as "French... revenge for Montcalm 's death ''.
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what does nam mo a di da phat mean | Buddhism in Senegal - Wikipedia
In Senegal, Mahayana Buddhism is followed by a very tiny portion of the Vietnamese community, but it is informal Buddhism because they only worship their ancestors by burning the incenses on a small altar and in the end of all prayers are: "Nam mô A Di Đà Phật '' (Mean: "Glory to Buddha Amitabha '') as traditional of Vietnamese faith that is Bodhisattvas as Địa Tạng Vương Bồ tát and Quan Thế Âm Bồ tát will bless and teach the spirits of dead people how to take a better life in next incarnations or go to Nirvana forever.
Total Buddhists in Senegal is around 0.01 % as maximum and 99 % of all Buddhists here is Vietnamese descents.
Vietnamese people maybe the only one East Asian community in Senegal. With communities of European and Lebanese made - up about 1 % of total population in Senegal.
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when is the miraculous ladybug movie coming out | List of Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir episodes - Wikipedia
Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir is a French CGI action / adventure animated series produced by Zagtoon and Method Animation. The series features two Parisian teenagers, Marinette Dupain - Cheng and Adrien Agreste, who transform into the superheroes Ladybug and Cat Noir, respectively, to protect the city from supervillains.
Prior to its debut in France on 19 October 2015 on TF1, the series was first shown in South Korea on 1 September 2015 on EBS1. In the United States, the series debuted on Nickelodeon on 6 December. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the show premiered on 30 January 2016 on Disney Channel.
On 20 November 2015, producer Jeremy Zag announced that a second and third season were in progress. On 20 December 2016, Zag announced that Netflix had acquired the U.S. video - on - demand streaming rights to Miraculous for seasons 1 - 3, including the English premiere of the Christmas Special. The second season premiered in France on TF1 's TFOU block on 26 October 2017, and other channels throughout Europe.
Marinette Dupain - Cheng is babysitting a child named Manon when her best friend Alya Césaire visits her. Alya tells Marinette that her crush, Adrien Agreste, is having a photoshoot nearby and takes them to see him. Meanwhile, Aurore Borell has just lost to her competitor, Mireille Jattée, to be nominated as the next weather forecaster. Infuriated, she becomes akumatized by the villainous Hawk Moth and turns into ' Stormy Weather ', a villain who controls the weather. When Stormy wreaks havoc on Paris and interrupts the photoshoot, Marinette transforms into her secret super-hero persona, ' Ladybug '. At the same time, Adrien transforms into his secret super-hero persona, ' Cat Noir '. Together, they work to defeat Stormy, but are oblivious to each other 's identities.
It is Adrien 's birthday and Marinette is struggling to give him the present she made for him. When Adrien 's father, a secretive and renowned fashion designer, wo n't allow Adrien to have a birthday party, his best friend Nino Lahiffe becomes angry about how unfair he 's being towards Adrien. Claiming that all parents want to stop kids from having fun, Nino becomes influenced by Hawk Moth 's power and turns into "Bubbler '', a villain who sends all the parents into outer space through his bubbles.
Marinette accidentally drops her history textbook while transformed as Ladybug. Alya, who happened to be at the scene, trying to film Ladybug in action, picks up the book, and speculates that Ladybug could be a Parisian collégienne. Marinette starts to panic when she finds out, and by Tikki 's suggestion, brings Alya to visit a new Pharaoh exhibition at the Louvre, in order to try to get the book back. As they arrive, Alix 's brother, Jalil Kubdel, is discussing with his father about how one of the exhibitions on display is a resurrection spell. He believes that it could work, and wants to try it out, but Jalil 's father gets angry and claims that such an important historical artifact can not be misused. Angry that his father does not believe him, Jalil is akumatized by Hawk Moth and turns into the Pharaoh, a villain with Egyptian god powers who intends to bring back Nefertiti. In this episode, we are told that there was a long line of Ladybugs going back over 5,000 years with Marinette being the latest Ladybug.
As Ladybug 's biggest fan Alya is out to expose Ladybug 's true identity when she finds the self - absorbed Chloé Bourgeois with Ladybug 's "yo - yo and mask ''. When Alya attempts to take a photo of Chloé 's open locker for evidence, Chloé accuses her of invasion of privacy, and has the principal suspend her. Alya is akumatized by Hawk Moth and turns into Lady Wifi, a villain whose smartphone can fire different icons such as pause and lock, who can travel through wifi - serviced phones, and who stops at nothing to expose Ladybug, including invading Chloé 's apartment.
Marinette 's parents are celebrating their twentieth anniversary, leaving Marinette to take care of one of her father 's special cake orders. However, she gets a call from Alya, who reminds her to bring a banner she made for a race between two of her classmates, Alix and Kim, and she rushes off to Trocadéro. Alix has received a family heirloom pocket watch for her fifteenth birthday, and passes it to Alya to safeguard it for her while racing. However, during the race, the watch passes hands multiple times, before it is dropped by Chloé onto the ground and skated over by Alix, destroying the watch. Angry at her friends, Alix is akumatized by Hawk Moth and turns into Timebreaker, a speedy villain who freezes people with a touch to get energy to travel back through time.
A fashion competition is to be held at Collège Françoise - Dupont where the winner will have their derby hat worn by none other than Adrien. Marinette is determined to win in the hope that Adrien will then notice her. Meanwhile, Roger Raincomprix, a police officer, orders a pigeon - loving man Xavier Ramier, to stop feeding the pigeons and leave the park. Dejected, Xavier becomes akumatized by Hawk Moth and turns into "Mr. Pigeon '', a villain who controls massive flocks of pigeons.
Nathaniel Kurtzberg is daydreaming in class of being a superhero who is rescuing his crush, Marinette, from "Stormy Weather '' and "Lady Wifi ''. Soon embarrassed by Chloé for his comic drawings, he becomes influenced by Hawk Moth and turns into the "Evillustrator '', a villain whose drawings come to life. During this time, Marinette has to put up being paired with Chloé and Sabrina in a school project, stabilizing a friendship, while depending on Cat Noir to protect her from Evillustrator. The next day, Marinette nervously says Cat Noir is "awesome '' in front of Adrien.
During Career Day in Marinette 's class, Chloé loses an expensive bracelet (to Plagg) and accuses Marinette of stealing it, as she had just slipped over Chloé 's bag. André Bourgeois, Chloé 's father, orders Officer Roger to handcuff Marinette and search her belongings. Roger, however refuses, saying that he can not do that, unless there is evidence Marinette stole Chloé 's bracelet, as it is against the law. As a result, André, who is the Mayor of Paris, fires Roger. Angry at the mayor for asking him to disobey the law and firing him, Roger becomes akumatized by Hawk Moth and turns into "Rogercop '', a RoboCop - themed villain who wants to bring justice to those who break the law.
Attempting to ask Adrien out to the movies over the phone, Marinette instead accidentally leaves behind an embarrassing voicemail and rushes to delete it before he listens to it. Meanwhile, an artist named Theo is displaying a statue in the park, which he built in honor of Ladybug and Cat Noir. He has a crush on Ladybug and is looking forward to seeing her at the unveiling event, but only Cat Noir ends up arriving. After the event, Cat Noir insinuates to Theo that he and Ladybug are a couple. Feeling rejected and upset, Theo becomes influenced by Hawk Moth and turns into Copycat, an exact replica of Cat Noir to frame the original.
After finding out Chloé has been blackmailing people from running against her as the class representative, Marinette decides to nominate herself for the position. Wanting to prevent Marinette from winning, Chloé organizes an autograph session by rock musician Jagged Stone to bribe her classmates into voting for her. When Marinette finds out about the scam and leaves to intervene, Chloé sends her only friend Sabrina to Marinette 's home, in hopes of finding something that can be used against Marinette. Meanwhile, Armand D'Argencourt, Collège Françoise - Dupont 's fencing teacher, has just lost the Paris mayoral elections by a landslide. As the press continues to mock him, Armand becomes akumatized by Hawk Moth and turns into "Darkblade '', an armored black knight (according to his heritage), who zaps people and knights them, transforming them into an army of armored knights to take over Paris.
Alya shows Marinette a video she recorded of Ladybug talking to her, but Marinette accidentally deletes it. Before Alya finds out, Marinette steals her phone and frantically tries to re-create the footage. Meanwhile, Mylène 's father, Fred Haprèle, is getting his first major performance at the Eiffel Tower. However, his partner Chris deliberately makes him late, and convinces their manager Sarah (named Josiane in French version) to let Chris take the lead role instead. Disheartened, Fred becomes akumatized by Hawk Moth and turns into "The Mime '', a supervillain who can pantomime anything to make it reality.
Marinette 's great uncle, a world - renowned Chinese chef Wang Cheng, visits Paris to participate in a cooking show called The Greatest Chef in the World. Before the competition begins, Marinette and Adrien run into Chloé, who is on the judges ' panel. Chloé mocks Cheng for being a foreigner, and in retaliation, Marinette fires back with her own insults. Chloé sabotages Cheng 's famous Celestial Soup, causing him to get poor results in front of the judges. Confused and upset, Cheng akumatized by Hawk Moth and turns into "Kung Food '', a villain who enslaves those who had eaten his ruined soup and who plans to cook Chloé in the soup.
Collège Françoise - Dupont is sending two students to represent them at a video game tournament, where they will compete with other schools in a fighting game known as Ultimate Mega Strike III. After Marinette notices that Adrien is one of the potential candidates, she participates in the selections in order to be able to team up with Adrien. She manages to defeat another candidate, her classmate Max, who has been training for the tournament for a whole year and was looking forward to participating. Upset about all his gaming training gone to waste, Max becomes influenced by Hawk Moth and turns into the "Gamer '', a villain who uses a pyramid - shaped mecha - like ship, from the Ultimate Mega Strike III game that zaps people and objects, turning them into green "experience point '' balls, which upgrades his ship.
Nino develops a crush on Marinette so Adrien tries to help him by asking her out to the zoo. Marinette, however, thinks Adrien is asking her out and happily accepts. When at the zoo, Nino and Marinette are the only ones to show up; Adrien and Alya, at the same time, are hiding out in bushes nearby, helping the two talk to each other by instructing them via earpiece. Meanwhile, Kim mocks the new black panther in the zoo, claiming to the zookeeper Otis, that he can run faster than it. Enraged by his remarks, Otis akumatized by Hawk Moth and turns into "Animan '', a supervillain who can shape - shift into any animal he desires including extinct species. Afterwards, Nino and Alya find interest in each other instead.
Chloé is being harassed by something invisible, and Adrien and Marinette are immediately on the case. After talking with the concierge of the Grand Paris hotel, where Chloé lives, they discover Chloé had a fight with Sabrina, and had claimed that Sabrina is no longer her friend and is completely invisible to her. Heartbroken over her words, Sabrina was akumatized by Hawk Moth, turning into the "Vanisher ''. As Ladybug and Cat Noir fight the Vanisher, who has just shown up, Chloé decides to join in, donning a fake Ladybug costume. However, this only causes the fight to get more difficult and Ladybug forces Chloé to leave, claiming that she is endangering everyone by staying. Chloé tries to tell Ladybug that the akuma is in Sabrina 's rose brooch, but Ladybug does not listen. Only when Chloé has left the scene does Ladybug realize that Chloé was right all along, but despite this, Ladybug does not apologize to Chloé. Feeling betrayed by her idol, Chloe also becomes akumatized by Hawk Moth and turns into "Antibug '', a darker, opposite version of Ladybug.
Marinette is babysitting Manon. They are playing with hand - crafted dolls that Marinette made herself, Marinette playing as Ladybug and Cat Noir and Manon playing as Lady Wifi, Rogercop and Evillustrator. Because Marinette always plays as the Ladybug and Cat Noir dolls, Manon laments that Marinette always wins and bursts into tears. Feeling guilty, Marinette allows Manon to borrow her Ladybug doll. However, Nadja Chamack, Manon 's mother, does not want her to borrow it, as she complains that Manon already has too many toys; they get into a dispute, resulting in the Ladybug doll getting torn. Despite that, Manon still wants to borrow the Ladybug doll, so she asks Marinette for it behind her mother 's back. Marinette hesitates and decides on a compromise instead, allowing her to borrow the Lady Wifi doll instead. Chamack notices Manon playing with the new doll and becomes angry that Manon had defied her instructions so she confiscates it from her. Upset, Manon accepts Hawk Moth 's akuma and turns into the "Puppeteer '', a villain who can control the people Marinette 's dolls are based on.
At class picture day, Marinette 's classmate Juleka is hesitant about participating, as she believes that she is under a curse where any picture she is in will have her face covered. Wanting to be closer to Adrien in the photo, Chloé has Sabrina lock Juleka in the bathroom while she takes her place in the center of the photo, beside Adrien. Believing that she 'll always stay cursed and unnoticed, Juleka becomes influenced by Hawk Moth and turns into Reflekta, a flamboyant villain who can zap people into making them look exactly like her.
Rock musician Jagged Stone has problems with his manager, who wants to change the look of his new album 's cover and make him record a duet with XY, a hot new music artist who replaced Stone at the number - one position on the music charts. Although they agree on a compromise on the cover by having Marinette design it, Stone is later offended when he sees Marinette 's first design (insisted on by his producer) and further enraged when he watches an interview given by XY, who arrogantly claims that technology matters more than music, rock ' n ' roll is no longer in style, and that Stone was no match for him. Stone akumatized by Hawk Moth and turns into "Guitar Villain '' (a reference to the title of "guitar hero '' given to legendary guitarists in France), a wild musician with a pet dragon, who influences people into headbanging and dancing uncontrollably by playing his guitar.
Marinette 's class is visiting the Grand Paris hotel, as part of a program to try out some of the jobs that the staff do in the hotel on a daily basis, when rock idol Jagged Stone arrives. While Jagged is checking in, an overly - obsessed fan named Vincent Aza sneaks in behind him and tries to take a picture with Stone, but he is swiftly kicked out of the hotel by Jagged 's assistant, and warned to never approach Stone again. Angry at being shunned by his idol, Vincent becomes influenced by Hawk Moth and turns into "Pixelator '', a supervillain who uses a head - mounted telescopic camera to take photos of people, making them vanish and trapping them in a white empty space by "digitizing '' them into living portraits that appear on his apartment wall.
Marinette 's classmate Rose is excited about Prince Ali 's visit to Paris, but is caught at school spraying perfume on her fan letter and using a cellphone in class. Tikki feels ill, so Marinette plans to take her to a healer, but when Marinette trips on the stairs, Tikki is picked up by Chloé, who plans to give Tikki as a plush toy gift to Prince Ali. Chloé tears up Rose 's letter, telling Rose that Prince Ali has no interest in her. Hurt, Rose is influenced by Hawk Moth and becomes "Princess Fragrance '', a villain whose perfume spray makes people serve her, and who desires to have Prince Ali for herself. The untransformed Marinette must recover Tikki and stop Princess Fragrance from taking over all of Paris.
Nino is a contestant in a game show called The Challenge, where he has to get Mayor Bourgeois to dance. Despite being invited to see Nino, Marinette is grounded by her parents for missing too many classes at school, not knowing that she had been working as Ladybug. As Nino completes his challenge, the next contestant, a hypnotist named Simon Grimault (Jacques Grimeau in French version), is given the challenge to hypnotize Adrien 's father Gabriel Agreste. However, Gabriel refuses to participate in the challenge, causing Simon to fail. Angry that he was not given the chance to at least try, Simon akumatized by Hawk Moth and turns into "Simon Says '' (Jackady in French version), an extravagant villain who can hypnotize someone by throwing playing cards at them. While Ladybug provides protection, Adrien has to persuade his stubborn father.
