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those who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones | Those who live in glass houses should not throw stones - Wikipedia
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"Those who live in glass houses should not throw stones '' is a proverb used in several European countries. It means that one should not criticize others, because everybody has faults of one kind or another.
Another less common but accurate meaning is: "One who is vulnerable to criticism should not criticize others. ''
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how much does a rock cost in curling | Curling - wikipedia
Curling is a sport in which players slide stones on a sheet of ice towards a target area which is segmented into four concentric circles. It is related to bowls, boules and shuffleboard. Two teams, each with four players, take turns sliding heavy, polished granite stones, also called rocks, across the ice curling sheet towards the house, a circular target marked on the ice. Each team has eight stones, with each player throwing two. The purpose is to accumulate the highest score for a game; points are scored for the stones resting closest to the centre of the house at the conclusion of each end, which is completed when both teams have thrown all of their stones. A game usually consists of eight or ten ends.
The curler can induce a curved path by causing the stone to slowly turn as it slides, and the path of the rock may be further influenced by two sweepers with brooms who accompany it as it slides down the sheet, using the brooms to alter the state of the ice in front of the stone. Sweeping a rock makes it curl less, and decreases the friction that slows the rock down. A great deal of strategy and teamwork go into choosing the ideal path and placement of a stone for each situation, and the skills of the curlers determine the degree to which the stone will achieve the desired result. This gives curling its nickname of "chess on ice ''.
Evidence that curling existed in Scotland in the early 16th century includes a curling stone inscribed with the date 1511 uncovered (along with another bearing the date 1551) when an old pond was drained at Dunblane, Scotland. The world 's oldest curling stone and the world 's oldest football are now kept in the same museum (the Stirling Smith Art Gallery and Museum) in Stirling. The first written reference to a contest using stones on ice coming from the records of Paisley Abbey, Renfrewshire, in February 1541. Two paintings, "Winter Landscape with a Bird Trap '' and "The Hunters in the Snow '' (both dated 1565) by Pieter Bruegel the Elder depict Flemish peasants curling, albeit without brooms; Scotland and the Low Countries had strong trading and cultural links during this period, which is also evident in the history of golf.
The word curling first appears in print in 1620 in Perth, Scotland, in the preface and the verses of a poem by Henry Adamson. The sport was (and still is, in Scotland and Scottish - settled regions like southern New Zealand) also known as "the roaring game '' because of the sound the stones make while traveling over the pebble (droplets of water applied to the playing surface). The verbal noun curling is formed from the Scots (and English) verb curl, which describes the motion of the stone.
Kilsyth Curling Club claims to be the first club in the world, having been formally constituted in 1716; it is still in existence today. Kilsyth also claims the oldest purpose - built curling pond in the world at Colzium, in the form of a low dam creating a shallow pool some 100 by 250 metres (330 by 820 ft) in size. The International Olympic Committee recognises the Royal Caledonian Curling Club (founded as the Grand Caledonian Curling Club in 1838) as developing the first official rules for the sport.
In the early history of curling, the playing stones were simply flat - bottomed stones from rivers or fields, which lacked a handle and were of inconsistent size, shape and smoothness. Some early stones had holes for a finger and the thumb, akin to ten - pin bowling balls. Unlike today, the thrower had little control over the ' curl ' or velocity and relied more on luck than on precision, skill and strategy. The sport was often played on frozen rivers although purpose - built ponds were later created in many Scottish towns. For example, the Scottish poet David Gray describes whisky drinking curlers on the Luggie Water at Kirkintilloch.
In Darvel, East Ayrshire, the weavers relaxed by playing curling matches using the heavy stone weights from the looms ' warp beams, fitted with a detachable handle for the purpose. Many a wife would keep her husband 's brass curling stone handle on the mantelpiece, brightly polished until the next time it was needed. Central Canadian curlers often used ' irons ' rather than stones until the early 1900s; Canada is the only country known to have done so, while others experimented with wood or ice - filled tins.
Outdoor curling was very popular in Scotland between the 16th and 19th centuries because the climate provided good ice conditions every winter. Scotland is home to the international governing body for curling, the World Curling Federation in Perth, which originated as a committee of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club, the mother club of curling.
Today, the sport is most firmly established in Canada, having been taken there by Scottish emigrants. The Royal Montreal Curling Club, the oldest established sports club still active in North America, was established in 1807. The first curling club in the United States was established in 1830, and the sport was introduced to Switzerland and Sweden before the end of the 19th century, also by Scots. Today, curling is played all over Europe and has spread to Brazil, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, China, and Korea.
The first world championship for curling was limited to men and was known as the Scotch Cup, held in Falkirk and Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1959. The first world title was won by the Canadian team from Regina, Saskatchewan, skipped by Ernie Richardson. (The skip is the team member who calls the shots; see below.)
Curling was one of the first sports that was popular with women and girls.
Curling has been a medal sport in the Winter Olympic Games since the 1998 Winter Olympics. It currently includes men 's, women 's and mixed doubles tournaments (the mixed tournament was held for the first time in 2018).
In February 2002, the International Olympic Committee retroactively decided that the curling competition from the 1924 Winter Olympics (originally called Semaine des Sports d'Hiver, or International Winter Sports Week) would be considered official Olympic events and no longer be considered demonstration events. Thus, the first Olympic medals in curling, which at the time was played outdoors, were awarded for the 1924 Winter Games, with the gold medal won by Great Britain and Ireland, two silver medals by Sweden, and the bronze by France. A demonstration tournament was also held during the 1932 Winter Olympic Games between four teams from Canada and four teams from the United States, with Canada winning 12 games to 4.
Since the 1998 Olympics, Canada has dominated the sport with their men 's teams winning gold in 2006, 2010, and 2014, and silver in 1998 and 2002. The women 's team won gold in 1998 and 2014, a silver in 2010, and a bronze in 2002 and 2006. The mixed doubles team won gold in 2018.
The playing surface or curling sheet is defined by the World Curling Federation Rules of Curling. It is a rectangular area of ice, carefully prepared to be as flat and level as possible, 146 to 150 feet (45 to 46 m) in length by 14.5 to 16.5 feet (4.4 to 5.0 m) in width. The shorter borders of the sheet are called the backboards. Because of the elongated shape, several sheets may be laid out side by side in the same arena, allowing multiple games to be played simultaneously.
A target, the house, is centred on the intersection of the centre line, drawn lengthwise down the centre of the sheet and the tee line, drawn 16 feet (4.9 m) from, and parallel to, the backboard. These lines divide the house into quarters. The house consists of a centre circle (the button) and three concentric rings, of diameters 4, 8 and 12 feet, formed by painting or laying coloured vinyl sheet under the ice and are usually distinguished by colour. A stone must at least touch the outer ring in order to score (see Scoring below); otherwise the rings are merely a visual aid for aiming and judging which stone is closer to the button. Two hog lines are drawn 37 feet (11 m) from, and parallel to, the backboard.
The hacks are fixed 12 feet (3.7 m) behind each button; a hack gives the thrower something to push against when making the throw. On indoor rinks, there are usually two fixed hacks, rubber - lined holes, one on each side of the centre line, with the inside edge no more than 3 inches (76 mm) from the centre line and the front edge on the hack line. A single moveable hack may also be used.
The ice may be natural but is usually frozen by a refrigeration plant pumping a brine solution through numerous pipes fixed lengthwise at the bottom of a shallow pan of water. Most curling clubs have an ice maker whose main job is to care for the ice. At the major curling championships, ice maintenance is extremely important. Large events, such as the Brier or other national / international championships, are typically held in an arena that presents a challenge to the ice maker, who must constantly monitor and adjust the ice and air temperatures as well as air humidity levels to ensure a consistent playing surface. It is common for each sheet of ice to have multiple sensors embedded in order to monitor surface temperature, as well as probes set up in the seating area (to monitor humidity) and in the compressor room (to monitor brine supply and return temperatures). The surface of the ice is maintained at a temperature of around 23 ° F (− 5 ° C).
A key part of the preparation of the playing surface is the spraying of water droplets onto the ice, which form pebble on freezing. The pebbled ice surface resembles an orange peel, and the stone moves on top of the pebbled ice. As the stone moves over the pebble, any rotation of the stone causes it to curl to the inside or outside. The amount of curl (commonly referred to as the feet of curl) can change during a game as the pebble wears; the ice maker must monitor this and be prepared to scrape and re-pebble the surface prior to each game.
The curling stone (also sometimes called a rock in North America) is made of granite and is specified by the World Curling Federation, which requires a weight between 38 and 44 pounds (17.24 and 19.96 kg), a maximum circumference of 36 inches (914.4 mm) and a minimum height of 4.5 inches (114.3 mm). The only part of the stone in contact with the ice is the running surface, a narrow, flat annulus or ring, 0.25 to 0.50 inches (6.4 to 12.7 mm) wide and about 5 inches (130 mm) in diameter; the sides of the stone bulge convex down to the ring and the inside of the ring is hollowed concave to clear the ice. This concave bottom was first proposed by J.S. Russell of Toronto, Ontario, Canada sometime after 1870, and was subsequently adopted by Scottish stone manufacturer Andrew Kay.
The granite for the stones comes from two sources: Ailsa Craig, an island off the Ayrshire coast of Scotland, and the Trefor Granite Quarry in Wales.
Ailsa Craig is the traditional source and produces two types of granite, Blue Hone and Ailsa Craig Common Green. Blue Hone has very low water absorption, which prevents the action of repeatedly freezing water from eroding the stone. Ailsa Craig Common Green is a lesser quality granite than Blue Hone. In the past, most curling stones were made from Blue Hone but the island is now a wildlife reserve and the quarry is restricted by environmental conditions that exclude blasting.
Kays of Scotland has been making curling stones in Mauchline, Ayrshire, since 1851 and has the exclusive rights to the Ailsa Craig granite, granted by the Marquess of Ailsa, whose family has owned the island since 1560. According to the 1881 Census, Andrew Kay employed 30 people in his curling stone factory in Mauchline. The last harvest of Ailsa Craig granite by Kays took place in 2013, after a hiatus of 11 years; 2,000 tons were harvested, sufficient to fill anticipated orders through at least 2020. Kays have been involved in providing curling stones for the Winter Olympics since Chamonix in 1924 and has been the exclusive manufacturer of curling stones for the Olympics since the 2006 Winter Olympics.
Trefor granite comes from the Yr Eifl or Trefor Granite Quarry in the village of Trefor on the north coast of the Llŷn Peninsula in Gwynedd, Wales and has produced granite since 1850. Trefor granite comes in shades of pink, blue and grey. The quarry supplies curling stone granite exclusively to the Canadian, Canada Curling Stone Co., which has been producing stones since 1992 and supplied the stones for the 2002 Winter Olympics.
A handle is attached by a bolt running vertically through a hole in the centre of the stone. The handle allows the stone to be gripped and rotated upon release; on properly prepared ice the rotation will bend (curl) the path of the stone in the direction in which the front edge of the stone is turning, especially as the stone slows. Handles are coloured to identify each team, two popular colours in major tournaments being red and yellow. In competition, an electronic handle known as the eye on the hog may be fitted to detect hog line violations. This electronically detects whether the thrower 's hand is in contact with the handle as it passes the hog line and indicates a violation by lights at the base of the handle. The eye on the hog eliminates human error and the need for hog line officials. It is mandatory in high - level national and international competition, but its cost, around US $ 650 each, currently puts it beyond the reach of most club curling.
The curling broom, or brush, is used to sweep the ice surface in the path of the stone (see sweeping) and is also often used as a balancing aid during delivery of the stone.
Prior to the 1950s, most curling brooms were made of corn strands and were similar to household brooms of the day. In 1958, Fern Marchessault of Montreal inverted the corn straw in the centre of the broom. This style of corn broom was referred to as the Blackjack.
Artificial brooms made from man - made fabrics rather than corn, such as the Rink Rat, also became common later during this time period. Prior to the late sixties, Scottish curling brushes were used primarily by some of the Scots, as well as by recreational and elderly curlers, as a substitute for corn brooms, since the technique was easier to learn. In the late sixties, competitive curlers from Calgary, Alberta, such as John Mayer, Bruce Stewart, and, later, the world junior championship teams skipped by Paul Gowsell, proved that the curling brush could be just as (or more) effective without all the blisters common to corn broom use. During that time period, there was much debate in competitive curling circles as to which sweeping device was more effective: brush or broom. Eventually, the brush won out with the majority of curlers making the switch to the less costly and more efficient brush. Today, brushes have replaced traditional corn brooms at every level of curling; it is rare now to see a curler using a corn broom on a regular basis.
Curling brushes may have fabric, hog hair, or horsehair heads. Modern curling brush handles are usually hollow tubes made of fibreglass or carbon fibre instead of a solid length of wooden dowel. These hollow tube handles are lighter and stronger than wooden handles, allowing faster sweeping and also enabling more downward force to be applied to the broom head with reduced shaft flex. New, "directional fabric '' brooms, which players are worried will alter the fundamentals of the sport by reducing the level of skill required, have been accused of giving players an unfair advantage. The new brooms were temporarily banned by the World Curling Federation and Curling Canada for the 2015 -- 2016 season. The new brooms give sweepers unprecedented control over the direction the stone goes.
Curling shoes are similar to ordinary athletic shoes except that they have dissimilar soles; the slider shoe (usually known as a "slider '') is designed for the sliding foot and the "gripper shoe '' (usually known as a gripper) for the hack foot.
The slider is designed to slide and typically has a Teflon sole. It is worn by the thrower during delivery from the hack and by sweepers or the skip to glide down the ice when sweeping or otherwise traveling down the sheet quickly. Stainless steel was once common for slider soles, and "red brick '' sliders with lateral blocks of PVC on the sole are also available. Most shoes have a full - sole sliding surface, but some shoes have a sliding surface covering only the outline of the shoe and other enhancements with the full - sole slider. Some shoes have small disc sliders covering the front and heel portions or only the front portion of the foot, which allow more flexibility in the sliding foot for curlers playing with tuck deliveries. When a player is not throwing, the player 's slider shoe can be temporarily rendered non-slippery by using a slip - on gripper. Ordinary athletic shoes may be converted to sliders by using a step - on or slip - on Teflon slider or by applying electrical or gaffer tape directly to the sole or over a piece of cardboard. This arrangement often suits casual or beginning players.
The gripper is worn by the thrower on the hack foot during delivery and is designed to grip the ice. It may have a normal athletic shoe sole or a special layer of rubbery material applied to the sole of a thickness to match the sliding shoe. The toe of the hack foot shoe may also have a rubberised coating on the top surface or a flap that hangs over the toe to reduce wear on the top of the shoe as it drags on the ice behind the thrower.
Other types of equipment include:
The purpose of a game is to score points by getting stones closer to the house centre, or the "button '', than the other team 's stones. Players from either team alternate in taking shots from the far side of the sheet. An end is complete when all eight rocks from each team have been delivered, a total of sixteen stones. If the teams are tied at the end of the game, play continues for as many ends as may be required to break the tie. The winner is the team with the highest score after all ends have been completed (see Scoring below). A game may be conceded if considered unwinnable.
International competitive games are generally ten ends, so most of the national championships that send a representative to the World Championships or Olympics also play ten ends. However, there is a movement on the World Curling Tour to make the games only eight ends. Most tournaments on that tour are eight ends, as are the vast majority of recreational games.
In international competition, each side is given 73 minutes to complete all of its throws. Each team is also allowed two minute - long timeouts per 10 - end game. If extra ends are required, each team is allowed 10 minutes of playing time to complete its throws and one added 60 - second timeout for each extra end. However, the "thinking time '' system, in which the delivering team 's game timer stops as soon as the shooter 's rock crosses the t - line during the delivery, is becoming more popular, especially in Canada. This system allows each team 38 minutes per 10 ends, or 30 minutes per 8 ends, to make strategic and tactical decisions, with 4 minutes and 30 seconds an end for extra ends. The "thinking time '' system was implemented after it was recognized that teams playing aggressively (using draws and other low - weight shots which take more time for the stones to come to rest) were essentially being penalized in terms of the time they had available compared to teams which primarily use hits which require far less time per shot.
The process of sliding a stone down the sheet is known as the delivery.
The skip, or the captain of the team, will usually determine the required weight, turn, and line of the stone. These will be influenced by the tactics at this point in the game, which may involve taking out, blocking or tapping another stone.
The skip may communicate the weight, turn, line, and other tactics by calling or tapping a broom on the ice. In the case of a takeout, guard, or a tap, the skip will indicate the stones involved.
Before delivery, the running surface of the stone is wiped clean and the path across the ice swept with the broom if necessary, because any dirt on the bottom of a stone or in its path can alter the trajectory and ruin the shot. Intrusion by a foreign object is called a pick - up or pick.
The thrower throws from the hack. Another player, usually the skip, is stationed behind the button to determine the tactics, weight, turn, and line, and the other two may sweep in front of the stone to influence the trajectory (see Sweeping, below). The players, with the exception of the skip, take turns throwing and sweeping; when one player (e.g., the lead) throws, the players not throwing (the second and third) sweep. When the skip throws, the third, or vice-skip, takes his role.
The thrower 's gripper shoe (with the non-slippery sole) is positioned against one of the hacks; for a right - handed curler the right foot is placed against the left hack and vice versa for a left - hander. The thrower, now in the hack, lines the body up with shoulders square to the skip 's broom at the far end for line.
The stone is placed in front of the foot now in the hack. Rising slightly from the hack, the thrower pulls the stone back (some older curlers may actually raise the stone in this backward movement) then lunges smoothly out from the hack pushing the stone ahead while the slider foot is moved in front of the gripper foot, which trails behind. The thrust from this lunge determines the weight and hence the distance the stone will travel. While not compulsory, most curlers deliver the stone while sliding out from the hack. Balance may be assisted by a broom held in the free hand with the back of the broom down so that it slides. One older writer suggests the player keep "a basilisk glance '' at the mark.
There are two current types of delivery, the common flat - foot deliver as well as the Manitoba tuck delivery where the curler slides on the front ball of his foot.
The stone is released as the thrower approaches the hog line, at which point the turn is imparted by a slight clockwise or counter-clockwise twist of the handle from around the two or ten o'clock position to the twelve o'clock on release. A typical rate of turn is about 2 ⁄ rotations before coming to a rest.
The stone must be released before its front edge crosses the near hog line, and it must clear the far hog line or else be removed from play (hogged); an exception is made if a stone fails to come to rest beyond the far hog line after rebounding from a stone in play just past the hog line. The release rule is rarely enforced in club play unless abuse is suspected. However, in major tournaments it is strictly enforced; the "eye on the hog '' sensor in the stone will indicate whether the stone has been legally thrown or not. The lights on the stone handle will either light up green, indicating that the stone has been legally thrown, or red, in which case the illegally thrown stone will be immediately pulled from play instead of waiting for the stone to come to rest.
After the stone is delivered, its trajectory is still influenced by the two sweepers under instruction from the skip. Sweeping is done for several reasons: to reduce friction underneath the stone, to decrease the amount of curl, and to clean debris from the stone 's path. The stones curl more as they slow down, so sweeping early in travel tends to increase distance as well as straighten the path, and sweeping after sideways motion is established can increase the sideways distance. When sweeping, pressure and speed of the brush head are key in slightly increasing the layer of moisture that builds up under the stone.
One of the basic technical aspects of curling is knowing when to sweep. When the ice in front of the stone is swept, a stone will usually travel both farther and straighter. In some situations, one of the two alterations in path is not desirable. For example, a stone may have too much weight, but require sweeping to prevent curling into a guard. The team must decide which is better: getting by the guard but traveling too far, or hitting the guard.
Much of the yelling that goes on during a curling game is the skip calling the line of the shot and the sweepers calling the weight. The skip evaluates the path of the stone and calls to the sweepers to sweep as necessary to maintain the intended track. The sweepers themselves are responsible for judging the weight of the stone, ensuring the length of travel is correct and communicating the weight of the stone back to the skip. Some teams use stopwatch timing, from back line to the nearest hog line as a sweeping aid. Many teams use the Number System to communicate in which of 10 playable zones it is estimated the stone will stop.
Usually, the two sweepers will be on opposite sides of the stone 's path, although depending on which side the sweepers ' strengths lie this may not always be the case. Speed and pressure are vital to sweeping. In gripping the broom, one hand should be one third of the way from the top (non-brush end) of the handle while the other hand should be one third of the way from the head of the broom. The angle of the broom to the ice should be so that the most force possible can be exerted on the ice. The precise amount of pressure may vary from relatively light brushing ("just cleaning '' - to ensure debris will not alter the stone 's path) to maximum - pressure scrubbing.
Sweeping is allowed anywhere on the ice up to the tee line, as long as it is only for one 's own team stones. Once the leading edge of a team stone crosses the tee line only one player may sweep it. Additionally, when a stone crosses the tee line, one player from the other team is allowed to sweep it. This is the only case that a stone may be swept by an opposing team member. In international rules, this player must be the skip; or if the skip is throwing, then the sweeping player must be the third.
Occasionally, players may accidentally touch a stone with their broom or a body part. This is often referred to as burning a stone. Players touching a stone in such a manner are expected to call their own infraction as a matter of good sportsmanship. Touching a stationary stone when no stones are in motion (there is no delivery in progress) is not an infraction (unless the stationary stone is struck in such a manner that its position is altered), and is a common way for the skip to indicate a stone that is to be taken out.
When a stone is touched when stones are in play, the remedies vary between placing the stones as they end up after the touch, replacing the stones as they would have been if no stone were touched, or removal of the touched stone from play. In non-officiated league play, the skip of the non-offending team has the final say on where the stones are placed after the infraction.
Many different types of shots are used to carefully place stones for strategic or tactical reasons; they fall into three fundamental categories as follows:
Guards are thrown in front of the house in the free guard zone, usually to protect the shot - rock (the stone closest to the button at the time) or to make the opposing team 's shot difficult. Guard shots include the centre - guard, on the centreline and the corner - guards to the left or right sides of the centre line. See Free Guard Zone below.
Draws are thrown only to reach the house. Draw shots include raise and angle - raise, come - around, and freeze shots.
Takeouts are intended to remove stones from play and include the peel, hit - and - roll and double shots.
For a more complete listing, see Glossary of curling terms.
Until four stones have been played (two from each side), stones in the free guard zone (those stones left in the area between the hog and tee lines, excluding the house) may not be removed by an opponent 's stone (although they can be moved as long as they are not taken out of play). These are known as guard rocks. If the guard rocks are removed, they are placed back in the positions they were before the shot was thrown, and the opponent 's stone is removed from play and can not be replayed. This rule is known as the four - rock rule or the free guard zone rule (for a while in Canada, a "three - rock rule '' was in place, but that rule has been replaced by the four - rock rule).
This rule, a relatively recent addition to curling, was added in response to a strategy of "peeling '' opponents ' guard stones (knocking them out of play at an angle that caused the shooter 's stone to also roll out of play, leaving no stones on the ice). A team in the lead would often employ this strategy during the game. By knocking all stones out, the opponents could at best score one point (if they had the hammer). Alternatively, the team with the hammer could peel rock after rock, which would blank the end, keeping the last rock advantage for another end. This strategy had developed (mostly in Canada) as ice - makers had become skilled at creating a predictable ice surface and the adoption of brushes allowed greater control over the rock. While a sound strategy, this made for an unexciting game. Observers at the time noted that if two teams equally skilled in the peel game faced each other on good ice, the outcome of the game would be predictable from who won the coin flip to have last rock (or had earned it in the schedule) at the beginning of the game. The 1990 Brier was considered by many curling fans as boring to watch because of the amount of peeling and the quick adoption of the Free Guard Zone the following year reflected how disliked this aspect of the game had become.
The free guard zone was originally called the Modified Moncton Rule and was developed from a suggestion made by Russ Howard for the Moncton 100 cashspiel (with the richest prize ever awarded at the time in a tournament) in Moncton, New Brunswick, in January 1990. "Howard 's Rule '' (later known as the Moncton Rule), used for the tournament and based on a practice drill his team used, had the first four rocks in play unable to be removed no matter where they were at any time during the end. This method of play was altered by restricting the area in which a stone was protected to the free guard zone only for the first four rocks thrown and adopted as a Four - rock Free Guard Zone for international competition shortly after. Canada kept to the traditional rules until a three - rock Free Guard Zone rule was adopted for the 1993 -- 94 season. After several years of having the three - rock rule used for the Canadian championships and the winners then having to adjust to the four - rock rule in the World Championships, the Canadian Curling Association adopted the now - standard Free Guard Zone in the 2002 -- 2003 season.
One strategy that has been developed by curlers in response to the Free Guard Zone (Kevin Martin from Alberta is one of the best examples) is the "tick '' game, where a shot is made attempting to knock (tick) the guard to the side, far enough that it is difficult or impossible to use but still remaining in play while the shot itself goes out of play. The effect is functionally identical to peeling the guard but significantly harder, as a shot that hits the guard too hard (knocking it out of play) results in its being replaced, while not hitting it hard enough can result in its still being tactically useful for the opposition. There is also a greater chance that the shot will miss the guard entirely because of the greater accuracy required to make the shot. Because of the difficulty of making this type of shot, only the best teams will normally attempt it, and it does not dominate the game the way the peel formerly did. Steve Gould from Manitoba popularized ticks played across the face. These are easier to make because they impart less speed on the object stone, therefore increasing the chance that it remains in play even if a bigger chunk of it is hit.
Last - rock or last - stone advantage in an end is called the hammer. Before the game, teams typically decide who gets the hammer in the first end either by chance (such as a coin toss), by a "draw - to - the - button '' contest, where a representative of each team shoots to see who gets closer to the centre of the rings, or, particularly in tournament settings like the Winter Olympics, by a comparison of each team 's win - loss record. In all subsequent ends, the hammer belongs to the team that did not score in the preceding end. In the event that neither team scores, the hammer remains with the same team. Naturally, it is easier to score points with the hammer than without; in tournament play, the team with the hammer generally tries to score two or more points. If only one point is possible, the skip will often try to avoid scoring at all in order to retain the hammer until the next end, when two or more points may lie. This is called a blank end. Scoring without the hammer is commonly referred to as stealing, or a steal, and is much more difficult.
Curling is a game of strategy, tactics and skill. The strategy depends on the team 's skill, the opponent 's skill, the conditions of the ice, the score of the game, how many ends remain and whether the team has last - stone advantage (the hammer). A team may play an end aggressively or defensively. Aggressive playing will put a lot of stones in play by throwing mostly draws; this makes for an exciting game and is very risky but the reward can be very great. Defensive playing will throw a lot of hits preventing a lot of stones in play; this tends to be less exciting and less risky. A good drawing team will usually opt to play aggressively, while a good hitting team will opt to play defensively.
If a team does not have the hammer in an end, it will opt to try to clog up the four - foot zone in the house to deny the opposing team access to the button. This can be done by throwing "centre line '' guards in front of the house on the centre line, which can be tapped into the house later or drawn around. If a team has the hammer, they will try to keep this four - foot zone free so that they have access to the button area at all times. A team with the hammer may throw a corner guard as their first stone of an end placed in front of the house but outside the four - foot zone to utilize the free guard zone. Corner guards are key for a team to score two points in an end, because they can either draw around it later or hit and roll behind it, making the opposing team 's shot to remove it more difficult.
Ideally, the strategy in an end for a team with the hammer is to score two points or more. Scoring one point is often a wasted opportunity, as they will then lose last - rock advantage for the next end. If a team can not score two points, they will often attempt to "blank an end '' by removing any leftover opposition rocks and rolling out; or, if there are no opposition rocks, just throwing the rock through the house so that no team scores any points, and the team with the hammer can try again the next end to score two or more with it. Generally, a team without the hammer would want to either force the team with the hammer to only one point (so that they can get the hammer back) or "steal '' the end by scoring one or more points of their own.
Generally, the larger the lead a team will have in a game, the more defensively they should play. By hitting all of the opponent 's stones, it removes opportunities for their getting multiple points, therefore defending the lead. If the leading team is quite comfortable, leaving their own stones in play can also be dangerous. Guards can be drawn around by the other team, and stones in the house can be tapped back (if they are in front of the tee line) or frozen onto (if they are behind the tee line). A frozen stone is difficult to remove, because it is "frozen '' (in front of and touching) to the opponents stone. At this point, a team will opt for "peels '', meaning that the stones they throw will be to not only hit their opposition stones, but to roll out of play as well. Peels are hits that are thrown with the most amount of power.
It is not uncommon at any level for a losing team to terminate the match before all ends are completed if it believes it no longer has a realistic chance of winning. Competitive games end once the losing team has "run out of rocks '' -- that is, once it has fewer stones in play and available for play than the number of points needed to tie the game.
Most decisions about rules are left to the skips, although in official tournaments, decisions may be left to the officials. However, all scoring disputes are handled by the vice skip. No players other than the vice skip from each team should be in the house while score is being determined. In tournament play, the most frequent circumstance in which a decision has to be made by someone other than the vice skip is the failure of the vice skips to agree on which stone is closest to the button. An independent official (supervisor at Canadian and World championships) then measures the distances using a specially designed device that pivots at the centre of the button. When no independent officials are available, the vice skips measure the distances.
The winner is the team having the highest number of accumulated points at the completion of ten ends. Points are scored at the conclusion of each of these ends as follows: when each team has thrown its eight stones, the team with the stone closest to the button wins that end; the winning team is then awarded one point for each of its own stones lying closer to the button than the opponent 's closest stone.
Only stones that are in the house are considered in the scoring. A stone is in the house if it lies within the 12 - foot (3.7 m) zone or any portion of its edge lies over the edge of the ring. Since the bottom of the stone is rounded, a stone just barely in the house will not have any actual contact with the ring, which will pass under the rounded edge of the stone, but it still counts. This type of stone is known as a biter.
It may not be obvious to the eye which of two rocks is closer to the button (centre) or if a rock is actually biting or not. There are specialized devices to make these determinations, but these can not be brought out until after an end is completed. Therefore, a team may make strategic decisions during an end based on assumptions of rock position that turn out to be incorrect.
The score is marked on a scoreboard, of which there are two types; the baseball type and the club scoreboard.
The baseball - style scoreboard was created for televised games for audiences not familiar with the club scoreboard. The ends are marked by columns 1 through 10 (or 11 for the possibility of an extra end to break ties) plus an additional column for the total. Below this are two rows, one for each team, containing the team 's score for that end and their total score in the right hand column.
The club scoreboard is traditional and used in most curling clubs. Scoring on this board only requires the use of (up to) 11 digit cards, whereas with baseball - type scoring an unknown number of multiples of the digits (especially low digits like 1) may be needed. The numbered centre row represents all possible accumulated scores, and the numbers placed in the team rows represent the end in which that team achieved that cumulative score. If the red team scores three points in the first end (called a three - ender), then a 1 (indicating the first end) is placed beside the number 3 in the red row. If they score two more in the second end, then a 2 will be placed beside the 5 in the red row, indicating that the red team has five points in total (3 + 2). This scoreboard works because only one team can get points in an end. However, some confusion may arise if neither team scores points in an end, this is called a blank end. The blank end numbers are usually listed in the farthest column on the right in the row of the team that has the hammer (last rock advantage), or on a special spot for blank ends.
The following example illustrates the difference between the two types. The example illustrates the men 's final at the 2006 Winter Olympics.
Eight points -- all the rocks thrown by one team counting -- is the highest score possible in an end, and is known as an "eight - ender '' or "snowman ''. Scoring an eight - ender against a relatively competent team is very difficult; in curling, it is considered the equivalent of pitching a perfect game in baseball. Probably the best - known snowman came at the 2006 Players ' Championships. Future (2007) World Champion Kelly Scott scored eight points in one of her games against 1998 World bronze medalist Cathy King.
Competition teams are normally named after the skip, for example, Team Martin after skip Kevin Martin. Amateur league players can (and do) creatively name their teams, but when in competition (a bonspiel) the official team will have a standard name.
Top curling championships are typically played by all - male or all - female teams. It is known as mixed curling when a team consists of two men and two women. For many years, in the absence of world championship or Olympic mixed curling events, national championships (of which the Canadian Mixed Curling Championship was the most prominent) were the highest - level mixed curling competitions. However, a European Mixed Curling Championship was inaugurated in 2005, a World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship was established in 2008, and the European Mixed Championship was replaced with the World Mixed Curling Championship in 2015. A mixed tournament was held at the Olympic level for the first time in 2018, although it was a doubles tournament, not a four - person.
Curling tournaments may use the Schenkel system for determining the participants in matches.
Curling is played in many countries, including Canada, the United Kingdom (especially Scotland), the United States, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark, Finland and Japan, all of which compete in the world championships.
Curling has been depicted by many artists including: George Harvey, John Levack, The Dutch School, Charles Martin Hardie, John Elliot Maguire, John McGhie, and John George Brown.
Curling is particularly popular in Canada. Improvements in ice making and changes in the rules to increase scoring and promote complex strategy have increased the already high popularity of the sport in Canada, and large television audiences watch annual curling telecasts, especially the Scotties Tournament of Hearts (the national championship for women), the Tim Hortons Brier (the national championship for men), and the women 's and men 's world championships.
Despite the Canadian province of Manitoba 's small population (ranked 5th of 10 Canadian provinces), Manitoban teams have won the Brier more times than teams from any other province. The Tournament of Hearts and the Brier are contested by provincial and territorial champions, and the world championships by national champions.
Curling is the provincial sport of Saskatchewan. From there Ernie Richardson and his family team dominated Canadian and international curling during the late 1950s and early 1960s and have been considered to be the best male curlers of all time. Sandra Schmirler led her team to the first ever gold medal in women 's curling in the 1998 Winter Olympics. When she died two years later from cancer, over 15,000 people attended her funeral, and it was broadcast on national television.
More so than in many other team sports, good sportsmanship, often referred to as the "Spirit of Curling '', is an integral part of curling. In the United States there was even a theology of curling.
The Spirit of Curling also leads teams to congratulate their opponents for making a good shot, strong sweeping or spectacular form. Perhaps most importantly, the Spirit of Curling dictates that one never cheers mistakes, misses or gaffes by one 's opponent (unlike most team sports) and one should not celebrate one 's own good shots during the game beyond modest acknowledgement of the shot such as a head nod, fist bump or thumbs - up gesture. Modest congratulation, however, may be exchanged between winning team members after the match. On - the - ice celebration is usually reserved for the winners of a major tournament after winning the final game of the championship. It is completely unacceptable to attempt to throw opposing players off their game by way of negative comment, distraction or heckling.
A match traditionally begins with players shaking hands with and saying "good curling '' or "have a pleasant game '' to each member of the opposing team. It is also traditional in some areas for the winning team to buy the losing team a drink after the game. Even at the highest levels of play, players are expected to call their own fouls.
It is not uncommon for a team to concede a curling match after it believes it no longer has any hope of winning. Concession is an honourable act and does not carry the stigma associated with quitting, and also allows for more socializing. To concede a match, members of the losing team offer congratulatory handshakes to the winning team. Thanks, wishes of future good luck and hugs are usually exchanged between the teams. To continue playing when a team has no realistic chance of winning can be seen as a breach of etiquette.
Curling has been adapted for wheelchair users and people otherwise unable to throw the stone from the hack. These curlers may use a device known as a "delivery stick ''. The cue holds on to the handle of the stone and is then pushed along by the curler. At the end of delivery, the curler pulls back on the cue, which releases it from the stone. The Canadian Curling Association Rules of Curling allows the use of a delivery stick in club play but does not permit it in championships.
The delivery stick was specifically invented for elderly curlers in Canada in 1999. In early 2016 an international initiative started to allow use of the delivery sticks by players over 60 years of age in World Curling Federation Senior Championships, as well as in any projected Masters (60 +) Championship that develops in the future.
Terms used to describe the game include:
The ice in the game may be fast (keen) or slow. If the ice is keen, a rock will travel farther with a given amount of weight (throwing force) on it. The speed of the ice is measured in seconds. One such measure, known as "hog - to - hog '' time, is the speed of the stone and is the time in seconds the rock takes from the moment it crosses the near hog line till it crosses the far hog line. If this number is lower, the rock is moving faster, so again low numbers mean more speed. The ice in a match will be somewhat consistent and thus this measure of speed can also be used to measure how far down the ice the rock will travel. Once it is determined that a rock taking (for example) 13 seconds to go from hog line to hog line will stop on the tee line, the curler can know that if the hog - to - hog time is matched by a future stone, that stone will likely stop at approximately the same location. As an example, on keen ice, common times might be 16 seconds for guards, 14 seconds for draws, and 8 seconds for peel weight.
The back line to hog line speed is used principally by sweepers to get an initial sense of the weight of a stone. As an example, on keen ice, common times might be 4.0 seconds for guards, 3.8 seconds for draws, 3.2 for normal hit weight, and 2.9 seconds for peel weight. Especially at the club level, this metric can be misleading, due to amateurs sometimes pushing stones on release, causing the stone to travel faster than the back - to - hog speed.
Curling is featured prominently in "Boy Meets Curl '', the twelfth episode of the comedy series The Simpsons ' twenty - first season. The episode aired on the Fox network in the United States on 14 February 2010.
Men with Brooms is a 2002 Canadian film that takes a satirical look at curling. A TV adaptation, also titled Men with Brooms, debuted in 2010 on CBC Television.
The Corner Gas episode "Hurry Hard '' involves the townspeople of Dog River competing in a local curling bonspiel for the fictitious "Clavet Cup ''. The episode also features cameos by Canadian curlers Randy Ferbey and Dave Nedohin.
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what type of spanish is spoken in the canary islands | Canarian Spanish - wikipedia
Canarian Spanish (Spanish: español de las Canarias, español canario, habla canaria, isleño, dialecto canario or vernacular canario) is a variant of standard Spanish spoken in the Canary Islands by the Canarian people. The variant is similar to the Andalusian Spanish variety spoken in Western Andalusia and (especially) to Caribbean Spanish and other Hispanic American Spanish vernaculars because of Canarian emigration to the Caribbean and Hispanic America over the years.
Canarian Spanish, therefore, heavily influenced the development of Caribbean Spanish and other Latin American Spanish vernaculars. Hispanic America and the Spanish - speaking Caribbean islands were originally largely settled by colonists from the Canary Islands and Andalusia so the dialects of the region, including the standard language, were already quite close to Canarian and Andalusian speech. In the Caribbean, Canarian speech patterns were never regarded as either foreign or very different from the local accent.
The incorporation of the Canary Islands into the Crown of Castile began with Henry III (1402) and was completed under the Catholic Monarchs. The expeditions for their conquest started off mainly from ports of Andalusia, which is why the Andalusians predominated in the Canaries. There was also an important colonising contingent from Portugal in the early conquest of the Canaries, along with the Andalusians and the Castilians from mainland Spain. In earlier times, Portuguese settled alongside the Spanish in the north of Gran Canaria, but they died off or were absorbed by the Spanish. The population that inhabited the islands before the conquest, the Guanches, spoke a variety of Berber (also called Amazigh) dialects. After the conquest, the indigenous Guanche language was rapidly and almost completely eradicated in the archipelago. Only some names of plants and animals, terms related to cattle ranching and numerous island placenames survive.
Their geographic situation made the Canary Islands receive much outside influence, causing drastic cultural changes, including linguistic ones. As a result of heavy Canarian emigration to the Caribbean, particularly during colonial times, Caribbean Spanish is strikingly similar to Canarian Spanish.
The Canarian vocabulary has a notable influence from the Guanche language, especially in the toponymy. In addition, many Canarian names come from the Guanche language, such as Airam, Gara, Acerina, Beneharo, Jonay, Tanausú, Chaxiraxi, Ayoze and Yaiza.
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valerian and the city of a thousand planets movie wikipedia | Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets - wikipedia
Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets (French: Valérian et la Cité des mille planètes) is a 2017 English - language French 3D science fiction adventure film written and directed by Luc Besson, and co-produced by Besson and his wife, Virginie Besson - Silla. The film is based on the French science fiction comics series Valérian and Laureline, written by Pierre Christin and illustrated by Jean - Claude Mézières. It stars Dane DeHaan as Valerian and Cara Delevingne as Laureline, with Clive Owen, Rihanna, Ethan Hawke, Herbie Hancock, Kris Wu and Rutger Hauer in supporting roles. Besson independently crowd - sourced and personally funded Valerian and, with a production budget of around $ 180 million, it is both the most expensive European and independent film ever made.
The film was released by STXfilms on 21 July 2017 in the United States, and in France on 26 July, by EuropaCorp. Valerian received mixed reviews from critics, who criticized the plot and some of the casting, but praised the visuals, and grossed $225 million worldwide. Due to its high production and advertising costs, the film was considered a box office bomb.
In the 28th century, the former International Space Station has become "Alpha '', a space - traveling (by the time it reached a critical mass when it was in Low Earth Orbit) city where millions of creatures from different planets live peacefully and exchange their knowledge and cultures. The humans form a special police division to preserve peace through the universe, including officers Valerian, a happy - go - lucky major, and his partner Laureline, a no - nonsense sergeant.
En route to a mission, Valerian dreams of a planet, where a low - tech humanoid race lives peacefully. They fish for pearls containing enormous amounts of energy, and use small animals to replicate them. Wreckage begins plummeting from the sky, and as the humanoids investigate the derelicts, one enormous ship crashes into the planet, triggering an apocalypse. A female humanoid, a princess of her people, separated from her group after the door to the spaceship wreck being used as shelter breaks, manages to send a telepathic signal just as the explosion consumes her and the surface.
Shaken, Valerian wakes. He learns that his mission is to retrieve a "Mül converter '', so called for being able to replicate anything it eats, even currency. It is the last one in the entire universe, from a black market dealer, Igon Siruss. Before setting out, he asks Laureline to marry him, but she brushes him off, knowing of his many affairs with female colleagues and citing his inability to take things seriously.
Travelling to a virtual market called "Big Market '', Valerian disrupts a meeting between Igon and two hooded figures seeking the converter - two humanoids, with the "converter '' being one of the animals he also saw in his dream. He and Laureline recover the converter, and he surreptitiously steals one of the pearls that had been given as payment for the dealer, hoping to gift it to Laureline as a wedding present.
They return to Alpha, where their superior, frosty Commander Filitt, informs them the center of the station has been infected by an unknown force, rendering it highly toxic, that troops sent into the area have not returned, and that the infection is spreading. Laureline and Valerian are assigned to protect the commander during an interstation summit to discuss the crisis. The commander asks for the converter, but Valerian says that Laureline should hold onto it while they are protecting him.
During the summit, the humanoids suddenly attack - incapacitating everyone before kidnapping Filitt. Valerian frees himself and the others and chases the kidnappers, who head for the infected area. Valerian loses control of his vehicle, and Laureline loses contact with him.
Evading arrest for insubordination, Laureline finds Valerian unconscious at the edge of the infected zone. She wakes him, but is kidnapped after by a primitive tribe that lives in the center of Alpha. Valerian infiltrates the tribe 's territory with the help of a shapeshifting dancer, Bubble. He saves Laureline and they escape, but Bubble is mortally wounded. She encourages him to keep pursuing Laureline, before dying.
Valerian and Laureline venture further into the infected area, realizing that it is not radioactive. They reach a large, shielded hall where they find the humanoids with an unconscious Filitt. Their leader, Emperor Haban Limaï explains that his people (who are known as the "Pearls '') lived peacefully on the planet Mül, when a battle broke out in orbit between the human government 's fleet and another alien species. The human commander, Filitt, ordered the firing of a doomsday weapon that, despite knowledge (or uncaring) that Mül was populated by a civilization, annihilated both the enemy fleet and Mül, as seen in Valerian 's dream, sent to him by the princess and daughter of the Pearls ' leader, Lihö - Minaa (which she also transfer her soul into Valerian 's body after her death). A small group of survivors sheltered in a crashed spaceship and managed to repair it, learning much about technology and the history of other species ' in the process. They eventually came to Alpha, where they assimilated more knowledge and constructed a spaceship that could recreate their former home, their "paradise ''. The hall they are standing in is that spaceship, and they have kidnapped Filitt in order to recover the converter and the pearl they need to launch the ship. Filitt admits to his role in the genocide, but argues that the doomsday strike was necessary to halt the war, and that the cover - up was necessary to prevent the human species from being expelled from Alpha, as well as prevent reparations that would bankrupt the human government.
Valerian has the pearl he took during the black market deal, and Laureline has the converter. Valerian gives them his pearl, but is reluctant to hand over the converter, as it is government property. Laureline convinces him to return it after pointing out the injustice their government perpetrated. While the Pearls ' spacecraft prepares for takeoff to no more bother the other species in Alpha, Filitt 's pre-programmed K - Tron robot soldiers attack both the Pearls, the government soldiers sent to assist Valerian (which they put explosives around the spacecraft), and their support staff, but are defeated by the support staff and Valerian 's efforts. The spacecraft departs with the duo on board, while Filitt is arrested. In a final scene, in Destiny 2005, a still working Apollo Command / Service Module used by the Pearls as a throne, Valerian and Laureline confess their love and expect to land at their own paradise in two hours.
Although Luc Besson loved the Valerian comics growing up, he did not seriously consider adapting them into a movie until he was working on The Fifth Element. During development, Besson had tapped Valerian illustrator Jean - Claude Mézières to work on the film, who asked Besson, "Why are you doing this shitty film? Why you do n't do Valerian? '' At the time, Besson felt that making the film was "impossible '' given the vast monster - to - human ratio. The release of Avatar served as both a blessing and a curse for Besson; he has said, "technically, I could see that we can do everything now. The film proved that imagination is the only limit. '' However, he also felt that "James Cameron pushed all the levels so high, '' which made him believe that his script was not good enough, so he rewrote it. Ultimately, the storyboarding for the film took seven months.
The project was first publicly reported in 2012. The two principal stars, Dane DeHaan and Cara Delevingne, were announced in May 2015. On 19 August 2015, Clive Owen signed on to play Commander Arün Filitt in the film. The budget, € 197 million, is by far the largest ever assembled for a French film. Previously, Asterix at the Olympic Games was the most expensive, at € 78 million, just ahead of Besson 's The Fifth Element (€ 75 million). By the end of August 2015, Besson said in an RTL radio interview that shooting the film in France was too expensive. Because it was filmed in a foreign language (English), Besson was unable to benefit from tax credits, despite preferring to produce the film in France and create jobs for 1,200 crew members. The criteria to obtain these tax credits were then adapted accordingly. In May 2015, it was announced Fundamental Films would invest US $50 million in the film.
Principal photography on the film began on 5 January 2016 in seven sound stages dedicated to the film at the Cité du cinéma, in Saint - Denis, north of Paris. In total, there are 2,734 visual effect shots.
Valerian was released in Israel on 20 July 2017, on 21 July in the United States, and on 26 July in France. Lionsgate handles the film 's release in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and STX Entertainment distributes the film in the United States. The film was released on 25 August 2017 in China.
The first teaser for Valerian was released on 10 November 2016. The teaser depicts Marmakas, Entertainers, Bagoulins, and Shingouz, who all appear in Ambassador of the Shadows. A special exclusive preview of Valerian was shown prior to the Fathom Events 4K restoration showing of The Fifth Element on 14 May and 17 May.
Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets is scheduled to be released digitally on November 7, 2017, and on Ultra HD Blu - ray, Blu - ray and DVD on November 21, 2017.
Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets grossed $40.5 million in the United States and Canada and $182.7 million internationally (including $36.4 million in France), for a worldwide total of $223.2 million. With a production budget around $180 million, the film would have needed to gross $400 million worldwide in order to break even and justify a sequel.
In North America, Valerian opened alongside Dunkirk and Girls Trip, and was initially projected to gross $20 -- 25 million from 3,553 theaters, although some insiders believed it would open in the teens. It made $6.5 million on its first day, including $1.7 million from Thursday night previews at 2,600 theaters, lowering weekend projections to $16.5 million. The film ended up debuting to $17 million, finishing 5th at the box office, leading Deadline.com to already label the film a domestic box office bomb. and causing a 8.31 % fall of the EuropaCorp stock on the following Monday. In its second weekend, the film dropped 62 % to $6.4 million, finishing 8th at the box office. In its third and fourth weekends the film made $2.4 million and $901,323, finishing 12th and 17th and dropping another 62 % both times.
Outside North America, the film opened in 16 markets alongside the US and made $6.5 million over its opening weekend, including $2.5 million in Germany. In France, the film made $3.72 million (€ 3.19) on its first day, the second - best opening day of 2017 there behind Despicable Me 3. In China, the film made $9.9 million on its first day from 78,000 screens, becoming the first film to displace Wolf Warriors 2 at the country 's box office. It went on to open to $29 million, topping the box office. The largest territory for the film is China, with US $58.2 million.
Valerian received mixed reviews from critics, who praised its visuals while criticizing the plot and some of the casting. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 49 % based on 232 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets uses sheer kinetic energy and visual thrills to overcome narrative obstacles and offer a viewing experience whose surreal pleasures often outweigh its flaws. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating to reviews, the film has a score of 51 out of 100, based on reviews from 45 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. On French entertainment information website AlloCiné, the film has an average grade of 3.1 / 5, based on 29 critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a grade of B -, praising how "unapologetically idiosyncratic '' the film is, while also saying "the vividness of this place only underscores the lifelessness of the people leading us through it... There are 394 million stories on the City of a Thousand Planets, and Valerian 's might be the only one we 've seen before. Still, any excuse to visit this place is one worth taking. '' Peter Sciretta of / Film touted the first half of Valerian as "unpredictable and bonkers insane '', while calling the second half more formulaic and "far less exciting '', though he still encouraged seeing the film in 3D "on the biggest screen possible ''. Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club wrote that it was "rare (...) to see a film this extravagant that also feels, for better or worse, like the work of a single personality. The longer action scenes may not always rank with Besson 's early ' 90s highlights (...) or the mania of the more recent Lucy, but there is n't a moment in this ludicrous, lushly self - indulgent movie that does n't feel like its creator is having the time of his life. ''
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave a negative review, saying: "The Razzies do n't need to wait until the end of the year to anoint a winner for 2017... Hollywood studio chiefs can breathe easy that, this time, at least, they 'll escape blame for making a giant summer franchise picture that nobody wants to see, since this one 's a French import. '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times was also less than happy with the film, writing the effort "feels as if it were made up on the spot, by someone so delighted by the gaudy genre packaging at his disposal that he lost track of what was supposed to be inside. ''
Despite the film 's being a disappointment at the box office, director Luc Besson claims a sequel is still possible due to positive fan reaction.
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when did the second becky come on roseanne | Sarah Chalke - wikipedia
Sarah Chalke (/ tʃ ɔː k /; born August 27, 1976) is a Canadian - American actress and voice artist. She is known for portraying Dr. Elliot Reid on the NBC / ABC comedy series Scrubs, the second Rebecca "Becky '' Conner and Andrea on the ABC sitcom Roseanne, Stella Zinman on the CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother, and Beth Smith on Adult Swim 's adult animated science - fiction series Rick and Morty. She also had a recurring role on the third season of the ABC / TBS sitcom Cougar Town.
Chalke was born in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, and was raised in North Vancouver, British Columbia. She is the middle of three daughters born to Douglas and Angela Chalke. Her mother is from Rostock, Germany. According to a Scrubs commentary track, she used to attend the German school in her hometown twice a week. Her first language is English, but she speaks German fluently and French "fairly well. '' This was incorporated into her Scrubs character, Elliot Reid, who spoke German and French at the same levels. Chalke graduated from Handsworth Secondary School in North Vancouver in 1994.
Chalke 's acting career began at age eight when she began appearing in musical theater productions. At 12, she became a reporter on the Canadian children 's show KidZone. In 1993, she took over the role of Rebecca Conner - Healy on Roseanne after Lecy Goranson left the series; Chalke made a cameo appearance as a different character in the Roseanne episode "Halloween: The Final Chapter '' (# 178, originally aired October 31, 1995) after Goranson returned. Chalke later returned to the role of Becky after Goranson departed for a second time. After the show ended, Chalke returned briefly to Canada, where she starred in the CBC Television drama Nothing Too Good for a Cowboy (1998 -- 1999).
In 2001, she was cast as Dr. Elliot Reid in the NBC comedy series Scrubs and she would be a cast member for all nine seasons until the series ended its run in 2010. She has appeared in several feature films, including Ernest Goes to School and Cake. She appeared in Channel 101 's The ' Bu with The Lonely Island, a parody of the hit show The O.C., but was credited as "Pamela Fenton ''. In 2007, she appeared as a supporting character in Chaos Theory, which starred fellow Canadian Ryan Reynolds. In 2008, Chalke became the spokesperson for a line of women 's underwear by Hanes that included a series of commercials directed by her Scrubs co-star Zach Braff. In 2008 and 2009, she made appearances in the CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother as Stella Zinman. In early 2011, she starred in the CBS television series Mad Love, a romantic comedy which debuted as a midseason replacement and was cancelled after only one season was produced.
Chalke was signed by former Scrubs executive producer Bill Lawrence to play the love interest of Bobby Cobb in the series Cougar Town. She appeared in multiple episodes in the third season. Chalke starred in the ABC comedy series How to Live with Your Parents (For the Rest of Your Life), which premiered April 3, 2013, and which was cancelled one month later. She played Polly, a single and very uptight divorced mother who found herself moving back in with her parents (Elizabeth Perkins and Brad Garrett) because of the economic downturn. Also in 2013, she played a frantic mother named Casey Hedges in the Grey 's Anatomy season - 9 episode "Ca n't Fight This Feeling ''. Chalke also voices Beth on the show Rick and Morty.
On April 28, 2017, it was announced that a revival of Roseanne was in the works, and that most of the original cast and some of the producers would return for the limited series. On May 16, 2017, it was confirmed that eight episodes of the show were greenlit by ABC and would air mid-season in 2018 with Chalke returning, but playing a role other than Becky Conner. On May 29, 2018, in the wake of controversial remarks made by Barr on Twitter regarding Valerie Jarrett (an advisor of former president Barack Obama), ABC cancelled the revival after a single season, but a spinoff series, The Conners (without Barr) was approved in June 2018 for fall broadcast.
Chalke is engaged to lawyer Jamie Afifi. The couple have a son, Charlie Rhodes Afifi, born December 24, 2009. Her son was diagnosed at age two with Kawasaki disease. Their daughter, Frankie, was born in May 2016.
Chalke 's aunt and grandmother died from breast cancer that was undiagnosed while in its early stages. She has since encouraged breast cancer detection and prevention, and starred in the Lifetime movie Why I Wore Lipstick to My Mastectomy. She is an ambassador for the Audrey Hepburn Children 's Foundation. Chalke also made an appearance in a short video parodying the National Organization for Marriage 's "Gathering Storm '' advertisement opposing same - sex marriage. She was the 2009 ambassador for the Susan G. Komen Passionately Pink for the Cure program, for which she also designed a T - shirt.
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where are you going where havw you been | Where Have You Been - wikipedia
"Where Have You Been '' is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna, from her sixth studio album, Talk That Talk (2011) serving as the fifth single. The song was written by Ester Dean, Geoff Mack, Lukasz "Dr. Luke '' Gottwald, Henry "Cirkut '' Walter, and Calvin Harris, with production handled by the latter three. "Where Have You Been '' was released as the third international single from the album on May 8, 2012. The track is a dance - pop and techno house song that draws influence from trance, R&B and hip hop. It is backed by "hard, chilly synths '' and contains an electro - inspired breakdown sequence. The song 's lyrics interpolate Geoff Mack 's 1959 song "I 've Been Everywhere '' and speak of a woman who is searching for a partner who will sexually please her.
"Where Have You Been '' was met with positive reviews from most music critics, who likened the song to Talk That Talk 's lead single, "We Found Love ''. The track performed well on major international charts. In the United States, "Where Have You Been '' reached number five on the Billboard Hot 100, marking Rihanna 's twenty - second top ten single on the chart. It also peaked at number one on both the US Dance Club Songs and UK Dance Chart, and at number three on the US Pop Songs chart. In addition, it attained top five positions in the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Israel, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, while peaking in the top ten of charts in twenty countries worldwide including Australia, Belgium and Norway.
The song 's accompanying music video, directed by Dave Meyers depicts the singer in an assortment of costumes and locations, referencing the song 's lyrics. Rihanna is seen as a semi-naked water reptilian, in an Egyptian desert, an African themed hut, and channeling Hindu god Shiva with multiple limbs. The video received a positive response from critics, who praised Rihanna 's new approach to deeper choreography. Rihanna has performed the song on both Saturday Night Live and the finale of the eleventh season of American Idol. The song was nominated for a 2013 Grammy Award for Best Pop Solo Performance.
"Where Have You Been '' was written by Ester Dean, Geoff Mack, Lukasz "Dr. Luke '' Gottwald, Calvin Harris, and Henry "Cirkut '' Walter, with production, instrumentation, and programming also handled by the latter three. Mack 's song "I 've Been Everywhere '' is interpolated throughout the song. Dean, Gottwald, Harris, and Walter have produced and / or co-written other songs on Talk That Talk: "We Found Love '' for Harris, and "You da One '' for Dean, Gottwald, and Walter.
"Where Have You Been '' was recorded by Kuk Harrell and Marcus Tovar at Eightysevenfourteen Studios, Los Angeles, California and Eyeknowasecret Studio, Brentwood, California. Harrel and Tovar were also the vocals engineers and were assisted in the process by Jennifer Rosales. The engineers for the song in its entirety were Aubry "Big Juice '' Delaine and Clint Gibbs. It was mixed by Serban Ghenea.
"Where Have You Been '' is a dance - pop, techno, and dance song, which blends elements of R&B, hip hop and house together. It also incorporates elements of trance music As noted by Mark Graham for VH1, the song features a "sweeping, trance - ish transition that will bowl over dancefloor denizens in clubs all over the world. '' Randell Roberts for Los Angeles Times noted that "Rihanna wants her music to bang, and she does so by continuing to mine the connection between R&B, hip - hop and house. '' Jon Caramanica for The New York Times stated that the song is on the "poppier side of house music. '' The instrumentation is composed of "buzzy, burping electronics '' and "hard, chilly synths. '' It also features a "monstrous bass '', which will according to Graham "will make you want to trade in your factory - installed car speakers for a top - of - the - line sound system. ''
In the "unashamedly sexual '' song, Rihanna sings about her desire and wish to find a man who is able to satisfy and please her in any way possible, singing "Where have you been all my li - i-i-i-i - fe '' (sic). According to Robert Copsey for Digital Spy, it is when Rihanna performs this line that the instrumental changes into a "strobing trance section that ends in a synth - squelching breakdown. '' Andy Kellam for AllMusic likened the song 's chorus to that of Adele "Rolling in the Deep ''. Caramanica likened the tone of Rihanna 's vocals to that of English singer Siouxsie Sioux as she performs the lines "I been everywhere, man / looking for someone / someone who can please me, / Are you hiding from me yeah / somewhere in the crowd? '' "Where Have You Been '' lasts for a duration of 4 minutes and 3 seconds, and it was composed in the key of C minor using common time and a moderate dance groove of 128 beats per minute; it follows a chord progression Cm -- A ♭ -- Cm -- A ♭ with a time signature of 4 / 4. Rihanna 's vocal range spans over one octave from the low note of B ♭ to the high note of C on the song.
"Where Have You Been '' garnered positive reviews from music critics. Andy Kellman for Allmusic wrote that "Where Have You Been '', along with the album 's lead single "We Found Love '', serve as Talk That Talk 's "place - holding '' dance tracks. Greg Kot for the Chicago Tribune compared "Where Have You Been '' and "We Found Love '' for being "rave - tastic. '' Aside from noting the similarities between the two songs, Randell Roberts for Los Angeles Times wrote that neither song would sound out of place at an Electric Daisy Carnival. Julianne Escobedo Shepherd for Spin also wrote that the song was a perfect play for a festival, writing "' Where Have You Been ' is tailor - made for a Coachella pool rave. '' Jon Caramanica for The New York Times was complimentary of both songs, but wrote that "Where Have You Been '' "is even better. '' Mark Graham for VH1 compared the song to one of Rihanna 's previous singles from her 2007 album Good Girl Gone Bad, "Do n't Stop the Music '', writing "' Where Have You Been will almost certainly be Rihanna 's biggest club smash since ' Do n't Stop the Music '. ''
Robert Copsey for Digital Spy shared the same opinion as Graham, writing "We labelled ' Where Have You Been ' the record 's ' Do n't Stop The Music '. '' He continued to give an explanation as to why the songs are similar writing "On the surface, similarities between the two are almost non-existent, but on closer inspection, not only are they the danciest cuts on their respective LPs, they 're both favourites that fans have been eager to see get an official release. '' Copsey concluded his review praising the song and Rihanna, writing "Like Rihanna herself, it 's hectic, confident and unashamedly sexual. '' Meghan Brownfield for the Columbia Missourian praised the song as a track which people will want to dance to as well as writing that the lyrics ensure that the listener pays attention to the lyrics, saying "It is a song you would hear in a club that everyone would want to dance to. This song makes you want to move, and it also has some strong lyrics that make you focus on what she is saying. '' Matthew Cole for Slant Magazine, however, was critical of the song, writing that the song is a "boring dubstep - normalizing dance number reminiscent of LMFAO, '' as well as Rihanna 's own "We Found Love ''.
In the United States, "Where Have You Been '' debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 on December 10, 2011, at number 65 upon the release of the album, with digital download sales of 39,000 copies sold. Upon its release as a single, the song re-entered the Hot 100 at number 78 for the issue dated May 12, 2012. On July 7, 2012, the song reached its peak of number five, where it remained for a further week. "Where Have You Been '' became Rihanna 's 22nd top ten chart entry on the Hot 100. Rihanna is currently tied with Janet Jackson and Mariah Carey with 27 entries each, while Madonna leads with 38 entries, the most among all solo and group acts. Rihanna is also the only artist to have attained as many Hot 100 top ten chart entries in shortest time span, with 27 top 10 entries in the space of ten years.
On the Hot Digital Songs chart, it debuted at number 65 on December 10, 2011. Upon its release as a single, it re-entered the chart at number 78. By June 7, 2012, the song had ascended to number five, which remained its peak for the following week. "Where Have You Been '' became Rihanna 's 26th top ten song to peak within the top ten of the Hot Digital Songs chart. With this chart entry, she surpassed Lil Wayne for achieving the most top ten chart entries, who is now second with a total of 25 entries, since the Hot Digital Songs chart began to contribute to the Hot 100 in February 2005. On the Adult Pop Songs, "Where Have You Been '' peaked at number 20. "Where Have You Been '' peaked at number one on the Dance Club Songs chart on June 9, 2012. With "Where Have You Been '' attaining the peak position of the Dance Club Songs chart, Rihanna is now tied in third place with Beyoncé for having the most number one songs on the chart with a total of 18. "Where Have You Been '' peaked at number twelve on the Latin Songs chart, and number four on the Latin Pop Songs chart.
"Where Have You Been '' debuted at number 64 on the Radio Songs chart on May 12, 2012. On June 16, 2012, the song peaked at number nine, with a 17 % increase to a total of 64 million audience impressions. With this chart entry, "Where Have You Been '' became Rihanna 's 19th top ten on the chart, surpassing Lil Wayne, who has 18 top tens. On the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart, "Where Have You Been '' peaked at number 56. It peaked at number three on the Pop Songs chart. "Where Have You Been '' also peaked at number five on Billboard 's Songs of the Summer, and number 32 on the Tropical Songs chart. On July 1, 2015, "Where Have You Been '' was certified four times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of over 4,000,000 copies. In Canada, "Where Have You Been '' peaked at number five.
"Where Have You Been '' made its chart debut on the Australian Singles Chart on December 4, 2011, at number 46. It re-entered the chart at number 25 four months later, following its single release confirmation. The song peaked at number six in its sixth week on the chart. It was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting sales of 140,000 copies. "Where Have You Been '' debuted on the New Zealand Singles Chart on April 2, 2012, at number 19. The song later peaked at number four for two consecutive weeks. It has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ), for shipments of over 15,000 copies.
Upon the release of Talk That Talk, "Where Have You Been '' charted at numbers 8 and 61 on the UK Dance Chart and UK Singles Chart on November 28, 2011, respectively. After the release of the music video, it re-entered the singles chart at number 21, and the dance chart at three, respectively. The following week, it jumped into the top ten of the singles chart at number eight, and topped the dance charts, marking Rihanna 's third number one on the chart, following "Who 's That Chick? '' with David Guetta (2010), and "We Found Love '' with Calvin Harris (2011). With this, it became the singer 's first number one as a solo lead artist, and gave her number ones in three consecutive years. It sold 422,200 copies in the UK in 2012. "Where Have You Been '' peaked at number 2 in France and sold 104,500 copies in 2012. Outside the United Kingdom, "Where Have You Been '' has also charted in other European countries including in the top ten in Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Hungary, Ireland and Norway.
The music video for "Where Have You Been '' was filmed on March 7, March 8, and March 9, 2012 in Los Angeles, California and was directed by Dave Meyers. On the first day of filming, March 7, 2012, Rihanna tweeted: "Where Have You Been All My Life? '', with a picture of herself topless with her natural hair on the set of the music video. The video features choreography by Nadine "Hi - Hat '' Ruffin, who has worked with Rihanna previously on her Grammy and BRIT Awards performances. She posted photos of her as a teaser for the video in her Facebook account, with one saying: "How much do you guys want to see the video? ''. A day after she posted the photo, she released a behind - the - scenes footage of the video with the dance rehearsals for the video and afterwards the wardrobe fitting for the video shoot.
The video 's concept shows Rihanna travelling around various locations "looking for a male partner who will please her ''. The video begins with a shot of flowing water which appears to be set in a dark swamp - like area. Rihanna 's head is then shown hovering above the water as she begins the first verse. She is then presented as a reptilian creature as part of her back is lifted above the water. Rihanna then exits the water, showing a scale ensemble, much like a reptile, which covers her breasts. As the bridge begins, a close up of Rihanna 's face is shown, half covered in a shawl, identical to the single cover. Choreography then begins as the singer is shown with a group of male dancers behind her, wearing tribal costumes in what appears to be an Egyptian desert. Rihanna dons a zebra - print outfit with oversized red trousers as she puts on a fast - paced routine against the backdrop of pyramids. Empty tree branches are shown, as well as a fire and a starry sky. Scenes of a nude Rihanna are intercut, holding a whip made of hair, while simultaneously covering her breasts.
As the second verse begins, the singer is seen in an African hut lying on the floor, surrounded by female dancers. She performs on the floor, in one moment managing to put her leg over her head, before standing up and again, performing a dance routine. The performers are seen to make the shape of an eye, with Rihanna in the centre as the pupil. In this scene she wears a black lace ensemble with a new wild curly hairstyle. This is followed with the singer lying in a large birds ' nest and then goes back to the singer with her previous wild hairstyle, performing a complex dance routine with female dancers, this time with fluorescent green effects. The penultimate scene shows Rihanna in a long dress which lights up neon red, while the singer has sequins across her face. She then appears to channel Hindu god Shiva as multiple arms surround her body. In the final scene, Rihanna and her male background dancers seen previously, slowly descend back underwater into the swamp; Rihanna 's head completely submerges below the water.
The video received 4.93 million hits in its first 24 hours. It received positive reviews from critics with many noting Rihanna 's indulgence into extended choreography. Kia Makarechi from The Huffington Post commented, "Rihanna does n't normally do extended dance scenes, so it 's interesting to see the singer go the path of the Britneys and Christinas before her and delve into some deeper choreography. '' Amanda Dobbins from New York Magazine echoed the review stating, "Even though Rihanna is maybe not on a Beyoncé or Britney - circa - 2000 level when it comes to the super-involved choreography, she at least leaves it all out on the floor. '' Sarah Maloy of Billboard made note of the Hindu imagery displayed in the video and made comparisons of the video 's distorted images to that of "We Found Love ''. Nicole James of MTV praised the video stating that Rihanna "dances her ass off '' and compared it to Jennifer Lopez 's video for "Waiting for Tonight ''. The video received two MTV Video Music Award nominations, including Best Choreography Video and Best Visual Effects.
Rihanna performed "Where Have You Been '' for the first time live at the 2012 Post-Grammy Charity Fundraiser, along with "We Found Love '', on February 13, 2012. On April 15, 2012, Rihanna performed the song at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, again with "We Found Love ''. On May 5, 2012, Rihanna performed the song on Saturday Night Live in the United States. The performance featured an aesthetic similar to that of the music video; the SNL set was decorated in a One Thousand and One Nights fashion. Rihanna and her backup dancers performed a highly choreographed dance routine, the same as the music video, and wore Arabian inspired outfits. She also performed the song at the 2012 Robin Hood Benefit in New York. The performance was in Cleopatra style. The singer performed the song on American Idol 's season 11 finale on May 23, 2012. Rihanna performed "Where Have You Been '' at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on June 24, 2012, as the tenth song on the set list. The performance featured a giant sphinx on the stage. She also performed the song at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards.
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk, Def Jam Recordings, SRP Records.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what are the solutions to the quadratic equation | Quadratic equation - wikipedia
In algebra, a quadratic equation (from the Latin quadratus for "square '') is any equation having the form
where x represents an unknown, and a, b, and c represent known numbers such that a is not equal to 0. If a = 0, then the equation is linear, not quadratic. The numbers a, b, and c are the coefficients of the equation, and may be distinguished by calling them, respectively, the quadratic coefficient, the linear coefficient and the constant or free term.
Because the quadratic equation involves only one unknown, it is called "univariate ''. The quadratic equation only contains powers of x that are non-negative integers, and therefore it is a polynomial equation, and in particular it is a second degree polynomial equation since the greatest power is two.
Quadratic equations can be solved by a process known in American English as factoring and in other varieties of English as factorising, by completing the square, by using the quadratic formula, or by graphing. Solutions to problems equivalent to the quadratic equation were known as early as 2000 BC.
A quadratic equation with real or complex coefficients has two solutions, called roots. These two solutions may or may not be distinct, and they may or may not be real.
It may be possible to express a quadratic equation ax + bx + c = 0 as a product (px + q) (rx + s) = 0. In some cases, it is possible, by simple inspection, to determine values of p, q, r, and s that make the two forms equivalent to one another. If the quadratic equation is written in the second form, then the "Zero Factor Property '' states that the quadratic equation is satisfied if px + q = 0 or rx + s = 0. Solving these two linear equations provides the roots of the quadratic.
For most students, factoring by inspection is the first method of solving quadratic equations to which they are exposed. If one is given a quadratic equation in the form x + bx + c = 0, the sought factorization has the form (x + q) (x + s), and one has to find two numbers q and s that add up to b and whose product is c (this is sometimes called "Vieta 's rule '' and is related to Vieta 's formulas). As an example, x + 5x + 6 factors as (x + 3) (x + 2). The more general case where a does not equal 1 can require a considerable effort in trial and error guess - and - check, assuming that it can be factored at all by inspection.
Except for special cases such as where b = 0 or c = 0, factoring by inspection only works for quadratic equations that have rational roots. This means that the great majority of quadratic equations that arise in practical applications can not be solved by factoring by inspection.
The process of completing the square makes use of the algebraic identity
which represents a well - defined algorithm that can be used to solve any quadratic equation. Starting with a quadratic equation in standard form, ax + bx + c = 0
We illustrate use of this algorithm by solving 2x + 4x − 4 = 0
The plus - minus symbol "± '' indicates that both x = − 1 + √ 3 and x = − 1 − √ 3 are solutions of the quadratic equation.
Completing the square can be used to derive a general formula for solving quadratic equations, called the quadratic formula. The mathematical proof will now be briefly summarized. It can easily be seen, by polynomial expansion, that the following equation is equivalent to the quadratic equation:
Taking the square root of both sides, and isolating x, gives:
Some sources, particularly older ones, use alternative parameterizations of the quadratic equation such as ax + 2bx + c = 0 or ax − 2bx + c = 0, where b has a magnitude one half of the more common one, possibly with opposite sign. These result in slightly different forms for the solution, but are otherwise equivalent.
A number of alternative derivations can be found in the literature. These proofs are simpler than the standard completing the square method, represent interesting applications of other frequently used techniques in algebra, or offer insight into other areas of mathematics.
A lesser known quadratic formula, as used in Muller 's method, and which can be found from Vieta 's formulas, provides the same roots via the equation:
One property of this form is that it yields one valid root when a = 0, while the other root contains division by zero, because when a = 0, the quadratic equation becomes a linear equation, which has one root. By contrast, in this case the more common formula has a division by zero for one root and an indeterminate form 0 / 0 for the other root. On the other hand, when c = 0, the more common formula yields two correct roots whereas this form yields the zero root and an indeterminate form 0 / 0.