Adrien discovers a hidden book in his father 's safe with information of the different Miraculous heroes and steals it to learn more. Later, a new student named Lila Rossi arrives who claims to be good friends with Ladybug in order to win Adrien. Jealous and upset by Lila 's lies, Marinette begins to tail her, during which time she watches Lila steal the Miraculous book from Adrien. Tikki recogizes the cover design and insists upon taking the book for further study. Lila then tells Adrien that she is descended from the Miraculous holder Volpina, prompting Marinette to transform into Ladybug and call Lila on her lies in front of Adrien. Embarrassed, Lila runs off and becomes influenced by Hawk Moth, who transforms her into "Volpina '', a superhero with the power to create illusions, with the hope that she can gain Ladybug and Cat Noir 's trust and betray them. The plan fails, though Hawk Moth is not concerned, proclaiming that his "big day '' is at hand. Afterwards, Tikki 's suspicions about the book are confirmed: it is the long - lost book of lore that contains coded secrets about the Miraculouses. She then brings Marinette to meet the Great Guardian, Master Fu.
A prequel of the series. It 's Marinette 's first day of school, and also Adrien tries to attend since his father wo n't permit him. Hawk Moth captures a butterfly kwami named Nooroo and forces his allegiance. Hawk Moth 's butterfly brooch allows him to give people what they desire bound to obey his will. He plans on using this task for evil purposes, intending to create villains to lure the heroes out to fight them, so he can steal their Miraculouses and gain absolute power. Master Fu, a 186 - year - old Chinese man, is notified of Hawk Moth 's capture of Nooroo through Wayzz, his own kwami, a turtle. However, he is too old to fight anymore, so he pretends to be a weak old man, travelling Paris to find suitable hosts for the Black Cat and Ladybug Miraculouses. He is helped by Marinette and Adrien, and quickly deploy both the Black Cat and Ladybug Miraculouses to them. As school is dismissed, Ivan and Kim, have a dispute, after Kim sends Ivan an offensive message on paper. Feeling hopeless, Ivan becomes Hawk Moth 's first ever victim, turning into "Stone Heart '', a giant rock monster who grows in size after taking damage. Marinette and Adrien both find a small box in their rooms, and after touching them, are quickly greeted by Tikki and Plagg. Both kwamis give their hosts a quick explanation; soon Marinette and Adrien transform into Ladybug and Cat Noir and rush to stop Stone Heart. Despite their lack of experience and poor fighting skills, they manage to defeat Stone Heart and free the akuma. However, Ladybug forgets to purify the akuma after the fight; it flies off, duplicating itself and infecting many people, turning them into immobilised Stone Hearts. The episode ends as Marinette learns of her mistake, and in her despair, thinking that she can not do her job as Ladybug, removes her earrings and puts them away under her dressing table, causing Tikki to disappear.
The next morning, Marinette brings her earrings to school and slips them into Alya 's bag, still upset for forgetting to purify the akuma and convinced Alya would be a better Ladybug. Adrien sneaks to school, desperate to leave his house and make friends. Questioned by his classmates, nobody believes Ivan when he claims not to remember anything; he storms off in anger when Chloé mocks him. Marinette comforts Ivan; encouraged by her, Ivan sings Mylène a love song, but accidentally scares her off. Ivan turns into "Stone Heart '' again with Hawk Moth 's akuma, and takes control of his duplicates around Paris, which come to life. Stone Heart breaks into the classroom, grabs Chloé and Mylène and runs off, summoning his duplicates. Adrien rushes to stop Stone Heart as Alya takes chase to film the battle; Marinette runs after her, wanting to pass her the earrings. Stone Heart 's duplicates catch Cat Noir as he saves Alya from being crushed by a flying car. Marinette has no choice but to transform; breaking Cat Noir out, they rush to Trocadéro. Ladybug catches Chloé when Stone Heart throws her towards Pont d'Iéna from the Eiffel Tower 's lower deck. A swarm of akumas fly out of Stone Heart 's mouth, forming Hawk Moth 's face, who declares that Paris will be spared if Ladybug and Cat Noir 's Miraculouses are surrendered. Ladybug refuses, stating that Hawk Moth is the one at wrong, and cleanses the akuma cloud. Hawk Moth orders Stone Heart to take their Miraculouses; he and his duplicates begin to climb the Eiffel Tower. Ladybug climbs to the top of the tower, using her yo - yo to make Mylène kiss Stone Heart 's chest; surprised, he drops the paper ball the akuma is in. Ladybug crushes it and cleanses the akuma. After her magic cleans up the damage, Ladybug passes Mylène Ivan 's song lyrics. Mylène hugs Ivan; Ladybug and Cat Noir run off to transform back. Later, Adrien 's father allows him to go to school while Marinette stands up to Chloé, retaking her seat. That evening after school, it 's raining outside; Adrien hands Marinette his umbrella, and the two share an intimate moment before parting ways. Master Fu and Wayzz watch from afar, satisfied with their decision to give them the Miraculouses.
Master Fu explains to Marinette his role as a Guardian of the Miraculouses; due to a mistake he made in the past, their temple was wiped out, and the Butterfly and Peacock Miraculouses were lost. He suspects that whoever owned the Miraculous book must be Hawk Moth, sending Marinette into a panic at the thought that it could be Adrien. Meanwhile, Gabriel grounds Adrien for stealing and losing the book. When Marinette learns the book was Gabriel 's, she suspects he may be Hawk Moth instead. Hawk Moth unleashes an akuma, but then de-transforms and Gabriel then akumatizes himself into "The Collector '', a supervillain who throws a book around to capture anything it touches into his book. After Ladybug and Cat Noir eventually defeat him and transform him back to Gabriel, Master Fu is not so sure he is cleared of being Hawk Moth. Master Fu captures the contents of the book onto a smartphone, and Marinette returns the book to Gabriel, who reveals that he obtained the book during an overseas trip with his wife and that it is his last memento of her. He rescinds Adrien 's grounding and shares a hug with him and Adrien returns to school to the joy of his classmates. Gabriel returns to his secret lair and transforms into Hawk Moth, having fooled the heroes and vowing to get their Miraculouses.
After a false fire alarm prank forces the entire student body except for Chloé to do chores as punishment, Adrien scolds Chloé telling her that she must be nicer to people if she wants them to remain as friends. Chloé 's butler Jean has her host a party for everyone and tells her to be nice as what her old teddy bear would do. Confident, Hawk Moth sends an akuma beforehand. During the party, Chloé tries her best, but when seeing Adrien dancing with Marinette, Chloé loses her temper and Jean accidentally reveals her teddy bear, leading Chloé to embarrassment and to fire him. Feeling upset, the akuma targets Jean, and turns into "Despair Bear '', a doll - sized villain who has the ability to manipulate anyone he touches.
Marinette has to babysit Manon, but realizes Ladybug has to interview for a television show, so she invites Alya over and excuses herself to help her parents downstairs. Realizing she needs higher television ratings, host Nadja Chamack resorts to asking about Ladybug and Cat Noir 's supposed romantic relationship, which causes Ladybug to depart, dragging Cat Noir in tow. Laid off, Nadja becomes influenced by Hawk Moth, and turns into "Prime Queen '', whose ability to teleport through television screens and posters; she creates a show in order to capture the two heroes.
Marinette is excited today is her birthday. Not only that, but her grandmother Gina Dupain is also visiting. Despite being excited to visit Marinette, Gina is surprised to see how much Marinette has grown up, but is saddened when Marinette does mostly new things. While hanging out, Marinette heads to where her friends planned her surprise party and ditches Gina. Feeling rejected, Gina becomes influenced by Hawk Moth, and turns into "Befana '', a mean - spirited baddie with the ability to turn people who do bad things into coal and those who do good into angels, who become her servants, with a gun filled with candy she wanted to give Marinette.
A new student, Kagami Tsurugi, the daughter of a famous fencer, moved in Paris and challenges Adrien to show everyone she 's the best fencer. After a duel, Marinette, not wanting Adrien to be second best and not sure how the battle ended, due to Kagami chasing Adrien around and battling fiercely and roughly, declares Adrien the winner, much to Kagami 's dismay and humiliation, causing her to depart from the school. Feeling down, Kagami becomes influenced by Hawk Moth, and turns into "Riposte '', a samurai villain with the power to slice and cut anything in half with one armed sword.
When Max builds Markov, a miniature robot capable of real human emotions, he is hesitant to even reveal him. After helping prevent a computer virus from wiping the school 's servers, Principal Damocles instead confiscates Markov thinking that he 's a toy. Markov even becomes akumatized by Hawk Moth, and turns into "Robostus '', a techno - threat capable of giving life to mechanical devices. When Hawk Moth tells Robustus to bring him the Miraculous, he mistakenly informs him of their power to grant wishes. Markov takes Max with him in his new megasized body to the Paris Stadium, where he ambushes Ladybug and Cat Noir. When Robustus is about to gain the heroic duo 's Miraculouses, he reveals he will take them for their power to grant any wish; only for Max, wanting his friend back, to free Ladybug and Cat Noir, who capture and de-evilize Markov. Marinette returns to Master Fu, who elaborates the Miraculouses ' ability to grant wishes. Due to the universe needing to maintain balance who ever is granted a wish, someone else must lose the very thing wished for. Marinette promises Master Fu to not allow this, and to continue guarding her own Miraculous.
Mr. Damocles, the school principal, starts characterizing his favorite hero Knightowl and acts like him as well. However, while performing, he becomes the laughing stock of the school when Ladybug and Cat Noir thought he was trying to play hero and tried to perform a stunt that went horribly wrong. Humiliated, Damocles becomes akumatized and turns into Dark Owl, the actual superhero, and traps the heroes in a chamber to reveal their true identities. Not ready to know each other 's identity yet, they de-transform with their eyes closed as Ladybug gives Hawk Moth fake Miraculouses, unaware that Tikki and Plagg start to meet each other and begin to know the identities of one another.
Marinette, Alya and her other friends go to eat some ice cream together at André, a famous ice cream maker in Paris. According to a legend, the couple who eats an ice cream at André 's place will love each other forever! Marinette hopes that Adrien will be there, but he did not come. For a good reason: he transformed into Cat Noir to prepare a candlelight dinner for Ladybug. Disappointed by the absence of Adrien, Marinette refuses to eat the ice cream André gave her. Depressed over the failed romance, Andre becomes akumatized by Hawk Moth and turns into Glaciator, a giant ice cream snowman with the power that transforms ' single people ' into ice cream and they start to melt! Ladybug and Cat Noir must not get cold feet if they want to stop him. In the midst, Marinette comes to know Cat Noir 's genuine and sensitive side.
Adrien sneaks out to watch a particular movie Solitude in which his mother plays the lead role, but gets mobbed and runs into Marinette who he turns to for help. Meanwhile, Gabriel suspects his son might be Cat Noir. He sends Adrien 's bodyguard after him, when the Gorilla just got his car towed for illegal parking, and Gabriel transforms into Hawk Moth and decides to akumatize the frustrated bodyguard to get faster results. The Gorilla becomes Gorizilla, a giant ape with enormous strength and a keen sense of smell, and begins to follow Adrien all through Paris. Ladybug jumps into action to save Adrien, while the latter tries to hide and transform into Cat Noir to help Ladybug. In the end, when the villain is defeated, Gabriel is convinced he was wrong about Adrien being Cat Noir since he saw both them at the same time (but he actually saw one of Adrien 's fans, who disguised himself as Adrien). When the real Adrien returns home, Gabriel shows him the movie he wanted to watch, in order to gain more of his trust.
Today is Paris ' music festival, Marinette and her friends are all setting up at the Couffaine houseboat. Juleka 's mother, Anarka, will direct the stage. However, Marinette worries about Adrien, since his father has isolated him again after making a mistake in his piano act. In spite of Alya 's reassures, Marinette goes to find Juleka 's brother, Luka, and discovers they share similar hobbies and feels attracted to him. When Luka practices the guitar recital, it causes a huge sound wave creating a disturbance in Paris, which prompts Officer Roger and the police to disqualify Anarka 's stage performance. Upset and dejected, Anarka is akumatized by Hawk Moth and becomes Captain Hardrock, a pirate who wants to blast her music across Paris, ruining Jagged Stone and XY 's concerts.
While preparing for Christmas Eve, Adrien is about to spend his first Christmas without his mother. Thinking that his father does not want to celebrate the holidays this year, Adrien turns into Cat Noir and leaves his home to sing his anger in snowy Paris. When his father discovers that Adrien is not in his room, he becomes extremely worried. Hearing the news, Marinette transforms into Ladybug and finds Adrien, who has reverted back to his normal self, in the company of a Santa. Ladybug thinks the Santa is akumatized and wants to trouble Adrien, so she pushes him away. Scorned, the Santa actually becomes a victim of Hawk Moth as "Santa Claws '', who plans to make this Christmas the worst in the history of Paris.
A series of webisodes, Miraculous: La Webserie, was released by TF1. They can also be found on the official YouTube channel of the cartoon. They contain clips from various episodes and are usually narrated by Marinette, who writes in her diary, or by the others. Nick also released the English version on their website as Miraculous Secrets (also A Miraculous Message), as well as on YouTube. A 2D - animated series of webisodes was also released, titled Miraculous: Tales from Paris (Miraculous, une journée à Paris).
In the United States and Canada, the first DVD, featuring seven episodes from season one, with both English and French audio tracks, was released on 3 May 2016 by Shout! Factory. Another DVD, subtitled Spots On!, which contains six episodes, was released on 30 August 2016. A third DVD, Be Miraculous, which contains seven episodes (including the two - part prequel), was released on 10 January 2017. A fourth DVD, It 's Ladybug was released on 11 April 2017.
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who sings the original sweet dreams are made of these | Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This) - wikipedia
"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This) '' is a song written and performed by the British new wave music duo Eurythmics. The song is the title track of their album of the same name and was released as the fourth and final single from the album in early 1983. The song became their breakthrough hit, establishing the duo worldwide. Its music video helped to propel the song to number 2 on the UK Singles Chart and number 1 on the US Billboard Hot 100. It was the first single released by Eurythmics in the US.
"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This) '' is arguably Eurythmics ' signature song. Following its success, their previous single, "Love Is a Stranger '', was re-released and also became a worldwide hit. On Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time issue in 2003, "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This) '' was ranked number 356. Eurythmics have regularly performed the song in all their live sets since 1982, and it is often performed by Lennox on her solo tours.
In 1991, the song was remixed and reissued to promote Eurythmics ' Greatest Hits album. It re-charted in the UK, reaching number 48, and was also a moderate hit in dance clubs. Another remix by Steve Angello was released in France in 2006, along with the track "I 've Got a Life '' (peaking at number 10).
The original recording 's main instrumentation featured a sequenced analog synthesizer riff, which Stewart accidentally discovered in the studio when he played a bass track backward. Apart from the synthesizer, the arrangement also uses a Movement Systems Drum Computer, a piano in the middle eight, and Lennox 's multitracked harmony vocals.
"Sweet Dreams '' was Eurythmics ' commercial breakthrough in the United Kingdom and all over the world. The single entered the UK chart at # 63 in February 1983 and reached number two the following month.
"Sweet Dreams '' was the first ever single release by Eurythmics in the United States when it was released in May 1983. The single debuted at # 90 and slowly eased up the chart. By August, the single had reached number two and stayed there for four weeks, kept from the top by The Police 's "Every Breath You Take '' before "Sweet Dreams '' took the number one spot.
The music video for "Sweet Dreams '' was directed by Chris Ashbrook and filmed in January 1983, shortly before the single and the album was released. The video received heavy airplay on the then - fledgling MTV channel and is widely considered a classic clip from the early - MTV era.