It is sometimes convenient to reduce a quadratic equation so that its leading coefficient is one. This is done by dividing both sides by a, which is always possible since a is non-zero. This produces the reduced quadratic equation:
where p = b / a and q = c / a. This monic equation has the same solutions as the original.
The quadratic formula for the solutions of the reduced quadratic equation, written in terms of its coefficients, is:
or equivalently:
In the quadratic formula, the expression underneath the square root sign is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation, and is often represented using an upper case D or an upper case Greek delta:
A quadratic equation with real coefficients can have either one or two distinct real roots, or two distinct complex roots. In this case the discriminant determines the number and nature of the roots. There are three cases:
Thus the roots are distinct if and only if the discriminant is non-zero, and the roots are real if and only if the discriminant is non-negative.
The function f (x) = ax + bx + c is the quadratic function. The graph of any quadratic function has the same general shape, which is called a parabola. The location and size of the parabola, and how it opens, depend on the values of a, b, and c. As shown in Figure 1, if a > 0, the parabola has a minimum point and opens upward. If a < 0, the parabola has a maximum point and opens downward. The extreme point of the parabola, whether minimum or maximum, corresponds to its vertex. The x-coordinate of the vertex will be located at x = − b 2 a (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle x = (\ tfrac (- b) (2a))), and the y - coordinate of the vertex may be found by substituting this x-value into the function. The y - intercept is located at the point (0, c).
The solutions of the quadratic equation ax + bx + c = 0 correspond to the roots of the function f (x) = ax + bx + c, since they are the values of x for which f (x) = 0. As shown in Figure 2, if a, b, and c are real numbers and the domain of f is the set of real numbers, then the roots of f are exactly the x-coordinates of the points where the graph touches the x-axis. As shown in Figure 3, if the discriminant is positive, the graph touches the x-axis at two points; if zero, the graph touches at one point; and if negative, the graph does not touch the x-axis.
The term
is a factor of the polynomial
if and only if r is a root of the quadratic equation
It follows from the quadratic formula that
In the special case b = 4ac where the quadratic has only one distinct root (i.e. the discriminant is zero), the quadratic polynomial can be factored as
For most of the 20th century, graphing was rarely mentioned as a method for solving quadratic equations in high school or college algebra texts. Students learned to solve quadratic equations by factoring, completing the square, and applying the quadratic formula. Recently, graphing calculators have become common in schools and graphical methods have started to appear in textbooks, but they are generally not highly emphasized.
Being able to use a graphing calculator to solve a quadratic equation requires the ability to produce a graph of y = f (x), the ability to scale the graph appropriately to the dimensions of the graphing surface, and the recognition that when f (x) = 0, x is a solution to the equation. The skills required to solve a quadratic equation on a calculator are in fact applicable to finding the real roots of any arbitrary function.
Since an arbitrary function may cross the x-axis at multiple points, graphing calculators generally require one to identify the desired root by positioning a cursor at a "guessed '' value for the root. (Some graphing calculators require bracketing the root on both sides of the zero.) The calculator then proceeds, by an iterative algorithm, to refine the estimated position of the root to the limit of calculator accuracy.
Although the quadratic formula provides an exact solution, the result is not exact if real numbers are approximated during the computation, as usual in numerical analysis, where real numbers are approximated by floating point numbers (called "reals '' in many programming languages). In this context, the quadratic formula is not completely stable.
This occurs when the roots have different order of magnitude, or, equivalently, when b and b − 4ac are close in magnitude. In this case, the subtraction of two nearly equal numbers will cause loss of significance or catastrophic cancellation in the smaller root. To avoid this, the root that is smaller in magnitude, r, can be computed as (c / a) / R (\ displaystyle (c / a) / R) where R is the root that is bigger in magnitude.
A second form of cancellation can occur between the terms b and 4ac of the discriminant, that is when the two roots are very close. This can lead to loss of up to half of correct significant figures in the roots.
The golden ratio is found as the solution of the quadratic equation x 2 − x − 1 = 0. (\ displaystyle x ^ (2) - x-1 = 0.)
The equations of the circle and the other conic sections -- ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas -- are quadratic equations in two variables.
Given the cosine or sine of an angle, finding the cosine or sine of the angle that is half as large involves solving a quadratic equation.
The process of simplifying expressions involving the square root of an expression involving the square root of another expression involves finding the two solutions of a quadratic equation.
Descartes ' theorem states that for every four kissing (mutually tangent) circles, their radii satisfy a particular quadratic equation.
The equation given by Fuss ' theorem, giving the relation among the radius of a bicentric quadrilateral 's inscribed circle, the radius of its circumscribed circle, and the distance between the centers of those circles, can be expressed as a quadratic equation for which the distance between the two circles ' centers in terms of their radii is one of the solutions. The other solution of the same equation in terms of the relevant radii gives the distance between the circumscribed circle 's center and the center of the excircle of an ex-tangential quadrilateral.
Babylonian mathematicians, as early as 2000 BC (displayed on Old Babylonian clay tablets) could solve problems relating the areas and sides of rectangles. There is evidence dating this algorithm as far back as the Third Dynasty of Ur. In modern notation, the problems typically involved solving a pair of simultaneous equations of the form:
which are equivalent to the equation:
The steps given by Babylonian scribes for solving the above rectangle problem were as follows:
Geometric methods were used to solve quadratic equations in Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, China, and India. The Egyptian Berlin Papyrus, dating back to the Middle Kingdom (2050 BC to 1650 BC), contains the solution to a two - term quadratic equation. In the Indian Sulba Sutras, circa 8th century BC, quadratic equations of the form ax = c and ax + bx = c were explored using geometric methods. Babylonian mathematicians from circa 400 BC and Chinese mathematicians from circa 200 BC used geometric methods of dissection to solve quadratic equations with positive roots. Rules for quadratic equations were given in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, a Chinese treatise on mathematics. These early geometric methods do not appear to have had a general formula. Euclid, the Greek mathematician, produced a more abstract geometrical method around 300 BC. With a purely geometric approach Pythagoras and Euclid created a general procedure to find solutions of the quadratic equation. In his work Arithmetica, the Greek mathematician Diophantus solved the quadratic equation, but giving only one root, even when both roots were positive.
In 628 AD, Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, gave the first explicit (although still not completely general) solution of the quadratic equation ax + bx = c as follows: "To the absolute number multiplied by four times the (coefficient of the) square, add the square of the (coefficient of the) middle term; the square root of the same, less the (coefficient of the) middle term, being divided by twice the (coefficient of the) square is the value. '' (Brahmasphutasiddhanta, Colebrook translation, 1817, page 346) This is equivalent to:
The Bakhshali Manuscript written in India in the 7th century AD contained an algebraic formula for solving quadratic equations, as well as quadratic indeterminate equations (originally of type ax / c = y Muhammad ibn Musa al - Khwarizmi (Persia, 9th century), inspired by Brahmagupta, developed a set of formulas that worked for positive solutions. Al - Khwarizmi goes further in providing a full solution to the general quadratic equation, accepting one or two numerical answers for every quadratic equation, while providing geometric proofs in the process. He also described the method of completing the square and recognized that the discriminant must be positive, which was proven by his contemporary ' Abd al - Hamīd ibn Turk (Central Asia, 9th century) who gave geometric figures to prove that if the discriminant is negative, a quadratic equation has no solution. While al - Khwarizmi himself did not accept negative solutions, later Islamic mathematicians that succeeded him accepted negative solutions, as well as irrational numbers as solutions. Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam (Egypt, 10th century) in particular was the first to accept irrational numbers (often in the form of a square root, cube root or fourth root) as solutions to quadratic equations or as coefficients in an equation. The 9th century Indian mathematician Sridhara wrote down rules for solving quadratic equations.
The Jewish mathematician Abraham bar Hiyya Ha - Nasi (12th century, Spain) authored the first European book to include the full solution to the general quadratic equation. His solution was largely based on Al - Khwarizmi 's work. The writing of the Chinese mathematician Yang Hui (1238 -- 1298 AD) is the first known one in which quadratic equations with negative coefficients of ' x ' appear, although he attributes this to the earlier Liu Yi. By 1545 Gerolamo Cardano compiled the works related to the quadratic equations. The quadratic formula covering all cases was first obtained by Simon Stevin in 1594. In 1637 René Descartes published La Géométrie containing the quadratic formula in the form we know today. The first appearance of the general solution in the modern mathematical literature appeared in an 1896 paper by Henry Heaton.
Vieta 's formulas give a simple relation between the roots of a polynomial and its coefficients. In the case of the quadratic polynomial, they take the following form:
and
These results follow immediately from the relation:
which can be compared term by term with
The first formula above yields a convenient expression when graphing a quadratic function. Since the graph is symmetric with respect to a vertical line through the vertex, when there are two real roots the vertex 's x-coordinate is located at the average of the roots (or intercepts). Thus the x-coordinate of the vertex is given by the expression
The y - coordinate can be obtained by substituting the above result into the given quadratic equation, giving
As a practical matter, Vieta 's formulas provide a useful method for finding the roots of a quadratic in the case where one root is much smaller than the other. If x < < x, then x + x ≈ x, and we have the estimate:
The second Vieta 's formula then provides:
These formulas are much easier to evaluate than the quadratic formula under the condition of one large and one small root, because the quadratic formula evaluates the small root as the difference of two very nearly equal numbers (the case of large b), which causes round - off error in a numerical evaluation. Figure 5 shows the difference between (i) a direct evaluation using the quadratic formula (accurate when the roots are near each other in value) and (ii) an evaluation based upon the above approximation of Vieta 's formulas (accurate when the roots are widely spaced). As the linear coefficient b increases, initially the quadratic formula is accurate, and the approximate formula improves in accuracy, leading to a smaller difference between the methods as b increases. However, at some point the quadratic formula begins to lose accuracy because of round off error, while the approximate method continues to improve. Consequently, the difference between the methods begins to increase as the quadratic formula becomes worse and worse.
This situation arises commonly in amplifier design, where widely separated roots are desired to ensure a stable operation (see step response).
In the days before calculators, people would use mathematical tables -- lists of numbers showing the results of calculation with varying arguments -- to simplify and speed up computation. Tables of logarithms and trigonometric functions were common in math and science textbooks. Specialized tables were published for applications such as astronomy, celestial navigation and statistics. Methods of numerical approximation existed, called prosthaphaeresis, that offered shortcuts around time - consuming operations such as multiplication and taking powers and roots. Astronomers, especially, were concerned with methods that could speed up the long series of computations involved in celestial mechanics calculations.
It is within this context that we may understand the development of means of solving quadratic equations by the aid of trigonometric substitution. Consider the following alternate form of the quadratic equation,
(1) a x 2 + b x ± c = 0, (\ displaystyle ax ^ (2) + bx \ pm c = 0,)
where the sign of the ± symbol is chosen so that a and c may both be positive. By substituting
(2) x = c / a tan θ (\ displaystyle x = (\ sqrt (c / a)) \ tan \ theta)
and then multiplying through by cos θ, we obtain
(3) sin 2 θ + b a c sin θ cos θ ± cos 2 θ = 0. (\ displaystyle \ sin ^ (2) \ theta + (\ frac (b) (\ sqrt (ac))) \ sin \ theta \ cos \ theta \ pm \ cos ^ (2) \ theta = 0.)
Introducing functions of 2θ and rearranging, we obtain
(4) tan 2 θ n = + 2 a c b, (\ displaystyle \ tan 2 \ theta _ (n) = + 2 (\ frac (\ sqrt (ac)) (b)),)
(5) sin 2 θ p = − 2 a c b, (\ displaystyle \ sin 2 \ theta _ (p) = - 2 (\ frac (\ sqrt (ac)) (b)),)
where the subscripts n and p correspond, respectively, to the use of a negative or positive sign in equation (1). Substituting the two values of θ or θ found from equations (4) or (5) into (2) gives the required roots of (1). Complex roots occur in the solution based on equation (5) if the absolute value of sin 2θ exceeds unity. The amount of effort involved in solving quadratic equations using this mixed trigonometric and logarithmic table look - up strategy was two - thirds the effort using logarithmic tables alone. Calculating complex roots would require using a different trigonometric form.
If the quadratic equation a x 2 + b x + c = 0 (\ displaystyle ax ^ (2) + bx + c = 0) with real coefficients has two complex roots -- the case where b 2 − 4 a c < 0, (\ displaystyle b ^ (2) - 4ac < 0,) requiring a and c to have the same sign as each other -- then the solutions for the roots can be expressed in polar form as
where r = c a (\ displaystyle r = (\ sqrt (\ tfrac (c) (a)))) and θ = cos − 1 (− b 2 a c). (\ displaystyle \ theta = \ cos ^ (- 1) \ left ((\ tfrac (- b) (2 (\ sqrt (ac)))) \ right).)
The quadratic equation may be solved geometrically in a number of ways. One way is via Lill 's method. The three coefficients a, b, c are drawn with right angles between them as in SA, AB, and BC in Figure 6. A circle is drawn with the start and end point SC as a diameter. If this cuts the middle line AB of the three then the equation has a solution, and the solutions are given by negative of the distance along this line from A divided by the first coefficient a or SA. If a is 1 the coefficients may be read off directly. Thus the solutions in the diagram are − AX1 / SA and − AX2 / SA.
The Carlyle circle, named after Thomas Carlyle, has the property that the solutions of the quadratic equation are the horizontal coordinates of the intersections of the circle with the horizontal axis. Carlyle circles have been used to develop ruler - and - compass constructions of regular polygons.
The formula and its derivation remain correct if the coefficients a, b and c are complex numbers, or more generally members of any field whose characteristic is not 2. (In a field of characteristic 2, the element 2a is zero and it is impossible to divide by it.)
The symbol
in the formula should be understood as "either of the two elements whose square is b − 4ac, if such elements exist ''. In some fields, some elements have no square roots and some have two; only zero has just one square root, except in fields of characteristic 2. Even if a field does not contain a square root of some number, there is always a quadratic extension field which does, so the quadratic formula will always make sense as a formula in that extension field.
In a field of characteristic 2, the quadratic formula, which relies on 2 being a unit, does not hold. Consider the monic quadratic polynomial
over a field of characteristic 2. If b = 0, then the solution reduces to extracting a square root, so the solution is
and there is only one root since
In summary,
See quadratic residue for more information about extracting square roots in finite fields.
In the case that b ≠ 0, there are two distinct roots, but if the polynomial is irreducible, they can not be expressed in terms of square roots of numbers in the coefficient field. Instead, define the 2 - root R (c) of c to be a root of the polynomial x + x + c, an element of the splitting field of that polynomial. One verifies that R (c) + 1 is also a root. In terms of the 2 - root operation, the two roots of the (non-monic) quadratic ax + bx + c are
and
For example, let a denote a multiplicative generator of the group of units of F, the Galois field of order four (thus a and a + 1 are roots of x + x + 1 over F. Because (a + 1) = a, a + 1 is the unique solution of the quadratic equation x + a = 0. On the other hand, the polynomial x + ax + 1 is irreducible over F, but it splits over F, where it has the two roots ab and ab + a, where b is a root of x + x + a in F.
This is a special case of Artin -- Schreier theory.
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earth's interior heat is the engine that powers | Earth 's internal heat budget - wikipedia
Earth 's internal heat budget is fundamental to the thermal history of the Earth. The flow of heat from Earth 's interior to the surface is estimated at 47 ± 2 (\ displaystyle 47 \ pm 2) terawatts (TW) and comes from two main sources in roughly equal amounts: the radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust, and the primordial heat left over from the formation of the Earth.
Earth 's internal heat powers most geological processes and drives plate tectonics. Despite its geological significance, this heat energy coming from Earth 's interior is actually only 0.03 % of Earth 's total energy budget at the surface, which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation. The insolation that eventually, after reflection, reaches the surface penetrates only several tens of centimeters on the daily cycle and only several tens of meters on the annual cycle. This renders solar radiation minimally relevant for internal processes.
Based on calculations of Earth 's cooling rate, which assumed constant conductivity in the Earth 's interior, in 1862 William Thomson (later made Lord Kelvin) estimated the age of the Earth at 98 million years, which contrasts with the age of 4.5 billion years obtained in the 20th century by radiometric dating. As pointed out by John Perry in 1895 a variable conductivity in the Earth 's interior could expand the computed age of the Earth to billions of years, as later confirmed by radiometric dating. Contrary to the usual representation of Kelvin 's argument, the observed thermal gradient of the Earth 's crust would not be explained by the addition of radioactivity as a heat source. More significantly, mantle convection alters how heat is transported within the Earth, invalidating Kelvin 's assumption of purely conductive cooling.
Estimates of the total heat flow from Earth 's interior to surface span a range of 43 to 49 terawatts (TW) (a terawatt is 10 watts). One recent estimate is 47 TW, equivalent to an average heat flux of 91.6 mW / m, and is based on more than 38,000 measurements. The respective mean heat flows of continental and oceanic crust are 70.9 and 105.4 mW / m.
While the total internal Earth heat flow to the surface is well constrained, the relative contribution of the two main sources of Earth 's heat, radiogenic and primordial heat, are highly uncertain because their direct measurement is difficult. Chemical and physical models give estimated ranges of 15 -- 41 TW and 12 -- 30 TW for radiogenic heat and primordial heat, respectively.
The structure of the Earth is a rigid outer crust that is composed of thicker continental crust and thinner oceanic crust, solid but plastically flowing mantle, a liquid outer core, and a solid inner core. The fluidity of a material is proportional to temperature; thus, the solid mantle can still flow on long time scales, as a function of its temperature and therefore as a function of the flow of Earth 's internal heat. The mantle convects in response to heat escaping from Earth 's interior, with hotter and more buoyant mantle rising and cooler, and therefore denser, mantle sinking. This convective flow of the mantle drives the movement of Earth 's lithospheric plates; thus, an additional reservoir of heat in the lower mantle is critical for the operation of plate tectonics and one possible source is an enrichment of radioactive elements in the lower mantle.
Earth heat transport occurs by conduction, mantle convection, hydrothermal convection, and volcanic advection. Earth 's internal heat flow to the surface is thought to be 80 % due to mantle convection, with the remaining heat mostly originating in the Earth 's crust, with about 1 % due to volcanic activity, earthquakes, and mountain building. Thus, about 99 % of Earth 's internal heat loss at the surface is by conduction through the crust, and mantle convection is the dominant control on heat transport from deep within the Earth. Most of the heat flow from the thicker continental crust is attributed to internal radiogenic sources, in contrast the thinner oceanic crust has only 2 % internal radiogenic heat. The remaining heat flow at the surface would be due to basal heating of the crust from mantle convection. Heat fluxes are negatively correlated with rock age, with the highest heat fluxes from the youngest rock at mid-ocean ridge spreading centers (zones of mantle upwelling), as observed in the global map of Earth heat flow.
The radioactive decay of elements in the Earth 's mantle and crust results in production of daughter isotopes and release of geoneutrinos and heat energy, or radiogenic heat. Four radioactive isotopes are responsible for the majority of radiogenic heat because of their enrichment relative to other radioactive isotopes: uranium - 238 (U), uranium - 235 (U), thorium - 232 (Th), and potassium - 40 (K). Due to a lack of rock samples from below 200 km depth, it is difficult to determine precisely the radiogenic heat throughout the whole mantle, although some estimates are available. For the Earth 's core, geochemical studies indicate that it is unlikely to be a significant source of radiogenic heat due to an expected low concentration of radioactive elements partitioning into iron. Radiogenic heat production in the mantle is linked to the structure of mantle convection, a topic of much debate, and it is thought that the mantle may either have a layered structure with a higher concentration of radioactive heat - producing elements in the lower mantle, or small reservoirs enriched in radioactive elements dispersed throughout the whole mantle.
Geoneutrino detectors can detect the decay of U and Th and thus allow estimation of their contribution to the present radiogenic heat budget, while U and K is not detectable. Regardless, K is estimated to contribute 4 TW of heating. However, due to the short half - lives the decay of U and K contributed a large fraction of radiogenic heat flux to the early Earth, which was also much hotter than at present. Initial results from measuring the geoneutrino products of radioactive decay from within the Earth, a proxy for radiogenic heat, yielded a new estimate of half of the total Earth internal heat source being radiogenic, and this is consistent with previous estimates.
Primordial heat is the heat lost by the Earth as it continues to cool from its original formation, and this is in contrast to its still actively - produced radiogenic heat. The Earth core 's heat flow -- heat leaving the core and flowing into the overlying mantle -- is thought to be due to primordial heat, and is estimated at 5 -- 15 TW. Estimates of mantle primordial heat loss range between 7 and 15 TW, which is calculated as the remainder of heat after removal of core heat flow and bulk - Earth radiogenic heat production from the observed surface heat flow.
The early formation of the Earth 's dense core could have caused superheating and rapid heat loss, and the heat loss rate would slow once the mantle solidified. Heat flow from the core is necessary for maintaining the convecting outer core and the geodynamo and Earth 's magnetic field, therefore primordial heat from the core enabled Earth 's atmosphere and thus helped retain Earth 's liquid water.
Controversy over the exact nature of mantle convection makes the linked evolution of Earth 's heat budget and the dynamics and structure of the mantle difficult to unravel. There is evidence that the processes of plate tectonics were not active in the Earth before 3.2 billion years ago, and that early Earth 's internal heat loss could have been dominated by advection via heat - pipe volcanism. Terrestrial bodies with lower heat flows, such as the Moon and Mars, conduct their internal heat through a single lithospheric plate, and higher heat flows, such as on Jupiter 's moon Io, result in advective heat transport via enhanced volcanism, while the active plate tectonics of Earth occur with an intermediate heat flow and a convecting mantle.
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when does the new season of american dad start | American Dad! - Wikipedia
American Dad! is an American adult animated sitcom created by Seth MacFarlane, Mike Barker, and Matt Weitzman for the Fox Broadcasting Company. American Dad! is the first television series to have its inception on Animation Domination. The series premiere aired on February 6, 2005, following Super Bowl XXXIX, three months before the rest of the first season aired as part of the Animation Domination block, commencing on May 1, 2005.
Creative direction of American Dad! has largely been guided by Barker (prior to his exit from the show in season 10) and Weitzman as opposed to MacFarlane, resulting in a series that is different from its counterparts. Unlike its sister shows, Family Guy and The Cleveland Show, American Dad! does not lean as heavily on the use of cutaway gags, and is less concerned with conventional "setup - punchline '' jokes, instead deriving its humor mostly from the quirky characters, the relationships between family members, and the relatively relatable plots. The show is not as heavy on pop cultural allusions as MacFarlane 's Family Guy, and is more concerned with telling stories while maintaining the integrity and realism of the family members. While the core issues and resolutions are relatable in most episodes, the show nonetheless weaves in fantastical elements, pitching the tone of the show somewhere between observational comedy and farce. The plots are often absurd, but they are grounded by family stories and real - world issues.
American Dad! has been nominated for numerous awards, most prominently three Primetime Emmy Awards and two Annie Awards. In June 2013, it was awarded as top television series by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers. Since its debut, American Dad! has broadcast 231 episodes (August 2017). The total number of seasons and organization of episodes within these seasons are in dispute because of a discrepancy in how official sources report this information. One model suggests the first season of American Dad! comprises the first 7 episodes, while another model suggests the first season comprises 23 episodes.
TBS picked up the series for the 12th season following the final 3 episodes airing on Fox as the 11th season. American Dad! 's TBS run began on October 20, 2014. TBS has also renewed the series for a 22 - episode as 13th season, which premiered on January 25, 2016. On August 27, 2015, TBS announced it had picked up American Dad! for a 14th and 15th season of 22 episodes each. The 14th season premiered on November 7, 2016.
The series focuses on the eccentric upper middle class Smith family in the fictional community of Langley Falls, Virginia and their three housemates: Father, husband, CIA Agent, Republican, and breadwinner Stan; his wife and homemaker / housewife, Francine; their liberal, hippie, college - aged daughter, Hayley; and their dorky high - school - aged son, Steve. There are three additional main characters, including Hayley 's boyfriend / husband, Jeff Fischer; the family 's unusual goldfish, Klaus, who has the mind of an East German athlete; and Roger, the alien, who is a deceitful, self - serving master of disguise. Stan 's CIA boss, the Deputy Director Avery Bullock, is a recurring focal point.
The voice actors are not assembled as a group when performing the lines of their characters; rather, each of the voice actors perform their lines privately. The voice actors have stated that because of their personalities and tendency to goof off when together as a group, they would never get anything completed if they performed their lines collectively.
American Dad! centers on the absurd circumstances, adventures and domestic life of its title character Stan Smith, his immediate family, and their three housemates. Adding to all the ridiculousness and absurdity are the various personality traits of all the show 's eccentric main characters, listed as follows:
When asked what first spurred the idea for American Dad! Seth MacFarlane answered, "It was right after the (2000) election, and me (sic) and co-creator Matt Weitzman were so frustrated with the Bush administration that we would just spend days bitching and complaining, and we figured we should channel this into something creative and hopefully profitable. '' In early February 2005, Barker stated, "About a year and a half ago, Seth called and asked if Matt and I would be interested in working on a show about a right - wing CIA agent and his liberal daughter. It was right up our alley, and everything just fell into place. '' On September 14, 2003, Variety reported that Fox Broadcasting had ordered a pilot presentation of the then tentatively titled American Dad! and "If greenlit, American Dad! could launch as early as fall 2004. '' At the time, Fox was aiming to develop a new lineup of adult animated sitcoms.
American Dad! had a mid-season debut. Its first episode, titled "Pilot '', was originally shown directly following Super Bowl XXXIX on February 6, 2005. The rest of the first season, however, would not launch until May 1, 2005, on Fox 's Animation Domination lineup which had its debut on that date. Initially, it was a replacement for the originally failed series Family Guy (1999 -- 2003). American Dad! was originally intended to be Fox 's answer to the hordes of fans left behind from the original failure of MacFarlane 's previous animated venture. Just three short months after American Dad! 's debut however, Family Guy was revived, leaving American Dad! with a formidable expectation: whether the series could distinguish itself from its counterpart and succeed on its own merits. Instead of taking over creative direction of the series, MacFarlane left the job largely in the hands of Barker and Weitzman so as to distinguish American Dad!
In its early going, American Dad! brought in strong ratings but fought an uphill battle in gaining widespread acceptance and approval from viewers and critics alike. The popularity of MacFarlane and his involvement with Family Guy have led to foregone conclusions and prejudices against American Dad! as a rip - off of the predecessor and some critics had already written off American Dad! prior to its birth as nothing more than a pale imitation of Family Guy and MacFarlane 's attempts to get his old show back on the air. One example, prior to the American Dad! series debut, a writer of The Washington Post published a piece that reads "But those same executives have also given MacFarlane a whole new animated half - hour to play with in the disappointing American Dad! The new series officially premieres in May but has a sneak preview tomorrow night in the coveted post-Super Bowl time period... The look and pace of American Dad! is the same as Family Guy. ''
In actuality, however, the program 's beginnings take cues from the TV series All in the Family, almost a farcical animated version of the live action sitcom. Both shows make use of political satire, bigotry, ludicrous expressions of Conservatism from their paternal main character (Stan likened to Archie Bunker), and sensible expressions of Liberalism from their daughter character (Hayley likened to Gloria Stivic). Moreover, the daughter in both series each have a Liberal hippie boyfriend turned husband (Jeff likened to Michael Stivic) of whom the daughter 's Conservative father is antagonistic towards. Also in both, the daughter lives in her parents ' home with her boyfriend turned husband as a housemate. American Dad! in its original form was even said to have been inspired by All in the Family.
In American Dad! 's initial seasons MacFarlane was described as focusing more attention on his coexisting obligation of Family Guy. This was to the extent that American Dad! was completely secondary to him, and he did not understand the show. Because he was not getting the show at the time, he was described as "just going along for the ride. '' Likewise, the rest of the show 's creators Mike Barker and Matt Weitzman were also trying to figure out the show and where it was going.
After American Dad! 's initial couple of seasons and as it progressed, the show began to increasingly develop its very own distinct approach and identity, becoming more and more distinguished from all other programs on the air. Standing out from its counterparts increasingly with each passing season, the series has been described as eventually becoming the weirdest show in network prime time. It has been characterized as serving up distinguishing blasts of surrealism. As the series progressed, MacFarlane realized that Mike Barker and Matt Weitzman were on to something uniquely appealing; moreover, he realized they were on to something that sharply contrasted from Family Guy, which audiences appreciated.
After the show 's first several seasons, MacFarlane not only came to fully understand and appreciate American Dad! 's value but also came to consider himself a huge fan of the series. Taking note of his Twitter followers increased fanaticism and excitement over American Dad! and the "Roger '' character, MacFarlane began putting considerable amounts of his time and efforts into the series, more so in the last several seasons than ever before (this observation made in fall 2012). In describing American Dad! comedy styles, Barker noted that it is not as reference - laden as Family Guy or South Park. He added that American Dad! 's humor more frequently derives from "the human condition and emotions that everyone can relate to: ego, the feds, etc. And for that reason, I think our humor is a little more evergreen. ''
On developing scripts for American Dad! episodes, co-creator Mike Barker revealed that he and the rest of the show 's staff never know when and from where plot line ideas will emerge. "Just as an example, '' Barker explained, "All About Steve '' is an episode where Stan wants his son to be more of a jock and more like he was when he was his age. That whole episode came about from one of our writers Dave Hemingson coming into our office, telling us he just visited the dentist and he may need to get braces. And the idea of a grown man with braces appealed to us, and we just decided what if we put Stan in braces, and he understands for the first time what it 's like to feel like a geek. ''
During the 2012 -- 13 season, Barker revealed that much of his inspiration for American Dad! plots has come through listening to music. Barker 's revelation to use music as a muse for his American Dad! writing came from attending the 2008 Bonnaroo Music & Arts Festival. During that event, he watched the rock band My Morning Jacket perform a four - hour set in the rain and realized from the experience that he could generate ideas for American Dad! by tapping into music: "From that point on, I realized that music should be playing a bigger role in my writing '', Barker told the Louisville Courier - Journal. "Writing is hard for me, and when you hear music that inspires good ideas, you 're really grateful. '' The Beginning of the show 's main theme "Good Morning USA '' uses the beginning introduction to "Stars and Stripes Forever ''.
In particular, Barker has credited music from Wax Fang for his inspiration in writing certain American Dad! plots. Said Barker, "There 's just something so inherently cinematic about Wax Fang 's music. (Scott) Carney 's voice is stunningly clear and dramatic. And his lyrics are specific enough to build stories around while staying flexible enough for different interpretations. '' Barker added that through listening to the Wax Fang track Majestic, he was able to come up with major plot elements for the episode "Lost in Space '' (this episode features the Wax Fang songs Majestic and At Sea).
Barker has stated that once he and the rest of the show 's staff get the idea for the plot line, they spend a couple of weeks in a room with all the screenwriters. There, they break the story and make sure that each act of the two act breaks are strong. As another procedure, Barker stated that they make a point of twisting the story in such a way so as to make audiences come back for more after the commercial break.
"The final process, '' Barker explained, "is sending a screenwriter out to write the script. The screenwriter gets two weeks to write the script. The script then comes back. '' Barker explained that they then all edit and rewrite it, "hopefully keeping as much of the first draft as we can and punching the jokes and making sure all the motivations are there, and then we take it to the table and read it. ''
In February 2005, Barker stated that as creative directors, all decisions made about the plot line and direction of the series go through himself and Weitzman. He explained that the show had reflected their point of view since the beginning. Barker has also credited the program 's other staff beyond himself, Weitzman, and MacFarlane, remarking "We could n't have made it all happen without them. '' At the time, it was noted that the series had a staff of 17 writers, which was described as "a big undertaking. ''
When Barker was asked what his favorite part was of the American Dad! pre-production process, he answered, "I like the story breaking process, personally -- coming up with the stories. To me, that 's the most gratifying. ''
Barker and Matt Weitzman have stated that they are accustomed to feeling scruples with adding certain material into the plots, but always follow this up by going ahead with incorporating the material anyway. They added that their goal is to create laughs combined with groans and going over the line.
MacFarlane played a lead role in the animated character designs for American Dad!.
In describing the characters ' appearances, Weitzman remarked "It 's all very bright, very easy on the eyes. ''
In explaining the animated side of the job, Barker stated, "Fifty or so animators from the Fox animation group are involved. A lot is done in - house: poses, models, props, all storyboards and timing. ''
Also as reported in February 2005, animation for American Dad! is colored and detailed overseas. Sunwoo Entertainment of Korea was said to handle that end of the pre-production process.
Barker has explained that because American Dad! creators are working in animation as opposed to live action, they have the ability to redraw and rewrite up until the show is aired. This is as opposed to live action where individuals must shoot the show and work with whatever has been put together in the editing room long beforehand. In live action, studio production crew, equipment, sets and actors / actresses can not be reassembled with new lines and procedures to memorize mere moments before airtime.
However, Barker has also stated, "It 's really hard to accept anything less than perfect when you start to get wrapped up in this process of being able to constantly make changes. Eventually you have to kind of bring down the hammer at the color stage and live with what you 've got. ''
Barker has explained that, ultimately, the creation process of an American Dad! episode is completed upon the producers ' say - so, not anyone else 's.
When American Dad! co-creator Matt Weitzman was asked what his favorite part was of the show 's pre-production process, he answered, "I probably enjoy the editing process a lot. I think I like the fine tuning of things and making things happen just so. Making the episode just kind of pop in its own subtle ways. ''
American Dad! creators have revealed to working significantly in advance of newly broadcast episodes. As many as 20 to 42 unaired episodes are typically ready for finishing touches. Barker explained that a key to this system is making sure that the writing is timeless, as opposed to topical and contemporary. He added that if any material within the script deals with contemporary issues, the creators have to hope that they 're also contemporary issues two years down the line. When asked whether or not this method has ever brought on difficulties, Barker answered in the affirmative and explained:
In discussing the creation of American Dad! and animated sitcoms in general, MacFarlane has stated:
Conversely, Barker has stated:
The Smith family and their two housemates reside on Cherry Street in the fictional suburb of Langley Falls, Virginia. It is worth noting that there is an actual Langley, Virginia (home to the headquarters of the CIA, which is where Stan works in the series) and a Great Falls, Virginia, both communities located in Fairfax County, Virginia. The Smiths and their two housemates live in a large, two - story residence with a basement and an attic. In addition, the Smith house is apparently enhanced with numerous secret rooms, facilities, and large habitats, these unorthodox attachments usually only seen once for each (i.e., the episodes "Of Ice and Men '', "Bush Comes to Dinner '', "The Missing Kink '', "The Full Cognitive Redaction of Avery Bullock by the Coward Stan Smith '', etc.). The house is also shown to be filled with many pitfall traps, one of which is filled with alligators and another named by Stan as the "Pit of No Return. '' Greg and Terry are a gay couple that live across the street from the Smiths. Within the neighborhood, they are portrayed as running a neater and tidier home than the Smiths. Greg and Terry are also the local news anchor for W - ANG - TV. Also in the area is the high school attended by Steve, Pearl Bailey High School.
American Dad! has commonly made use of farces as most of the predicaments that befall the main characters have escalated into the extremes, to the point of getting outrageously out - of - hand. For example, in the episode "Home Wrecker '', Stan and Francine 's marital harmony breaks down from a difference of opinion on remodeling the house. It gets to the point where they divide the house in two, each decorating their half of the house in their desired fashion. Not satisfied with this however, they both attempt to drive the other out of the home and eventually erect a colossal block wall, dividing the two halves of the house. The rest of the family members are forced to spend one holiday after the next alternating between Fran 's and Stan 's place (the sides of the house treated as distinct homes). As another example, in the episode "Stan 's Food Restaurant '', Stan asks for Roger 's help in starting a restaurant. As things progress, Roger makes heavy changes in the layout, eventually kicking Stan out of the project. Stan retaliates by opening another restaurant next door, which becomes a smashing success. Roger responds by blowing up Stan 's restaurant but destroying his own in the process. Stan threatens to kill Roger, but backs down after Roger pulls a gun on him and tells him to relax.
American Dad! plots are generally teeming with surrealism and nonsensical elements. Many of the occurrences, circumstances, and behaviors are unrestrainedly preposterous, senseless, and illogical.
As further examples of surrealism on American Dad! -- in the episode "Hurricane! '', a ferocious bear pauses in his attack, lowers his eyelids halfway, and repeatedly shakes his head horizontally, shaming Stan for missing him in a harpoon shot and instead spearing Francine into a wall; in the episode "Why Ca n't We Be Friends? '', the hallways of the Smith house transform into dark and dangerous ghetto alleyways for every time Roger ambushed, stole money from, and even tried to forcibly rape Jeff Fischer; in the episode "The Missing Kink '', Steve and family fish Klaus are shown competing in a one - on - one basketball game between each other, the score nearly tied at 11 to 10; also in the "Missing Kink '' episode, the Smith house is shown to consist of a never - before - seen underworld to which various friends and acquaintances of the Smiths party and frolic; in the episode "The Full Cognitive Redaction of Avery Bullock by the Coward Stan Smith '', Stan has a never - before - seen secret control room hidden underground just beside the house. The control room door 's exterior side is camouflaged with the grass surrounding it. The room is filled with highly advanced, state - of - the - art equipment. Access to the control room is achieved through a handprint reading device that extends from the ground when Stan extends his arm / hand at it; etc.
Among one of the many forms of surreal humor and nonsense elements that have been used by American Dad! is the non sequitur. This arises when the show 's focus becomes sidetracked by entirely unknown and unrelated characters in circumstances that are irrelevant to the episode 's main plot. Typically when this happens, it is after the show has maintained focus on its main characters for much of the episode; following this, the scenes randomly lose focus and become deeply wrapped up into the lives of never - before - seen characters who are non-central to the plot. A prime example of this is in the episode "Homeland Insecurity ''. As opposed to scenes focusing on main characters, attention is redirected deep into the lives of unknown characters who gain possession of Roger 's transforming feces turned gold. As another example, in the episode "The Missing Kink '', the show 's focus is sporadically sidetracked with brief scenes revolving around the life of a drug abusing bird and Francine 's inexplicable ability to both understand and communicate with the bird 's chirping.
The series has abounded with random, unexpected occurrences and surprise plot twists as result of the characters and the very makeup of the program. For example, in the episode "The Full Cognitive Redaction of Avery Bullock by the Coward Stan Smith '', Steve refers to Roger for help in dealing with a school bully. Because Steve is able to correctly predict Roger 's original game plan of handling the situation himself under an alter ego, Roger throws him a curveball: he not only hires someone else, Stelio Kontos (from the episode "Bully for Steve ''), to handle the matter but hires him to bully Steve in combination with Steve 's original bully. As another example, in the episode "The Vacation Goo '', Francine becomes frustrated that she can not get the family together for Sunday night dinner. For family time, Stan suggests a vacation, and the Smiths have a great time in Maui as a family. This is up until Roger shuts down the mechanism Francine and the kids are all attached to so as to believe they are all on vacation. Francine and the kids then learn that Stan has been programming a pseudo-vacation every year in a contraption dubbed "the goo chambers ''. After learning of this, Francine demands they go on a real vacation. Twice they appear to do so, first skiing, then to Italy, until it is ultimately revealed that they are in the "goo chambers '' all along, with Steve and then Hayley having programmed the vacations, respectively. In the episode "Spelling Bee My Baby '', Steve deliberately misspells his words in a spelling bee so as to express his love for Akiko (who is also competing), instead spelling random Tyler Perry / Madea films.
Another technique used by American Dad! is the story arc. On several occasions, a circumstance expands and progresses across a collection of episodes. As an example, one of Hayley 's temporary breakups with Jeff expanded across a string of episodes, in which she instead temporarily dated a black man in a koala body, Reginald Koala -- known for his very urban mannerisms and behaviors. As another example, since the 9th season episode "Naked to the Limit, One More Time '', Jeff Fischer has been absent from the Smith house and planet Earth altogether. In that episode, Jeff is blindsided when Roger hurls him into a spaceship. This spacecraft belongs to Roger 's race of aliens and was intended to return him back to his birth planet; however, Roger remains behind after casting Jeff into the spaceship. The spaceship immediately takes off and Jeff is not seen until several episodes later, the episode "Lost in Space ''. During episodes that aired between the two aforementioned episodes, allusions to the ongoing plot line are made. For example, in the episode "Spelling Bee My Baby '', Hayley is shown holding out hope for Jeff 's return. In the episode, Roger and Stan attempt to rush Hayley through her grieving process so she will be willing to be their tennis official. In the episode "The Longest Distance Relationship '' Jeff gets in touch with Hayley via a radio and ultimately tells her not to wait for him and to move on with her life. This story arc is finally resolved in the episode "Holy Shit, Jeff 's Back! '', Jeff supposedly returns to Earth but it turns out to be an alien called Zebleer masquerading as Jeff and the real Jeff has been dissected, however Jeff 's brain is transplanted into Zebleer 's body allowing the real Jeff to live, after which Stan and Hayley 's memories are wiped, leaving them unaware that Jeff is no longer entirely human. This plot point is continued at the end of "Bahama Mama '', where Roger mentions Jeff can not get Hayley pregnant because he has an alien body, so he agrees to rebirth Jeff in "Roger 's Baby ''. By the end of the episode, Jeff is human again and with Hayley on Earth.
In discussing the cartoon 's distinguishing story arc element, co-creator Mike Barker explained:
Much of the wit used in American Dad! has come in the form of black comedy as many of the predicaments and circumstances have made fun of the characters in life - threatening, disastrous, terrifying, and traumatic situations. As an example, the episode "A Ward Show '' is chock full of suicide and murder: Roger became Steve 's legal guardian and responded to him getting picked on at school by rigging the teachers ' cars with explosives and killing them all. Later on in the episode while Principal Lewis was driving his vehicle with Steve as the passenger, he informed Steve that he was about to drive off the Grand Canyon in a murder - suicide. This culminated in Roger saving the day, his love supernaturally allowing the car to fly once Principal Lewis drove off the Canyon; however, another vehicle with a random white man and a black boy in it (opposite of Principal Lewis, a black man and Steve, a white boy) had also, coincidentally enough, driven off the opposite side of the Grand Canyon in a murder - suicide attempt. This resulted in a midair collision between the car with Principal Lewis and Steve in it and the car with the white man and black boy in it. Another example, in the episode "Da Flippity Flop '', Roger leaves a long series of harassing answering machine messages for Steve, trying to get him to sign up for his gym. In these messages, Roger is also heard snapping on various people, killing three individuals from reckless driving, landing himself in court, and subsequently becoming irate and shooting up numerous people at the city courthouse for being scolded to turn off his mobile phone.
Much of the comedy on the show is in the form of cringe comedy and shock value, intended to elicit sharp disgust, discomfort or shock. The show 's creators have stated that if material elicits laughter combined with groans and offense, it is a shoo - in for American Dad! As an example, in the episode "Can I Be Frank with You '', during a massage treatment in which Roger has a nurse reaching her arms / hands up his anal / colon region to squirt water inside him, it is revealed that Roger knowingly has a live house cat residing in his anus and colon. Roger chides the cat for coming out during the massage. As another example, in the episode "The Scarlett Getter '', Steve magically starts having good luck whenever he wears his sister Hayley 's panties. Also, in the episode "Stanny Boy and Frantastic '', when Stan and Francine are free - running with new couple friends, Tom and Cami, Francine gets Stan 's head out of bannisters that it is stuck in and subsequently Stan falls down multiple flights of stairs and fractures his shin bone.
Some episodes have hinted at incest. On more than one occasion, Stan has flexed and shown off his derrière at his own children, Steve and Hayley, once even making attempts to get them to grab onto it. In the episode "Great Space Roaster '', Stan remarks, "Steve, do n't steal glances. If you want to check out my meatballs in this thing, go right ahead. I 'm your dad. '' In the episode "Why Ca n't We Be Friends? '' as Steve turns around and walks away from an upset Stan who has just finished scolding him, Stan quietly admires his son 's derrière, remarking to himself, "Kid 's got his mother 's ass, lucky bastard. '' Further, in the episode "Pulling Double Booty '', Hayley is seen making out with a man identical to her father. Mistaking him for Stan, Francine disgustedly passes out. Stan later reveals the look - alike to be a body double of his named Bill, who works for the CIA. Hayley is convinced that Bill is the one and if he dumps her, she would go "maximum insane '': She would kill Bill, burn down the neighborhood, and rape Roger, according to her. While the four spend time together at the beach, Stan gives Bill a detailed account of Francine 's sex drive, leading Bill to seduce and attempt to have sexual intercourse with Francine. Stan later kicks Bill out of his house. He then passes himself off as Bill to Hayley, hoping to prevent her from going "maximum insane '', with Hayley under the impression that Stan is Bill, the two travel to a romantic resort, with Hayley making sexual advances on her own father.
There are multiple conflicting reports and models as to the number of seasons American Dad! has had.
(A): One of the reports upholds a one - season - fewer numbering model: Under this arrangement, season 1 is a combination of both the first 7 episodes and the following 16 episodes, despite the separation of these two episode collections by a summer hiatus. Under this system, season 1 is uncharacteristically longer in contrast to the rest of the show 's seasons, consisting of 23 episodes.
(B): The other report upholds a one - season - more numbering model: Under this arrangement, season 1 ended after the program 's first 7 episodes leading into the summer hiatus. Season 2 then picked up when the following 16 episodes began that fall. Under this system, season 1 is uncharacteristically shorter in contrast to the rest of the show 's seasons, consisting of only 7 episodes.
Commentary from American Dad! co-creators Matt Weitzman and Mike Barker has largely been consistent with (A): on September 28, 2012, the two were interviewed and reported that they had 20 episodes completed for the then imminent "2012 -- 13 eighth season, '' and were in the process of doing early work on the show 's "2013 -- 14 ninth season. '' During the show 's life on Fox however, the network contradicted that arrangement as it presented information on the show 's now former website in the form of (B): in listing all episodes from the 2012 -- 13 season, Fox reported each as existing as part of the show 's "ninth season. '' In addition, Fox contradicted its own American Dad! website, also supporting the one - season - fewer numbering scheme: Fox Flash, which is the publicity center for Fox, labeled the 2012 -- 13 broadcasts as the "eighth season. '' Websites releasing the show 's season - based ratings have also used the one - season - fewer numbering method.
It is evident that Fox either miscounts American Dad! episodes or at least intentionally discounts one episode of the series. This was established in Fox advertisements for the episode "Lost in Space. '' The episode was promoted by Fox as American Dad! 's 150th episode. Subsequently, numerous mainstream media reports also labeled the episode as the 150th. In actuality, however, it was the show 's 151st episode while the episode "The Full Cognitive Redaction of Avery Bullock by the Coward Stan Smith '' was the 150th episode of the series. In addition, Fox has misreported the "Lost in Space '' episode as the revealing of Roger 's birth planet. In actuality, the setting of this episode is a spaceship owned by members of Roger 's alien race. To date, Roger 's birth planet has yet to be revealed.
While the series premiere of American Dad! is entitled "Pilot '', "Pilot '' is not the show 's actual pilot presentation. The actual pilot is a 6 - minute version of the first 6 minutes in the series premiere. This precursory pilot was used by MacFarlane, Barker and Weitzman to sell American Dad! to Fox and was never aired along with the rest of the series. While much of the dialogue and general scenery were simply redone between the precursory pilot and the following series premiere, there are sharp distinctions between the two. Differences also exist between the precursory pilot and the official series as a whole. Most of these are in pictorial technique. For example, scenes from the pilot are drawn in a rougher, more cursory fashion with weaker coloration than scenes from the official series. Most prominently, Steve 's physical design and outfit in the predecessor greatly contrast from his official design and outfit. In addition, Steve is voiced by Ricky Blitt in the precursory pilot but by Scott Grimes in the official series. There are also variations in Steve 's personality.
Early episodes of the series featured political banter between the conservative Stan and liberal Hayley. However, the creators learned quickly that this had only "a limited shelf life '' and did not provide them as much as they originally thought it would. Said co-creator Matt Weitzman, "There are times when we still have that kind of dynamic between them, but not nearly what it was in the first season. And I think the show, honestly, has grown and benefited from it, because that would have gotten boring after a while. ''
Roger was enhanced by being provided with a running gag of alternate disguises and freedom to exist outside of the Smith house. The show 's original concept basically portrayed him as being similar to Alf, having him sit in the house all day while commenting on life. The creators, however, have stated that the character was far too much fun to keep restricted to the house, and having him interact with different people provided for lots of material. The creators have further appreciated the direction of Roger for the fact that he almost serves as a different guest star for each episode what with his many alter egos. The show 's staff believe this element of the show highlights MacFarlane 's versatility as he voices Roger and his countless alter egos.
There have been three versions of the "Steve '' character, the creators having twice made considerable adjustments to his design. Steve 's initial design ended up being a one - off execution limited to the unaired precursory pilot (not to be confused with the series premiere, entitled "Pilot ''). By the season premiere, Scott Grimes had begun voicing Steve, and his design was made taller, more filled out, and less geeky. After early seasons of the series, Steve was remodeled again. This time he was made softer, more emotional, cuter and more endearing, creating a sharper contrast to his father Stan 's ruggedness and machismo.
Between the eighth and ninth seasons there were significant changes in the show 's writing staff. Mike Barker mentions (with one - season-less numbering) "We lost some animators, and we lost a lot of writers. Season eight, our writing staff is about 65 -- 70 percent new. ''
On July 16, 2013, it was announced that American Dad! had been cancelled by Fox. Shortly thereafter, however, the cable station TBS picked up the show for a 15 - episode 11th season, slated to premiere on October 20, 2014. Currently, TBS airs reruns of American Dad! in syndication. The tenth season was initially to be the final one on Fox; however, on July 20, 2014, it was announced that Fox had three unaired episodes left for broadcast. Two of the three aired back - to - back on September 14, 2014, and the final one aired on September 21, 2014. Reports from Fox seemed to imply that these three episodes constituted a season of their own, season 10. Among multiple discrepant reports from TBS however, one indicated that the three episodes were the beginning of the 11th season to resume on their network. TBS actually debuted their first episode through social media websites YouTube and Facebook on October 13, 2014. However, the October 20, 2014 date still applies to the television debut.
On the show 's network relocation, Mike Barker has stated, "It 's going to be the same American Dad!, just in a different place. '' Barker also joked that the network relocation was to execute a Tyler Perry crossover they (Barker and American Dad! production staff) had long aspired to. In reality, the purpose of the network relocation was Fox 's move away from the "Animation Domination '' format to make room for sitcoms like Brooklyn Nine - Nine. It may also have been due to the arrival of a new animated series from Family Guy writer Mark Hentemann and executive produced by American Dad! creator Seth MacFarlane called Bordertown.
On November 4, 2013, it was announced that Mike Barker had departed American Dad! Barker had served for ten seasons as the show 's co-creator / executive and producer / co-showrunner. Matt Weitzman is now serving as the show 's sole showrunner. The news came as early production for season 11 commenced. As of November 2013, the show 's production crew was developing its first four episodes for season 11, slated to begin airing on October 20, 2014 when American Dad! moved to TBS. Barker remained under an overall contract with 20th Century Fox Television.
Following Mike Barker 's exit, Brian Boyle replaced him as the showrunner for the television series and his sole character on the show, Terry Bates, was written out of the series.
In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that American Dad! "is not popular in Utah or much of the South ''.
Until season 12 when American Dad! moved to TBS, all but one episode originally aired on Animation Domination. The program 's series premiere is the only episode that pre-dates the Animation Domination lineup. In addition, American Dad! 's series premiere predated the rest of the first season by roughly three months. The series premiere episode, "Pilot '', aired directly following Fox 's broadcast of Super Bowl XXXIX on February 6, 2005. The episode aired alongside The Simpsons and pulled in 15 million viewers, with 23 million viewers overall. Both Animation Domination and the rest of the show 's first season commenced on May 1, 2005. The show returned with the episode "Threat Levels '', obtaining 9.47 million viewers, after the season premiere / revival of Family Guy.
On November 18, 2014, it was reported that the show 's outstanding performance in cable quickly moved TBS to order another season of the series, bringing the show to 13 seasons.
At Comic - Con 2013 on July 20, Mike Barker revealed that an American Dad! movie -- centering on Roger and set on his birth planet -- may take place in the future. Barker did not announce any specifics as it relates to the nature and type of film he and the rest of the show 's creators had in mind for the series; however, he strongly suggested that a movie is where the show 's staff and creators would like to take things. Barker further hinted that an American Dad! movie may already even be in the works and partially written. No further information about the movie was released following Barker 's exit from the series in November 2013.
American Dad! characters have appeared on other animated sitcoms and vice versa. To date, all of American Dad! 's crossovers have involved two other animated programs. The other two animated programs were also created by Seth MacFarlane: Family Guy (the crossover episode "Bigfat '' also consisted of King of the Hill characters), and the cancelled series The Cleveland Show.
On December 8, 2013, Bart Simpson made a cameo appearance in the American Dad! season 10 episode, "Faking Bad ''. Though unofficial, this marked the first ever Simpsons / American Dad! crossover.
Playtech signed on for the development of a 40 - line branded slot game based on Fox Broadcasting Company 's animated sitcom, American Dad. Released online in May 2017, Stan Smith, Francine, Hayley, Klaus and Roger are featured along with special game bonuses including re-spins, free spins and ' Wheels and the Legman '.
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what is the population in sutherland springs texas | Sutherland Springs, Texas - wikipedia
Sutherland Springs is an unincorporated community located on the old Spanish land grant of Manuel Tarin in northern Wilson County, Texas, United States. It is located on U.S. Highway 87 at the intersection of Farm Road 539, about 21 miles (34 km) east of downtown San Antonio.
Sutherland Springs was platted in 1854, and named after John Sutherland Jr., a pioneer citizen. A post office has been in operation at Sutherland Springs since 1851.
On November 5, 2017, Devin Patrick Kelley shot and killed 26 people and injured 20 at the First Baptist Church. Kelley died afterwards. He crashed his car while being pursued by a church neighbor. He had a gunshot wound the sheriff 's department described as self - inflicted. It is the deadliest mass shooting in Texas history.
Old Sutherland Springs occupies a portion of the South bank of the Cibolo Creek, with New Sutherland Springs (which is mostly in ruins) on the north bank of the Cibolo Creek.
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different versions of windows operating system with launch year | List of Microsoft Windows versions - wikipedia
This page lists and links to information on the various versions of Microsoft Windows, a major computer operating system developed by Microsoft.
In this section, a client version of Windows is a version that end - users or OEMs can install on personal computers, including desktop computers, laptops and workstations.
See Windows 10 editions
(April 2018 Update)
See Windows 8 editions
(April 8 update)
See Windows 8 editions
See Windows 7 editions
(Service Pack 1)
See Windows Vista editions
(Service Pack 2)
(Service Pack 2)
See Windows XP editions
(Service Pack 3)
(Service Pack 6a)
Mobile devices include smartphones, handheld tablet computers and personal digital assistants
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what is the national animal of the us | List of National Animals - wikipedia
This is a list of national animals.
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explain the modified allen test and tinel's sign | Allen 's test - wikipedia
In medicine, Allen 's test or the Allen test is a medical sign used in physical examination of arterial blood flow to the hands. It was named for Edgar Van Nuys Allen, who described the original version of the test in 1929. An altered test, first suggested by Irving S Wright in 1952, has almost universally replaced the original method in contemporary medical practice. The alternative method is often referred to as the modified Allen 's test or modified Allen test.
The original test proposed by Allen is performed as follows:
Allen 's test looks for abnormal circulation. If color returns quickly as described above, Allen 's test is considered to demonstrate normal circulation. If the pallor persists for some time after the patient opens their fingers, this suggests a degree of occlusion of the uncompressed artery.
In the modified Allen test, one hand is examined at a time:
If color returns as described, Allen 's test is considered to be normal. If color fails to return, the test is considered abnormal and it suggests that the ulnar artery supply to the hand is not sufficient. This indicates that it may not be safe to cannulate or needle the radial artery.
The hand is normally supplied by blood from both the ulnar and radial arteries. The arteries join in the hand. Thus, if the blood supply from one of the arteries is cut off, the other artery can supply adequate blood to the hand. A minority of people lack this dual blood supply.
An uncommon complication of radial arterial blood sampling / cannulation is disruption of the artery (obstruction by clot), placing the hand at risk of ischemia. Those people who lack the dual supply are at much greater risk of ischemia. The risk can be reduced by performing the modified Allen 's test beforehand. People who have a single blood supply in one hand often have a dual supply in the other, allowing the practitioner to take blood from the side with dual supply.
The modified Allen 's test is also performed prior to heart bypass surgery. The radial artery is occasionally used as a conduit for bypass surgery, and its patency lasts longer in comparison to the saphenous veins. Prior to heart bypass surgery, the test is performed to assess the suitability of the radial artery to be used as a conduit. A result of less than 3 seconds is considered as good and suitable. A result of between 3 -- 5 seconds is equivocal, whereas the radial artery will not be considered for grafting if the result is longer than 5 seconds.
The utility of the modified Allen 's test is questionable, and no direct correlation with reduced ischemic complications of radial artery cannulation have ever been proven. In 1983, Slogoff and colleagues reviewed 1,782 radial artery cannulations and found that 25 % of them resulted in complete radial artery occlusion, without apparent adverse effects. A number of reports have been published in which permanent ischemic sequelae occurred even in the presence of a normal Allen 's test. In addition, the results of Allen 's tests do not appear to correlate with distal blood flow as demonstrated by fluorescein dye injections.
Further modifications to the test have been proposed to improve reliability.
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which is not a feature of roman triumphal arches | Triumphal arch - wikipedia
A triumphal arch is a monumental structure in the shape of an archway with one or more arched passageways, often designed to span a road. In its simplest form a triumphal arch consists of two massive piers connected by an arch, crowned with a flat entablature or attic on which a statue might be mounted or which bears commemorative inscriptions. The main structure is often decorated with carvings, sculpted reliefs, and dedications. More elaborate triumphal arches may have multiple archways.
Triumphal arches are one of the most influential and distinctive types of architecture associated with ancient Rome. Thought to have been invented by the Romans, the triumphal arch was used to commemorate victorious generals or significant public events such as the founding of new colonies, the construction of a road or bridge, the death of a member of the imperial family or the accession of a new emperor.
The survival of great Roman triumphal arches such as the Arch of Titus inspired many post-Roman states and rulers, up to the present day, to erect their own arches in emulation of the Romans. Arches in the Roman style have been built in many cities around the world, most notably the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, the Narva Triumphal Arch in Saint Petersburg, the Wellington Arch in London, the Arcul de Triumf in Bucharest and India Gate in Delhi.
Triumphal arch is also the name given to the arch above the entrance to the chancel of a medieval church where a rood can be placed.
The development of the triumphal arch is often associated with ancient Roman architecture. Roman aqueducts, bridges, amphitheaters and domes employed arch principles and technology. The Romans probably borrowed the techniques of arch construction from their Etruscan neighbours. The Etruscans used elaborately decorated single bay arches as gates or portals to their cities; examples of Etruscan arches survive at Perugia and Volterra.
The two key elements of the Roman triumphal arch -- a round - topped arch and a square entablature -- had long been in use as separate architectural elements in ancient Greece, but the Greeks preferred the use of entablatures in their temples, and almost entirely confined their use of the arch to structures under external pressure, such as tombs and sewers. The Roman triumphal arch combined a round arch and a square entablature in a single free - standing structure. What were originally supporting columns became purely decorative elements on the outer face of arch, while the entablature, liberated from its role as a building support, became the frame for the civic and religious messages that the arch builders wished to convey through the use of statuary and symbolic, narrative and decorative elements.
The modern term "triumphal arch '' derives from the notion that this form of architecture was connected to the award and commemoration of a triumph to particularly successful Roman generals, by vote of the Roman senate. The earliest arches set up to commemorate a triumph were made in the time of the Roman Republic. These were called fornices (s. fornix) and bore imagery that described and commemorated the victory and triumph. Lucius Steritinus is known to have erected two such fornices in 196 BC to commemorate his victories in Hispania. Another fornix was built on the Capitoline Hill by Scipio Africanus in 190 BC, and Quintus Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus constructed one in the Roman Forum in 121 BC. None of these structures has survived and little is known about their appearance.
Roman triumphal practices changed significantly at the start of the imperial period when the princeps Augustus decreed that triumphs and triumphal honours were to be confined to members of the Imperial family; in practice, this meant the ruling emperor or his antecedents. The term fornix was replaced by arcus (arch). While Republican fornices could be erected by a triumphator at his own discretion and expense, Imperial triumphal arches were sponsored by decree of the senate, or sometimes by wealthy holders of high office, to honour and promote emperors, their office and the values of empire. Arches were not necessarily built as entrances, but -- unlike many modern triumphal arches -- they were often erected across roads and were intended to be passed through, not around.
The Arch of Titus in Rome, an early Roman imperial triumphal arch with a single archway
The Triumphal Arch of Orange, the oldest surviving triple - arched Roman triumphal arch
The Porte Noire in Besançon, a single arch very ornate with superposition of two columns.
The Arch of Septimius Severus at Leptis Magna, a four - arched arcus quadrifrons
Latakia Tetraporticus, built by Septimius Severus in AD 183
Arch of Galerius and Rotunda. The arch was built in 298 to 299 AD and dedicated in 303 AD to celebrate the victory of the tetrarch Galerius over the Sassanid Persians and capture of their capital Ctesiphon in 298.
Most Roman triumphal arches were built during the imperial period. By the fourth century AD there were 36 such arches in Rome, of which three have survived - the Arch of Titus (AD 81), the Arch of Septimius Severus (203 - 205) and the Arch of Constantine (312). Numerous arches were built elsewhere in the Roman Empire. The single arch was the most common, but many triple arches were also built, of which the Triumphal Arch of Orange (circa AD 21) is the earliest surviving example. From the 2nd century AD, many examples of the arcus quadrifrons -- a square triumphal arch erected over a crossroads, with arched openings on all four sides -- were built, especially in North Africa. Arch - building in Rome and Italy diminished after the time of Trajan (AD 98 - 117) but remained widespread in the provinces during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD; they were often erected to commemorate imperial visits.
Little is known about how the Romans viewed triumphal arches. Pliny the Elder, writing in the first century AD, was the only ancient author to discuss them. He wrote that they were intended to "elevate above the ordinary world '' an image of an honoured person usually depicted in the form of a statue with a quadriga. However, the designs of Roman imperial triumphal arches -- which became increasingly elaborate over time and evolved a regularised set of features -- were clearly intended to convey a number of messages to the spectator.
The ornamentation of an arch was intended to serve as a constant visual reminder of the triumph and triumphator. As such, it concentrated on factual imagery rather than allegory. The façade was ornamented with marble columns, and the piers and attics with decorative cornices. Sculpted panels depicted victories and achievements, the deeds of the triumphator, the captured weapons of the enemy or the triumphal procession itself. The spandrels usually depicted flying Victories, while the attic was often inscribed with a dedicatory inscription naming and praising the triumphator. The piers and internal passageways were also decorated with reliefs and free - standing sculptures. The vault was ornamented with coffers. Some triumphal arches were surmounted by a statue or a currus triumphalis, a group of statues depicting the emperor or general in a quadriga. The inscriptions on Roman triumphal arches were works of art in themselves, with very finely cut, sometimes gilded letters. The form of each letter and the spacing between them was carefully designed for maximum clarity and simplicity, without any decorative flourishes, emphasizing the Roman taste for restraint and order. This conception of what later became the art of typography remains of fundamental importance down to the present day.
Titus ' triumphal procession depicted on the Arch of Titus, showing the loot captured from Jerusalem in 81 AD
Frieze on the Arch of Constantine, depicting Constantine I distributing gifts to the people
The elaborate carvings and coffered vault of the Arch of Septimius Severus
Galerius (L) attacks Narses (R). Arch of Galerius and Rotunda.
Roman triumphal arches remained a source of fascination well after the fall of Rome, serving as a reminder of past glories and a symbol of state power. At Lorsch Abbey, the triple - arched Torhalle was built in deliberate imitation of a Roman triumphal arch to signify continuity between the Carolingian Empire and its Roman predecessor. It was not until the coming of the Renaissance, however, that rulers sought to associate themselves systematically with the Roman legacy by building their own triumphal arches. One of the earliest was the "Aragonese Arch '' at the Castel Nuovo in Naples, erected by Alfonso V of Aragon in 1443, although like the later Porta Capuana this was engaged as part of the entrance to the castle. By the end of the 16th century the triumphal arch had become closely linked with court theatre, state pageantry and military fortifications. The motif of the triumphal arch was also adapted and incorporated into the facades of public buildings such as city halls and churches.
Temporary triumphal arches made of lath and plaster were often erected for royal entries. Unlike the individual arches erected for Roman conquerors, Renaissance rulers often built a row of arches through which processions were staged. They defined a space for the movement of people and denoted significant sites at which particular messages were conveyed at each stage. Newly elected popes, for instance, processed through the streets of Rome under temporary triumphal arches built specially for the occasion. Arches were also built for dynastic weddings; when Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy married Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain in 1585, he processed under temporary triumphal arches that asserted the antiquity of the House of Savoy and associated his dynasty, through the art and architecture of the arches, with the imperial Roman past.
Images of arches gained great importance as well. Although temporary arches were torn down after they had been used, they were recorded in great detail in engravings that were widely distributed and survived long after the original arches had been destroyed. The medium of engraving gave the viewer the opportunity to examine the allegories and inscriptions presented by the arches in a way that would not have been possible during the event. Sometimes the arches depicted were not even real structures but existed entirely as imaginary representations of royal propaganda. One famous example was the Ehrenpforte Maximilians I by Albrecht Dürer, commissioned by the Emperor Maximilian I. It was one of the largest prints ever produced, measuring 3.75 metres (12.3 ft) high and consisting of 192 individual sheets, depicting an arch that was never intended to be built. It was printed in an edition of 700 copies and distributed to be coloured and pasted on the walls of city halls or the palaces of princes.
The French led the way in building new permanent triumphal arches when the imperial ambitions of the Bourbon kings and Napoleon Bonaparte led to a spate of arch - building. By far the most famous arch from this period is the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, built from 1806 -- 36, though it is consciously dissimilar from its Roman predecessors in omitting the customary ornamental columns -- a lack that fundamentally changes the balance of the arch and gives it a distinctly "top - heavy '' look. Other French arches more closely imitated those of imperial Rome; the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in Paris, for instance, is closely modelled on the Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome.
Triumphal arches have continued to be built into the modern era, often as statements of power and self - aggrandizement by dictators. Adolf Hitler planned to build the world 's largest triumphal arch in Berlin. The arch would have been vastly larger than any previously built, standing 550 feet (170 m) wide, 92 feet (28 m) deep and 392 feet (119 m) -- big enough for the Arc de Triomphe to fit into it 49 times. It was intended to be carved with the names of Germany 's 1.8 million dead in the First World War. However, construction was never begun. North Korea 's dictator Kim Il Sung built the world 's largest triumphal arch in Pyongyang in 1982. It was designed to be substantially bigger than the Arc de Triomphe in Paris and was erected on the site where, on October 14, 1945, Kim Il Sung gave his first public speech to the North Korean people. It is decorated with sculptures and reliefs depicting "the triumphal returning of the victorious Great Leader to the country ''.
The form of the triumphal arch has also been put to other purposes, notably the construction of monumental memorial arches and city gates such as the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin or the Washington Square Arch in New York City, or simple welcoming arches such as the Barcelona Triumphal Arch, built as an entrance to the fairgrounds for the 1888 World Fair. Although patterned after triumphal arches, these were built for quite different purposes - to memorialise war dead or to provide a monumental entrance to a city, as opposed to celebrating a military success or general.
Monumento a la Revolución in Mexico City, the tallest triumphal arch in the world, 1938
The Arch of Triumph in Pyongyang, the second tallest triumphal arch in the world, 1982
The Porte Saint - Denis, Paris, built to commemorate the victories of Louis XIV of France
The later Arcul de Triumf, inaugurated as a World War I memorial in 1936 in Bucharest, Romania, on the site of two earlier temporary structures
Wellington Arch in London, built to commemorate Britain 's victories in the Napoleonic Wars
Arch of General Staff Building in Saint Petersburg, built to commemorate Russia 's victory over Napoleon
Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Arch in New York City, built to commemorate the United States ' victory over the Confederate Rebellion
Welsford - Parker Monument, built to commemorate Britain 's victory in the Crimean War, Halifax, Nova Scotia
Siegestor in Munich, a Bavarian army monument, destroyed in World War II but partially rebuilt as a reminder for peace
Arco di Trionfo di Castel Nuovo in Naples, a Renaissance monument, built to commemorate Alfonso of Aragon 's victorious entry to Naples
The Arch of Triumph (Taq - e Zafar) in the gardens of Paghman near Kabul, built to commerorate Afghanistan 's independence in 1919
Porta Macedonia in Skopje is dedicated to 20 years of Macedonian independence
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what airlines fly into salt lake city airport | Salt Lake City International airport - wikipedia
Salt Lake City International Airport (IATA: SLC, ICAO: KSLC, FAA LID: SLC) is a civil - military airport located about 4 miles (6.4 km) west of Downtown Salt Lake City, Utah in the United States. The airport is the closest commercial airport for more than 2.5 million people and is within a 30 - minute drive of nearly 1.3 million jobs.
The airport is the fourth - largest hub for Delta Air Lines, as well as a hub for Delta Connection carrier SkyWest Airlines with nearly 300 daily departures, accounting for a 72.39 % market share between October 2014 and September 2015. Following Delta and Delta Connection, the largest carriers are Southwest Airlines (11.11 % market share), American Airlines (3.43 %), and Alaska Airlines (2.56 %).
In 2015, 22,141,610 passengers flew through Salt Lake City, representing a 5 % increase from 2014. The airport is the twenty - first busiest airport in the United States by passenger count. There were 324,955 aircraft operations (takeoffs and landings) in 2014, about 900 per day. The airport is the fifteenth - busiest airport in the United States, and the twenty - fourth in the world by operations.
As of April 2013 there were over 645 scheduled nonstop airline departures and arrivals per day to 89 cities in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Europe.
Salt Lake City International Airport continues to rank high for on - time departures / arrivals and fewest flight cancellations among major US airports. The airport ranked first for on time departures and arrivals and first for percentage of cancellations as of April 2017.
The airport is owned by City of Salt Lake City and is administered by the Salt Lake City Department of Airports. The city also owns and operates two other nearby airports, South Valley Regional Airport and Tooele Valley Airport. The airport is financially self - sustaining with revenue generated from airline and passenger fees, concessions, vehicle parking, fuel, and leases for office and hangar space. It is the only major airport in the country with no outstanding debt.
In 1911 a site for an air field was chosen on Basque Flats, named for Spanish - French sheep herders who worked the fields in the then - desolate area of the Salt Lake Valley, where a cinder - covered landing was subsequently created. The Great International Aviation Carnival was held the same year and brought aviation pioneers representing Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company and a team representing the Wright Brothers to Salt Lake City. World - famous aviator Glenn H. Curtiss brought his newly invented Seaplane to the carnival, a type of airplane which had never been demonstrated to the public. Curtiss took off from the nearby Great Salt Lake, awing the 20,000 spectators and making international headlines.
For several years the new field was used mainly for training and aerobatic flights. That would change in 1920 when the United States Postal Service (USPS) began air mail service to Salt Lake City. The airport expanded and hangars and other buildings began to appear. In the same year, the airfield was given the name Woodward Field, named for John P. Woodward, a local aviator.
In 1925 the postal service began awarding contracts to private companies. Western Air Express, the first private company to carry U.S. mail, began flying from Salt Lake City to Los Angeles via Las Vegas. Less than a year later Western Air Express would begin flying passengers along the same route. Western Air Express later became Western Airlines, which had a large hub in Salt Lake City.
Charles Lindbergh visited Woodward Field in 1927 drawing many spectators to see The Spirit of St. Louis. During the next few years the airport would gain another runway and would span over 400 acres (1.6 km). In 1930 the airport was renamed Salt Lake City Municipal Airport.
The first terminal and airport administration building was built in 1933 at a cost of $52,000. By then United Airlines had begun serving Salt Lake City on flights between New York City and San Francisco.
As air travel became more popular and the United States Army Air Forces established a base at the airport during World War II, a third runway was added (Runway diagram for 1955). The April 1957 OAG (formerly the Official Airline Guide) shows 42 weekday departures: 18 on Western, 17 United and 7 Frontier. United had flown nonstop to Chicago since 1950, but a New York nonstop did n't start until 1968. The first jets were United 720s in September 1960.
A new terminal was needed and work began on the west side of the airport on Terminal 1, designed by Brazier Montmorency Hayes & Talbot and dedicated in 1960 after seven years of work and a cost of $8 million. In 1968 the airport became Salt Lake City International Airport when a non-stop route to Calgary, Canada was awarded to Western Airlines.
After airline deregulation in 1978, hub airports appeared. Western Airlines, with ties to Salt Lake City since its inception, chose the airport as one of its hubs. Terminal 2 was designed by Montmorency Hayes & Talbot and built solely for Western and had several murals by artist LeConte Stewart.
During the 1980s the airport saw further expansion to both terminals as well as runway extension. In 1987 Western Airlines merged with Delta Air Lines. Salt Lake City would continue to be a major airline hub.
In 1991 the airport opened a new short - term parking garage. The airport opened a new runway in 1995 along with the International Terminal and E concourse for SkyWest Airlines, which was designed by Gensler. A new 328 - foot - tall (100 m) control tower, new approach control facility, and a new fire station were opened in 1999.
In 2001, Concourse E was expanded for additional gates and SkyWest Airlines opened its new maintenance hangar and training facility. In 2002, the airport saw heavy crowds as Salt Lake City welcomed over one million visitors for the Winter Olympics.
Recently the airport has upgraded its access roads and parking facilities in preparation for a new terminal. The airport has made minor upgrades to the terminals and concourses including expansion of baggage claim facilities.
Three days after the Paris terror attacks, an Air France A380 traveling from Los Angeles, California to Paris, France was diverted to Salt Lake City International Airport due to a bomb threat on the aircraft. The aircraft was the largest plane to ever land at the airport. The airport workers had only 15 minutes to get ready for the emergency landing.
Delta Air Lines, the airport 's leading carrier has scheduled flights to cities in Canada, Mexico, France, The Netherlands and The United Kingdom.
On May 28, 2016, Air Canada began daily nonstop service to Toronto -- Pearson from Salt Lake City. Air Canada Express had previously operated service to Toronto from 2006 through 2007.
Aeroméxico offered service from Salt Lake City to Hermosillo and Mexico City from 2002 through 2005. In November 2008, Aeroméxico resumed nonstop service to Mexico City though service was once again discontinued.
In June 2008, Delta Air Lines began daily nonstop service to Paris -- Charles de Gaulle. This marked the first scheduled transatlantic route from Salt Lake City. In November 2008, Delta announced nonstop service to Narita International Airport near Tokyo, Japan, mostly as a result of Delta 's merger with Northwest Airlines. The service began on June 3, 2009, the first nonstop from Salt Lake City to Asia. In 2010 -- 2011 the flights to Tokyo were seasonal, May to October. Delta has not operated the flight since October 2011.
Delta Air Lines launched seasonal nonstop service to Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in May 2015, which was increased to daily service in late March 2016. In addition to Paris and Amsterdam, Delta launched a third transatlantic nonstop route from Salt Lake City to London -- Heathrow on April 23, 2016. Other recent international routes that Delta Air Lines has launched from Salt Lake City include nonstop service to Mexico City which was resumed in December 2014, and daily nonstop service to Toronto -- Pearson which was resumed in May 2016. These international additions are a direct result of Delta 's renewed 10 - year lease at the airport and commitment to expand at SLC.
On May 5, 2016 KLM began new, twice weekly nonstop service from Salt Lake City to Amsterdam, and increased service to three times weekly on July 4, 2016. It is the first transatlantic route from Salt Lake City served by a European - based airline. The service is intended to supplement the existing daily flight between Salt Lake City and Amsterdam operated by Air France KLM 's Transatlantic Joint Venture partner Delta Air Lines.
Three passenger terminals have five concourses with a total of 83 gates:
The airport spans over 7,700 acres (3,116 ha) and has four runways. The runways are generally oriented in a NNW / SSE magnetic direction due to consistent prevailing winds in this direction.
The airport handled 156,319 metric tonnes of cargo in 2008.
Despite being the twenty - eighth busiest airport in the world in terms of aircraft operations, the airport still maintains a large general aviation presence. In 2008, 19 % of aircraft movements at the airport came from general aviation traffic. This is in contrast to most large airports, which encourage general aviation aircraft to use smaller or less busy airports in order to prevent delays to commercial traffic. The airport is able to effectively handle both commercial and general aviation traffic largely in part to the airport 's layout and airspace structure. Nearly all general aviation operations are conducted on the east side of the airport, away from commercial traffic. Additionally, smaller and relatively slower general aviation aircraft arrive and depart the airport in ways which generally do not hinder the normal flow of arriving or departing commercial aircraft.
2007 data shows there are 388 general aviation aircraft based at the airport. The airport has only one Fixed - Base Operator, located on the east side of the airport which has been of debate between aircraft operators and the SLCDA. The airport has facilities for Air Ambulance, Law Enforcement, as well as state and federal government aircraft. Additionally, the airport is home to several flight training facilities, including one operated by Westminster College.
The Utah Air National Guard operates what was previously named the Salt Lake City Air National Guard Base on the east side of the airport. In November 2014, the installation was renamed the Roland R. Wright Air National Guard Base after Brigadier General Roland R. Wright, USAF (Ret).
The base occupies approximately 135 acres as a U.S. Government cantonment area leased from the airport. In addition to flight line, the installation comprises 63 buildings: 3 services, 13 administrative, and 47 industrial. There are 255 full - time Air Reserve Technician and Active Guard and Reserve personnel assigned, augmented by 1,343 part - time traditional air national guardsmen.
The host wing for the installation is the 151st Air Refueling Wing (151 ARW), an Air Mobility Command (AMC) - gained unit operating the KC - 135R Stratotanker.
Wingpointe, an 18 - hole golf course, is located on the south end of the airport and was closed in 2015. Discussions have been underway to reopen the course in 2017.
The airport has free Wi - Fi internet access.
Delta Air Lines ' Sky Club, located between concourses C and D, is the only lounge at this airport.
Salt Lake City International also houses a hangar and line maintenance facility for Delta Air Lines ' primary maintenance, repair and overhaul arm, Delta TechOps. Delta also operates a call center for reservations and sales as well as regional corporate offices.
SkyWest Airlines opened a new maintenance and training facility at the airport in 2001 where the company has its largest maintenance base. It is also where training is conducted for pilots, flight attendants, and other employees.
United Airlines operates a call center located near the airport.
Boeing Aircraft Company operates a manufacturing plant at the airport which manufactures vertical stabilizers and horizontal stabilizers for the Boeing 787 as well as components for the Boeing 737.
The airport and Salt Lake City Fire Department operate an Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) training facility located on the airport. The training facility has been used to train and certify thousands of fire fighters from departments all over the world, including Antarctica.
In addition to the 328 - foot - tall (100 m) Air Traffic Control Tower, TRACON is also located on the airport with the Salt Lake Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) located adjacent to the airport. The Salt Lake ARTCC covers the largest geographical area in the continental United States and controls airspace as far north as the Canada -- US border.
Salt Lake City International airport is directly responsible for the employment of over 14,000 people and indirectly provides over 100,000 jobs generating a $2.7 billion payroll. The airport contributed a $5.34 billion economic impact in 2004.
April 30, 2008 marked a significant date for the airport, as it became the only large hub airport in the U.S. to be debt free, having retired its remaining bonds, for a payout of nearly US $50 million. This was done in response to spiking interest rates, but also put the Salt Lake Department of Airports in a better financial position for future expansion plans.
A revised master plan was released in May 2006 for the airport and is available for the public to view at the airport 's website. Future plans call for runway 17 / 35 to be realigned to more precisely parallel runways 16L / 34R and 16R / 34L. Plans also call for runway 16L / 34R to be lengthened to 15,100 feet (4,600 m). Plans for a fourth parallel runway west of 16R / 34L are also shown, but is more than fifteen years away.
In addition to runway reconfigurations, the airport will construct a new terminal and two new concourses. Plans call for a single terminal with an attached concourse consisting of 31 mainline gates and an additional parallel satellite concourse consisting of 15 mainline gates and 44 regional jet gates. The two concourses would be attached with an underground automated train. The existing terminal and concourses would be demolished and would leave room for additional expansion onto the two new concourses in the future.
Other plans call for a new parking garage and expanded cargo facilities. Construction of the Airport extension of the Utah Transit Authority 's (UTA) TRAX light rail system (Green Line) from Downtown Salt Lake City to the airport began in October 2008, and began service on April 14, 2013. The TRAX Green Line connects the airport with the rest of UTA 's rail system, including the FrontRunner (a commuter rail train that connects Salt Lake City with Ogden on the north and Provo on the south). In addition to the rail network itself, the TRAX line also connects with Park and Ride lots of both TRAX and FrontRunner, which allow transit patrons to avoid having to pay for parking at the airport.
In June 2010, the airport asked for public comments on the airport expansion as well as announcing the start of an environmental study of the master plan which had public hearings in the summer of 2011. In February 2012, the airport announced that construction would likely begin in 2013, with completion slated for 2022. The expansion 's details are deliberately being kept flexible to better adapt to changing conditions in the airline industry and are likely to change over the next 8 -- 10 years. A top priority of the expansion will be to greatly increase airport buildings ' resistance to earthquakes.
The airport is accessible from I - 80 at exit 115 B or from I - 215 at exits 22 and 22 B. The airport can also be accessed from North Temple street and Utah State Route 154 (Bangerter Highway) both of which terminate and merge into the airport 's Terminal Drive.
Rail and bus services that connect the surrounding region to Salt Lake City International Airport include TRAX light rail, UTA Bus service and FrontRunner commuter rail (via UTA TRAX).
Ground transportation is available to ski resorts and locations throughout Salt Lake, Davis, Weber, Utah and Summit counties from Salt Lake International Airport. Many Salt Lake taxis, limousines and shuttles accommodate ski equipment.
The 1974 film Airport 1975 was filmed at Salt Lake City International Airport.
In the 1994 comedy film Dumb and Dumber, Lloyd Christmas, portrayed by Jim Carrey, is seen running to gate B2 and falling off the jetway at Salt Lake City International Airport. He is also seen sliding across the floor to recover the brief case.
The 2003 romantic comedy - drama film Latter Days featured a layover scene at Salt Lake City International Airport en route to Pocatello, Idaho, in which the main characters get stuck in Salt Lake City when a snow storm closes the airport.
The airport was used for filming the scenes of the fictional Chicago Hoover International Airport in the 2006 film Unaccompanied Minors.
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.
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when does the 100 season 5 episode 4 come out | List of the 100 episodes - Wikipedia
The 100 (pronounced The Hundred) is an American post-apocalyptic science fiction drama television series developed by Jason Rothenberg, which premiered on March 19, 2014, on The CW. It is loosely based on a 2013 book of the same name, the first in a book series by Kass Morgan. The series follows a group of teens as they become the first people from a space habitat to return to Earth after a devastating nuclear apocalypse.
In March 2017, The CW renewed the series for a fifth season, which premiered on April 24, 2018. In May 2018, the series was renewed for a sixth season. As of May 22, 2018, 63 episodes of The 100 have aired.
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how does car insurance work in the us | Vehicle insurance in the United states - wikipedia
Vehicle insurance, in the United States and elsewhere, is designed to cover risk of financial liability or the loss of a motor vehicle the owner may face if their vehicle is involved in a collision resulting in property or physical damages. Most states require a motor vehicle owner to carry some minimum level of liability insurance. States that do not require the vehicle owner to carry car insurance include Virginia, where an uninsured motor vehicle fee may be paid to the state; New Hampshire, and Mississippi which offers vehicle owners the option to post cash bonds (see below). The privileges and immunities clause of Article IV of the U.S. Constitution protects the rights of citizens in each respective state when traveling to another. A motor vehicle owner typically pays insurers a monthly fee, often called an insurance premium. The insurance premium a motor vehicle owner pays is usually determined by a variety of factors including the type of covered vehicle, the age and gender of any covered drivers, their driving history, and the location where the vehicle is primarily driven and stored. Credit scores are also taken into consideration. Most insurance companies offer premium discounts based on these factors.
Insurance companies provide a motor vehicle owner with an insurance card for the particular coverage term which is to be kept in the vehicle in the event of a traffic collision as proof of insurance. Recently, states have started passing laws that electronic versions of proof of insurance can now be accepted by the authorities.
Consumers may be protected by different levels of coverage depending on which insurance policy they purchase. Coverage is sometimes seen as 20 / 40 / 15 or 100 / 300 / 100. The first two numbers seen are for medical coverage. In the 100 / 300 example, the policy will pay $100,000 per person up to $300,000 total for all people. The last number covers property damage. This property damage can cover the other person 's vehicle or anything that you hit and damage as a result of the accident. In some states you must purchase Personal Injury Protection which covers medical bills, time lost at work, and many other things. You can also purchase insurance if the other driver does not have insurance or is under insured. Most if not all states require drivers to carry mandatory liability insurance coverage to ensure that their drivers can cover the cost of damage to other people or property in the event of an accident. Some states, such as Wisconsin, have more flexible "proof of financial responsibility '' requirements.
In the United States in 2015, the largest vehicle insurance providers, in terms of market share, were State Farm Insurance, Liberty Mutual Insurance, Allstate, Berkshire Hathaway (which operates as Geico), and The Travelers Companies. Insurance is secured either by working with an independent insurance agent or with an insurance broker who is authorized to sell insurance policies. Some can represent from several agencies, like Guy Carpenter & Company or a growing number of online brokers who provide policy purchases through sites like Quote.com and Walmart.
Liability coverage, sometimes known as Casualty insurance, is offered for bodily injury (BI) or property damage (PD) for which the insured driver is deemed responsible. The amount of coverage provided (a fixed dollar amount) will vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Whatever the minimum, the insured can usually increase the coverage (prior to a loss) for an additional charge.
An example of property damage is where an insured driver (or 1st party) drives into a telephone pole and damages the pole; liability coverage pays for the damage to the pole. In this example, the drivers insured may also become liable for other expenses related to damaging the telephone pole, such as loss of service claims (by the telephone company), depending on the jurisdiction. An example of bodily injury is where an insured driver causes bodily harm to a third party and the insured driver is deemed responsible for the injuries. However, in some jurisdictions, the third party would first exhaust coverage for accident benefits through their own insurer (assuming they have one) and / or would have to meet a legal definition of severe impairment to have the right to claim (or sue) under the insured driver 's (or first party 's) policy. If the third party sues the insured driver, liability coverage also covers court costs and damages that the insured driver may be deemed responsible for.
In some states, such as New Jersey, it is illegal to operate (or knowingly allow another to operate) a motor vehicle that does not have liability insurance coverage. If an accident occurs in a state that requires liability coverage, both parties are usually required to bring and / or submit copies of insurance cards to court as proof of liability coverage.
In some jurisdictions: Liability coverage is available either as a combined single limit policy, or as a split limit policy:
A combined single limit combines property damage liability coverage and bodily injury coverage under one single combined limit. For example, an insured driver with a combined single liability limit strikes another vehicle and injures the driver and the passenger. Payments for the damages to the other driver 's car, as well as payments for injury claims for the driver and passenger, would be paid out under this same coverage.
A split limit liability coverage policy splits the coverages into property damage coverage and bodily injury coverage. In the example given above, payments for the other driver 's vehicle would be paid out under property damage coverage, and payments for the injuries would be paid out under bodily injury coverage.
Bodily injury liability coverage is also usually split into a maximum payment per person and a maximum payment per accident.
The limits are often expressed separated by slashes in the following form: "bodily injury per person '' / "bodily injury per accident '' / "property damage ''. For example, California requires this minimum coverage:
This would be expressed as "$15,000 / $30,000 / $5,000 ''.
Another example, in the state of Oklahoma, drivers must carry at least state minimum liability limits of $25,000 / $50,000 / $25,000. If an insured driver hits a car full of people and is found by the insurance company to be liable, the insurance company will pay $25,000 of one person 's medical bills but will not exceed $50,000 for other people injured in the accident. The insurance company will not pay more than $25,000 for property damage in repairs to the vehicle that the insured one hit.
In the state of Indiana, the minimum liability limits are $25,000 / $50,000 / $10,000, so there is a greater property damage exposure for only carrying the minimum limits.
Generally, liability coverage purchased through a private insurer extends to rental cars. Comprehensive policies ("full coverage '') usually also apply to the rental vehicle, although this should be verified beforehand. Full coverage premiums are based on, among other factors, the value of the insured 's vehicle. This coverage, however, can not apply to rental cars because the insurance company does not want to assume responsibility for a claim greater than the value of the insured 's vehicle, assuming that a rental car may be worth more than the insured 's vehicle.
Most rental car companies offer insurance to cover damage to the rental vehicle. These policies may be unnecessary for many customers as credit card companies, such as Visa and MasterCard, now provide supplemental collision damage coverage to rental cars if the rental transaction is processed using one of their cards. These benefits are restrictive in terms of the types of vehicles covered.
Maine requires car insurance to rent a car.
Full coverage is the term commonly used to refer to the combination of comprehensive and collision coverages (liability is generally also implied.) The term full coverage is actually a misnomer because, even within traditional full coverage insurance, there are many different types of coverage, and many optional amounts of each. "Full coverage '' is a layman 's misnomer that often results in drivers and vehicle owners being woefully underinsured. Most responsible insurance agents or brokers do not use this term when working with their clients.
One common misconception in the United States is that vehicles that are financed on credit through a bank or credit union are required to have "full '' coverage in order for the financial institution to cover their losses in case of an accident. Insurance requirements vary between financial institutions and each state. Minimum deductibles and liability limits (required by some leasing companies) would be outlined in the loan contract. Failure to carry the required coverages may lead to the lienholder purchasing insurance and adding the cost to the monthly payments or repossession of the vehicle. Vehicles purchased with cash or paid off by the owner are generally required to only carry liability. In some cases, vehicles financed through a "buy - here - pay - here '' car dealership -- in which the consumer (generally those with poor credit) finances a car and pays the dealer directly without a bank -- may require comprehensive and collision depending on the amount owed for the vehicle.
Collision coverage provides coverage for vehicles involved in collisions. Collision coverage is subject to a deductible. This coverage is designed to provide payments to repair the damaged vehicle, or payment of the cash value of the vehicle if it is not repairable or totaled. Collision coverage is optional, however if you plan on financing a car or taking a car loan, the lender will usually insist you carry collision for the finance term or until the car is paid off. Collision Damage Waiver (CDW) or Loss Damage Waiver (LDW) is the term used by rental car companies for collision coverage.
Comprehensive, also known as other than collision coverage, provides coverage, subject to a deductible, for cars damaged by incidents that are not considered collisions. For example, fire, theft (or attempted theft), vandalism, weather, or impacts with animals are types of comprehensive losses.
Additionally, the majority of insurance companies list "Acts of God '' as an aspect of comprehensive coverage. By definition, it includes any events or occurrences that are beyond human control. For example, a tornado, flood, hurricane, or hail storm would fall under this category.
Uninsured / Underinsured coverage, also known as UM / UIM, provides coverage if an at - fault party either does not have insurance, or does not have enough insurance. In effect, the insurance company pays the insured medical bills, then would subrogate from the at fault party. This coverage is often overlooked and very important. In Colorado, for example, it was estimated in 2009 that 15 % of drivers were uninsured. Usually the limits match the liability limits. Some insurance companies do offer UM / UIM in an umbrella policy.
Some states maintain unsatisfied judgment funds to provide compensation to those who can not collect damages from uninsured driver. Typically, the payout is not more than the minimum liability limits and the negligent driver remains responsible for reimbursing the state 's fund.
In the United States, the definition of an uninsured / underinsured motorist, and corresponding coverages, are set by state laws. In some states it is mandatory. In the case of underinsured coverage, two different triggers apply: a damages trigger which is based on whether the limits are insufficient to cover the injured party 's damages, and a limits trigger which applies when the limits are less than the injured party 's limits. According to a 2009 survey by trade association Property Casualty Insurers Association of America, 29 states have a limits trigger while 20 states have a damages trigger. Another variation is whether a particular state requires stacking of policy limits of different vehicles or policies.
Loss of use coverage, also known as rental coverage, provides reimbursement for rental expenses associated with having an insured vehicle repaired due to a covered loss.
Loan / lease payoff coverage, also known as GAP coverage or GAP insurance, was established in the early 1980s to provide protection to consumers based upon buying and market trends.
Due to the sharp decline in value immediately following purchase, there is generally a period in which the amount owed on the car loan exceeds the value of the vehicle, which is called "upside - down '' or negative equity. Thus, if the vehicle is damaged beyond economical repair at this point, the owner will still owe potentially thousands of dollars on the loan. The escalating price of cars, longer - term auto loans, and the increasing popularity of leasing gave birth to GAP protection. GAP waivers provide protection for consumers when a "gap '' exists between the actual value of their vehicle and the amount of money owed to the bank or leasing company. In many instances, this insurance will also pay the deductible on the primary insurance policy. These policies are often offered at auto dealerships as a comparatively low cost add - on to the car loan that provides coverage for the duration of the loan. GAP Insurance does not always pay off the full loan value however. These cases include but are not limited to:
Therefore, it is important for a policy holder to understand that they may still owe on the loan even though the GAP policy was purchased. Failure to understand this can result in the lender continuing their legal remedies to collect the balance and the potential of damaged credit.
Consumers should be aware that a few states, including New York, require lenders of leased cars to include GAP insurance within the cost of the lease itself. This means that the monthly price quoted by the dealer must include GAP insurance, whether it is delineated or not. Nevertheless, unscrupulous dealers sometimes prey on unsuspecting individuals by offering them GAP insurance at an additional price, on top of the monthly payment, without mentioning the State 's requirements.
In addition, some vendors and insurance companies offer what is called "Total Loss Coverage. '' This is similar to ordinary GAP insurance but differs in that instead of paying off the negative equity on a vehicle that is a total loss, the policy provides a certain amount, usually up to $5000, toward the purchase or lease of a new vehicle. Thus, to some extent the distinction makes no difference, i.e., in either case the owner receives a certain sum of money. However, in choosing which type of policy to purchase, the owner should consider whether, in case of a total loss, it is more advantageous for him or her to have the policy pay off the negative equity or provide a down payment on a new vehicle.
For example, assuming a total loss of a vehicle valued at $15,000, but on which the owner owes $20,000, is the "gap '' of $5000. If the owner has traditional GAP coverage, the "gap '' will be wiped out and he or she may purchase or lease another vehicle or choose not to. If the owner has "Total Loss Coverage, '' he or she will have to personally cover the "gap '' of $5000, and then receive $5000 toward the purchase or lease of a new vehicle, thereby either reducing monthly payments, in the case of financing or leasing, or the total purchase price in the case of outright purchasing. So the decision on which type of policy to purchase will, in most instances, be informed by whether the owner can pay off the negative equity in case of a total loss and / or whether he or she will definitively purchase a replacement vehicle.
Vehicle towing coverage is also known as roadside assistance coverage. Traditionally, automobile insurance companies have agreed to only pay for the cost of a tow that is related to an accident that is covered under the automobile policy of insurance. This had left a gap in coverage for tows that are related to mechanical breakdowns, flat tires and gas outages. To fill that void, insurance companies started to offer the car towing coverage, which pays for non-accident related tows.
Personal items in a vehicle that are damaged due to an accident typically are not covered under the auto insurance policy. Any type of property that is not attached to the vehicle should be claimed under a home insurance or renters ' insurance policy. However, some insurance companies will cover unattached GPS devices intended for automobile use.
Insurers use actuarial science to determine the rates, which involves statistical analysis of the various characteristics of drivers.
In the United States, automotive insurance covering liability for injuries and property damage is compulsory in most states, but different states enforce the insurance requirement differently. In Virginia, where insurance is not compulsory, residents must pay the state a $500 annual fee per vehicle if they choose not to buy liability insurance. Penalties for not purchasing insurance vary by state, but often include a substantial fine, license and / or registration suspension or revocation, and possible jail time. Usually, the minimum required by law is third party insurance to protect third parties against the financial consequences of loss, damage or injury caused by a vehicle.
California and New Jersey have enacted "Personal Responsibility Acts '' which put further pressure on all drivers to carry liability insurance by preventing uninsured drivers from recovering non economic damages (e.g. compensation for "pain and suffering '') if they are injured in any way while operating a motor vehicle.
North Carolina is the only state to require that a driver hold liability insurance before a license can be issued. North Carolina does allow for a "fleet license '' to be issued if the license holder has no insurance, however the fleet license only allows for the driver to operate vehicles owned and insured by their employer. The license holder must produce a state form (DL - 123) to prove they have insurance, requiring the signature of an insurance agent, in addition to a ten dollar fee, in order to convert the fleet license to a full license.
Some states require that proof of insurance be carried in the car at all times, while others do not. For example, North Carolina does not specify that proof of insurance must be carried in the vehicle; it does, however, require that a driver have that information to trade with another driver in the event of an accident. Some states allow for an electronic insurance card to be produced on a smartphone
Arizona Department of Transportation Research Project Manager John Semmens has recommended that car insurers issue license plates and be held responsible for the full cost of injuries and property damage caused by their licensees under the Disneyland model. Plates would expire at the end of the insurance coverage period, and licensees would need to return their plates to their insurance office to receive a refund on their premiums. Vehicles driving without insurance would thus be easy to spot because they would not have license plates, or the plates would be past the marked expiration date.
With the invention of the automobile in the late 19th century came the inevitable side effect of automobile collisions. As automotive collisions increased in frequency, it became clear that, unlike other torts, which relied on personal responsibility, there was a possibility that automobiles would need to be governed by laws because "(t) here was no way of assuring that even though fault was assessed the victim of an automobile collision would be able to collect from the tortfeasor. ''
This led Massachusetts and Connecticut to create the first financial responsibility and compulsory insurance laws. Connecticut 's 1925 financial responsibility law required any vehicle owner involved in a collision with damages over $100 to prove "financial responsibility to satisfy any claim for damages, by reason of personal injury, to, or death of, any person, of at least $10,000. '' This early financial responsibility requirement only required vehicle owners to prove financial responsibility after their first collision. Massachusetts also introduced a law to address the problem of collisions, but theirs was a compulsory insurance, not financial responsibility law. It required automotive liability insurance as a prerequisite to vehicle registration.
Until 1956, when the New York legislature passed their compulsory insurance law, Massachusetts was the only state in the U.S. that required drivers to get insurance before registration. North Carolina followed suit in 1957 and then in the 1960s and 1970s numerous other states passed similar compulsory insurance laws. Since the genesis of automotive insurance schemes in 1925 nearly every state has adopted a compulsory insurance scheme.
Advocates of compulsory auto insurance rely on the assumption that, at least some of the time, the person at fault in a car accident wo n't be able to pay for the damage to the other person 's car. Because insurance has been mandatory in most states for so long, the data to prove this theory is somewhat sparse. Nevertheless, proponents of compulsory auto insurance argue that:
Opponents of compulsory insurance believe that it is not the best way to allocate risk among drivers. New Hampshire and Virginia do not require motor vehicle insurance. In New Hampshire vehicle owners must satisfy a personal responsibility requirement; instead of paying monthly premiums, and prove that they are capable of paying in case of an accident. In Virginia vehicle owners may pay an uninsured motorist fee. In Mississippi vehicle owners may post bonds or cash. Many insurance companies oppose compulsory auto insurance, for example: the NAII (National Association of Independent Insurers). State Farm opposes compulsory auto insurance because it forces poor to choose between groceries and insurance. A study done by Dr Robert Maril showed that, in a poor area of Arizona, 44 % said they had trouble buying food or paying rent due to auto insurance. A survey done by the Montana DPHHS showed 12 of the 96 surveyed said auto insurance was a reason for needing food stamps.
The tables below contain minimum liability requirements for vehicle owners for states within the United States. They are divided into two categories: compulsory and non compulsory. See the table on the right for an explanation of the values.
Insurers may be unwilling to insure drivers (especially at an affordable price) with particularly bad histories, which had led states to create "residual market '' programs through which insurers are required to make insurance available. There are various ways that this is accomplished, with the most common being an assigned risk plan and other programs including joint underwriting associations, reinsurance facilities, and in the case of Maryland a state - owned fund subsidized by insurers.
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is harry styles sign of the time a remake | Sign of the Times (Harry Styles song) - wikipedia
"Sign of the Times '' is the debut solo single by English singer and songwriter Harry Styles for his self - titled debut studio album. It is his first single outside of the boy band One Direction. Released on 7 April 2017, by Erskine and Columbia Records, it was written by Styles, Ryan Nasci, Mitch Rowland and its producers Jeff Bhasker, Tyler Johnson, and Alex Salibian. Musically, it was defined by critics as a multi-genre ballad, including pop rock, soft rock and glam rock. Its music video was released on 8 May.
Early rumours about Styles going on a solo career sparkled in 2015, when it was reported that Sony Music wanted Styles to release a solo album during One Direction 's hiatus. By the end of 2015, four new songs written and performed by Styles were registered on the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) online database, which was believed to be for his potential debut solo album at the time. Shortly after, Styles signed up with American agent Jeffrey Azoff and moved to Columbia Records. In September 2016, Styles was on the cover of Another Man, which led the media to expect a new album in the future.
In February 2017, chairman and CEO of Columbia Records, Rob Stringer, admitted that the album was close to finish and called it "authentic ''. A month later, it was reported that the album sounded like David Bowie and Queen, while also being revealed that he worked on the album with only one producer, Jeff Bhasker. It was also hinted that the lead single would be released in late April or early May and it sounded "like it would be a smash in any decade ''. In the same month, US radio host Elvis Duran accidentally revealed during his show that Styles ' debut single would be released on 7 April 2017. On 25 March, Styles teased the new single with a television ad during The Voice UK. On 31 March, the singer revealed through social media that his single is titled "Sign of the Times ''. On 7 April, the song premiered during Nick Grimshaw 's breakfast show on BBC Radio 1.
The song is a pop rock, soft rock, piano ballad. According to a Billboard writer, it "folds in psychedelic soul, indie rock and spacey pop ''. The "apocalyptic '' power ballad shows influences from 1970s British rock. In an interview with Rolling Stone, Styles stated, "The song is written from a point of view as if a mother was giving birth to a child and there 's a complication. The mother is told, ' The child is fine, but you 're not going to make it. ' The mother has five minutes to tell the child, ' Go forth and conquer. ' ''
According to the song credits provided by Styles ' label, the track was co-written by the song 's producer, Jeff Bhasker, as well as his frequent collaborators and track co-producers Alex Salibian and Tyler Johnson. Songwriters also include Mitch Rowland, Ryan Nasci and Styles himself. Rowland played guitar and drums, Nasci the bass and Bhasker the piano, keyboard and lap steel parts. The track was recorded at Village Studios in Los Angeles and Geejam Hotel Recording Studio in Port Antonio, Jamaica. The song was mixed by Mark "Spike '' Stent.
Directed by Woodkid, the song 's music video was released on 8 May. It features Styles singing in a meadow, and soaring in the skies, walking on water. It was described to be Styles "auditioning to be Marvel Comics next superhero or in a new biblical epic ''. It was filmed on the Isle of Skye in Scotland. The video 's stunt pilot, Will Banks, stated that Styles flew more than 1,550 feet high during the shoot. Banks also claimed that no green screen or CGI effects were employed during filming. A stunt double was used for some scenes.
Billboard 's Gil Kaufman wrote, "Every artist is an accumulation of their influences, and in (this song) they come fast and furious, as Styles appears to be both showing his range and making a clear effort to step boldly away from the manufactured, plastic pop of his past ''. Kaufman opined it "rakes in influences from Pink Floyd and David Bowie to Queen, Spacehog, Suede, Coldplay, The Beatles, Eric Carmen and Prince ''. Also for Billboard, Jason Lipshutz wrote it is "resolute, determined, wholly committed to its messaging and sound, radio trends be damned. Although it wears its influences on its sleeve (Bowie) nothing about this single bends toward someone else 's expectations ''. He concluded saying the song "sounds effortless, but to arrive without any incomplete features is an accomplishment in a music industry where pop artists are expected to produce new music at an unsustainable rate ''.
Tim Jonze of The Guardian described it as "a ballad, but not so much in the boyband style '' and compared the song to the music of American indie rock band The Walkmen. Jonze also addressed early rumors that the song would be influenced by the music of David Bowie, noting "If it is indeed Bowie-esque, then it 's the Bowie of Hunky Dory ''. Jamieson Cox in Pitchfork felt the "skyscraping Bowie ballad '' manages to sound like both fun. 's "We Are Young '' and Coldplay 's "The Scientist ''. NPR 's Ann Powers argued the song mirrors more closely "Britpop anthems '' like Blur 's "Tender '' or The Verve 's "Bittersweet Symphony '' "than anything Bowie released in his prime ''.
Writing for Rolling Stone, Brittany Spanos thought it "aligns much more with the Seventies - inspired pop - rock of One Direction 's more recent albums like Made in the A.M. ''. Anjali Raguraman from The Straits Times considered it the "strongest '' track on the album, saying "the conviction of his delivery is beyond his years ''.
In The Atlantic, Spencer Kornhaber wrote the song "continues with One Direction 's po - mo project of recycling classic - rock sounds as bubblegum. But he 's now embracing such sounds with more abandon, less chirpiness, some trend bucking, and the kind of uplifting lyrics that nod to planetary anxiety ''. Kornhaber described the song opens with ballad piano, "encroaching '' violins, and Styles "crooning in pain '', "but then there 's the bwang of a guitar and the song rockets into an arena - rock reverie that feels so, so familiar to anyone who remembers the ' 90s but also so, so foreign to today 's landscape ''.
In The Telegraph, Alice Vincent described it as a "swooning piano ballad with somewhat overdone production '' and opined, "it is also... a little boring. A big, blousy singalong which shows off Styles 's vocal prowess -- especially with an unexpected, slightly yelping falsetto bridge -- but is n't enormously fun ''. Since it was released on the 30th anniversary of Prince 's Sign o ' the Times, Spin 's Andy Cush commented, "it 's clear that this is Styles 's attempt to distinguish himself as an artist with real depth. But the music itself has almost nothing to do with Prince -- instead, think Oasis, Elton John at his most bombastic, ' 70s John Lennon ''. Cush noted it "has only those three chords, and it goes straight for cruising altitude with an onslaught of cymbals and guitar on the first chorus, expecting you to be moved without pausing to consider why ''.
Spin staff ranked it as the 13th best boy - band solo debut single. Billboard staff considered it the 5th best song of the first semester of 2017.
"Sign of the Times '' reached number one on the UK Singles Chart with a combined sales of 62,900 units. In its first week, it sold 39,000 downloads together with 3.5 million streams that give 23,472 equivalent units, pausing Ed Sheeran 's run of 13 weeks at the top of the chart with "Shape of You ''.
In the United States, the song debuted at number four on the Billboard Hot 100. In its first week, it sold 142,000 copies (topping Digital Songs), earned 16.5 million streams and 23 million airplay impressions.
Styles performed the song on 15 April 2017 episode of Saturday Night Live 's 42nd season. On 21 April, Styles appeared on the BBC 's The Graham Norton Show, for his first solo performance in his native UK. He also performed the song on The Late Late Show with James Corden. Styles performed the song on The Today Show on May 9. He also performed it at The Garage in London, England on 13 May and at the Troubadour in West Hollywood, California on 19 May. He performed it live on a French talk show, The Quotidien, on 26 April 2017.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who did jt leave in a snowbank on y&r | J.T. Hellstrom - wikipedia
J.T. Hellstrom is a fictional character from The Young and the Restless, an American soap opera on the CBS network. The role was portrayed by actor Thad Luckinbill from August 27, 1999, to November 5, 2010. Luckinbill originally appeared on a recurring basis until he was put on contract in November 2002. On November 3, 2017, it was announced that Luckinbill would reprise the role of J.T., beginning December 12, 2017.
J.T. Hellstrom is introduced in 1999 as a high school friend of Billy Abbott, Raul Guittierez, Mackenzie Browning, Brittany Hodges and Rianna Miner. He has a reputation as a ladies ' man. He dates Rianna, who he treats poorly and cheats on with Brittany. They break up and Rianna moves on with Raul.
J.T. begins a relationship with Billy 's niece, Colleen Carlton. Colleen is heartbroken when J.T. has a one night stand with Brittany 's mother, Anita, but they eventually reconcile. When Colleen feels she is getting in the way of J.T. 's budding music career, she leaves Genoa City and a heartbroken J.T.
J.T. develops unrequited feelings for Brittany. After she marries, he begins dating Mackenzie. Though he falls in love with her, he pretends to be the father of Brittany 's baby in order to protect Brittany from her husband 's enemies. The truth comes out, and he reunites with Mackenzie. Colleen returns to town wanting to reconcile with J.T. He is not interested in her because he is still devoted to Mac. He finds out Mac became pregnant with his baby, yet she did not tell him until she miscarried. He is angry that she confided in Kevin Fisher instead. Angry, he cheats on Mac with Victoria Newman. A broken - hearted Mac leaves town when he tells her. Colleen romantically pursues J.T. and is angry when she finds out he had sex with Victoria, who had recently become Colleen 's stepmother. J.T. soon reconciles with Colleen. Their relationship is strained when his work as a private investigator forces him to keep secrets from her. J.T. breaks up with her after she has an affair with Adrian Korbel. He still harbors affection toward Colleen and investigates her disappearance, including breaking into Korbel 's apartment where he finds one of Colleen 's earrings. J.T. and Korbel save Colleen from a fire, which they falsely believe was started by Kevin Fisher, who previously tried to kill Colleen. They refuse to believe Kevin when he says the fire was started by Jana, his ex-girlfriend, who set him up. Colleen is put on a respirator due to her oxygen level, and J.T. sits with her many times, admitting to her how much he loves her and how he will never stop.
He becomes engaged to Victoria. At the time, Victoria was expecting a baby that may be either J.T. 's child or the child of her estranged husband, and Colleen 's father, Brad Carlton. J.T. assures her that the paternity of Victoria 's child will make no difference for him and his plans for their life together. When Victoria is hit by a fallen rock during the Clear Springs explosion, she is left comatose. The doctors suggest that they do an emergency C - section to save Victoria, leaving the baby 's chances slim. Victor wants to save Victoria and her mother Nikki Newman wants to save the baby. J.T. is left frustrated, as he does not have a say in what happens to his fiance or "his '' son. The decision is made after Victoria 's condition takes a turn for the worse, and the baby is delivered via C - section while she is still comatose. A paternity test done when blood is removed for medical tests proved that J.T. is the father of Victoria 's son. With Victoria still comatose, J.T. decides that their son needs a name. He names the baby Reed, after Victoria 's mother 's maiden name, and because a reed is strong and bends with the wind.
Victoria 's father, Victor Newman, hires J.T. to investigate Nikki 's fiance David Chow. When J.T. inadvertently tips Nikki off by the way he is questioning her, Victor fires J.T. He has some unease about the strong role Victor plays in the lives of the Newman family, but when Victor offers him a job as head of Newman Enterprises security, J.T. accepts. Victoria wakes up and reunites with J.T. and Reed. He and Victoria are married several days later. Victor then asks J.T. to investigate Colleen in order to take away her seat on the Newman Board. J.T quits his job at Newman and begins working with Paul. Colleen dies in October 2009 from drowning. J.T. is heartbroken and admits to Colleen that he loves her, which ultimately brings the end to his marriage with Victoria as they decide to divorce. During this time, he relies more and more on the pregnant Mackenzie, his former high school girlfriend for support. He seeks and receives full custody of his son, Reed. He especially does not want Reed to be around his maternal grandfather, Victor. Victoria has vowed to fight and overturn the judge 's ruling, with the help of her family. J.T. reunites with Mac, however, J.T. 's current job, spying on Newman Enterprises and gaining information on it for Tucker McCall, puts a strain on their relationship. In September, Mac tells J.T. that she may be pregnant with their second child, the first ending in a miscarriage.
When a powerful storm / tornado hits the Genoa City area, J.T. gets into an accident, as his car hits a tree when he tries to get to Cane Ashby and Lily Winters at the lake retreat. After he regains consciousness, J.T. tries to get moving again but gets electrocuted when a power pole hits his car, causing him to fall back into his car. Mac and Reed are at the Athletic Club waiting for him to return. Lily and Cane discover him on the side of the road when they are returning to Genoa City. Lily goes to call for help, and Cane performs CPR. Earlier in the day, J.T. had proposed to Mac, but she had turned him down. When the tornado was over, while J.T. was hospitalized for electrocution, she realized life 's unpredictability. After pleading with him to wake up, she whispers, "I love you, '' in his ear, and then accepts his proposal. J.T. and Mac move to Washington, D.C., taking Reed with them. In 2011, it 's revealed that J.T. and Mackenzie welcomed a son, Dylan Hellstrom. The couple gets well wishes and congratulations from Victoria, Billy and Kevin.
In 2017, J.T. returns to Genoa City to investigate Victor 's personal bank accounts, following some "sizable '' transfers to off - shore accounts.
J.T. 's relationship with Colleen Carlton is regarded as one of the show 's super couples. They were immensely popular despite their controversial age difference. J.T. was most popular when paired with Colleen, the tough yet innately sweet young sophomore.
In August 2009, J.T. and Colleen admit to still having feelings for each other and eventually kiss, leading J.T. 's wife at the time Victoria Newman to sleep with Deacon Sharpe.
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what members of the community has the most power in the massachusetts bay colony | Massachusetts Bay colony - wikipedia
Massachusetts Maine
The Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628 -- 1691) was an English settlement on the east coast of North America in the 17th century around the Massachusetts Bay, the northernmost of the several colonies later reorganized as the Province of Massachusetts Bay. The lands of the settlement were located in southern New England in Massachusetts, with initial settlements situated on two natural harbors and surrounding land, about 15.4 miles (24.8 km) apart -- the areas around Salem and Boston.
The territory nominally administered by the colony covered much of central New England, including portions of Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, and Connecticut. Territory claimed but never administered by the colonial government extended as far west as the Pacific Ocean. The earlier Dutch colony of New Netherlands disputed many of these claims, arguing that they held rights to lands beyond Rhode Island up to the western side of Cape Cod and the Plymouth Colony.
The Massachusetts Bay Colony was founded by the owners of the Massachusetts Bay Company, which included investors in the failed Dorchester Company that had established a short - lived settlement on Cape Ann in 1623. The colony began in 1628 and was the company 's second attempt at colonization. It was successful, with about 20,000 people migrating to New England in the 1630s. The population was strongly Puritan, and its governance was dominated by a small group of leaders who were strongly influenced by Puritan religious leaders. Its governors were elected, and the electorate were limited to freemen who had been examined for their religious views and formally admitted to the local church. As a consequence, the colonial leadership exhibited intolerance to other religious views, including Anglican, Quaker, and Baptist theologies.
The colonists initially had good relationships with the local Indian populations, but frictions developed that ultimately led to the Pequot War (1636 -- 38) and then to King Philip 's War (1675 -- 78), after which most of the Indians in southern New England made peace treaties with the colonists (apart from the Pequot tribe, whose survivors were largely absorbed into the Narragansett and Mohegan tribes following the Pequot War).
The colony was economically successful, engaging in trade with England and the West Indies. A shortage of hard currency in the colony prompted it to establish a mint in 1652. Political differences with England after the English Restoration led to the revocation of the colonial charter in 1684. King James II established the Dominion of New England in 1686 to bring all of the New England colonies under firmer crown control. The dominion collapsed after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 deposed James, and the colony reverted to rule under the revoked charter until 1691, when a new charter was issued for the Province of Massachusetts Bay. This province combined the Massachusetts Bay territories with those of the Plymouth Colony and proprietary holdings on Nantucket and Martha 's Vineyard. Sir William Phips arrived in 1692 bearing the charter and formally took charge of the new province. The political and economic dominance of New England by the modern state of Massachusetts was made possible in part by the early dominance in these spheres by the Massachusetts Bay colonists.
Prior to the arrival of European colonists on the eastern shore of New England, the area around Massachusetts Bay was the territory of several Algonquian - speaking tribes, including the Massachusetts, Nausets, and Wampanoags. The Pennacooks occupied the Merrimack River valley to the north, and the Nipmucs, Pocumtucs, and Mahicans occupied the western lands of Massachusetts, although some of those tribes were under tribute to the Mohawks, who were expanding aggressively from upstate New York. The total Indian population in 1620 has been estimated to be 7,000. This number was significantly larger as late as 1616; in later years, contemporaneous chroniclers interviewed Indians who described a major pestilence which killed as many as two - thirds of the population. The land - use patterns of the Indians included plots cleared for agricultural purposes and woodland territories for hunting game. Land divisions among the tribes were well understood.
During the early 17th century, several European explorers charted the area, including Samuel de Champlain and John Smith. Plans began in 1606 for the first permanent British settlements on the east coast of North America. On April 10, 1606, King James I of England granted a charter forming two joint - stock companies. Neither of these corporations was given a name by this charter, but the territories were named as the "first Colony '' and "second Colony '', over which they were respectively authorized to settle and to govern. Under this charter, the "first Colony '' and the "second Colony '' were to be ruled by a Council composed of 13 individuals in each colony. The charter provided for an additional council of 13 persons named "Council of Virginia '' which had overarching responsibility for the combined enterprise.
The "first Colony '' ranged from the 34th - to 41st - degree latitude north; the "second Colony '' ranged from the 38th - to 45th - degree latitude. (Note that the "first Colony '' and the "second Colony '' overlapped. The 1629 charter of Charles I asserted that the second Colony ranged from 40th to 48th degrees north latitude, which reduced the overlap.) Investors from London were appointed to govern over any settlements in the "first Colony ''; investors from the "Town of Plimouth in the County of Devon '' were appointed to govern over any settlements in the "second Colony ''. The London Company proceeded to establish Jamestown. The Plymouth Company under the guidance of Sir Ferdinando Gorges covered the more northern area, including New England, and established the Sagadahoc Colony in 1607 in Maine. The experience proved exceptionally difficult for the 120 settlers, however, and the surviving colonists abandoned the colony after only one year. Gorges noted that "there was no more speech of settling plantations in those parts '' for a number of years. English ships continued to come to the New England area for fishing and trade with the Indians.
In December 1620, a group of Pilgrims established Plymouth Colony just to the south of Massachusetts Bay, seeking to preserve their cultural identity and attain religious freedom. Plymouth 's colonists faced great hardships and earned few profits for their investors, who sold their interests to them in 1627. Edward Winslow and William Bradford were two of the colony 's leaders and were likely the authors of a work published in England in 1622 called Mourt 's Relation. This book in some ways resembles a promotional tract intended to encourage further immigration. There were other short - lived colonial settlements in 1623 and 1624 at Weymouth, Massachusetts; Thomas Weston 's Wessagusset Colony failed, as did an effort by Robert Gorges to establish an overarching colonial structure.
In 1623, the Plymouth Council for New England (successor to the Plymouth Company) established a small fishing village at Cape Ann under the supervision of the Dorchester Company, with Thomas Gardner as its overseer. This company was originally organized through the efforts of Puritan minister John White (1575 -- 1648) of Dorchester, in the English county of Dorset. White has been called "the father of the Massachusetts Colony '' because of his influence in establishing this settlement and despite the fact that he never emigrated. The Cape Ann settlement was not profitable, and the financial backers of the Dorchester Company terminated their support by the end of 1625. Their settlement was abandoned at present - day Gloucester, but a few settlers remained in the area, including Roger Conant, establishing a settlement a little further south, near the village of the Naumkeag tribe.
Archbishop William Laud was a favorite advisor of King Charles I and a dedicated Anglican, and he sought to suppress the religious practices of Puritans and other nonconforming beliefs in England. The persecution of many Puritans in the 1620s led them to believe that religious reform would not be possible while Charles was king, and many decided to seek a new life in the New World.
John White continued to seek funding for a colony. On 19 March 1627 / 8, the Council for New England issued a land grant to a new group of investors that included a few from the Dorchester Company. The land grant was for territory between the Charles River and Merrimack River that extended from "the Atlantick and westerne sea and ocean on the east parte, to the South sea on the west parte. '' The company to whom the grant was sold was styled "The New England Company for a Plantation in Massachusetts Bay ''. The company elected Matthew Cradock as its first governor and immediately began organizing provisions and recruiting settlers.
The company sent approximately 100 new settlers with provisions to join Conant in 1628, led by Governor 's Assistant John Endecott, one of the grantees. The next year, Naumkeag was renamed Salem and fortified by another 300 settlers led by Rev. Francis Higginson, one of the first ministers of the settlement. The first winters were difficult, with colonists struggling against starvation and disease, resulting in numerous deaths.
The company leaders sought a Royal Charter for the colony because they were concerned about the legality of conflicting land claims given to several companies (including the New England Company) for the little - known territories of the New World, and because of the increasing number of Puritans who wanted to join them. Charles granted the new charter on 4 March 1628 / 9, superseding the land grant and establishing a legal basis for the new English colony at Massachusetts. It was not apparent whether Charles knew that the Company was meant to support the Puritan emigration, and he was likely left to assume that it was purely for business purposes, as was the custom. The charter omitted a significant clause: the location for the annual stockholders ' meeting. Charles dissolved Parliament in 1629, whereupon the company 's directors met to consider the possibility of moving the company 's seat of governance to the colony. This was followed by the Cambridge Agreement later that year, in which a group of investors agreed to emigrate and work to buy out others who would not emigrate.
The Massachusetts Bay Colony became the first English chartered colony whose board of governors did not reside in England. This independence helped the settlers to maintain their Puritan religious practices without interference from the king, Archbishop Laud, or the Anglican Church. The charter remained in force for 55 years; Charles II revoked it in 1684. Parliament passed legislation collectively called the Navigation Acts which attempted to prevent the colonists from trading with any nation other than England. Colonial resistance to those acts led King Charles to revoke the Massachusetts charter and consolidate all the colonies in New England, New York, and New Jersey into the Dominion of New England.
A flotilla of ships sailed from England beginning in April 1630, sometimes known as the Winthrop Fleet. They began arriving at Salem in June and carried more than 700 colonists, Governor John Winthrop, and the colonial charter. Winthrop delivered his famous sermon "City upon a Hill '' either before or during the voyage.
For the next ten years, there was a steady exodus of Puritans from England, with about 20,000 people emigrating to Massachusetts and the neighboring colonies during the Great Migration. Many ministers reacted to the repressive religious policies of England, making the trip with their congregations, among whom were John Cotton, Roger Williams, Thomas Hooker, and others. Religious divisions and the need for additional land prompted a number of new settlements that resulted in Connecticut Colony (by Hooker) and the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (by Williams and others). Minister John Wheelwright was banished in the wake of the Antinomian Controversy (like Anne Hutchinson), and he moved north to found Exeter, New Hampshire.
The advent of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in 1639 brought a halt to major migration, and a significant number of men returned to England to fight in the war. Massachusetts authorities were sympathetic to the Parliamentary cause and had generally positive relationships with the governments of the English Commonwealth and the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell. The colony 's economy began to diversify in the 1640s, as the fur trading, lumber, and fishing industries found markets in Europe and the West Indies, and the colony 's shipbuilding industry developed. The growth of a generation of people who were born in the colony and the rise of a merchant class began to slowly change the political and cultural landscape of the colony, even though its governance continued to be dominated by relatively conservative Puritans.
Colonial support for the Commonwealth created tension after the throne was restored to Charles II in 1660. Charles sought to extend royal influence over the colonies, which Massachusetts resisted along with the other colonies. For example, the Massachusetts Bay colony repeatedly refused requests by Charles and his agents to allow the Church of England to become established, and the New England colonies in general resisted the Navigation Acts, laws that restricted colonial trade to England alone.
All of the New England colonies were ravaged by King Philip 's War (1675 -- 76), when the Indians of southern New England rose up against the colonists and were decisively defeated, although at great cost in life to all concerned. The Massachusetts frontier was particularly hard hit, with several communities being abandoned in the Connecticut and Swift River valleys. By the end of the war, most of the Indian population of southern New England made peace treaties with the colonists.
Following the English Restoration in 1660, matters of colonial administration drew the king 's attention. Massachusetts in particular was reluctant to agree that the king had any sort of authority to control its governance. This led to crises in the 1660s and late 1670s in which steps were first planned, and then executed in England to vacate the colonial charter. The Lords of Trade had decided for a variety of reasons to consolidate the New England colonies; they issued quo warranto writs in 1681 for the charters of several North American colonies, including Massachusetts. The Massachusetts writ was never served for technical reasons, and the charter was not formally vacated until the chancery court issued a scire facias writ formally annulling the charter on June 18, 1684. The proceedings were arranged so that the time had expired for the colonial authorities to defend the charter, before they even learned of the event.
From 1686, the colony 's territory was administratively unified by James II of England with the other New England colonies in the Dominion of New England. The dominion was governed by Sir Edmund Andros without any local representation beyond hand - picked councillors, and was extremely unpopular in New England. Massachusetts authorities conspired to have Andros arrested in April 1689 after the 1688 Glorious Revolution in England, and they reestablished government under the forms of the vacated charter. However, dissenters from the Puritan rule argued that the government lacked a proper constitutional foundation, and some of its actions were resisted on that basis. The years from 1689 to 1692 were also difficult ones, since the colony was at the forefront of King William 's War, and its frontier communities were ravaged by attacks organized in New France and conducted by French and Indian raiding parties.
King William III issued a charter in 1691, despite efforts by Massachusetts agents to revive the old colonial charter. It was chiefly negotiated by Increase Mather in his role as the colony 's ambassador - extraordinary, unifying Massachusetts Bay with Plymouth Colony, Martha 's Vineyard, Nantucket, and territories that roughly encompass present - day Maine, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia to form the Province of Massachusetts Bay. This new charter additionally extended voting rights to non-Puritans, an outcome that Mather had tried to avoid.
Life could be quite difficult in the early years of the colony. Many colonists lived in fairly crude structures, including dugouts, wigwams, and dirt - floor huts made using wattle and daub construction. Construction improved in later years, and houses began to be sheathed in clapboard, with thatch or plank roofs and wooden chimneys. Wealthier individuals would extend their house by adding a leanto on the back, which allowed a larger kitchen (possibly with a brick or stone chimney including an oven), additional rooms, and a sleeping loft. These houses were the precursors to what is now called the saltbox style of architecture. Interiors became more elaborate in later years, with plaster walls, wainscoting, and potentially expensive turned woodwork in the most expensive homes.
Colonists arriving after the first wave found that the early towns did not have room for them. Seeking land of their own, groups of families would petition the government for land on which to establish a new town; the government would typically allow the group 's leaders to select the land. These grants were typically about 40 square miles (10,000 ha), and were located sufficiently near other towns to facilitate defense and social support. The group leaders would also be responsible for acquiring native title to the lands that they selected. By this means, the colony expanded into the interior, spawning settlements in adjacent territories as well.
The land within a town would be divided by communal agreement, usually allocating by methods that originated in England. Outside a town center, land would be allocated for farming, some of which might be held communally. Farmers with large plots of land might build a house near their properties on the outskirts of the town. A town center that was well laid out would be fairly compact, with a tavern, school, possibly some small shops, and a meeting house that was used for civic and religious functions. The meeting house would be the center of the town 's political and religious life. Church services might be held for several hours on Wednesday and all day Sunday. Puritans did not observe annual holidays, especially Christmas, which they said had pagan roots. Annual town meetings would be held at the meeting house, generally in May, to elect the town 's representatives to the general court and to transact other community business. Towns often had a village green, used for outdoor celebrations and activities such as military exercises of the town 's trainband or militia.
Many of the early colonists who migrated from England came with some or all of their family. It was expected that individuals would marry fairly young and begin producing offspring. Infant mortality rates were comparatively low, as were instances of childhood death. Men who lost their wives often remarried fairly quickly, especially if they had children needing care. Older widows would also sometimes marry for financial security. It was also normal for older widowed parents to live with one of their children. Due to the Puritan perception of marriage as a civil union, divorce did sometimes occur and could be pursued by both genders.
Sexual activity was expected to be confined to marriage. Sex outside of marriage was considered fornication if neither partner was married, and adultery if one or both were married to someone else. Fornication was generally punished by fines and pressure to marry; a woman who gave birth to an illegitimate child could also be fined. Adultery and rape were more serious crimes, and both were punishable by death. Rape, however, required more than one witness, and was therefore rarely prosecuted. Sexual activity between men was called sodomy, and was also punishable by death.
Within the marriage, the husband was typically responsible for supplying the family 's financial needs, although it was not uncommon for women to work in the fields and to perform some sort of home labor (for example, spinning thread or weaving cloth) to supplement the family income. Women were almost exclusively responsible for seeing to the welfare of the children.
Children were baptized at the local meeting house within a week of being born. The mother was usually not present because she was still recovering from the birth, and the child 's name was usually chosen by the father. Names were propagated within the family, and names would be reused when infants died. If an adult died without issue, his (or her) name could be carried on when the siblings of the deceased named children in his memory.
Most children received some form of schooling, something which the colony 's founders believed to be important for forming a proper relationship with God. Towns were obligated to provide education for their children, which was usually satisfied by hiring a teacher of some sort. The quality of these instructors varied, from minimally educated local people to Harvard - educated ministers.
The structure of the colonial government changed over the lifetime of the charter. The Puritans established a theocratic government with the franchise limited to church members. Winthrop, Dudley, the Rev. John Cotton, and other leaders zealously sought to prevent any independence of religious views, and many with differing religious beliefs -- including Roger Williams of Salem and Anne Hutchinson of Boston, as well as unrepentant Quakers and Anabaptists -- were banished. By the mid-1640s Massachusetts Bay Colony had grown to more than 20,000 inhabitants.
The charter granted the general court the authority to elect officers and to make laws for the colony. Its first meeting in America was held in October 1630, but it was attended by only eight freemen. They formed the first council of assistants, and voted (contrary to the terms of the charter) that the governor and deputy should be elected by them, from their number. This was modified in the next session of the general court, in which the governor and deputy were to be elected by the general court.
An additional 116 settlers were admitted to the general court as freemen in 1631, but most of the governing power, as well as the judicial power, remained with the council of assistants. They also enacted a law specifying that only those men who "are members of some of the churches '' in the colony were eligible to become freemen and gain the vote. This restriction on the franchise was not liberalized until after the English Restoration. The process by which individuals became members of one of the colony 's churches involved a detailed questioning by the church elders of their beliefs and religious experiences; as a result, only individuals whose religious views accorded with those of the church leadership were likely to become members and gain the ability to vote in the colony. After a protest over the imposition of taxes by a meeting of the council of assistants, the general court ordered each town to send two representatives, known as deputies, to meet with the court to discuss matters of taxation.
Questions of governance and representation arose again in 1634, when several deputies demanded to see the charter, which the assistants had kept hidden from public view. The deputies learned of the provisions that the general court should make all laws, and that all freemen should be members of the general court. They then demanded that the charter be enforced to the letter, which Governor Winthrop pointed out was impractical given the growing number of freemen. The parties reached a compromise, and agreed that the general court would be made up of two deputies elected by each town. The 1634 election resulted in the election of Dudley as governor, and the general court proceeded to reserve for itself a large number of powers, including those of taxation, distribution of land, and the admission of freemen.
The transformation was complete: a trading company had become a (somewhat) representative democracy. A legal case in 1642 brought about the separation of the council of assistants into an upper house of the general court. The case involved a widow 's lost pig and had been overturned by the general court; but the assistants had sat in judicial decision on the case and voted as a body to veto the general court 's act. The consequence of the ensuing debate was that the general court voted in 1644 that the council of assistants would sit and deliberate separately from the general court (they had sat together until then), the concurrence of both bodies being required for the passage of legislation. Judicial appeals were to be decided by a joint session, since otherwise the assistants would be in the position to veto attempts to overturn their own decisions. A group of emigrants had bought all the Massachusetts Bay Company 's stock and brought the Charter to America in 1630; neither the English king nor Parliament nor an English company exerted any influence in Massachusetts Bay Colony. So it was in effect a self - ruling republic for some decades, also practicing separation of powers.
In 1641, the colony formally adopted the Massachusetts Body of Liberties, written or compiled as its first code of laws by Nathaniel Ward. This document consisted of 100 civil and criminal laws based upon the social sanctions recorded in the Bible. These laws formed the nucleus of colonial legislation until independence, and contained some provisions that were later incorporated into the United States Constitution, such as the ideas of equal protection and double jeopardy.
On the other hand, Massachusetts Bay was the first colony to legalize slavery with provision 91 of the Massachusetts Body of Liberties, which developed protections for people who were unable to perform public service. Another law was developed to protect married women, children, and people with mental disabilities from making financial decisions. Colonial law differentiated among types of mental disabilities, classifying them as "distracted persons, '' "idiots, '' and "lunaticks ''. In 1693, "poor laws '' enabled communities to use the estates of people with disabilities to defer the cost of community support of those individuals. Many of these laws remained until the American Revolution.
Many behaviors were frowned upon culturally which modern sensibilities might consider relatively trivial actions, and some led to criminal prosecution. These included sleeping during church services, playing cards, and engaging in any number of activities on the Sabbath. Conversely, there were laws which reflected attitudes that are still endorsed by popular sensibilities in 21st century America, against things such as smoking tobacco, abusing one 's mother - in - law, profane dancing, and pulling hair. Children, newcomers, and people with disabilities were exempt from punishment for such infractions.
The colony 's council of assistants sat as the final court of appeal and as the principal court for criminal issues of "life, limb, or banishment '' and civil issues where the damages exceeded £ 100. Lesser offenses were heard in county courts or by commissioners appointed for hearing minor disputes. The lower courts were also responsible for issuing licenses and for matters such as probate. Juries were authorized to decide questions of both fact and law, although the court was able to decide in the event that a jury failed to reach a decision. Sentences for offenses included fines and corporal punishments such as whipping and sitting in the stocks, with the punishments of banishment from the colony and death by hanging being reserved for the most serious offenses. Evidence was sometimes based on hearsay and superstition. For example, the "ordeal of touch '' was used in 1646, in which someone accused of murder is forced to touch the dead body; if blood appears, the accused is deemed guilty. This was used to convict and execute a woman accused of murdering her newborn child. Bodies of individuals hanged for piracy were sometimes gibbeted (publicly displayed) on harbor islands visible to seagoing vessels.
One of the first people to be executed in the colony was Dorothy Talbye, who was apparently delusional. She was hanged in 1638 for murdering her daughter, as the common law of Massachusetts made no distinction at the time between insanity (or mental illness) and criminal behavior. Midwife Margaret Jones was convicted of being a witch and hanged in 1648 after the condition of patients allegedly worsened in her care.
The colonial leadership was the most active in New England in the persecution of Quakers. In 1660, one of the most notable instances was English Quaker Mary Dyer who was hanged in Boston for repeatedly defying a law banning Quakers from the colony. Dyer was one of the four executed Quakers known as the Boston martyrs. Executions ceased in 1661 when King Charles II explicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism.
In 1643, Massachusetts Bay joined Plymouth Colony, Connecticut Colony, and New Haven Colony in the New England Confederation, a loose coalition organized primarily to coordinate military and administrative matters among the Puritan colonies. It was most active in the 1670s during King Philip 's War. (New Hampshire had not yet been organized as a separate province, and both it and Rhode Island were excluded because they were not Puritan.)
In the early years, the colony was highly dependent on the import of staples from England and was supported by the investments of a number of wealthy immigrants. Certain businesses were quick to thrive, notably shipbuilding, fisheries, and the fur and lumber trades. As early as 1632, ships built in the colony began trading with other colonies, England, and foreign ports in Europe. By 1660, the colony 's merchant fleet was estimated at 200 ships and, by the end of the century, its shipyards were estimated to turn out several hundred ships annually. In the early years, the fleet principally carried fish to destinations from the West Indies to Europe. It was common for a merchant to ship dried fish to Portugal or Spain, pick up wine and oil for transport to England, and then carry finished goods from England or elsewhere back to the colony. This and other patterns of trade became illegal following the introduction of the Navigation Acts in 1651, turning colonial merchants who continued these trading patterns into de facto smugglers. Many colonial authorities were merchants or were politically dependent on them, and they opposed being required by the crown to collect duties imposed by those acts.
The fur trade only played a modest role in the colony 's economy because its rivers did not connect its centers well with the Indians who engaged in fur trapping. Timber began to take on an increasingly important role in the economy, especially for naval purposes, after conflicts between England and the Dutch depleted England 's supplies of ship masts.
The colony 's economy depended on the success of its trade, in part because its land was not as suitable for agriculture as that of other colonies such as Virginia, where large plantations could be established. The fishery was important enough that those involved in it were exempted from taxation and military service. Larger communities supported craftsmen skilled in providing many of the necessities of 17th century life. Some income - producing activities took place in the home, such as carding, spinning, and weaving of wool and other fibers.
Goods were transported to local markets over roads that were sometimes little more than widened Indian trails. Towns were required to maintain their roads, on penalty of fines, and the colony required special town commissions to lay out roads in a more sensible manner in 1639. Bridges were fairly uncommon, since they were expensive to maintain, and fines were imposed on their owners for the loss of life or goods if they failed. Consequently, most river crossings were made by ferry. Notable exceptions were a bridge across the Mystic River constructed in 1638, and another over the Saugus River, whose upkeep costs were subsidized by the colony.
The colonial government attempted to regulate the economy in a number of ways. On several occasions, it passed laws regulating wages and prices of economically important goods and services, but most of these initiatives did not last very long. The trades of shoe - making and coopering (barrel - making) were authorized to form guilds, making it possible to set price, quality, and expertise levels for their work. The colony set standards governing the use of weights and measures. For example, mill operators were required to weigh grain before and after milling, to ensure that the customer received back what he delivered (minus the miller 's percentage).
The Puritan dislike of ostentation led the colony to also regulate expenditures on what it perceived as luxury items. Items of personal adornment were frowned upon, such as lace and costly silk outerwear in particular. Attempts to ban these items failed, and the colony resorted to laws restricting their display to those who could demonstrate £ 200 in assets.
Most of the people who arrived during the first 12 years emigrated from two regions of England. Many of the colonists came from the county of Lincolnshire and East Anglia, northeast of London, and a large group also came from Devon, Somerset, and Dorset in the southwest of England. These areas provided the bulk of the migration, although colonists also came from other regions of England. The pattern of migration often centered around specific Nonconformist clergy who sought to leave England under threat from Archbishop Laud, who encouraged their flock to accompany them. One characteristic unique to the New England colonies (as distinguished from some of the other English colonies) was that most of the immigrants were emigrating for religious and political reasons, rather than economic ones.
The preponderance of the immigrants were well - to - do gentry and skilled craftsmen. They brought with them apprentices and servants, the latter of whom were sometimes in indentured servitude. Few titled nobility emigrated, even though some supported the emigration politically and financially and also acquired land holdings in Massachusetts and other colonies. Merchants also represented a significant proportion of the migrants, often the children of the gentry, and they played an important role in establishing the economy of the colony.
With the start of the English Civil War in 1642, emigration came to a comparative standstill, and some colonists even returned to England to fight for the Parliamentary cause. In the following years, most of the immigrants came for economic reasons; they were merchants, seamen, and skilled craftsmen. Following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, the colony also saw in an influx of French Protestant Huguenots. During the period of the charter colony, small numbers of Scots immigrated, but these were assimilated into the colony. The population of Massachusetts remained largely English in character until the 1840s.
Slavery existed but was not widespread within the colony. Some Indians captured in the Pequot War were enslaved, with those posing the greatest threat being transported to the West Indies and exchanged for goods and slaves. Governor John Winthrop owned a few Indian slaves, and Governor Simon Bradstreet owned two black slaves. The Body of Liberties enacted in 1641 included rules governing the treatment and handling of slaves. Bradstreet reported in 1680 that the colony had 100 to 120 slaves, but historian Hugh Thomas documents evidence suggesting that there may have been a somewhat larger number.
The Massachusetts colony was dominated by its rivers and coastline. Major rivers included the Charles and Merrimack, as well as a portion of the Connecticut River, which has been used to transport furs and timbers to Long Island Sound. Cape Ann juts into the Gulf of Maine, providing harbors for fishermen plying the fishing banks to the east, and Boston 's harbor provided secure anchorage for seagoing commercial vessels. Development in Maine was restricted to coastal areas, and large inland areas remained under native control until after King Philip 's War, particularly the uplands in what is now Worcester County.
The colonial charter specified that the boundaries were to be from three miles (4.8 km) north of the Merrimack River to three miles south of the southernmost point of the Charles River and thence westward to the "South Sea '' (i.e., the Pacific Ocean). At the time, the course of neither of the rivers was known for any significant length, which eventually led to boundary disputes with the colony 's neighbors. The colony 's claims were large, but the practicalities of the time meant that they never actually controlled any land further west than the Connecticut River valley. The colony also claimed additional lands by conquest and purchase, further extending the territory that it administered.
The southeastern boundary with the Plymouth Colony was first surveyed in 1639 and accepted by both colonies in 1640. It is known in Massachusetts as the "Old Colony Line '', and is still visible as the boundary between Norfolk County to the north and Bristol and Plymouth Counties to the south.
The northern boundary was originally thought to be roughly parallel to the latitude of the mouth of the Merrimack River, since the river was assumed to flow primarily west. This was found not to be the case and, in 1652, Governor Endicott sent a survey party to locate the northernmost point on the Merrimack. At the point where the Pemigewasset River, the Merrimack 's principal tributary, meets the Winnipesaukee River local Indians guided the party to the outlet of Lake Winnipesaukee, incorrectly claiming that as the Merrimack 's source. The survey party carved lettering into a rock there (now called Endicott Rock), and its latitude was taken to be the colony 's northern boundary. When extended eastward, this line was found to meet the Atlantic near Casco Bay in present - day Maine.
Following this discovery, the colonial magistrates began proceedings to bring existing settlements under their authority in southern New Hampshire and Maine. This extension of the colonial claim conflicted with several proprietary grants owned by the heirs of John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges. The Mason heirs pursued their claims in England, and the result was the formation of the Province of New Hampshire in 1679. The current boundary between Massachusetts and New Hampshire was not fixed until 1741. In 1678, the colony purchased the claims of the Gorges heirs, gaining control over the territory between the Piscataqua and Kennebec Rivers. The colony and later the province and state retained control of Maine until it was granted statehood in 1820.
The colony performed a survey in 1642 to determine its southern boundary west to the Connecticut River. This line, south of the present boundary, was protested by Connecticut, but stood until the 1690s, when Connecticut performed its own survey. Most of today 's Massachusetts boundaries with its neighbors were fixed in the 18th century. The most significant exception was the eastern boundary with Rhode Island, which required extensive litigation, including Supreme Court rulings, before it was finally resolved in 1862.
Lands which had previously belonged to the Pequots to the southwest were divided after the Pequot War in present - day Rhode Island and eastern Connecticut. Claims were disputed in this area for many years, particularly between Connecticut and Rhode Island. Massachusetts administered Block Island and the area around present - day Stonington, Connecticut as part of these spoils of war, and was one of several claimants to land in what was known as Narragansett Country (roughly Washington County, Rhode Island). Massachusetts lost all of these territories in the 1660s, when Connecticut and Rhode Island received their royal charters.
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which of the following is an effect of a depressant drug | Depressant - wikipedia
A depressant, or central depressant, is a drug that lowers neurotransmission levels, which is to depress or reduce arousal or stimulation, in various areas of the brain. Depressants are also occasionally referred to as "downers '' as they lower the level of arousal when taken. Stimulants or "uppers '' increase mental and / or physical function, hence the opposite drug class of depressants is stimulants, not antidepressants.
Depressants are widely used throughout the world as prescription medicines and as illicit substances. Alcohol is a very prominent depressant. Alcohol can be and is more likely to be a large problem between teenagers and young adults. When depressants are used, effects often include ataxia, anxiolysis, pain relief, sedation or somnolence, and cognitive / memory impairment, as well as in some instances euphoria, dissociation, muscle relaxation, lowered blood pressure or heart rate, respiratory depression, and anticonvulsant effects, and even complete anesthesia or death at high doses.
Depressants exert their effects through a number of different pharmacological mechanisms, the most prominent of which include facilitation of GABA, and inhibition of glutamatergic or monoaminergic activity. Other examples are chemicals that modify the electrical signaling inside the body. The most prominent of these being bromides and channel blockers.
Depressants are used medicinally to relieve the following symptoms:
An alcoholic beverage is a drink that contains alcohol (also known formally as ethanol), an anesthetic that has been used as a psychoactive drug for several millennia. Ethanol is the oldest recreational drug still used by humans. Ethanol can cause alcohol intoxication when consumed. Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general classes for taxation and regulation of production: beers, wines, and spirits (distilled beverages). They are legally consumed in most countries around the world. More than 100 countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption.