The music video begins with a fist (presumably Stewart 's) pounding on a table, with the camera panning up to reveal Lennox in a boardroom, with images of a Saturn V launch projected on a screen behind her, which are later replaced by a shot of a crowd walking down a street. Stewart is shown typing on a computer (actually an MCS drum computer). The camera cuts to Lennox and Stewart meditating on the table. Stewart is next shown playing a cello in a field. The scene then returns to the boardroom, with Lennox and Stewart lying down on the table, and a cow walking around them. Stewart is shown again typing on the computer, with the cow chewing something right next to him. The scene cuts to the duo in a field, with a herd of cows, and Stewart still typing. Lennox and Stewart are then seen floating in a boat, with Stewart again playing a cello. The video ends with Lennox lying in bed, with the last shot being a book on a nightstand bearing a cover identical to the album. The screen then fades to black as Lennox turns off the bedside lamp. The video has more than 170 million views as of October, 2017.
Lennox 's androgynous visual image, with close - cropped, orange - coloured hair, and attired in a man 's suit brandishing a cane, immediately made her a household name. Her gender - bending image would be further explored in other Eurythmics videos such as "Love Is a Stranger '' and "Who 's That Girl? ''.
A second video was also produced, featuring Lennox and Stewart on a train. A close - up shot of Lennox 's lips is occasionally seen in the train car 's window as she sings the song.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Marilyn Manson released a cover version of "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This) '' as the first single from the 1995 EP, Smells Like Children. This version became an MTV staple and helped to establish the band in the mainstream. Their groundbreaking video was directed by Dean Karr and produced by Arthur Gorson. It also appears on the band 's greatest hits album, Lest We Forget: The Best Of. This version is featured on the soundtracks to the films Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room (2005) and Gamer (2009). It is also featured in the films House on Haunted Hill (1999), Trick ' r Treat (2007), the trailer to Wrath of the Titans (2012), in the pilot of The Following and on the BBC drama Luther. In Manson 's autobiography, The Long Hard Road Out of Hell, he states that Nothing Records did not want to release this as a single. They wanted to release their cover of Screamin ' Jay Hawkins ' "I Put a Spell on You '', which, according to Manson, "was far too dark, sprawling and esoteric, even for some of our fans. ''
Marilyn Manson added some extra lines to the lyrics that are not present in the Eurythmics version: "I wan na use you and abuse you / I wan na know what 's inside you '' along with "I 'm gon na use you and abuse you / I got ta know what 's inside you. ''
The video for Manson 's cover contains several clips of Manson and bandmates in what appears to be an abandoned building. In between the clips are a number of surreal shots of Manson wearing a wedding gown, Manson wandering around an abandoned street in a tutu, birds fluttering around him and leaving droppings on his body, and of him riding a pig wearing a cowboy hat and covered with mud. In 2010 the music video was rated the "Scariest music video ever made '' by Billboard, beating Michael Jackson 's Thriller for the top spot. Dave Stewart has said that he liked Marilyn Manson 's version of his song and that "the video was one of the scariest things (he) 'd seen at the time. ''
Australian CD single
US promotional CD single
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what is the title of the second harry potter book | Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets - wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets is a fantasy novel written by British author J.K. Rowling and the second novel in the Harry Potter series. The plot follows Harry 's second year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, during which a series of messages on the walls of the school 's corridors warn that the "Chamber of Secrets '' has been opened and that the "heir of Slytherin '' would kill all pupils who do not come from all - magical families. These threats are found after attacks which leave residents of the school "petrified '' (frozen like stone). Throughout the year, Harry and his friends Ron and Hermione investigate the attacks.
The book was published in the United Kingdom on 2 July 1998 by Bloomsbury and in the United States on 2 June 1999 by Scholastic Inc. Although Rowling found it difficult to finish the book, it won high praise and awards from critics, young readers and the book industry, although some critics thought the story was perhaps too frightening for younger children. Much like with other novels in the series, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets triggered religious debates; some religious authorities have condemned its use of magical themes, while others have praised its emphasis on self - sacrifice and on the way in which a person 's character is the result of the person 's choices.
Several commentators have noted that personal identity is a strong theme in the book, and that it addresses issues of racism through the treatment of non-magical, non-human and non-living people. Some commentators regard the diary as a warning against uncritical acceptance of information from sources whose motives and reliability can not be checked. Institutional authority is portrayed as self - serving and incompetent. The book is also known to have some connections to the sixth novel of the series, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince.
The film adaptation of the novel, released in 2002, became (at that time) the seventh highest - grossing film ever and received generally favourable reviews. Video games loosely based on Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets were also released for several platforms, and most obtained favourable reviews.
On Harry Potter 's birthday in 1992, the Dursley family -- Harry 's Uncle Vernon, Aunt Petunia, and cousin Dudley -- hold a dinner party for a potential client of Vernon 's drill - manufacturing company. Harry is not invited, but is content to spend the evening quietly in his bedroom, although he is upset that his school friends have not sent cards or presents. However, when he goes to his room a house - elf named Dobby warns him not to return to Hogwarts and admits to intercepting Harry 's post from his friends. Having failed to persuade Harry to voluntarily give up his place at Hogwarts, Dobby then attempts to get him expelled by using magic to smash Petunia 's dessert on a dinner party guest and framing it on Harry, who is not allowed to use magic out of school. Uncle Vernon 's business deal falls through, but Harry is given a second chance and allowed to return at the start of the school year.
In the meantime, Uncle Vernon punishes Harry, fitting locks to his bedroom door and bars to the windows. However, Ron Weasley arrives with his twin brothers Fred and George in their father Arthur 's enchanted Ford Anglia and they rescue Harry, who stays at their family home, the Burrow, for the remainder of his holidays. Harry and the other Weasleys -- mother Molly, third eldest son Percy, and daughter Ginny (who has a crush on Harry) -- travel to Diagon Alley. There, they are reunited with Hermione Granger and introduced to Lucius Malfoy, father of Harry 's school nemesis Draco, and Gilderoy Lockhart, a conceited autobiographer who has been appointed Defence Against the Dark Arts professor after the death of Professor Quirrel. When Harry and Ron approach Platform 9 3 / 4 in King 's Cross station it refuses to allow them to pass; instead, they fly Arthur 's car to Hogwarts, where they crash into a sentient willow tree on the grounds.
In trouble for the crash, Ron is punished by having to clean the school trophies and Harry by helping the celebrity teacher Professor Lockhart, whose classes are chaotic, with addressing his fan mail. Harry learns of some wizards ' prejudice about blood status in terms of "pure '' blood (only wizarding heritage) and those with Muggle parentage. He is alone in hearing an unnerving voice seemingly coming from the walls of the school itself, and during a deathday party for Gryffindor House 's ghost Nearly Headless Nick, he, Ron, and Hermione happen upon the school caretaker Argus Filch 's petrified cat, Mrs. Norris, and a warning scrawled across one of the walls: "The chamber of secrets has been opened. Enemies of the heir, beware. ''
Rumours fly around the school regarding the Chamber of Secrets ' history. Harry and his friends discover from Cuthbert Binns, the ghostly professor of History of Magic, that it houses a terrible monster and was created by one of the school 's founders, Salazar Slytherin, after a fundamental disagreement with the other founders (Godric Gryffindor, Helga Hufflepuff, and Rowena Ravenclaw). Slytherin believed that students of non-magical parentage should be refused entry to the school. When a Bludger, one of the balls involved in Quidditch, chases after Harry instead of zigzagging toward any player it can hit, breaking his arm, Dobby returns in the middle of the night to visit Harry in the hospital wing, revealing that it was he who charmed the Bludger and sealed the gateway at King 's Cross and that the Chamber of Secrets had been opened before. Another attack occurs, this time to a first - year Gryffindor named Colin Creevey who idolises Harry, and the school enters panic mode, setting up a dueling class for the students (led by Lockhart and Potions master / Head of Slytherin House Severus Snape), during which it is revealed that Harry is a ' Parselmouth ', meaning he has the rare gift to speak to snakes.
This sparks the rumour mill yet again, as students around the school suspect Harry of being the Heir of Slytherin (as Slytherin was also a parselmouth), and circumstantial evidence to support this theory arrives in the form of another attack, this time on Hufflepuff second - year Justin Finch Fletchley and the Gryffindor ghost. Harry, Ron, and Hermione begin to suspect that Draco is behind the attacks, given his family history of remaining well within Slytherin ranks and open hostility toward Muggle - born students, and so Hermione concocts Polyjuice potion, which allows them to become Draco 's boorish lackeys, Vincent Crabbe and Gregory Goyle, for an hour to interrogate him. This comes to nothing, as Draco 's father only told his son the general facts of the previous opening of the Chamber and that it occurred fifty years previously. Meanwhile, Myrtle Warren, an existentially mopey ghost that haunts a bathroom, unwittingly provides a new clue in the form of a diary deposited in her stall -- a diary, moreover, that belonged to Tom Riddle, a student who knows all too well about the Chamber, having been witness to a fellow student 's death fifty years ago. The culprit, he reveals to Harry, was none other than Rubeus Hagrid, now gamekeeper for Hogwarts School; when Hermione is attacked next, alongside a Ravenclaw prefect, the school is put on lockdown, and Dumbledore and Hagrid are forced to leave the premises.
Fortunately for Harry and Ron, Hagrid left a set of instructions: to follow the spiders currently fleeing into the Forbidden Forest, which they do, only to find the monster blamed for the attacks fifty years before, a massive spider named Aragog, who explains to the duo that the real monster is one that spiders fear above all others. Hermione provides the last set of clues that inform them of the monster 's identity: It is a basilisk, (hence Harry 's ability to understand it,) that kills with a stare (although no one is dead because of various devices through which they indirectly saw the monster) and which spiders (such as Aragog and his offspring) fear above all others. Harry figures out from hints Aragog dropped that a student who died during the previous attacks is Myrtle, and when Ginny is apparently taken by the monster into the Chamber, they discover that the entrance is in the bathroom they have been using to make Polyjuice Potion. Harry, Ron, and Lockhart enter the Chamber, but the dunderheaded professor (who reveals that he is a fraud) causes a rockfall while attempting to modify the boys ' memories with Ron 's damaged wand. Harry must enter alone. He arrives to find Ginny in a weakened state being watched over by a shadowy, ghostly Riddle. Riddle explains that he is not only the heir of Slytherin, but he also grew up to become Voldemort himself. Riddle sets the basilisk upon Harry, who fights the monster with the help of Dumbledore 's phoenix Fawkes and the Sword of Gryffindor drawn from the Sorting Hat. Harry defeats the monster and destroys the diary with one of the basilisk 's fangs, erasing Riddle.
Harry, Ron, Ginny, and Lockhart return to the main castle and reunite with McGonagall, Dumbledore, and Mr. and Mrs. Weasley. Ginny, whose possession by Voldemort caused all of the petrification and troubles over the course of the year, is given a reprieve by Dumbledore, who reasons that greater wizards have been duped by Voldemort before and takes great interest in the qualities of the diary, which Harry gives to him. Lucius Malfoy bursts in after this meeting, demanding to know why and how Dumbledore has returned to the school and accompanied by Dobby, revealing the family to whom he is enslaved. The house - elf also provides Harry with unspoken cues regarding the diary 's ownership: While it was Tom Riddle 's, it had been in the Malfoys ' possession, and Harry returns it, devising a scenario involving his own sock that frees Dobby from the Malfoys ' employment, hence provoking an attack on Harry, only for Dobby to jump in and save him. The petrified students are cured, the end - of - year exams are cancelled (much to Hermione 's chagrin), Hagrid comes back in the middle of the final feast, and Harry returns to Privet Drive in higher spirits than he last left it.
Rowling found it difficult to finish Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets because she was afraid it would not live up to the expectations raised by Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone in the US). After delivering the manuscript to Bloomsbury on schedule, she took it back for six weeks of revision.
In early drafts of the book, the ghost Nearly Headless Nick sang a self - composed song explaining his condition and the circumstances of his death. This was cut as the book 's editor did not care for the poem, which has been subsequently published as an extra on J.K. Rowling 's official website. The family background of Dean Thomas was removed because Rowling and her publishers considered it an "unnecessary digression '', and she considered Neville Longbottom 's own journey of discovery "more important to the central plot ''.
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999. It immediately took first place in UK best - seller lists, displacing popular authors such as John Grisham, Tom Clancy, and Terry Pratchett, and making Rowling the first author to win the British Book Awards Children 's Book of the Year for two years in succession. In June 1999, it went straight to the top of three US best - seller lists, including The New York Times '.
First edition printings had several errors, which were fixed in subsequent reprints. Initially Dumbledore said that Voldemort was the last remaining ancestor of Salazar Slytherin, instead of his descendant. Gilderoy Lockhart 's book on werewolves is entitled Weekends with Werewolves at one point and Wanderings with Werewolves later in the book.
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was met with near universal acclaim. In The Times, Deborah Loudon described it as a children 's book that would be "re-read into adulthood '' and highlighted its "strong plots, engaging characters, excellent jokes and a moral message which flows naturally from the story ''. Fantasy author Charles de Lint agreed, and considered the second Harry Potter book as good as Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, a rare achievement among series of books. Thomas Wagner regarded the plot as very similar to that of the first book, based on searching for a secret hidden under the school. However, he enjoyed the parody of celebrities and their fans that centres round Gilderoy Lockhart, and approved of the book 's handling of racism. Tammy Nezol found the book more disturbing than its predecessor, particularly in the rash behaviour of Harry and his friends after Harry withholds information from Dumbledore, and in the human - like behaviour of the mandragoras used to make a potion that cures petrification. Nevertheless, she considered the second story as enjoyable as the first.
Mary Stuart thought the final conflict with Tom Riddle in the Chamber was almost as scary as in some of Stephen King 's works, and perhaps too strong for young or timid children. She commented that "there are enough surprises and imaginative details thrown in as would normally fill five lesser books. '' Like other reviewers, she thought the book would give pleasure to both children and adult readers. According to Philip Nel, the early reviews gave unalloyed praise while the later ones included some criticisms, although they still agreed that the book was outstanding.
Writing after all seven books had been published, Graeme Davis regarded Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets as the weakest of the series, and agreed that the plot structure is much the same as in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone. He described Fawkes 's appearance to arm Harry and then to heal him as a deus ex machina: he said that the book does not explain how Fawkes knew where to find Harry; and Fawkes 's timing had to be very precise, as arriving earlier would probably have prevented the battle with the basilisk, while arriving later would have been fatal to Harry and Ginny.
Rowling 's Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was the recipient of several awards. The American Library Association listed the novel among its 2000 Notable Children 's Books, as well as its Best Books for Young Adults. In 1999, Booklist named Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets as one of its Editors ' Choices, and as one of its Top Ten Fantasy Novels for Youth. The Cooperative Children 's Book Center made the novel a CCBC Choice of 2000 in the "Fiction for Children '' category. The novel also won Children 's Book of the Year British Book Award, and was shortlisted for the 1998 Guardian Children 's Award and the 1998 Carnegie Award.
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets won the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize 1998 Gold Medal in the 9 -- 11 years division. Rowling also won two other Nestlé Smarties Book Prizes for Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone and Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. The Scottish Arts Council awarded their first ever Children 's Book Award to the novel in 1999, and it was also awarded Whitaker 's Platinum Book Award in 2001. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 23 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read.
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets continues the examination of what makes a person who he or she is, which began in the first book. As well as maintaining that Harry 's identity is shaped by his decisions rather than any aspect of his birth, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets provides contrasting characters who try to conceal their true personalities: as Tammy Nezol puts it, Gilderoy Lockhart "lacks any real identity '' because he is nothing more than a charming liar. Riddle also complicates Harry 's struggle to understand himself by pointing out the similarities between the two: "both half - bloods, orphans raised by Muggles, probably the only two Parselmouths to come to Hogwarts since the great Slytherin. ''
Opposition to class, death and its impacts, experiencing adolescence, sacrifice, love, friendship, loyalty, prejudice, and racism are constant themes of the series. In Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets Harry 's consideration and respect for others extends to the lowly, non-human Dobby and the ghost Nearly Headless Nick. According to Marguerite Krause, achievements in the novel depend more on ingenuity and hard work than on natural talents.
Edward Duffy, associate professor at Marquette University, says that one of the central characters of Chamber of Secrets is Tom Riddle 's enchanted diary, which takes control of Ginny Weasley -- just as Riddle planned. Duffy suggests Rowling intended this as a warning against passively consuming information from sources that have their own agendas. Although Bronwyn Williams and Amy Zenger regard the diary as more like an instant messaging or chat room system, they agree about the dangers of relying too much on the written word, which can camouflage the author, and they highlight a comical example, Lockhart 's self - promoting books.
Immorality and the portrayal of authority as negative are significant themes in the novel. Marguerite Krause states there are few absolute moral rules in Harry Potter 's world, for example Harry prefers to tell the truth, but lies whenever he considers it necessary -- very like his enemy Draco Malfoy. At the end of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Dumbledore retracts his promise to punish Harry, Ron, and Hermione if they break any more school rules -- after Professor McGonagall estimates they have broken over 100 -- and lavishly rewards them for ending the threat from the Chamber of Secrets. Krause further states that authority figures and political institutions receive little respect from Rowling. William MacNeil of Griffith University, Queensland, Australia states that the Minister for Magic is presented as a mediocrity. In his article "Harry Potter and the Secular City '', Ken Jacobson suggests the Ministry as a whole is portrayed as a tangle of bureaucratic empires, saying that "Ministry officials busy themselves with minutiae (e.g. standardising cauldron thicknesses) and coin politically correct euphemisms like ' non-magical community ' (for Muggles) and ' memory modification ' (for magical brainwashing). ''
This novel implies it begins in 1992: the cake for Nearly - Headless Nick 's 500th deathday party bears the words "Sir Nicholas De Mimsy Porpington died 31 October 1492 ''.
Chamber of Secrets has many links with the sixth book of the series, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince. In fact, Half - Blood Prince was the working title of Chamber of Secrets and Rowling says she originally intended to present some "crucial pieces of information '' in the second book, but ultimately felt "this information 's proper home was book six ''. Some objects that play significant roles in Half - Blood Prince first appear in Chamber of Secrets: the Hand of Glory and the opal necklace that are on sale in Borgin and Burkes; a Vanishing Cabinet in Hogwarts that is damaged by Peeves the Poltergeist; and Tom Riddle 's diary, which is later shown to be a Horcrux. Additionally, these two novels are the ones with the most focus on Harry 's relationship with Ginny Weasley.
The film version of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was released in 2002. Chris Columbus directed the film, and the screenplay was written by Steve Kloves. It became the third film to exceed $600 million in international box office sales, preceded by Titanic, released in 1997, and Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, released in 2001. The film was nominated for a Saturn Award for the Best Fantasy Film, According to Metacritic, the film version of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets received "generally favourable reviews '' with an average score of 63 %, and another aggregator, Rotten Tomatoes, gave it a score of 82 %.
Five unique video games by different developers were released between 2002 and 2003 by Electronic Arts, loosely based on the book:
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who added a larger amount of territory to russia | Russian Empire - wikipedia
The Russian Empire (Russian: Россійская Имперія) was an empire that existed from 1721 until proclamation of the Republic by the Provisional Government that took power after the February Revolution of 1917.
One of the largest empires in world history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring rival powers: the Swedish Empire, the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia and the Ottoman Empire. It played a major role in 1812 -- 1814 in defeating Napoleon 's ambitions to control Europe and expanded to the west and south.
The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German - descended cadet branch, the House of Holstein - Gottorp - Romanov, ruled from 1762. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian Empire extended from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea in the south, from the Baltic Sea on the west to the Pacific Ocean, and (until 1867) into Alaska in North America on the east. With 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third - largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, and religion. There were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts; they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia.
Economically, the empire had a predominately agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs (until they were freed in 1861). The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways and factories. The land was ruled by a nobility (the boyars) from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III (1462 -- 1505) laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged. He tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great (1682 -- 1725) fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power. He moved the capital from Moscow to the new model city of St. Petersburg, and led a cultural revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political mores with a modern, scientific, Europe - oriented, and rationalist system.
Catherine the Great (reigned 1762 -- 1796) presided over a golden age; she expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Great 's policy of modernisation along West European lines. Tsar Alexander II (1855 -- 1881) promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. That connection by 1914 led to Russia 's entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires.
The Russian Empire functioned as an absolute monarchy until the Revolution of 1905 and then became a de jure constitutional monarchy. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of massive failures in its participation in the First World War.
Though the Empire was only officially proclaimed by Tsar Peter I, following the Treaty of Nystad (1721), some historians would argue that it was truly born either when Ivan III of Russia conquered Veliky Novgorod or when Ivan the Terrible conquered Khanate of Kazan. According to another point of view, the term Tsardom, which was used after the coronation of Ivan IV in 1547, was already a contemporary Russian word for empire, while Peter the Great just replaced it with a Latinized synonym.
Much of Russia 's expansion occurred in the 17th century, culminating in the first Russian colonisation of the Pacific in the mid-17th century, the Russo - Polish War (1654 -- 67) that incorporated left - bank Ukraine, and the Russian conquest of Siberia. Poland was divided in the 1790 - 1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, south of Siberia.
Peter I the Great (1672 -- 1725) played a major role in introducing Russia to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million. Grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns. The class of kholops, close in status to slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation. Russian agricultural kholops were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679.
Peter 's first military efforts were directed against the Ottoman Turks. His attention then turned to the North. Peter still lacked a secure northern seaport, except at Archangel on the White Sea, where the harbor was frozen for nine months a year. Access to the Baltic was blocked by Sweden, whose territory enclosed it on three sides. Peter 's ambitions for a "window to the sea '' led him to make a secret alliance in 1699 with Saxony, the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth and Denmark against Sweden, resulting in the Great Northern War. The war ended in 1721 when an exhausted Sweden asked for peace with Russia. Peter acquired four provinces situated south and east of the Gulf of Finland. The coveted access to the sea was now secured. There he built Russia 's new capital, Saint Petersburg, to replace Moscow, which had long been Russia 's cultural center. In 1722, he turned his aspirations as first Russian monarch toward increasing Russian influence in the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea at the expense of the weakened Safavid Persians. He made Astrakhan the centre of military efforts against Persia, and waged the first full - scale war against them in 1722 -- 23.
Peter reorganized his government based on the latest political models of the time, moulding Russia into an absolutist state. He replaced the old boyar Duma (council of nobles) with a nine - member Senate, in effect a supreme council of state. The countryside was divided into new provinces and districts. Peter told the Senate that its mission was to collect taxes, and tax revenues tripled over the course of his reign. As part of the government reform, the Orthodox Church was partially incorporated into the country 's administrative structure, in effect making it a tool of the state. Peter abolished the patriarchate and replaced it with a collective body, the Holy Synod, led by a government official. Meanwhile, all vestiges of local self - government were removed. Peter continued and intensified his predecessors ' requirement of state service for all nobles.
Peter died in 1725, leaving an unsettled succession. After a short reign of his widow Catherine I, the crown passed to empress Anna who slowed down the reforms and led a successful war against the Ottoman Empire, which brought a significant weakening of the Ottoman vassal Crimean Khanate, a long - term Russian adversary.
The discontent over the dominant positions of Baltic Germans in Russian politics brought Peter I 's daughter Elizabeth on the Russian throne. Elizabeth supported the arts, architecture and the sciences (for example with the foundation of the Moscow University). However, she did not carry out significant structural reforms. Her reign, which lasted nearly 20 years, is also known for her involvement in the Seven Years ' War. It was successful for Russia militarily, but fruitless politically.
Catherine the Great was a German princess who married Peter III, the German heir to the Russian crown. After the death of Empress Elizabeth, she came to power when her coup d'état against her unpopular husband succeeded. She contributed to the resurgence of the Russian nobility that began after the death of Peter the Great. State service was abolished, and Catherine delighted the nobles further by turning over most state functions in the provinces to them.
Catherine the Great extended Russian political control over the lands of the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth. Her actions included the support of the Targowica Confederation, although the cost of her campaigns, on top of the oppressive social system that required serfs to spend almost all of their time laboring on their owners ' land, provoked a major peasant uprising in 1773, after Catherine legalised the selling of serfs separate from land. Inspired by a Cossack named Pugachev, with the emphatic cry of "Hang all the landlords! '', the rebels threatened to take Moscow before they were ruthlessly suppressed. Instead of the traditional punishment of being drawn and quartered, Catherine issued secret instructions that the executioner should carry the sentence out quickly and with a minimum of suffering, as part of her effort to introduce compassion into the law. She also ordered the public trial of Darya Nikolayevna Saltykova, a member of the highest nobility, on charges of torture and murder. These gestures of compassion garnered Catherine much positive attention from Europe experiencing the Enlightenment age, but the specter of revolution and disorder continued to haunt her and her successors.
In order to ensure continued support from the nobility, which was essential to the survival of her government, Catherine was obliged to strengthen their authority and power at the expense of the serfs and other lower classes. Nevertheless, Catherine realized that serfdom must be ended, going so far in her "Instruction '' to say that serfs were "just as good as we are '' -- a comment the nobility received with disgust. Catherine successfully waged war against the Ottoman Empire and advanced Russia 's southern boundary to the Black Sea. Then, by plotting with the rulers of Austria and Prussia, she incorporated territories of the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Partitions of Poland, pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe. In accordance with the treaty Russia had signed with the Georgians to protect them against any new invasion of their Persian suzerains and further political aspirations, Catherine waged a new war against Persia in 1796 after they had again invaded Georgia and established rule over it about a year prior and expelled the newly established Russian garrisons in the Caucasus. By the time of her death in 1796, Catherine 's expansionist policy had turned Russia into a major European power. This continued with Alexander I 's wresting of Finland from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and of Bessarabia from the Principality of Moldavia, ceded by the Ottomans in 1812.
Russia was in a continuous state of financial crisis. While revenue rose from 9 million rubles in 1724 to 40 million in 1794, expenses grew more rapidly, reaching 49 million in 1794. The budget allocated 46 percent to the military, 20 percent to government economic activities, 12 percent to administration, and nine percent for the Imperial Court in St. Petersburg. The deficit required borrowing, primarily from Amsterdam; five percent of the budget was allocated to debt payments. Paper money was issued to pay for expensive wars, thus causing inflation. For its spending, Russia obtained a large and well - equipped army, a very large and complex bureaucracy, and a court that rivaled Paris and London. However the government was living far beyond its means, and 18th century Russia remained "a poor, backward, overwhelmingly agricultural, and illiterate country. ''
Napoleon, following a dispute with Tsar Alexander I, launched an invasion of Russia in 1812. The campaign was a catastrophe. Although Napoleon 's Grande Armée made its way to Moscow, the Russians ' scorched earth strategy prevented the invaders from living off the country. In the bitter Russian Winter, thousands of French troops were ambushed and killed by peasant guerrilla fighters. As Napoleon 's forces retreated, the Russian troops pursued them into Central and Western Europe and to the gates of Paris. After Russia and its allies defeated Napoleon, Alexander became known as the ' saviour of Europe ', and he presided over the redrawing of the map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna (1815), that ultimately made Alexander the monarch of Congress Poland.
Although the Russian Empire would play a leading political role in the next century, thanks to its defeat of Napoleonic France, its retention of serfdom precluded economic progress of any significant degree. As Western European economic growth accelerated during the Industrial Revolution, Russia began to lag ever farther behind, creating new weaknesses for the Empire seeking to play a role as a great power. This status concealed the inefficiency of its government, the isolation of its people, and its economic backwardness. Following the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander I had been ready to discuss constitutional reforms, but though a few were introduced, no major changes were attempted.
The liberal tsar was replaced by his younger brother, Nicholas I (1825 -- 1855), who at the beginning of his reign was confronted with an uprising. The background of this revolt lay in the Napoleonic Wars, when a number of well - educated Russian officers travelled in Europe in the course of military campaigns, where their exposure to the liberalism of Western Europe encouraged them to seek change on their return to autocratic Russia. The result was the Decembrist revolt (December 1825), the work of a small circle of liberal nobles and army officers who wanted to install Nicholas ' brother as a constitutional monarch. But the revolt was easily crushed, leading Nicholas to turn away from the modernization program begun by Peter the Great and champion the doctrine of Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality.
The retaliation for the revolt made "December Fourteenth '' a day long remembered by later revolutionary movements. In order to repress further revolts, censorship was intensified, including the constant surveillance of schools and universities. Textbooks were strictly regulated by the government. Police spies were planted everywhere. Would - be revolutionaries were sent off to Siberia -- under Nicholas I hundreds of thousands were sent to katorga there.
After the Russian armies liberated allied (since the 1783 Treaty of Georgievsk) Georgia from the Qajar dynasty 's occupation in 1802, in the Russo - Persian War (1804 -- 13) they clashed with Persia over control and consolidation over Georgia, and also got involved in the Caucasian War against the Caucasian Imamate. The conclusion of the 1804 - 1813 war with Persia made it irrevocably cede what is now Dagestan, Georgia, and most of Azerbaijan to Russia following the Treaty of Gulistan. To the south west, Russia attempted to expand at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, using recently acquired Georgia at its base for the Caucasus and Anatolian front. The late 1820s were successful military years. Despite losing almost all recently consolidated territories in the first year of the Russo - Persian War of 1826 -- 28, Russia managed to bring an end to the war with highly favourable terms with the Treaty of Turkmenchay, including the official gains of what is now Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iğdır Province. In the 1828 - 29 Russo - Turkish War, Russia invaded northeastern Anatolia and occupied the strategic Ottoman towns of Erzurum and Gümüşhane and, posing as protector and saviour of the Greek Orthodox population, received extensive support from the region 's Pontic Greeks. Following a brief occupation, the Russian imperial army withdrew back into Georgia.
The question of Russia 's direction had been gaining attention ever since Peter the Great 's program of modernization. Some favored imitating Western Europe while others were against this and called for a return to the traditions of the past. The latter path was advocated by Slavophiles, who held the "decadent '' West in contempt. The Slavophiles were opponents of bureaucracy who preferred the collectivism of the medieval Russian obshchina or mir over the individualism of the West. More extreme social doctrines were elaborated by such Russian radicals on the left as Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin, and Peter Kropotkin.
Russian tsars crushed two uprisings in their newly acquired Polish territories: the November Uprising in 1830 and the January Uprising in 1863. The Russian autocracy gave the Polish artisans and gentry reason to rebel in 1863 by assailing national core values of language, religion, culture. The result was the January Uprising, a massive Polish revolt, which was crushed by massive force. France, Britain and Austria tried to intervene in the crisis but were unable to do so. The Russian patriotic press used the Polish uprising to unify the Russian nation, claiming it was Russia 's God - given mission to save Poland and the world. Poland was punished by losing its distinctive political and judicial rights, with Russianization imposed on its schools and courts.
In 1854 - 55 Russia lost to Britain, France and Turkey in the Crimean War. It was fought primarily in the Crimean peninsula, and to a lesser extent in the Baltic. Since playing a major role in the defeat of Napoleon, Russia had been regarded as militarily invincible, but, once opposed against a coalition of the great powers of Europe, the reverses it suffered on land and sea exposed the decay and weakness of Tsar Nicholas ' regime.