The most common way to measure intoxication for legal or medical purposes is through blood alcohol content (also called blood alcohol concentration or blood alcohol level). It is usually expressed as a percentage of alcohol in the blood in units of mass of alcohol per volume of blood, or mass of alcohol per mass of blood, depending on the country. For instance, in North America a blood alcohol content of "0.10 '' or more correctly 0.10 g / dL means that there are 0.10 g of alcohol for every dL of blood (i.e., mass per volume is used there).
Barbiturates are effective in relieving the conditions that they are designed to address. They are also commonly used for unapproved purposes, physically addictive, and have serious potential for overdose. When, in the late 1950s, many thought that the social cost of barbiturates was beginning to outweigh the medical benefits, a serious search began for a replacement drug. Most people still using barbiturates today do so in the prevention of seizures or in mild form for relief from the symptoms of migraines.
A benzodiazepine (sometimes colloquially "benzo ''; often abbreviated "BZD '') is a drug whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring. The first such drug, chlordiazepoxide (Librium), was discovered accidentally by Leo Sternbach in 1955, and made available in 1960 by Hoffmann -- La Roche, which has also marketed the benzodiazepine diazepam (Valium) since 1963.
Benzodiazepines enhance the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma - aminobutyric acid (GABA) at the GABA receptor, resulting in sedative, hypnotic (sleep - inducing), anxiolytic (anti-anxiety), anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties; also seen in the applied pharmacology of high doses of many shorter - acting benzodiazepines are amnesic - dissociative actions. These properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety, insomnia, agitation, seizures, muscle spasms, alcohol withdrawal and as a premedication for medical or dental procedures. Benzodiazepines are categorized as either short -, intermediate -, or long - acting. Short - and intermediate - acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia; longer - acting benzodiazepines are recommended for the treatment of anxiety.
In general, benzodiazepines are safe and effective in the short term, although cognitive impairments and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition occasionally occur. A minority react reverse and contrary to what would normally be expected. For example, a state of panic may worsen considerably following intake of a benzodiazepine. Long - term use is controversial due to concerns about adverse psychological and physical effects, increased questioning of effectiveness, and, because benzodiazepines are prone to cause tolerance, physical dependence, and, upon cessation of use after long - term use, a withdrawal syndrome. Due to adverse effects associated with the long - term use of benzodiazepines, withdrawal from benzodiazepines, in general, leads to improved physical and mental health. The elderly are at an increased risk of suffering from both short - and long - term adverse effects.
There is controversy concerning the safety of benzodiazepines in pregnancy. While they are not major teratogens, uncertainty remains as to whether they cause cleft palate in a small number of babies and whether neurobehavioural effects occur as a result of prenatal exposure; they are known to cause withdrawal symptoms in the newborn. Benzodiazepines can be taken in overdoses and can cause dangerous deep unconsciousness. However, they are much less toxic than their predecessors, the barbiturates, and death rarely results when a benzodiazepine is the only drug taken; however, when combined with other central nervous system depressants such as alcohol and opiates, the potential for toxicity and fatal overdose increases. Benzodiazepines are commonly misused and taken in combination with other drugs of abuse. In addition, all benzodiazepines are listed in Beers List, which is significant in clinical practice.
Cannabis is often considered either in its own unique category or as a mild psychedelic. The chemical compound cannabidiol, which is found in cannabis, has many depressant effects such as muscle relaxation, sedation, decreased alertness, and tiredness. Contrary to the previous statement, activation of the CB1 receptor by cannabinoids causes an inhibition of GABA, the exact opposite of what central nervous system depressants do.
Contrary to popular misconception, opioids are not depressants in the classical sense. They do produce central nervous system depression, however, they also excite certain areas of the central nervous system. To remain true to the term ' depressant ' - opioids can not be classified as such. For opioid agonists and opium derivatives, these are classified differently. Analgesic or narcotic correctly identifies these drugs. However, they do have depressant actions nonetheless.
Combining multiple depressants can be very dangerous because the central nervous system 's depressive properties have been proposed to increase exponentially instead of linearly. This characteristic makes depressants a common choice for deliberate overdoses in the case of suicide. The use of alcohol or benzodiazepines along with the usual dose of heroin is often the cause of overdose deaths in opiate addicts.
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when did harry potter deathly hallows part 2 come out | Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 - wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 is a 2011 fantasy film directed by David Yates and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is the second of two cinematic parts based on J.K. Rowling 's 2007 novel of the same name. The film, which is the eighth and final instalment in the Harry Potter film series, was written by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman, David Barron, and Rowling. The story continues to follow Harry Potter 's quest to find and destroy Lord Voldemort 's Horcruxes in order to stop him once and for all.
The film stars Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter, alongside Rupert Grint and Emma Watson as Harry 's best friends, Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger. Principal photography began on 19 February 2009, and was completed on 12 June 2010, with reshoots taking place in December 2010, more than ten years after filming started on the first instalment of the series. Part 2 was released in 2D, 3 - D and IMAX cinemas worldwide from 13 -- 15 July 2011, and is the only Harry Potter film to be released in 3 - D.
The film became a commercial success and was critically acclaimed, and one of the best reviewed films of 2011, with the acting, Yates 's direction, musical score, visual effects, cinematography, action sequences, and satisfying conclusion of the saga earning notable praise. At the box office, Part 2 claimed the worldwide opening weekend record, earning $483.2 million, as well as setting opening day and opening weekend records in various countries. As of 2018, the film is the tenth - highest - grossing film of all time. It became the highest - grossing film of 2011, the highest - grossing film in the Harry Potter series, and the ninth film to gross over $1 billion.
The Blu - ray and DVD sets were released on 11 November 2011 in the United States and on 2 December 2011 in the United Kingdom. The film was also released in the Harry Potter: Complete 8 - Film Collection box set on DVD and Blu - ray, which included all eight films and new special features. Part 1 and Part 2 were released as a combo pack on DVD and Blu - ray on 11 November 2011 in Canada.
The film won several awards and was nominated for many more, including three nominations at the Academy Awards for Best Art Direction, Best Makeup and Best Visual Effects.
After burying Dobby, Harry Potter asks the goblin Griphook to help him, Ron Weasley, and Hermione Granger break into Bellatrix Lestrange 's vault at Gringotts bank, suspecting a Horcrux may be there. Griphook agrees in exchange for the Sword of Gryffindor. Wandmaker Ollivander tells Harry that two wands taken from Malfoy Manor belonged to Bellatrix and Draco Malfoy, though Malfoy 's has changed its allegiance to Harry.
In the vault, Harry discovers the Horcrux is Helga Hufflepuff 's cup. He retrieves it, but Griphook snatches the sword and abandons the trio, leaving them cornered by security. The three release the dragon guardian and flee on its back. Harry sees a vision of Lord Voldemort killing goblins including Griphook, and learns Voldemort is aware of the theft. Harry also realises there is a Horcrux at Hogwarts somehow connected to Rowena Ravenclaw. The trio apparate into Hogsmeade, where Aberforth Dumbledore reluctantly instructs the portrait of his deceased younger sister Ariana to fetch Neville Longbottom, who leads the trio through a secret passageway into Hogwarts.
Severus Snape hears of Harry 's return and warns staff and students of the punishment for aiding him. Harry confronts Snape, who flees after Minerva McGonagall challenges him to a duel. McGonagall gathers the Hogwarts community for battle. At Luna Lovegood 's insistence, Harry speaks to Helena Ravenclaw 's ghost, who reveals that Voldemort performed "dark magic '' on her mother 's diadem, located in the Room of Requirement. In the Chamber of Secrets, Hermione destroys Helga 's cup with a Basilisk fang before finally sharing a kiss with Ron. In the Room of Requirement, Draco, Blaise Zabini, and Gregory Goyle attack Harry, but Ron and Hermione intervene. Goyle casts a Fiendfyre curse, but is unable to control it and burns to death while Harry and his friends save Draco and Zabini. Harry stabs the diadem with the fang and Ron kicks it into the Room of Requirement to be destroyed. As Voldemort 's army attacks, Harry, seeing into his mind, realises that Voldemort 's snake Nagini is the final Horcrux. Rushing through the battlegrounds, Hermione fends off Fenrir Greyback who had just wounded Lavender Brown. Entering the boathouse, the trio witness Voldemort meeting with Snape; realising that the Elder Wand can not serve him until Snape dies, Voldemort orders Nagini to kill him. Before dying, Snape tells Harry to take his memories to the Pensieve. Voldemort allows the Hogwarts community to bury their dead with dignity, while challenging Harry to come alone to the Forbidden Forest in order to confront his fate. Returning to the now abandoned battlegrounds, the trio discover that Lavender succumbed to her wounds, along with Fred Weasley, Remus Lupin and Nymphadora Tonks, who have been killed during the battle.
Harry learns from Snape 's memories that while Snape despised Harry 's late father James, who had bullied him, he loved his late mother Lily. Following her death, Snape worked secretly with Albus Dumbledore to protect Harry from Voldemort due to his love for Lily. Harry also learns that Dumbledore was dying and wished for Snape to kill him, and that the Patronus doe he saw in the woods that led him to the sword had been conjured by Snape. Harry discovers that he himself became a Horcrux when Voldemort originally failed to kill him and that he must die to destroy the piece of Voldemort 's soul within him. Harry then surrenders himself to Voldemort in the Forbidden Forest. Voldemort casts the Killing Curse upon Harry, who finds himself in limbo. Dumbledore 's spirit meets him and explains that the part of Voldemort within Harry was killed by Voldemort 's own curse. Harry then returns to his body, determined to defeat Voldemort once and for all.
Voldemort announces Harry 's apparent death to everyone at Hogwarts and demands their surrender. As Neville gives a defiant response and draws the sword from the Sorting Hat, Harry reveals he is still alive; the Malfoys and many Death Eaters abandon Voldemort. While Harry confronts Voldemort in a duel throughout the castle, Molly Weasley kills Bellatrix in the Great Hall and Neville decapitates Nagini, making Voldemort vulnerable. Harry and Voldemort 's fight ends with Voldemort 's own Killing Curse rebounding and obliterating him. After the battle, Harry explains to Ron and Hermione that the Elder Wand recognised him as its true master after he disarmed Draco, who had earlier disarmed its previous owner, Dumbledore. Harry then destroys the Elder Wand rather than claiming it.
Nineteen years later, Harry, Ginny Weasley, Ron, Hermione, and Draco proudly watch their own children leave for Hogwarts at King 's Cross station.
The roles of several minor characters were recast or replaced for this film. For example, Ciarán Hinds assumed the role of Aberforth Dumbledore, Albus Dumbledore 's brother and bartender of the Hog 's Head inn.
In the book, a significant number of characters who have not appeared since some of the earlier novels, reappear to defend Hogwarts in the large, final battle. Director David Yates said, "I want to get them all back '', referring to his desire to bring back as many actors who have appeared in the franchise as possible for the climactic battle sequence in the film. Sean Biggerstaff, Jim Broadbent, Gemma Jones, Miriam Margolyes, and Emma Thompson reprise their roles from earlier films briefly during the battle scene. For the final scene in the film which is set nineteen years after the film 's main story, the actors playing the main characters were made to look older through the use of makeup and special effects. After the initial look of the actors ' aged appearances leaked onto the Internet, some fans reacted by opining that Radcliffe and Grint looked too old, while Watson did not appear significantly different at all. After primary filming concluded in June 2010, Yates examined the footage, and concluded that the problem could not be resolved through editing or CGI, and had the sequence re-shot that December, with redesigned makeup.
Part 2 was filmed back - to - back with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 from 19 February 2009 to 12 June 2010, with reshoots for the epilogue scene taking place at Leavesden Film Studios on 21 December 2010. Director David Yates, who shot the film with director of photography Eduardo Serra, described Part 2 as "operatic, colourful and fantasy - oriented '', a "big opera with huge battles. ''
Originally set for a single theatrical release, the idea to split the book into two parts was suggested by executive producer Lionel Wigram due to, what David Heyman called, "creative imperative ''. Heyman initially responded negatively to the idea, but Wigram asked, "No, David. How are we going to do it? ''. After rereading the book and discussing it with screenwriter Steve Kloves, he agreed with the division.
In an interview with Architectural Digest, production designer Stuart Craig remarked on creating sets for Part 2. Of the Gringotts Wizarding Bank, he said, "our banking hall, like any other, is made of marble and big marble columns. And it has great strength. The fact that the goblins are the bankers and tellers at the counter helps that feeling of grandeur and solidity and the big proportions. That was part of the fun of the set: we exaggerated the size of it, we exaggerated the weight of it, and we even exaggerated the shine of the marble. '' About the multiplication of treasure in one of the bank 's vaults, he noted, "We made literally thousands of pieces for it and vacuum metallised them to be shiny gold and silver. John Richardson, the special effects supervisor, made a floor that was capable of rising on different levels, so there was kind of a physical swelling of the treasure on it. ''
Craig spoke about the Battle of Hogwarts to Art Insights Magazine, saying that "the great challenge is the destruction of Hogwarts. The sun rising behind the smoke... the massive remains of destroyed walls, the entrance hall, the entrance of the Great Hall, part of the roof of the Great Hall completely gone, so yeah. A big challenge there and an enjoyable one really -- maybe it helped me and the guys in the art department sort of prepare for the end... we demolished it before we had to strike it completely. '' When asked about the King 's Cross scene near the end of the film, Craig said, "We experimented a lot, quite honestly. I mean it was quite a protracted process really but we did experiment the sense of it being very burnt out very very kind of white -- so we experimented with underlit floors, we experimented with different kind of white covering everything: white paint, white fabric, and the cameraman was involved in how much to expose it, and a series of camera tests were done, so we got there but with a great deal of preparation and research. ''
Visual effects supervisor Tim Burke said that "It was such a major job to stage the Battle of Hogwarts, and we had to do it in different stages of production. We had shots with complex linking camera moves from wide overviews, to flying into windows and interior spaces. So, we took the plunge at the end of 2008, and started rebuilding the school digitally with Double Negative. '' He went on to say that "It 's taken two years -- getting renders out, texturing every facet of the building, constructing interiors to see through windows, building a destruction version of the school. We can design shots with the knowledge that we have this brilliant digital miniature that we can do anything with. With a practical Hogwarts, we would have shot it last summer and been so tied down. Instead, as David Yates finds the flow and structure, we are able to handle new concepts and ideas. ''
On the quality of 3 - D in film, Burke told Los Angeles Times, "I think it 's good, actually. I think people are going to be really pleased. I know everyone 's a little nervous and sceptical of 3 - D these days, but the work has been done very, very well. We 've done over 200 shots in 3 - D and in the visual effects as well, because so much of it is CG, so the results are very, very good. I think everyone 's going to be really impressed with it, actually. '' Producer David Heyman spoke to SFX magazine about the 3 - D conversion, saying that "The way David Yates is approaching 3 - D is he 's trying to approach it from a character and story point of view. Trying to use the sense of isolation, of separation that sometimes 3 - D gives you, to heighten that at appropriate moments. So we 're approaching it in a storytelling way. ''
In 2012, the visual effects in the film were nominated for an Oscar. The film also won the BAFTA Award for Best Special Visual Effects at the 65th BAFTA Awards in 2012.
It was confirmed that the composer for Part 1, Alexandre Desplat, was set to return for Part 2. In an interview with Film Music Magazine, Desplat stated that scoring Part 2 is "a great challenge '' and that he has "a lot of expectations to fulfill and a great deal of work '' ahead of him. In a separate interview, Desplat also made note that John Williams ' themes will be present in the film "much more than in part one. '' The soundtrack for the film was nominated for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards.
In March 2011, the first preview for Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 was released revealing new footage and new interviews from the starring cast. The first United States poster was released on 28 March 2011, with the caption "It All Ends 7.15 '' (referring to its international release date). On 27 April 2011 the first theatrical trailer for Part 2 was released. The trailer revealed a range of new and old footage. The IMAX trailer for the film was released with IMAX screenings of Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides on 20 May 2011. During the MTV Movie Awards on 5 June 2011, Emma Watson presented a sneak peek of the film.
On 2 April 2011, a test screening of the film was held in Chicago, with director David Yates, producers David Heyman and David Barron and editor Mark Day in attendance. The film had its world premiere on 7 July 2011 (2011 - 07 - 07) at Trafalgar Square in London. The United States premiere was held in New York City at Lincoln Center on 11 July 2011 (2011 - 07 - 11). Although filmed in 2 - D, the film was converted into 3 - D in post-production and was released in both RealD 3D and IMAX 3D.
The film was originally scheduled to open in Indonesia on 13 July 2011. The Indonesian government levied a new value added tax on royalties from foreign films in February 2011, causing three film studios, including Warner Brothers, to halt the importation of their films, including Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 into the country. The film was not released to cinemas in the Kingdom of Jordan due to recently enforced taxes on films. It had not been premiered in the Kingdom As of 13 August 2011.
On 10 June, one month before the film 's release, tickets went on sale. On 16 June 2011, Part 2 received a 12A certificate from the British Board of Film Classification, who note that the film "contains moderate threat, injury detail and language '', becoming the only Harry Potter film to receive a warning for "injury detail ''. At midnight 15 July, Part 2 screened in 3,800 cinemas. In the United States, it played in 4,375 cinemas, 3,100 3D cinemas and 274 IMAX cinemas, the widest release for an IMAX, 3D and a Harry Potter film.
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 was released on 11 November 2011 in the United States in four formats: a one - disc standard DVD, a two - disc standard DVD special edition, a one - disc standard Blu - ray, and three - Disc Blu - ray 2D Combo Pack (Blu - ray + DVD + Digital Copy). In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the film was released on 2 December 2011 in three formats: a two - disc standard DVD, a three - disc Blu - ray 2D Combo Pack (Blu - ray + DVD + Digital Copy), and a four - disc Blu - ray 3D Combo Pack (Blu - ray 3D + Blu - ray 2D + DVD + Digital Copy). The film set the record for fastest - selling pre-order DVD and Blu - ray on Amazon.com, just two days into the pre-order period.
Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 sold 2.71 million Blu - ray units ($60.75 million) in three days (Friday to Sunday). It also sold 2.83 million DVD units ($42.22 million) during its debut. By 18 July 2012 it had sold 4.71 million Blu - ray units ($99.33 million) and 6.47 million DVD units ($88.96 million).
On 28 March 2017, Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 made its Ultra HD Blu - ray debut, along with Deathly Hallows - Part 1, The Half - Blood Prince, and Order of the Phoenix.
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 grossed $381,011,219 in the United States and Canada, along with $960,500,000 in other markets, for a worldwide total of $1,341,511,219. In worldwide earnings, it is currently the tenth - highest - grossing film, the highest - grossing 2011 film, the highest - grossing film in the Harry Potter franchise and the highest - grossing children 's book adaptation. Part 2 set a worldwide opening - weekend record with $483.2 million. It set a worldwide IMAX opening - weekend record with $23.2 million. In worldwide earnings, it is the fastest film to reach $400 million (5 days), $500 million (6 days), $600 million (8 days), $700 million (10 days), $800 million (12 days), $900 million (15 days), and $1 billion (19 days, tied with Avatar and Marvel 's The Avengers). On 31 July 2011 (its 19th day of release), it became the ninth film in cinematic history and the second in 2011 to surpass the $1 - billion mark.
In the US and Canada, it is the 27th - highest - grossing film, the highest - grossing 2011 film, the highest - grossing Harry Potter film, the highest - grossing children 's book adaptation, the highest - grossing fantasy / live action film and the 13th - highest - grossing 3 - D film. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold more than 40 million tickets. It set new records in advance ticket sales with $32 million, in its midnight opening with $43.5 million and in its IMAX midnight opening with $2 million. It grossed $91.1 million on its opening Friday, setting a Friday - gross record as well as single - and opening - day records. It also set an opening - weekend record with $169.2 million, an IMAX opening - weekend record of $15.2 million and opening - weekend record for a 3 - D film. Although 3 - D enhanced the film 's earning potential, only 43 % of the opening gross came from 3 - D venues. This means only $72.8 million of the opening - weekend grosses originated from 3 - D showings, the second - largest number at the time.
It also scored the largest three - day and four - day gross, the sixth highest - grossing opening week (Friday to Thursday) with $226.2 million, and even the seventh - largest seven - day gross. It fell precipitously by 84 % on its second Friday and by 72 % during its second weekend overall, grossing $47.4 million, which is the largest second - weekend drop for any film that opened to more than $90 million. Still, it managed to become the fastest - grossing film in the franchise and also achieved the second - largest ten - day gross ever at the time (now eighth). In its third weekend, the movie surpassed Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone to become the highest - grossing film of the franchise in the US & Canada.
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 is the third - highest - grossing film, the highest - grossing 2011 film, the highest - grossing Warner Bros. film and the highest - grossing Harry Potter film. On its opening day, Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 grossed $43.6 million from 26 countries, placing it 86 % ahead of Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 and 49 % higher than Half - Blood Prince. From Wednesday until Sunday, on its 5 - day opening weekend, it set an opening - weekend record outside the US and Canada by earning $314 million. The average 3D share of Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 was 60 %, which was lower than the 3D share for Transformers: Dark of the Moon (70 %) and On Stranger Tides (66 %). On its second weekend, it held to the top spot, but fell precipitously by 62 % to $120.2 million despite minor competition. This amount is about the same as what On Stranger Tides made from its second weekend ($124.3 million). Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 was in first place at the box office outside North America for four consecutive weekends.
In the United Kingdom, Ireland and Malta it brought in a record $14.8 million on its first day. On its opening weekend it earned £ 23,753,171 in the United Kingdom, marking the second largest opening weekend in 2011. Its performance did not surpass that of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban in 2004, which earned £ 23,882,688 on its opening weekend. In United States dollars, its opening weekend was an all - time record $38.3 million, ahead of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix ($33.5 million). The film also achieved the largest single - day gross on its first Saturday and the largest opening week with $57.6 million. The film made a total of £ 73.1 million ($117.2 million) at the United Kingdom box office, marking the fifth - highest - grossing film. It also is the highest - grossing film of 2011 and highest - grossing Harry Potter film.
Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 also set opening - day records in Mexico ($6.1 million), Australia ($7.5 million), France and the Maghreb region ($7.1 million), Italy ($4.6 million), Sweden ($2.1 million), Norway ($1.8 million), Denmark ($1.6 million), the Netherlands ($1.7 million), Belgium ($1.4 million), the Czech Republic ($2.0 million), Argentina ($961,000), Finland ($749,000) and Hong Kong ($808,000). It also established new Harry Potter opening - day records in Japan ($5.7 million), Brazil ($4.4 million), Russia and the CIS ($4.2 million), Spain ($3.3 million) and Poland ($1.25 million).
Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 set opening weekend records in India with ₹ 15 crores ($3.41 million), Australia with $19.6 million, New Zealand with $2.46 million, Brazil with $11. million, Scandinavia with $18.5 million, Mexico with $15.9 million and many other Latin American and European countries.
On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 96 % based on 315 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Thrilling, powerfully acted, and visually dazzling, Deathly Hallows Part II brings the Harry Potter franchise to a satisfying -- and suitably magical -- conclusion. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating to reviews, the film achieved an average of 87 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. The film received a score of 93 from professional critics at the Broadcast Film Critics Association; it is the organisation 's highest - rated Harry Potter film. On CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Philip Womack in The Daily Telegraph commented, "This is monumental cinema, awash with gorgeous tones, and carrying an ultimate message that will resonate with every viewer, young or old: there is darkness in all of us, but we can overcome it. '' He further expressed that David Yates "transmutes (the book) into a genuinely terrifying spectacle. '' Another review was released on the same day from Evening Standard, who rated the film 4 out of 5 and stated "Millions of children, parents, and those who should know better wo n't need reminding what a Horcrux is -- and director David Yates does not let them down. In fact, in some ways, he helps make up for the shortcomings of the final book. '' The Daily Express remarked that the film showcases "a terrifying showdown that easily equals Lord of the Rings or Star Wars in terms of a dramatic and memorable battle between good and evil. ''
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three and a half out of four and said, "The finale conjures up enough awe and solemnity to serve as an appropriate finale and a dramatic contrast to the lighthearted (relative) innocence of Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone all those magical years ago. '' Mark Kermode from the BBC said that the film is a "pretty solid and ambitious adaptation of a very complex book '', but he criticised the post-converted 3D. Christy Lemire of the Associated Press gave the film three and a half out of four and said "While Deathly Hallows: Part 2 offers long - promised answers, it also dares to pose some eternal questions, and it 'll stay with you after the final chapter has closed. '' Richard Roeper, also from the Chicago Sun - Times, gave the film an A+ rating and said that "this is a masterful and worthy final chapter in one of the best franchises ever put to film. ''
In one of the few negative reviews, Brian Gibson of Vue Weekly described the film as "deadly dull '' and a "visual overstatement ''. Other reviews criticised the decision to split the novel into two cinematic parts, with Ben Mortimer of The Daily Telegraph writing "Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 is n't a film. It 's HALF a film... it 's going to feel somewhat emotionless. '' Other critics wrote of the film 's runtime; Alonso Duralde from The Wrap said, "If there 's one substantial flaw to the film, it 's that this cavalcade of people and places and objects can barely fit in the 130 - minute running time. '' Rebecca Gillie from The Oxford Student gave the film two out of five and wrote, "at the end of (the film) there is nothing that stays with you once you 've left the cinema. ''
The film won a number of accolades and nominations. Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 was nominated for Best Art Direction, Best Makeup, and Best Visual Effects at the 84th Academy Awards. At the 65th BAFTA awards, the film won the Best Visual Effects award, and was nominated in the Best Sound, Best Production Design and Best Make - up and Hair categories.
The film was nominated for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards in 2012. It won a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Motion Picture. The film scored 10 nominations at the annual Saturn Awards, Winning for Best Fantasy Film. In the 2011 Scream Awards, the film received a total of 14 nominations, and won in the Best Scream - Play, Best Fantasy Actor (Daniel Radcliffe), Best Villain (Ralph Fiennes), Best F / X, and Holy Sh * t scene of the Year categories.
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who is considered the father of jazz baritone saxophone | Baritone saxophone - wikipedia
Military band family:
Orchestral family:
Other saxophones:
The baritone saxophone or "bari sax '' is one of the largest members of the saxophone family, only being smaller than the bass, contrabass and subcontrabass saxophones. It is the lowest - pitched saxophone in common use. The baritone saxophone uses a mouthpiece, reed, and ligature in order to produce sound. It is larger than the tenor, alto and soprano saxophones, which are the other commonly found members of the family. The baritone saxophone is commonly used in classical music such as concert band, chamber music, military bands, jazz (such as big bands and jazz combos). It also is occasionally employed in marching bands, though less frequently than other saxophones due to its size and weight.
The baritone saxophone was created in 1846 by the Belgian instrument maker Adolphe Sax as one of a family of 14 instruments created to be a tonal link between the woodwinds and brasses, which Sax believed to be lacking. The family was divided into two groups of seven saxophones each from the soprano to the contrabass. The family consisting of saxophones ranged in the keys of B ♭ and E ♭ were more successful because of their popularity in military bands. The bari sax, pitched in E ♭, is the fifth member of this family.
The baritone saxophone, like other saxophones, is a conical tube of thin brass. It has a wider end, flared to form a bell, and a smaller end connected to a mouthpiece. The baritone saxophone uses a single reed mouthpiece like that of a clarinet. There is a loop in the neck to reduce it to a practical height.
Baritone saxophones come in two sizes with one ranging to low A and the other to low B ♭. Originally, all baritone saxophones were low B ♭ instruments, but over time players began modifying their horns to reach the low A below the staff. In the 1980s, it became common for saxophone manufacturers to produce low A instruments. In modern times, the low A is considered standard and is often written in sheet music for the instrument. Despite the ubiquity of the low A horn, some players still prefer to use B ♭ horns because of the added weight and less crisp sound of low A horns. As with other saxophones, some are manufactured with a high F ♯ key, though this remains uncommon.
The baritone saxophone 's relatively large mass (15 to 35 pounds or 6.8 to 15.9 kilograms depending in large part on the horn 's age) has led to the development of harness - style neckstrap that distributes the instrument 's weight across the user 's shoulders. Several different kinds exist, produced by brands as well known as Neotech and Vandoren, which each distributes weight differently across the saxophonist 's neck, clavicle, and shoulder blades. Many marching saxophonists prefer this style for its ability to decrease fatigue. Those who mainly perform seated, on the other hand, may dislike the decreased ability to move one 's upper body.
It is a transposing instrument in the key of E ♭, pitched an octave plus a major sixth lower than written. It is one octave lower than the alto saxophone. Modern baritones with a low A key and high F ♯ key have a range from C to A. Adolphe Sax also produced a baritone saxophone in F intended for orchestral use, but these fell into disuse as the saxophone never became a standard orchestral instrument.
As with all saxophones, its music is written in treble clef. Interestingly enough, to transpose a baritone sax part to concert pitch, it is only necessary to change the treble to a bass clef and modify the accidentals accordingly.
The baritone saxophone is used as a standard member of concert bands and saxophone quartets.
It has also been occasionally called for in music for orchestra. Examples include Richard Strauss ' Sinfonia Domestica, which calls for a baritone saxophone in F; Béla Bartók 's The Wooden Prince ballet music; Charles Ives ' Symphony No. 4, composed in 1910 -- 1916; and Gershwin 's Rhapsody in Blue and An American in Paris. In his opera The Devils of Loudun (Die Teufel von Loudun), Krzysztof Penderecki calls for two baritone saxes. Karlheinz Stockhausen includes a baritone saxophone in Gruppen.
It has a comparatively small solo repertoire although an increasing number of concertos have appeared, one of these being "Concerto for Saxophone Quartet and Orchestra '' by American composer Philip Glass. This is a piece that can be played with or without an orchestra that features the baritone sax in the second movement.
A number of jazz performers have used the baritone saxophone as their primary instrument. It is part of standard big band instrumentation (the larger bass saxophone was also occasionally used up until the 1940s). As phrased by Alain Cupper from JazzBariSax.com, "Used a few times in contemporary classical music... it is especially in jazz that this wonderful instrument feels most comfortable. '' One of the instrument 's pioneers was Harry Carney, longtime baritone saxophone player in the Duke Ellington band.
Since the mid-1950s, baritone saxophone soloists such as Gerry Mulligan, Cecil Payne, and Pepper Adams achieved fame, while Serge Chaloff was the first baritone saxophone player to achieve fame as a bebop soloist. In free jazz, Peter Brötzmann is notable.
More recent notable performers include Hamiet Bluiett (who has also led a group of baritone saxophone players), John Surman, Scott Robinson, James Carter, Stephen "Doc '' Kupka of the band Tower of Power, Nick Brignola, Gary Smulyan, Brian Landrus, and Ronnie Cuber. In the avant - garde scene, Tim Berne has doubled on bari. A noted Scottish performer is Joe Temperley, who has appeared with Humphrey Lyttelton as well as with the Lincoln Center Jazz Orchestra.
The baritone sax is an important part of military bands and is common in musical theater. The baritone sax also plays a notable role in many Motown hits of the 60s, and is often in the horn sections of funk, blues, Latin, soul bands, and is used in rock music although it is not as common.
Prominent baritone saxophonists in contemporary American popular music include Stephen Kupka of Tower of Power and Dana Colley of Morphine.
Nigerian Afrobeat singer, musician, and bandleader Fela Kuti typically featured two baritone saxophone players in his band.
A few modern non-jazz artists have recently begun to incorporate saxophones into their instrumentation. The LA Indie rock band Fitz and The Tantrums featured both an alto and a baritone saxophone in their music -- most recently their 2016 song "Handclap '' from an album of the same name. Both were played by band member James King. The "Brass house '' (experimental jazz / funk) group Too Many Zooz is another group that has popularized the baritone saxophone. Originally a New York City subway band, the trio has released three albums and been featured on a TEDxYouth@Budapest segment.
In The Simpsons, Lisa Simpson plays a baritone saxophone. Her music is typically performed by Terry Harrington.
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how many nuclear power plants in saudi arabia | Nuclear energy in Saudi Arabia - Wikipedia
Saudi Arabia has plans to create a domestic nuclear industry in anticipation of high growth in domestic energy consumption. One set of plans proposes building two nuclear reactors by 2020, and have sixteen built by 2030. The government 's intent is to use the electrical power thus produced in place of power obtained from petroleum - fired powerplants, thus freeing that petroleum for export. Currently, Saudi Arabia produces 52 GW from 79 non-nuclear powerplants. The government intends to produce 110 GWe by 2032. This would require 16 reactors by 2019 at a cost of $7 B each. Saudi Arabia hopes to produce surplus capacity for export, although that would depend on the rate of domestic electrical energy demand. One prediction foresees domestic consumption at 75 GWe by 2018, rising to 120 GWe by 2030.
The Saudi program is reckoned to be the second most developed in the Arab world, behind their Persian Gulf neighbour United Arab Emirates. In 2010, the King Abdallah Center for Atomic and Renewable Energy (KAcare) was founded to oversee Saudi Arabia 's nuclear program under its president, Hashim Abdullah Yamani (former minister of energy and of commerce). KAcare will represent Saudi Arabia at the IAEA and be responsible for Saudi nuclear energy power, supervision of nuclear power production and management of nuclear waste.
Saudi Arabia has no fuel production facilities and would be reliant on nuclear fuel from the global market. In 2010, a deal was signed with Toshiba and Shaw to build reactors in Saudi Arabia, and with Exelon to manage the nuclear facilities. The group will either be using the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor or Westinghouse 's AP1000.
In February 2011, Saudi Arabia signed its first nuclear accord with France, a leader in nuclear technology exports. It is expected that Saudi Arabia will build a number of nuclear reactors in the near future with the aid of France to expand King Abdullah 's Atomic and Renewable Energy City devoted to research and the peaceful application of nuclear energy.
In March 2015, a memorandum of understanding was signed between Saudi Arabia and South Korea. This could lead to the construction of at least two South Korean - designed SMART reactors in Saudi Arabia. SMART stands for System - integrated Modular Advanced ReacTor.
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weezer everything will be alright in the end songs | Everything Will Be Alright in the End - wikipedia
Everything Will Be Alright in the End is the ninth studio album by American alternative rock band Weezer, released on October 7, 2014. It is Weezer 's only album released by Republic Records, and the third produced by Ric Ocasek, who previously produced Weezer (1994) and Weezer (2001).
Everything Will Be Alright in the End departs from the electronic pop production of Weezer 's previous two albums, Raditude and Hurley, returning to a sound more reminiscent of the band 's earlier albums. The lyrics deal with singer Rivers Cuomo 's relationship with his father figures, fans and women.
The album received positive reviews, becoming the most acclaimed Weezer album since Pinkerton (1996). It is the band 's fifth album to peak in the Billboard 200 top five, reaching No. 5 and selling 34,000 copies its first week. The album has produced four singles: "Back to the Shack '', "Cleopatra '', "Da Vinci '' and "Go Away ''. As of 2016, the album has sold 100,000 copies in the U.S.
In 2010, Weezer released two albums: Hurley, and a collection of unreleased material, Death to False Metal. Shortly after their release, the band announced that work had begun on a ninth studio album, with the intent of a 2011 release. Set to be produced by Shawn Everett, who had worked on the band 's previous two releases, the album was shelved. At this time, band frontman Rivers Cuomo stated: "We just started working on our tenth record. I was talking to the producer and he was saying, "These songs sound totally different from Hurley. Hurley was kind of dark, and the new songs sound like you 're 16, riding your bicycle to get a Slurpee. '' The band abandoned work on the album, in order to give primary songwriter Cuomo more time to write more material.
Cuomo wanted to create a "complex, classic album '', but hit a creative wall during the hiatus. In May 2013, following his yearly Vipassana meditation trip, Cuomo came up with "a strong vision of the album ''. He announced plans to begin recording a new album in January 2014, with work continuing through the summer. Ric Ocasek was announced as the album 's producer; Ocasek produced the band 's self - titled first and third albums, otherwise known as the Blue Album (1994) and the Green Album (2001). On March 19, 2014, Weezer released a clip of two new songs on the band 's official YouTube account that ended with the words "in the studio now ''. On June 13, the album title was announced.
The band chose Ric Ocasek as the producer based on the feeling that he would best be able to return to "the sound and the vibe and the energy of where (the band) came from '', while also allowing them to "explore and try new things ''. The band recorded the majority of the album in The Village, a recording studio located in Los Angeles, California. Bassist Scott Shriner described Ocasek 's production style as "very serious '', commenting that at one point the band considered featuring a whistling section in "Da Vinci '', which Ocasek rejected.
Over 200 songs were considered for the album, with 20 being tracked and "a dozen or so '' being chosen for the album. According to the album 's official press release, the album is organized thematically around three groups of songs: "Belladona '', "The Panopticon Artist '' and "Patriarchia ''. Band leader Rivers Cuomo described the album 's theme as "an increased awareness of the impermanence of everything we (take) for granted (and) "how to make peace with that. '' Drummer Patrick Wilson described the album 's sound as "bombastic, loose, kind of booming. (The) record sounds like it 's going to have the tight structure of the Blue Album with a little bit more abandon like Pinkerton ''. The band stated the album would feature less "modern pop production '' than its previous two albums, Raditude and Hurley. The album as a whole has been described as alternative rock, power pop and pop punk.
"Belladonna '' includes the songs "Ai n't Got Nobody '', "Lonely Girl '', "Da Vinci '', "Go Away '', "Cleopatra '' and "Return to Ithaka '', all of which deal with Cuomo 's relationships with women. "Lonely Girl '', written by Cuomo and Joshua Berman Alexander, features a power pop sound and "blend of heavy guitars mixed with a soft - singing Rivers Cuomo '' and has been compared Weezer 's earlier style on The Green Album. "Da Vinci '', also co-written by Cuomo and Alexander, serves as the album 's third single. Scott Heisel of Alternative Press compared the song, sonically, to "Pork and Beans '', off The Red Album. He also described the song as "a love song of the purest order, directed toward a beautiful woman (...) or perhaps a soothing lullaby to a crying infant. '' The song also features a prominent whistling hook, which producer Ric Ocasek heavily criticized. The preceding single, "Cleopatra '', was written solely by Cuomo. The song features the use of harmonica, acoustic guitar and a heavier sounding middle eight, which Chris Coplan at Consequence of Sound characterized as sounding like Weezer (1994). Cuomo took inspiration for the song from the Shakespeare tragedy, Antony and Cleopatra.
Tracks under "The Panopticon Artist '' include "Back to the Shack '', "I 've Had It Up To Here '' and "The Waste Land '' and deal with Cuomo 's relationships to others, particularly his fans. The album 's first single, "Back to the Shack '', lyrically deals with the wish to return "to (the band 's) 1994 roots '', with Rolling Stone describing it as a "nerdy, self - referential (...) guitar - heavy track ''. HitFix reviewer Dave Lewis found that the song serves as a thematic continuation of two previous Weezer songs: "In The Garage '' from The Blue Album and "Memories '' from Hurley. "I 've Had It Up To Here '' features Cuomo bringing "finest mock - operatic metal voice '' and a "dexterous syncopation (...) providing a mid-point palate cleanser '', and lyrically deals with his frustrations with "unappreciative masses ''. The bridge to the song was also noted for its "Queen - ly choral flourishes and skyscraping high notes. ''
The final group of songs, "Patriarchia '', are "Eulogy for a Rock Band '', "The British Are Coming '', "Foolish Father '' and "Anonymous '', which deal with relationships with father figures, "with a new spin ''. "Eulogy for a Rock Band '', deals with the band 's relation to "the great rock bands that came before (them) as they are retiring (...) We 're kind of in that spot now. '' "The British Are Coming '', written solely by Cuomo, features lyrical references to American Revolutionary War, acoustic guitars and an "old school Weezer '' guitar solo... '' The verses went through several lyrical changes, with Cuomo debating whether adding a personal angle to the song or purely writing from the point of view of the founding fathers. "Foolish Father '' features "plea for paternal forgiveness that crests with a small choir singing '' the album 's title. The song was initially inspired by the Shakespeare tragedy, King Lear.
Entertainment Weekly reported that the album would feature an "ambitious three - part suite '', which includes the song "My Mystery '', which was later re-titled "Anonymous ''. The suite was later revealed to be titled "The Futurescope Trilogy '', also featuring "The Waste Land '' and "Return to Ithaka '', which serves to "close out the album with a cacophony of guitars, percussion, and harmonies '' that includes five concurrent guitar solos in "Return to Ithaka ''. Pitchfork writer Ian Cohen compared the ambitious trilogy to both the band 's unfinished rock opera, Songs from the Black Hole and the band 's 2008 single, "The Greatest Man That Ever Lived ''.
Since March 19, 2014, the band began releasing a weekly video series, with twenty - four installments being included so far. Several clips featured the band working in the studio and also revealed several song titles for the then - unnamed album, including "Ai n't Got Nobody '' and "The Waste Land ''. The ninth installment of the series eventually revealed the title to the album, while the eleventh revealed the album cover by visual artist Christopher McMahon. The original release date of September 30 was announced through both the web series and Entertainment Weekly, along with a behind - the - scenes look into the recording sessions.
In February 2014, the band performed the first single from the album, titled "Back to the Shack '', on the 2014 Weezer Cruise. The studio version of the song premiered on July 21 on the band 's YouTube channel, and was released as a single the following day. On July 23, the band performed the live TV debut of the song on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.
On July 21, the band announced the album would be available for pre-order on PledgeMusic. The band also announced plans to perform the entire album, "front to back '', in certain small venues. On September 8, the band debuted a second single from the album, "Cleopatra '', while also releasing upcoming album art, along with more pre-order information. The full album was made available on iTunes Radio on September 30, 2014, as part of the First Play series. On November 18, a third single from the album was released, "Da Vinci ''. The fourth single, "Go Away '', was released on July 24, 2015, along with a music video.
In late 2014, the band promoted the album by playing it live in its entirety, mainly in smaller venues that also included acoustic performances of songs from their back catalogue.
According to Metacritic, Everything Will Be Alright in the End has received an aggregated score of 77 / 100 based on 33 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Stephen Thomas Erlewine at AllMusic states "there 's a sense that Weezer made another record of massive, hooky rock not only because that 's what the fans want but because they know it 's what they do best '', citing songs like "The British Are Coming '', "Ai n't Got Nobody '', "Cleopatra '' and "Go Away ''. Scott Heisel of Alternative Press comments that it "might not be the best Weezer album, but most definitely is the perfect Weezer album, at least right now. '' Heisel points out risks on the album, such as 5 / 4 to 4 / 4 time signature shifts heard on "Cleopatra '' that eventually feels "right at home ''. At Billboard, Jillian Mapes declares it the best Weezer album since Maladroit, stating "A handful of tracks strewn with cheesy metaphors shows the impersonality that mars Cuomo 's post-Pinkerton songwriting, despite some redeeming musical qualities that reaffirm Weezer as a purveyor of feedback and fuzz. ''
Consequence of Sound writer Dan Caffrey notes that "Everything Will Be Alright in the End does n't just transport us to Weezer 's younger days -- it ushers us into their future. And for the first time in a while, it 's looking pretty bright. '' Mischa Pearlman at NME declares "It 's no Pinkerton, but Weezer, finally, are back on track. '' Pearlman considers "Foolish Father '', "Lonely Girl '', "Go Away '' and "The Futurescope Trilogy '' suite to be great tracks. Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone comments that "the spirit of reconciliation is strong on Everything Will Be Alright in the End. '' Ganz also notes "The tracks devoted to Weezer 's bond with their listeners are the most tormented and theatrical ''. Sputnikmusic reviewer Adam Thomas describes it as a "return to form '', explaining that "a whimsical soundscape of 90 's fuzz and the cheesy late 70 's arena rock guitar harmonies that made Weezer both so cool and horribly uncool at the start of their career. '' Rock Sound 's David McLaughlin rated the album a 7 / 10, declaring it to give the band 's first two albums a "good go ''. McLaughlin concluded with that the album "feels like a cohesive, artfully crafted whole. ''
The album appeared on several annual "best - of '' lists in 2014. Rolling Stone named the album the fourteenth best of the year, praising the band for "rediscovering the art of the three - minute girl jam '', while also expanding the group 's sound. Robin Hilton called it "the record of the year '', while Alternative Press labeled it the seventh essential album of the year. The album was included at number 41 on Rock Sound 's "Top 50 Albums of the Year '' list. The album was included at number 9 on Kerrang! 's "The Top 50 Rock Albums Of 2014 '' list.
Everything Will Be Alright in the End debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 with 34,000 units sold, making it Weezer 's fifth top five album, as well as the band 's seventh top 10 album in a row. The album debuted at number 10 on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 3,500 copies. The album has sold 100,000 copies in the US as of March 2016. As of September 2016, the album has sold over 225,000 copies worldwide.
Weezer
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who did shawn mendes write theres nothing holding me back about | There 's Nothing Holdin ' Me Back - wikipedia
"There 's Nothing Holdin ' Me Back '' is a song recorded by Canadian singer and songwriter Shawn Mendes. Written by Mendes, Teddy Geiger, Geoff Warburton and Scott Harris, and produced by Geiger and Andrew Maury, it was released as a single on April 20, 2017. The song was included in the reissue of his second studio album Illuminate (2016). The song 's accompanying music video was released on June 20, 2017.
"There 's Nothing Holdin ' Me Back ' '' is a "dance - y '' pop rock track. A Billboard editor noted it features some electric guitar and "strained '' vocals on the chorus. As the upbeat track progresses, it incorporates handclaps, funky guitar riffs, and foot - tapping bass. The pre-chorus was inspired by early works of Timbaland and Justin Timberlake.
Writing for Billboard, Taylor Weatherby noted "the song 's sound falls right in line with the guitar - laced goodness he brought on his sophomore effort, but this time bringing in a little more edge. '' Allison Bowsher for Much opined the sound "is a return to the earworms that launched Mendes ' career back in 2015. Reminiscent of the high energy pop sensibilities of Mendes ' "Something Big, '' today 's new track plays with lifts and falls throughout, allowing Mendes to show off the strength of his voice. '' In MTV News, Madeline Roth thought the track is "more danceable than anything in his catalog. His voice is gritty and hoarse, especially on the passionate, aggressive hook. ''
"There 's Nothing Holdin ' Me Back '' is featured on the Illuminate World Tour setlist. The singer performed the single on The Graham Norton Show on June 9, 2017, at Capital FM 's Summertime Ball 2017 on June 10, The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on June 19 and at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards on August 27.
In the United States, the song has peaked at number six. It has also reached higher positions on the charts of other countries, such as Australia and the UK, reaching number four in both, and in Mendes ' home country of Canada, where it has achieved number six.
The music video for the song was released on June 20, 2017. The clip, filmed in Paris, Amsterdam and the United Kingdom, sees Mendes and his love interest (played by actress Ellie Bamber) exploring Europe while the singer is out on tour. The couple races through transportation hubs, ride trains and trek along the coastline. The video also shows footage from Mendes ' concerts.
The song is heard in the television series The Good Doctor.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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when does the next episode of naruto shippuden come out in english | List of Naruto: Shippuden episodes - wikipedia
Naruto: Shippuden is an anime series adapted from Part II of Masashi Kishimoto 's manga series, with exactly 500 episodes. It is set two and a half years after Part I in the Naruto universe, following the ninja teenager Naruto Uzumaki and his allies. The series is directed by Hayato Date, and produced by Studio Pierrot and TV Tokyo. It began broadcasting on February 15, 2007 on TV Tokyo, and concluded on March 23, 2017.
On January 2, 2009, Viz Media and Crunchyroll provided eight uncut English subtitled Naruto: Shippuden episodes on the official Naruto website. Later on January 15, Viz began providing subtitled versions of the latest Naruto: Shippuden episodes a week after they first air in Japan, with a new episode being added to the Naruto website each subsequent Thursday. The English dub of Naruto: Shippuden made its US premiere on Disney XD on October 28, 2009. On July 24, 2009, Viz Media announced that the series would be released on the iTunes Store. The first DVD release of the series in North America was released on September 29, 2009.
While Naruto: Shippuden was cancelled on Disney XD on November 5, 2011 after 98 episodes, DVD box sets generally containing thirteen dubbed episodes from episode 1 onward are being released quarterly in their uncut format. The English dub was streamed on Neon Alley from its launch in October 2012 and, beginning December 29, 2012 with episode 98, new episodes were released every week uncut until September 26, 2015. Toonami began airing the series from the beginning on January 4, 2014 in an uncut format.
In four regions, episodes from the series have been released on DVD and Blu - ray by single volumes and box sets. In North America, twelve single volumes and thirty box sets have been released. In the United Kingdom, twenty eight single volumes and six box sets have been released. In Japan, twenty six sets of volumes have been released based on which arc it represents. In Australia and New Zealand, twenty - eight collections have been released.
Seasons: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 DVD releases Notes References Bibliography
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who sings grandma got runover by a reindeer | Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer - wikipedia
"Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer '' is a novelty Christmas song. Written by Randy Brooks, the song was originally performed by the husband - and - wife duo of Elmo and Patsy Trigg Shropshire in 1979.
In the lyrics, a grandmother is celebrating at a Christmas Eve party with her family when, while off her medication and drunk on spiked eggnog, she staggers outside into a snowstorm against the pleas of everyone in the room. She is found the next day, trampled; Santa Claus and his reindeer are determined to be the culprit when "incriminating Claus marks '' are found on Grandma 's back. The second and third verses describe the Christmas gathering where "all the family 's dressed in black '' and the family wonders if all the Christmas gifts they bought for her should be returned (the consensus is a firm yes). Christmas dinner otherwise goes on as normal, with a centerpiece of roast goose, figgy pudding for dessert, and "blue and silver candles '' to match Grandma 's hairpiece; the newly widowed Grandpa seems completely unfazed by his wife 's demise and spends the holiday "watching football, drinking beer and playing cards with Cousin Mel '' (who, while not stated as such in the lyrics, is an attractive and much younger woman in the music video and animated film). The upshot is a warning to the listener to be aware, because "a man who drives a sleigh and plays with elves '' should have never received a driver 's license.
In the music video, in which Elmo plays both Grandma and Grandpa while Patsy plays Cousin Mel, Grandma survives the attack and makes a triumphant return through the chimney.
According to Brooks, he played the song while sitting in with Elmo and Patsy at the Hyatt Lake Tahoe in December 1978, and after the show they had him make a cassette of the song for them to learn. A year later, they were selling 45s of the song from the stage, with Elmo himself appearing in drag on the album cover as "Grandma ''.
The song was originally self - released in San Francisco by the Shropshires in 1979 on their own record label (on "Elmo ' n ' Patsy '' # 2984), with the B - side titled "Christmas ''. Initial copies appeared on a cream - colored label, with a sketch of a pig clearly visible, at left. Once initial copies had sold out, later - pressed # 2984 cream - colored 45 label copies retained the same pig sketch, but decided to both move the sketch, and add the word "Oink '', to the top of the 45 's label. Meanwhile, the duo 's names were moved to the bottom of the label, below the song title. By the early 1980s, the song was becoming a seasonal hit, first on country stations and then on Top 40 stations. Oink Records, still based in Windsor, California, continued distribution of the 45 rpm record in the western U.S., with "Nationwide Sound Distributors '' (NSD) of Nashville, Tennessee pressing and distributing the song on its Soundwaves Records in the eastern U.S., peaking at # 92 on the country singles charts. In 1982, the duo both re-recorded and re-released the song as a single, again as Oink # 2984. But this time, Oink chose to handle all nationwide product distribution themselves, ending the old NSD - Soundwaves agreement. Re-recorded Oink # 2984 45 copies appeared on a white label, not a cream - colored label, however. That is the easiest way (aside from listening to the 45 itself) to differentiate between the original, 1979 Oink # 2984 recording and its now - much - more familiar, 1982 re-recording. An entire LP, named after their hit song, was also recorded in 1982, and was initially released as Oink # 8223. In 1984, with the song now a big hit nationally, CBS Records was interested in re-issuing both the 1982 Oink 45 re-recording, and the 1982 Oink LP. Soon after, Epic Records acquired the rights to both, from Elmo and Patsy. The Epic # 04703 45 opted to replace the Oink 45 's B - side, "Christmas '', with a track from the LP, ("Percy, the Puny Poinsettia ''). Epic 's 1984 re-release of the 1982 Oink LP was a straight re-issue, on Epic # 39931. By the end of 1984, it was reported that sales of "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer '' were, by record label: Oink: 50,000 45s sold; Soundwaves: 175,000 45s sold; Epic: 150,000 45s sold and 90,000 LPs sold. The Epic Records version charted at # 64 on the country charts in 1998 and # 48 in 1999.
The original version was released in the United Kingdom on Stiff Records (BUY 99) in 1980. It did not chart.
Other releases by the original artist (s) would follow:
A sequel, "Grandpa 's Gonna Sue the Pants Off of Santa '', was released by Elmo Shropshire on his album, Dr. Elmo 's Twisted Christmas (1992). Grandpa gets lawyers to fight Santa in court.
The song has been recorded by other acts.
Z100 Portland Morning Zoo made a New Kids on the Block - bashing parody of the song for Christmas 1989, entitled "New Kids Got Run Over by a Reindeer ''.
A parody "Grandpa Got Run Over by a Beer Truck '' was released by Da Yoopers in 1993. Radio personality Bob Rivers recorded his own topical parody titled "Osama Got Run Over by a Reindeer '' on the 2002 White Trash Christmas album.
Cledus T. Judd in 1996 released a parody called "Grandpa Got Run Over by a John Deere '' as a sequel to "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer '' and as well did a cover of the song in 2002.
Stan Boreson sings a Norwegian - American version, "Lena Got Run Over by a Reindeer '' on his Christmas album, Stan Boreson Fractures Christmas.
Others include "Grandma Got Molested at the Airport '' by Donny Aldridge, also sung by Dick Mango; and "Grandma Got Dismembered by a Chainsaw ''.
Edison Media Research and Pinnacle Media Worldwide independently survey radio listeners on which Christmas songs they like and dislike. In both surveys, results of which were reported in 2007, the only song that reached the top of both liked and disliked lists was "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer. '' Its "loved '' ratings in the Edison and Pinnacle polls were relatively high -- 47 and 32 percent, respectively -- but so were the "hate '' or "dislike '' ratings -- 17 and 22 percent.
A major Washington, D.C. radio station, WASH (97.1 FM), dropped the song from its playlist. "It was too polarizing, '' says Bill Hess, program director. "It was n't strong, except with a few people, and it had a lot of negatives. '' The song also gained notoriety at Davenport, Iowa radio station WLLR in 1985 when a disc jockey played the song 27 times back - to - back during the morning show before station management was able to stop him. The disc jockey, who was suspended, was reportedly depressed and upset that a co-worker had left employment at the station to work out - of - state.
Shropshire claims it is "a beloved holiday favorite. '' The video of the song was "a holiday staple on MTV for many seasons. '' It has been "incorporated into talking toys and a musical greeting card. '' "My royalties are four or five times what they were '' 20 years ago, claims Elmo, who performs the song with his bluegrass group year - round. "A lot of younger people say it 's not really Christmas until they hear it. ''
The 2000 animated television program Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer portrays the events depicted in the song, though made for children; the cartoon is toned down a bit, so that Grandma survives. Moreover, Santa is actually innocent of the crime, which was instead masterminded by scheming relative Cousin Mel, who is mentioned briefly in the song but made into a gold - digging villainness in the special. Elmo Shropshire narrates the special and voices Grandpa. The special is a staple of Cartoon Network 's holiday programming and airs every holiday season on The CW (The special originally aired on the WB Network every holiday season until the 2006 merge with UPN to form The CW, where it continues to air today).
In the 2015 episode of the tv show Scorpion, titled, ' Dam Breakthrough ', three of the main characters sing part of this song, while inhaling helium.
The promotional music video for Elmo & Patsy 's "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer '' was released in the mid-1980s, and aired on MTV for at least 18 years. The video could also be seen on VH1, CMT, TNN, GAC, and VH1 Classic during the holiday season, as well as being on Spike 's official website and YouTube. Elmo Shropshire played Grandpa and Grandma while Patsy played Cousin Mel.
While the family matriarch was run over by Santa Claus 's reindeer, she has survived the accident (unlike in the actual song) and thus reappears toward the end of the video, alive and very much well, but somewhat fazed by the trampling. While being escorted inside the house by two policemen, she finally speaks the cautionary last line of the last verse as though commenting on Santa 's driving: "They should NEVER give a license / To a man who drives a sleigh and plays with elves ''.
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where did the last name perez come from | Pérez - wikipedia
Pérez or Perez, as most commonly written in English, is a Spanish and Jewish surname popular among people of Sephardic Jewish descent.
The surname with Spanish origins, written in Spanish orthography as Pérez, is a patronymic surname meaning "son of Pero or Pedro (Peter) ''. The surname has a Portuguese counterpart with the same meaning and etymology, Peres, written with a final "s '' instead of "z '' and without the accent.
The surname with a Hebrew origin is transliterated into English as either Perez or Peretz, and is derived from the Hebrew given name פרץ (cf. Genesis 38: 29), after the biblical character Perez (son of Judah), which in Hebrew means "to breach '' or "to burst forth ''. That biblical character 's Hebrew name, however, is transliterated as Farés in the Spanish Christian Bible.
Neither the Spanish nor the Hebrew surname corresponds to one single lineage. Instead, both correspond to many unrelated lineages.
Additionally, while the Spanish and Hebrew etymological origins are distinct, there are nevertheless those who carry the surname because, in their particular case, the origin of their surname is Spanish Jewish (i.e. Sephardic), and they, as Spanish Jews or their descendants, adopted the surname precisely because of its ambiguity.
Pérez as a surname among Spanish Jews or their descendants could be considered by their non-Jewish Spanish or Hispanic neighbors a typical Christian surname, yet still pay homage to their Jewish roots. This was helpful during the times of the Spanish Inquisition and its persecution of the Jews (and their baptized New Christian descendants) in Spain and its colonies in Hispanic America.
Among Spaniards and Hispanics, the surname by itself does not necessarily indicate a Jewish heritage. Likewise, among Jews, the surname does not by itself necessarily indicate a Sephardic heritage.
In Castilian Spanish, the name is pronounced (ˈpeɾeθ) and in Latin America, (ˈpeɾes). The accent or stress is placed on the second - to - last syllable as with all Spanish patronymic surnames.
In Modern Hebrew: (ˈpeʁets).
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what is the lifespan of a mercedes benz | Car longevity - wikipedia
Car longevity is of interest to many car owners and concerns several things: maximum service life in either miles or time (duration), relationship of components to this lifespan, identification of factors that might afford control in extending the lifespan. Barring an accidental end to the lifespan, a car would have a life constrained by the earliest part to fail. Some have argued that rust and other factors related to the body of a car are the prime limits to extended longevity.
An automobile is a highly engineered collection of complex components, each of which has its own lifespan and longevity characteristics. The MTBF of some components is expected to be small, as the easy replacement of these is considered part of maintenance. Other components, many of which have high replacement costs, are expected to have a longer life; however, a large longevity may very well require replacement of several of these, raising issues of economics.
The motivation for pursuing longevity can vary. The economic trade - off of purchase versus repair will be part of the equation. Of course, many factors, such as whether the car is classic, outweigh pure economics. The desire to extend the life of an auto that is paid off, by fighting "planned obsolescence '', is often important for drivers.
The life of the auto, as the collection, follows, according to a very common model, a bathtub - like pattern. After an initial phase where failure may be likely (hence the offering of the warranties by the dealer), there may be a long period of unlikely failure, as the probabilities will be low. Given that the auto has been around for over 100 years, what cars become, and remain, classic and the maximal lifespan for any car are open - ended questions. Interest in longevity beyond that related to purchasing used vehicles will improve the science of predicting car life, with such things as a life table for cars.
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency assumes the typical car is driven 15,000 miles per year. According to the New York Times, in the 1960s and 1970s, the typical car reached its end of life around 100,000 miles, but due to manufacturing improvements such as tighter tolerances and better anti-corrosion coatings, in the 2000s the typical car lasts closer to 200,000 miles.
Some car manufacturers support a "high mileage '' club. For example, Volvo and Mercedes - Benz have a "High Mileage Award '' program in which owners who drive 250,000, 500,000, 750,000, and 1 million kilometers are awarded with a certificate and a radiator grille badge.
Many non-commercial vehicles (both auto and truck) have exceeded one million miles. For instance, in 2013, Irv Gordon had accumulated 3 million miles in his 1966 Volvo P1800. In 2006, a 1995 Dodge Ram was reported to Chrysler as having gone 1 million miles.
A 1976 Mercedes - Benz 240D in Greece of Gregorios Sachinidis has reached 2,858,307 miles before retiring to the Mercedes - Benz Museum in Germany.
A 1989 Saab 900 SPG belonging to Peter Gilbert of Wisconsin had put in 1,001,385 miles before it was donated to the Wisconsin Automotive Museum.
Another was the 1963 Volkswagen Beetle belonging to Albert Klein of Pasadena, California that had accumulated 1,442,044 miles on 25 Jan 1993.
AARP Magazine featured several long - running cars (over 200K miles) in its July 2009 Issue.
A recent study on Consumer Reports by iSeeCars.com listed 10 Longest Lasting Cars over 200K miles.
Sikorsky, and others, have developed lists that itemize steps that a car owner can take, or identified operating and maintenance rules, to ensure maximal longevity.
In a public economics sense, Kasmer argues that retrofitting autos with a newer transmission would extend the lifespan while at the same time increase fuel efficiency, reduce carbon emissions, and prevent the sudden influx of discarded vehicles into the waste bin as cars are junked to be replaced by a modern vehicle. However, with replacement parts for modern cars becoming ever more high tech, expensive and proprietary and therefore difficult to obtain (due to OEM copyright), many critical components are no longer available at low cost from third party aftermarket suppliers. Due to this fact, most modern cars can no longer be maintained once repair cost of the car exceed resale value. This trend has led to the modern cars being labeled as the first ever "disposable '' cars.
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countries that dont extradite to the united states | Extradition law in the United States - wikipedia
Extradition law in the United States is the formal process by which a fugitive found in the United States is surrendered to another country or state for trial or punishment. For foreign countries, the process is regulated by treaty and conducted between the federal government of the United States and the government of a foreign country. The process is considerably different from interstate or intrastate extradition. Florida, Alaska, and Hawaii do not extradite for a misdemeanor conviction that was convicted in the US, as of 2010. Some felonies are an exception in American law such as a crime that is violent in nature, or a sexual offense, or felony driving while intoxicated; they will entail extradition from all states in the United States. Theft charges and small drug crimes are the exception; for instance, if a minor crime is committed in Florida, a person apprehended in Idaho will not be extradited back to the original crime 's jurisdiction. Federal charges are governed by US federal law and most states, with the exceptions of South Carolina and Missouri, have adopted the Uniform Criminal Extradition Act. In practice, Florida, Alaska, and Hawaii typically do not extradite if the crime in question is not a felony because of the associated costs of transporting the suspect and the housing fees that must be paid to the jurisdiction in which he is held until transported.
The Extradition Clause in the US Constitution requires states, upon demand of another state, to deliver a fugitive from justice who has committed a "treason, felony or other crime '' to the state from which the fugitive has fled. 18 U.S.C. § 3182 sets the process by which an executive of a state, district, or territory of the United States must arrest and turn over a fugitive from another state, district, or territory.
For a person to be extradited interstate, 18 U.S.C. § 3182 requires:
In Kentucky v. Dennison, decided in 1860, the Supreme Court held that, although the governor of the asylum state had a constitutional duty to return a fugitive to the demanding state, the federal courts had no authority to enforce this duty. As a result, for more than 100 years, the governor of one state was deemed to have discretion on whether or not he / she would comply with another state 's request for extradition.
In a 1987 case, Puerto Rico v. Branstad, the Court overruled Dennison, and held that the governor of the asylum state has no discretion in performing his or her duty to extradite, whether that duty arises under the Extradition Clause of the Constitution or under the Extradition Act (18 U.S.C. § 3182), and that a federal court may enforce the governor 's duty to return the fugitive to the demanding state. There are only four grounds upon which the Governor of the asylum state may deny another state 's request for extradition: (1) the extradition documents facially are not in order; (2) the person has not been charged with a crime in the demanding state; (3) the person is not the person named in the extradition documents; or (4) the person is not a fugitive. There appears to be at least one additional exception: if the fugitive is under sentence in the asylum state, he need not be extradited until his punishment in the asylum state is completed.
The United States has extradition treaties with more than 100 countries. Of the treaties most are dual criminality treaties with the remaining being list treaties. A list of countries with which the United States has an extradition treaty relationship can be found in the Federal Criminal Code and Rules, following 18 U.S.C. § 3181, but this list may not be completely accurate. (This list is reproduced as the list of United States extradition treaties.)
The United States maintains diplomatic relations but, according to the above - mentioned list, does not have extradition treaties with the following countries:
And the countries formerly part of Yugoslavia:
As well as these countries that have no diplomatic relations with the United States:
Even the partially recognized countries that have no diplomatic relations with but not recognized by the United States:
Generally under United States law (18 U.S.C. § 3184), extradition may be granted only pursuant to a treaty. Some countries grant extradition without a treaty, but every such country requires an offer of reciprocity when extradition is accorded in the absence of a treaty. Further, the 1996 amendments to 18 U.S.C. 3181 and 3184 permit the United States to extradite, without regard to the existence of a treaty, persons (other than citizens, nationals or permanent residents of the United States) who have committed crimes of violence against nationals of the United States in foreign countries.
All extradition treaties in force require foreign requests for extradition to be submitted through diplomatic channels, usually from the country 's embassy in Washington to the Department of State. Many treaties also require that requests for provisional arrest be submitted through diplomatic channels, although some permit provisional arrest requests to be sent directly to the Department of Justice. The Department of State reviews foreign extradition demands to identify any potential foreign policy problems and to ensure that there is a treaty in force between the United States and the country making the request, that the crime or crimes are extraditable offenses, and that the supporting documents are properly certified in accordance with 18 U.S.C. § 3190. If the request is in proper order, an attorney in the State Department 's Office of the Legal Adviser prepares a certificate attesting to the existence of the treaty, that the crime or crimes are extraditable offenses, and that the supporting documents are properly certified in accordance with 18 U.S.C. § 3190, and forwards it with the original request to the Justice Department 's Office of International Affairs ("OIA '').
Once the OIA receives a foreign extradition request, it reviews the request for sufficiency and forwards sufficient requests to the United States Attorney 's Office for the judicial district in which the fugitive is located. The U.S. Attorney 's office then obtains a warrant, and the fugitive is arrested and brought before the magistrate judge or the US district judge. The government opposes bond in extradition cases. Unless the fugitive waives his or her right to a hearing, the court will hold a hearing pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 3184 to determine whether the fugitive is extraditable. If the court finds the fugitive to be extraditable, it enters an order of extraditability and certifies the record to the Secretary of State, who decides whether to surrender the fugitive to the requesting government. OIA notifies the foreign government and arranges for the transfer of the fugitive to the agents appointed by the requesting country to receive him or her. Although the order following the extradition hearing is not appealable (by either the fugitive or the government), the fugitive may petition for a writ of habeas corpus as soon as the order is issued. The district court 's decision on the writ is subject to appeal, and the extradition may be stayed if the court so orders.
Habeas corpus is a legal procedure initiated by an individual to test the legality of his detention by the government. To benefit from habeas corpus, the affected person, or someone on his behalf, must file a petition for relief before a court with jurisdiction. The procedure is contained in 28 U.S.C. § 2241 et. seq. When the habeas petition contests the decision of an extradition magistrate, the individual must argue that his detention and surrender to a foreign country violates the United States Constitution, the applicable extradition treaty, or a federal statute.
Because orders of extradition can not be appealed, the only means for an individual to have them reviewed is to file a request for a writ of habeas corpus. The government, on the other hand, may renew its request if the original one is denied. Habeas corpus review by a district court is generally available whenever an individual "is in custody in violation of the Constitution or laws or treaties of the United States, '' and is provided for several different types of detention in addition to extradition, such as detention after a criminal conviction, and for military purposes. As part of its habeas review, the court will normally accept the factual findings of the extradition magistrate, while legal issues are considered anew.
The scope of review of a writ of habeas corpus in extradition is meant to be limited. It is settled to cover at least inquiries on whether: (1) the extradition magistrate acquired jurisdiction over the individual and the matter; (2) the crime for which extradition is sought is included within the treaty as an extraditable offense, and (3) whether there is probable cause to commit the relator to trial. Many courts, however, have adopted an "expanded '' scope of habeas review that additionally considers issues about the violation of constitutional rights.
Petitioners in extradition cases may contest the legality of their detention though a habeas proceeding by arguing, for example, that the extradition treaty is not in force, that the alleged crime constitutes political behavior subject to exception, that the determination of extraditability by the magistrate has not been made according to the requirements of the applicable United States statutes and treaty, that the extradition procedure does not comply with the Constitution, and that the relator has not been formally charged.
Even though the decision of the extradition magistrate can not be appealed, the habeas corpus determination by the district court is subject to appeal to the corresponding circuit court. Thereafter, review may be sought through certiorari to the Supreme Court.
The federal structure of the United States can pose particular problems with respect to extraditions when the police power and the power of foreign relations are held at different levels of the federal hierarchy. For instance, in the United States, most criminal prosecutions occur at the state level, and most foreign relations occur at the federal level. In fact, under the United States Constitution, foreign countries may not have official treaty relations with sub-national units such as individual states; rather, they may have treaty relations only with the federal government. As a result, a state that wishes to prosecute an individual located in a foreign country must direct its extradition request through the federal government, which will negotiate the extradition with the foreign country. However, due to the constraints of federalism, any conditions on the extradition accepted by the federal government -- such as not to impose the death penalty -- are not binding on individual states.
In the case of Soering v. United Kingdom, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the United Kingdom was not permitted under its treaty obligations to extradite an individual to the United States, because the United States ' federal government was constitutionally unable to offer binding assurances that the death penalty would not be sought in Virginia courts. Ultimately, the Commonwealth of Virginia itself had to offer assurances to the federal government, which passed those assurances on to the United Kingdom, which extradited the individual to the United States.
Additional problems can arise due to differing criteria for crimes. For instance, in the United States, crossing state lines is a prerequisite for certain federal crimes (otherwise crimes such as murder are handled by state governments except in certain circumstances such as the killing of a federal official). This transportation clause is absent from the laws of many countries. Extradition treaties or subsequent diplomatic correspondence often include language providing that such criteria should not be taken into account when checking if the crime is one in the country from which extradition should apply.
To clarify the above point, if a person in the United States crosses the borders of the United States to go to another country, then that person has crossed a federal border, and federal law would apply in addition to state law. Crossing state lines (within the U.S.) in committing a crime could also create federal jurisdiction. In addition, travel by airplane in the United States subjects one to federal law, as all airports are subject to federal jurisdiction.
It is unlawful for U.S. citizens to enter or exit the United States without a valid U.S. passport or Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative -- compliant passport - replacement document, or without an exception or waiver. An application is required for the issuance of a passport. If a fugitive being extradited to the United States refuses to sign a passport application, the consular officer can sign it "without recourse ''.
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top 10 gold medal winners at the olympics | List of multiple Olympic gold medalists - wikipedia
The page lists individuals who have won three or more gold medals at the Olympics.
This is a partial list of multiple Olympic gold medalists, listing people who have won four or more Olympic gold medals. Medals won in the 1906 Intercalated Games are not included. (If they were, Ray Ewry would be second on the list with 10 gold). It includes top - three placings in 1896 and 1900, before medals were awarded for top - three placings. For simplicity, when an athlete has won medals for more than one nation, only the last nation he or she represented is mentioned here. The Olympics listed for each athlete only include games in which they won medals. See the particular article on the athlete for more details on when and for what nation an athlete competed. More medals are available in some events than others, and the number of events in which medals are available overall has changed over time.
This is a progressive list of Olympians that have held the record for most titles won. It includes titles won in 1896 and 1900, before gold medals were awarded for first place. All record - holders have competed at Summer Games rather than Winter Games.
This list currently includes all Olympians with three or more gold medals won as individuals (not as part of a team of two or more).
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who did the soviet union side with in ww2 | Soviet Union in World war II - wikipedia
The Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany on 23 August 1939. In addition to stipulations of non-aggression, the treaty included a secret protocol that divided territories of Romania, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland into German and Soviet "spheres of influence '', anticipating potential "territorial and political rearrangements '' of these countries. Stalin and Hitler later traded proposals after a Soviet entry into the Axis Pact.
Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939. Joseph Stalin waited until 17 September before launching his own invasion of Poland. Part of southeastern (Karelia) and the Salla region of Finland were annexed by the Soviet Union after the Winter War. This was followed by Soviet annexations of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Romania (Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and the Hertza region). It was only in 1989 that the Soviet Union admitted the existence of the secret protocol of the Nazi - Soviet pact regarding the planned divisions of these territories. The invasion of Bukovina violated the Molotov - Ribbentrop Pact, as it went beyond the Soviet sphere agreed with the Axis.
In 1940 - 41, Stalin ignored reports of an Axis invasion. On 22 June 1941, Hitler launched an invasion of the Soviet Union. Stalin was confident that the total Allied war machine would eventually stop Germany, and with Lend Lease from the West, the Soviets stopped the Wehrmacht some 30 kilometres from Moscow. Over the next four years, the Soviet Union repulsed Axis offensives, such as at the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Kursk, and pressed forward to victory in large Soviet offensives, such as the Vistula - Oder Offensive. Stalin began to listen to his generals more after Kursk.
The bulk of Soviet fighting took place on the Eastern Front -- including a continued war with Finland -- but it also invaded Iran (August 1941) in cooperation with the British and late in the war attacked Japan (August 1945), with which the Soviets had border wars earlier up until in 1939.
Stalin met with Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Tehran Conference and began to discuss a two - front war against Germany and the future of Europe after the war. Berlin finally fell in April 1945, but Stalin was never fully convinced that Adolf Hitler, had committed suicide. Fending off the German invasion and pressing to victory in the East required a tremendous sacrifice by the Soviet Union, which suffered the highest military casualties in the war, losing more than 20 million men.
In August 1939, Stalin accepted Hitler 's proposal into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, negotiated by the foreign ministers Vyacheslav Molotov for the Soviets and Joachim von Ribbentrop for the Germans. Officially a non-aggression treaty only, an appended secret protocol, also reached on 23 August, divided the whole of eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence. The USSR was promised the eastern part of Poland, then primarily populated by Ukrainians and Belarusians, in case of its dissolution, and Germany recognised Latvia, Estonia and Finland as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence, with Lithuania added in a second secret protocol in September 1939. Another clause of the treaty was that Bessarabia, then part of Romania, was to be joined to the Moldovan SSR, and become the Moldovan SSR under control of Moscow.
The pact was reached two days after the breakdown of Soviet military talks with British and French representatives in August 1939 over a potential Franco - Anglo - Soviet alliance. Political discussions had been suspended on 2 August, when Molotov stated that they could not be resumed until progress was made in military talks late in August, after the talks had stalled over guarantees for the Baltic states, while the military talks upon which Molotov insisted started on 11 August. At the same time, Germany -- with whom the Soviets had started secret discussions on 29 July -- argued that it could offer the Soviets better terms than Britain and France, with Ribbentrop insisting, "there was no problem between the Baltic and the Black Sea that could not be solved between the two of us. '' German officials stated that, unlike Britain, Germany could permit the Soviets to continue their developments unmolested, and that "there is one common element in the ideology of Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union: opposition to the capitalist democracies of the West ''. By that time, Molotov had obtained information regarding Anglo - German negotiations and a pessimistic report from the Soviet ambassador in France.
After disagreement regarding Stalin 's demand to move Red Army troops through Poland and Romania (which Poland and Romania opposed), on 21 August, the Soviets proposed adjournment of military talks using the pretext that the absence of the senior Soviet personnel at the talks interfered with the autumn manoeuvres of the Soviet forces, though the primary reason was the progress being made in the Soviet - German negotiations. That same day, Stalin received assurance that Germany would approve secret protocols to the proposed non-aggression pact that would grant the Soviets land in Poland, the Baltic states, Finland and Romania, after which Stalin telegrammed Hitler that night that the Soviets were willing to sign the pact and that he would receive Ribbentrop on 23 August. Regarding the larger issue of collective security, some historians state that one reason that Stalin decided to abandon the doctrine was the shaping of his views of France and Britain by their entry into the Munich Agreement and the subsequent failure to prevent German occupation of Czechoslovakia. Stalin may also have viewed the pact as gaining time in an eventual war with Hitler in order to reinforce the Soviet military and shifting Soviet borders westwards, which would be militarily beneficial in such a war.
Stalin and Ribbentrop spent most of the night of the pact 's signing trading friendly stories about world affairs and cracking jokes (a rarity for Ribbentrop) about Britain 's weakness, and the pair even joked about how the Anti-Comintern Pact principally scared "British shopkeepers. '' They further traded toasts, with Stalin proposing a toast to Hitler 's health and Ribbentrop proposing a toast to Stalin.
On 1 September 1939, the German invasion of its agreed upon portion of Poland started the Second World War. On 17 September the Red Army invaded eastern Poland and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it by the Molotov - Ribbentrop Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland. Eleven days later, the secret protocol of the Molotov - Ribbentrop Pact was modified, allotting Germany a larger part of Poland, while ceding most of Lithuania to the Soviet Union. The Soviet portions lay east of the so - called Curzon Line, an ethnographic frontier between Russia and Poland drawn up by a commission of the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. In early 1940, the Soviets executed over 25,000 Polish PoWs and political prisoners in the Katyn Forrest.
After taking around 300,000 Polish prisoners in 1939 and early 1940, NKVD officers conducted lengthy interrogations of the prisoners in camps that were, in effect, a selection process to determine who would be killed. On March 5, 1940, pursuant to a note to Stalin from Lavrenty Beria, the members of the Soviet Politburo (including Stalin) signed an order to execute 25,700 Polish PoWs, labelled "nationalists and counterrevolutionaries '', kept at camps and prisons in occupied western Ukraine and Belarus. This became known as the Katyn massacre. Major - General Vasili M. Blokhin, chief executioner for the NKVD, personally shot 6,000 of the captured Polish officers in 28 consecutive nights, which remains one of the most organized and protracted mass murders by a single individual on record During his 29 - year career Blokhin shot an estimated 50,000 people, making him ostensibly the most prolific official executioner in recorded world history.
In August 1939, Stalin declared that he was going to "solve the Baltic problem, and thereafter, forced Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia to sign treaties for "mutual assistance. ''
After unsuccessfully attempting to install a communist puppet government in Finland, in November 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Finland. The Finnish defence defied Soviet expectations, and after stiff losses, Stalin settled for an interim peace granting the Soviet Union less than total domination by annexing only the eastern region of Karelia (10 % of Finnish territory). while Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev later claimed the casualties may have been one million. After this campaign, Stalin took actions to bolster the Soviet military, modify training and improve propaganda efforts in the Soviet military.
In mid-June 1940, when international attention was focused on the German invasion of France, Soviet NKVD troops raided border posts in Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia. Stalin claimed that the mutual assistance treaties had been violated, and gave six - hour ultimatums for new governments to be formed in each country, including lists of persons for cabinet posts provided by the Kremlin. Thereafter, state administrations were liquidated and replaced by Soviet cadres, followed by mass repression in which 34,250 Latvians, 75,000 Lithuanians and almost 60,000 Estonians were deported or killed. Elections for parliament and other offices were held with single candidates listed, the official results of which showed pro-Soviet candidates approval by 92.8 percent of the voters of Estonia, 97.6 percent of the voters in Latvia and 99.2 percent of the voters in Lithuania. The resulting peoples assemblies immediately requested admission into the USSR, which was granted by the Soviet Union. In late June 1940, Stalin directed the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, proclaiming this formerly Romanian territory part of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. But in annexing northern Bukovina, Stalin had gone beyond the agreed limits of the secret protocol.
After the Tripartite Pact was signed by Axis Powers Germany, Japan and Italy, in October 1940, Stalin personally wrote to Ribbentrop about entering an agreement regarding a "permanent basis '' for their "mutual interests. '' Stalin sent Molotov to Berlin to negotiate the terms for the Soviet Union to join the Axis and potentially enjoy the spoils of the pact. At Stalin 's direction, Molotov insisted on Soviet interest in Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Greece, though Stalin had earlier unsuccessfully personally lobbied Turkish leaders to not sign a mutual assistance pact with Britain and France. Ribbentrop asked Molotov to sign another secret protocol with the statement: "The focal point of the territorial aspirations of the Soviet Union would presumably be centred south of the territory of the Soviet Union in the direction of the Indian Ocean. '' Molotov took the position that he could not take a "definite stand '' on this without Stalin 's agreement. Stalin did not agree with the suggested protocol, and negotiations broke down. In response to a later German proposal, Stalin 's stated that the Soviets would join the Axis if Germany foreclosed acting in the Soviet 's sphere of influence. Shortly thereafter, Hitler issued a secret internal directive related to his plan to invade the Soviet Union.
In an effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, on 13 April 1941, Stalin oversaw the signing of a neutrality pact with the Axis power Japan. Since Treaty of Portsmouth, Russia had been competing with Japan for spheres of influence in the Far East, where there was a power vacuum with the collapse of Imperial China. Although similar to the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact with the Third Reich, that Soviet Union signed Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact with the Empire of Japan, to maintain the national interest of Soviet 's sphere of influence in the European continent as well as the Far East conquest, whilst among the few countries in the world diplomatically recognising Manchukuo, and allowed the rise of German invasion in Europe and Japanese aggression in Asia, but the Japanese defeat of Battles of Khalkhin Gol was the forceful factor to the temporary settlement before Soviet invasion of Manchuria in 1945 as the result of Yalta Conference. While Stalin had little faith in Japan 's commitment to neutrality, he felt that the pact was important for its political symbolism, to reinforce a public affection for Germany, before military confrontation when Hitler controlled Western Europe and for Soviet Union to take control Eastern Europe. Stalin felt that there was a growing split in German circles about whether Germany should initiate a war with the Soviet Union, though Stalin was not aware of Hitler 's further military ambition.
During the early morning of 22 June 1941, Hitler terminated the pact by launching Operation Barbarossa, the Axis invasion of Soviet - held territories and the Soviet Union that began the war on the Eastern Front. Before the invasion, Stalin thought that Germany would not attack the Soviet Union until Germany had defeated Britain. At the same time, Soviet generals warned Stalin that Germany had concentrated forces on its borders. Two highly placed Soviet spies in Germany, "Starshina '' and "Korsikanets '', had sent dozens of reports to Moscow containing evidence of preparation for a German attack. Further warnings came from Richard Sorge, a Soviet spy in Tokyo working undercover as a German journalist who had penetrated deep into the German Embassy in Tokyo by seducing the wife of General Eugen Ott, the German ambassador to Japan.
Seven days before the invasion, a Soviet spy in Berlin, part of the Rote Kapelle (Red Orchestra) spy network, warned Stalin that the movement of German divisions to the borders was to wage war on the Soviet Union. Five days before the attack, Stalin received a report from a spy in the German Air Ministry that "all preparations by Germany for an armed attack on the Soviet Union have been completed, and the blow can be expected at any time. '' In the margin, Stalin wrote to the people 's commissar for state security, "you can send your ' source ' from the headquarters of German aviation to his mother. This is not a ' source ' but a dezinformator. '' Although Stalin increased Soviet western border forces to 2.7 million men and ordered them to expect a possible German invasion, he did not order a full - scale mobilisation of forces to prepare for an attack. Stalin felt that a mobilisation might provoke Hitler to prematurely begin to wage war against the Soviet Union, which Stalin wanted to delay until 1942 in order to strengthen Soviet forces.
Viktor Suvorov suggested that Stalin had made aggressive preparations beginning in the late 1930s and was preparing to invade Germany in the summer 1941. He believes that Hitler forestalled Stalin and the German invasion was in essence a pre-emptive strike, precisely as Hitler claimed. This theory was supported by Igor Bunich, Joachim Hoffmann, Mikhail Meltyukhov (see Stalin 's Missed Chance) and Edvard Radzinsky (see Stalin: The First In - Depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia 's Secret Archives). Other historians, especially Gabriel Gorodetsky and David Glantz, reject this thesis. General Fedor von Boch 's diary says that the Abwehr fully expected a Soviet attack against German forces in Poland no later than 1942.
In the initial hours after the German attack began, Stalin hesitated, wanting to ensure that the German attack was sanctioned by Hitler, rather than the unauthorised action of a rogue general. Accounts by Nikita Khrushchev and Anastas Mikoyan claim that, after the invasion, Stalin retreated to his dacha in despair for several days and did not participate in leadership decisions. But, some documentary evidence of orders given by Stalin contradicts these accounts, leading historians such as Roberts to speculate that Khrushchev 's account is inaccurate.
Stalin soon quickly made himself a Marshal of the Soviet Union, then country 's highest military rank and Supreme Commander in Chief of the Soviet Armed Forces aside from being Premier and General - Secretary of the ruling Communist Party of the Soviet Union that made him the leader of the nation, as well as the People 's Commissar for Defence, which is equivalent to the U.S. Secretary of War at that time and the U.K. Minister of Defence and formed the State Defense Committee to coordinate military operations with himself also as Chairman. He chaired the Stavka, the highest defense organisation of the country. Meanwhile, Marshal Georgy Zhukov was named to be the Deputy Supreme Commander in Chief of the Soviet Armed Forces.
In the first three weeks of the invasion, as the Soviet Union tried to defend itself against large German advances, it suffered 750,000 casualties, and lost 10,000 tanks and 4,000 aircraft. In July 1941, Stalin completely reorganised the Soviet military, placing himself directly in charge of several military organisations. This gave him complete control of his country 's entire war effort; more control than any other leader in World War II.
A pattern soon emerged where Stalin embraced the Red Army 's strategy of conducting multiple offensives, while the Germans overran each of the resulting small, newly gained grounds, dealing the Soviets severe casualties. The most notable example of this was the Battle of Kiev, where over 600,000 Soviet troops were quickly killed, captured or missing.
By the end of 1941, the Soviet military had suffered 4.3 million casualties and the Germans had captured 3.0 million Soviet prisoners, 2.0 million of whom died in German captivity by February 1942. German forces had advanced c. 1,700 kilometres, and maintained a linearly - measured front of 3,000 kilometres. The Red Army put up fierce resistance during the war 's early stages. Even so, according to Glantz, they were plagued by an ineffective defence doctrine against well - trained and experienced German forces, despite possessing some modern Soviet equipment, such as the KV - 1 and T - 34 tanks.
While the Germans made huge advances in 1941, killing millions of Soviet soldiers, at Stalin 's direction the Red Army directed sizable resources to prevent the Germans from achieving one of their key strategic goals, the attempted capture of Leningrad. They held the city at the cost of more than a million Soviet soldiers in the region and more than a million civilians, many of whom died from starvation.
While the Germans pressed forward, Stalin was confident of an eventual Allied victory over Germany. In September 1941, Stalin told British diplomats that he wanted two agreements: (1) a mutual assistance / aid pact and (2) a recognition that, after the war, the Soviet Union would gain the territories in countries that it had taken pursuant to its division of Eastern Europe with Hitler in the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact. The British agreed to assistance but refused to agree to the territorial gains, which Stalin accepted months later as the military situation had deteriorated somewhat by mid-1942. In November 1941, Stalin rallied his generals in a speech given underground in Moscow, telling them that the German blitzkrieg would fail because of weaknesses in the German rear in Nazi - occupied Europe and the underestimation of the strength of the Red Army, and that the German war effort would crumble against the Anglo - American - Soviet "war engine ''. On 6 November 1941, Stalin addressed the Soviet Union for the second time (the first was on 2 July 1941).
Correctly calculating that Hitler would direct efforts to capture Moscow, Stalin concentrated his forces to defend the city, including numerous divisions transferred from Soviet eastern sectors after he determined that Japan would not attempt an attack in those areas. By December, Hitler 's troops had advanced to within 25 kilometres (16 mi) of the Kremlin in Moscow. On 5 December, the Soviets launched a counteroffensive, pushing German troops back c. 80 kilometres (50 mi) from Moscow in what was the first major defeat of the Wehrmacht in the war.
In early 1942, the Soviets began a series of offensives labelled "Stalin 's First Strategic Offensives ''. The counteroffensive bogged down, in part due to mud from rain in the spring of 1942. Stalin 's attempt to retake Kharkov in the Ukraine ended in the disastrous encirclement of Soviet forces, with over 200,000 Soviet casualties suffered. Stalin attacked the competence of the generals involved. General Georgy Zhukov and others subsequently revealed that some of those generals had wished to remain in a defensive posture in the region, but Stalin and others had pushed for the offensive. Some historians have doubted Zhukov 's account.
At the same time, Hitler was worried about American popular support after the U.S. entry into the war following the Attack on Pearl Harbor, and a potential Anglo - American invasion on the Western Front in 1942 (which did not occur until the summer of 1944). He changed his primary goal from an immediate victory in the East, to the more long - term goal of securing the southern Soviet Union to protect oil fields vital to the long - term German war effort. While Red Army generals correctly judged the evidence that Hitler would shift his efforts south, Stalin thought it a flanking move in the German attempt to take Moscow.
The German southern campaign began with a push to capture the Crimea, which ended in disaster for the Red Army. Stalin publicly criticised his generals ' leadership. In their southern campaigns, the Germans took 625,000 Red Army prisoners in July and August 1942 alone. At the same time, in a meeting in Moscow, Churchill privately told Stalin that the British and Americans were not yet prepared to make an amphibious landing against a fortified Nazi - held French coast in 1942, and would direct their efforts to invading German - held North Africa. He pledged a campaign of massive strategic bombing, to include German civilian targets.
Estimating that the Russians were "finished, '' the Germans began another southern operation in the autumn of 1942, the Battle of Stalingrad. Hitler insisted upon splitting German southern forces in a simultaneous siege of Stalingrad and an offensive against Baku on the Caspian Sea. Stalin directed his generals to spare no effort to defend Stalingrad. Although the Soviets suffered in excess of more than 2 million casualties at Stalingrad, their victory over German forces, including the encirclement of 290,000 Axis troops, marked a turning point in the war.
Within a year after Barbarossa, Stalin reopened the churches in the Soviet Union. He may have wanted to motivate the majority of the population who had Christian beliefs. By changing the official policy of the party and the state towards religion, he could engage the Church and its clergy in mobilising the war effort. On 4 September 1943, Stalin invited the metropolitans Sergius, Alexy and Nikolay to the Kremlin. He proposed to reestablish the Moscow Patriarchate, which had been suspended since 1925, and elect the Patriarch. On 8 September 1943, Metropolitan Sergius was elected Patriarch. One account said that Stalin 's reversal followed a sign that he supposedly received from heaven.
Over 75 % of Red Army divisions were listed rifle divisions, as infantry divisions were known in the Red Army. In the Imperial Russian Army, the strelkovye (rifle) divisions were considered more prestigious than pekhotnye (infantry) divisions, and in the Red Army, all infantry divisions were labeled strelkovye divisions. The Soviet riflemen were known as a peshkom ("on foot '') or more frequently as a frontovik (front fighter). The term frontovik was not equivalent to the German term Landser, the American G.I Joe or the British Tommy Atkins, all of which referred to soldiers in general, as the term frontovik was used only to describe those infantrymen who fought at the front. All able - bodied males in the Soviet Union were eligible for conscription at the age of 19 and those attending university or a technical school were able to escape conscription, and even then could defer military service for a period ranging from 3 months to a year. Deferments could be only offered three times. The Soviet Union was divided into 20 military districts, which corresponded with the borders of the oblasts, and were further divided into raions (counties). It was from the raions that quotas were assigned to the number of men that had been produced for the Red Army every year. The vast majority of the frontoviks had been born in the 1920s and grown up knowing nothing other than the Soviet system. Every year, men received draft notices in the mail informing to report at a collection, usually a local school, and customarily reported to duty with a bag or suitcase carrying some spare clothes, underwear, and tobacco. The conscripts then boarded a train to take to a military reception center where they were issued uniforms, underwent a physical test, had their heads shaven and were given a steam bath to rid them of lice. A typical soldier was given ammo pouches, shelter - cape, ration bag, cooking pot, water bottle and an identity tube containing papers listing pertinent personal information.
During training, conscripts woke up between 5 - 6 am and training lasted for 10 - 12 six days of the week. Much of the training was done by rote and consisted of instruction. Before 1941 training had lasted for six months, but after the war, training was shorted to a few weeks. After finishing training, all men had to take the Oath of the Red Army which read:
I______, a citizen of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics, entering into the ranks of the Red Army of the Workers and Peasants ', take this oath and solemnly promise to be a honest, brave, disciplined, vigilant fighter, staunchly to protect military and state secrets, and unquestioningly to obey all military regulations and orders of commanders and superiors. I promise conscientiously to study military affairs, in every way to protect state secrets and state property, and to my last breath to be faithful to the people, the Soviet Motherland, and the Workers - Peasants ' Government. I am always prepared on order of the Workers and Peasants Government to rise to the defense of my Motherland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; and as a fighting man of the Red Army of Workers and Peasants ', I promise to defend it bravely, skillfully, with dignity and honor, sparing neither my blood nor my life itself for the achievement of total victory over our enemies. If by evil intent I should violate this, my solemn oath, then let the severe punishment of Soviet law and the total hatred and contempt of the working classes befall me.
Tactics were based on the 1936 training manual and the revised edition of 1942. Small unit movements and how to build defensive positions were laid out in a manner that was easy to understand and memorize. The manuals had the force of law and violations of the manuals were legal offenses. Soviet tactics always had the platoons attacking in the same way with the platoons usually broke into four sections occupying about 100 yards on average. The only complex formation was the diamond formation with one section advancing, two behind and one in the rear. Unlike the Wehrmacht, the Red Army did not engage in leap - frogging of sections with one section providing fire support to the sections that were advancing, and instead all of the sections and platoons attacked en masse. The other only variation was for the sections to "seep '' into a position by infiltration.
When the order Na shturm, marshch! (Assault, march!) was given, the Soviet infantry would charge the enemy with shouting the traditional Russian battle cry Urra! (pronounced oo - rah, which comes from the Turkish word to kill), the sound of which many German veterans found terrifying. During the charge, the riflemen would fire with rifles and submachine guns while throwing grenades before closing in for blizhnii boi (close combat) as close quarter fighting with guns, bayonets, rifle butts, knives, digging tools and their fists were known, a type of fighting that the Red Army excelled at. On the defensive, the frontovik were well known for their skill at camouflaging their positions and for being disciplined enough to withhold fire until the Germans were at close range. Before 1941 Red Army doctrine had called for opening fire at maximum range, but it was quickly discovered that it was preferable to ambush the Germans with surprise fire at close ranges from multiple positions.
The typical frontovik during the war was ethnic Russian aged 19 -- 24 whose average height was 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m). Most of the men were shaven bald to prevent lice and the few who did grow their hair kept it very short. The American historian Gordon Rottman described the uniforms as "simple and functional ''. In combat, the men wore olive - brown helmets or the pilotka (side cap). Officers wore a shlem or furazhka (peaked cap), a round service hat with a black visor and a red star. Rottman described Soviet weapons as being "... known for their simplicity, ruggedness and general reliability ''. The standard rifle was Mosin - Nagant 7.62 mm M 1891 / 30 rifle, and although heavy, it was an effective weapons that crucially was not affected by the cold. Every rifle section had one or two 7.62 mm Degtyarev DP light machine guns to provide fire support. By 1944, one of every four frontovik was armed with the 7.62 mm PPSh - 41 (Pistolet - Pulemet Shapagina - Pistol Automatic Shpagin), a type of submachine gun known as a "rugged and reliable weapon '', if somewhat underpowered.
The frontovik usually carried all he had in a simple bag. Most of the frontovik had a perevgzochnii paket (wound dressing packet), a razor, a shovel and would be very lucky to have a towel and toothbrush. Toothpaste, shampoo and soap were extremely rare. Usually sticks with chewed ends were used for brushing teeth. To relieve themselves latrine pits were dug, as portable toilets were rare in the Red Army. Soldiers frequently slept outdoors, even during the winter. Food was usually abysmal and often in short supply, especially in 1941 and 1942. The frontoviks detested the rear service troops who did not face the dangers of combat as krysa (rats). The frontovik lived on a diet of black rye bread; canned meats like fish and tushonka (stewed pork); shchi (cabbage soup) and kasha (porridge). ''. Kasha and shchi were so common that a popular slogan in the Red Army was "shchi ee kasha, pisha nasha '' ("schchi and kasha, that 's our fare. ''). Chai (hot sugared tea) was an extremely popular beverage together with beer and vodka. Makhorka, a type of cheap tobacco roiled in handmade cigarettes was the standard cigarette.
Rottmann described medical care as "marginal ''. A shortage of doctors, medical equipment and drugs meant those wounded often died, usually in immense pain. Morphine was unknown in the Red Army. Most Red Army soldiers had not received preventive inoculations and diseases were major problems with malaria, pneumonia, diphtheria, tuberculosis, typhus, dysentery, and meningitis in particular regularly sickening Red Army men. In the winter frostbite often sent soldiers to the medical system while in the spring and fall rains made trench foot a common aliment. The frontovik were paid once every month, but often did not receive their wages. All soldiers were exempt from taxes. In 1943, a private was paid 600 roubles per month, a corporal 1,000 roubles, a junior sergeant 2,000 roubles and a sergeant 3,000 roubles. There was special pay for those serving in guards units, paratroopers, tank, anti-tank and those decorated for bravery in combat. Those units that greatly distinguished in combat had the prefix Guards attached to their unit title, a title of great respect and honor that brought better pay and rations. In the Imperial Russian Army, the elite was always the Imperial Guards Regiments, and the title Guards when applied to a military unit in Russia still has elitist connotations.
Discipline was harsh and men could be executed for desertion, treason, cowardice, retreating without orders and ordering a retreat without orders. To maintain morale, the men were often entertained with films shown on outdoor screens together with musical troupes performing music, singing and dancing. The balalaika was often featured as part of the entertainment as it was considered to be a Russian "national instrument ''. The position of the Soviet regime was that essentially sex did not exist and there were no references to matters sexual in any official publications. When the 16 - year old partisan heroine Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya was hanged by the Germans on 29 November 1941, the photo of her corpse hanging from the gallows caused a sensation when published in early 1942 as she was topless, which ensured that the photo attracted much prurient interest. Unlike the German and French armies, the Red Army had no system of field brothels and the frontovik were not issued condoms as men in the British and American armies were. Venereal diseases were a major problem and those soldiers afflicted were harshly punished if discovered. The widespread rapes committed by the Red Army when entering Germany had little to do with sexual desire, but were instead acts of power, in the words of Rottman "the basest form of revenge and humiliation the soldiers could inflict on the Germans ''. It was a common practice for officers to take "campaign wives '' or PPZh (pokhodno - polevy zheny - "field marching wives '') as any women serving in the Red Army were told that they were now the mistresses of the officers regardless of what they felt about the matter or for the officers to "adopt '' a civilian woman as their "campaign wife '', who often entered into the unit rosters so that they could receive pay. The "campaign wives '' were often nurses, signallers and clerks who wore a black beret and despite being forced to become the concubines of the officers were widely hated by the frontoviks, who saw the "campaign wives '' as trading sex for more favorable positions. The writer Vasily Grossman recorded typical remarks about the "campaign wives '' in 1942: "Where 's the general? '' (someone asks). "Sleeping with his whore. '' And these girls had once wanted to be ' Tanya ', or Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya. ''
The frontoviks had to live, fight and die in small circular foxholes dug into the earth with enough room for one or two men with slit trenches being to connect what the Germans called "Russian holes ''. The soldiers were usually not issued blankets or sleeping bags, even in the winter. Instead, the frontovik slept in their coats and shelter - capes usually on pine, evergreen needles, fir boughs, piled leaves or straw. In the winter, the temperature could drop as low as - 60 ° F (- 50 ° C), making General Moroz (General Frost) as much an enemy as the Germans. Spring started in April and with it came rains and snowmelt, making the battlefields into a muddy quagmire. Summers were dusty and hot while with the fall came the rasputitsa (time without roads) as heavy autumn rains once again turned the battlefields into muddy quagmires that made the spring rains look tame by comparison.
The Soviet Union comprised over 150 different peoples, but Russians comprised the majority of the Red Army and Russian was the language of command. The Red Army had very few ethnic units as the policy was one of sliianie (blending) in which men from the non-Russian groups were assigned to units with Russian majorities. One of the few exceptions to this rule were the Cossack units together with the troops from the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, who however were few in number. The experience of combat tended to bind the men regardless of their language or ethnicity together with one Soviet veteran recalling: "We were all bleeding the same blood ''. Despite a history of anti-Semitism in Russia, Jewish veterans serving in the frontovik units described anti-Semitism as rare, instead recalling a sense of belonging. During the first six months of Operation Barbarossa, the Wehrmacht and the SS had a policy of shooting all of the "Asiatics '' (a term which was defined to include all Red Army personal who looked Asian), commissars, Jews and Georgians serving in the Red Army who were taken prisoner by German forces. For this reason, Georgians, Jews and the various Asian peoples like the Kalmyks, the Buryats, the Kazakhs, the Kyrgyz, etc. fought especially fiercely. During the war, the atheist propaganda was toned down and Eastern Orthodox priests blessed units going into battle, though chaplains were not allowed. However, Muslims from Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Volga and the Crimea were allowed to practice their religion discreetly, though like the Eastern Orthodox no chaplains were allowed. Most soldiers carried lucky talismans. Despite the official atheism, many soldiers wore crosses around their necks and crossed themselves in the traditional Eastern Orthodox manner before going into battle, through the British historian Catherine Merridale cautioned these were more "totemic '' gestures meant to ensure good luck rather than expressions of real faith. One of the most popular talismans was the poem Wait for Me by Konstantin Simonov, which he wrote in October 1941 for his fiancee Valentina Serova. The popularity of Wait for Me was such that almost all ethnic Russians in the Red Army knew the poem by heart, and carried a copy of the poem together with photographs of their girlfriends or wives back home to reflect their desire to return to their loved ones.
"Political work '' done by politruks and kommissars took much of the soldier 's spare time as at least one hour every day was given to political indoctrination into Communism for soldiers who not engaged in combat. The term Nazi was never used to describe the enemy as the term was an acronym for National - Sozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers ' Party) as the politruks and kommissars found explaining why the enemy called themselves National Socialists to be too confusing for the frontoviks. The preferred terms for the enemy were fascists, Gitlerits (Hitlerites - Russian has no H), Germanskii and nyemetzi (a derogatory Russian term for Germans). The commissars had the duty of monitoring the officers for any sign of disloyalty and a network of informers known as seksots within the ranks. In October 1942, the system of dual command, which dated back to the Russian Civil War, where the officers shared authority with the commissars, was abolished and henceforward only officers had the power of command. Many commissars after the Stalin 's Decree 307 of 9 October 1942 were shocked to find how much they were hated by the officers and men. The commissars now become the politruks or deputy commanders for political affairs. The politruks no longer had the power of command, but still evaluated both officers and men for their political loyalty, carried out political indoctrination and had the power to order summary executions of anyone suspected of cowardice or treason. Such executions were known as devyat gram (nine grams - a reference to the weight of a bullet), pustit v rakhod (to expend someone) or vyshka (a shortened form of vysshaya mera nakazanija - extreme penalty). Despite these fearsome powers, many of the frontoviks were often openly contemptuous of the politruks if subjected to excessively long boring lectures on the finer points of Marxism -- Leninism and officers tended to win conflicts with the poltitruks as military merit started to count more in the Great Patriotic War than did political zeal. Relations between the officers and men were usually good with junior officers in particular being seen as soratnik (comrade in arms) as they lived under the same conditions and faced the same dangers as the frontovik. Officers usually had only a high school education as very few had gone to university, and coming from the same social milieu as their men ensured that they could relate to them. The frontovik usually addressed their company commanders as Batya (father).
The Soviets repulsed the important German strategic southern campaign and, although 2.5 million Soviet casualties were suffered in that effort, it permitted the Soviets to take the offensive for most of the rest of the war on the Eastern Front.
Stalin personally told a Polish general requesting information about missing Polish officers that all of the Poles were freed, and that not all could be accounted because the Soviets "lost track '' of them in Manchuria. After Polish railroad workers found the mass grave, the Nazis used the massacre to attempt to drive a wedge between Stalin and the other Allies, including bringing in a European commission of investigators from twelve countries to examine the graves. In 1943, as the Soviets prepared to retake Poland, Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels correctly guessed that Stalin would attempt to falsely claim that the Germans massacred the victims. As Goebbels predicted, the Soviets had a "commission '' investigate the matter, falsely concluding that the Germans had killed the PoWs. The Soviets did not admit responsibility until 1990.
In 1943, Stalin ceded to his generals ' call for the Soviet Union to take a defensive stance because of disappointing losses after Stalingrad, a lack of reserves for offensive measures and a prediction that the Germans would likely next attack a bulge in the Soviet front at Kursk such that defensive preparations there would more efficiently use resources. The Germans did attempt an encirclement attack at Kursk, which was successfully repulsed by the Soviets after Hitler cancelled the offensive, in part, because of the Allied invasion of Sicily, though the Soviets suffered over 800,000 casualties. Kursk also marked the beginning of a period where Stalin became more willing to listen to the advice of his generals.
By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941 -- 42. Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the East of the front, safe from German invasion and air attack. The strategy paid off, as such industrial increases were able to occur even while the Germans in late 1942 occupied more than half of European Russia, including 40 percent (80 million) of its population, and approximately 2,500,000 square kilometres (970,000 sq mi) of Soviet territory. The Soviets had also prepared for war for more than a decade, including preparing 14 million civilians with some military training. Accordingly, while almost all of the original 5 million men of the Soviet army had been wiped out by the end of 1941, the Soviet military had swelled to 8 million members by the end of that year. Despite substantial losses in 1942 far in excess of German losses, Red Army size grew even further, to 11 million. While there is substantial debate whether Stalin helped or hindered these industrial and manpower efforts, Stalin left most economic wartime management decisions in the hands of his economic experts. While some scholars claim that evidence suggests that Stalin considered, and even attempted, negotiating peace with Germany in 1941 and 1942, others find this evidence unconvincing and even fabricated.
In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran. Roosevelt told Stalin that he hoped that Britain and America opening a second front against Germany could initially draw 30 -- 40 German division from the Eastern Front. Stalin and Roosevelt, in effect, ganged up on Churchill by emphasising the importance of a cross-channel invasion of German - held northern France, while Churchill had always felt that Germany was more vulnerable in the "soft underbelly '' of Italy (which the Allies had already invaded) and the Balkans. The parties later agreed that Britain and America would launch a cross-channel invasion of France in May 1944, along with a separate invasion of Southern France. Stalin insisted that, after the war, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the Molotov - Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, which Churchill tabled.
In 1944, the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany, including Operation Bagration, a massive offensive in Belarus against the German Army Group Centre. Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill closely coordinated, such that Bagration occurred at roughly the same time as American and British forces initiation of the invasion of German held Western Europe on France 's northern coast. The operation resulted in the Soviets retaking Belarus and western Ukraine, along with the successful effective destruction of the Army Group Centre and 300,000 German casualties, though at the cost of more than 750,000 Soviet casualties.
Successes at Operation Bagration and in the year that followed were, in large part, due to an operational improve of battlehardened Red Army, which has learned painful lessons from previous years battling the powerful Wehrmacht: better planning of offensives, efficient use of artillery, better handling of time and space during attacks in contradiction to Stalin 's order "not a step back ''. To a lesser degree, the success of Bagration was due to a weakened Wehrmacht that lacked the fuel and armament they needed to operate effectively, growing Soviet advantages in manpower and materials, and the attacks of Allies on the Western Front. In his 1944 May Day speech, Stalin praised the Western allies for diverting German resources in the Italian Campaign, Tass published detailed lists of the large numbers of supplies coming from Western allies, and Stalin made a speech in November 1944 stating that Allied efforts in the West had already quickly drawn 75 German divisions to defend that region, without which, the Red Army could not yet have driven the Wehrmacht from Soviet territories. The weakened Wehrmacht also helped Soviet offensives because no effective German counter-offensive could be launched,
Beginning in the summer of 1944, a reinforced German Army Centre Group did prevent the Soviets from advancing in around Warsaw for nearly half a year. Some historians claim that the Soviets ' failure to advance was a purposeful Soviet stall to allow the Wehrmacht to slaughter members of a Warsaw Uprising by the Polish home army in August 1944 that occurred as the Red Army approached, though others dispute the claim and cite sizable unsuccessful Red Army efforts to attempt to defeat the Wehrmacht in that region. Earlier in 1944, Stalin had insisted that the Soviets would annex the portions of Poland it divided with Germany in the Molotov - Ribbentrop Pact, while the Polish government in exile, which the British insisted must be involved in postwar Poland, demanded that the Polish border be restored to prewar locations. The rift further highlighted Stalin 's blatant hostility toward the anti-communist Polish government in exile and their Polish home army, which Stalin felt threatened his plans to create a post-war Poland friendly to the Soviet Union. Further exacerbating the rift was Stalin 's refusal to resupply the Polish home army, and his refusal to allow American supply planes to use the necessary Soviet air bases to ferry supplies to the Polish home army, which Stalin referred to in a letter to Roosevelt and Churchill as "power - seeking criminals ''. Worried about the possible repercussions of those actions, Stalin later began a Soviet supply airdrop to Polish rebels, though most of the supplies ended up in the hands of the Germans. The uprising ended in disaster with 20,000 Polish rebels and up to 200,000 civilians killed by German forces, with Soviet forces entering the city in January 1945.
Other important advances occurred in late 1944, such as the invasion of Romania in August and Bulgaria. The Soviet Union declared war on Bulgaria in September 1944 and invaded the country, installing a communist government. Following the invasion of these Balkan countries, Stalin and Churchill met in the autumn of 1944, where they agreed upon various percentages for "spheres of influence '' in several Balkan states, though the diplomats for neither leader knew what the term actually meant. The Red Army also expelled German forces from Lithuania and Estonia in late 1944 at the cost of 260,000 Soviet casualties.
In late 1944, Soviet forces battled fiercely to capture Hungary in the Budapest Offensive, but could not take it, which became a topic so sensitive to Stalin that he refused to allow his commanders to speak of it. The Germans held out in the subsequent Battle of Budapest until February 1945, when the remaining Hungarians signed an armistice with the Soviet Union. Victory at Budapest permitted the Red Army to launch the Vienna Offensive in April 1945. To the northeast, the taking of Belarus and western Ukraine permitted the Soviets to launch the massive Vistula -- Oder Offensive, where German intelligence had incorrectly guessed the Soviets would have a 3 - to - 1 numerical superiority advantage that was actually 5 - to - 1 (over 2 million Red Army personnel attacking 450,000 German defenders), the successful culmination of which resulted in the Red Army advancing from the Vistula River in Poland to the German Oder River in Eastern Germany.
Stalin 's shortcomings as a strategist are frequently noted regarding the massive Soviet loss of life and early Soviet defeats. An example of it is the summer offensive of 1942, which led to even more losses by the Red Army and the recapture of initiative by the Germans. Stalin eventually recognised his lack of know - how and relied on his professional generals to conduct the war.
Additionally, Stalin was well aware that other European armies had utterly disintegrated when faced with Nazi military efficacy and responded effectively by subjecting his army to galvanising terror and nationalist appeals to patriotism. He also appealed to the Russian Orthodox church.
By April 1945, Germany faced its last days with 1.9 million German soldiers in the East fighting 6.4 million Red Army soldiers while 1 million German soldiers in the West battled 4 million Western Allied soldiers. While initial talk existed of a race to Berlin by the Allies, after Stalin successfully lobbied for Eastern Germany to fall within the Soviet "sphere of influence '' at Yalta, no plans were made by the Western Allies to seize the city by a ground operation. Stalin still remained suspicious that western Allied forces holding at the Elbe River might move on the capital and, even in the last days, that the Americans might employ their two airborne divisions to capture the city.
Stalin directed the Red Army to move rapidly in a broad front into Germany because he did not believe the Western Allies would hand over territory they occupied, while he made the overriding objective capturing Berlin. After successfully capturing Eastern Prussia, three Red Army fronts converged on the heart of Eastern Germany, with one of the last pitched battles of the war putting the Soviets at the virtual gates of Berlin. By April 24, Berlin was encircled by elements of two Soviet fronts, one of which had begun a massive shelling of the city on April 20 that would not end until the city 's surrender. On 30 April, Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide, after which Soviet forces found their remains, which had been burned at Hitler 's directive. German forces surrendered a few days later. Some historians argue that Stalin delayed the last final push for Berlin by two months in order to capture other areas for political reasons, which they argue gave the Wehrmacht time to prepare and increased Soviet casualties (which exceeded 400,000), though this is contested by other historians.
Despite the Soviets ' possession of Hitler 's remains, Stalin did not believe that his old nemesis was actually dead, a belief that remained for years after the war. Stalin also later directed aides to spend years researching and writing a secret book about Hitler 's life for his own private reading.
Fending off the German invasion and pressing to victory over Nazi Germany in the Second World War required a tremendous sacrifice by the Soviet Union (more than any other country in human history). Soviet military casualties totaled approximately 35 million (official figures 28.2 million) with approximately 14.7 million killed, missing or captured (official figures 11.285 million). Although figures vary, the Soviet civilian death toll probably reached 22 million. Millions of Soviet soldiers and civilians disappeared into German detention camps and slave labour factories, while millions more suffered permanent physical and mental damage. Economic losses, including losses in resources and manufacturing capacity in western Russia and Ukraine, were also catastrophic. The war resulted in the destruction of approximately 70,000 Soviet cities, towns and villages. Destroyed in that process were 6 million houses, 98,000 farms, 32,000 factories, 82,000 schools, 43,000 libraries, 6,000 hospitals and thousands of kilometres of roads and railway track.
Stalin soon conferred himself with the rank of the Generalissimus of the Soviet Union, which becomes the country 's highest military rank followed by Marshal for his role in the Soviet victory of the war. His personal military leadership was emphasised as part of the "cult of personality '' after the publication of Stalin 's ten victories extracted from 6 November 1944 speech "27th anniversary of the Great October socialist revolution '' (Russian: "27 - я годовщина Великой Октябрьской социалистической революции '') during the 1944 meeting of the Moscow 's Soviet deputies.
On 16 August 1941, in attempts to revive a disorganised Soviet defense system, Stalin issued Order No. 270, demanding any commanders or commissars "tearing away their insignia and deserting or surrendering '' to be considered malicious deserters. The order required superiors to shoot these deserters on the spot. Their family members were subjected to arrest. The second provision of the order directed all units fighting in encirclements to use every possibility to fight. The order also required division commanders to demote and, if necessary, even to shoot on the spot those commanders who failed to command the battle directly in the battlefield. Thereafter, Stalin also conducted a purge of several military commanders that were shot for "cowardice '' without a trial.
In June 1941, weeks after the German invasion began, Stalin directed that the retreating Red Army also sought to deny resources to the enemy through a scorched earth policy of destroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them, and that partisans were to be set up in evacuated areas. This, along with abuse by German troops, caused starvation and suffering among the civilian population that was left behind. Stalin feared that Hitler would use disgruntled Soviet citizens to fight his regime, particularly people imprisoned in the Gulags. He thus ordered the NKVD to handle the situation. They responded by murdering approximately 100,000 political prisoners throughout the western parts of the Soviet Union, with methods that included bayoneting people to death and tossing grenades into crowded cells. Many others were simply deported east.
In July 1942, Stalin issued Order No. 227, directing that any commander or commissar of a regiment, battalion or army, who allowed retreat without permission from his superiors was subject to military tribunal. The order called for soldiers found guilty of disciplinary infractions to be forced into "penal battalions '', which were sent to the most dangerous sections of the front lines. From 1942 to 1945, 427,910 soldiers were assigned to penal battalions. The order also directed "blocking detachments '' to shoot fleeing panicked troops at the rear. In the first two months following the order, over 1,000 troops were shot by blocking units and blocking units sent over 130,000 troops to penal battalions. Despite having some effect initially, this measure proved to have a deteriorating effect on the troops ' morale, so by October 1942 the idea of regular blocking units was quietly dropped By 20 November 1944 the blocking units were officially disbanded.
Soviet POWs and forced labourers who survived German captivity were sent to special "transit '' or "filtration '' camps meant to determine which were potential traitors. Of the approximately 4 million to be repatriated, 2,660,013 were civilians and 1,539,475 were former POWs. Of the total, 2,427,906 were sent home, 801,152 were reconscripted into the armed forces, 608,095 were enrolled in the work battalions of the defence ministry, 272,867 were transferred to the authority of the NKVD for punishment, which meant a transfer to the Gulag system and 89,468 remained in the transit camps as reception personnel until the repatriation process was finally wound up in the early 1950s.
After the capture of Berlin, Soviet troops reportedly raped German women and girls, with total victim estimates ranging from tens of thousands to two million. During and after the occupation of Budapest, (Hungary), an estimated 50,000 women and girls were raped. Regarding rapes that took place in Yugoslavia, Stalin responded to a Yugoslav partisan leader 's complaints saying, "Ca n't he understand it if a soldier who has crossed thousands of kilometres through blood and fire and death has fun with a woman or takes some trifle? ''
In former Axis countries, such as Germany, Romania and Hungary, Red Army officers generally viewed cities, villages and farms as being open to pillaging and looting. For example, Red Army soldiers and NKVD members frequently looted transport trains in 1944 and 1945 in Poland and Soviet soldiers set fire to the city centre of Demmin while preventing the inhabitants from extinguishing the blaze, which, along with multiple rapes, played a part in causing over 900 citizens of the city to commit suicide. In the Soviet occupation zone of Germany, when members of the SED reported to Stalin that looting and rapes by Soviet soldiers could result in negative consequences for the future of socialism in post-war East Germany, Stalin reacted angrily: "I shall not tolerate anybody dragging the honour of the Red Army through the mud. '' Accordingly, all evidence of looting, rapes and destruction by the Red Army was deleted from archives in the Soviet occupation zone.
According to recent figures, of an estimated 4 million POWs taken by the Russians, including Germans, Japanese, Hungarians, Romanians and others, some 580,000 never returned, presumably victims of privation or the Gulags, compared with 3.5 million Soviet POW who died in German camps out of the 5.6 million taken.
During the rapid German advances in the early months of the war, nearly reaching the cities of Moscow and Leningrad, the bulk of Soviet industry which could not be evacuated was either destroyed or lost due to German occupation. Agricultural production was interrupted, with grain harvests left standing in the fields that would later cause hunger reminiscent of the early 1930s. In one of the greatest feats of war logistics, factories were evacuated on an enormous scale, with 1523 factories dismantled and shipped eastwards along four principal routes to the Caucasus, Central Asian, Ural, and Siberian regions. In general, the tools, dies and production technology were moved, along with the blueprints and their management, engineering staffs and skilled labour.
The whole of the Soviet Union became dedicated to the war effort. The population of the Soviet Union was probably better prepared than any other nation involved in the fighting of World War II to endure the material hardships of the war. This is primarily because the Soviets were so used to shortages and coping with economic crisis in the past, especially during wartime -- World War I brought similar restrictions on food. Still, conditions were severe. World War II was especially devastating to Soviet citizens because it was fought on their territory and caused massive destruction. In Leningrad, under German siege, over one million people died of starvation and disease. Many factory workers were teenagers, women and the elderly. The government implemented rationing in 1941 and first applied it to bread, flour, cereal, pasta, butter, margarine, vegetable oil, meat, fish, sugar, and confectionery all across the country. The rations remained largely stable in other places during the war. Additional rations were often so expensive that they could not add substantially to a citizen 's food supply unless that person was especially well - paid. Peasants received no rations and had to make do with local resources that they farmed themselves. Most rural peasants struggled and lived in unbearable poverty, but others sold any surplus they had at a high price and a few became rouble millionaires, until a currency reform two years after the end of the war wiped out their wealth.
Despite harsh conditions, the war led to a spike in Soviet nationalism and unity. Soviet propaganda toned down extreme Communist rhetoric of the past as the people now rallied by a belief of protecting their Motherland against the evils of German invaders. Ethnic minorities thought to be collaborators were forced into exile. Religion, which was previously shunned, became a part of Communist Party propaganda campaign in the Soviet society in order to mobilize the religious elements.
The social composition of Soviet society changed drastically during the war. There was a burst of marriages in June and July 1941 between people about to be separated by the war and in the next few years the marriage rate dropped off steeply, with the birth rate following shortly thereafter to only about half of what it would have been in peacetime. For this reason mothers with several children during the war received substantial honours and money benefits if they had a sufficient number of children -- mothers could earn around 1,300 roubles for having their fourth child and earn up to 5,000 roubles for their 10th.
The city of Leningrad endured more suffering and hardships than any other city in the Soviet Union during the war, as it was under siege for 900 days, from September 1941 -- January 1944. Hunger, malnutrition, disease, starvation, and even cannibalism became common during the siege of Leningrad; civilians lost weight, grew weaker, and became more vulnerable to diseases. Citizens of Leningrad managed to survive through a number of methods with varying degrees of success. Since only 400,000 people were evacuated before the siege began, this left 2.5 million in Leningrad, including 400,000 children. More managed to escape the city; this was most successful when Lake Ladoga froze over and people could walk over the ice road -- or "Road of Life '' -- to safety.
Most survival strategies during the siege, though, involved staying within the city and facing the problems through resourcefulness or luck. One way to do this was by securing factory employment because many factories became autonomous and possessed more of the tools of survival during the winter, such as food and heat. Workers got larger rations than regular civilians and factories were likely to have electricity if they produced crucial goods. Factories also served as mutual - support centers and had clinics and other services like cleaning crews and teams of women who would sew and repair clothes. Factory employees were still driven to desperation on occasion and people resorted to eating glue or horses in factories where food was scarce, but factory employment was the most consistently successful method of survival, and at some food production plants not a single person died.
Survival opportunities open to the larger Soviet community included bartering and farming on private land. Black markets thrived as private barter and trade became more common, especially between soldiers and civilians. Soldiers, who had more food to spare, were eager to trade with Soviet citizens that had extra warm clothes to trade. Planting vegetable gardens in the spring became popular, primarily because citizens got to keep everything grown on their own plots. The campaign also had a potent psychological effect and boosted morale, a survival component almost as crucial as bread.
Some of the most desperate Soviet citizens turned to crime as a way to support themselves in trying times. Most common was the theft of food and of ration cards, which could prove fatal for a malnourished person if their card was stolen more than a day or two before a new card was issued. For these reasons, the stealing of food was severely punished and a person could be shot for as little as stealing a loaf of bread. More serious crimes, such as murder and cannibalism, also occurred, and special police squads were set up to combat these crimes, though by the end of the siege, roughly 1,500 had been arrested for cannibalism.
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human welfare is the subject of economics is supported by | Welfare definition of economics - wikipedia
The welfare definition of economics is an attempt by Alfred Marshall, a pioneer neoclassical economist, to redefine his field of study. This definition expands the field of economic science to a larger study of humanity. Specifically, Marshall 's view is that economics studies all the actions that people take in order to achieve economic welfare. In the words of Marshall, "man earns money to get material welfare. '' This is why economists since Marshall have described his definition as the welfare definition of economics. This definition enlarged the scope of economic science by emphasizing the study of wealth and humanity together, rather than wealth alone.
In his widely read textbook, Principles of Economics, published in 1890, Marshall defines economics as follow
"Political Economy or Economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the use of material requisites of well - being ''.
The following are the implications of this definition:
According to Edwin Cannan, "the aim of political economy or Economics is the explanation of the general causes on which the material welfare of human beings depend ''.
Marshall clearly explains that economic activity is different from other activity. For example,
Marshall defines economic activity as separate from the above activities. A farmer who toils in the field, or a worker on an assembly, are performing an economic activity: they work to increase their material welfare (primarily by earning money). Money buys goods or services that satisfy wants. In other words, economics deals with effort, wants, and the satisfaction of those wants.
Followers in the neoclassical tradition, such as William Beveridge and Arthur Pigou have continued to define economics in terms of material economic welfare. According to Pigou, "the range of enquiry becomes restricted to that part of social welfare that can be brought directly or indirectly into relation with the measuring rod of money ''.
Marshall 's definition has been criticized by more recent economists, including Lionel Robbins. Robbins ' criticisms include:
(1) Narrows down the scope of economics. Marshall distinguishes between material and non-material welfare, and confines economics to the study of material welfare. Robbins feels that economists should not limit their attention to material welfare. There are things that are "non-material '' but they promote human welfare. Robbins cites "the services of doctors, lawyers, teachers, dancers, engineers, professors ''. These goods "satisfy our wants and are scarce in supply ''. Some economists feel that Marshall 's definition of "material '' includes both goods and services, and that Robbins is either misreading Marshall 's text, or creating a straw man argument.
(2) Assumes equivalency between welfare and economic activity. For Robbins, there are economic activities which do not promote human welfare. For example, the sale of cocaine or heroin. Here Robbins says, "Why talk of welfare at all? Why not throw away the mask altogether ''.
(3) It is a vague concept. According to Robbins, "welfare '' is a vague concept to use to define economics because it is subjective. Economics is a quantitative science; but welfare can not be quantitatively measured, and two persons can not agree on what creates or improves welfare.
(4) It involves value judgement. Finally the word "welfare '' in Marshall 's definition brings economics to the realm of ethics. Robbins would prefer that economics remain neutral in assessing the results of economic transactions.
Broadly, economic welfare is the level of prosperity and standard of living of either an individual or a group of persons. In the field of economics, it specifically refers to utility gained through the achievement of material goods and services. In other words, it refers to that part of social welfare that can be fulfilled through economic activity.
According to Roefie Hueting, welfare is dependent on factors like employment, income distribution, labor conditions, leisure time, production and the scarce possible uses of the environmental functions.
Economic welfare is measured in different ways, depending on the preferences of those measuring it. Factors used to measure the economic welfare of a population, include: GDP, literacy, access to health care, and assessments of environmental quality.
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the main drag yours as fast as mine | Yours As Fast As Mine - wikipedia
Yours As Fast As Mine is the second LP album by Boston band The Main Drag which was released in June 2007 on the band 's own imprint, Reasonable People 's League (RPL Audio), after being in the making for 2 years. The album was able to be financed after the band won the Salon.com National Song Search Contest in 2006, gaining the $5,000 grand prize. Matt Levitt left The Main Drag after the release of Yours As Fast As Mine.
The song A Jagged Gorgeous Winter was included in Rock Band 2 as a playable song on the disc and also on a Target commercial for Rock Band 2. This helped to bring the band to wider public attention. The version of A Jagged Gorgeous Winter included on Rock Band 2 was a remix that Jon Carter and Adam Arrigo made, adding extra guitar flourishes and a short drum break to make the song more enjoyable to play in the game. (The drum break can be heard right before the lyrics "Got A Jagged Gorgeous Winter from the Summer 's thread '', or 2: 32 to 2: 36 in the official Video on YouTube) The remix tends to be the version that is now played live, and it is also the version for which the official video was released.
Love During Wartime was featured on The Guild as the outro to the final episode of the second season. The song was also included on Paste Magazine 's CD sampler in February 2008.
Arrigo recorded Car Windows, Swine Houses, and Taking Apart a Gigantic Machine while he was working with post-punk band Blanks. during the production of their first EP. While under their influence, he began to incorporate elements of their style into his songs.
What 's Yr Favorite Dinosaur? has a guitar hook that references the Jurassic Park theme.
Goodnight Technologist was on Knocks From The Underground: The Best of Underplayed Boston, a compilation of bands local to Boston who deserve more attention. The compilation was released by the band 's previous label, Endless Recordings.
Yours As Fast As Mine launched on the Rock Band Network in late 2009, a system designed by Harmonix to allow artists to make their music available to purchase and play in the video game Rock Band.
The original video for A Jagged Gorgeous Winter was shot and edited within 24 hours by John Drake, the band 's drummer. It was released in January 2007, and filmed in the same place the song was originally recorded - exactly one year later.
In summer 2009, a music video was made for A Jagged Gorgeous Winter ("Rock Band 2 '' Remix) which was directed by Isaac Ravishankara. The video featured a prominent homage to the comic strip Calvin and Hobbes, with Arrigo dressed as Calvin and Boch as Hobbes. The band has said that there are plans for music videos for the tracks Love During Wartime and Talk Them Down.
The Main Drag worked with French - Swiss directors Ben & Julia to create a surreal and psychedelic music video for the song Dove Nets (from Yours As Fast As Mine) which was released in November 2009. The music video was accompanied by a website, Dove Lovers, which featured behind - the - scenes information and other bonus features.
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who played wheeler on law and order criminal intent | Megan Wheeler - wikipedia
Megan Ann Wheeler is a fictional character portrayed by Julianne Nicholson on the NBC - USA Network series Law & Order: Criminal Intent.
Megan Wheeler becomes a detective in the Major Case Squad when she replaces Carolyn Barek (Annabella Sciorra) as Mike Logan 's (Chris Noth) partner. She transfers in with the new captain, her mentor Danny Ross. She had worked undercover for three years -- including assignments on vice, drugs, and white - collar crime -- and handled a money laundering probe with Ross.
During an investigation, Wheeler recalls how her mother had to become a waitress to support both of them when Wheeler 's father abandoned them. It is later revealed that Wheeler 's father, a lawyer connected to the Mafia, disappeared 20 years before and is either in hiding or dead -- killed by the mob. Her father had allegedly been getting a cut of mob profits, which helped pay Wheeler 's private school tuition; but the arrangement ended after a change of mob bosses.
When Wheeler first joins the Major Case Squad, Logan questions whether someone as young as her would be capable of handling major homicide cases, and he remarks that she is his first partner to have freckles. Ross replies that, in her three years undercover, "no one ever made her. '' However, the age difference proves useful when Wheeler is familiar with the shorthand used by adolescents in text messaging one another. However, she is shown in the same episode to be unable to hear the ultrasonic ring tone used by a teenage suspect to sneak a cell phone into school, a frequency that it was claimed few people over age 30 can detect. She gets engaged to a businessman named Colin Ledger (played by Nicholson 's husband, Jonathan Cake). Eventually, however, Ledger is arrested by the FBI for fraud, money laundering, and racketeering.
At the end of Season 6, Wheeler tells Logan that she is going to Europe to teach a course on American police procedure (This story explained the absence of Julianne Nicholson, who was taking maternity leave). During her absence in Season 7 she is replaced by Det. Nola Falacci (Alicia Witt). Wheeler returns to the Major Case Squad in "Contract ''.
After Logan leaves the squad and retires, Wheeler is assigned a new partner, Zack Nichols (Jeff Goldblum). Ross mentions to Nichols that Wheeler seems to have had issues with her previous partner and her ex-fiancé and is not ready to trust him. She says that Ledger is facing 12 years in federal prison and that she is pregnant with his child, coinciding with Nicholson 's second pregnancy. She also says that she wo n't let him know about his child.
Wheeler faces another crisis when Internal Affairs accuses her of being Ledger 's accomplice. Later, she says that the Bureau wants to call her as a witness at his trial, which she fears will affect her job. Ross reassures her that the situation is n't her fault and that no one really thinks that she 's corrupt.
Wheeler made her last full episode appearance of Season 8 in "Passion '', to coincide with Nicholson 's pregnancy. Alexandra Eames (Kathryn Erbe) takes her place in the last two episodes of the season. She can briefly be seen in "Major Case '', discussing a case in Ross ' office, when her water breaks and Eames takes her to the hospital. After being accompanied by Eames at the hospital, it is revealed that she has a sister who stays with her while she gives birth. She names the baby "Margo Jane Wheeler ''.
In Season 9 Wheeler is replaced by Serena Stevens (Saffron Burrows). Her exit is initially unexplained. However, in the Law & Order: Special Victims Unit Season 15 episode "Gambler 's Fallacy '', Detective Amanda Rollins (Kelli Giddish) uses Wheeler 's ID and badge to remove a gun from an evidence room. Detective Nick Amaro (Danny Pino) later says that "Detective Wheeler retired four years ago. ''
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how many houses are there in los angeles | Demographics of Los Angeles - wikipedia
The demographics of Los Angeles are determined by population surveys such as the American Community Survey and the United States Census. According to U.S. Census Bureau projections, Los Angeles ' population was 3,884,307 in 2013.
The 1990 United States Census and 2000 United States Census found that non-Hispanic whites were becoming a minority in Los Angeles. Estimates for the 2010 United States Census results find Latinos to be approximately half (47 - 49 %) of the city 's population, growing from 40 % in 2000 and 30 - 35 % in 1990 census.
The racial / ethnic / cultural composition of Los Angeles as of the 2005 - 2009 American Community Survey was as follows:
Approximately 59.4 % of Los Angeles ' residents were born in the United States, and 0.9 % were born in Puerto Rico, US territories, or abroad to American parents. 39.7 % of the population were foreign - born. Most foreigners (64.5 %) were born in Latin America. A large minority (26.3 %) were born in Asia. Smaller numbers were born in Europe (6.5 %), Africa (1.5 %), Northern America (0.9 %), and Oceania (0.3 %).
According to the 2006 - 2008 American Community Survey, the linguistic composition of Los Angeles was as follows out of a population of 3,473,790 people over the age of 5:
According to the 2006 - 2008 American Community Survey, the types of households were as follows out of 1,275,534 total:
According to the same survey, the educational status of residents over 25 years (2,407,775 total) was as follows:
According to the 2006 - 2008 American Community Survey, the income status of residents was as follows:
According to the same survey, the poverty status of residents was as follows:
According to the 2006 - 2008 American Community Survey, the employment status of residents was as follows
According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center Christianity is the most prevalently practiced religion in Los Angeles (65 %).
The city has the most Druze living anywhere in the world outside Lebanon or Syria.
The world 's largest population of Saudi Arabian expatriates (est. 20,000) according to the Saudi Embassy of the USA.
About 15,000 Louisiana Creole persons of Acadian and Cajun background from Louisiana and the U.S. Gulf coast, many live in south - central L.A. alone.
In the 1980 and 1990 Census, Bosnians established themselves in fairly large numbers in L.A. before the breakup of the former Yugoslavia and Bosnian Civil War of the 1990s. However, Yugoslav immigration was present in Los Angeles and Southern California (i.e. San Pedro, Los Angeles) since the turn of the 20th century.
Salvadoran Americans are the second largest Hispanic population in Los Angeles, a city which holds the largest Salvadoran population outside of El Salvador and the Salvadoran diaspora living abroad and overseas. These were refugees that arrived in the 1980s and 1990s during the Salvadoran Civil War which was part of the Central American Crisis.
Armenians made an ethnic presence in Silver Lake / Elysian Park and Los Feliz / Hollywood.
The city has a sizable Puerto Rican community (50,000 out of 145,000 in California), with just as many in San Diego, the largest outside the East coast and also Puerto Rico.
Once a tradition the descendants of original Anglo - American settlers whom represented civic leaders and economic influence in the city of L.A. held Iowa picnics in MacArthur Park, but that 's no longer held since the early 1970s.
Many neighborhoods in West Hollywood and parts of Long Beach are known for having majority LGBT communities.
Persons of the Bahá'í Faith, Mormons in the Latter - Day Saints churches, Seventh - day Adventists with their church - operated Loma Linda University, and the Church of Scientology headquarters are large theological / religious influences in Los Angeles and throughout Southern California. Los Angeles has the largest Roman Catholic Archdiocese (Archdiocese of Los Angeles) in the USA.
Cherokee Indians, among other Native American tribes such as the Apache, Choctaw, Comanche, Hopi, Muscogee (Creek), Navajo, Nez Perce, Paiute, Shawnee and Zuni made Los Angeles probably have the largest Urban Indian population.
L.A. along with Pasadena in the turn of the 20th century were one of two earliest world - known retirement communities to attracted a large number of senior citizens looked for a warmer climate to better fight health ailments.
L.A. hosts the fourth largest number of Muslims in the United States. When the estimated 500,000 Muslims living in the greater Los Angeles area are included, Los Angeles hosts the second largest number of Muslims among U.S. cities.
There are around 50,000 Romani people living in the Los Angeles area, making it one of the cities with the highest Roma concentration in the U.S.
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where is entamoeba histolytica found in the body | Entamoeba histolytica - wikipedia
Entamoeba histolytica is an anaerobic parasitic amoebozoan, part of the genus Entamoeba. Predominantly infecting humans and other primates causing amoebiasis, E. histolytica is estimated to infect about 50 million people worldwide. Previously, it was thought that 10 % of the world population was infected, but these figures predate the recognition that at least 90 % of these infections were due to a second species, E. dispar. Mammals such as dogs and cats can become infected transiently, but are not thought to contribute significantly to transmission.
The word histolysis literally means disintegration and dissolution of organic tissues.
The active (trophozoite) stage exists only in the host and in fresh loose feces; cysts survive outside the host in water, in soils, and on foods, especially under moist conditions on the latter. The infection can occur when a person puts anything into their mouth that has touched the feces of a person who is infected with E. histolytica, swallows something, such as water or food, that is contaminated with E. histolytica, or swallows E. histolytica cysts (eggs) picked up from contaminated surfaces or fingers. The cysts are readily killed by heat and by freezing temperatures, and survive for only a few months outside of the host. When cysts are swallowed they cause infections by excysting (releasing the trophozoite stage) in the digestive tract. The pathogenic nature of E. histolytica was first reported by Lösch in 1875, but it was not given its Latin name until Fritz Schaudinn described it in 1903. E. histolytica, as its name suggests (histo -- lytic = tissue destroying), is pathogenic; infection can be asymptomatic or can lead to amoebic dysentery or amoebic liver abscess. Symptoms can include fulminating dysentery, bloody diarrhea, weight loss, fatigue, abdominal pain, and amoeboma. The amoeba can actually ' bore ' into the intestinal wall, causing lesions and intestinal symptoms, and it may reach the blood stream. From there, it can reach different vital organs of the human body, usually the liver, but sometimes the lungs, brain, spleen, etc. A common outcome of this invasion of tissues is a liver abscess, which can be fatal if untreated. Ingested red blood cells are sometimes seen in the amoeba cell cytoplasm.
Poor sanitary conditions are known to increase the risk of contracting amebiasis E. hystolytica. In the United States, there is a much higher rate of amebiasis - related mortality in California and Texas, which might be caused by the proximity of those states to E. histolytica - endemic areas, such as Mexico, other parts of Latin America, and Asia. E. hystolytica is also recognized as an emerging sexually transmissible pathogen, especially in male homosexual relations, causing outbreaks in non-endemic regions. As such, high - risk sex behaviour is also a potential source of infection. Although it is unclear whether there is a causal link, studies indicate a higher chance of being infected with E. hystolytica if one is also infected with HIV.
The E. histolytica genome was sequenced, assembled, and automatically annotated in 2005. The genome was reassembled and reannotated in 2010. The 20 million basepair genome assembly contains 8,160 predicted genes; known and novel transposable elements have been mapped and characterized, functional assignments have been revised and updated, and additional information has been incorporated, including metabolic pathways, Gene Ontology assignments, curation of transporters, and generation of gene families. The major group of transposable elements in E. histolytica are non-LTR retrotransposons. These have been divided in three families called EhLINEs and EhSINEs (EhLINE1, 2, 3 and EhSINE1, 2, 3). EhLINE1 encode an endonuclease (EN) protein (in addition to reverse transcriptase and nucleotide - binding ORF1), which have similarity with bacterial restriction endonuclease. This similarity with bacterial protein indicates that transposable elements have been acquired from prokaryotes by horizontal gene transfer in this protozoan parasite.
In the vast majority of cases, infection is asymptomatic and the carrier is unaware they are infected. However, in an estimated 10 % of cases E. histolytica causes disease. Once the trophozoites are excysted they colonize the large bowel, remaining on the surface of the mucus layer and feeding on bacteria and food particles. Occasionally, and in response to unknown stimuli, trophozoites move through the mucus layer where they come in contact with the epithelial cell layer and start the pathological process. E. histolytica has a lectin that binds to galactose and N - acetylgalactosamine sugars on the surface of the epithelial cells, The lectin normally is used to bind bacteria for ingestion. The parasite has several enzymes such as pore forming proteins, lipases, and cysteine proteases, which are normally used to digest bacteria in food vacuoles but which can cause lysis of the epithelial cells by inducing cellular necrosis and apoptosis when the trophozoite comes in contact with them and binds via the lectin. Enzymes released allow penetration into intestinal wall and blood vessels, sometimes on to liver and other organs. The trophozoites will then ingest these dead cells. This damage to the epithelial cell layer attracts human immune cells and these in turn can be lysed by the trophozoite, which releases the immune cell 's own lytic enzymes into the surrounding tissue, creating a type of chain reaction and leading to tissue destruction. This destruction manifests itself in the form of an ' ulcer ' in the tissue, typically described as flask - shaped because of its appearance in transverse section. This tissue destruction can also involve blood vessels leading to bloody diarrhea, amebic dysentery. Occasionally, trophozoites enter the bloodstream where they are transported typically to the liver via the portal system. In the liver a similar pathological sequence ensues, leading to amebic liver abscesses. The trophozoites can also end up in other organs, sometimes via the bloodstream, sometimes via liver abscess rupture or fistulas. In all locations, similar pathology can occur.
E. histolytica may modulate the virulence of certain human viruses and is itself a host for its own viruses.
For example, AIDS accentuates the damage and pathogenicity of E. histolytica. On the other hand, cells infected with HIV are often consumed by E. histolytica. Infective HIV remains viable within the amoeba, although there has been no proof of human reinfection from amoeba carrying this virus.
A burst of research on viruses of E. histolytica stems from a series of papers published by Diamond et al. from 1972 to 1979. In 1972, they hypothesized two separate polyhedral and filamentous viral strains within E. histolytica that caused cell lysis. Perhaps the most novel observation was that two kinds of viral strains existed, and that within one type of amoeba (strain HB - 301) the polyhedral strain had no detrimental effect but led to cell lysis in another (strain HK - 9). Although Mattern et al. attempted to explore the possibility that these protozoal viruses could function like bacteriophages, they found no significant changes in Entamoeba histolytica virulence when infected by viruses. However, no newer published research has been conducted on this species since.
Diagnosis is confirmed by microscopic examination for trophozoites or cysts in fresh or suitably preserved faecal specimens, smears of aspirates or scrapings obtained by proctoscopy, and aspirates of abscesses or other tissue specimen. A blood test is also available but is only recommended when a healthcare provider believes the infection may have spread beyond the intestine (gut) to some other organ of the body, such as the liver. However, this blood test may not be helpful in diagnosing current illness because the test can be positive if the patient has had amebiasis in the past, even if they are not infected at present.
Amoebic intestinal ulcer caused by E. histolytica
Trophozoites of E. histolytica with ingested erythrocytes
E. histolytica cyst
Immature E. histolytica cyst (mature cysts have 4 nuclei)
Multiplication by binary fission
E. hystolytica drawing
There are a number of effective medications. Generally several antibiotics are available to treat entamoeba histolytica. The infected individual will be treated with only one antibiotic if the E. histolytica infection has not made the person sick and most likely be prescribed with two antibiotics if the person has been feeling sick. Otherwise, below are other options for treatments.
Intestinal infection: Usually nitroimidazole derivatives are used because they are highly effective against the trophozoite form of the amoeba. Since they have little effect on amoeba cysts, usually this treatment is followed by an agent (such as paromomycin or diloxanide furoate) that acts on the organism in the lumen.
Liver abscess: In addition to targeting organisms in solid tissue, primarily with drugs like metronidazole and chloroquine, treatment of liver abscess must include agents that act in the lumen of the intestine (as in the preceding paragraph) to avoid re-invasion. Surgical drainage is usually not necessary except when rupture is imminent.
People without symptoms: For people without symptoms (otherwise known as carriers, with no symptoms), non endemic areas should be treated by paromomycin, and other treatments include diloxanide furoate and iodoquinol. There have been problems with the use of iodoquinol and iodochlorhydroxyquin, so their use is not recommended. Diloxanide furoate can also be used by mildly symptomatic persons who are just passing cysts.
In sexually reproducing eukaryotes, homologous recombination (HR) ordinarily occurs during meiosis. The meiosis - specific recombinase, Dmc1, is required for efficient meiotic HR, and Dmc1 is expressed in E. histolytica. The purified Dmc1 from E. histolytica forms presynaptic filaments and catalyzes ATP - dependent homologous DNA pairing and DNA strand exchange over at least several thousand base pairs. The DNA pairing and strand exchange reactions are enhanced by the eukaryotic meiosis - specific recombination accessory factor (heterodimer) Hop2 - Mnd1. These processes are central to meiotic recombination, suggesting that E. histolytica undergoes meiosis.