When Tsar Alexander II ascended the throne in 1855, desire for reform was widespread. A growing humanitarian movement attacked serfdom as inefficient. In 1859, there were more than 23 million serfs in usually poor living conditions. Alexander II decided to abolish serfdom from above, with ample provision for the landowners, rather than wait for it to be abolished from below in a revolutionary way that would hurt the landowners.
The emancipation reform of 1861 that freed the serfs was the single most important event in 19th - century Russian history. It was the beginning of the end for the landed aristocracy 's monopoly of power. Further reforms of 1860s included socio - economic reforms which would clearify the position of the Russian government in the field of property rights and their protection. Emancipation brought a supply of free labour to the cities, industry was stimulated, and the middle class grew in number and influence. However, instead of receiving their lands as a gift, the freed peasants had to pay a special tax for what amounted to their lifetime to the government, which in turn paid the landlords a generous price for the land that they had lost. In numerous cases the peasants ended up with the smallest amount of land. All the property turned over to the peasants was owned collectively by the mir, the village community, which divided the land among the peasants and supervised the various holdings. Although serfdom was abolished, since its abolition was achieved on terms unfavourable to the peasants, revolutionary tensions were not abated, despite Alexander II 's intentions. Revolutionaries believed that the newly freed serfs were merely being sold into wage slavery in the onset of the industrial revolution, and that the bourgeoisie had effectively replaced landowners.
Alexander II obtained Outer Manchuria from the Qing China between 1858 -- 1860 and sold the last territories of Russian America, Alaska, to the USA in 1867.
In the late 1870s Russia and the Ottoman Empire again clashed in the Balkans. From 1875 to 1877, the Balkan crisis intensified with rebellions against Ottoman rule by various Slavic nationalities, which the Ottoman Turks dominated since the 16th century. This was seen as a political risk in Russia, which similarly suppressed its Muslims in Central Asia and Caucasia. Russian nationalist opinion became a major domestic factor in its support for liberating Balkan Christians from Ottoman rule and making Bulgaria and Serbia independent. In early 1877, Russia intervened on behalf of Serbian and Russian volunteer forces in the Russo - Turkish War (1877 -- 78). Within one year, Russian troops were nearing Istanbul and the Ottomans surrendered. Russia 's nationalist diplomats and generals persuaded Alexander II to force the Ottomans to sign the Treaty of San Stefano in March 1878, creating an enlarged, independent Bulgaria that stretched into the southwestern Balkans. When Britain threatened to declare war over the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano, an exhausted Russia backed down. At the Congress of Berlin in July 1878, Russia agreed to the creation of a smaller Bulgaria, as an autonomous principality inside the Ottoman Empire. As a result, Pan-Slavists were left with a legacy of bitterness against Austria - Hungary and Germany for failing to back Russia. The disappointment at the results of the war stimulated revolutionary tensions in the country. However, he helped Serbia, Romania and Montenegro to gain independence from and strengthen themselves against the Ottomans.
Another significant result of the 1877 -- 78 Russo - Turkish War in Russia 's favour was the acquisition from the Ottomans of the provinces of Batum, Ardahan and Kars in Transcaucasia, which were transformed into the militarily administered regions of Batum Oblast and Kars Oblast. To replace Muslim refugees who had fled across the new frontier into Ottoman territory the Russian authorities settled large numbers of Christians from an ethnically diverse range of communities in Kars Oblast, particularly the Georgians, Caucasus Greeks and Armenians, each of whom hoped to achieve protection and advance their own regional ambitions on the back of the Russian Empire.
In 1881 Alexander II was assassinated by the Narodnaya Volya, a Nihilist terrorist organization. The throne passed to Alexander III (1881 -- 1894), a reactionary who revived the maxim of "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality '' of Nicholas I. A committed Slavophile, Alexander III believed that Russia could be saved from turmoil only by shutting itself off from the subversive influences of Western Europe. During his reign Russia declared the Franco - Russian Alliance to contain the growing power of Germany, completed the conquest of Central Asia and demanded important territorial and commercial concessions from the Qing. The tsar 's most influential adviser was Konstantin Pobedonostsev, tutor to Alexander III and his son Nicholas, and procurator of the Holy Synod from 1880 to 1895. He taught his royal pupils to fear freedom of speech and press, as well as disliking democracy, constitutions, and the parliamentary system. Under Pobedonostsev, revolutionaries were persecuted and a policy of Russification was carried out throughout the Empire.
The movement south toward Afghanistan and India alarmed the British, who ignored Russia 's quest for a warm - water port and worked to block its advance in what observers called The Great Game. Both nations avoided escalating the tensions into a war, and they became allies in 1907.
In 1894, Alexander III was succeeded by his son, Nicholas II, who was committed to retaining the autocracy that his father had left him. Nicholas II proved ineffective as a ruler and in the end his dynasty was overthrown by revolution. The Industrial Revolution began to show significant influence in Russia, but the country remained rural and poor. The liberal elements among industrial capitalists and nobility believed in peaceful social reform and a constitutional monarchy, forming the Constitutional Democratic Party or Kadets.
On the left the Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs) incorporated the Narodnik tradition and advocated the distribution of land among those who actually worked it -- the peasants. Another radical group was the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, exponents of Marxism in Russia. The Social Democrats differed from the SRs in that they believed a revolution must rely on urban workers, not the peasantry.
In 1903, at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in London, the party split into two wings: the gradualist Mensheviks and the more radical Bolsheviks. The Mensheviks believed that the Russian working class was insufficiently developed and that socialism could be achieved only after a period of bourgeois democratic rule. They thus tended to ally themselves with the forces of bourgeois liberalism. The Bolsheviks, under Vladimir Lenin, supported the idea of forming a small elite of professional revolutionists, subject to strong party discipline, to act as the vanguard of the proletariat in order to seize power by force.
Defeat in the Russo - Japanese War (1904 -- 1905) was a major blow to the Tsarist regime and further increased the potential for unrest. In January 1905, an incident known as "Bloody Sunday '' occurred when Father Georgy Gapon led an enormous crowd to the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg to present a petition to the Tsar. When the procession reached the palace, soldiers opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. The Russian masses were so furious over the massacre that a general strike was declared demanding a democratic republic. This marked the beginning of the Revolution of 1905. Soviets (councils of workers) appeared in most cities to direct revolutionary activity. Russia was paralyzed, and the government was desperate.
In October 1905, Nicholas reluctantly issued the famous October Manifesto, which conceded the creation of a national Duma (legislature) to be called without delay. The right to vote was extended and no law was to become final without confirmation by the Duma. The moderate groups were satisfied. But the socialists rejected the concessions as insufficient and tried to organise new strikes. By the end of 1905, there was disunity among the reformers, and the tsar 's position was strengthened for the time being.
Tsar Nicholas II and his subjects entered World War I with enthusiasm and patriotism, with the defense of Russia 's fellow Orthodox Slavs, the Serbs, as the main battle cry. In August 1914, the Russian army invaded Germany 's province of East Prussia and occupied a significant portion of Austrian - controlled Galicia in support of the Serbs and their allies -- the French and British. Military reversals and shortages among the civilian population, however, soon soured much of the population. German control of the Baltic Sea and German - Ottoman control of the Black Sea severed Russia from most of its foreign supplies and potential markets.
By the middle of 1915, the impact of the war was demoralizing. Food and fuel were in short supply, casualties were increasing, and inflation was mounting. Strikes rose among low - paid factory workers, and there were reports that peasants, who wanted reforms of land ownership, were restless. The tsar eventually decided to take personal command of the army and moved to the front, leaving his wife, the Empress Alexandra in charge in the capital. The illness of her son Alexei led her to trust the semi-illiterate Siberian peasant Grigori Rasputin (1869 -- 1916), who convinced the royal family that he possessed healing powers that would cure Alexei. He had gained enormous influence but did not shift any major decisions. His assassination in late 1916 by a clique of nobles restored their honor but could not restore the Tsar 's lost prestige.
On 3 March 1917, a strike was organized on a factory in the capital, Saint Petersburg; within a week nearly all the workers in the city were idle, and street fighting broke out.
The Tsarist system was overthrown by a liberal February Revolution in 1917. Rabinowitch argues, "The February 1917 revolution... grew out of prewar political and economic instability, technological backwardness, and fundamental social divisions, coupled with gross mismanagement of the war effort, continuing military defeats, domestic economic dislocation, and outrageous scandals surrounding the monarchy. ''
Swain says, "The first government to be formed after the October Revolution of 1917 had, with one exception, been composed of liberals. '' With his authority destroyed, Nicholas abdicated on 2 March 1917. The execution of the Romanov family at the hands of Bolsheviks followed in 1918.
The administrative boundaries of European Russia, apart from Finland and its portion of Poland, coincided approximately with the natural limits of the East - European plains. In the North it met the Arctic Ocean. Novaya Zemlya and the Kolguyev and Vaygach Islands also belonged to it, but the Kara Sea was referred to Siberia. To the East it had the Asiatic territories of the Empire, Siberia and the Kyrgyz steppes, from both of which it was separated by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River and the Caspian Sea -- the administrative boundary, however, partly extending into Asia on the Siberian slope of the Urals. To the South it had the Black Sea and Caucasus, being separated from the latter by the Manych River depression, which in Post-Pliocene times connected the Sea of Azov with the Caspian. The western boundary was purely conventional: it crossed the Kola Peninsula from the Varangerfjord to the Gulf of Bothnia. Thence it ran to the Curonian Lagoon in the southern Baltic Sea, and thence to the mouth of the Danube, taking a great circular sweep to the west to embrace Poland, and separating Russia from Prussia, Austrian Galicia and Romania.
It is a special feature of Russia that it has few free outlets to the open sea other than on the ice - bound shores of the Arctic Ocean. The deep indentations of the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland were surrounded by what is ethnically Finnish territory, and it is only at the very head of the latter gulf that the Russians had taken firm foothold by erecting their capital at the mouth of the Neva River. The Gulf of Riga and the Baltic belong also to territory which was not inhabited by Slavs, but by Baltic and Finnic peoples and by Germans. The East coast of the Black Sea belonged to Transcaucasia, a great chain of mountains separating it from Russia. But even this sheet of water is an inland sea, the only outlet of which, the Bosphorus, was in foreign hands, while the Caspian, an immense shallow lake, mostly bordered by deserts, possessed more importance as a link between Russia and its Asiatic settlements than as a channel for intercourse with other countries.
By the end of the 19th century the size of the empire was about 22,400,000 square kilometers (8,600,000 sq mi) or almost 1 / 6 of the Earth 's landmass; its only rival in size at the time was the British Empire. However, at this time, the majority of the population lived in European Russia. More than 100 different ethnic groups lived in the Russian Empire, with ethnic Russians composing about 45 % of the population.
In addition to almost the entire territory of modern Russia, prior to 1917 the Russian Empire included most of Dnieper Ukraine, Belarus, Bessarabia, the Grand Duchy of Finland, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, the Central Asian states of Russian Turkestan, most of the Baltic governorates, as well as a significant portion of the Kingdom of Poland and Ardahan, Artvin, Iğdır, Kars and northeastern part of Erzurum Provinces from the Ottoman Empire.
Between 1742 and 1867, the Russian - American Company administered Alaska as a colony. The Company also established settlements in Hawaii, including Fort Elizabeth (1817), and as far south in North America as Fort Ross Colony (established in 1812) in Sonoma County, California just north of San Francisco. Both Fort Ross and the Russian River in California got their names from Russian settlers, who had staked claims in a region claimed until 1821 by the Spanish as part of New Spain.
Following the Swedish defeat in the Finnish War of 1808 -- 1809 and the signing of the Treaty of Fredrikshamn on 17 September 1809, the eastern half of Sweden, the area that then became Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as an autonomous grand duchy. The tsar eventually ended up ruling Finland as a semi-constitutional monarch through the Governor - General of Finland and a native - populated Senate appointed by him. The Emperor never explicitly recognized Finland as a constitutional state in its own right, however, although his Finnish subjects came to consider the Grand Duchy as one.
In the aftermath of the Russo - Turkish War, 1806 -- 12, and the ensuing Treaty of Bucharest (1812), the eastern parts of the Principality of Moldavia, an Ottoman vassal state, along with some areas formerly under direct Ottoman rule, came under the rule of the Empire. This area (Bessarabia) was among the Russian Empire 's last territorial increments in Europe. At the Congress of Vienna (1815), Russia gained sovereignty over Congress Poland, which on paper was an autonomous Kingdom in personal union with Russia. However, this autonomy was eroded after an uprising in 1831, and was finally abolished in 1867.
Saint Petersburg gradually extended and consolidated its control over the Caucasus in the course of the 19th century at the expense of Persia through the Russo - Persian Wars of 1804 -- 13 and 1826 -- 28 and the respectively ensuing treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay, as well as through the Caucasian War (1817 -- 1864).
The Russian Empire expanded its influence and possessions in Central Asia, especially in the later 19th century, conquering much of Russian Turkestan in 1865 and continuing to add territory as late as 1885.
Newly discovered Arctic islands became part of the Russian Empire as Russian explorers found them: the New Siberian Islands from the early 18th century; Severnaya Zemlya ("Emperor Nicholas II Land '') first mapped and claimed as late as 1913.
During World War I, Russia briefly occupied a small part of East Prussia, then part of Germany; a significant portion of Austrian Galicia; and significant portions of Ottoman Armenia. While the modern Russian Federation currently controls the Kaliningrad Oblast, which comprised the northern part of East Prussia, this differs from the area captured by the Empire in 1914, though there was some overlap: Gusev (Gumbinnen in German) was the site of the initial Russian victory.
According to the 1st article of the Organic law, the Russian Empire was one indivisible state. In addition, the 26th article stated that "With the Imperial Russian throne are indivisible the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Principality of Finland ''. Relations with the Grand Principality of Finland were also regulated by the 2nd article, "The Grand Principality of Finland, constituted an indivisible part of the Russian state, in its internal affairs governed by special regulations at the base of special laws '' and the law of 10 June 1910.
Between 1744 and 1867, the empire also controlled Russian America. With the exception of this territory -- modern - day Alaska -- the Russian Empire was a contiguous mass of land spanning Europe and Asia. In this it differed from contemporary colonial - style empires. The result of this was that while the British and French colonial empires declined in the 20th century, the Russian Empire kept a large portion of its territory, first as the Soviet Union, and latter as part of present - day Russia as well as the Commonwealth of Independent States.
Furthermore, the empire at times controlled concession territories, notably the Kwantung Leased Territory and the Chinese Eastern Railway, both conceded by Qing China, as well as a concession in Tianjin. See for these periods of extraterritorial control the empire of Japan -- Russian Empire relations.
In 1815, Dr. Schäffer, a Russian entrepreneur, went to Kauai and negotiated a treaty of protection with the island 's governor Kaumualii, vassal of King Kamehameha I of Hawaii, but the Russian Tsar refused to ratify the treaty. See also Orthodox Church in Hawaii and Russian Fort Elizabeth.
In 1889, a Russian adventurer, Nikolay Ivanovitch Achinov, tried to establish a Russian colony in Africa, Sagallo, situated on the Gulf of Tadjoura in present - day Djibouti. However this attempt angered the French, who dispatched two gunboats against the colony. After a brief resistance, the colony surrendered and the Russian settlers were deported to Odessa.
From its initial creation until the 1905 Revolution, the Russian Empire was controlled by its tsar / emperor as an absolute monarch, under the system of tsarist autocracy. After the Revolution of 1905, Russia developed a new type of government which became difficult to categorize. In the Almanach de Gotha for 1910, Russia was described as "a constitutional monarchy under an autocratic tsar. '' This contradiction in terms demonstrated the difficulty of precisely defining the system, essentially transitional and meanwhile sui generis, established in the Russian Empire after October 1905. Before this date, the fundamental laws of Russia described the power of the Emperor as "autocratic and unlimited. '' After October 1905, while the imperial style was still "Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias '', the fundamental laws were remodeled by removing the word unlimited. While the emperor retained many of his old prerogatives, including an absolute veto over all legislation, he equally agreed to the establishment of an elected parliament, without whose consent no laws were to be enacted in Russia. Not that the regime in Russia had become in any true sense constitutional, far less parliamentary. But the "unlimited autocracy '' had given place to a "self - limited autocracy. '' Whether this autocracy was to be permanently limited by the new changes, or only at the continuing discretion of the autocrat, became a subject of heated controversy between conflicting parties in the state. Provisionally, then, the Russian governmental system may perhaps be best defined as "a limited monarchy under an autocratic emperor. ''
Peter the Great changed his title from Tsar in 1721, when he was declared Emperor of all Russia. While later rulers kept this title, the ruler of Russia was commonly known as Tsar or Tsaritsa until the fall of the Empire during the February Revolution of 1917. Prior to the issuance of the October Manifesto, the Emperor ruled as an absolute monarch, subject to only two limitations on his authority (both of which were intended to protect the existing system): the Emperor and his consort must both belong to the Russian Orthodox Church, and he must obey the laws of succession (Pauline Laws) established by Paul I. Beyond this, the power of the Russian Autocrat was virtually limitless.
On 17 October 1905, the situation changed: the Emperor voluntarily limited his legislative power by decreeing that no measure was to become law without the consent of the Imperial Duma, a freely elected national assembly established by the Organic Law issued on 28 April 1906. However, the Emperor retained the right to disband the newly established Duma, and he exercised this right more than once. He also retained an absolute veto over all legislation, and only he could initiate any changes to the Organic Law itself. His ministers were responsible solely to him, and not to the Duma or any other authority, which could question but not remove them. Thus, while the Emperor 's power was limited in scope after 28 April 1906, it still remained formidable.
Under Russia 's revised Fundamental Law of 20 February 1906, the Council of the Empire was associated with the Duma as a legislative Upper House; from this time the legislative power was exercised normally by the Emperor only in concert with the two chambers. The Council of the Empire, or Imperial Council, as reconstituted for this purpose, consisted of 196 members, of whom 98 were nominated by the Emperor, while 98 were elective. The ministers, also nominated, were ex officio members. Of the elected members, 3 were returned by the "black '' clergy (the monks), 3 by the "white '' clergy (seculars), 18 by the corporations of nobles, 6 by the academy of sciences and the universities, 6 by the chambers of commerce, 6 by the industrial councils, 34 by the governments having zemstvos, 16 by those having no zemstvos, and 6 by Poland. As a legislative body the powers of the Council were coordinate with those of the Duma; in practice, however, it has seldom if ever initiated legislation.
The Duma of the Empire or Imperial Duma (Gosudarstvennaya Duma), which formed the Lower House of the Russian parliament, consisted (since the ukaz of 2 June 1907) of 442 members, elected by an exceedingly complicated process. The membership was manipulated as to secure an overwhelming majority of the wealthy (especially the landed classes) and also for the representatives of the Russian peoples at the expense of the subject nations. Each province of the Empire, except Central Asia, returned a certain number of members; added to these were those returned by several large cities. The members of the Duma were chosen by electoral colleges and these, in their turn, were elected in assemblies of the three classes: landed proprietors, citizens and peasants. In these assemblies the wealthiest proprietors sat in person while the lesser proprietors were represented by delegates. The urban population was divided into two categories according to taxable wealth, and elected delegates directly to the college of the Governorates. The peasants were represented by delegates selected by the regional subdivisions called volosts. Workmen were treated in special manner with every industrial concern employing fifty hands or over electing one or more delegates to the electoral college.
In the college itself, the voting for the Duma was by secret ballot and a simple majority carried the day. Since the majority consisted of conservative elements (the landowners and urban delegates), the progressives had little chance of representation at all save for the curious provision that one member at least in each government was to be chosen from each of the five classes represented in the college. That the Duma had any radical elements was mainly due to the peculiar franchise enjoyed by the seven largest towns -- Saint Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Odessa, Riga and the Polish cities of Warsaw and Łódź. These elected their delegates to the Duma directly, and though their votes were divided (on the basis of taxable property) in such a way as to give the advantage to wealth, each returned the same number of delegates.
By the law of 18 October 1905, to assist the Emperor in the supreme administration a Council of Ministers (Sovyet Ministrov) was created, under a minister president, the first appearance of a prime minister in Russia. This council consists of all the ministers and of the heads of the principal administrations. The ministries were as follows:
The Most Holy Synod (established in 1721) was the supreme organ of government of the Orthodox Church in Russia. It was presided over by a lay procurator, representing the Emperor, and consisted of the three metropolitans of Moscow, Saint Petersburg and Kiev, the archbishop of Georgia, and a number of bishops sitting in rotation.
The Senate (Pravitelstvuyushchi Senat, i.e. directing or governing senate), originally established during the government reform of Peter I, consisted of members nominated by the Emperor. Its wide variety of functions were carried out by the different departments into which it was divided. It was the supreme court of cassation; an audit office, a high court of justice for all political offences; one of its departments fulfilled the functions of a heralds ' college. It also had supreme jurisdiction in all disputes arising out of the administration of the Empire, notably differences between representatives of the central power and the elected organs of local self - government. Lastly, it promulgated new laws, a function which theoretically gave it a power akin to that of the Supreme Court of the United States, of rejecting measures not in accordance with fundamental laws.
For the purposes of administration, Russia was divided (as of 1914) into 81 governorates (guberniyas), 20 oblasts, and 1 okrug. Vassals and protectorates of the Russian Empire included the Emirate of Bukhara, the Khanate of Khiva and, after 1914, Tuva (Uriankhai). Of these 11 Governorates, 17 oblasts and 1 okrug (Sakhalin) belonged to Asian Russia. Of the rest 8 Governorates were in Finland, 10 in Poland. European Russia thus embraced 59 governorates and 1 oblast (that of the Don). The Don Oblast was under the direct jurisdiction of the ministry of war; the rest had each a governor and deputy - governor, the latter presiding over the administrative council. In addition there were governors - general, generally placed over several governorates and armed with more extensive powers usually including the command of the troops within the limits of their jurisdiction. In 1906, there were governors - general in Finland, Warsaw, Vilna, Kiev, Moscow, and Riga. The larger cities (Saint Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, Sevastopol, Kerch, Nikolayev, Rostov) had an administrative system of their own, independent of the governorates; in these the chief of police acted as governor.
The judicial system of the Russian Empire, existed from the mid-19th century, was established by the "tsar emancipator '' Alexander II, by the statute of 20 November 1864 (Sudebny Ustav). This system -- based partly on English, partly on French models -- was built up on certain broad principles: the separation of the judicial and administrative functions, the independence of the judges and courts, the publicity of trials and oral procedure, the equality of all classes before the law. Moreover, a democratic element was introduced by the adoption of the jury system and -- so far as one order of tribunal was concerned -- the election of judges. The establishment of a judicial system on these principles constituted a major change in the conception of the Russian state, which, by placing the administration of justice outside the sphere of the executive power, ceased to be a despotism. This fact made the system especially obnoxious to the bureaucracy, and during the latter years of Alexander II and the reign of Alexander III there was a piecemeal taking back of what had been given. It was reserved for the third Duma, after the 1905 Revolution, to begin the reversal of this process.
The system established by the law of 1864 was significant in that it set up two wholly separate orders of tribunals, each having their own courts of appeal and coming in contact only in the Senate, as the supreme court of cassation. The first of these, based on the English model, are the courts of the elected justices of the peace, with jurisdiction over petty causes, whether civil or criminal; the second, based on the French model, are the ordinary tribunals of nominated judges, sitting with or without a jury to hear important cases.
Alongside the local organs of the central government in Russia there are three classes of local elected bodies charged with administrative functions:
Since 1870 the municipalities in European Russia have had institutions like those of the zemstvos. All owners of houses, and tax - paying merchants, artisans and workmen are enrolled on lists in a descending order according to their assessed wealth. The total valuation is then divided into three equal parts, representing three groups of electors very unequal in number, each of which elects an equal number of delegates to the municipal duma. The executive is in the hands of an elective mayor and an uprava, which consists of several members elected by the duma. Under Alexander III, however, by laws promulgated in 1892 and 1894, the municipal dumas were subordinated to the governors in the same way as the zemstvos. In 1894 municipal institutions, with still more restricted powers, were granted to several towns in Siberia, and in 1895 to some in Caucasia.
The formerly Swedish - controlled Baltic provinces (Courland, Livonia and Estonia) were incorporated into the Russian Empire after the defeat of Sweden in the Great Northern War. Under the Treaty of Nystad of 1721, the Baltic German nobility retained considerable powers of self - government and numerous privileges in matters affecting education, police and the administration of local justice. After 167 years of German language administration and education, laws were declared in 1888 and 1889 where the rights of the police and manorial justice were transferred from Baltic German control to officials of the central government. Since about the same time a process of Russification was being carried out in the same provinces, in all departments of administration, in the higher schools and in the Imperial University of Dorpat, the name of which was altered to Yuriev. In 1893 district committees for the management of the peasants ' affairs, similar to those in the purely Russian governments, were introduced into this part of the empire.
The planning and building of the railway network after 1860 had far - reaching effects on the economy, culture, and ordinary life of Russia. The central authorities and the imperial elite made most of the key decisions, but local elites set up a demand for rail linkages. Local nobles, merchants, and entrepreneurs imagined the future from "locality '' ' (mestnost ') ' to "empire '' to promote their regional interests. Often they had to compete with other cities. By envisioning their own role in a rail network they came to understand how important they were to the empire 's economy. The Russian army built two major railway lines in Central Asia during the 1880s. The Trans - Caucasian Railway connected the city of Batum on the Black Sea and the oil center of Baku on the Caspian Sea. The Trans - Caspian Railway began at Krasnovodsk on the Caspian Sea and reached Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent. Both lines served the commercial and strategic needs of the Empire, and facilitated migration.
The Russian Empire 's state religion was Orthodox Christianity. The Emperor was not allowed to '' profess any faith other than the Orthodox '' (Article 62 of the 1906 Fundamental Laws) and was deemed '' the Supreme Defender and Guardian of the dogmas of the predominant Faith and is the Keeper of the purity of the Faith and all good order within the Holy Church '' (Article 64 ex supra). Although he made and annulled all senior ecclesiastical appointments, he did not determine the questions of dogma or church teaching. The principal ecclesiastical authority of the Russian Church that extended its jurisdiction over the entire territory of the Empire, including the ex-Kingdom of Kartli - Kakheti, was the Most Holy Synod, the civilian Over Procurator of the Holy Synod being one of the council of ministers with wide de facto powers in ecclesiastical matters. All religions were freely professed, except that certain restrictions were laid upon the Jews and some marginal sects. According to returns published in 1905, based on the Russian Imperial Census of 1897, adherents of the different religious communities in the whole of the Russian empire numbered approximately as follows.
The ecclesiastical heads of the national Russian Orthodox Church consisted of three metropolitans (Saint Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev), fourteen archbishops and fifty bishops, all drawn from the ranks of the monastic (celibate) clergy. The parochial clergy had to be married when appointed, but if left widowers were not allowed to marry again; this rule continues to apply today.
The Russian Empire 's military consisted of the Imperial Russian Army and the Imperial Russian Navy. The poor performance during the Crimean War, 1853 -- 56, caused great soul - searching and proposals for reform. However the Russian forces fell further and further behind the technology, training and organization of the German, French and particularly the British military.
The Russian Empire was, predominantly, a rural society spread over vast spaces. In 1913, 80 % of the people were peasants. Soviet historiography proclaimed that the Russian Empire of the 19th century was characterized by systemic crisis, which impoverished the workers and peasants and culminated in the revolutions of the early 20th century. Recent research by Russian scholars disputes this interpretation. Mironov assesses the effects of the reforms of latter 19th - century especially in terms of the 1861 emancipation of the serfs, agricultural output trends, various standard of living indicators, and taxation of peasants. He argues that they brought about measurable improvements in social welfare. More generally, he finds that the well - being of the Russian people declined during most of the 18th century, but increased slowly from the end of the 18th century to 1914.
Subjects of the Russian Empire were segregated into sosloviyes, or social estates (classes) such as nobility (dvoryanstvo), clergy, merchants, cossacks and peasants. Native people of the Caucasus, non-ethnic Russian areas such as Tartarstan, Bashkirstan, Siberia and Central Asia were officially registered as a category called inorodtsy (non-Slavic, literally: "people of another origin '').
A majority of the people, 81.6 %, belonged to the peasant order, the others were: nobility, 0.6 %; clergy, 0.1 %; the burghers and merchants, 9.3 %; and military, 6.1 %. More than 88 million of the Russians were peasants. A part of them were formerly serfs (10,447,149 males in 1858) -- the remainder being "state peasants '' (9,194,891 males in 1858, exclusive of the Archangel Governorate) and "domain peasants '' (842,740 males the same year).
The serfdom which had developed in Russia in the 16th century, and became enshrined by law in 1649, was abolished in 1861.
The household servants or dependents attached to the personal service were merely set free, while the landed peasants received their houses and orchards, and allotments of arable land. These allotments were given over to the rural commune (mir), which was made responsible for the payment of taxes for the allotments. For these allotments the peasants had to pay a fixed rent which could be fulfilled by personal labour. The allotments could be redeemed by peasants with the help of the Crown, and then they were freed from all obligations to the landlord. The Crown paid the landlord and the peasants had to repay the Crown, for forty - nine years at 6 % interest. The financial redemption to the landlord was not calculated on the value of the allotments, but was considered as a compensation for the loss of the compulsory labour of the serfs. Many proprietors contrived to curtail the allotments which the peasants had occupied under serfdom, and frequently deprived them of precisely the parts of which they were most in need: pasture lands around their houses. The result was to compel the peasants to rent land from their former masters.
The former serfs became peasants, joining the millions of farmers who were already in the peasant status. After the Emancipation reform, one quarter of peasants received allotments of only 2.9 acres (12,000 m) per male, and one - half less than 8.5 to 11.4 acres; the normal size of the allotment necessary for the subsistence of a family under the three - fields system is estimated at 28 to 42 acres (170,000 m). Land must thus of necessity be rented from the landlords. The aggregate value of the redemption and land taxes often reached 185 to 275 % of the normal rental value of the allotments, not to speak of taxes for recruiting purposes, the church, roads, local administration and so on, chiefly levied from the peasants. The areas increased every year; one - fifth of the inhabitants left their houses; cattle disappeared. Every year more than half the adult males (in some districts three - quarters of the men and one - third of the women) quit their homes and wandered throughout Russia in search of labor. In the governments of the Black Earth Area the state of matters was hardly better. Many peasants took "gratuitous allotments, '' whose amount was about one - eighth of the normal allotments.
The average allotment in Kherson was only 0.90 - acre (3,600 m), and for allotments from 2.9 to 5.8 acres (23,000 m) the peasants pay 5 to 10 rubles of redemption tax. The state peasants were better off, but still they were emigrating in masses. It was only in the steppe governments that the situation was more hopeful. In Ukraine, where the allotments were personal (the mir existing only among state peasants), the state of affairs does not differ for the better, on account of the high redemption taxes. In the western provinces, where the land was valued cheaper and the allotments somewhat increased after the Polish insurrection, the general situation was better. Finally, in the Baltic provinces nearly all the land belonged to the German landlords, who either farmed the land themselves, with hired laborers, or let it in small farms. Only one quarter of the peasants were farmers; the remainder were mere laborers.