Several other genes involved in both mitotic and meiotic HR are also present in E. histolytica. HR is enhanced under stressful growth conditions (serum starvation) concomitant with the up - regulation of HR - related genes. Also, UV irradiation induces DNA damage in E. histolytica trophozoites and activates the recombinational DNA repair pathway. In particular, expression of the Rad51 protein (a recombinase) is increased about 15-fold by UV treatment.
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spanish is not the official language of what two countries | List of countries where Spanish is an official language - wikipedia
The following is a list of countries where Spanish is an official language, plus a number of countries where Spanish, or any language closely related to it, is an important or significant language.
Spanish is the majority language in 21 sovereign states and several dependent territories, totaling around 442 million people. It is additionally the main official language in Equatorial Guinea.
In these countries and territories, Spanish is the main or mostly used language of communication of the vast majority of the population; official documents are written chiefly or solely in that language; and it is taught in schools and utilized as the primary medium of instruction as part of the official curriculum.
In Spain, Spanish is the sole official language at the national level, while Basque, Catalan / Valencian, Aranese, and Galician are co-official alongside Spanish in certain regions.
In Peru, Spanish is the sole official language at the national level while Quechua and Aymara hold co-official status in selected regions.
In Ecuador, Spanish is the sole official language at the national level while the Kichwa (Northern Quechua) and Shuar languages hold co-official status in selected regions.
In Bolivia, the national constitution recognizes Spanish and various indigenous languages of Bolivia as official at the national level, though Spanish is predominant nationwide.
In Paraguay, Spanish and the indigenous Guaraní are recognized as co-official at the national level and both are widely used in society.
Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory of the U.S. where Spanish and English are the official languages and Spanish is the primary language.
In Equatorial Guinea, the Spanish, French, and Portuguese languages all hold official status at the national level, though Spanish is the primary language in the public sphere while Fang, Bube, Kombe, and other Bantu languages, as well as an English - based creole, are used at home and family settings. See Equatorial Guinea # Languages.
Though not an official language at the national level, Spanish is regularly spoken by significant minority populations in each of the nations and territories noted below. In each, public services and information are widely available in Spanish, as are various forms of printed and broadcast media.
The Spanish language is not official but also holds a special status (in the education system, the media, and some official documents) in the Principality of Andorra which shares land borders with Spain.
Spanish has no official recognition in the Central American nation of Belize, a Commonwealth realm where English is the official national language. However, the country shares land borders with Spanish - speaking Mexico and Guatemala and, per the 2010 Belizean census, Spanish is spoken by a sizable portion of the population; 30 % claim Spanish as a mother tongue and about 50 % of the population has working knowledge of the language.
The Spanish language is not official but also holds a special status (in the education system, the media, and some official documents) in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar, which share land borders with Spain.
Spanish has been spoken in the United States for several centuries in the Southwest and Florida, which were all once part of New Spain. However, today only a tiny minority of Spanish speakers in the US trace their language back to those times; the overwhelming majority of speakers come from recent immigration. Only in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado has Spanish maintained speaking communities uninterruptedly since colonial times. Spanish is the most studied foreign language in United States schools and is spoken as a native tongue by 41 million people, plus an additional 11 million fluent second - language speakers. Though not official, Spanish has a special status for education in the U.S. state of New Mexico. With over 50 million native speakers and second language speakers, the United States now has the second largest Spanish - speaking population in the world after Mexico. Spanish is increasingly used alongside English nationwide in business and politics. In the United States, the language is regulated by the North American Academy of the Spanish Language.
Spanish was an official language of the Philippines from the beginning of the Hispanic period in 1565 and through independence until a constitutional change in 1973. However, President Ferdinand Marcos had Spanish redesigned as an official language under Presidential Decree No. 156, dated 15 March 1973 and Spanish remained official until 1987, when it was re-designated as a voluntary and optional auxiliary language.
On 8 August 2007, President Gloria Macapagal - Arroyo announced that the Philippine government asked help from the Spanish Government in her plan to reintroduce Spanish as a required subject in the Philippine school system. By 2012, the language was a compulsory subject at only a very select number of secondary schools. In spite of government promotion of Spanish, less than 0.5 % of the population are able to speak Spanish at least proficiently.
While Spanish is designated as an optional government language in the Philippines, its usage is very limited and not present in everyday life. In the country, Spanish is regulated by the Philippine Academy of the Spanish Language.
Spanish is a secondary official language, alongside Arabic, in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, a former Spanish colony and now a partially recognized state, most of whose territory is occupied by Morocco. Spanish is not a native language in that country.
There are a number of Spanish - based creole languages. Chavacano is spoken in Zamboanga City in the Philippines and is a regional language. Papiamento is the official language in Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao; it has been classified as either a Spanish - based or a Portuguese - based creole.
Chamorro is an Austronesian language with many Spanish loanwords; some scholars have considered it a creole, but the most authoritative sources deny this.
Judaeo - Spanish (sometimes known as Ladino or other names) is a language derived from medieval Spanish; it is still spoken by some Sephardi Jews, mainly in Israel.
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where is the president’s veto power located in the united states constitution | Article one of the United States Constitution - wikipedia
Article One of the United States Constitution establishes the legislative branch of the federal government, the United States Congress. The Congress is a bicameral legislature consisting of a House of Representatives and a Senate.
All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.
Section 1 is a vesting clause that bestows federal legislative power exclusively to Congress. Similar clauses are found in Articles II and III. The former confers executive power upon the President alone, and the latter grants judicial power solely to the federal judiciary. These three articles create a separation of powers among the three branches of the federal government. This separation of powers, by which each department may exercise only its own constitutional powers and no others, is fundamental to the idea of a limited government accountable to the people.
The separation of powers principle is particularly noteworthy in regard to the Congress. The Constitution declares that the Congress may exercise only those legislative powers "herein granted '' within Article I (as later limited by the Tenth Amendment). It also, by implied extension, prohibits Congress from delegating its legislative authority to either of the other branches of government, a rule known as the nondelegation doctrine. However, the Supreme Court has ruled that Congress does have latitude to delegate regulatory powers to executive agencies as long as it provides an "intelligible principle '' which governs the agency 's exercise of the delegated regulatory authority. That the power assigned to each branch must remain with that branch, and may be expressed only by that branch, is central to the theory. The nondelegation doctrine is primarily used now as a way of interpreting a congressional delegation of authority narrowly, in that the courts presume Congress intended only to delegate that which it certainly could have, unless it clearly demonstrates it intended to "test the waters '' of what the courts would allow it to do.
Although not specifically mentioned in the Constitution, Congress has also long asserted the power to investigate and the power to compel cooperation with an investigation. The Supreme Court has affirmed these powers as an implication of Congress 's power to legislate. Since the power to investigate is an aspect of Congress 's power to legislate, it is as broad as Congress 's powers to legislate. However, it is also limited to inquiries that are "in aid of the legislative function; '' Congress may not "expose for the sake of exposure. '' It is uncontroversial that a proper subject of Congress 's investigation power is the operations of the federal government, but Congress 's ability to compel the submission of documents or testimony from the President or his subordinates is often - discussed and sometimes controversial (see executive privilege), although not often litigated. As a practical matter, the limitation of Congress 's ability to investigate only for a proper purpose ("in aid of '' its legislative powers) functions as a limit on Congress 's ability to investigate the private affairs of individual citizens; matters that simply demand action by another branch of government, without implicating an issue of public policy necessitating legislation by Congress, must be left to those branches due to the doctrine of separation of powers. The courts are highly deferential to Congress 's exercise of its investigation powers, however. Congress has the power to investigate that which it could regulate, and the courts have interpreted Congress 's regulatory powers broadly since the Great Depression.
The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.
Section Two provides for the election of the House of Representatives every second year. Since Representatives are to be "chosen... by the People, '' State Governors are not allowed to appoint temporary replacements when vacancies occur in a state 's delegation to the House of Representatives; instead, the Governor of the state is required by clause 4 to issue a writ of election calling a special election to fill the vacancy.
At the time of its creation, the Constitution did not explicitly give citizens an inherent right to vote. Rather, it provided that those qualified to vote in elections for the largest chamber of a state 's legislature may vote in Congressional (House of Representatives) elections. Since the Civil War, several constitutional amendments have been enacted that have curbed the states ' broad powers to set voter qualification standards. Though never enforced, clause 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment provides that "when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty - one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty - one years of age in such State. '' The Fifteenth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. The Nineteenth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on sex. The Twenty - fourth Amendment prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the non-payment of a poll tax. The Twenty - sixth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right of US citizens, eighteen years of age or older, to vote on account of age.
Moreover, since the Supreme Court has recognized voting as a fundamental right, the Equal Protection Clause places very tight limitations (albeit with uncertain limits) on the states ' ability to define voter qualifications; it is fair to say that qualifications beyond citizenship, residency, and age are usually questionable.
In the 1960s, the Supreme Court started to view voting as a fundamental right covered by the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In a dissenting opinion of a 1964 Supreme Court case involving reapportionment in the Alabama state legislature, Associate Justice John Marshall Harlan II included Minor in a list of past decisions about voting and apportionment which were no longer being followed.
In Oregon v. Mitchell (1970), the Supreme Court held that the Qualifications clause did not prevent Congress from overriding state - imposed minimum age restrictions for voters in Congressional elections.
Since clause 3 provides that Members of the House of Representatives are apportioned state - by - state and that each state is guaranteed at least one Representative, exact population equality between all districts is not guaranteed and, in fact, is currently impossible, because while the size of the House of Representatives is fixed at 435, several states had less than 1 / 435 of the national population at the time of the last reapportionment in 2010. However, the Supreme Court has interpreted the provision of Clause One that Representatives shall be elected "by the People '' to mean that, in those states with more than one member of the House of Representatives, each congressional election district within the state must have nearly identical populations.
No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.
The Constitution provides three requirements for Representatives: A Representative must be at least 25 years old, must be an inhabitant of the state in which he or she is elected, and must have been a citizen of the United States for the previous seven years. There is no requirement that a Representative reside within the district in which he or she represents; although this is usually the case, there have been occasional exceptions.
The Supreme Court has interpreted the Qualifications Clause as an exclusive list of qualifications that can not be supplemented by a house of Congress exercising its Section 5 authority to "judge... the... qualifications of its own members '' or by a state in its exercise of its Section 4 authority to prescribe the "times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives. '' The Supreme Court, as well as other federal courts, have repeatedly barred states from additional restrictions, such as imposing term limits on members of Congress, allowing members of Congress to be subject to recall elections, or requiring that Representatives live in the congressional district in which they represent. A 2002 Congressional Research Service report also found that no state could implement a qualification that a Representative not be a convicted felon or incarcerated.
However, the United States Supreme Court has ruled that certain ballot access requirements, such as filing fees and submitting a certain number of valid petition signatures do not constitute additional qualifications and thus few Constitutional restrictions exist as to how harsh ballot access laws can be.
Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse (sic) three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode - Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New - York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.
After much debate, the framers of the Constitution decided to make population the basis of apportioning the seats in the House of Representatives and the tax liability among the states. To facilitate this, the Constitution mandates that a census be conducted every ten years to determine the population of each state and of the nation as a whole and establishes a rule for who shall be counted or excluded from the count. As the new form of government would become operational prior to the completion of a national census, the Constitution also provides for a temporary apportionment of seats.
Originally, the population of each state and of the nation as a whole was ascertained by adding to the whole number of free Persons, three - fifths the number of all other Persons (i.e. slaves), but excluding non-taxed Native Americans. This Constitutional rule, known as the three - fifths compromise, was a compromise between Southern and Northern states in which three - fifths of the population of slaves would be counted for enumeration purposes and for the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and of taxes among the states. It was, according to Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story (writing in 1833), a "matter of compromise and concession, confessedly unequal in its operation, but a necessary sacrifice to that spirit of conciliation, which was indispensable to the union of states having a great diversity of interests, and physical condition, and political institutions ''.
Following the completion of each census, Congress is empowered to use the aggregate population in all the states (according to the prevailing Constitutional rule for determining population) to determine the relative population of each state to the population of the whole, and, based on its calculations, to establish the appropriate size of the House and to allocate a particular number of representatives to each state according to its share of the national population.
Since enactment of the Reapportionment Act of 1929, a constant 435 House seats have been apportioned among the states according to each census, and determining the size of the House is not presently part of the apportionment process. With one exception, the apportionment of 1842, the House of Representatives had been enlarged by various degrees from sixty - five members in 1788 to 435 members by 1913. The determination of size was made based on the aggregate national population, so long as the size of the House did not exceed 1 member for every 30,000 of the country 's total population nor the size of any state 's delegation exceed 1 for every 30,000 of that state 's population. With the size of the House still fixed at 435, the current ratio, as of the 2010 Census, is around 1 Representative: 700,000 Persons.
Although the first sentence in this clause originally concerned apportionment of both House seats and taxes among the several states, the Fourteenth Amendment sentence that replaced it in 1868 mentioned only the apportionment of House seats. Even so, the constraint placed upon Congress 's taxation power remained, as the restriction was reiterated in Article 1 Section 9 Clause 4. The amount of direct taxes that could be collected by the federal government from the people in any State would still be tied directly to that state 's share of the national population.
Due to this restriction, application of the income tax to income derived from real estate and specifically income in the form of dividends from personal property ownership such as stock shares was found to be unconstitutional because it was not apportioned among the states; that is to say, there was no guarantee that a State with 10 % of the country 's population paid 10 % of those income taxes collected, because Congress had not fixed an amount of money to be raised and apportioned it between the States according to their respective shares of the national population. To permit the levying of such an income tax, Congress proposed and the states ratified the Sixteenth Amendment, which removed the restriction by specifically providing that Congress could levy a tax on income "from whatever source derived '' without it being apportioned among the States or otherwise based on a State 's share of the national population.
When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.
Section two, Clause four, provides that when vacancies occur in the House of Representatives, it is not the job of the House of Representatives to arrange for a replacement, but the job of the State whose vacant seat is up for refilling. Moreover, the State Governor may not appoint a temporary replacement, but must instead arrange for a special election to fill the vacancy. The original qualifications and procedures for holding that election are still valid.
The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.
Section Two further provides that the House of Representatives may choose its Speaker and its other officers. Though the Constitution does not mandate it, every Speaker has been a member of the House of Representatives. The Speaker rarely presides over routine House sessions, choosing instead to deputize a junior member to accomplish the task.
Finally, Section Two grants to the House of Representatives the sole power of impeachment. Although the Supreme Court has not had an occasion to interpret this specific provision, the Court has suggested that the grant to the House of the "sole '' power of impeachment makes the House the exclusive interpreter of what constitutes an impeachable offense.
This power, which is analogous to the bringing of criminal charges by a grand jury, has been used only rarely. The House has begun impeachment proceedings 62 times since 1789, and nineteen federal officials have been formally impeached as a result, including: two Presidents (Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton), one Cabinet Secretary (William W. Belknap), one Senator (William Blount), one Supreme Court Associate Justice (Samuel Chase), and fourteen federal judges.
The Constitution does not specify how impeachment proceedings are to be initiated. Until the early 20th century, a House member could rise and propose an impeachment, which would then be assigned to a committee for investigation. Presently, it is the House Judiciary Committee that initiates the process and then, after investigating the allegations, prepares recommendations for the whole House 's consideration. If the House votes to adopt an impeachment resolution, the Chairman of the Judiciary Committee recommends a slate of "managers, '' whom the House subsequently approves by resolution. These Representatives subsequently become the prosecution team in the impeachment trial in the Senate (see Section 3, Clause 6 below).
The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.
The first Clause of Section Three provides that each state is entitled to have two Senators, who would be elected by its state legislature (now by the people of each state), serve for staggered six - year terms, and have one vote each. By these provisions, the framers of the Constitution intended to protect the interests of the states as states. This clause has been superseded by the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, which, in part, provides as amended, that
The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote.
Article Five specifies the means by which the Constitution of the United States can be amended. It ends by temporarily shielding three Article I clauses from being amended. This clause is among them. (The others are first and fourth clauses in Section 9.) Article Five provides that "no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate ''. Thus, no individual state may have its individual representation in the Senate adjusted without its consent. That is to say, an amendment that changed this clause to provide that all states would get only one Senator (or three Senators, or any other number) could become valid as part of the Constitution if ratified by three - fourths of the states; however, one that provided for some basis of representation other than strict numerical equality (for example, population, wealth, or land area), would require the unanimous consent of all the states.
Denying the states their intended role as joint partners in the federal government by abolishing their equality in the Senate would, according to Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase (in Texas v. White), destroy the grounding of the Union. This Article V provision has been employed by those opposed to contemplated constitutional amendments that would grant the District of Columbia full representation in the Congress without also granting it statehood. Their argument is that an amendment that would allow a non-state district to have two Senators would deprive the states of their equal suffrage in the Senate and would therefore require unanimous ratification by all the states. Whether unanimous consent of the 50 states would be required for such an amendment to become operative remains an unanswered political question.
Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.
After the first group of Senators was elected to the First Congress (1789 -- 1791), the Senators were divided into three "classes '' as nearly equal in size as possible, as required by this section. This was done in May 1789 by lot. It was also decided that each state 's Senators would be assigned to two different classes. Those Senators grouped in the first class had their term expire after only two years; those Senators in the second class had their term expire after only four years, instead of six. After this, all Senators from those States have been elected to six - year terms, and as new States have joined the Union, their Senate seats have been assigned to two of the three classes, maintaining each grouping as nearly equal in size as possible. In this way, election is staggered; approximately one - third of the Senate is up for re-election every two years, but the entire body is never up for re-election in the same year (as contrasted with the House, where its entire membership is up for re-election every 2 years).
As originally established, Senators were elected by the Legislature of the State they represented in the Senate. If a senator died, resigned, or was expelled, the legislature of the state would appoint a replacement to serve out the remainder of the senator 's term. If the State Legislature was not in session, its Governor could appoint a temporary replacement to serve until the legislature could elect a permanent replacement. This was superseded by the Seventeenth Amendment, which provided for the Popular Election of Senators, instead of their appointment by the State Legislature. In a nod to the less populist nature of the Senate, the Amendment tracks the vacancy procedures for the House of Representatives in requiring that the Governor call a special election to fill the vacancy, but (unlike in the House) it vests in the State Legislature the authority to allow the Governor to appoint a temporary replacement until the special election is held. Note, however, that under the original Constitution, the Governors of the states were expressly allowed by the Constitution to make temporary appointments. The current system, under the Seventeenth Amendment, allows Governors to appoint a replacement only if their state legislature has previously decided to allow the Governor to do so; otherwise, the seat must remain vacant until the special election is held to fill the seat, as in the case of a vacancy in the House.
No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.
A Senator must be at least 30 years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States for at least nine years before being elected, and must reside in the State he or she will represent at the time of the election. The Supreme Court has interpreted the Qualifications Clause as an exclusive list of qualifications that can not be supplemented by a House of Congress exercising its Section. 5. authority to "Judge... the... Qualifications of its own Members, '' or by a state in its exercise of its Section. 4. authority to prescribe the "Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives,... ''
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.
Section Three provides that the Vice President is the President of the Senate. Excepting the duty to receive the tally of electoral votes for President, this is the only regular responsibility assigned to the office of the Vice President by the Constitution. When serving in this capacity, the Vice President, who is not a member of the Senate, may cast tie - breaking votes. Early in the nation 's history, Vice Presidents frequently presided over the Senate. In modern times, the Vice President usually does so only during ceremonial occasions or when a tie in the voting is anticipated. Through January 24th, 2018, a tie - breaking vote has been cast 263 times by 36 different Vice Presidents.
The Senate shall chuse (sic) their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of the President of the United States.
Clause five provides for a President pro tempore of the Senate, a Senator elected to the post by the Senate, to preside over the body when the Vice President is either absent or exercising the Office of the President.
Although the Constitutional text seems to suggest to the contrary, the Senate 's current practice is to elect a full - time President pro tempore at the beginning of each Congress, as opposed to making it a temporary office only existing during the Vice President 's absence. Since World War II, the senior (longest serving) member of the majority party has filled this position. As is true of the Speaker of the House, the Constitution does not require that the President pro tempore be a senator, but by convention, a senator is always chosen.
The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.
Clause Six grants to the Senate the sole power to try impeachments and spells out the basic procedures for impeachment trials. The Supreme Court has interpreted this clause to mean that the Senate has exclusive and unreviewable authority to determine what constitutes an adequate impeachment trial. Of the nineteen federal officials formally impeached by the House of Representatives, eleven were acquitted and seven were convicted by the Senate. On one occasion (in the case of Senator William Blount) the Senate declined to hold a trial, asserting that it had no jurisdiction over its own members.
The constitution 's framers vested the Senate with this power for several reasons. First, they believed Senators would be better educated, more virtuous, and more high - minded than Members of the House of Representatives and thus uniquely able to decide responsibly the most difficult of political questions. Second, they believed that the Senate, being a numerous body, would be well suited to handle the procedural demands of an impeachment trial, in which it, unlike judges and the judiciary system, would "never be tied down by such strict rules, either in the delineation of the offense by the prosecutor, or in the construction of it by judges, as in the common cases serve to limit the discretion of courts in favor of personal security. '' (Alexander Hamilton, The Federalist No. 65).
There are three Constitutionally mandated requirements for impeachment trials. The provision that Senators must sit on oath or affirmation was designed to impress upon them the extreme seriousness of the occasion. The stipulation that the Chief Justice is to preside over presidential impeachment trials underscores the solemnity of the occasion and aims to avoid the conflict of interest of a Vice President 's presiding over the proceeding for the removal of the one official standing between him (or her) and the presidency. The latter consideration was regarded to be quite important in the eighteenth century - political parties had not yet formed when the Constitution was adopted, and with the original method of electing the President and Vice President it was presumed that the two men elected to those offices would frequently be political rivals. The specification that a two - thirds super-majority vote of those Senators present in order to convict was also thought necessary to facilitate serious deliberation and to make removal possible only through a consensus that cuts across factional divisions.
Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.
If any officer is convicted on impeachment, he or she is immediately removed from office, and may be barred from holding any public office in the future. No other punishments may be inflicted pursuant to the impeachment proceeding, but the convicted party remains liable to trial and punishment in the courts for civil and criminal charges.
The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing (sic) Senators.
The purpose of this clause is twofold. First, it makes clear the division of responsibility with respect to the conduct of the election of federal Senators and Representatives. That responsibility lies primarily with the states and secondarily with Congress. Second, the clause lodges the power to regulate elections in the respective legislative branches of the states and the federal government, not with the executive or judicial. As authorized by this clause, Congress has set a uniform date for federal elections: the Tuesday following the first Monday in November.
Presently, as there are no on - point federal regulations, the states retain the authority to regulate the dates on which other aspects of the election process are held (registration, primary elections, etc.) and where elections will be held. As for regulating the "manner '' of elections, the Supreme Court has interpreted this to mean "matters like notices, registration, supervision of voting, protection of voters, prevention of fraud and corrupt practices, counting of votes, duties of inspectors and canvassers, and making and publication of election returns. '' The Supreme Court has held that States may not exercise their power to determine the "manner '' of holding elections to impose term limits on their congressional delegation.
One of the most significant ways that each state regulates the "manner '' of elections is through their power to draw electoral districts. Although in theory Congress could draw the district map for each State, it has not exercised this level of oversight. Congress has, however, required the States to conform to certain practices when drawing districts. States are currently required to use a single - member district scheme, whereby the State is divided into as many election districts for Representatives in the House of Representatives as the size of its representation in that body (that is to say, Representatives can not be elected at - large from the whole State unless the State has only one Representative in the House, nor can districts elect more than 1 Representative). The Supreme Court has interpreted "by the Legislature thereof '' to include voters using the initiative process, in those states whose constitutions provide it, to create an independent redistricting commission.
Congress first exercised its power to regulate elections nation - wide 1842, when the 27th Congress passed a law requiring the election of Representatives by districts. In subsequent years, Congress expanded on the requirements, successively adding contiguity, compactness, and substantial equality of population to the districting requirements. These standards were all later deleted in the Reapportionment Act of 1929. Congress subsequently reinstated the requirement that districts be composed of contiguous territory, be "compact, '' and have equal populations within each State. Congress has allowed those requirements to lapse, but the Supreme Court has re-imposed the population requirement on the States under the Equal Protection Clause and is suspicious of districts that do not meet the other "traditional '' districting criteria of compactness and contiguity.
In 1865, Congress legislated a remedy for a situation under which deadlocks in state legislatures over the election of Senators were creating vacancies in the office. The act required the two houses of each legislature to meet in joint session on a specified day and to meet every day thereafter until a Senator was selected. The first comprehensive federal statute dealing with elections was adopted in 1870 as a means of enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment 's guarantee against racial discrimination in granting suffrage rights. Under the Enforcement Act of 1870, and subsequent laws, false registration, bribery, voting without legal right, making false returns of votes cast, interference in any manner with officers of election, and the neglect by any such officer of any duty required by state or federal law were made federal offenses. Provision was made for the appointment by federal judges of persons to attend at places of registration and at elections with authority to challenge any person proposing to register or vote unlawfully, to witness the counting of votes, and to identify by their signatures the registration of voters and election tally sheets.
Beginning with the Tillman Act of 1907, Congress has imposed a growing number of restrictions on elections and campaign financing. The most significant piece of legislation has been the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act. It was this legislation that was at issue in the Supreme Court 's seminal decision, Buckley v. Valeo (1976), which, in the face of a First Amendment challenge, set the ground rules for campaign finance legislation, generally disallowing restrictions on expenditures by candidates, but permitting restrictions on contributions by individuals and corporations.
In addition to statutory constraints, Congress and the States have altered the electoral process through amending the Constitution (first in the above mentioned Fifteenth Amendment). The Seventeenth Amendment altered the manner of conducting the elections of Senators; establishing that they are to be elected by the people of the states. Also, the Nineteenth Amendment prohibits any U.S. citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex; the Twenty - fourth Amendment prohibits both Congress and the states from conditioning the right to vote in federal elections on payment of a poll tax or other types of tax; and the Twenty - sixth Amendment prohibits the states and the federal government from using age as a reason for denying the right to vote to U.S. citizens who are at least eighteen years old.
The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.
Clause 2 fixes an annual date upon which Congress must meet. By doing so, the Constitution empowers Congress to meet, whether or not the President called it into session. Article II, Section 3 does grant the president limited authority to convene and adjourn both Houses (or either of them) and mandates that it will meet at least once in a year to enact legislation on behalf of the people. Some delegates to the 1787 constitutional convention believed yearly meetings were not necessary, for there would not be enough legislative business for Congress to deal with annually. Nathaniel Gorham of Massachusetts argued that the time should be fixed to prevent disputes from arising within the legislature, and to allow the states to adjust their elections to correspond with the fixed date. A fixed date also corresponded to the tradition in the states of having annual meetings. Finally, Gorham concluded that the legislative branch should be required to meet at least once a year to act as a check upon the executive department.
Although this clause provides that the annual meeting was to be on the first Monday in December, the government established by the 1787 Constitution did not begin operations until March 4, 1789. As the 1st Congress held its initial meeting on March 4, that became the date on which new representatives and senators took office in subsequent years. Therefore, every other year, although a new Congress was elected in November, it did not come into office until the following March, with a "lame duck '' session convening in the interim. This practice was altered in 1933 following ratification of the Twentieth Amendment, which states (in Section 2) that, "The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the third day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day ''. This change virtually eliminated the necessity of there being a lame duck session of Congress.
Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.
Section Five states that a majority of each House constitutes a quorum to do business; a smaller number may adjourn the House or compel the attendance of absent members. In practice, the quorum requirement is all but ignored. A quorum is assumed to be present unless a quorum call, requested by a member, proves otherwise. Rarely do members ask for quorum calls to demonstrate the absence of a quorum; more often, they use the quorum call as a delaying tactic.
Sometimes, unqualified individuals have been admitted to Congress. For instance, the Senate once admitted John Henry Eaton, a twenty - eight - year - old, in 1818 (the admission was inadvertent, as Eaton 's birth date was unclear at the time). In 1934, a twenty - nine - year - old, Rush Holt, was elected to the Senate; he agreed to wait six months, until his thirtieth birthday, to take the oath. The Senate ruled in that case that the age requirement applied as of the date of the taking of the oath, not the date of election.
Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behavior, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a member.
Each House can determine its own Rules (assuming a quorum is present), and may punish any of its members. A two - thirds vote is necessary to expel a member. Section 5, Clause 2 does not provide specific guidance to each House regarding when and how each House may change its rules, leaving details to the respective chambers.
Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the Journal.
Each House must keep and publish a Journal, though it may choose to keep any part of the Journal secret. The decisions of the House -- not the words spoken during debates -- are recorded in the Journal; if one - fifth of those present (assuming a quorum is present) request it, the votes of the members on a particular question must also be entered.
Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.
Neither House may adjourn, without the consent of the other, for more than three days. Often, a House will hold pro forma sessions every three days; such sessions are merely held to fulfill the constitutional requirement, and not to conduct business. Furthermore, neither House may meet in any place other than that designated for both Houses (the Capitol), without the consent of the other House.
The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.
Senators and Representatives set their own compensation. Under the Twenty - seventh Amendment, any change in their compensation will not take effect until after the next congressional election.
Members of both Houses have certain privileges, based on those enjoyed by the members of the British Parliament. Members attending, going to or returning from either House are privileged from arrest, except for treason, felony or breach of the peace. One may not sue a Senator or Representative for slander occurring during Congressional debate, nor may speech by a member of Congress during a Congressional session be the basis for criminal prosecution. The latter was affirmed when Mike Gravel published over 4,000 pages of the Pentagon Papers in the Congressional Record, which might have otherwise been a criminal offense. This clause has also been interpreted in Gravel v. United States, 408 U.S. 606 (1972) to provide protection to aides and staff of sitting members of Congress, so long as their activities relate to legislative matters.
No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.
Senators and Representatives may not simultaneously serve in Congress and hold a position in the executive branch. This restriction is meant to protect legislative independence by preventing the president from using patronage to buy votes in Congress. It is a major difference from the political system in the British Parliament, where cabinet ministers are required to be members of parliament.
Furthermore, Senators and Representatives can not resign to take newly created or higher - paying political positions; rather, they must wait until the conclusion of the term for which they were elected. If Congress increases the salary of a particular officer, it may later reduce that salary to permit an individual to resign from Congress and take that position (known as the Saxbe fix). The effects of the clause were discussed in 1937, when Senator Hugo Black was appointed an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court with some time left in his Senate term. Just prior to the appointment, Congress had increased the pension available to Justices retiring at the age of seventy. It was therefore suggested by some that the office 's emolument had been increased during Black 's Senatorial term, and that therefore Black could not take office as a Justice. The response, however, was that Black was fifty - one years old, and would not receive the increased pension until at least 19 years later, long after his Senate term had expired.
All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.
This establishes the method for making Acts of Congress that involve taxation. Accordingly, any bill may originate in either House of Congress, except for a revenue bill, which may originate only in the House of Representatives. In practice, the Senate sometimes circumvents this requirement by substituting the text of a revenue bill previously passed by the House with a substitute text. Either House may amend any bill, including revenue and appropriation bills.
This clause of the U.S. Constitution stemmed from an English parliamentary practice that all money bills must have their first reading in the House of Commons. This practice was intended to ensure that the power of the purse is possessed by the legislative body most responsive to the people, although the English practice was modified in America by allowing the Senate to amend these bills. The clause was part of the Great Compromise between small and large states; the large states were unhappy with the lopsided power of small states in the Senate, and so the clause theoretically offsets the unrepresentative nature of the Senate, and compensates the large states for allowing equal voting rights to Senators from small states.
Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law.
This clause is known as the Presentment Clause. Before a bill becomes law, it must be presented to the President, who has ten days (excluding Sundays) to act upon it. If the President signs the bill, it becomes law. If he disapproves of the bill, he must return it to the House in which it originated together with his objections. This procedure has become known as the veto, although that particular word does not appear in the text of Article One. The bill does not then become law unless both Houses, by two - thirds votes, override the veto. If the President neither signs nor returns the bill within the ten - day limit, the bill becomes law, unless the Congress has adjourned in the meantime, thereby preventing the President from returning the bill to the House in which it originated. In the latter case, the President, by taking no action on the bill towards the end of a session, exercises a "pocket veto '', which Congress may not override. In the former case, where the President allows a bill to become law unsigned, there is no common name for the practice, but recent scholarship has termed it a "default enactment. ''
What exactly constitutes an adjournment for the purposes of the pocket veto has been unclear. In the Pocket Veto Case (1929), the Supreme Court held that "the determinative question in reference to an ' adjournment ' is not whether it is a final adjournment of Congress or an interim adjournment, such as an adjournment of the first session, but whether it is one that ' prevents ' the President from returning the bill to the House in which it originated within the time allowed. '' Since neither House of Congress was in session, the President could not return the bill to one of them, thereby permitting the use of the pocket veto. In Wright v. United States (1938), however, the Court ruled that adjournments of one House only did not constitute an adjournment of Congress required for a pocket veto. In such cases, the Secretary or Clerk of the House in question was ruled competent to receive the bill.
Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.
In 1996, Congress passed the Line Item Veto Act, which permitted the President, at the time of the signing of the bill, to rescind certain expenditures. The Congress could disapprove the cancellation and reinstate the funds. The President could veto the disapproval, but the Congress, by a two - thirds vote in each House, could override the veto. In the case Clinton v. City of New York, the Supreme Court found the Line Item Veto Act unconstitutional because it violated the Presentment clause. First, the procedure delegated legislative powers to the President, thereby violating the nondelegation doctrine. Second, the procedure violated the terms of Section Seven, which state, "if he approve (the bill) he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it. '' Thus, the President may sign the bill, veto it, or do nothing, but he may not amend the bill and then sign it.
Every bill, order, resolution, or vote that must be passed by both Houses, except on a question of adjournment, must be presented to the President before becoming law. However, to propose a constitutional amendment, two - thirds of both Houses may submit it to the states for the ratification, without any consideration by the President, as prescribed in Article V.
Some Presidents have made very extensive use of the veto, while others have not used it at all. Grover Cleveland, for instance, vetoed over four hundred bills during his first term in office; Congress overrode only two of those vetoes. Meanwhile, seven Presidents have never used the veto power. There have been 2,560 vetoes, including pocket vetoes.
Congress 's legislative powers are enumerated in Section Eight:
The Congress shall have power
Many powers of Congress have been interpreted broadly. Most notably, the Taxing and Spending, Interstate Commerce, and Necessary and Proper Clauses have been deemed to grant expansive powers to Congress.
Congress may lay and collect taxes for the "common defense '' or "general welfare '' of the United States. The U.S. Supreme Court has not often defined "general welfare, '' leaving the political question to Congress. In United States v. Butler (1936), the Court for the first time construed the clause. The dispute centered on a tax collected from processors of agricultural products such as meat; the funds raised by the tax were not paid into the general funds of the treasury, but were rather specially earmarked for farmers. The Court struck down the tax, ruling that the general welfare language in the Taxing and Spending Clause related only to "matters of national, as distinguished from local, welfare ''. Congress continues to make expansive use of the Taxing and Spending Clause; for instance, the social security program is authorized under the Taxing and Spending Clause.
Congress has the power to borrow money on the credit of the United States. In 1871, when deciding Knox v. Lee, the Court ruled that this clause permitted Congress to emit bills and make them legal tender in satisfaction of debts. Whenever Congress borrows money, it is obligated to repay the sum as stipulated in the original agreement. However, such agreements are only "binding on the conscience of the sovereign '', as the doctrine of sovereign immunity prevents a creditor from suing in court if the government reneges its commitment.
The Necessary and Proper Clause, as well as the Commerce and General Welfare Clauses have been interpreted so broadly that to this day, the Federal Government of the United States exercises many powers that are not expressly delegated by the States in the Federal Government by the Constitution, like the different social programs of the American Welfare State. However, James Madison, who wrote much of the Constitution, disagreed that Congress exercises powers that are not expressly granted in the Constitution; Madison, when he held the Office of President of the United States, exercised his Veto power against the Federal Public Works Bill of 1817, calling it Unconstitutional, since to him, the Federal Government does not have the power to build infrastructure.
To the House of Representatives of the United States:
Having considered the bill this day presented to me entitled "An act to set apart and pledge certain funds for internal improvements, '' and which sets apart and pledges funds "for constructing roads and canals, and improving the navigation of water courses, in order to facilitate, promote, and give security to internal commerce among the several States, and to render more easy and less expensive the means and provisions for the common defense, '' I am constrained by the insuperable difficulty I feel in reconciling the bill with the Constitution of the United States to return it with that objection to the House of Representatives, in which it originated. The legislative powers vested in Congress are specified and enumerated in the eighth section of the first article of the Constitution, and it does not appear that the power proposed to be exercised by the bill is among the enumerated powers, or that it falls by any just interpretation with the power to make laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution those or other powers vested by the Constitution in the Government of the United States.
The Congress shall have Power (...) To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;
The Supreme Court has seldom restrained the use of the commerce clause for widely varying purposes. The first important decision related to the commerce clause was Gibbons v. Ogden, decided by a unanimous Court in 1824. The case involved conflicting federal and state laws: Thomas Gibbons had a federal permit to navigate steamboats in the Hudson River, while the other, Aaron Ogden, had a monopoly to do the same granted by the state of New York. Ogden contended that "commerce '' included only buying and selling of goods and not their transportation. Chief Justice John Marshall rejected this notion. Marshall suggested that "commerce '' included navigation of goods, and that it "must have been contemplated '' by the Framers. Marshall added that Congress 's power over commerce "is complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations other than are prescribed in the Constitution ''.
The expansive interpretation of the Commerce Clause was restrained during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when a laissez - faire attitude dominated the Court. In United States v. E.C. Knight Company (1895), the Supreme Court limited the newly enacted Sherman Antitrust Act, which had sought to break up the monopolies dominating the nation 's economy. The Court ruled that Congress could not regulate the manufacture of goods, even if they were later shipped to other states. Chief Justice Melville Fuller wrote, "commerce succeeds to manufacture, and is not a part of it. ''
The U.S. Supreme Court sometimes ruled New Deal programs unconstitutional because they stretched the meaning of the commerce clause. In Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, (1935) the Court unanimously struck down industrial codes regulating the slaughter of poultry, declaring that Congress could not regulate commerce relating to the poultry, which had "come to a permanent rest within the State. '' As Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes put it, "so far as the poultry here in question is concerned, the flow of interstate commerce has ceased. '' Judicial rulings against attempted use of Congress 's Commerce Clause powers continued during the 1930s.
In 1937, the Supreme Court began moving away from its laissez - faire attitude concerning Congressional legislation and the Commerce Clause, when it ruled in National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Company, that the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (commonly known as the Wagner Act) was constitutional. The legislation under scrutiny, prevented employers from engaging in "unfair labor practices '' such as firing workers for joining unions. In sustaining this act, the Court, signaled its return to the philosophy espoused by John Marshall, that Congress could pass laws regulating actions that even indirectly influenced interstate commerce.
This new attitude became firmly set into place in 1942. In Wickard v. Filburn, the Court ruled that production quotas under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 were constitutionally applied to agricultural production (in this instance, home - grown wheat for private consumption) that was consumed purely intrastate, because its effect upon interstate commerce placed it within the power of Congress to regulate under the Commerce Clause. This decision marked the beginning of the Court 's total deference to Congress ' claims of Commerce Clause powers, which lasted into the 1990s.
United States v. Lopez (1995) was the first decision in six decades to invalidate a federal statute on the grounds that it exceeded the power of the Congress under the Commerce Clause. The Court held that while Congress had broad lawmaking authority under the Commerce Clause, the power was limited, and did not extend so far from "commerce '' as to authorize the regulation of the carrying of handguns, especially when there was no evidence that carrying them affected the economy on a massive scale. In a later case, United States v. Morrison (2000), the justices ruled that Congress could not make such laws even when there was evidence of aggregate effect.
In contrast to these rulings, the Supreme Court also continues to follow the precedent set by Wickard v. Filburn. In Gonzales v. Raich it ruled that the Commerce Clause granted Congress the authority to criminalize the production and use of home - grown cannabis even where states approve its use for medicinal purposes. The court held that, as with the agricultural production in the earlier case, home - grown cannabis is a legitimate subject of federal regulation because it competes with marijuana that moves in interstate commerce.
Congress may establish uniform laws relating to naturalization and bankruptcy. It may also coin money, regulate the value of American or foreign currency and punish counterfeiters. Congress may fix the standards of weights and measures. Furthermore, Congress may establish post offices and post roads (the roads, however, need not be exclusively for the conveyance of mail). Congress may promote the progress of science and useful arts by granting copyrights and patents of limited duration. Section eight, clause eight of Article One, known as the Copyright Clause, is the only instance of the word "right '' used in the original constitution (though the word does appear in several Amendments). Though perpetual copyrights and patents are prohibited, the Supreme Court has ruled in Eldred v. Ashcroft (2003) that repeated extensions to the term of copyright do not constitute perpetual copyright; also note that this is the only power granted where the means to accomplish its stated purpose is specifically provided for. Courts inferior to the Supreme Court may be established by Congress.
Congress has several powers related to war and the armed forces. Under the War Powers Clause, only Congress may declare war, but in several cases it has, without declaring war, granted the President the authority to engage in military conflicts. Five wars have been declared in United States ' history: the War of 1812, the Mexican -- American War, the Spanish -- American War, World War I and World War II. Some historians argue that the legal doctrines and legislation passed during the operations against Pancho Villa constitute a sixth declaration of war. Congress may grant letters of marque and reprisal. Congress may establish and support the armed forces, but no appropriation made for the support of the army may be used for more than two years. This provision was inserted because the Framers feared the establishment of a standing army, beyond civilian control, during peacetime. Congress may regulate or call forth the state militias, but the states retain the authority to appoint officers and train personnel. Congress also has exclusive power to make rules and regulations governing the land and naval forces. Although the executive branch and the Pentagon have asserted an ever - increasing measure of involvement in this process, the U.S. Supreme Court has often reaffirmed Congress 's exclusive hold on this power (e.g. Burns v. Wilson, 346 U.S. 137 (1953)). Congress used this power twice soon after World War II with the enactment of two statutes: the Uniform Code of Military Justice to improve the quality and fairness of courts martial and military justice, and the Federal Tort Claims Act which among other rights had allowed military service persons to sue for damages until the U.S. Supreme Court repealed that section of the statute in a divisive series of cases, known collectively as the Feres Doctrine.
Congress has the exclusive right to legislate "in all cases whatsoever '' for the nation 's capital, the District of Columbia. Congress chooses to devolve some of such authority to the elected mayor and council of District of Columbia. Nevertheless, Congress remains free to enact any legislation for the District so long as constitutionally permissible, to overturn any legislation by the city government, and technically to revoke the city government at any time. Congress may also exercise such jurisdiction over land purchased from the states for the erection of forts and other buildings.
The Congress shall have Power (...) To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.
Finally, Congress has the power to do whatever is "necessary and proper '' to carry out its enumerated powers and, crucially, all others vested in it. This has been interpreted to authorize criminal prosecution of those whose actions have a "substantial effect '' on interstate commerce in Wickard v. Filburn; however, Thomas Jefferson, in the Kentucky Resolutions, supported by James Madison, maintained that a penal power could not be inferred from a power to regulate, and that the only penal powers were for treason, counterfeiting, piracy and felony on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations.
The necessary and proper clause has been interpreted extremely broadly, thereby giving Congress wide latitude in legislation. The first landmark case involving the clause was McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), which involved the establishment of a national bank. Alexander Hamilton, in advocating the creation of the bank, argued that there was "a more or less direct '' relationship between the bank and "the powers of collecting taxes, borrowing money, regulating trade between the states, and raising and maintaining fleets and navies ''. Thomas Jefferson countered that Congress 's powers "can all be carried into execution without a national bank. A bank therefore is not necessary, and consequently not authorized by this phrase ''. Chief Justice John Marshall agreed with the former interpretation. Marshall wrote that a Constitution listing all of Congress 's powers "would partake of a prolixity of a legal code and could scarcely be embraced by the human mind ''. Since the Constitution could not possibly enumerate the "minor ingredients '' of the powers of Congress, Marshall "deduced '' that Congress had the authority to establish a bank from the "great outlines '' of the general welfare, commerce and other clauses. Under this doctrine of the necessary and proper clause, Congress has sweepingly broad powers (known as implied powers) not explicitly enumerated in the Constitution. However, the Congress can not enact laws solely on the implied powers, any action must be necessary and proper in the execution of the enumerated powers.
The ninth section of Article One places limits on Congress ' powers:
The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.
The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.
No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.
No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken.
No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.
No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.
No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.
No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State.
The first clause in this section prevents Congress from passing any law that would restrict the importation of slaves into the United States prior to 1808. Congress could however, levy a per capita duty of up to ten Spanish milled dollars for each slave imported into the country. This clause was further entrenched into the Constitution by Article V, where it is explicitly shielded from constitutional amendment prior to 1808. On March 2, 1807, Congress approved legislation prohibiting the importation of slaves into the United States, which went into effect January 1, 1808, the first day permitted by the Constitution.
A writ of habeas corpus is a legal action against unlawful detainment that commands a law enforcement agency or other body that has a person in custody to have a court inquire into the legality of the detention. The court may order the person released if the reason for detention is deemed insufficient or unjustifiable. The Constitution further provides that the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus may not be suspended "unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it ''. In Ex parte Milligan (1866), the Supreme Court ruled that the suspension of habeas corpus in a time of war was lawful, but military tribunals did not apply to citizens in states that had upheld the authority of the Constitution and where civilian courts were still operating.
A bill of attainder is a law by which a person is immediately convicted without trial. An ex post facto law is a law which applies retroactively, punishing someone for an act that was only made criminal after it was done. The ex post facto clause does not apply to civil matters.
Section Nine reiterates the provision from Section Two that direct taxes must be apportioned by state populations. This clause was also explicitly shielded from constitutional amendment prior to 1808 by Article V. In 1913, the 16th Amendment exempted all income taxes from this clause. This overcame the ruling in Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co. that the income tax could only be applied to regular income and could not be applied to dividends and capital gains. Furthermore, no tax may be imposed on exports from any state. Congress may not, by revenue or commerce legislation, give preference to ports of one state over those of another; neither may it require ships from one state to pay duties in another. All funds belonging to the Treasury may not be withdrawn except according to law. Modern practice is that Congress annually passes a number of appropriations bills authorizing the expenditure of public money. The Constitution requires that a regular statement of such expenditures be published.
The Title of Nobility Clause prohibits Congress from granting any title of nobility. In addition, it specifies that no civil officer may accept, without the consent of Congress, any gift, payment, office or title from a foreign ruler or state. Emoluments were a profound concern of the Founders. However, a U.S. citizen may receive foreign office before or after their period of public service.
No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.
States may not exercise certain powers reserved for the federal government: they may not enter into treaties, alliances or confederations, grant letters of marque or reprisal, coin money or issue bills of credit (such as currency). Furthermore, no state may make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts, which expressly forbids any state government (but not the federal government) from "making a tender '' (i.e., authorizing something that may be offered in payment) of any type or form of money to meet any financial obligation, unless that form of money is coins made of gold or silver (or a medium of exchange backed by and redeemable in gold or silver coins, as noted in Farmers & Merchants Bank v. Federal Reserve Bank). Much of this clause is devoted to preventing the States from using or creating any currency other than that created by Congress. In Federalist no. 44, Madison explains that "it may be observed that the same reasons which shew the necessity of denying to the States the power of regulating coin, prove with equal force that they ought not to be at liberty to substitute a paper medium in the place of coin. Had every State a right to regulate the value of its coin, there might be as many different currencies as States; and thus the intercourse among them would be impeded ''. Moreover, the states may not pass bills of attainder, enact ex post facto laws, impair the obligation of contracts, or grant titles of nobility.
The Contract Clause was the subject of much contentious litigation in the 19th century. It was first interpreted by the Supreme Court in 1810, when Fletcher v. Peck was decided. The case involved the Yazoo land scandal, in which the Georgia legislature authorized the sale of land to speculators at low prices. The bribery involved in the passage of the authorizing legislation was so blatant that a Georgia mob attempted to lynch the corrupt members of the legislature. Following elections, the legislature passed a law that rescinded the contracts granted by the corrupt legislators. The validity of the annulment of the sale was questioned in the Supreme Court. In writing for a unanimous court, Chief Justice John Marshall asked, "What is a contract? '' His answer was: "a compact between two or more parties ''. Marshall argued that the sale of land by the Georgia legislature, though fraught with corruption, was a valid "contract ''. He added that the state had no right to annul the purchase of the land, since doing so would impair the obligations of contract.
The definition of a contract propounded by Chief Justice Marshall was not as simple as it may seem. In 1819, the Court considered whether a corporate charter could be construed as a contract. The case of Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward involved Dartmouth College, which had been established under a Royal Charter granted by King George III. The Charter created a board of twelve trustees for the governance of the College. In 1815, however, New Hampshire passed a law increasing the board 's membership to twenty - one with the aim that public control could be exercised over the College. The Court, including Marshall, ruled that New Hampshire could not amend the charter, which was ruled to be a contract since it conferred "vested rights '' on the trustees.
The Marshall Court determined another dispute in Sturges v. Crowninshield. The case involved a debt that was contracted in early 1811. Later in that year, the state of New York passed a bankruptcy law, under which the debt was later discharged. The Supreme Court ruled that a retroactively applied state bankruptcy law impaired the obligation to pay the debt, and therefore violated the Constitution. In Ogden v. Saunders (1827), however, the court decided that state bankruptcy laws could apply to debts contracted after the passage of the law. State legislation on the issue of bankruptcy and debtor relief has not been much of an issue since the adoption of a comprehensive federal bankruptcy law in 1898.
No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it 's (sic) inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul (sic) of the Congress.
Still more powers are prohibited of the states. States may not, without the consent of Congress, tax imports or exports except for the fulfillment of state inspection laws (which may be revised by Congress). The net revenue of the tax is paid not to the state, but to the federal Treasury.
No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.
Under the Compact Clause, states may not, without the consent of Congress, keep troops or armies during times of peace. They may not enter into alliances nor compacts with foreign states, nor engage in war unless invaded. States may, however, organize and arm a militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. (Article I, Section 8, enumerated powers of Congress.) The National Guard, whose members are also members of the militia of the United States as defined by 10 U.S.C. § 311, fulfill this function, as do persons serving in State Militias with federal oversight under 32 U.S.C. § 109.
The idea of allowing Congress to have say over agreements between states traces back to the numerous controversies that arose between various colonies. Eventually compromises would be created between the two colonies and these compromises would be submitted to the Crown for approval. After the American Revolutionary War, the Articles of Confederation allowed states to appeal to Congress to settle disputes between the states over boundaries or "any cause whatever ''. The Articles of Confederation also required Congressional approval for "any treaty or alliance '' in which a state was one of the parties.
There have been a number of Supreme Court cases concerning what constitutes valid congressional consent to an interstate compact. In Virginia v. Tennessee, 148 U.S. 503 (1893), the Court found that some agreements among states stand even when lacking the explicit consent of Congress. (One example the court gave was a state moving some goods from a distant state to itself, it would not require Congressional approval to contract with another state to use its canals for transport.) According to the Court, the Compact Clause requires congressional consent only if the agreement among the states is "directed to the formation of any combination tending to the increase of political power in the States, which may encroach upon or interfere with the just supremacy of the United States ''. The congressional consent issue is at the center of the current debate over the constitutionality of the not yet effective National Popular Vote Interstate Compact entered into by several states plus the District of Columbia.
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who did astros play in 2017 world series | 2017 World Series - wikipedia
The 2017 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball 's (MLB) 2017 season. The 113th edition of the World Series, it was played between October 24 and November 1. The series was a best - of - seven playoff between the National League (NL) champion Los Angeles Dodgers and the American League (AL) champion Houston Astros. It was sponsored by the Internet television service YouTube TV and officially known as the World Series presented by YouTube TV.
The Astros defeated the Dodgers, four games to three, to win their first World Series in franchise history, also becoming the first team from Texas to do so. It was the first time since 2002 when two consecutive World Series went to seven games. Both teams set a World Series record with a combined total of 25 home runs throughout the entire series, including a team record 15 home runs by the Astros, and hit a combined total of eight home runs in Game 2 to set the single game World Series mark. Houston outfielder George Springer was named as the World Series Most Valuable Player (MVP) after hitting five home runs in the series to tie a World Series record with Reggie Jackson in 1977 and Chase Utley in 2009.
This was the first World Series in which home - field advantage was decided by the regular season record of the two pennant winners. From 1903 to 2002, home - field advantage had been determined by coin flips and by alternating between the AL and NL. From 2003 to 2016, it was determined by results from that season 's All - Star Game, when it was awarded to the team from the winning league. The Dodgers earned home - field advantage over the Astros. The series was played in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format, with the Dodgers hosting Games 1, 2, 6, and 7; and the Astros hosting Games 3, 4, and 5.
This was the first World Series matchup, and second postseason meeting overall, between the Astros and Dodgers. Los Angeles defeated Houston in the 1981 National League Division Series in five games en route to its World Series championship that year. The teams also met in the 1980 National League West tie - breaker game. This was the first Fall Classic since 1970, and the eighth overall, in which both participants had 100 or more wins during the regular season.
The two teams did not meet in interleague play during the regular season.
The Dodgers held a 91 -- 36 record through August 25. They won their fifth consecutive National League West title and home field advantage throughout the playoffs. In the postseason, the Dodgers swept the Arizona Diamondbacks in the National League Division Series and defeated the defending World Series champion Chicago Cubs in the previous year 's rematch of the National League Championship Series in five games. This was the first appearance in the Fall Classic for the Dodgers since 1988, the tenth since the franchise moved from Brooklyn to Los Angeles in 1958, and the 19th overall.
Entering the 2017 World Series, the Dodgers bullpen had thrown 23 consecutive scoreless innings, a postseason record for a bullpen. Additionally, by outscoring the Arizona Diamondbacks and Chicago Cubs by a combined 48 -- 19 margin, the Dodgers entered the World Series with the third - best run differential of any pennant winner since the playoff structure was expanded in 1995.
All - Star shortstop Corey Seager, who was out for the entire National League Championship Series with a back injury, was included on the Dodgers ' World Series roster. Manager Dave Roberts became first manager of Asian heritage ever in the World Series, as well as the fourth African - American manager.
With a 101 -- 61 regular season record, the team won its first American League West title, and their first division title since 2001. In the American League Division Series, they defeated the Boston Red Sox in four games and then defeated the New York Yankees in the American League Championship Series (ALCS) in seven games. This was their second World Series appearance and first since 2005, when they were swept in four games by the Chicago White Sox. They became the first team in history to make it to the World Series as members of both the National League and the American League.
The city of Houston in August 2017 suffered record flooding from Hurricane Harvey. The team began to wear patches which had the logo of the team with the word "Strong '' on the bottom of the patch, as well as promoting the hashtag Houston Strong. Manager A.J. Hinch has stated in an interview that the team was n't just playing for a title, but to help boost moral support for the city.
On August 31, just seconds before the midnight deadline, the Astros traded for Detroit Tigers pitcher Justin Verlander. Following the trade, including the regular season and postseason to this point, Verlander had posted a 9 -- 0 win - loss record with a 1.23 earned run average. He was named the ALCS MVP.
Houston won the series, 4 -- 3.
The temperature at the start of the game was 103 ° F (39 ° C), which made this the hottest World Series game ever recorded. Clayton Kershaw started Game 1 for the Dodgers, while Dallas Keuchel started for the Astros.
Chris Taylor hit a home run for the Dodgers on Keuchel 's first pitch of the game. It was the third home run to leadoff a game in Dodgers postseason history (following Davey Lopes in 1978 World Series and Carl Crawford in 2013 NLDS). Alex Bregman hit a tying home run for the Astros in the fourth inning. In the sixth inning, Justin Turner hit a go - ahead two - run home run for the Dodgers. Turner tied Duke Snider for most career runs batted in (RBIs) in Dodgers postseason history with 26. Kershaw struck out 11 in seven innings pitched with no walks and only three hits allowed while Keuchel allowed three runs on six hits in 6 ⁄ innings. Brandon Morrow pitched a scoreless eighth and Kenley Jansen earned the save. The two - hour, 28 - minute game was the shortest World Series contest since Game 4 in 1992.
The starting pitchers for Game 2 were Rich Hill for the Dodgers and Justin Verlander for the Astros. The Astros scored first when Bregman drove in Josh Reddick with a hit in the third inning. Hill struck out seven in four innings but was replaced by Kenta Maeda in the fifth. Joc Pederson tied the game with a home run in the bottom of the fifth inning, and the Dodgers took the lead when Corey Seager hit a two - run home run in the bottom of the sixth inning. Verlander allowed two hits, both home runs, in his six innings pitched. Carlos Correa drove in the Astros ' second run of the game on a single in the eighth, ending the Dodgers bullpen 's streak of 28 consecutive scoreless innings in the postseason. Marwin González hit a home run off Jansen in the ninth to tie the game. This was only Jansen 's second blown save all season and snapped his streak of converting his first 12 postseason save opportunities, a major league record.
The game went into extra innings. José Altuve and Correa hit home runs off Josh Fields in the tenth inning to put the Astros in the lead. In the bottom of the inning, Yasiel Puig hit a home run off of Ken Giles and Enrique Hernández drove in Logan Forsythe to tie the game, with the latter being the Dodgers ' first run that was not driven in by a home run. In the next inning, George Springer hit a two - run home run for the Astros off of Brandon McCarthy to retake the lead. In the bottom of the 11th inning, Charlie Culberson homered off of Chris Devenski, who later struck out Puig to end the game. This was the first ever World Series game in which a team hit home runs in the ninth, tenth and eleventh inning. The teams set a new record for combined home runs in a single World Series game with eight and this was the first time in MLB history, regular season or postseason, that five home runs were hit in extra innings. The Astros won their first World Series game in franchise history as they had been swept in their previous appearance in 2005.
The starting pitchers for Game 3 were Yu Darvish for the Dodgers and Lance McCullers Jr. for the Astros. The Astros scored four runs in the bottom of the second inning on a home run by Yuli Gurriel and RBIs by González, Brian McCann, and Bregman. Darvish left the game after 1 ⁄ innings, which was the shortest outing of his career. The Dodgers scored one run in the top of the third inning as Seager grounded into a double play after McCullers loaded the bases with three consecutive walks. The Astros added another run in the fifth on an RBI single by Evan Gattis and the Dodgers added two in the sixth on an RBI groundout by Puig and a wild pitch. McCullers wound up pitching 5 ⁄ innings and allowed three runs on four hits. Brad Peacock replaced McCullers, completing the final 3 ⁄ innings with no hits allowed and four strikeouts to earn his first major league save. It was the longest hitless World Series relief outing since Ron Taylor 's four innings in Game 4 of the 1964 Series, and tied Ken Clay for the longest hitless postseason save, first accomplished in the 1978 ALCS.
Gurriel made a racially insensitive gesture in the dugout after his home run. He stretched the sides of his eyes and mouthing the Spanish word chinito, which translates to "little Chinese Boy ''; Darvish is from Japan. Gurriel apologized, and said that anyone from Asia is called a chino in Cuba, although he acknowledged knowing that the term was offensive in Japan from having played there. As a result, Rob Manfred, the Commissioner of Baseball, suspended Gurriel for the first five games of the 2018 MLB season without pay, but allowed him to continue playing in the World Series.
The starting pitchers for Game 4 were Alex Wood for the Dodgers and Charlie Morton for the Astros. Springer homered off Wood in the bottom of the sixth for the first run of the ballgame. It was the only hit Wood allowed in 5 ⁄ innings pitched in the game. Forsythe drove in Cody Bellinger to tie the game in the top of the seventh. Morton struck out seven and only allowed three hits and one run in 6 ⁄ innings. Bellinger then drove in the go - ahead run with a double in the top of the ninth off of Giles and the Dodgers added four more runs on a sacrifice fly by Austin Barnes and a three - run homer by Pederson. Bregman hit a home run off of Jansen in the bottom of the ninth inning, but the Dodgers won the game to even up the series. The Astros had two hits in the game; both were home runs. This was the first game in World Series history where both starting pitchers allowed four or fewer baserunners.
After Game 4, both teams ' pitching coaches, Rick Honeycutt for the Dodgers and Brent Strom for the Astros, commented on how the baseball being used for the World Series is slicker than the baseball used during the regular season. Pitchers on both teams noted that this difference has made it more difficult for them to throw their sliders.
Kershaw and Keuchel started Game 5, in a rematch of the opening game of the series. Forsythe singled in two runs off of Keuchel in the first inning to put the Dodgers up early. A third run scored on a throwing error by Gurriel. Barnes singled in the fourth to score Forsythe. Keuchel pitched 3 ⁄ innings for the Astros, allowing five hits and four runs (three earned). The Astros scored their first run with an RBI double by Correa in the bottom of the fourth inning, followed by a three - run home run by Gurriel to tie the game. Bellinger hit a three - run home run off of Collin McHugh in the top of the fifth to put the Dodgers back on top only for Altuve to hit his own three - run home run in the bottom of the inning off Maeda to tie it back up. Kershaw pitched 4 ⁄ innings and allowed six runs on four hits and three walks.
A triple by Bellinger on a line drive that Springer missed on a dive in the seventh inning off of Peacock scored Hernández from first base. In the bottom of the seventh inning, Springer hit a home run off the first pitch he saw off of Morrow, who was pitching for the third consecutive day, to tie the game. Bregman scored on a double by Altuve to put the Astros ahead for the first time in the game, and then Correa hit a two - run home run to extend the lead. Seager doubled in a run in the top of the eighth inning, but McCann hit a home run in the bottom of the inning. That was the 21st home run of the series, tying the record set in the 2002 World Series. Puig broke the record with a two - run home run in the top of the ninth inning. Down to their last strike, Chris Taylor drove in Barnes to tie the game with a single.
In the tenth inning, McCann was hit by a pitch to put him on base with two outs. Subsequently, Springer walked on five pitches to move McCann to second base. McCann was then replaced by pinch runner Derek Fisher. On the next pitch, Bregman singled in Fisher for the winning run. The Astros became only the second team to come back twice from three runs down in a World Series game, the other was the Toronto Blue Jays in the 15 -- 14 win during Game 4 of the 1993 World Series. The six game tying home runs in the series to this point is the most for any World Series on record. This World Series set a new record for most players to hit a home run (14 to date in the World Series). With the teams combining to score 25 runs throughout the game, this was the highest scoring World Series game since the Florida Marlins defeated the Cleveland Indians 14 -- 11 in Game 3 of the 1997 World Series. Game 5 lasted five hours and seventeen minutes, making it the second longest World Series game in history by time.
Game 6 featured the same starting pitchers as the second game: Verlander and Hill. Springer hit a home run off of Hill in the top of the third for the first run of the night. It was Springer 's fourth homer of the series, tied for third all - time in a single series and joining Gene Tenace, in 1972, as the only players with four game - tying or go - ahead home runs in a World Series. Springer also joined Hank Bauer in the 1958 World Series and Barry Bonds in the 2002 World Series with four home runs in a series. The Astros loaded the bases in the fifth inning, but did not score. Hill pitched 4 ⁄ innings, struck out five and allowed four hits and one run.
In the sixth inning, Taylor tied the game with an RBI double and Seager hit a sacrifice fly to give the Dodgers the lead. Verlander pitched six innings with nine strikeouts and only three hits allowed. Pederson hit a home run in the bottom of the seventh inning and Jansen pitched two scoreless innings for the save. Pederson tied a World Series record with his fifth consecutive game with an extra base hit. Andre Ethier, who appeared in the game as a pinch hitter, set a new Dodgers franchise record with his 50th career postseason game.
This was the first World Series Game 7 to be played at Dodger Stadium (and the first postseason Game 7 at the stadium since the 1988 NLCS, and the Dodgers ' first World Series Game 7 since 1965). It was also the first time since the 1931 World Series that a Game 7 occurred in a Series with both teams having won at least 100 games during the season. This was the first time since the 2001 World Series and 2002 World Series that back - to - back Fall Classics had a Game 7.
The starting pitchers for this game were the same as in the third game: McCullers and Darvish. Springer doubled to open the game and scored the first run on an error by Bellinger, which allowed Bregman to reach second base. Bregman stole third base and scored on an Altuve groundout. McCann scored the next inning on a groundout hit by the pitcher McCullers. Springer hit a two - run home run, his fifth of the series, tying Reggie Jackson and Chase Utley for most home runs in a single World Series and setting a new record with 29 total bases in any postseason series. As in Game 3, Darvish lasted only 1 ⁄ innings (tying the shortest outing of his career) and became the third pitcher with two starts of less than two innings in a World Series, and the first since Art Ditmar in the 1960 World Series. Morrow relieved Darvish and in the process became only the second pitcher to pitch in all seven games of a single World Series, joining Darold Knowles in the 1973 World Series. McCullers lasted only 2 ⁄ innings himself; he allowed three hits and hit a World Series record four batters. This was the first Game 7 in World Series history where neither starting pitcher got past the third inning.
The Dodgers failed to score a run and left eight men on base through five innings. Ethier, pinch hitting, scored Pederson on a single in the sixth inning for the Dodgers ' only run. They only had one hit in 13 chances with runners in scoring position in the game. Kershaw pitched four scoreless innings of relief in the game, and in the process, he broke Orel Hershiser 's Dodgers postseason record with his 33rd strikeout. Morton pitched four innings of relief to earn the win, as Corey Seager grounded out to José Altuve, who threw to Yuli Gurriel to end the game, with the Astros winning their first championship in franchise history, and ending their 56 - year drought. Springer won the World Series MVP Award.
After Game 7, Correa proposed to his girlfriend, 2016 Miss Texas USA winner Daniella Rodríguez, on live television during a postgame interview conducted by Rosenthal. She accepted.
2017 World Series (4 -- 3): Houston Astros beat Los Angeles Dodgers.
Fox broadcast the series in the United States, with Joe Buck serving as the play - by - play announcer, along with John Smoltz as color commentator and Ken Rosenthal and Tom Verducci as field reporters. For Fox Deportes, Rolando Nichols provided play - by - play while Carlos Álvarez and Edgar Gonzalez provided color commentary.
Kevin Burkhardt hosted the pregame shows, joined by analysts Keith Hernandez, David Ortiz, Alex Rodriguez, and Frank Thomas. Outside the United States, MLB International televised the series, with Matt Vasgersian on play - by - play and Buck Martinez doing color commentary.
According to Nielsen ratings, this series was the third highest rated since 2005, trailing only the 2009 World Series and the 2016 World Series. For the second straight year, a World Series game, Game 5, beat out NBC Sunday Night Football in ratings.
ESPN Radio broadcast the series nationally in English, with Dan Shulman providing the play - by - play and Aaron Boone serving as color analyst. Tim Kurkjian and Buster Olney served as reporters for the network, while Marc Kestecher hosted the pre-game and post-game coverage along with analyst Chris Singleton. The ESPN Radio coverage was carried on affiliated stations throughout the United States and Canada, as well as online at ESPN.com and via the ESPN mobile app. Spanish - language coverage was provided by ESPN Deportes Radio, with Eduardo Ortega, Renato Bermúdez, José Francisco Rivera, and Orlando Hernández announcing.
Locally, both teams ' flagship radio stations broadcast the series with their regular announcers. Sportstalk 790 aired the English - language broadcast for the Houston area, with Robert Ford and Steve Sparks calling the games. In Los Angeles, AM 570 LA Sports aired the English - language broadcast, with Charley Steiner and Rick Monday announcing. In Spanish, Univision America 1020 carried the broadcast, with Jaime Jarrín and Jorge Jarrín on the call. In Korean, Radio Korea 1540 aired the series, with Richard Choi and Chong Ho Yim in the booth.
For the first time, MLB sold presenting sponsorships to all of its postseason series; the internet television service YouTube TV is the first - ever presenting sponsor of the World Series. The series is officially known as the 2017 World Series Presented by YouTube TV. This sponsorship includes logo branding in - stadium and on official digital properties, as well as commercial inventory during Fox 's telecasts of the games.
The Astros earned $30,420,155.57 from postseason pool money to split among team personnel; each share was worth $438,901.57. The Dodgers received $20,280,103.72, with shares of $259,722.14 The sportsbooks in Nevada lost $11.4 million in November 2017, a record for baseball - related betting.
The city of Houston held a parade for the Astros on November 3, 2017, which Mayor Sylvester Turner proclaimed was "Houston Astros ' Day ''. An estimated 750,000 to one million attended the parade. Springer and Altuve appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated 's November 13, 2017, issue, with Altuve holding the Commissioner 's Trophy and Springer holding a copy of a Sports Illustrated from 2014 that predicted the Astros would win the 2017 World Series.
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what is the longest highway in the united states | US Route 20 - wikipedia
U.S. Route 20 (US 20) is an east -- west United States highway that stretches from the Pacific Northwest all the way to New England. The "0 '' in its route number indicates that US 20 is a coast - to - coast route. Spanning 3,365 miles (5,415 km), it is the longest road in the United States, and the route roughly parallels that of Interstate 90 (I - 90). There is a discontinuity in the official designation of US 20 through Yellowstone National Park, with unnumbered roads used to traverse the park.
It and US 30 break the general U.S. Route numbering rules in Oregon, since US 30 actually starts north of US 20 and runs parallel to the north throughout the state. The two overlap and continue in the "correct '' positioning near Caldwell, Idaho. This is because US 20 was not a planned coast - to - coast route while US 30 was. US 20 originally ended at the eastern entrance of Yellowstone Park; it was extended in 1940.
The highway 's eastern terminus is in Boston, Massachusetts, at Kenmore Square, where it meets State Route 2. Its western terminus is in Newport, Oregon, at an intersection with US 101, within a mile of the Pacific Ocean.
The highway passes through the following states:
US 20 begins at an intersection with US 101 in Newport, Oregon, and runs generally eastward towards Idaho. On the way it goes over the Central Oregon Coast Range, through several Willamette Valley cities including Corvallis and Albany, climbs the Cascade Mountains over Santiam Pass, goes through Bend, Oregon, and traverses the Oregon High Desert passing through Burns, Oregon. It eventually overlaps with US 26 in Vale, and the two roads continue concurrently to the Idaho border.
US 20 crosses into Idaho from Oregon northwest of Parma. It runs concurrently with US 26 and joins US 95 through Parma. US 20 / US 26 leaves US 95 southeast of Parma and runs to Caldwell where US 20 / US 26 joins with I - 84 and US 30 for a short time. These four highways parallel each other (on two roadways) to Boise where US 20 / US 26 runs through downtown before joining with I - 84 and US 30 again to Mountain Home, where it departs at exit 95 to head east, past Rattlesnake Station, Anderson Ranch Dam road, and cresting at Cat Creek summit at 5,527 feet (1,685 m) above mean sea level. It continues into and across Camas County through Fairfield to Timmerman Junction, the intersection in Blaine County with State Highway 75, the route to Sun Valley, Galena Summit, and Stanley. US 20 continues east through Picabo and Carey, joined with US 26 and US 93, to Craters of the Moon and Arco, where US 93 splits off and turns north - northwest to climb the Big Lost River valley. US 20 / US 26 continues on through the Idaho National Laboratory, where the highways split just west of Atomic City; US 26 heads to Blackfoot and US 20 to Idaho Falls, where it turns north - northeast to pass near Rexburg as a freeway. US 20 then climbs through the communities of St. Anthony, Ashton, and Island Park, and crosses the Continental Divide at Targhee Pass at 7,072 feet (2,156 m), entering Montana west of West Yellowstone.
In the state of Montana, US 20 runs for less than 10 miles (16 km). It runs from the Idaho state line to West Yellowstone, Montana, the western entrance to Yellowstone National Park. US 20 is known as the Targhee Pass Highway in Montana.
In the state of Wyoming, the eastern segment of US 20 starts at the eastern entrance to Yellowstone National Park along with the western termini of US 14 and US 16. These three routes run east to Greybull, where US 14 continues east and US 16 / US 20 turns south; at Worland, US 16 turns east while US 20 continues south. US 20 joins US 26 in Shoshoni, where it turns east. In Casper it joins I - 25 and US 87. These four routes stay combined to Orin, where US 20 turns east. At its intersection with I - 25, US 18 begins. US 18 and US 20 are concurrent from Orin to Lusk. US 18 separates there and US 20 runs east into Nebraska.
In the state of Nebraska, US 20 runs from west of Harrison to South Sioux City on the Missouri River. Portions overlap US 385, US 83, US 183, US 275, I - 129, and US 75.
US 20 enters Iowa at Sioux City via the Missouri River crossing with I - 129 and US 75. After skirting the southeast side of Sioux City as a freeway with US 75, US 20 continues east as an expressway to Moville. From Moville through north of Early at the junction with U.S. Route 71 and Iowa Highway 471, US 20 is a rural two - lane highway. North of Early, Iowa, US 20 becomes a four - lane road for the rest of its length in Iowa, passing to the north of Sac City, where it has another interchange with the realigned U.S. Route 71, then passing to the south of Fort Dodge and Webster City before intersecting I - 35 near Williams.
A new segment of freeway between US 65 south of Iowa Falls and Iowa Highway 14 opened in 2003 creating a continuous four - lane route from Moorland to Dubuque. The new segment shaved 16 miles (26 km) off US 20 's length in Iowa. In the Waterloo / Cedar Falls area, the segment of US 20 overlapped by the Avenue of the Saints, which is also designated as Iowa Highway 27. US 20 passes Independence, Manchester, and Dyersville before reaching Dubuque. At Dubuque, US 20 crosses into Illinois over the Julien Dubuque Bridge.
In the state of Illinois, US 20 begins in East Dubuque, following southeastward along the Mississippi River, and continues into the very hilly Driftless Area of northwest Illinois through Galena and Elizabeth. The highway then transitions eastward from the Driftless Area to the Interior Plains near Stockton. The road continues as a bypass north of Freeport, and then runs as a freeway along the southern fringe of Rockford. From Rockford to Chicago, Illinois, US 20 is a mixture of four - lane expressway, four - lane limited access freeway, and winding two - lane surface road. It is signed as "General U.S. Grant Highway '' after Ulysses S. Grant. U.S. 20 runs through the south side of Chicago as 95th Street. US 20 exits Illinois along with US 12 and US 41 as Indianapolis Boulevard south of the Chicago Skyway.
In the state of Indiana, US 20 enters from the west beneath the Chicago Skyway with US 12 and US 41. US 20 passes through heavily industrialized northwestern Indiana and is the main east -- west artery through Gary. It then parallels US 12 to just west of Michigan City before running due east to South Bend. US 20 travels around South Bend and Elkhart on the St. Joseph Valley Parkway, a four - lane limited access freeway, then returns to surface road east of Elkhart. US 20 then passes through LaGrange and Angola, intersecting with I - 69 before leaving Indiana just north of the eastern terminus of the Indiana Toll Road.
From Gary to South Bend, US 20 was built as the Dunes Relief Road. During the 1930s and 1940s the Dunes Highway, US 12, was becoming more crowded as housing lots and communities developed in the Indiana Dunes. Today, there are numerous communities along US 20 and the lakefront, including Gary, Portage, Burns Harbor, Porter, Chesterton, Pines, and Michigan City.
Most notably, the route is one of the main access roads to the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.
US 20 enters Ohio from Indiana just west of Columbia and traverses east through Pioneer and Alvordton to Fayette. It continues east through Oakshade, Assumption and becomes five - lane, non-limited access roadway into Sylvania to Toledo, and then turns south until into the Toledo suburb of Maumee. After Maumee, US 20 crosses Maumee River curving back east becoming 2 lanes through Perrysburg to Woodville, where it becomes a four - lane, non-limited access highway. It bypasses Fremont while concurrent with US 6, State Route 53, and State Route 19, and then travels through the northern edge of Clyde and the downtown area of Bellevue, where it is joined by State Route 18. From there the four - lane highway continues through Monroeville and bypasses Norwalk, then becomes a two - lane highway from there to Oberlin. Continuing east, US 20 traverses through Elyria, North Ridgeville, Westlake, Rocky River, Lakewood and Cleveland, where it goes right through Public Square. East of Cleveland US 20 follows the southern shore of Lake Erie, following Euclid Avenue from Public Square, and traverses Euclid, Wickliffe, where it intersects with I - 90, Mentor, Painesville, Madison, Geneva, Ashtabula and crosses into Pennsylvania just east of Conneaut.
US 20 runs for nearly 50 miles (80 km) across Erie County, Pennsylvania, most of that time just south of the CSX Amtrak railroad tracks. US 20 appears as West Ridge Road eastward from the Ohio border through Springfield, Girard, Fairview and Millcreek townships. At the intersection with Pennsylvania Route 832, just outside the Erie city limits, it becomes West 26th Street. After it reaches city center at the intersection with State Street, it becomes East 26th Street. It turns sharply northward as Broad Street at the Bayfront Connector, then turns east again as Buffalo Road through Wesleyville and Harborcreek Township. Buffalo Road turns sharply northward at the town of Harborcreek. US 20 intersects with Pennsylvania Route 955 and resumes its eastward journey. At North East Township, US 20 becomes West Main Road. Within the town limits, it becomes West Main Street until it reaches the town center at its intersection with Pennsylvania Route 89, where it becomes East Main Street. Outside the town limits it becomes East Main Road until it reaches Pennsylvania 's border with New York.
In New York, US 20 runs roughly parallel to the New York State Thruway (I - 90) throughout the state. The route runs concurrently with New York State Route 5 twice, with the second overlap extending 68 miles (109 km) across Western and Central New York from Avon to Auburn. US 20 runs across the rural Cherry Valley Turnpike between Skaneateles and Albany. US 20 was also known as the Boston - Buffalo highway prior to the construction of the New York Thruway and Massachusetts Turnpike.
In Massachusetts, US 20 runs near I - 90 Mass Pike, intersecting it at exits 2 and 10A.
In part of Berkshire County, US 20 runs north -- south as it shares the roadway with US 7. It is known as "Jacob 's Ladder '' as it crosses the Berkshire Hills between Lee in Berkshire County and Chester in Hampden County. From Chester to Westfield, US 20 and the Boston and Albany Railroad follow the Westfield River down to the broad valley of the Connecticut River.
In Shrewsbury, US 20 is called "Hartford Turnpike. '' In Northborough, and Worcester it is called "Southwest Cutoff '', until it merges with the original Boston Post Road in Northborough (Southwest Cutoff and West Main Street). Southwest Cutoff was created at the turn of the century to bypass truck traffic around Shrewsbury center as well as connecting to the Boston and Worcester Turnpike.
In parts of eastern Massachusetts, US 20 follows the route of the old Boston Post Road and passes by Longfellow 's Wayside Inn, in Sudbury, the oldest continually operated Inn in America. In 1926, after engineers determined that heavy truck traffic on the Boston Post Road was damaging the foundations of the Inn, Henry Ford, then owner & proprietor, ordered the construction of the mile - and - a-half - long Route 20 bypass. Upon its completion on December 11, 1928, he sold it to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts for $1 and never cashed the check. According to the Boston Herald the by - pass cost Ford $288,000. The original route of US 20 is now called Wayside Inn Road.
US 20 continues from Sudbury through Wayland, Weston, Waltham, Watertown and then into Boston through Allston and Fenway -- Kenmore. U.S. Route 20 's official eastern terminus is in Kenmore Square at the intersection of Commonwealth Avenue, Beacon Street, and Brookline Avenue, where the alignment becomes Massachusetts Route 2. Route 2 continues for a short distance where it terminates at U.S. Route 3.
Before the U.S. Highway System, the route in New England and New York was designated as New England Interstate Route 5 (NE - 5), part of the New England Interstate Route system that existed between 1922 and 1927. Around 1923, from Springfield to Pittsfield, NE - 5 was known as "Jacob 's Ladder '', and from Boston to Albany, the "Hubway ''. When US 20 was first commissioned, it took over the entirety of NE - 5.
Until 1940, the western endpoint of US 20 was the east entrance to Yellowstone National Park.
Between Fort Dodge, Iowa, and Dubuque, Iowa, the route has been upgraded to four lanes, the last link of this completed in 2003. Much of the old route is a few miles north of the present route except between I - 35 and Waterloo. There, the old route is farther north, going through Iowa Falls, Aplington, and the north side of Cedar Falls along what is now Iowa Highway 57.
From just west of South Bend, Indiana, to the St. Joseph -- Elkhart county line, the old route of US 20 through St. Joseph County is now Business US 20. In Elkhart County, its old route is now classified as a county road and is simply called Old US 20. The St. Joseph Valley Parkway is the present route of US 20 in the South Bend -- Elkhart Area.
From 1930 to 1933, US 20 followed what are now Massachusetts Route 67 and Massachusetts Route 9 from Worcester to Palmer via Shrewsbury and Northborough.
The 1953 Massachusetts Department of Public Works Master Plan would have relocated US 20 between Palmer, Massachusetts and either West Springfield, Massachusetts or Westfield, Massachusetts along the right - of - way now used by the Massachusetts Turnpike, but this was never implemented.
Until 1970 -- 72, US 20 followed an old route through downtown Springfield -- Boston Road and State Street -- crossing the Connecticut River via the older Memorial Bridge (now Massachusetts Route 147). The construction of I - 291 prompted a change. US 20 now crosses from West Springfield at the North End Bridge, and is co-signed with I - 291 until Page Boulevard, where it heads back to Boston Road via the former route of 20A.
In 2012, the Historic US Route 20 Association was formed to identify, promote and preserve the history of the route and original alignments that were once signed "Route 20 '' from Boston to Newport.
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who produced walk it like i talk it | Walk It Talk It - wikipedia
"Walk It Talk It '' is a song by American hip hop trio Migos with guest vocals from Canadian rapper Drake. It was included on the trio 's third studio album, Culture II (2018). After the album 's release, it debuted at number 18 and later peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 after its release as the third single. The song was produced by frequent collaborators OG Parker and Deko.
The song is the sixth track on Migos ' third studio album Culture II, which was released in January 2018. It has become one of the more popular songs on the album, being the third - highest charting of all the songs, following "Stir Fry '', which peaked at number eight on the Hot 100, and "MotorSport '', which reached number six. American pop - star Britney Spears, used elements of the song in a remix of her hit - single I 'm A Slave 4 U during her Piece of Me Tour.
The music video, directed by Daps and Quavo, debuted on Migos ' official Vevo channel on March 18, 2018. The video features guest appearances from Jamie Foxx and labelmate Lil Yachty. In the video, the trio and Drake perform on a fictional dance - themed show called Culture Ride (inspired by Soul Train), with Jamie Foxx playing fictional host Ron Delirious (based on the late Soul Train host Don Cornelius). In an interview conducted by Genius, Daps said that the whole video was shot on Beta Tape, which is why the highest quality is 480p on YouTube.
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what's the bottom part of your leg called | Human leg - wikipedia
The human leg, in the general meaning, is the entire lower limb of the human body, including the foot, thigh and even the hip or gluteal region. However, the definition in human anatomy refers only to the section of the lower limb extending from the knee to the ankle, also known as the crus. Legs are used for standing, and all forms of locomotion including recreational such as dancing, and constitute a significant portion of a person 's mass. Female legs generally have greater hip anteversion and tibiofemoral angles, but shorter femur and tibial lengths than those in males.
In human anatomy, the lower leg is the part of the lower limb that lies between the knee and the ankle. The thigh is between the hip and knee and makes up the rest of the lower limb. The term lower limb or "lower extremity '' is commonly used to describe all of the leg. This article generally follows the common usage.
The leg from the knee to the ankle is called the crus or cnemis / ˈniːmɪs /. The calf is the back portion, and the tibia or shinbone together with the smaller fibula make up the front of the lower leg.
Evolution has provided the human body with two distinct features: the specialization of the upper limb for visually guided manipulation and the lower limb 's development into a mechanism specifically adapted for efficient bipedal gait. While the capacity to walk upright is not unique to humans, other primates can only achieve this for short periods and at a great expenditure of energy. The human adaption to bipedalism is not limited to the leg, however, but has also affected the location of the body 's center of gravity, the reorganisation of internal organs, and the form and biomechanism of the trunk. In humans, the double S - shaped vertebral column acts as a shock - absorber which shifts the weight from the trunk over the load - bearing surface of the feet. The human legs are exceptionally long and powerful as a result of their exclusive specialization to support and locomotion -- in orangutans the leg length is 111 % of the trunk; in chimpanzees 128 %, and in humans 171 %. Many of the leg 's muscles are also adapted to bipedalism, most substantially the gluteal muscles, the extensors of the knee joint, and the calf muscles.
The major bones of the leg are the femur (thigh bone), tibia (shin bone), and adjacent fibula, and these are all long bones. The patella (kneecap) is the sesamoid bone in front of the knee. Most of the leg skeleton has bony prominences and margins that can be palpated and some serve as anatomical landmarks that define the extent of the leg. These landmarks are the anterior superior iliac spine, the greater trochanter, the superior margin of the medial condyle of tibia, and the medial malleolus. Notable exceptions to palpation are the hip joint, and the neck and body, or shaft of the femur.
Usually, the large joints of the lower limb are aligned in a straight line, which represents the mechanical longitudinal axis of the leg, the Mikulicz line. This line stretches from the hip joint (or more precisely the head of the femur), through the knee joint (the intercondylar eminence of the tibia), and down to the center of the ankle (the ankle mortise, the fork - like grip between the medial and lateral malleoli). In the tibial shaft, the mechanical and anatomical axes coincide, but in the femoral shaft they diverge 6 °, resulting in the femorotibial angle of 174 ° in a leg with normal axial alignment. A leg is considered straight when, with the feet brought together, both the medial malleoli of the ankle and the medial condyles of the knee are touching. Divergence from the normal femorotibial angle is called genu varum if the center of the knee joint is lateral to the mechanical axis (intermalleolar distance exceeds 3 cm), and genu valgum if it is medial to the mechanical axis (intercondylar distance exceeds 5 cm). These conditions impose unbalanced loads on the joints and stretching of either the thigh 's adductors and abductors. The angle of inclination formed between the neck and shaft of the femur, (collodiaphysial angle), varies with age -- about 150 ° in the newborn, it gradually decreases to 126 - 128 ° in adults, to reach 120 ° in old age. Pathological changes in this angle results in abnormal posture of the leg: A small angle produces coxa vara and a large angle in coxa valga; the latter is usually combined with genu varum and coxa vara leads genu valgum. Additionally, a line drawn through the femoral neck superimposed on a line drawn through the femoral condyles forms an angle, the torsion angle, which makes it possible for flexion movements of the hip joint to be transposed into rotary movements of the femoral head. Abnormally increased torsion angles results in a limb turned inward and a decreased angle in a limb turned outward; both cases resulting in a reduced range of a persons mobility.
Sartorius Gluteus maximus Quadratus femoris Obturator internus Gluteus medius and minimus Iliopsoas (with psoas major ♣) Obturator externus All functional adductors except gracilis * and pectineus Piriformis
Gluteus medius and minimus (anterior fibers) Tensor fasciae latae * Adductor magnus (long medial fibers) Pectineus (with leg abducted)
Gluteus maximus Gluteus medius and minimus (dorsal fibers) Adductor magnus Piriformis Semimembranosus * Semitendinousus * Biceps femoris * (long head)
Iliopsoas (with psoas major ♣) Tensor fasciae latae * Pectineus Adductor longus Adductor brevis Gracilis * Rectus femoris * Sartorius *
Gluteus medius Tensor fasciae latae * Gluteus maximus (fibers to fascia lata) Gluteus minimus Piriformis Obturator internus
Adductor magnus (with adductor minimus) Adductor longus Adductor brevis Gluteus maximus (fibers to gluteal tuberosity) Gracilis Pectineus Quadratus femoris Obturator externus Semitendinosus *
There are several ways of classifying the muscles of the hip: (1) By location or innervation (ventral and dorsal divisions of the plexus layer); (2) by development on the basis of their points of insertion (a posterior group in two layers and an anterior group); and (3) by function (i.e. extensors, flexors, adductors, and abductors).
Some hip muscles also act on either the knee joint or on vertebral joints. Additionally, because the area of origin and insertion of many of these muscles are very extensive, these muscles are often involved in several very different movements. In the hip joint, lateral and medial rotation occur along the axis of the limb; extension (also called dorsiflexion or retroversion) and flexion (anteflexion or anteversion) occur along a transverse axis; and abduction and adduction occur about a sagittal axis.
The anterior dorsal hip muscles are the iliopsoas, a group of two or three muscles with a shared insertion on the lesser trochanter of the femur. The psoas major originates from the last vertebra and along the lumbar spine to stretch down into the pelvis. The iliacus originates on the iliac fossa on the interior side of the pelvis. The two muscles unite to form the iliopsoas muscle which is inserted on the lesser trochanter of the femur. The psoas minor, only present in about 50 per cent of subjects, originates above psoas major to stretch obliquely down to its insertion on the interior side of the major muscle.
The posterior dorsal hip muscles are inserted on or directly below the greater trochanter of the femur. The tensor fasciae latae, stretching from the anterior superior iliac spine down into the iliotibial tract, presses the head of the femur into the acetabulum but also flexes, rotates medially, and abducts to hip joint. The piriformis originates on the anterior pelvic surface of the sacrum, passes through the greater sciatic foramen, and inserts on the posterior aspect of the tip of the greater trochanter. In a standing posture it is a lateral rotator, but it also assists extending the thigh. The gluteus maximus has its origin between (and around) the iliac crest and the coccyx from where one part radiates into the iliotibial tract and the other stretches down to the gluteal tuberosity under the greater trochanter. The gluteus maximus is primarily an extensor and lateral rotator of the hip joint, and it comes into action when climbing stairs or rising from a sitting to standing posture. Furthermore, the part inserted into the fascia latae abducts and the part inserted into the gluteal tuberosity adducts the hip. The two deep glutei muscles, the gluteus medius and minimus, originate on the lateral side of the pelvis. The medius muscle is shaped like a cap. Its anterior fibers act as a medial rotator and flexor; the posterior fibers as a lateral rotator and extensor; and the entire muscle abducts the hip. The minimus has similar functions and both muscles are inserted onto the greater trochanter.
The ventral hip muscles function as lateral rotators and play an important role in the control of the body 's balance. Because they are stronger than the medial rotators, in the normal position of the leg, the apex of the foot is pointing outward to achieve better support. The obturator internus originates on the pelvis on the obturator foramen and its membrane, passes through the lesser sciatic foramen, and is inserted on the trochanteric fossa of the femur. "Bent '' over the lesser sciatic notch, which acts as a fulcrum, the muscle forms the strongest lateral rotators of the hip together with the gluteus maximus and quadratus femoris. When sitting with the knees flexed it acts as an abductor. The obturator externus has a parallel course with its origin located on the posterior border of the obturator foramen. It is covered by several muscles and acts as a lateral rotator and a weak adductor. The inferior and superior gemelli represent marginal heads of the obturator internus and assist this muscle. The three muscles have been referred to as the triceps coxae. The quadratus femoris originates at the ischial tuberosity and is inserted onto the intertrochanteric crest between the trochanters. This flattened muscle act as a strong lateral rotator and adductor of the thigh.
The adductor muscles of the thigh are innervated by the obturator nerve, with the exception of pectineus which receives fibers from the femoral nerve, and the adductor magnus which receives fibers from the tibial nerve. The gracilis arises from near the pubic symphysis and is unique among the adductors in that it reaches past the knee to attach on the medial side of the shaft of the tibia, thus acting on two joints. It share its distal insertion with the sartorius and semitendinosus, all three muscles forming the pes anserinus. It is the most medial muscle of the adductors, and with the thigh abducted its origin can be clearly seen arching under the skin. With the knee extended, it adducts the thigh and flexes the hip. The pectineus has its origin on the iliopubic eminence laterally to the gracilis and, rectangular in shape, extends obliquely to attach immediately behind the lesser trochanter and down the pectineal line and the proximal part of the linea aspera on the femur. It is a flexor of the hip joint, and an adductor and a weak medial rotator of the thigh. The adductor brevis originates on the inferior ramus of the pubis below the gracilis and stretches obliquely below the pectineus down to the upper third of the linea aspera. Except for being an adductor, it is a lateral rotator and weak flexor of the hip joint. The adductor longus has its origin at superior ramus of the pubis and inserts medially on the middle third of the linea aspera. Primarily an adductor, it is also responsible for some flexion. The adductor magnus has its origin just behind the longus and lies deep to it. Its wide belly divides into two parts: One is inserted into the linea aspera and the tendon of the other reaches down to adductor tubercle on the medial side of the femur 's distal end where it forms an intermuscular septum that separates the flexors from the extensors. Magnus is a powerful adductor, especially active when crossing legs. Its superior part is a lateral rotator but the inferior part acts as a medial rotator on the flexed leg when rotated outward and also extends the hip joint. The adductor minimus is an incompletely separated subdivision of the adductor magnus. Its origin forms an anterior part of the magnus and distally it is inserted on the linea aspera above the magnus. It acts to adduct and lateral rotate the femur.
Quadriceps femoris Tensor fasciae latae *
Semimembranosus Semitendinosus Biceps femoris Gracilis Sartorius Popliteus Gastrocnemius
Semimembranosus Semitendinosus Gracilis Sartorius Popliteus
Biceps femoris Tensor fasciae latae *
The muscles of the thigh can be classified into three groups according to their location: anterior and posterior muscles and the adductors (on the medial side). All the adductors except gracilis insert on the femur and act on the hip joint, and so functionally qualify as hip muscles. The majority of the thigh muscles, the "true '' thigh muscles, insert on the leg (either the tibia or the fibula) and act primarily on the knee joint. Generally, the extensors lie on anterior of the thigh and flexors lie on the posterior. Even though the sartorius flexes the knee, it is ontogenetically considered an extensor since its displacement is secondary.
Of the anterior thigh muscles the largest are the four muscles of the quadriceps femoris: the central rectus femoris, which is surrounded by the three vasti, the vastus intermedius, medialis, and lateralis. Rectus femoris is attached to the pelvis with two tendons, while the vasti are inserted to the femur. All four muscles unite in a common tendon inserted into the patella from where the patellar ligament extends it down to the tibial tuberosity. Fibers from the medial and lateral vasti form two retinacula that stretch past the patella on either sides down to the condyles of the tibia. The quadriceps is the knee extensor, but the rectus femoris additionally flexes the hip joint, and articular muscle of the knee protects the articular capsule of the knee joint from being nipped during extension. The sartorius runs superficially and obliquely down on the anterior side of the thigh, from the anterior superior iliac spine to the pes anserinus on the medial side of the knee, from where it is further extended into the crural fascia. The sartorius acts as a flexor on both the hip and knee, but, due to its oblique course, also contributes to medial rotation of the leg as one of the pes anserinus muscles (with the knee flexed), and to lateral rotation of the hip joint.
There are four posterior thigh muscles. The biceps femoris has two heads: The long head has its origin on the ischial tuberosity together with the semitendinosus and acts on two joints. The short head originates from the middle third of the linea aspera on the shaft of the femur and the lateral intermuscular septum of thigh, and acts on only one joint. These two heads unite to form the biceps which inserts on the head of the fibula. The biceps flexes the knee joint and rotates the flexed leg laterally -- it is the only lateral rotator of the knee and thus has to oppose all medial rotator. Additionally, the long head extends the hip joint. The semitendinosus and the semimembranosus share their origin with the long head of the biceps, and both attaches on the medial side of the proximal head of the tibia together with the gracilis and sartorius to form the pes anserinus. The semitendinosus acts on two joints; extension of the hip, flexion of the knee, and medial rotation of the leg. Distally, the semimembranosus ' tendon is divided into three parts referred to as the pes anserinus profondus. Functionally, the semimembranosus is similar to the semitendinosus, and thus produces extension at the hip joint and flexion and medial rotation at the knee. Posteriorly below the knee joint, the popliteus stretches obliquely from the lateral femoral epicondyle down to the posterior surface of the tibia. The subpopliteal bursa is located deep to the muscle. Popliteus flexes the knee joint and medially rotates the leg.
Tibialis anterior Extensor digitorum longus Extensor hallucis longus
Triceps surae Peroneus longus Peroneus brevis Flexor digitorum longus Tibialis posterior
Peroneus longus Peroneus brevis Extensor digitorum longus Peroneus tertius
Triceps surae Tibialis posterior Flexor hallucis longus Flexor digitorum longus Tibialis anterior
With the popliteus (see above) as the single exception, all muscles in the leg are attached to the foot and, based on location, can be classified into an anterior and a posterior group separated from each other by the tibia, the fibula, and the interosseous membrane. In turn, these two groups can be subdivided into subgroups or layers -- the anterior group consists of the extensors and the peroneals, and the posterior group of a superficial and a deep layer. Functionally, the muscles of the leg are either extensors, responsible for the dorsiflexion of the foot, or flexors, responsible for the plantar flexion. These muscles can also classified by innervation, muscles supplied by the anterior subdivision of the plexus and those supplied by the posterior subdivision. The leg muscles acting on the foot are called the extrinsic foot muscles whilst the foot muscles located in the foot are called intrinsic.
Dorsiflexion (extension) and plantar flexion occur around the transverse axis running through the ankle joint from the tip of the medial malleolus to the tip of the lateral malleolus. Pronation (eversion) and supination (inversion) occur along the oblique axis of the ankle joint.
Three of the anterior muscles are extensors. From its origin on the lateral surface of the tibia and the interosseus membrane, the three - sided belly of the tibialis anterior extends down below the superior and inferior extensor retinacula to its insertion on the plantar side of the medial cuneiform bone and the first metatarsal bone. In the non-weight - bearing leg, the anterior tibialis dorsal flexes the foot and lifts the medial edge of the foot. In the weight - bearing leg, it pulls the leg towards the foot. The extensor digitorum longus has a wide origin stretching from the lateral condyle of the tibia down along the anterior side of the fibula, and the interosseus membrane. At the ankle, the tendon divides into four that stretch across the foot to the dorsal aponeuroses of the last phalanges of the four lateral toes. In the non-weight - bearing leg, the muscle extends the digits and dorsiflexes the foot, and in the weight - bearing leg acts similar to the tibialis anterior. The extensor hallucis longus has its origin on the fibula and the interosseus membrane between the two other extensors and is, similarly to the extensor digitorum, is inserted on the last phalanx of big toe ("hallux ''). The muscle dorsiflexes the hallux, and acts similar to the tibialis anterior in the weight - bearing leg. Two muscles on the lateral side of the leg form the peroneal group. The peroneus longus and brevis both have their origins on the fibula and they both pass behind the lateral malleolus where their tendons pass under the peroneal retinacula. Under the foot, the longus stretches from the lateral to the medial side in a groove, thus bracing the transverse arch of the foot. The brevis is attached on the lateral side to the tuberosity of the fifth metatarsal. Together the two peroneals form the strongest pronators of the foot. The peroneus muscles are highly variable and several variants can occasionally be present.
Of the posterior muscles three are in the superficial layer. The major plantar flexors, commonly referred to as the triceps surae, are the soleus, which arises on the proximal side of both leg bones, and the gastrocnemius, the two heads of which arises on the distal end of the femur. These muscles unite in a large terminal tendon, the Achilles tendon, which is attached to the posterior tubercle of the calcaneus. The plantaris closely follows the lateral head of the gastrocnemius. Its tendon runs between those of the soleus and gastrocnemius and is embedded in the medial end of the calcaneus tendon.
In the deep layer, the tibialis posterior has its origin on the interosseus membrane and the neighbouring bone areas and runs down behind the medial malleolus. Under the foot it splits into a thick medial part attached to the navicular bone and a slightly weaker lateral part inserted to the three cuneiform bones. The muscle produces simultaneous plantar flexion and supination in the non-weight - bearing leg, and approximates the heel to the calf of the leg. The flexor hallucis longus arises distally on the fibula and on the interosseus membrane from where its relatively thick muscle belly extends far distally. Its tendon extends beneath the flexor retinaculum to the sole of the foot and finally attaches on the base of the last phalanx of the hallux. It plantarflexes the hallux and assists in supination. The flexor digitorum longus, finally, has its origin on the upper part of the tibia. Its tendon runs to the sole of the foot where it forks into four terminal tendon attached to the last phalanges of the four lateral toes. It crosses the tendon of the tibialis posterior distally on the tibia, and the tendon of the flexor hallucis longus in the sole. Distally to its division, the quadratus plantae radiates into it and near the middle phalanges its tendons penetrate the tendons of the flexor digitorum brevis. In the non-weight - bearing leg, it plantar flexes the toes and foot and supinates. In the weight - bearing leg it supports the plantar arch. (For the popliteus, see above.)
The intrinsic muscles of the foot, muscles whose bellies are located in the foot proper, are either dorsal (top) or plantar (sole). On the dorsal side, two long extrinsic extensor muscles are superficial to the intrinsic muscles, and their tendons form the dorsal aponeurosis of the toes. The short intrinsic extensors and the plantar and dorsal interossei radiates into these aponeuroses. The extensor digitorum brevis and extensor hallucis brevis have a common origin on the anterior side of the calcaneus, from where their tendons extend into the dorsal aponeuroses of digits 1 - 4. They act to dorsiflex these digits.
The plantar muscles can be subdivided into three groups associated with three regions: those of the big digit, the little digit, and the region between these two. All these muscles are covered by the thick and dense plantar aponeurosis, which, together with two tough septa, form the spaces of the three groups. These muscles and their fatty tissue function as cushions that transmit the weight of the body downward. As a whole, the foot is a functional entity.
The abductor hallucis stretches along the medial edge of the foot, from the calcaneus to the base of the first phalanx of the first digit and the medial sesamoid bone. It is an abductor and a weak flexor, and also helps maintain the arch of the foot. Lateral to the abductor hallucis is the flexor hallucis brevis, which originates from the medial cuneiform bone and from the tendon of the tibialis posterior. The flexor hallucis has a medial and a lateral head inserted laterally to the abductor hallucis. It is an important plantar flexor which comes into prominent use in classical ballet (i.e. for pointe work). The adductor hallucis has two heads; a stronger oblique head which arises from the cuboid and lateral cuneiform bones and the bases of the second and third metatarsals; and a transverse head which arises from the distal ends of the third - fifth metatarsals. Both heads are inserted on the lateral sesamoid bone of the first digit. The muscle acts as a tensor to the arches of the foot, but can also adduct the first digit and plantar flex its first phalanx.
The opponens digiti minimi originates from the long plantar ligament and the plantar tendinous sheath of peroneus longus and is inserted on the fifth metatarsal. When present, it acts to plantar flex the fifth digit and supports the plantar arch. The flexor digiti minimi arises from the region of base of the fifth metatarsal and is inserted onto the base of the first phalanx of the fifth digit where it is usually merged with the abductor of the first digit. It acts to plantar flex the last digit. The largest and longest muscles of the little toe is the abductor digiti minimi. Stretching from the lateral process of the calcaneus, with a second attachment on the base of the fifth metatarsal, to the base of the fifth digit 's first phalanx, the muscle forms the lateral edge of the sole. Except for supporting the arch, it plantar flexes the little toe and also acts as an abductor.
The four lumbricales have their origin on the tendons of the flexor digitorum longus, from where they extend to the medial side of the bases of the first phalanx of digits two - five. Except for reinforcing the plantar arch, they contribute to plantar flexion and move the four digits toward the big toe. They are, in contrast to the lumbricales of the hand, rather variable, sometimes absent and sometimes more than four are present. The quadratus plantae arises with two slips from margins of the plantar surface of the calcaneus and is inserted into the tendon (s) of the flexor digitorum longus, and is known as the "plantar head '' of this latter muscle. The three plantar interossei arise with their single heads on the medial side of the third - fifth metatarsals and are inserted on the bases of the first phalanges of these digits. The two heads of the four dorsal interossei arise on two adjacent metatarsals and merge in the intermediary spaces. Their distal attachment is on the bases of the proximal phalanges of the second - fourth digits. The interossei are organized with the second digit as a longitudinal axis; the plantars act as adductors and pull digits 3 - 5 towards the second digit; while the dorsals act as abductors. Additionally, the interossei act as plantar flexors at the metatarsophalangeal joints. Lastly, the flexor digitorum brevis arises from underneath the calcaneus to insert its tendons on the middle phalanges of digit 2 - 4. Because the tendons of the flexor digitorum longus run between these tendons, the brevis is sometimes called perforatus. The tendons of these two muscles are surrounded by a tendinous sheath. The brevis acts to plantar flex the middle phalanges.
Flexibility can be simply defined as the available range of motion (ROM) provided by a specific joint or group of joints. For the most part, exercises that increase flexibility are performed with intentions to boost overall muscle length, reduce the risks of injury and to potentially improve muscular performance in physical activity. Stretching muscles after engagement in any physical activity can improve muscular strength, increase flexibility, and reduce muscle soreness. If limited movement is present within a joint, the "insufficient extensibility '' of the muscle, or muscle group, could be restricting the activity of the affected joint.
Stretching prior to strenuous physical activity has been thought to increase muscular performance by extending the soft tissue past its attainable length in order to increase range of motion. Many physically active individuals practice these techniques as a "warm - up '' in order to achieve a certain level of muscular preparation for specific exercise movements. When stretching, muscles should feel somewhat uncomfortable but not physically agonizing.
The arteries of the leg are divided into a series of segments.
In the pelvis area, at the level of the last lumbar vertebra, the abdominal aorta, a continuation the descending aorta, splits into a pair of common iliac arteries. These immediately split into the internal and external iliac arteries, the latter of which descends along the medial border of the psoas major to exits the pelvis area through the vascular lacuna under the inguinal ligament.
The artery enters the thigh as the femoral artery which descends the medial side of the thigh to the adductor canal. The canal passes from the anterior to the posterior side of the limb where the artery leaves through the adductor hiatus and becomes the popliteal artery. On the back of the knee the popliteal artery runs through the popliteal fossa to the popliteal muscle where it divides into anterior and posterior tibial arteries.
In the lower leg, the anterior tibial enters the extensor compartment near the upper border of the interosseus membrane to descend between the tibialis anterior and the extensor hallucis longus. Distal to the superior and extensor retinacula of the foot it becomes the dorsal artery of the foot. The posterior tibial forms a direct continuation of the popliteal artery which enters the flexor compartment of the lower leg to descend behind the medial malleolus where it divides into the medial and lateral plantar arteries, of which the posterior branch gives rise to the fibular artery.
For practical reasons the lower limb is subdivided into somewhat arbitrary regions: The regions of the hip are all located in the thigh: anteriorly, the subinguinal region is bounded by the inguinal ligament, the sartorius, and the pectineus and forms part of the femoral triangle which extends distally to the adductor longus. Posteriorly, the gluteal region corresponds to the gluteus maximus. The anterior region of the thigh extends distally from the femoral triangle to the region of the knee and laterally to the tensor fasciae latae. The posterior region ends distally before the popliteal fossa. The anterior and posterior regions of the knee extend from the proximal regions down to the level of the tuberosity of the tibia. In the lower leg the anterior and posterior regions extend down to the malleoli. Behind the malleoli are the lateral and medial retromalleolar regions and behind these is the region of the heel. Finally, the foot is subdivided into a dorsal region superiorly and a plantar region inferiorly.
The veins are subdivided into three systems. The deep veins return approximately 85 percent of the blood and the superficial veins approximately 15 percent. A series of perforator veins interconnect the superficial and deep systems. In the standing posture, the veins of the leg have to handle an exceptional load as they act against gravity when they return the blood to the heart. The venous valves assist in maintaining the superficial to deep direction of the blood flow.
Superficial veins:
Deep veins:
The sensory and motor innervation to the lower limb is supplied by the lumbosacral plexus, which is formed by the ventral rami of the lumbar and sacral spinal nerves with additional contributions from the subcostal nerve (T12) and coccygeal nerve (Co1). Based on distribution and topography, the lumbosacral plexus is subdivided into the lumbar plexus (T12 - L4) and the Sacral plexus (L5 - S4); the latter is often further subdivided into the sciatic and pudendal plexuses:
The lumbar plexus is formed lateral to the intervertebral foramina by the ventral rami of the first four lumbar spinal nerves (L1 - L4), which all pass through psoas major. The larger branches of the plexus exit the muscle to pass sharply downward to reach the abdominal wall and the thigh (under the inguinal ligament); with the exception of the obturator nerve which pass through the lesser pelvis to reach the medial part of the thigh through the obturator foramen. The nerves of the lumbar plexus pass in front of the hip joint and mainly support the anterior part of the thigh.
The iliohypogastric (T12 - L1) and ilioinguinal nerves (L1) emerge from the psoas major near the muscle 's origin, from where they run laterally downward to pass anteriorly above the iliac crest between the transversus abdominis and abdominal internal oblique, and then run above the inguinal ligament. Both nerves give off muscular branches to both these muscles. Iliohypogastric supplies sensory branches to the skin of the lateral hip region, and its terminal branch finally pierces the aponeurosis of the abdominal external oblique above the inguinal ring to supply sensory branches to the skin there. Ilioinguinalis exits through the inguinal ring and supplies sensory branches to the skin above the pubic symphysis and the lateral portion of the scrotum.
The genitofemoral nerve (L1, L2) leaves psoas major below the two former nerves, immediately divides into two branches that descends along the muscle 's anterior side. The sensory femoral branch supplies the skin below the inguinal ligament, while the mixed genital branch supplies the skin and muscles around the sex organ. The lateral femoral cutaneous nerve (L2, L3) leaves psoas major laterally below the previous nerve, runs obliquely and laterally downward above the iliacus, exits the pelvic area near the iliac spine, and supplies the skin of the anterior thigh.
The obturator nerve (L2 - L4) passes medially behind psoas major to exit the pelvis through the obturator canal, after which it gives off branches to obturator externus and divides into two branches passing behind and in front of adductor brevis to supply motor innervation to all the other adductor muscles. The anterior branch also supplies sensory nerves to the skin on a small area on the distal medial aspect of the thigh. The femoral nerve (L2 - L4) is the largest and longest of the nerves of the lumbar plexus. It supplies motor innervation to iliopsoas, pectineus, sartorius, and quadriceps; and sensory branches to the anterior thigh, medial lower leg, and posterior foot.
The nerves of the sacral plexus pass behind the hip joint to innervate the posterior part of the thigh, most of the lower leg, and the foot. The superior (L4 - S1) and inferior gluteal nerves (L5 - S2) innervate the gluteus muscles and the tensor fasciae latae. The posterior femoral cutaneous nerve (S1 - S3) contributes sensory branches to the skin on the posterior thigh. The sciatic nerve (L4 - S3), the largest and longest nerve in the human body, leaves the pelvis through the greater sciatic foramen. In the posterior thigh it first gives off branches to the short head of the biceps femoris and then divides into the tibial (L4 - S3) and common fibular nerves (L4 - S2). The fibular nerve continues down on the medial side of biceps femoris, winds around the fibular neck and enters the front of the lower leg. There it divides into a deep and a superficial terminal branch. The superficial branch supplies the peroneus muscles and the deep branch enters the extensor compartment; both branches reaches into the dorsal foot. In the thigh, the tibial nerve gives off branches to semitendinosus, semimembranosus, adductor magnus, and the long head of the biceps femoris. The nerve then runs straight down the back of the leg, through the popliteal fossa to supply the ankle flexors on the back of the lower leg and then continues down to supply all the muscles in the sole of the foot. The pudendal (S2 - S4) and coccygeal nerves (S5 - Co2) supply the muscles of the pelvic floor and the surrounding skin.
The lumbosacral trunk is a communicating branch passing between the sacral and lumbar plexuses containing ventral fibers from L4. The coccygeal nerve, the last spinal nerve, emerges from the sacral hiatus, unites with the ventral rami of the two last sacral nerves, and forms the coccygeal plexus.
The lower leg and ankle need to keep exercised and moving well as they are the base of the whole body. The lower extremities must be strong in order to balance the weight of the rest of the body, and the gastrocnemius muscles take part in much of the blood circulation.
There are a number of exercises that can be done to strengthen the lower leg. For example, in order to activate plantar flexors in the deep plantar flexors one can sit on the floor with the hips flexed, the ankle neutral with knees fully extended as they alternate pushing their foot against a wall or platform. This kind of exercise is beneficial as it hardly causes any fatigue. Another form of isometric exercise for the gastrocnemius would be seated calf raises which can be done with or without equipment. One can be seated at a table with their feet flat on the ground, and then plantar flex both ankles so that the heels are raised off the floor and the gastrocnemius flexed. An alternate movement could be heel drop exercises with the toes being propped on an elevated surface -- as an opposing movement this would improve the range of motion. One - legged toe raises for the gastrocnemius muscle can be performed by holding one dumbbell in one hand while using the other for balance, and then standing with one foot on a plate. The next step would be to plantar flex and keep the knee joint straight or flexed slightly. The triceps surae is contracted during this exercise. Stabilization exercises like the BOSU ball squat are also important especially as they assist in the ankles having to adjust to the ball 's form in order to balance.
Lower leg injuries are common while running or playing sports. About 10 % of all total injuries involve the lower extremities in athletes. The majority of athletes sprain their ankles, which are mainly caused by the increased loads onto the feet when they move into the foot down or in an outer ankle position. All areas of the foot, which are the forefoot, midfoot, and rearfoot, absorb various forces while running and can lead to injuries as well. Running and various activities can cause stress fractures, tendinitis, musculotendinous injuries, or any chronic pain to our lower extremities such as the tibia.
Injuries to quadriceps or hamstrings are caused by the constant impact loads to the legs during activities, such as kicking a ball. While doing this type of motion, 85 % of that shock is absorbed to the hamstrings which can cause strain to those muscles.
The most common injuries in running involve the knees and the feet. Various studies have focused on the initial cause of these running related injuries and found that there are many factors that correlate to these injuries. Female distance runners who had a history of stress fracture injuries had higher vertical impact forces than non-injured subjects. The large forces onto the lower legs were associated with gravitational forces, and this correlated with patellofemoral pain or potential knee injuries. Researchers have also found that these running related injuries affect the feet as well because runners with previous injuries showed more foot eversion and over pronation while running than non-injured runners. This causes more loads and forces on the medial side of the foot, causing more stress on the tendons of the foot and ankle (peroneal tendons). Most of these running injuries are caused by overuse and that running at longer distances weekly for a long duration is a risk for injuring the lower legs.
Voluntary stretches to the legs, such as the wall stretch, condition the hamstrings and the calf muscle to various movements before vigorously working them. But a study has shown that Kinesiology tape gives more promising effect in hamstring extensibility to produce more fluid movement. Thirty previously injured males showed a greater advantage of hamstring extensibility in longer durations with Kinesiology tape, or elastic therapeutic tape. However, they were more advantageous in the beginning of the exercise with a voluntary, static stretch or proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation, which are stretching techniques specific to optimize the range of motion of the limb. This shows that stretches do help in the immediate time frames, whereas Kinesiology tape helps in long durations to prevent any future injuries from occurring. The environment and surroundings, such as uneven terrain, can cause the feet to position in an unnatural way, so wearing shoes that can absorb forces from the ground 's impact and allow for stabilizing the feet can prevent some injuries while running as well. Shoes should be structured to allow friction - traction at the shoe surface, space for different foot - strike stresses, or for comfortable, regular arches for the feet.
The chances of damaging our lower extremities will be reduced by having knowledge about some activities associated with lower leg injury and developing a correct form of running, such as not over pronating the foot or overusing the legs. Preventative measures, such as taping, various stretches, and wearing appropriate footwear, will reduce injuries from occurring as well.
A fracture of the leg can be classified according to the involved bone into:
A crus fracture, in turn, can involve only the tibia (tibial fracture), only the fibula (fibular fracture) or both.
A crus fracture is a fracture of either or both of the tibia and fibula.
Fractures of only the tibia include:
Fractures of only the fibula include:
Combined tibia and fibula fractures include:
Lower leg and foot pain management is critical in reducing the progression of further injuries, uncomfortable sensations and limiting alterations while walking and running. Most individuals suffer from various pains in their lower leg and foot due to different factors. Muscle inflammation, strain, tenderness, swelling and muscle tear from muscle overuse or incorrect movement are several conditions often experienced by athletes and the common public during and after high impact physical activities. Therefore, suggested pain management mechanisms are provided to reduce pain and prevent the progression of injury.
A plantar fasciitis foot stretch is one of the recommended methods to reduce pain caused by plantar fasciitis (Figure 1). To do the plantar fascia stretch, while sitting in a chair place the ankle on the opposite knee and hold the toes of the impaired foot, slowly pulling back. The stretch should be held for approximately ten seconds, three times per day
Several methods can be utilized to help control pain caused by shin splints. Placing ice on the affected area prior to and after running will aid in reducing pain. In addition, wearing orthotic devices including a neoprene sleeve (Figure 2) and wearing appropriate footwear such as a foot arch can help to eliminate the condition. Stretching and strengthening of the anterior tibia or medial tibia by performing exercises of plantar and dorsi flexors such as calf stretch can also help in easing the pain
There are numerous appropriate approaches to handling pain resulting from Achilles tendinitis. The primary action is to rest. Activities that do not provide additional stress to the affected tendon are also recommended. Wearing orthothics or prostheses will provide cushion and will prevent the affected Achilles tendon from experiencing further stress when walking and performing therapeutic stretches. A few stretch modalities or eccentric exercises such as toe extension and flexion and calf and heel stretch are beneficial in lowering pain with Achilles tendinopathy patients (Figure 4)
Adolescent and adult women in many Western cultures often remove the hair from their legs. Toned, tanned, shaved legs are sometimes perceived as a sign of youthfulness and are often considered attractive in these cultures.
Men generally do not shave their legs in any culture. However, leg - shaving is a generally accepted practice in modeling. It is also fairly common in sports where the hair removal makes the athlete appreciably faster by reducing drag; the most common case of this is competitive swimming. It is also practiced in other sports such as cycling, in which skin injuries are common: the absence of grown hair makes nicks, scratches and bruises heal faster because of the reduced microbial population on shaved skin.
Surface anatomy of human leg
Muscles of the gluteal and posterior femoral regions.
Small saphenous vein and its tributaries.
The popliteal, posterior tibial, and peroneal arteries.
Nerves of the right lower extremity Posterior view.
Leg Bones
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is there a sequel to where the red fern grows | Where the Red Fern Grows - wikipedia
Where the Red Fern Grows is a 1961 children 's novel by Wilson Rawls about a boy who buys and trains two Redbone Coonhound hunting dogs.
When leaving work in Idaho 's Snake River Valley, Billy Colman sees a pack of dogs attacking a stray coonhound. He takes the stray home to feed it. Once it has rested, Billy sets it free, knowing that it will return home.
The experience reminds Billy of his childhood in the Ozark Mountains of Oklahoma. He wants a dog, and his parents offer to get him a mongrel from a neighbor. He wants two coonhounds, but his parents tell him they can not afford them. Billy finds a magazine ad for a Kentucky kennel which breeds Redbone Coonhounds and sells them for $25 each. He goes to work performing odd jobs and saves the $50 he needs with the help of his grandfather. Since it takes two years to do so, his grandfather writes to see if the kennel will honor the ad. They do, and the price has dropped so the two puppies only cost $40.
Billy 's dogs are delivered to the freight depot in Tahlequah. His family does not have transportation, so he finds his own way to get to the depot and walks through the hills. He picks up his puppies, which are a male and a female. He buys a gift for each member of his family with his extra $10 before heading back home.
On the way back home, he spends the night in Robber 's Cave in the Sparrow Hawk Mountains. There he builds a fire and plays with the puppies. While trying to sleep, he hears a noise that he realizes is the cry of a mountain lion. In the morning, he continues on. He comes to a sycamore tree and sees the names Dan and Ann carved inside a heart in the bark and decides to name the puppies Old Dan and Little Ann.
To train Old Dan and Little Ann, Billy traps a raccoon with the help of his grandfather and uses its pelt to teach them to hunt. During their training, their personalities become apparent: Old Dan is brave and strong, while Little Ann is very intelligent. Both are very loyal to each other and to Billy.
On the first night of hunting season, Billy takes Old Dan and Little Ann out for their first hunt. He promises them that if they tree a raccoon, he will do the rest. They tree one in a large sycamore, which Billy had previously nicknamed "The Big Tree ''. As he tries to call them off, they look at him sadly and he cuts the tree down, which takes him two days and costs him blistered hands. In the end, when he 's about to give up his effort, Billy offers a short prayer for strength to continue. A strong wind starts to blow and the tree falls. Old Dan and Little Ann take the raccoon down.
Billy, Old Dan, and Little Ann go hunting almost every night and become well - known in the Ozarks. Billy and his grandfather make a bet with Rubin and Rainie Pritchard that Old Dan and Little Ann can tree the "ghost coon ''. It leads them on a long, complicated hunt, and Rubin and Rainie want to give up. When they finally have it treed, Billy refuses to kill it. Rubin then orders his dog, Old Blue, to attack Old Dan, who is smaller; and Rubin starts to beat Billy. Little Ann helps Old Dan, and together they injure Old Blue; Rubin runs to attack them with an axe, but he trips, falls on it and kills himself.
Billy 's grandfather enters him into a championship coon hunt, putting him against experienced hunters and the finest dogs in the country. Before it starts, he enters Little Ann into a conformation contest, where she wins the silver cup. On the fourth night of the hunt, Old Dan and Little Ann tree three raccoons, making it to the final round. The sixth night, they tree one before a blizzard hits. Billy, his father, grandfather, and the judge lose sight of the dogs. When they finally find them, Billy 's grandfather sprains his ankle. They build a fire, and when Billy 's father chops down a tree, three raccoons jump out. Old Dan and Little Ann take two of them down, and chase the third to another tree. In the morning, the hunters find them covered with ice circling the tree. That raccoon wins them the championship, gold cup, and $300 of jackpot money.
One night Old Dan and Little Ann tree a mountain lion, and it attacks. Billy enters the fight with his axe, hoping to save his dogs, but they end up having to save him. Eventually, they kill the mountain lion, but Old Dan is badly wounded, and Billy finds his intestines in a bush. He dies late that night. Billy is heartbroken, and Little Ann loses the will to live, stops eating, and dies of grief a few days later on Old Dan 's grave. Billy 's father tries to tell him that it is all for the best, because with the money they received from winning the championship hunt, they can move to town. He goes to visit Old Dan and Little Ann 's graves and finds a giant red fern between them. According to Native American legend, only an angel can plant one. He feels ready to move on knowing that his dogs are always going to be remembered.
The novel was made into a 1974 film starring Stewart Petersen, James Whitmore, Beverly Garland, and Jack Ging. It was followed by a sequel in 1992, which starred Wilford Brimley, Chad McQueen, Lisa Whelchel, and Karen Carlson. The film was remade in 2003 and starred Joseph Ashton, Dabney Coleman, Ned Beatty and Dave Matthews.
In a talk given to a group of schoolteachers, Wilson Rawls related how he wrote the first version of the novel (along with five full novels, and hundreds of short stories and novelettes) during the years that he worked on construction in Mexico and Idaho. He rolled the manuscripts up and saved them in a trunk at his parents ' home. When he met his fiancée, Sophie, he did not want her to know about his failed dreams of becoming a writer, so about a week before he got married he visited his parents and burned all his manuscripts. He then returned to Idaho and married Sophie. About three months later, he confessed to his wife that he had burned all his manuscripts and had always dreamed of being a writer. She encouraged him to rewrite one of his stories. He quit his job and wrote the novel in just three weeks. He said, "I had it memorized. '' He would not let her read it until it was finished. He said, "I finished it on a Friday. I gave it to her Saturday morning and I went to town. I stayed in town all day. I knew she had time to read it. I called her on the phone. I just knew she was going to laugh at that writing... but when I called on the phone, she said, ' You get back out here to the house, I want to talk to you... this is the most wonderful dog and boy story I 've ever heard in my life. ' '' She encouraged him to lengthen the story, because she felt it was too short to be a novel but too long to be a short story. He went to work on lengthening the manuscript. He wrote it longhand with no punctuation. She then typed it up and submitted it to the Saturday Evening Post.
The Saturday Evening Post rejected the manuscript in three weeks. Sophie then sent the manuscript to the Ladies ' Home Journal. She believed that a woman editor at the Ladies ' Home Journal would like the story. About four months later, Rawls received a letter from the Ladies ' Home Journal saying that it was the wrong kind of story for their magazine, but they wanted to send it to the Saturday Evening Post. Upon the second submission to the Saturday Evening Post, it was accepted. It was first published in serialization in the Saturday Evening Post in 1961 under the title The Hounds of Youth.
Doubleday then accepted the book for publication. Rawls said Doubleday then "broke my heart. '' They changed the title to Where the Red Fern Grows, and attempted to market it to adult readers. For about six years, it languished on shelves and failed to sell. Doubleday was going to put it out of print, but one agent named Mr. Breinholt from Salt Lake City fought for it and asked for just a few more months to market it. He got Rawls a speaking engagement at the University of Utah to a conference of over 5,000 reading teachers and librarians. Copies of it were made available to them. When they took it back to their schools, the children loved it, and orders began pouring in. Jim Trelease states, "Each year since then, it has sold more copies than the previous year. ''
Although sales of the novel began slowly, by 1974 over 90,000 copies had been sold. In 2001, Publishers Weekly estimated that it had sold 6,754,308 copies. Today Where the Red Fern Grows is required reading in many American schools. One critic said it will please adults as well as children.
I remember crying so much through this book, and even today I tear up thinking of Old Dan and Little Ann. I also loaned this to my (then) children 's librarian, because the library copy was always out. I even marked the pages, "Get out tissue here. ''
I love, love, love this book with all my heart and soul. My fourth grade teacher read it to me eons ago, and I 've read it to two of my three boys. There 's something about weeping together uncontrollably that builds a community of readers...
There is a statue of Billy and his dogs at the Idaho Falls Public Library.
Every year in Tahlequah Oklahoma there is a Red Fern festival. It is listed below in the links.
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main characters in walking dead that have died | List of the Walking Dead (TV series) characters - wikipedia
The Walking Dead is an American post-apocalyptic horror television series developed and executive produced by Frank Darabont. It is based on the eponymous comic book series by Robert Kirkman. The following is a list of characters from The Walking Dead television series. Although some characters appear in both places, the continuity of the television series is not shared with the original comic book series.
Rick Grimes, portrayed by Andrew Lincoln, (the series ' central character) is a former sheriff 's deputy from a small Georgia town. He is an everyman -- smart, calm, just, a sharpshooter, and a good friend, husband and father -- but flawed. Rick is a natural leader, someone his fellow survivors will turn to in a crisis, confident in his guidance, even when he at times doubts himself. His overwhelming need to do the right thing and protect those who ca n't protect themselves may pull him away from his family, causing cracks of tension within his marriage with Lori and his relationship with his son, Carl. Frustrated about leading his group and keeping them safe, Rick gradually changes into a darker person.
Eventually, he breaks down once again, following the deaths of Glenn and Abraham, and the overshadowing presence of Negan -- the series ' central antagonist in season six and seven. Throughout season seven, Rick slowly regains his footing and then starts preparing for an all - out war against Negan and the Saviors.
Shane Walsh, portrayed by Jon Bernthal, is a former sheriff 's deputy from a small Georgia town. He was Rick 's partner in the sheriff 's department and best friend since high school. Until Rick 's arrival, Shane led the group of Atlanta survivors. Shane harbors feelings for Lori, and after the start of the apocalypse, when Lori believes Rick is dead, Shane starts a sexual relationship with her. When Rick finds them, Shane relinquishes the leadership position to Rick, while trying to hide his resentment towards Rick and his relationship with Lori. Within season two, Shane gradually becomes more unhinged and shows bouts of irrational violence and bloodlust after allowing another survivor to die in an act of self - preservation. Shane eventually lures Rick away from the group to kill him, but Rick kills him first.
Lori Grimes, portrayed by Sarah Wayne Callies, is Rick 's wife, and Carl and Judith 's mother. Believing Rick to be dead, she begins a relationship with Shane, but is loyal to Rick once he returns, and she pushes Shane away from her and Carl, of whom she is fiercely protective. In the second season, she discovers she is pregnant, but is unsure who the father is. She attempts to comfort Shane so he will feel accepted in their group, but she is cautious about his reckless actions, and ultimately warns Rick that Shane is dangerous. At the same time, she is disturbed by her husband 's gradual change in this more savage environment, and is shocked after learning he killed Shane. From their escape from the farm till their endeavor to take up residence at the prison, Lori becomes increasingly estranged from Rick and Carl, which she blames on herself. She becomes worried about her baby 's survival, and when she goes into labor following a walker attack, Lori convinces Maggie to give her a C - section, despite the fact that it will prove fatal for her. Lori dies giving birth, and Carl is forced to shoot her to prevent reanimation.
Carl Grimes, portrayed by Chandler Riggs, is the son of Rick and Lori, and Judith 's older brother. Confronted with the harsh realities of his new world, he quickly learns to defend himself and even rescues Rick from a reanimated Shane. In the prison, when his mother dies during childbirth, he shoots her in the head to prevent her from turning. The ease with which he shoots a member of The Governor 's militia troubles Rick, leading him to give up his authority over the group and teaching Carl to farm, renouncing violence. When The Governor attacks for the final time, he and Carl are separated from the rest of the group. With Rick severely injured and unconscious, Carl reveals his anger towards his father for failing to protect the group and his mother. He raids neighboring houses for supplies, but is nearly overcome by a walker. He returns to the house and reveals he still depends on his father, and ca n't bear to bring himself to shoot Rick if he does turn. Rick eventually recovers and they are reunited with Michonne, but are driven from the house by the Claimers. They later meet the Claimers again on the road, where one of the members nearly rapes Carl. After overcoming them with Daryl 's help, they travel to Terminus and are captured. After Terminus Carl spent a lot of time caring for Judith upon their reunion. When he arrives at Alexandria, he is initially awkward with the other teenagers, but befriends Enid, a girl who was outside for a long time also, they spend time together in the woods running from walkers. He also tries to prevent Rick beating Pete, but is unsuccessful. During the attack of the zombies on Alexandria, Carl gets shot in his right eye by a stray bullet shot by Ron. He is taken care of by Denise. His personality changes to make him a darker character from this wound. Negan calls him a future "serial killer '' in the season six finale, which could imply how seriously dangerous Carl may become. Carl, along with Glenn, Rosita, Daryl, Michonne, Abraham, Maggie, Rick, Sasha, Eugene and Aaron, are forced to kneel before Negan. In the season seven premiere, Negan begins to force Rick to cut Carl 's arm off, but changes his mind once he sees Rick is broken. Carl and Enid share their first kiss. Carl later sneaks into the Sanctuary to kill Negan, but his plan fails.
Morgan Jones, portrayed by Lennie James, (primarily a guest role in seasons one and five, in addition to a special guest appearance in season three), is a survivor staying in Rick Grimes ' hometown with his son, Duane. Initially, he suffers from the loss of his wife Jenny at the start of the apocalypse, unwilling to move on while her reanimated body roamed the town. He helps Rick recover after he wakes from his coma, and promises to contact him over radio as Rick continued towards Atlanta. Later, Morgan could not take action to prevent walker Jenny from biting Duane, and he becomes dysfunctional. Rick meets him again while scavenging for supplies, and offers him to join him, but Morgan refuses. After he accidentally burned down his home in a fit, Morgan takes to following Rick, eventually encountering a former prison psychologist named Eastman, who helps Morgan find inner peace through the use of aikido, not only to use for self - defense, but also to show the value of human life. Morgan follows Rick 's group from Terminus to Alexandria, where he finds their violent ways, particularly of Carol 's, distressing and tries to help show them a better way to deal with the humans that want to harm them. Morgan finally comes to the realization that you have to kill sometimes, and kills Richard. Morgan is shown at Alexandria fighting against the Saviors and Scavengers alongside the Kingdom, where he and Carol now reside.
Dale Horvath, portrayed by Jeffrey DeMunn, is an older man and former car salesman. His age, calm affect, worldly experience, and RV provide the nucleus around which the small community of survivors has formed. He is wise, and the respected elder of the group. He is also rather feisty and not afraid to speak his mind or call others out for mistakes in judgment. Dale manages to talk Andrea out of a suicide attempt by putting himself at risk, as well. Dale becomes wary of Shane, after witnessing that Shane contemplated assassinating Rick beforehand as well as guessing that Shane killed Otis while retrieving medical supplies for Carl. Dale becomes upset at the group when they decide to kill Randall to avoid any risks he might have posed and argues for sparing his life, leading to the execution being postponed. Dale is killed by a walker, who was accidentally lured by Carl earlier that day. Dale 's death causes the group to reevaluate their unity and allow Randall to live.
Glenn Rhee, portrayed by Steven Yeun, is a former pizza delivery boy, who lived in Atlanta. He is keenly aware of the extreme danger of his missions on behalf of the group, but because of his loyalty to the group he is willing to take the risks. His knowledge of every shortcut in Atlanta proves extremely useful, and he is an excellent scavenger. Glenn thinks well on his feet and shows great compassion and humanity. He develops a passionate relationship with Maggie, while living on the Greene farm and later marries her by the time they reach the prison. He becomes more confident and displays more courage and ingenuity, as well as leadership qualities later. After being infected with the illness spreading in the prison, he soon recovers through Hershel and Bob 's care. When The Governor attacks the prison, he is unable to find Maggie and goes on a search for her with Tara Chambler. The two encounter Abraham Ford, Eugene Porter and Rosita Espinosa, who plan to bring Eugene to Washington, D.C. to find a cure for the apocalypse. After reuniting with his wife, they journey on their mission to D.C., although Eugene quickly reveals he was a fraud hoping for protection. After his half - sister - in - law, Beth 's death, he moves forward with plans to find a safe haven for the group and continues to comfort Maggie in her loss. Glenn continues to be the voice of reason after Beth 's death, and moral support for the group. When they arrive at Alexandria, he is assigned to be one of the runners, and he and fellow runner Nicholas become rivals, which eventually culminates in Nicholas trying to shoot Glenn, and the two of them getting in a fight, Glenn is unable to kill Nicholas however. Glenn is seemingly killed when Nicholas commits suicide and the two fall into a hoard of walkers. Eventually, it is revealed that he was able to use Nicholas 's body as a shield and escape under a nearby dumpster. Glenn, along with Rosita, Daryl, Michonne, Abraham, Maggie, Rick, Sasha, Carl, Eugene and Aaron, are forced to kneel before Negan. He is killed by Negan to teach Daryl a lesson when Daryl punches Negan after Abraham was brutally murdered by Negan.
Andrea, portrayed by Laurie Holden, is a former civil rights attorney, who is extremely protective of her younger sister, Amy. Following Amy 's death, she considers suicide, but decides to remain with the group. With the others, they find a farm owned by Hershel Greene. At the farm, she continued to confide and seek comfort in Dale, and gained survivalist skills through Shane. After escaping Hershel 's overrun farm, she is rescued by Michonne and is brought by Merle to Woodbury, where she begins a romantic relationship with The Governor. She is eventually caught in the crossfire between Rick and The Governor, and attempts to mend relations, but later turns on The Governor after learning that he intends to attack the prison. She is captured by The Governor and left in a room with a dying Milton, who bites her before she is able to free herself. She is discovered by Michonne, Rick and the others, and takes her own life.
Merle Dixon, portrayed by Michael Rooker, is Daryl Dixon 's older brother. A racist and misogynist, Merle grew up in an abusive household. His first meeting with Rick quickly escalates to conflict and Merle is subdued and handcuffed to a pipe, but the keys are lost. The group escapes, but Rick leads a rescue party only to find that Merle has cut himself free and disappeared. Merle returns in "Walk with Me '', alive and residing at Woodbury, a thriving settlement run by the malicious Governor and serves as his lieutenant and enforcer. He escapes Woodbury with Daryl, but struggles to integrate into the prison. He attempts to secure peace with The Governor by kidnapping Michonne, but relents and lets her go before returning to Woodbury and luring a pack of zombies to attack in an attempt to assassinate The Governor. He fails and is killed and left to reanimate. He is later discovered by Daryl, who kills him.
Carol Peletier, portrayed by Melissa McBride, is Sophia 's protective mother and Ed 's abused wife. Before the outbreak, she was a meek housewife, and in the beginning of the apocalypse, she often depended on others for survival and appeared weak, despite showing compassion and kindness to others, particularly Daryl, and putting the good of the group ahead of her own needs. After Sophia 's death, Carol gradually undergoes a transformation from a former victim of domestic abuse to a hardened and pragmatic warrior. She manages to survive under difficult circumstances, and soon begins sharing her survival tactics with others. Her story time program at the prison is revealed as a cover for teaching a group of young children self - defense and gives a weapons training course. When the father of two children, Lizzie and Mika, dies following a walker attack, she becomes their adoptive mother by the father 's wishes. Carol begins taking bold risks in order to survive, especially during the epidemic that breaks out, killing the severely ill Karen and David mercifully to prevent any others, including herself from dying. However, she quickly shows remorse over the event with Tyreese, Karen 's boyfriend 's reaction. Rick banishes her, until she returns following the prison 's destruction, encountering Tyreese and the girls, Lizzie and Mika, as well as Judith, Rick and Lori 's daughter. Her difficult decision making elevates when she is forced to kill the mentally ill Lizzie Samuels after murdering her younger sister, Mika to convince she and Tyreese that walkers merely change humans. She confesses to Karen and David 's deaths and Tyreese forgives her, given her explanation, and the two move towards Terminus, only to discover its true nature. Carol successfully destroys Terminus and saves her friends. Rick asks her to rejoin the group and she accepts. After a failed rescue mission for Beth in Atlanta with Daryl, Beth is killed leaving Carol devastated. Carol arrives with the group at Alexandria and pretends to be a weak housewife so that the Alexandrians underestimate her, particularly as she is the one to steal guns from the armory. She also meets Sam Anderson, who takes a liking to her, despite her initially being cold to him. Carol believes that the Alexandrians are weak and that they may need to take the safe - zone for themselves. Carol becomes emotionally depressed after she realizes she had killed about 25 people since the beginning of the apocalypse. She, along with Morgan, discover the Kingdom. At the Kingdom she is able to receive medical treatment from multiple gunshot wounds. After learning of the deaths of Glenn and Abraham, Carol joins the fight against the Saviors.
Daryl Dixon, portrayed by Norman Reedus, is Merle 's younger brother. A Southern redneck with a tough background, Daryl is a survivalist and member of the Atlanta band, who quickly becomes one of Rick 's closest confidantes and a leader within the group, a role he is not entirely comfortable with. He develops a close relationship with Carol Peletier in the second season after spending a large amount of time searching for her missing daughter Sophia. Following Shane 's death, Daryl becomes Rick 's right - hand man. After the fall of the prison, he escapes with Beth, who is later kidnapped while he fights off a group of walkers. He joins a nomadic group (the Claimers) before turning on them to save Rick, Carl, and Michonne. In season five, he goes with Carol to Atlanta in an attempt to rescue Beth, but is forced to return with Noah when Carol is taken to Grady Memorial Hospital also. He returns with the group to break Beth and Carol out and is clearly devastated at Beth 's death. He somewhat distances himself following this. Once the group arrives at Alexandria, Daryl befriends recruiter Aaron and eventually becomes a recruiter himself. Daryl and Aaron later discover Morgan in the woods and bring him to Alexandria. After an enormous herd of walkers is discovered near Alexandria, Daryl 's role is to drive them away along with Sasha and Abraham. Daryl is driven away from Sasha and Abraham and has a small encounter with three strangers; Dwight, Sherry, and Tina. He is captured by them, who believe him to be a Savior. After Tina is killed, Dwight and Sherry steal Daryl 's crossbow and motorcycle. Daryl is later found attempting to rescue Glenn and Michonne, who have been captured by Saviors. He is caught by Dwight, and shot near the shoulder. Daryl, along with Glenn, Rosita, Michonne, Abraham, Maggie, Rick, Sasha, Carl, Aaron, and Eugene are forced to kneel before Negan. Daryl is one of the members of the group forced to kneel for Negan during his infamous "Eeny, meeny, miny, moe '' speech. After the death of Abraham at Negans hands, Daryl becomes outraged when Negan forces a terrified Rosita to look at the remains of Abraham on his bat, Lucille. Daryl lashes out at Negan in retaliation and punches him. Much to Daryl 's horror, this causes Negan to further punish the group, responding to this outburst by killing Glenn. Negan takes Daryl back to the Sanctuary as prisoner, where he is tortured physically and psychologically in attempts to convince Daryl to join the Saviors. In "Hearts Still Beating '', Daryl escapes from the Sanctuary, through an anonymous source (this is later revealed to be Sherry).
Maggie Greene, portrayed by Lauren Cohan, is Hershel 's daughter and Beth 's elder half - sister. A tomboy at heart, she scavenges supplies from the local town. She develops strong feelings for Glenn, impressed by his bravery and loyalty to the group. After the fall of the farm, she settles 8 months later at the prison with the rest of the group. She and Glenn are later captured and interrogated by Merle and The Governor, to which she is sexually assaulted (forced to undress) by The Governor. After a rescue mission, she continues to be proactive in defending the prison during The Governor 's attacks, killing several snipers and soldiers to protect the prison survivors. She soon marries Glenn. When Glenn is infected by the deadly influenza virus that has spread across the prison and her father risks exposure by caring for the sick, she is fueled with anger and frustration until she rushes in to rescue her father and fiancee from the reanimated infected that overrun the quarantine zone before medicine is retrieved by the others. The Governor returns to the prison and Maggie witnesses her father 's execution in horror. She defends the prison against The Governor 's militia, before escaping the overrun compound with Sasha and Bob, unsure if her sister is alive or not. Being aware that Glenn is alive, Maggie searches and finds him, and soon goes on a mission to D.C. for a cure, which turns out to be false. She receives news that her sister is still alive, only to be left heartbroken once she arrives too late to meet her, as Beth has recently died. Maggie becomes depressed after her sister 's death, but begins to recover before the group arrived at Alexandria. At Alexandria Maggie acts as Deanna 's assistant. She tries to persuade Deanna not to exile Rick and also prevents Sasha from killing Gabriel. Maggie later discovers she is pregnant and worries with the possibility of Glenn 's death. When they reunite, she joins the group to go to the Hilltop Colony where she negotiates a deal with Gregory for half of their supplies. When Rick initiates a plan to take out the Saviors, Maggie and Carol are captured by a female group of Saviors and Maggie is forced to kill them, as well as some others, to protect herself and the baby. She forms a maternal bond with Enid. When Enid gives Maggie a haircut, she collapses on the floor in pain and she is taken with a group to reach the Hilltop to see a doctor. Maggie, along with Glenn, Rosita, Daryl, Michonne, Abraham, Rick, Sasha, Carl, Eugene and Aaron, are forced to kneel before Negan before they can reach the Hilltop. Maggie is forced to watch as Negan kills her husband Glenn as punishment for Daryl hitting Negan. A devastated Maggie tells Rick to prepare to fight Negan as she attempts to collect Glenn 's body. Glenn 's death ultimately helps Maggie grow stronger. Maggie moves to the Hilltop for medical treatment along with Sasha and Enid, and eventually takes leadership over Gregory.
Hershel Greene, portrayed by Scott Wilson, is a veterinarian and farmer, who is also a religious man and former alcoholic. He allows Rick and his group to remain at the farm while Carl recuperates after being shot, but hides from them that he is keeping walkers in his barn, merely believing them to be sick and not dead. When Shane opens the barn and the group kills everyone inside, his worldview is shattered, but he develops a close friendship with Rick and often acts as a voice of wisdom. When the group attempts to clear the prison, he is bitten and Rick cuts off his leg to prevent him from turning into a walker. Hershel becomes a member of the leading council of the prison and counsels the group to work to rebuild a society which can forgive the past wrongs of its members. When the prison becomes infected with the flu, he works as a medic and provides natural remedies to help ease the symptoms of his patients until a cure can be found. He is later taken hostage by The Governor, but is proud to hear Rick offer forgiveness and coexistence to The Governor and his group. The Governor refuses and murders Hershel before attacking the prison.
Beth Greene, portrayed by Emily Kinney, is Hershel 's younger daughter and Maggie 's younger half - sister. She sinks into a deep depression after watching her mother, half - brother and neighbors, who had become walkers and were being housed in her father 's barn, get shot by Rick 's group and attempts suicide, but changes her mind. She recovers and survives the fall of the farm before traveling with the group to the prison. She is often seen helping to take care of Judith. When the prison becomes infected with the flu, she is put in charge of isolating the group 's children to protect them from the deadly virus. She witnesses her father 's death at the hands of The Governor and escapes the fall of the prison with Daryl. When they become separated during a walker attack, she is kidnapped. She reappears in season five at Grady Memorial Hospital, where she wakes up and discovers that she is being held in the hospital by a group of corrupt police officers. She regularly tries to fight against their strict regime, killing one officer and helping another patient, Noah, escape, but she is kept alive by the officer in charge, Dawn Lerner. As a result of an exchange plan negotiated by Rick to rescue Beth, she is returned to Rick 's group, but Rick refuses to let Lerner take back Noah. Beth stabs Dawn with hidden scissors, but Dawn 's instinctive reflexes cause her to fire a single bullet through Beth 's head, killing her instantly and unexpectedly.