The situation of the former serf - proprietors was also unsatisfactory. Accustomed to the use of compulsory labor, they failed to adapt to the new conditions. The millions of rubles of redemption money received from the crown was spent without any real or lasting agricultural improvements having been effected. The forests were sold, and the only prosperous landlords were those who exacted rack - rents for the land without which the peasants could not live upon their allotments. During the years 1861 to 1892 the land owned by the nobles decreased 30 %, or from 210,000,000 to 150,000,000 acres (610,000 km); during the following four years an additional 2,119,500 acres (8,577 km) were sold; and since then the sales went on at an accelerated rate, until in 1903 alone close to 2,000,000 acres (8,000 km) passed out of their hands. On the other hand, since 1861, and more especially since 1882, when the Peasant Land Bank was founded for making advances to peasants who were desirous of purchasing land, the former serfs, or rather their descendants, had between 1883 and 1904 bought about 19,500,000 acres (78,900 km) from their former masters. There was an increase of wealth among the few, but along with this a general impoverishment of the mass of the people, and the peculiar institution of the mir -- framed on the principle of community of ownership and occupation of the land --, the effect was not conducive to the growth of individual effort. In November 1906, however, the emperor Nicholas II promulgated a provisional order permitting the peasants to become freeholders of allotments made at the time of emancipation, all redemption dues being remitted. This measure, which was endorsed by the third Duma in an act passed on 21 December 1908, is calculated to have far - reaching and profound effects on the rural economy of Russia. Thirteen years previously the government had endeavored to secure greater fixity and permanence of tenure by providing that at least twelve years must elapse between every two redistributions of the land belonging to a mir amongst those entitled to share in it. The order of November 1906 had provided that the various strips of land held by each peasant should be merged into a single holding; the Duma, however, on the advice of the government, left this to the future, as an ideal that could only gradually be realized.
Censorship was heavy - handed until the reign of Alexander II, but it never went away. Newspapers were strictly limited in what they could publish, as intellectuals favored literary magazines for their publishing outlets. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, for example, ridiculed the St. Petersburg newspapers, such as Golos and Peterburgskii Listok, which he accused of publishing trifles and distracting readers from the pressing social concerns of contemporary Russia through their obsession with spectacle and European popular culture.
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when did england last reach world cup quarter final | England at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The England national football team has competed at the FIFA World Cup since 1950. The FIFA World Cup is the premier competitive international football tournament, first played in 1930, whose finals stage has been held every four years since, except 1942 and 1946, due to the Second World War.
The tournament consists of two parts, the qualification phase and the final phase (officially called the World Cup Finals). The qualification phase, which currently take place over the three years preceding the finals, is used to determine which teams qualify for the finals. The current format of the finals involves thirty - two teams competing for the title, at venues within the host nation (or nations) over a period of about a month. The World Cup Finals is the most widely viewed sporting event in the world, with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the 2006 Final.
England did not enter the competition until 1950, but have entered all eighteen subsequent tournaments. They have failed to qualify for the finals on three occasions, 1974 (West Germany), 1978 (Argentina) and 1994 (United States), and have failed to advance from the group stages on three occasions; at the 1950 FIFA World Cup, the 1958 FIFA World Cup and the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Their best ever performance is winning the Cup in the 1966 tournament held in England, whilst they also finished in fourth place in 1990, in Italy, and in 2018 in Russia. Other than that, the team have reached the quarter - finals on nine occasions, the latest of which were at the 2002 (South Korea / Japan) and the 2006 (Germany).
England are the only team not representing a sovereign state to win the World Cup, which they did in 1966 when they hosted the finals. They defeated West Germany 4 -- 2 after extra time to win the World Cup title. Since then, they have generally reached the knockout stages of almost every competition they have qualified for, including a fourth - place finish in the 1990 and 2018 World Cups. At the world cup, England have had more goalless draws than any other team.
England 's first qualifying campaign for the FIFA World Cup doubled as the 1950 British Home Championship. The series kicked off for England on 15 October 1949 at Ninian Park, Cardiff, against Wales. Stan Mortensen gave England the lead after twenty two minutes, and just seven minutes later, Jackie Milburn doubled the lead. This was the first goal of Milburn 's hat trick, which left England 4 -- 0 up with 20 minutes to play. Mal Griffiths scored a consolation goal for Wales ten minutes from time, but England held on for a comfortable victory.
A month later, England welcomed Ireland to Maine Road, and it began well for the home side as Jack Rowley scored inside six minutes. England were already 6 -- 0 up, thanks to Jack Froggatt, two for Stan Pearson, Stan Mortensen and a second from Rowley, by the time Ireland struck back through Samuel Smyth after 55 minutes. Rowley added a third and a fourth to his tally in the three minutes following Smyth 's goal, however, leaving the score at 8 -- 1 at the hour mark. The frantic scoring rate calmed down after that, with only one apeice before the final whistle, with Stan Pearson completing his brace for England 's ninth, and Bobby Brennan scoring for Ireland.
It was not until May 1950 that England travelled to Hampden Park to face Scotland, who were also undefeated after their games against Ireland and Wales. With the top two from the group qualifying, both teams were guaranteed progression to the finals, and the game was solely for the honour of winning the British Home Championship, and the seeding advantage to be enjoyed upon reaching Brazil. A solitary goal from Roy Bentley gave England the victory, the title and the top spot in the group.
England were seeded in pot one for the finals, which meant they were the favourites to progress from Group 2, which also contained Spain, Chile and the United States. England 's campaign kicked off against Chile in Rio de Janeiro, and, as was expected, England cruised to a 2 -- 0 victory, courtesy of goals from Stan Mortensen and Wilf Mannion.
Their troubles began four days later when they faced the Americans in Belo Horizonte in what has become one of the most famous matches of all time. Joe Gaetjens scored the only goal of the match to give the United States an unlikely victory, which has gone down as one of the World Cup 's greatest upsets. A myth arose that the English newspapers were so confident of an English victory that when the result was telegrammed back, they assumed a misprint and printed the score as 10 -- 1 in England 's favour. However, this has proven to be untrue.
This left England in a sticky situation prior to their final match, against Spain in Rio. They needed to win, and for Chile to beat the United States to stand any chance of going through, and even then they would need the goal averages to fall in their favour. As it turned out, no such calculations were necessary, despite Chile 's victory, as Spain 's Zarra scored the only goal of the game, eliminating England from the competition.
As with their first World Cup, England 's qualifying for the 1954 edition also constituted the 1953 -- 54 British Home Championship. They played Wales at Ninian Park as their first match once again, and the 4 -- 1 result was the same. However, unlike four years earlier, it was the home side that went into the lead, after twenty two minutes through Ivor Allchurch. Despite being 1 -- 0 down at half time, England scored four within eight minutes of the restart; two each for Dennis Wilshaw and Nat Lofthouse.
Goodison Park was the venue for England 's home clash against Ireland, who were newly renamed Northern Ireland. Harold Hassall got England off to a good start with a goal after just ten minutes. Eddie McMorran put the Irish back on terms just before the hour mark, but Hassall completed his brace six minutes later. Lofthouse completed a comfortable 3 -- 1 win for England.
With the top two in the group qualifying for the finals, the final game between England and Scotland, at Hampden Park, settled nothing except the placings within the group, despite Scotland having dropped a point with a 3 -- 3 draw at home to Wales. Allan Brown put the home side ahead after just seven minutes, but it was all square again thanks to Ivor Broadis just four minutes later. Johnny Nicholls gave England the lead for the first time just after half time, and they began to extend a lead after Ronnie Allen 's 68th - minute goal. Jimmy Mullen made the game all but certain seven minutes from time, and although Willie Ormond scored a consolation for Scotland with just 1 minute to play, England topped the competition for the second time in a row.
England were drawn in Group 4 for the finals, with hosts Switzerland, Italy and Belgium. In an odd twist, unique to the 1954 tournament, England and Italy, as the two seeded teams in the group, did not have to play each other.
Equally, Switzerland and Belgium did not have to play each other. England 's first game in Switzerland was against Belgium in Basel, and they suffered a shock as Léopold Anoul put the Belgians into the lead after just five minutes. Ivor Broadis put the favourites back on terms just over twenty minutes later, and although Nat Lofthouse gave England the lead 10 minutes later, it was proving to be tougher than they had expected against the Belgians.
Broadis scored his second just after the hour, but Henri Coppens hit back four minutes later to keep Belgium in the game at only 3 -- 2 down. Anoul completed his brace another four minutes after that to level the scores again. In another oddity peculiar to this World Cup, drawn matches in the group stage would go to extra time, and as such the teams played on with the score at 3 -- 3.
Just one minute into the added period, Lofthouse added a fourth for England and they seemed to have won it, but Jimmy Dickinson scored an own goal three minutes later to put the score back at 4 -- 4. It stayed this way until the extra period was up, and as penalty shoot - outs were yet to be invented and replays were not used in the group, the match was recorded as a draw.
England 's second and final group game was against the hosts in Bern. This proved to be an easier game for the Three Lions, and they scored one goal in each half (from Jimmy Mullen and Dennis Wilshaw respectively) to give them a comfortable win of 2 -- 0. As Switzerland (against England), Italy (against Switzerland) and Belgium (against Italy) had all lost one game, England progressed as group winners, along with Switzerland, who won a play - off against Italy.
England faced the winners of group three and defending champions Uruguay in the quarter - finals. Carlos Borges gave the South Americans the lead inside 5 minutes, but Lofthouse put England back on terms ten minutes later. England were clearly struggling, but held on until just before half time, when Obdulio Varela gave the lead back Uruguay.
Juan Alberto Schiaffino doubled the lead just after the break, but Tom Finney kept England 's foot in the door with his sixty seventh - minute goal. However, it was all over after Javier Ambrois restored the two - goal lead with twelve minutes to play. The score remained at 4 -- 2, and England were eliminated from the cup.
For the first time, England had to play against countries other than the Home Nations to reach the Finals in Sweden. They were drawn against the Republic of Ireland and Denmark. In the qualifying round, England won three out of the four games and drew the other. Four months before the World Cup, Roger Byrne, Duncan Edwards, David Pegg and Tommy Taylor all lost their lives in the Munich air disaster while playing for Manchester United. At the finals, which is the only tournament to have seen all Home Nations take part, the Home Nations were all drawn in different groups.
England were drawn against the Soviet Union (2 -- 2), Brazil (0 -- 0) and Austria (2 -- 2), who finished third in the 1954 World Cup. At the end of the group stage, Soviet Union and England each had three points, and had scored four goals and conceded four goals. This meant there was a play - off to decide the second - placed team in the group, the winner to qualify. England lost the play - off 1 -- 0 and were thus knocked out. The only consolation for England was that they were the only team to play the eventual winners Brazil and not lose.
The third World Cup which took place in South America, saw England qualify by successfully qualifying from the group, which contained Portugal and Luxembourg, defeating Luxembourg on both occasions, and defeating Portugal at home, and drawing in Lisbon.
At the finals, England were drawn in a group with Hungary, Argentina and Bulgaria. England defeated Argentina 3 - 1, thanks to goals from Ron Flowers, Bobby Charlton and Jimmy Greaves, before playing out a goalless draw with Bulgaria, and a 2 -- 1 defeat to Hungary.
England finished in second place behind Hungary and played the winners of group 3, defending champions Brazil, in the quarter - finals. Brazil scored first through Garrincha, before an equaliser for Gerry Hitchens before half time. However, second - half goals from Garrincha and Vavá meant Brazil won the game 3 -- 1, and eliminated England from the competition. This defeat was manager Walter Winterbottom 's last game in charge. Winterbottom had led England to four World Cup Finals. From May 1963, Alf Ramsey became the manager of England.
In the 1966 World Cup Finals, England used their home advantage and, under Ramsey, won their first, and only, World Cup title. England played all their games at Wembley Stadium in London, which became the last time that the hosts were granted this privilege. After drawing 0 -- 0 in the opening game against former champions Uruguay, which started a run of four games all ending goalless. England then beat both France and Mexico 2 -- 0 and qualified for the quarter - finals.
The quarter - finals saw England play Argentina, which ended in a 1 -- 0 win to England. This match saw the start of the rivalry between England and Argentina, when Argentinian Antonio Rattín was dismissed by German referee Rudolf Kreitlein in a very fierce game. A 2 -- 1 win against Portugal in the semi-final then followed. Portugal were the first team to score against England in the tournament. The final saw England play West Germany, with the result finishing in a 4 -- 2 win for England, after extra time.
1970 saw the first World Cup finals take place in North America and England qualified automatically for the tournament by winning the 1966 FIFA World Cup. England were drawn in a group with Romania, former world champions Brazil and Czechoslovakia. Each of the matches only saw one goal, with England defeating Romania and Czechoslovakia, and losing to Brazil. The quarter - final saw a repeat of the 1966 final, with England playing West Germany. England were hampered by the fact that first - choice goalkeeper Gordon Banks was ill, and Peter Bonetti played instead. England led 2 -- 0 with goals by Alan Mullery and Martin Peters, but in the 70th minute, Franz Beckenbauer pulled one goal back for West Germany.
After Beckenbauer 's goal, Ramsey substituted Bobby Charlton, who overtook Billy Wright as England 's most capped player ever, with caps totalling 106. Uwe Seeler equalised for the Germans in the eighty first minute, thereby taking the game into extra time. During extra time, Gerd Müller scored the winning goal for West Germany which saw the German side win 3 -- 2. This turned out to be Charlton 's last game for England.
For the first time, England did not qualify for a World Cup. In a group with Olympic champions Poland and Wales, England could not overtake Poland. After only drawing at home to Wales 1 -- 1 and losing the first leg 2 -- 0 to Poland, meant that England had to beat Poland at home, whilst Poland only needed to draw. Poland managed to withstand England 's attacks in the first half, who had Martin Peters playing for them. Poland took the lead in the 57th minute with a goal from Jan Domarski.
England equalised six minutes later, with a penalty converted by Allan Clarke. England were unable to score any more goals with goalkeeper Jan Tomaszewski keeping England at bay. Brian Clough had previously called Tomaszewski a "clown ''. The commentator of the game then said "it 's all over ''. Poland took this good form to the finals and ended in third place. After failing to qualify, Alf Ramsey resigned from his post and after a time, where Ramsey and his predecessor had lasted a total of 29 years, no manager was able to last in the job for longer than eight years. This ended when Bobby Robson became England manager.
England also did not qualify for the fourth World Cup which took place in South America. This time, England were denied by Italy, who had scored three more goals than England after both teams finished on the same points. Goals scored dictated who qualified after the head - to - head record between the two sides finished the same, following a 2 -- 0 home win for each team. The lower - ranked teams in the group were Finland and Luxembourg, but the size of the wins against them proved to be decisive. Nevertheless, Ron Greenwood was given a second chance in charge of England, after taking the role in 1977.
1982 saw the first time where the European Qualifying Rounds were divided into groups of five teams, where the top two teams qualify for the World Cup. Greenwood used his second chance and took England to Spain by finishing second behind Hungary and above Romania, Switzerland and Norway.
At the finals, England won all three group games, defeating France 3 - 1, with a brace from Bryan Robson, before beating Czechoslovakia 2 -- 0, with a Jozef Barmos own goal, and World Cup newcomers Kuwait 1 -- 0, thanks to a Trevor Francis goal.
The next round saw a second group stage consisting of three teams, a first time event at the World Cup. England drew with West Germany 0 -- 0 and after the Germans beat Spain 2 -- 1, England then had to beat Spain with a two - goal difference to progress to the next round. England, however, only managed a 0 -- 0 draw against the Spanish. England remained unbeaten at the end of the tournament. After the World Cup, Ron Greenwood 's time as England manager ended, and he was replaced by Bobby Robson.
1986 saw the second World Cup to take place in Mexico. England qualified for Mexico 1986 by winning four games and drawing four times against Northern Ireland, who qualified in second place, Romania, Finland and Turkey. In Mexico, England lost their opening game to Portugal 1 -- 0 and could only manage a goalless draw against Morocco. The final group game, however, saw England beat Poland 3 -- 0, which is one of the three highest scores for England at the World Cup, with Gary Lineker scoring a hat - trick.
This result took England to second place and finished behind Morocco. England then also beat Paraguay 3 -- 0 in the Round of 16. In the quarter - finals, England renewed their rivalry with Argentina in a game that has become notorious for the Argentina goals, both scored by Diego Maradona. Maradona 's first goal, known as the Hand of God, was illegal and should not have counted, as he used his hand to punch the ball into the net. However, the referee missed this infringement, and ruled that the goal should stand. Maradona then made the score 2 - 0, famously dribbling from inside Argentina 's half and around several English players before scoring. Gary Lineker pulled back the score to 2 - 1, but England ran out of time to equalise, and were eliminated. Nevertheless, Lineker finished with the Golden Boot by scoring six goals and thereby becoming England 's first Golden Boot winner.
By winning three and drawing three, England qualified for Italia ' 90, the second World Cup to be held in Italy, scoring ten goals and conceding none. England were unbeaten through qualification, winning three games, and drawing the remaining three, but still finished second to Sweden, whom they drew with twice. England profited from Romania 's 3 -- 1 win over Denmark, who, had they won, would have qualified as the third - best second - placed team. West Germany and England were able to qualify for Italia ' 90 as the best second - placed teams in the groups with four teams.
Because a few years previously saw English hooligans at European competition matches, England were forced to play their group games on Sardinia and Sicily. In group F, was the European champions Netherlands, the Republic of Ireland and Egypt and England. After opening the tournament with a 1 -- 1 draw against Ireland and a 0 -- 0 draw against the Dutch, England then beat Egypt 1 -- 0. This was Egypt 's first appearance since the 1934 World Cup. England won the group with four points.
In the next round, England had to play Belgium. The game went to extra time, and in the hundredth and nineteenth minute, David Platt scored the winning goal. England also had to play extra time against Cameroon in the quarter - finals. Cameroon were the first African team to have reached the quarter - finals. England opened the scoring through David Platt, but Cameroon quickly turned around the game to lead 2 - 1. Lineker subsequently won and scored a penalty in the 83rd minute to ensure the game went to extra time. He then scored a second penalty, to see England reach the semi-finals.
In the semi-finals, England met West Germany. There was no separating the two teams after 90 minutes, which made England the first team to have played extra time in three successive World Cup games. There was also no separating the two teams after extra time, thereby taking the game to penalties.
Although English goalkeeper Peter Shilton dived the right way for every penalty, he was unable to save any. German goalkeeper Bodo Illgner, having failed to save any of England 's first three penalties, saved England 's fourth penalty, taken by Stuart Pearce. Olaf Thon then scored for Germany, meaning that England 's Chris Waddle would have to score his fifth penalty and hope that Shilton saved the Germans ' fifth penalty. However, Waddle 's penalty missed completely, going high over the crossbar, thereby resulting in England 's being knocked out of the competition. The third - place playoff between England and Italy saw England lose their only game of the tournament in normal time. Even though this was England 's best finish since the 1966 World Cup, Bobby Robson 's time as England manager had come to an end.
For the 1994 World Cup in the United States, under the leadership of new manager Graham Taylor, England surprisingly did not qualify for the tournament. In a group with six teams, England lost to Norway and the Netherlands, finishing third above Poland, Turkey and San Marino.
England went into their final game with San Marino knowing they would need a seven - goal victory and for Poland to beat the Netherlands in the other match in order to qualify. In the game against San Marino, Davide Gualtieri scored against England after nine seconds, taking the lead for the outsiders. England went on to win 7 -- 1, which was too small a goal margin. Additionally, despite the half - time score between the Poles and the Dutch being 1 - 1, the Dutch went on to win 3 - 1, meaning that however many goals England scored, they could still not qualify. Taylor 's tenure in charge ended and he was replaced by Terry Venables, who was dismissed after England lost the semi-final of Euro 1996, hosted in England.
After missing out on the World Cup in 1994, England, managed by Glenn Hoddle, qualified for the World Cup in France. England were drawn in Group 2 of UEFA qualifying with Italy, Poland, Georgia and Moldova. England beat Poland, Georgia and Moldova both home and away, but a home defeat to Italy in their fourth match meant they went into the final qualifier at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome just a point ahead of the Azzurri and only needing a draw to qualify automatically; defeat would see them have to navigate a play - off to secure qualification. The match finished as a goalless draw and England finished top of the group.
At the finals in France, England played in Group G. England defeated Tunisia 2 -- 0 in the first game, with goals from Alan Shearer and Paul Scholes. Their second match saw England lose 2 -- 1 to Romania; despite an 81st - minute equaliser from Michael Owen, Dan Petrescu scored a winner shortly before injury time. In their final group game, England defeated Colombia 2 -- 0 in the decisive match, thanks to goals from midfielders Darren Anderton and David Beckham. England finished second in Group G, which saw them qualify for the last 16 phase, and play the winner of 1998 FIFA World Cup Group H, Argentina.
In a fiery game containing six yellow cards and two penalties, David Beckham was controversially sent off in the 47th minute for what many felt was at most a yellow card offence, knocking over Diego Simeone. Gabriel Batistuta opened the scoring from the penalty spot in the fifth minute of the game, before an equaliser also from the spot by Alan Shearer four minutes later. England took the lead through Owen, in the 16th minute. Argentina drew level through Javier Zanetti in injury time of the first half.
The game finished 2 - 2, and, as neither team were able to find a winner in extra time, penalties were needed to decide the team that qualified to the next round. While David Seaman did save one penalty, Argentine goalkeeper Carlos Roa managed to save two, including the vital one from David Batty, thereby knocking England out of the World Cup. Beckham subsequently received death threats and was sent bullets in the post.
In 2002 the World Cup took place in Asia for the first time. England, under its first ever foreign manager in Swedish Sven - Göran Eriksson, were able to qualify for the tournament. England were drawn in Group 9, alongside Germany, Finland, Greece and Albania. In the last ever game in the original Wembley Stadium, (which closed after the match) England played Germany, losing 1 -- 0, the only goal scored by Dietmar Hamann. The match was the last under the management of Kevin Keegan, who resigned at the end of the match, and was replaced by Eriksson. By beating Germany 5 -- 1 in Munich, England 's qualifying campaign was revitalised, and they qualified automatically, by drawing 2 -- 2 with Greece. Germany, who could only draw 0 -- 0 with Finland, had to play a play - off game against Ukraine, with England qualifying ahead winning the group.
In Japan, England had to play against Eriksson 's homeland, Sweden, and both settled out for a 1 -- 1 draw. England and Beckham gained a measure of revenge for their previous 1998 defeat in defeating Argentina 1 - 0, thanks to a Beckham penalty. However, England could only manage a disappointing 0 - 0 draw against Nigeria, meaning that although they were able to qualify for the second round, where they played Denmark, they qualified as runners up, which meant that they would meet favourites Brazil in the quarter - finals if they qualified.
England played Denmark in the round of 16 defeating Denmark 3 -- 0, thanks to goals from Micheal Owen, Rio Ferdinand, and Emile Heskey. England played four - time World Cup winners and 1998 runners - up Brazil in the quarter - finals. Despite leading through a Michael Owen goal, a mistake by David Seaman saw England lose 2 -- 1, and Brazil won their fourth World Cup match against England, and went on to win the tournament.
England were drawn into Group 6 of European qualifying for the 2006 World Cup. The group featured other home nations in Wales, and Northern Ireland, as well as Poland (who had eliminated England the last time the World Cup took place in Germany), Azerbaijan and Austria. England won eight of the 10 games, and qualified as group winners, in front of Portugal, despite drawing to Austria in Vienna, and losing to Northern Ireland in Belfast.
In Germany, however, England were less convincing. England played in Group B, alongside Paraguay, Trinidad and Tobago, and Sweden. England started with a 1 -- 0 win against Paraguay; which was won due to a 3rd minute own goal. The second game against first time qualifiers Trinidad and Tobago saw England have to wait until the 83rd minute for England to take the lead, with Peter Crouch opened the scoring with a goal many felt was illegal, and the second goal of the game coming in added time from Steven Gerrard. The last group game saw England play against Sweden, where an eventual 2 - 2 draw saw them qualify for the next round as group winners, thereby avoiding playing hosts Germany.
In the last 16 stage, a free kick from David Beckham saw England win 1 -- 0 against Ecuador and reach the quarter - finals, where they faced Portugal. The game finished goalless, and England once again were knocked out on penalties and Portuguese goalkeeper Ricardo became the first goalkeeper to save three penalties in a penalty shoot - out. Ricardo saved from Frank Lampard, Steven Gerrard, and Jamie Carragher; the only England player who successfully converted his penalty was Owen Hargreaves. Portugal won the shoot - out 3 - 1, despite misses from Petit and Hugo Viana. This game was also Erickson 's final match as England manager.
Qualification for the first African World Cup went successfully for new England manager Fabio Capello, after previous manager Steve McClaren was unable to secure qualification to the Euro 2008. By winning nine times and only losing to Ukraine, England qualified ahead of Croatia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Andorra. England 's group was seen as a favourable one, containing comparatively much weaker teams. However, England opened up their campaign with a 1 -- 1 draw against the United States, thanks to a major error by goalkeeper Robert Green. They then drew 0 -- 0 against Algeria and were booed off the field by their own fans, drawing the ire of striker Wayne Rooney. England eventually qualified for the next round by beating Slovenia 1 -- 0, but only qualified as runners up to the United States, thereby meaning they would draw favourites Germany.
In the second round match, Germany took the lead after 20 minutes after goalkeeper Manuel Neuer played the ball down the pitch to Miroslav Klose, who opened the scoring. The score became 2 -- 0 to Germany after 32 minutes. Shortly after, England defender Matthew Upson scored a header. Later, Frank Lampard had a shot at goal which was disallowed despite crossing the line; which was confirmed on replays. German goalkeeper Manuel Neuer admitted subsequently he knew the ball had crossed the line, but decided to deceive the referee. The German media reported it was "revenge for Wembley '', while the English media criticised FIFA 's refusal to implement goal - line technology. Ironically, despite his earlier opposition to goal - line technology, Sepp Blatter said that it should be introduced after a Ukrainian goal against England at Euro 2012 was ruled out. As England tried to equalise, Germany used this to their advantage and scored two more goals. This became Germany 's biggest win against England in a World Cup, winning 4 - 1.
Under Roy Hodgson, who replaced Fabio Capello after Euro 2012 after a disagreement between Capello and The FA, England qualified for the second World Cup to be held in Brazil. Ukraine were again one of the opponents in the qualifying rounds. The other opponents included Montenegro, Poland, Moldova and San Marino. After winning six games and drawing four, England qualified unbeaten.
The draw for the finals saw England have to play against Italy and Uruguay, both former world champions, which meant that it was the first ever time three World Champions were drawn in the same group, along with Costa Rica. England lost to Italy and Uruguay, and were thus knocked out after two games. The final match against Costa Rica finished as a goalless draw. This performance was statistically their worst ever performance at a World Cup, ending up with just one point after two losses to Uruguay and Italy and a goalless draw with Costa Rica in the dead rubber match, their lowest points total in the group stage of a world cup.
England played in UEFA Group F in qualification for the 2018 World Cup, in a group of six with Slovakia, Slovenia, Scotland, Lithuania and Malta, with only the winner of the group guaranteed qualification. England went into the qualification process under manager Sam Allardyce, only for Allardyce to leave the post after just one game due to controversy regarding discussing breaking FIFA rules.
Under Allardyce 's replacement, Gareth Southgate, England went undefeated throughout qualification, winning eight matches out of 10, drawing with Slovenia 0 -- 0 in Ljubljana, and drawing 2 -- 2 with Scotland in Glasgow thanks to a 90th - minute equaliser from Harry Kane. This was the third successive major tournament that England were undefeated, having been undefeated in 2014 World Cup, and Euro 2016 qualifying.
Under Gareth Southgate, the England team began their tournament in group G against Tunisia. The game started well for England with a goal from Harry Kane in the 11th minute. Tunisia equalised through Sassi from the penalty spot in the 35th minute following a foul by Kyle Walker. Some controversy followed as various potential offences against Harry Kane, inside the penalty area were ignored by the referee and no VAR checks were carried out. England persevered and scored a second goal in the 91st minute, again by Harry Kane, resulting in a 2 -- 1 victory.
In the second group stage match, England surpassed their record for goals scored in a World Cup match by beating Panama 6 - 1. Jesse Lingard scored the third goal, John Stones scored the first and fourth goals and Harry Kane scored a hat - trick with the second, fifth and sixth goals.
In the final group stage match, England narrowly lost 1 - 0 to Belgium. Adnan Januzaj scored the sole goal of the game; but with both teams having fielded reserve teams, with England specificially making 9 changes. Before the game media outlets stating that a loss could potentially become beneficial, as the winner would be in the half of the draw with four of the top seven sides in the world. The result that meant Belgium topped the group and England finished second, setting up a last 16 clash with Group H winners Colombia.
England played their last 16 match in the Otkritie Arena, Moscow, with the same team as against Tunisia. Harry Kane scored his sixth goal of the tournament, and the third penalty, after once again being fouled in the box from a corner, similarly as against Panama. The score remained at 1 - 0, until stoppage time, where a header from Yerry Mina beat Jordan Pickford in goal to bring the game to extra time. Neither team managed to score in extra time, and the match went to penalties, which England won 4 - 3. As well as being the first knockout match England had won at a major tournament since 2006 (last defeating Ecuador in the last 16); it was the first time England won a World Cup penalty shoot - out. The match was notable for the heated atmosphere the game was played in, with a total of eight yellow cards being shown in the match.
England played against Sweden in their quarter - final at Cosmos Arena, Samara on 7 July 2018. They won the match 2 -- 0, with defender Harry Maguire scoring his first England goal, a header scored from a corner, and Dele Alli a second header from close range. This would send them through to their third World Cup semi-final and their first since 1990, and third overall. The team played Croatia in the semi-final, resulting in a 2 -- 1 loss after extra time. England would later finish fourth in the competition, the best result since 1990. England would lose again to Belgium in the 3rd place playoff, thanks to goals from Thomas Meunier and Eden Hazard, despite a Eric Dier shot being cleared off the line by Toby Alderweireld.
The tournament would see England score nine goals from set - pieces -- the most by a team in a single World Cup tournament since 1966.
Last update: 14 July 2018
Current as of 3 July 2018 after the match against Colombia
Historically, very few English World Cup squad members were playing for a club in a foreign league at the time of their selection to the national squad.
Team Awards
Individual Awards
Team Records
Individual Records
Four FIFA World Cup finals were officiated by English referees, more than by any other football association. The first Englishman to officiate a final, George Reader, is also the oldest World Cup referee to date, as he was 53 years and 236 days old at the 1950 decisive match between Uruguay and Brazil. The other final referees are William Ling (1954), Jack Taylor (1974) and Howard Webb (2010).
Arthur Ellis, who was a linesman at the 1950 final, is part of an elite group of referees who has been called up for three consecutive World Cups (1950 -- 1958).
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