Michonne, portrayed by Danai Gurira, is a resourceful and self - sufficient katana - wielding survivor, included in the finale of season two and since a main character. Her past, revealed slowly over the series, shows she had survived the initial apocalypse with her three - year - old son Andre, her boyfriend Mike, and their friend Terry. Mike, Terry, and Andre had been attacked by walkers while she was on a supply run, deaths she blamed on herself. As punishment, she used the reanimated Mike and Terry walkers as a means to disguise her scent among walker hordes. She saves Andrea after the group ran off from Hershel 's farm, and becomes her friend. When they are brought to Woodbury, Michonne is highly distrustful of The Governor and leaves the community to warn Andrea 's friends after witnessing Glenn and Maggie being captured. When Rick 's group attacks Woodbury, Michonne joins in and gets in a fight with The Governor, destroying one of his eyes. Michonne becomes a pivot in the conflict between Rick 's group and The Governor. Later, when Rick 's group is forced to flee the prison after The Governor 's attack, Michonne meets up with Rick and Carl, and the three become closer. As the story progresses, Michonne becomes the voice of reason for Rick, reminding him not to take risks. By the time the group has worked their way to Alexandria, Rick and Michonne have started a relationship with each other. Michonne is attacked by a member of the Scavengers and is almost killed.
The Governor (real name, "Phillip Blake ''), portrayed by David Morrissey, is the leader of the fortified town of Woodbury. He is a charismatic man, who is nevertheless power - mad and willing to kill anyone to secure the supplies needed to strengthen the town. When Merle rescues Andrea and Michonne he quickly develops a romantic relationship with Andrea, but Michonne remains skeptical. When she leaves, he orders Merle to track her and kill her, but she escapes. Merle instead returns with Glenn and Maggie, who are tortured. When Rick leads a rescue party, Michonne steals away to kill The Governor only to find a room full of heads in fish tanks and his reanimated daughter, who she kills. This enrages The Governor and in the ensuing fight he loses his eye. He resolves to take the prison using walkers as a weapon and eventually leading a militia. When they are routed, he murders most of the militia before being abandoned by his remaining lieutenants. He wanders alone before meeting Lilly and Tara using the pseudonym "Brian Heriot ''. He eventually meets up with a larger group and takes it over, murdering its leader and blaming the prison group. He takes Hershel and Michonne hostage and leads his new group to attack the prison, demanding that Rick and his group abandon the prison. He refuses a gesture of cohabitation before murdering Hershel and triggering a battle. Rick and The Governor brawl, with The Governor gaining the upper hand before being impaled by Michonne, and shot and killed by Lilly.
Tyreese Williams, portrayed by Chad L. Coleman, is the leader of a group from Jacksonville, Florida, which includes Sasha and Allen 's family. After unsuccessfully trying to seek refuge at the prison due to Rick 's hallucinations, Tyreese and the others find their way to Woodbury. Tyreese and Sasha become guards at Woodbury 's walls, but he becomes wary of The Governor 's intentions. When the assault on the prison is declared, Tyreese and Sasha stay behind to protect the innocent civilians. Eventually, Rick 's group return to reveal The Governor massacred his entire army, except for lone survivor, Karen. Six months later, Karen and Tyreese form a relationship at the prison as he becomes proactive in supply runs with Daryl, Michonne, Bob and Sasha. During the flu epidemic that breaks out at the prison, Karen is secretly killed and burned by Carol to prevent the disease from spreading. Furious, he commands Rick to investigate the murders, and attacks Daryl and Rick out of frustration. He helps find medicine for the sick inmates before The Governor returns when their numbers are down. Tyreese fights The Governor 's militia along with Rick 's group as he rescues Rick 's infant daughter, Judith. He escapes with Lizzie and Mika and encounters Carol on the road, unaware of her responsibility for Karen 's death. Lizzie 's psychotic behavior becomes a threat to Tyreese and Carol when she murders her sister, and after Carol puts her down, she admits to mercifully killing Karen to prevent people from dying. Tyreese forgives her, but remains haunted by the situation at the grove where they stayed. Soon, he appears psychologically and emotionally damaged, refusing to kill and trying to teach others about mercy. After reuniting with the group, Sasha is alarmed by his behavior, but seeks his comfort in her own loss. After proposing a safe mission to save Beth that fails when Beth is killed, the group go to Beth 's friend Noah 's home town of Richmond, Virginia for possible sanctuary. Tyreese, however, is bitten in one of the overrun homes, and accepts his fate while hallucinating previous deceased group members, making the choice of letting go of his guilt for their losses at last and eventually dying after his arm is amputated.
Sasha Williams, portrayed by Sonequa Martin - Green, is a former firefighter from Jacksonville, Florida. She travels to Georgia with a group run by her older brother, Tyreese in search of a safe haven. After passing on the prison, Sasha, her brother Tyreese and two others, Allen and Ben are welcomed into Woodbury where she protects the walls as a community entrance guard. She is proven to be a great shot, much better than Tyreese, and decides to stay behind with the people of Woodbury at the walls to protect them instead of joining the Woodbury army 's attack on the prison. They let Rick 's group in after Karen explains The Governor 's onslaught on his men. Sasha, along with Tyreese, Karen, and other citizens of Woodbury are taken in by the prison group. At the prison, she is appointed to the prison council, and participates as co-leader on the majority of the supply runs that the prison organizes. She, however, becomes one of those infected by a deadly virus circulating the prison, forcing her to enter quarantine. Hershel keeps her safe in a locked cell block when some infected reanimate as walkers. She is then treated by Bob, one of the new prison inhabitants, who gives her medicine. She participates in the battle between her group and The Governor, and escapes the prison with Bob and Maggie. The three later discover the inhabitants in the prison bus have died and reanimated, and Sasha participates in killing her undead former comrades. She eventually starts a romantic relationship with Bob, which results in her devastation when Bob dies, thus turning her into a colder, more hardened individual, even more so upon her brother 's Tyreese 's death, sometimes doing things which endanger her life. Once at Alexandria she becomes a lookout, and at one point disappears for a day, hunting walkers in the woods, before being brought back by Michonne and Rosita. She seeks help from Gabriel, who denies it from her, and attempts to beat him, but is stopped by Maggie. Sasha begins a romantic relationship with Abraham. Sasha, along with Glenn, Rosita, Daryl, Michonne, Abraham, Maggie, Rick, Carl, Eugene and Aaron, are forced to kneel before Negan. Sasha moves to the Hilltop with Maggie and Enid. Sasha and Rosita decide they are tired of waiting for Rick to attack the Saviors and decide to go themselves. Sasha locks Rosita out of the Sanctuary, saving Rosita 's life. Sasha is captured by Negan and put in a cell. Eugene gives Sasha the poison pill he had made. When traveling to Alexandria, Sasha is put in a casket. When Negan opens the door to show Rick she is alive a zombified Sasha attacks Negan. This is the trigger to All Out War. Maggie and Jesus find zombie Sasha and put her down.
Bob Stookey, portrayed by Lawrence Gilliard Jr., is a former army medic. He joins the prison community a week before the fourth season opener, "30 Days Without an Accident '', when Daryl found him surviving on his own. Bob maintains a confident face to prove his worth to the group, but struggles with alcoholism and his troubled past. When a deadly influenza virus affects the prison inhabitants, Bob joins Daryl 's group to retrieve medicine at a college. Bob then talks to Daryl about being the last survivor to two different groups, and admits responsibility for the death of another member of a group during a supply run when his temptation for alcohol resulted in an attack by walkers, although he is quickly forgiven by Daryl. At the college, Bob retrieves a bottle of alcohol, which is later discovered by Daryl, who loses trust in Bob. When they return to the prison, Bob creates vaccinations to help cure the infected. Bob participates in the battle against The Governor. He is injured, however he manages to escape the prison with Sasha and Maggie. After being treated by Sasha, he joins them in their quest to find the prison bus. The three discover the inhabitants in the prison bus have died and reanimated, and Bob participates in putting down his former colleagues. He eventually starts a romantic relationship with Sasha. Later, after the group reunites and escapes Terminus, he joins Rick, Michonne, Sasha, and Father Stokes on a supply run into the nearest town 's food bank in "Strangers. '' It is eventually revealed that, during a scuffle between Bob and a walker beneath the sewage water in the food bank 's basement, he sustained a bite to his right shoulder, but kept it a secret from everyone else. Later that night, he leaves the church to put himself down, only to be kidnapped by the Hunters. Though he is initially horrified that they are eating his leg, he laughs and taunts them, saying that he is "tainted meat. '' In response, the Hunters savagely beat him and leave him outside the church, where he is found by the group. He dies the next morning, after the group has already killed the Hunters, and Tyreese stabs him in the head to put him down.
Tara Chambler, portrayed by Alanna Masterson, is a former police academy student, who holes up in an apartment complex with her remaining family -- her sister Lilly, her dying father David, and her niece Meghan. They welcome The Governor into their apartment and Tara comes to trust him and follows him as he leads them to join a larger group after her father 's death. As he leads an attack on the prison, she refuses to fight when confronted with The Governor 's true nature. Glenn discovers a catatonic Tara in the aftermath of the battle, having lost her sister (who killed The Governor out of vengeance), niece and her girlfriend Alisha. She agrees to stay with him until he finds Maggie. They later meet Abraham Ford, Dr. Eugene Porter, and Rosita Espinosa, who are on a mission to find a cure for the virus in Washington, D.C. She travels with them and they eventually find Maggie, Bob and Sasha before finding Terminus and being captured and imprisoned by cannibals. The group successfully escape as the compound is overrun and Tara is formally accepted as a member of the group by Rick, who tells her that he knows she did n't want to be a part of the assault. She accompanies group members to D.C. and develops a strong friendship with Eugene, giving him a chance to prove himself and be accepted like herself. Upon discovering his lies of having knowledge of the cure, she is silent, but later explains to Eugene that he needs to pull his weight within the group. The band of survivors regroup and head to Virginia where Noah 's community lies, suffering several losses in the process before being recruited to a safe - zone in D.C. called Alexandria. Tara, Noah and Glenn become supply runners. During one run, Tara is severely injured and unconscious as Noah is killed. Tara later wakes up in a medical room as Rosita watches over her. She soon begins a relationship with Denise Cloyd, the local doctor for Alexandria. She goes along with Rick 's plan to kill the Saviors. After this, she joins Heath on a two - week supply run. While she is gone, Denise is killed by Dwight. Tara and Heath are separated after Tara falls off of a bridge. An unconscious Tara is discovered by the Oceanside community. Tara is able to escape Oceanside but promises she would n't tell anyone of their whereabouts. She eventually breaks this promise when Negan takes Alexandria 's guns. Tara leads Rick, Daryl, Carl, Michonne, Aaron, Gabriel, Jesus, Enid, Tobin, Eric, Scott, & Francine to Oceanside to take their guns. When Rosita brings Dwight back to Alexandria, Tara repeatedly tells Daryl to kill him. When Daryl does n't Tara is seemingly angry at him.
Sergeant Abraham Ford, portrayed by Michael Cudlitz, is a survivor and former member of the military. Before meeting Eugene, he had a family, who ran away after seeing him kill a group that threatened their safety. After his family was killed, Abraham attempted suicide, but Eugene arrived at the same moment, stopping him from doing so. He is attempting to deliver Eugene to Washington, D.C., believing he has the answer to the cause of the zombie plague. Upon discovering that Eugene was lying, he nearly beats Eugene to death. His actions cause friction with the others, but he remains with the group nonetheless. He becomes part of Alexandria 's construction crew and upon Tobin 's recommendation becomes their leader after saving Francine from walkers. Abraham 's friendship with Eugene is later repaired after intervention from Rosita. He is in a relationship with Rosita for the time they spent with Eugene, Glenn and Tara, however he ended it at Alexandria. He seems to grow a liking towards Sasha from being on some runs with her as a partner. Abraham, along with Glenn, Rosita, Daryl, Michonne, Maggie, Rick, Sasha, Carl, Eugene and Aaron, are forced to kneel before Negan. After Negan plays "Eeny, meeny, miny, moe '' with the group, he lands on Abraham and is then bashed by Lucille.
Dr. Eugene Porter, portrayed by Josh McDermitt, is a survivor of the apocalypse and a member of Abraham Ford 's survivor group and later a minor antagonist after he unwillingly begins working for the Saviors. He comes across as timid and socially awkward. Initially when encountered by Rick 's group, he appears to be a scientist that knows of a cure to the outbreak located in Washington, D.C., with Abraham and Rosita assisting him. Later, Eugene is forced to reveal that he lied to Abraham to gain his protection back when they first met, leading Abraham to punch him unconscious and creating a rift in their friendship. When the group makes it to Alexandria, Eugene assists the community with his technical knowledge to repair their solar power system. This helps to boost his confidence to learn how to defend himself, reconcile his friendship with Abraham, and help the community find a way to make more bullets. When Negan discovers that Eugene makes bullets, Eugene is captured for this to work for the Saviors. After the Saviors ' defeat, Eugene lies to Negan about Sasha 's death, but still sides with Negan.
Rosita Espinosa, portrayed by Christian Serratos, is a survivor of the apocalypse and a member of Abraham Ford 's survivor group, with whom she is in a relationship. When their truck breaks down on the way to D.C. she and the others journey with Glenn and Tara towards Terminus, ultimately leading to her capture there. She escapes with the group and goes with them from Georgia to Alexandria, forming a close relationship with fellow survivors Glenn Rhee and Tara Chambler before becoming fully accepted into their group. Upon arriving at Alexandria, Rosita is made a medical assistant. She also, along with Michonne, tries to bring Sasha back to Alexandria after she goes missing, and takes close care of Tara after her injury, whilst simultaneously trying to mend Abraham 's and Eugene 's friendship. She is with Tara when she wakes up in the season five finale. In "Not Tomorrow Yet '', Rosita is heartbroken after Abraham breaks up with her. She then begins a relationship with Spencer. Rosita, along with Glenn, Daryl, Michonne, Abraham, Maggie, Rick, Sasha, Carl, Eugene and Aaron, are forced to kneel before Negan. Furious about Abraham & Glenn 's death, Rosita has Eugene make her a bullet to kill Negan. Negan kills Spencer which triggers Rosita to shoot at Negan. When Rosita shoots at Negan, she hits Lucille. She is tackled by Arat and she scars Rosita 's face. Rosita becomes increasingly angry with the Saviors. She finds Sasha at Hilltop and the two go on a mission to the Sanctuary to kill Negan. During their run, Rosita reveals to Sasha that she learned everything she knows from everyone she met after the apocalypse. Later, when breaking into the Sanctuary Eugene refusing the help of Sasha & Rosita and will not escape. Sasha locks Rosita out of the Sanctuary telling her that is is n't her time to die. Rosita then runs into Dwight, who she brings back to Alexandria. During the battle at Alexandria, Rosita is shot and is rushed to the infermery by Tara.
Gareth, portrayed by Andrew J. West, is the leader of a supposed safe - zone, Terminus, who runs it along with his younger brother, Alex, and his mother, Mary. He explains that Terminus initially was a safe and welcoming place, a sanctuary for all who wanted to come in before a group of marauders took over and began ruthlessly beating and raping the other survivors. Gareth and his family had to take Terminus back by force, and decided that from then on, they would run Terminus in a similarly brutal manner by capturing, killing, and eating all those who were lured in by the various signs posted in the area. Just before Gareth and his butchers can kill Rick, Daryl, Glenn, and Bob, Carol begins her siege on Terminus by blowing up the propane tank outside, blasting open the fences and allowing the walkers to flow in. Though Terminus is destroyed and a majority of the survivors, including Alex and Mary, are killed, Gareth manages to survive and escape, along with five others, and become known as The Hunters. Later the Hunters kidnap Bob and eat one of his legs, but when he reveals that he is infected, they savagely beat him and leave him outside Father Stokes 's church, where Rick 's group has taken residence. They then attempt to lead a siege against the church in "Four Walls and a Roof '', only to be outsmarted and overpowered by Rick, Abraham, Michonne, Glenn, Maggie and Tara. Although Gareth initially pleads for his life, Rick refuses and kills him with a red - handled machete.
Gabriel Stokes, portrayed by Seth Gilliam, is a priest at a small, local church outside Atlanta. He is an extremely nervous man, who is not used to the hazards of the outside world, having been mostly sheltered inside his church after the outbreak began, living off of stored food from the nearby town 's food drive. He also struggles with how his religious beliefs fit within this new world. He is introduced when Rick 's group rescues him from walkers while he was out foraging, and he offers them shelter in his church. Rick discovers Gabriel had locked his congregation out of the church at the start of the outbreak, an action he remains remorseful of. He joins Rick 's group as the church is overrun, though detests the use of violence. When they arrive at the relative safety of Alexandria, he attempts to sway Deanna that Rick 's group are Satan in disguise, but eventually apologizes to all for sowing seeds of distrust. He becomes a useful member of Alexandria as both a man of the cloth as well as helping to protect the community 's walls. Tamiel from the Scavengers kidnap Gabriel. Rick, Michonne, Rosita, Tara, & Aaron find Gabriel with the Scavengers.
Aaron, portrayed by Ross Marquand, is a recruiter for the Alexandria Safe - Zone community, and generally a cheerful, outgoing personality. Prior to formally meeting the group, he followed them around to evaluate them as candidates for membership in Alexandria, and eventually extends an invitation to Rick. The group, after some deliberation, accepts. Once the group is accustomed to Alexandria, Aaron invites Daryl to help assist him in recruiting other survivors. During once such excursion, Aaron and Daryl are lured into a walker trap set up by the Wolves. Morgan helps them to escape, though Aaron loses his kit of recruiting materials. Later, when the Wolves launch a full - out attack on Alexandria, Aaron finds that they had used his recruiting materials to locate Alexandria and plan the attack, causing him to feel guilty over the deaths of several Alexandrians. Aaron, along with Glenn, Daryl, Michonne, Abraham, Maggie, Rick, Sasha, Carl, Eugene and Rosita, are forced to kneel before Negan, and watches in horror as Negan brutally murders Abraham and Glenn. He helps Rick carry back Abraham and Glenn 's body after their deaths.
Deanna Monroe, portrayed by Tovah Feldshuh, is a former Congresswoman and the leader of the Alexandria Safe - Zone. Based on the character of Douglas Monroe from the comic books. She interviews each member of Rick 's group as well recording it. She eventually finds a job for each of them to contribute in the community. She states that she is very good at reading people. Deanna is the mother of Aiden and Spencer and wife to Reg. She had to deal with the loss of her son, Aiden, who died on a run for supplies and later Reg, who was killed by Pete, their medical adviser. She wanted to expand Alexandria wider and gave her plans to Rick. When the herd of walkers break into Alexandria in "Start to Finish '' she is bitten, inside she tells Michonne she would kill herself when the time is right. Due to Carl and Ron fighting the walkers end up invading the house they were in, they inevitably left leaving her there. Once the walkers reach upstairs, instead of killing herself like she had planned, shoots several walkers before she then lets out a final scream before being eaten. She is later put down by Spencer and Michonne, then buried in the woods outside Alexandria.
Jessie Anderson, portrayed by Alexandra Breckenridge, is an Alexandria resident, Pete 's wife, and Ron and Sam 's mother. She mentions to Rick she is a former stylist and gives him a haircut. Rick and Jessie show romantic feelings towards one another. Jessie is revealed to be abused by Pete and Rick intervenes, which leads into a fight between the two. After Pete 's execution for killing Reg, Jessie is taught how to shoot through Rosita, and begins to step up. After being tackled by a female member of the Wolves, Jessie stabs the woman repeatedly. She then tries to convince the other Alexandrians to be brave and accept the harsh realities outside the walls, and begins a relationship with Rick. When the herd breaks into Alexandria, her son, Sam is devoured in front of her and she becomes catatonic, while holding onto Carl 's hand. Jessie is devoured and Rick is forced to chop her hand off. She is buried after the herd is taken out, along with her sons.
Enid, portrayed by Katelyn Nacon, is an Alexandria resident. She is first seen sitting on a bed with a book, while Ron and Mikey play video games, as Carl is introduced to her. She often leaves the safe - zone and witnesses the group enter Alexandria for the first time. Carl follows her out one time, however she sneaks back in away from him. Ron explains to Carl that it took her a while to speak to the other kids and that she arrived alone. Carl continues to follow her outside, which she quickly realizes, and despite admitting to be uneasy with him stalking her she lets him accompany him as she keeps herself prepared to face the walkers. Carl also seems to have developed a crush on Enid, but appears too timid to pursue it, given his resistance to even hold her hand for more than one second. Enid is the last survivor of her family, they were attacked and she came out safe. She had to travel alone for a while, but soon came across Alexandria. She helps Maggie with her state during pregnancy and wanted to come on the trip to the Hilltop Colony, but Carl traps her in a cupboard in fear of losing her. After learning of the deaths of Glenn & Abraham, Enid travels to the Hilltop with Carl. She and Carl share their first kiss. Enid begs Carl to not travel to the Sanctuary, but he does n't give in. When at the Oceanside, Enid asks Carl what it 's like to kill somebody, anticipating she will have to do it soon. In the Season 7 finale, Enid arrives at Alexandria with Maggie, Jesus, and the other Hilltop residents to join the battle against the Scavengers and the Saviors.
Spencer Monroe, portrayed by Austin Nichols, is the son of Deanna and Reg, and the older brother of Aiden. He is one of the two snipers in the bell tower, the other being Sasha, who he takes an interest in. He nearly got himself killed when attempting to climb across a wire to find a car and lead the herd of walkers away. This close capture nearly cost the life of Tara also. After the events of the herd attack, he sneaks out of Alexandria to go find the walker of his Mom, Deanna. Michonne follows him and then allows him to do what he wanted. In "Twice as Far '', he awakens from sleeping with Rosita, he later asks her for a date, which she seems slightly reluctant to, but agrees eventually. He blames Rick for the deaths of Abraham and Glenn, even challenges Rick once after his return, but it was n't received constructively. He tried to prove himself to the Saviors by going out alone to collect supplies, but, when he reveals to Negan his desire to overthrow Rick, Negan becomes unworthy to see his cowardice of not having "guts '', and sticks his knife in his stomach and guts him in front of all the Alexandrians; Rick finishes his zombification.
Dwight, portrayed by Austin Amelio, is a ruthless but reluctant member of the Saviors, who forms a hostile rivalry with Daryl. He first appears in "Always Accountable '' with his wife Sherry and his sister - in - law Tina. The three of them find and keep Daryl captive in the woods. He later attempts to kill Daryl, but ends up shooting Denise in the eye, killing her, with Daryl 's own personal crossbow; Daryl his crew also held Eugene hostage. After Abraham shoots out, Dwight retreats with the rest of his men. After Denise 's death, Daryl goes out to hunt for Dwight for vengeance. Michonne, Rosita, and Glenn follow him to lead him back, but Rosita agrees with him in planning to bring down Dwight. Michonne and Glenn, on the way back, are captured by his men and when Rosita and Daryl are found by Dwight. Dwight shoots Daryl. Dwight stands forward when they ambush Rick 's group, he takes an interest in Daryl 's gear especially his vest, motorcycle, and crossbow. He uses Daryl 's motorcycle to get around, he tries to convince a runaway savior to return, but he refuses, Dwight shoots him as a last resort. It is revealed the burn mark on his face came from Negan, after Sherry became one of Negan 's wives, Dwight and Sherry tried to get back with each other, but were caught. It 's clear Dwight holds this against Negan, but wo n't do anything out of fear. Rosita brings Dwight to Alexandria, where he is confronted by Daryl, Rick, Tara, Michonne, & Jesus. He tells them that he wants to join them and kill Negan. Tara is begging for Daryl to kill him for killing Denise.
Paul "Jesus '' Rovia, portrayed by Tom Payne, is a friend of Rick 's group and a member of the Hilltop Colony. He first met Daryl and Rick and stole their truck full of food. Then he fought with Daryl and Rick, who knocked him unconscious. They brought him to Alexandria instead of leaving him to die. Jesus brings them to the Hilltop in order for the two communities to become trading partners, and assists them in rescuing Craig and taking out one of the Saviors outposts. When Maggie and Sasha make it to the Hilltop, he is very welcoming; he constantly tries to convince Gregory of their usefulness. After the Saviors come to collect supplies, Gregory tells Jesus to sneak in and find their location. He then sneaks into the back of one of the lorries where he meets Carl. After infiltrating, he bumps into Daryl, who has just escaped and helps to bring him to the Hilltop where they meet Rick and co from Alexandria.
Gregory, portrayed by Xander Berkeley, is the leader of the Hilltop Colony. He dealt with the Saviors and then with Rick 's group. He was stabbed by Ethan, but lives. He is considered to be a coward to a great extent. Reluctantly, he ends up taking in Sasha and Maggie after Negan 's ambush. He is often forgetful and undermines the value and potential of Maggie and Sasha to the group, he almost gave up their hiding space to Simon in "Go Getters '', but, luckily, Jesus moved them else where. In "Rock in the Road '', he refuses to assist Rick in the oncoming fight against the Saviors, and is greatly criticised by them and his community.
Simon (also known as "Lead Savior '' for his first appearance), portrayed by Steven Ogg, is a high - ranking member of the Saviors, who serves as Negan 's right - hand man. He is first encountered in the season six finale as a road block to Rick 's group. He shares some encounters with Rick, exchanging thoughts of that day being someones "last day on earth. '' He later reappears at the end of the episode and announces to Rick 's group as this being their destination. He calls for Dwight to get Daryl, Glenn, Michonne and Rosita out of the RV, and later calls Negan out to face the fearful Alexandrians. This manages to subdue the group under Negan. Simon is characterized by being extremely reluctant of a huge stature with a very rude and intimidating aspect, his special assignment is to submit to Hilltop by which he recurrently visits the colony. Without realizing that Maggie and Sasha are in that place, in the end of the seventh season accompanies Negan to submit again to the Alexandrians, without realizing that the community allied with Hilltop and The Kingdom during this event Rick along with Maggie Leading Hilltop and Ezekiel along with the Kingdom manage to give a hard blow to Los Salvadores which forces Simon along with his leader and Dwight to flee. However, Simon along with Negan prepare for the war that is coming.
Negan, portrayed by Jeffrey Dean Morgan, is a totalitarian and manipulative dictator, who made his first appearance in the season six finale. He is the psychopathic and merciless leader of a vast organization of hostile survivors -- The Saviors -- that he rules in tyranny. His group coerces other survivors to give the Saviors their possessions and supplies by the threat of force and intimidation. When Rick 's group attempt to take Maggie to the Hilltop Colony for medical assistance, the Saviors capture them all. Negan demands that Alexandria will turn over half its supplies to him from now on, and reinforces his mandate by beating to a bloody pulp, Abraham, and then Glenn with his barbed wire - studded baseball bat, Lucille. Negan, returns finds his way to Alexandria, where he meets the rest of the group, he takes 50 % of all of their supplies, furniture, and weapons leaving them will significantly less. He starts to threaten Olivia when she believes to have made a mistake, which was actually Spencer 's fault. A punishment he continues is burning a face with an iron, this punishment is given to anyone, who sleeps with any of Negan 's wives -- this of which has happened to Dwight. When Carl guns down his men, he takes him in and starts to intimidate him by making him sing a song and revealing his shot eye. He then returns to Alexandria with Carl waiting for Rick. In the meantime, he is taken on a tour and enjoys a meal with Carl, Olivia, and Judith. Before Rick returns, Spencer tries to accommodate with Negan by offering him a drink and playing pool with him. However, when Spencer reveals his true colors about Rick, Negan suggests that he "has no guts '' for not killing Rick himself and just taking over. This leads to him gutting Spencer, this attack leads Rosita to attempt at shooting Negan, she misses and shoots Lucille instead. Furious, when Negan determines that the bullet shot at him was freshly made, he demands to know, who made it by Rosita. When Rosita refuses, Negan orders for someone to be shot; this ends up being Olivia. When Eugene finally confesses, Negan orders him to be taken. He leaves when Rick arrives, stating that he helped him and cleared up his mess.
King Ezekiel, portrayed by Khary Payton, is the leader of a community known as the Kingdom, who owns a pet Bengal tiger named Shiva.
Jadis, portrayed by Pollyanna McIntosh, is the oddly - spoken and enigmatic leader of the Scavengers. She is calm and collected, but also very cunning and sly. Her group ambushed Rick 's team, who were looking for Gabriel, whom the Scavengers kidnapped. When asked by Rick about joining forces to defeat the Saviors, Jadis is reluctant to; however she takes it into consideration after being told that they could gain more supplies. Told by Jadis that he needs to prove his worth, Rick is pushed by her down a trash heap, landing in a pit made of trash and metal. After watching Rick kill a heavily armored walker, she tells him that she and her people will help him, but that they need a lot of guns. When Rick 's group delivers 63 guns to her, she tells him that it is not enough and only half the amount she desires, claiming they need nearly twice as many guns. Rick and Jadis then renegotiate and, after Rick persuades her, agree that he will keep 20 of the guns to help his search for more, and also once again reaffirm their alliance. The day of the battle, she crudely propositions Rick, much to Michonne 's confusion upon arrival to stop the Saviors. Together, both groups wire up bombs at the gates ready for the enemy. When the explosion fails, as Negan and his men stand by the gates, Jadis, standing on a platform with Rick, pulls a gun on him as her group does the same to the Alexandrians. It is then revealed that she told Negan of Rick 's plan and was offered a "better deal ''. When the Saviors get distracted by the re-animated Sasha, Rick attempts to make another deal with her, but Jadis refuses and shots him in the abdomen; she pushes him off the platform. During the battle, she flees with her group through smoke bombs.
Five inmates in the prison survived the apocalypse, locked up in the canteen for ten months. Until released from the canteen by Rick 's group, they were unaware of the walker plague that wiped out a large percentage of the population. Rick tells them they can live in a separate cellblock. Although two of them ultimately join Rick 's group, they all eventually die.
Woodbury is a town in Georgia, of which a few streets have been walled off to keep the town operating. It is led by Philip Blake, who has adopted the nickname "The Governor '' from the townspeople. Woodbury had a population of close to eighty people at the time of Andrea and Michonne 's arrival, but due to various factors (such as the prison group 's attack on the town and The Governor 's slaughter of nearly his entire army), the population dwindles dramatically throughout season three. Robert Kirkman later confirmed that any and all Woodbury characters, who were not brought to the prison are deceased. The remaining population of Woodbury at the Prison Community dwindles further throughout season four as a result of the spreading of the flu. As of the episode "Inmates '', nearly every resident of Woodbury is confirmed to be deceased, as the bus is apparently overwhelmed and everyone on board becomes zombified (and later put down by Maggie Greene, Bob Stookey, and Sasha). It has been confirmed that any other Woodbury resident (except Jeanette) not seen dying either on the bus or at the prison is deceased nonetheless. Thus, the entire population of Woodbury is confirmed to be dead.
After The Governor executes most of the able - bodied Woodbury residents, who had been members of his army, only the children and elderly townspeople remain at Woodbury (under the watchful eye of Tyreese and Sasha). After Andrea 's suicide due to being bitten, Rick and his group return to the prison with the remaining Woodbury survivors (including Tyreese, Sasha, Karen, Eryn, Jeanette, and Ms. McLeod), swelling the prison 's population from the original ten to around 30. Six to seven months afterwards, numerous other survivors have joined the prison community, from various locations and backgrounds. Some of those people are Ryan Samuels, Mika Samuels, Patrick, Zach, Lizzie Samuels, Luke, Owen, Molly, Julio, and Charlie. The compound is initially peaceful and thriving, until a flu epidemic spreads throughout the community and infects numerous residents, killing many of those stricken. However, when the scouting group returns with medicine, the issue is resolved. Shortly afterwards, The Governor returns with a militia and executes the captive Hershel, igniting a firefight between the two groups. This battle leads to the fall of the prison community after The Governor tears down the fences. As a result of the flu and The Governor 's assault, the numbers dwindle significantly. The escaping newcomers are found dead on the public transport bus for the prison, while five other newcomers remain alive. Lizzie and Mika are later killed, as well as Bob and lastly Tyreese. Sasha is only prison newcomer still alive.
After wandering on his own for six to seven months alone, following the fall of Woodbury and the defections of Martinez and Shumpert, The Governor encounters the Chambler Family holed up in their apartment building. The surviving Chamblers later set off with The Governor (who has said his name is "Brian Hariot '') to seek shelter elsewhere following the death of David, but The Governor 's actions lead to Lilly and Meghan 's deaths.
A dangerous group of heavily armed men, who raid homes searching for supplies and weapons. The group first appeared in "Claimed. ''
Terminus is a sanctuary that is first mentioned in the last half of season four over a radio broadcast heard by Daryl, Bob, Michonne, and Tyreese while driving in Zach 's car. After the fall of the prison, the small factions of prison residents, who survive the assault find the signs directing survivors towards Terminus, and each group slowly begins to make its way there. The exact location of Terminus is finally revealed in "Us '', where it appears to be a relatively vibrant, well - secured settlement, but in actuality hides a dark and brutal secret. After Terminus is destroyed by Carol 's siege in "No Sanctuary '', only six residents of survive and escape, becoming known as The Hunters.
After Carol destroys Terminus, their leader, Gareth, began to harass the group Rick to find them, in order to take revenge.
Grady Memorial Hospital, first appearing in "Slabtown '', is revealed to be the home of a sheltered group of survivors, who believe that military assistance will eventually come to them after a certain period of time. The hospital is run under a strict authoritarian regime by a group of corrupt police officers.
The Wolves are a group of deranged people, who destroy camps and shelters, killing everyone. They are marked with a "W '' with blood on their foreheads -- the sign of a wolf. They steal the belongings of their victims, often dismembering their bodies, and cutting the "W '' sign onto these victims ' foreheads with knives. They usually leave their victims to become walkers.
The Sanctuary is a community of a massive group of bandits called "The Saviors '', a group of pirates, gangsters and motorcyclists, who plunder people on the road around the Washington area. They are a subgroup under Negan.
The Scavengers are a large group that first appears in "Rock in the Road ''. They live in a junkyard and are led by a woman named Jadis. In the season seven finale, they betray Rick, and reveal their service and loyalty to Negan.
The Walking Dead comic book and the television series, based on it, are regarded as separate continuities. Therefore, regardless of any possible similarities between the two mediums, characters and events appearing in one have no effect on the continuity of the other.
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who was driving the car thelma and louise | Thelma & Louise - wikipedia
Thelma & Louise is a 1991 American road film directed by Ridley Scott and written by Callie Khouri. It stars Geena Davis as Thelma and Susan Sarandon as Louise, two friends who embark on a road trip with unforeseen consequences. The supporting cast include Harvey Keitel, Michael Madsen, and Brad Pitt, whose career was launched by the film.
The film became a critical and commercial success, receiving six Academy Award nominations and winning one for Best Original Screenplay for Khouri. Scott was nominated for Best Director, and both Sarandon and Davis were nominated for Best Actress. At its release the film stirred controversy. At the intersection of several genres, it is now considered a classic. It influenced other films and artistic works, and became a landmark of feminist film. In 2016, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Best friends Thelma Dickinson and Louise Sawyer set out for a weekend vacation at a fishing cabin in the mountains, to take a break from their dreary lives in Arkansas. Thelma, a ditzy housewife, is married to a disrespectful and controlling man, Darryl, while sharp - tongued Louise works as a waitress in a diner, and is on - off dating a musician, Jimmy, who spends most of his time on the road.
On the way they stop for a drink at a roadhouse bar where Thelma meets and dances with a flirtatious stranger, Harlan. When he takes her outside to the parking lot to get some fresh air, he starts kissing her and taking her clothes off without her consent. Thelma resists but Harlan hits her, and then starts raping her. Louise finds them and threatens to shoot Harlan with the gun that Thelma brought with her. Harlan stops but as the women walk away, he yells that he should have continued the rape and continually insults them. Enraged, Louise responds by shooting him dead, and the pair flee the scene.
At a motel, they discuss how to handle the situation. Thelma wants to go to the police but Louise fears that no one will believe Thelma 's claim of attempted rape and they will be subsequently charged for murder. They decide to go on the run, but Louise demands they travel from Oklahoma to Mexico without going through Texas. Something happened to Louise in Texas, and Thelma suspects it was something similar to what had happened with Harlan but Louise adamantly refuses to discuss it. Heading west, the women come across an attractive young drifter, J.D., who Thelma quickly falls for, and she convinces Louise to let him hitch a ride with them. Louise then contacts Jimmy and asks him to wire transfer her life savings to her. When she goes to pick up the money, she finds that Jimmy has come to see her to deliver the money in person, and the two spend the night together. Jimmy proposes to Louise but she refuses. Meanwhile, Thelma invites J.D. to her room, and they sleep together. She then learns he is a thief who has broken parole.
The following morning, Thelma leaves J.D. in her motel room while she meets Louise downstairs for breakfast and, when they return, they discover J.D. has stolen Louise 's life savings and fled. Louise is distraught, so a guilty Thelma takes charge and later robs a nearby convenience store using the tactics she learned from listening to J.D. Meanwhile, the FBI are getting closer to catching the fugitives after witnesses at the bar saw Louise 's 1966 Ford Thunderbird convertible speeding out of the parking lot the night of the shooting. Their whereabouts are also questioned by the owner of the fishing cabin after the women failed to arrive for the weekend. Arkansas State Police Investigator Hal Slocumb leads the investigation and questions both J.D. and Jimmy, and taps into the phone line at Darryl 's house. He discovers that Louise had been raped years earlier in Texas, so sympathizes with her situation and understands why they did n't report Harlan 's murder to the authorities. During a couple of brief phone conversations with Louise, he expresses his sympathy, but is unsuccessful in his attempts to persuade her to surrender.
Thelma tells Louise she understands if she wants to go back home, knowing she has Jimmy waiting for her, but explains she can not go back to Darryl. Louise promises they will keep going together. The pair are later pulled over by a New Mexico state trooper for speeding. Knowing he will soon discover they are wanted for murder and armed robbery, Thelma holds him at gunpoint and locks him in the trunk of his police car, while Louise takes his gun and ammunition. They drive away from the scene and spend the next few nights heading further west. On the road, they encounter a foul - mouthed truck driver who repeatedly makes obscene gestures at them. They pull over and demand an apology from him, but when he refuses, they fire at the fuel tanker he is driving, causing it to explode.
Thelma and Louise are finally cornered by the authorities only one hundred yards from the edge of the Grand Canyon. Hal arrives on the scene, but he is refused the chance to make one last attempt to talk the women into surrendering. Rather than be captured and spend the rest of their lives in jail, Thelma proposes that they "keep going ''. Louise asks Thelma if she is certain, and Thelma says yes. They kiss, then Louise steps on the accelerator, and they ride the car over the cliff to their deaths.
Although the setting for the film is a fictional route between Arkansas and the Grand Canyon, the movie was filmed almost entirely in the states of California and Utah. The primary filming locations for the movie are rural areas around Bakersfield, California and Moab, Utah. The Grand Canyon scenes were actually filmed just south of Dead Horse Point State Park in Utah. Parts of the film were also shot at Shafer Overlook, Monument Valley, La Sal Mountains, La Sal Junction, Cisco, Old Valley City Reservoir, Thompson Springs, Arches National Park, and Crescent Junction in Utah.
The film was an overwhelming critical success. Metacritic lists a composite critical score of 88 out of 100. Rotten Tomatoes rates Thelma & Louise 83 % "Fresh ''. Janet Maslin of The New York Times had only praise for the film in her review: "Mr. Scott 's Thelma and Louise, with a sparkling screenplay by the first - time writer Callie Khouri, is a surprise on this and many other scores. It reveals the previously untapped talent of Mr. Scott (best known for majestically moody action films like Alien, Blade Runner and Black Rain) for exuberant comedy, and for vibrant American imagery, notwithstanding his English roots. It reimagines the buddy film with such freshness and vigor that the genre seems positively new. It discovers unexpected resources in both its stars, Susan Sarandon and Geena Davis, who are perfectly teamed as the spirited and original title characters. '' Roger Ebert also praised the film, but withheld a perfect score on the basis of "the last shot before the titles begin. It 's a freeze frame that fades to white, which is fine, except it does so with unseemly haste... It 's unsettling to get involved in a movie that takes 128 minutes to bring you to a payoff that the filmmakers seem to fear. ''
The film was screened out of competition at the 1991 Cannes Film Festival. After watching the film, singer - songwriter Tori Amos wrote "Me and a Gun '', the story of her rape six years earlier, which she had told only a few people about before watching this film. Affected by a scene in the movie, Amos began sobbing publicly in a crowded movie theater and writing the lyrics to the song in her head.
Argentinian singer and musician Fito Páez wrote a hit song called "Dos días en la vida '' ("Two days in one lifetime '') after watching this movie. The lyrics tell the story of the main characters, with verses played by singers Fabiana Cantilo (in the role of Thelma) and Celeste Carballo (Louise). It was one of the most successful singles from his 1992 album El amor después del amor.
The final scene, where the two embrace each other before driving off a cliff, has become iconic. Numerous homages and parodies of the scene have appeared, including alternate movie endings, cartoon parodies, video game "Easter Eggs '', and as a tragic ending to television series, music videos and commercials.
The film also received harsh and significant criticism from those who thought it was anti-male and that its depictions of men were unfairly negative.
Numerous critics and writers have remarked on the strong feminist overtones of Thelma & Louise. Film critic B. Ruby Rich praises the film as an uncompromising validation of women 's experiences, while Kenneth Turan calls it a "neo-feminist road movie ''. In her essay "The Daughters of Thelma and Louise '', Jessica Enevold argues that the movie constitutes "an attack on conventional patterns of chauvinist male behavior toward females ''. In addition, it "exposes the traditional stereotyping of male -- female relationships '' while rescripting the typical gender roles of the road movie genre.
In her review for The Los Angeles Times, film critic Sheila Benson objects to the characterization of the film as feminist, arguing that it is more preoccupied with revenge and violence than feminist values.
In his review for The New York Post, film critic Kyle Smith describes the film as "a misogynist tale about unbelievably ditzy women who lose what remains of their reason under pressure and suffer the ultimate punishment. '' Smith 's review focused less on the fact that the film stars strong female characters and instead points out the terrible decisions these strong female characters make throughout the entire movie.
In an article commemorating the film 's 20th anniversary in 2011, Raina Lipsitz called it "the last great film about women '' and said that it heralded the achievements of women that caused 1992 to become "the year of the woman ''. However, she also said that women - themed films have since been losing ground.
Khouri won an Academy Award for Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen; Scott, Davis, Sarandon, cinematographer Adrian Biddle, and film editor Thom Noble were nominated for Oscars.
The British Film Institute published a book about the film in 2000, as part of a Modern Classics series. On the Writers Guild of America Award 's 101 Best Screenplays List it made No. 72. The film was ranked on the Australian program 20 to 1, in the episode Magnificent Movie Moments.
American Film Institute lists
Pete Haycock on slide guitar contributed to Thunderbird, the theme music for the film. In addition to Glenn Frey 's "Part of Me, Part of You '', which became the film 's primary theme song, the soundtrack included songs by Chris Whitley, Martha Reeves, Toni Childs, Marianne Faithfull, Charlie Sexton, Grayson Hugh, B.B. King, and Michael McDonald.
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discuss the important of programming language to digital computer | Programming language - wikipedia
A programming language is a formal language which comprises a set of instructions used to produce various kinds of output. Programming languages are used to create programs that implement specific algorithms.
Most programming languages consist of instructions for computers, although there are programmable machines that use a limited set of specific instructions, rather than the general programming languages of modern computers. Early ones preceded the invention of the digital computer, the first probably being the automatic flute player described in the 9th century by the brothers Musa in Baghdad, during the Islamic Golden Age. From the early 1800s, programs were used to direct the behavior of machines such as Jacquard looms, music boxes and player pianos. However, their programs (such as a player piano 's scrolls) could not produce different behavior in response to some input or condition.
Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computer field, and many more still are being created every year. Many programming languages require computation to be specified in an imperative form (i.e., as a sequence of operations to perform) while other languages use other forms of program specification such as the declarative form (i.e. the desired result is specified, not how to achieve it).
The description of a programming language is usually split into the two components of syntax (form) and semantics (meaning). Some languages are defined by a specification document (for example, the C programming language is specified by an ISO Standard) while other languages (such as Perl) have a dominant implementation that is treated as a reference. Some languages have both, with the basic language defined by a standard and extensions taken from the dominant implementation being common.
A programming language is a notation for writing programs, which are specifications of a computation or algorithm. Some, but not all, authors restrict the term "programming language '' to those languages that can express all possible algorithms. Traits often considered important for what constitutes a programming language include:
Markup languages like XML, HTML, or troff, which define structured data, are not usually considered programming languages. Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined. XSLT, for example, is a Turing complete language entirely using XML syntax. Moreover, LaTeX, which is mostly used for structuring documents, also contains a Turing complete subset.
The term computer language is sometimes used interchangeably with programming language. However, the usage of both terms varies among authors, including the exact scope of each. One usage describes programming languages as a subset of computer languages. In this vein, languages used in computing that have a different goal than expressing computer programs are generically designated computer languages. For instance, markup languages are sometimes referred to as computer languages to emphasize that they are not meant to be used for programming.
Another usage regards programming languages as theoretical constructs for programming abstract machines, and computer languages as the subset thereof that runs on physical computers, which have finite hardware resources. John C. Reynolds emphasizes that formal specification languages are just as much programming languages as are the languages intended for execution. He also argues that textual and even graphical input formats that affect the behavior of a computer are programming languages, despite the fact they are commonly not Turing - complete, and remarks that ignorance of programming language concepts is the reason for many flaws in input formats.
Very early computers, such as Colossus, were programmed without the help of a stored program, by modifying their circuitry or setting banks of physical controls.
Slightly later, programs could be written in machine language, where the programmer writes each instruction in a numeric form the hardware can execute directly. For example, the instruction to add the value in two memory location might consist of 3 numbers: a "opcode '' that selects the "add '' operation, and two memory locations. The programs, in decimal or binary form, were read in from punched cards or magnetic tape or toggled in on switches on the front panel of the computer. Machine languages were later termed first - generation programming languages (1GL).
The next step was development of so - called second - generation programming languages (2GL) or assembly languages, which were still closely tied to the instruction set architecture of the specific computer. These served to make the program much more human - readable and relieved the programmer of tedious and error - prone address calculations.
The first high - level programming languages, or third - generation programming languages (3GL), were written in the 1950s. An early high - level programming language to be designed for a computer was Plankalkül, developed for the German Z3 by Konrad Zuse between 1943 and 1945. However, it was not implemented until 1998 and 2000.
John Mauchly 's Short Code, proposed in 1949, was one of the first high - level languages ever developed for an electronic computer. Unlike machine code, Short Code statements represented mathematical expressions in understandable form. However, the program had to be translated into machine code every time it ran, making the process much slower than running the equivalent machine code.
At the University of Manchester, Alick Glennie developed Autocode in the early 1950s. A programming language, it used a compiler to automatically convert the language into machine code. The first code and compiler was developed in 1952 for the Mark 1 computer at the University of Manchester and is considered to be the first compiled high - level programming language.
The second autocode was developed for the Mark 1 by R.A. Brooker in 1954 and was called the "Mark 1 Autocode ''. Brooker also developed an autocode for the Ferranti Mercury in the 1950s in conjunction with the University of Manchester. The version for the EDSAC 2 was devised by D.F. Hartley of University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in 1961. Known as EDSAC 2 Autocode, it was a straight development from Mercury Autocode adapted for local circumstances and was noted for its object code optimisation and source - language diagnostics which were advanced for the time. A contemporary but separate thread of development, Atlas Autocode was developed for the University of Manchester Atlas 1 machine.
In 1954, FORTRAN was invented at IBM by John Backus. It was the first widely used high - level general purpose programming language to have a functional implementation, as opposed to just a design on paper. It is still a popular language for high - performance computing and is used for programs that benchmark and rank the world 's fastest supercomputers.
Another early programming language was devised by Grace Hopper in the US, called FLOW - MATIC. It was developed for the UNIVAC I at Remington Rand during the period from 1955 until 1959. Hopper found that business data processing customers were uncomfortable with mathematical notation, and in early 1955, she and her team wrote a specification for an English programming language and implemented a prototype. The FLOW - MATIC compiler became publicly available in early 1958 and was substantially complete in 1959. Flow - Matic was a major influence in the design of COBOL, since only it and its direct descendant AIMACO were in actual use at the time.
The increased use of high - level languages introduced a requirement for low - level programming languages or system programming languages. These languages, to varying degrees, provide facilities between assembly languages and high - level languages and can be used to perform tasks which require direct access to hardware facilities but still provide higher - level control structures and error - checking.
The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language paradigms now in use:
Each of these languages spawned descendants, and most modern programming languages count at least one of them in their ancestry.
The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of structured programming, and whether programming languages should be designed to support it. Edsger Dijkstra, in a famous 1968 letter published in the Communications of the ACM, argued that GOTO statements should be eliminated from all "higher level '' programming languages.
The 1980s were years of relative consolidation. C++ combined object - oriented and systems programming. The United States government standardized Ada, a systems programming language derived from Pascal and intended for use by defense contractors. In Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investigating so - called "fifth generation '' languages that incorporated logic programming constructs. The functional languages community moved to standardize ML and Lisp. Rather than inventing new paradigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the ideas invented in the previous decades.
One important trend in language design for programming large - scale systems during the 1980s was an increased focus on the use of modules or large - scale organizational units of code. Modula - 2, Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s, which were often wedded to generic programming constructs.
The rapid growth of the Internet in the mid-1990s created opportunities for new languages. Perl, originally a Unix scripting tool first released in 1987, became common in dynamic websites. Java came to be used for server - side programming, and bytecode virtual machines became popular again in commercial settings with their promise of "Write once, run anywhere '' (UCSD Pascal had been popular for a time in the early 1980s). These developments were not fundamentally novel, rather they were refinements of many existing languages and paradigms (although their syntax was often based on the C family of programming languages).
Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and research. Current directions include security and reliability verification, new kinds of modularity (mixins, delegates, aspects), and database integration such as Microsoft 's LINQ.
Fourth - generation programming languages (4GL) are computer programming languages which aim to provide a higher level of abstraction of the internal computer hardware details than 3GLs. Fifth generation programming languages (5GL) are programming languages based on solving problems using constraints given to the program, rather than using an algorithm written by a programmer.
All programming languages have some primitive building blocks for the description of data and the processes or transformations applied to them (like the addition of two numbers or the selection of an item from a collection). These primitives are defined by syntactic and semantic rules which describe their structure and meaning respectively.
A programming language 's surface form is known as its syntax. Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages. On the other hand, there are some programming languages which are more graphical in nature, using visual relationships between symbols to specify a program.
The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics (either formal or hard - coded in a reference implementation). Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax.
Programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of regular expressions (for lexical structure) and Backus -- Naur form (for grammatical structure). Below is a simple grammar, based on Lisp:
This grammar specifies the following:
The following are examples of well - formed token sequences in this grammar: 12345, () and (ab c232 (1)).
Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill - formed, per the language 's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some cases, such programs may exhibit undefined behavior. Even when a program is well - defined within a language, it may still have a meaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it.
Using natural language as an example, it may not be possible to assign a meaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false:
The following C language fragment is syntactically correct, but performs operations that are not semantically defined (the operation * p > > 4 has no meaning for a value having a complex type and p - > im is not defined because the value of p is the null pointer):
If the type declaration on the first line were omitted, the program would trigger an error on compilation, as the variable "p '' would not be defined. But the program would still be syntactically correct since type declarations provide only semantic information.
The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the Chomsky hierarchy. The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type - 2 grammar, i.e., they are context - free grammars. Some languages, including Perl and Lisp, contain constructs that allow execution during the parsing phase. Languages that have constructs that allow the programmer to alter the behavior of the parser make syntax analysis an undecidable problem, and generally blur the distinction between parsing and execution. In contrast to Lisp 's macro system and Perl 's BEGIN blocks, which may contain general computations, C macros are merely string replacements and do not require code execution.
The term semantics refers to the meaning of languages, as opposed to their form (syntax).
The static semantics defines restrictions on the structure of valid texts that are hard or impossible to express in standard syntactic formalisms. For compiled languages, static semantics essentially include those semantic rules that can be checked at compile time. Examples include checking that every identifier is declared before it is used (in languages that require such declarations) or that the labels on the arms of a case statement are distinct. Many important restrictions of this type, like checking that identifiers are used in the appropriate context (e.g. not adding an integer to a function name), or that subroutine calls have the appropriate number and type of arguments, can be enforced by defining them as rules in a logic called a type system. Other forms of static analyses like data flow analysis may also be part of static semantics. Newer programming languages like Java and C# have definite assignment analysis, a form of data flow analysis, as part of their static semantics.
Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data. For example, the semantics may define the strategy by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which control structures conditionally execute statements. The dynamic semantics (also known as execution semantics) of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior. There are many ways of defining execution semantics. Natural language is often used to specify the execution semantics of languages commonly used in practice. A significant amount of academic research went into formal semantics of programming languages, which allow execution semantics to be specified in a formal manner. Results from this field of research have seen limited application to programming language design and implementation outside academia.
A type system defines how a programming language classifies values and expressions into types, how it can manipulate those types and how they interact. The goal of a type system is to verify and usually enforce a certain level of correctness in programs written in that language by detecting certain incorrect operations. Any decidable type system involves a trade - off: while it rejects many incorrect programs, it can also prohibit some correct, albeit unusual programs. In order to bypass this downside, a number of languages have type loopholes, usually unchecked casts that may be used by the programmer to explicitly allow a normally disallowed operation between different types. In most typed languages, the type system is used only to type check programs, but a number of languages, usually functional ones, infer types, relieving the programmer from the need to write type annotations. The formal design and study of type systems is known as type theory.
A language is typed if the specification of every operation defines types of data to which the operation is applicable, with the implication that it is not applicable to other types. For example, the data represented by "this text between the quotes '' is a string, and in many programming languages dividing a number by a string has no meaning and will be rejected by the compilers. The invalid operation may be detected when the program is compiled ("static '' type checking) and will be rejected by the compiler with a compilation error message, or it may be detected when the program is run ("dynamic '' type checking), resulting in a run - time exception. Many languages allow a function called an exception handler to be written to handle this exception and, for example, always return "- 1 '' as the result.
A special case of typed languages are the single - type languages. These are often scripting or markup languages, such as REXX or SGML, and have only one data type - -- most commonly character strings which are used for both symbolic and numeric data.
In contrast, an untyped language, such as most assembly languages, allows any operation to be performed on any data, which are generally considered to be sequences of bits of various lengths. High - level languages which are untyped include BCPL, Tcl, and some varieties of Forth.
In practice, while few languages are considered typed from the point of view of type theory (verifying or rejecting all operations), most modern languages offer a degree of typing. Many production languages provide means to bypass or subvert the type system, trading type - safety for finer control over the program 's execution (see casting).
In static typing, all expressions have their types determined prior to when the program is executed, typically at compile - time. For example, 1 and (2 + 2) are integer expressions; they can not be passed to a function that expects a string, or stored in a variable that is defined to hold dates.
Statically typed languages can be either manifestly typed or type - inferred. In the first case, the programmer must explicitly write types at certain textual positions (for example, at variable declarations). In the second case, the compiler infers the types of expressions and declarations based on context. Most mainstream statically typed languages, such as C++, C# and Java, are manifestly typed. Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with less mainstream languages, such as Haskell and ML. However, many manifestly typed languages support partial type inference; for example, C++, Java and C# all infer types in certain limited cases. Additionally, some programming languages allow for some types to be automatically converted to other types; for example, an int can be used where the program expects a float.
Dynamic typing, also called latent typing, determines the type - safety of operations at run time; in other words, types are associated with run - time values rather than textual expressions. As with type - inferred languages, dynamically typed languages do not require the programmer to write explicit type annotations on expressions. Among other things, this may permit a single variable to refer to values of different types at different points in the program execution. However, type errors can not be automatically detected until a piece of code is actually executed, potentially making debugging more difficult. Lisp, Smalltalk, Perl, Python, JavaScript, and Ruby are all examples of dynamically typed languages.
Weak typing allows a value of one type to be treated as another, for example treating a string as a number. This can occasionally be useful, but it can also allow some kinds of program faults to go undetected at compile time and even at run time.
Strong typing prevents the above. An attempt to perform an operation on the wrong type of value raises an error. Strongly typed languages are often termed type - safe or safe.
An alternative definition for "weakly typed '' refers to languages, such as Perl and JavaScript, which permit a large number of implicit type conversions. In JavaScript, for example, the expression 2 * x implicitly converts x to a number, and this conversion succeeds even if x is null, undefined, an Array, or a string of letters. Such implicit conversions are often useful, but they can mask programming errors. Strong and static are now generally considered orthogonal concepts, but usage in the literature differs. Some use the term strongly typed to mean strongly, statically typed, or, even more confusingly, to mean simply statically typed. Thus C has been called both strongly typed and weakly, statically typed.
It may seem odd to some professional programmers that C could be "weakly, statically typed ''. However, notice that the use of the generic pointer, the void * pointer, does allow for casting of pointers to other pointers without needing to do an explicit cast. This is extremely similar to somehow casting an array of bytes to any kind of datatype in C without using an explicit cast, such as (int) or (char).
Most programming languages have an associated core library (sometimes known as the ' standard library ', especially if it is included as part of the published language standard), which is conventionally made available by all implementations of the language. Core libraries typically include definitions for commonly used algorithms, data structures, and mechanisms for input and output.
The line between a language and its core library differs from language to language. In some cases, the language designers may treat the library as a separate entity from the language. However, a language 's core library is often treated as part of the language by its users, and some language specifications even require that this library be made available in all implementations. Indeed, some languages are designed so that the meanings of certain syntactic constructs can not even be described without referring to the core library. For example, in Java, a string literal is defined as an instance of the java. lang. String class; similarly, in Smalltalk, an anonymous function expression (a "block '') constructs an instance of the library 's BlockContext class. Conversely, Scheme contains multiple coherent subsets that suffice to construct the rest of the language as library macros, and so the language designers do not even bother to say which portions of the language must be implemented as language constructs, and which must be implemented as parts of a library.
Programming languages share properties with natural languages related to their purpose as vehicles for communication, having a syntactic form separate from its semantics, and showing language families of related languages branching one from another. But as artificial constructs, they also differ in fundamental ways from languages that have evolved through usage. A significant difference is that a programming language can be fully described and studied in its entirety, since it has a precise and finite definition. By contrast, natural languages have changing meanings given by their users in different communities. While constructed languages are also artificial languages designed from the ground up with a specific purpose, they lack the precise and complete semantic definition that a programming language has.
Many programming languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, and combined with other languages. Many have eventually fallen into disuse. Although there have been attempts to design one "universal '' programming language that serves all purposes, all of them have failed to be generally accepted as filling this role. The need for diverse programming languages arises from the diversity of contexts in which languages are used:
One common trend in the development of programming languages has been to add more ability to solve problems using a higher level of abstraction. The earliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer. As new programming languages have developed, features have been added that let programmers express ideas that are more remote from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions. Because programmers are less tied to the complexity of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer. This lets them write more functionality per time unit.
Natural language programming has been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. Edsger W. Dijkstra took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of meaningless constructs, and dismissed natural language programming as "foolish ''. Alan Perlis was similarly dismissive of the idea. Hybrid approaches have been taken in Structured English and SQL.
A language 's designers and users must construct a number of artifacts that govern and enable the practice of programming. The most important of these artifacts are the language specification and implementation.
The specification of a programming language is an artifact that the language users and the implementors can use to agree upon whether a piece of source code is a valid program in that language, and if so what its behavior shall be.
A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following:
An implementation of a programming language provides a way to write programs in that language and execute them on one or more configurations of hardware and software. There are, broadly, two approaches to programming language implementation: compilation and interpretation. It is generally possible to implement a language using either technique.
The output of a compiler may be executed by hardware or a program called an interpreter. In some implementations that make use of the interpreter approach there is no distinct boundary between compiling and interpreting. For instance, some implementations of BASIC compile and then execute the source a line at a time.
Programs that are executed directly on the hardware usually run several orders of magnitude faster than those that are interpreted in software.
One technique for improving the performance of interpreted programs is just - in - time compilation. Here the virtual machine, just before execution, translates the blocks of bytecode which are going to be used to machine code, for direct execution on the hardware.
Although most of the most commonly used programming languages have fully open specifications and implementations, many programming languages exist only as proprietary programming languages with the implementation available only from a single vendor, which may claim that such a proprietary language is their intellectual property. Proprietary programming languages are commonly domain specific languages or internal scripting languages for a single product; some proprietary languages are used only internally within a vendor, while others are available to external users.
Some programming languages exist on the border between proprietary and open; for example, Oracle Corporation asserts proprietary rights to some aspects of the Java programming language, and Microsoft 's C# programming language, which has open implementations of most parts of the system, also has Common Language Runtime (CLR) as a closed environment.
Many proprietary languages are widely used, in spite of their proprietary nature; examples include MATLAB, VBScript, and Wolfram Language. Some languages may make the transition from closed to open; for example, Erlang was originally an Ericsson 's internal programming language.
Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computing field. Software is commonly built with 5 programming languages or more.
Programming languages differ from most other forms of human expression in that they require a greater degree of precision and completeness. When using a natural language to communicate with other people, human authors and speakers can be ambiguous and make small errors, and still expect their intent to be understood. However, figuratively speaking, computers "do exactly what they are told to do '', and can not "understand '' what code the programmer intended to write. The combination of the language definition, a program, and the program 's inputs must fully specify the external behavior that occurs when the program is executed, within the domain of control of that program. On the other hand, ideas about an algorithm can be communicated to humans without the precision required for execution by using pseudocode, which interleaves natural language with code written in a programming language.
A programming language provides a structured mechanism for defining pieces of data, and the operations or transformations that may be carried out automatically on that data. A programmer uses the abstractions present in the language to represent the concepts involved in a computation. These concepts are represented as a collection of the simplest elements available (called primitives). Programming is the process by which programmers combine these primitives to compose new programs, or adapt existing ones to new uses or a changing environment.
Programs for a computer might be executed in a batch process without human interaction, or a user might type commands in an interactive session of an interpreter. In this case the "commands '' are simply programs, whose execution is chained together. When a language can run its commands through an interpreter (such as a Unix shell or other command - line interface), without compiling, it is called a scripting language.
It is difficult to determine which programming languages are most widely used, and what usage means varies by context. One language may occupy the greater number of programmer hours, a different one have more lines of code, and a third may consume the most CPU time. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications. For example, COBOL is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large mainframes; Fortran in scientific and engineering applications; Ada in aerospace, transportation, military, real - time and embedded applications; and C in embedded applications and operating systems. Other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications.
Various methods of measuring language popularity, each subject to a different bias over what is measured, have been proposed:
Combining and averaging information from various internet sites, stackify.com reported the ten most popular programming languages as (in descending order by overall popularity): Java, C, C++, Python, C#, JavaScript, VB. NET, R, PHP, and MATLAB.
A dialect of a programming language or a data exchange language is a (relatively small) variation or extension of the language that does not change its intrinsic nature. With languages such as Scheme and Forth, standards may be considered insufficient, inadequate or illegitimate by implementors, so often they will deviate from the standard, making a new dialect. In other cases, a dialect is created for use in a domain - specific language, often a subset. In the Lisp world, most languages that use basic S - expression syntax and Lisp - like semantics are considered Lisp dialects, although they vary wildly, as do, say, Racket and Clojure. As it is common for one language to have several dialects, it can become quite difficult for an inexperienced programmer to find the right documentation. The BASIC programming language has many dialects.
The explosion of Forth dialects led to the saying "If you 've seen one Forth... you 've seen one Forth. ''
There is no overarching classification scheme for programming languages. A given programming language does not usually have a single ancestor language. Languages commonly arise by combining the elements of several predecessor languages with new ideas in circulation at the time. Ideas that originate in one language will diffuse throughout a family of related languages, and then leap suddenly across familial gaps to appear in an entirely different family.
The task is further complicated by the fact that languages can be classified along multiple axes. For example, Java is both an object - oriented language (because it encourages object - oriented organization) and a concurrent language (because it contains built - in constructs for running multiple threads in parallel). Python is an object - oriented scripting language.
In broad strokes, programming languages divide into programming paradigms and a classification by intended domain of use, with general - purpose programming languages distinguished from domain - specific programming languages. Traditionally, programming languages have been regarded as describing computation in terms of imperative sentences, i.e. issuing commands. These are generally called imperative programming languages. A great deal of research in programming languages has been aimed at blurring the distinction between a program as a set of instructions and a program as an assertion about the desired answer, which is the main feature of declarative programming. More refined paradigms include procedural programming, object - oriented programming, functional programming, and logic programming; some languages are hybrids of paradigms or multi-paradigmatic. An assembly language is not so much a paradigm as a direct model of an underlying machine architecture. By purpose, programming languages might be considered general purpose, system programming languages, scripting languages, domain - specific languages, or concurrent / distributed languages (or a combination of these). Some general purpose languages were designed largely with educational goals.
A programming language may also be classified by factors unrelated to programming paradigm. For instance, most programming languages use English language keywords, while a minority do not. Other languages may be classified as being deliberately esoteric or not.
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when does the returned season 2 come on netflix | The Returned (US TV series) - wikipedia
The Returned is an American supernatural drama television series developed by Carlton Cuse as an adaptation of the 2012 French series Les Revenants, which was broadcast internationally as The Returned. The American adapted series follows residents in a small town whose lives are disrupted when people who have been dead for many years begin reappearing. Cuse wrote the pilot episode and executive produced the series alongside Raelle Tucker. The series premiered on March 9, 2015 and was cancelled by A&E after one season, on June 15, 2015.
In May 2013, it was revealed that an English - language adaptation of the 2012 series was being developed by Paul Abbott and FremantleMedia, with the working title They Came Back. In September 2013, it was revealed that Abbott was no longer involved with the project, which A&E would develop. In April 2014, A&E ordered 10 episodes for the first season. On March 5, 2015, it was announced Netflix had acquired global rights to the show and would air it internationally each week, via its streaming service, following A&E 's airing.
The show, set in the fictional Cascades Mountains town of Caldwell, in Caldwell County, Washington, is actually filmed in and around Squamish, British Columbia.
The Returned has received mostly positive responses from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives it a 66 % approval rating, with a rating average of 7.6 / 10, based on reviews from 29 critics. The site 's consensus states: "Though overshadowed by its superior source material, the US version of The Returned retains enough of the creep factor and character drama to appease fans of the genre. '' Metacritic scored it 67 out of 100, based on 24 "generally favorable '' reviews.
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frankie goes to hollywood relax don't do it | Relax (song) - wikipedia
"Relax '' is the debut single by Frankie Goes to Hollywood, released in the United Kingdom by ZTT Records in 1983. The song was later included on the album Welcome to the Pleasuredome (1984).
Although fairly inauspicious upon initial release, "Relax '' finally reached number one on the UK singles chart on 22 January 1984, ultimately becoming one of the most controversial and most commercially successful records of the decade. The single eventually sold a reported 2 million copies in the UK alone, making it the seventh best - selling single in the UK Singles Chart 's history. Following the release of the group 's second single, "Two Tribes '', "Relax '' rallied from a declining UK chart position during June 1984 to climb back up the UK charts and re-attain number - two spot behind "Two Tribes '' at number one, representing simultaneous chart success by a single act, unprecedented since the early 1960s.
Upon release in the United States in late 1984, "Relax '' repeated its slow UK progress, reaching number 67 upon initial release, but eventually reaching number 10 in March 1985.
The song won Best British Single at the 1985 Brit Awards.
The song featured on the soundtrack to T2 Trainspotting and also in the game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories in the fictional in - game radio station Wave 103.
Singer Holly Johnson has claimed that the words of the song came to him as he was walking down Princess Avenue in Liverpool: "... I mean they were just, you know, words that floated into my head one day when I was walking down Princess Avenue (in Liverpool) with no bus fare, trying to get to rehearsals -- I mean there was no great sort of calculated, ' Oh I 'll sing these words and this record 'll be banned '. ''
ZTT Records signed Frankie Goes to Hollywood after producer - turned - ZTT cofounder Trevor Horn saw the band play on the television show The Tube, on which the group played an early version of "Relax ''. Horn described the original version of "Relax '' as "More a jingle than a song '', but he preferred to work with songs that were not professionally finished because he could then "fix them up '' in his own style. Once the band was signed, ZTT co-founder Paul Morley mapped out the marketing campaign fashioned as a "strategic assault on pop ''. Morley opted to tackle the biggest possible themes in the band 's singles ("sex, war, religion ''), of which "Relax '' would be the first, and emphasized the shock impact of Frankie members Holly Johnson 's and Paul Rutherford 's open homosexuality in the packaging and music videos.
Horn dominated the recording of "Relax '' in his effort for perfectionism. The band were overawed and intimidated by Horn 's reputation, and thus were too nervous to make suggestions. Johnson said in his autobiography, "Whatever he said we went along with ''. When attempts to record with the full band proved unsatisfactory, Horn hired former Ian Dury backing band the Blockheads for the sessions, with Norman Watt - Roy providing the original bass line. Those sessions were later deemed to be not modern sounding enough. Horn then constructed a more electronic - based version of the song with keyboards by session musician Andy Richards and with rhythm programming assistance from J.J. Jeczalik of Art of Noise. Horn developed this version of the recording in his west London studio while the band remained in their hometown of Liverpool. Horn had made 3 versions of "Relax '' prior to Richards and guitarist Stephen Lipson joining his ZTT Production ' Theam ' in late 1983. Horn left the studio late one night asking for Lipson to erase the multitrack (of version 3) due to lack of progress, but came back into the studio some time later to hear Richards playing a variety of modal chords based around the key of E minor with Lipson playing guitar along to the unerased multitrack. Ultimately lead vocalist Johnson was the only band member to perform on the record; the only contribution by the other members was a sample crafted from the sound of the rest of the band jumping into a swimming pool. Horn explained years later, "I was just... Look, ' Relax ' had to be a hit. '' Despite the band 's absence from the record, Horn said, "I could never have done these records in isolation. There was no actual playing by the band, but the whole feeling came from the band. '' Horn completed the recording having spent £ 70,000 in studio time.
Morley intentionally courted scandal with the promotion of "Relax ''. ZTT initiated the ad campaign for "Relax '' with two quarter - page ads in the British music press. The first ad featured images of Rutherford in a sailor cap and a leather vest, and Johnson with a shaved head and rubber gloves. The images were accompanied by the phrase "ALL THE NICE BOYS LOVE SEA MEN '' and declared "Frankie Goes to Hollywood are coming... making Duran Duran lick the shit off their shoes... Nineteen inches that must be taken always. '' The second ad promised "theories of bliss, a history of Liverpool from 1963 to 1983, a guide to Amsterdam bars ''.
When first released in November 1983, the initial progress of "Relax '' on the UK Top 75 was sluggish. First charting at number 67, by its seventh week on the chart it had progressed only to number 35, even falling back slightly during that time. But then on Thursday 5 January 1984, Frankie Goes to Hollywood performed "Relax '' on the BBC flagship television chart show, Top of the Pops. The following week it soared to number 6. On 11 January 1984, Radio 1 disc jockey Mike Read expressed on air his distaste for both the record 's suggestive sleeve (designed by Anne Yvonne Gilbert) and its lyrics, which centred on the oft - repeated "Relax, do n't do it / When you want to suck to it / Relax, do n't do it / When you want to come. '' He announced his refusal to play the record, not knowing that the BBC had just decided that the song was not to be played on the BBC anyway.
In support of their disc jockey, BBC Radio banned the single from its shows a reported two days later (although certain prominent night - time BBC shows -- including those of Kid Jensen and John Peel -- continued to play the record, as they saw fit, throughout 1984). The now - banned "Relax '' rose to number 2 in the charts by 17 January, and hit the number - one spot on 24 January. By this time, the BBC Radio ban had extended to Top of the Pops as well, which displayed a still picture of the group during its climactic Number One announcement, before airing a performance by a non-Number One artist.
This went on for the five weeks that "Relax '' was at number one. It then began a slow decline on the charts, falling back as far as number 31 in May 1984 before returning to number two in July whilst Frankie 's follow - up single "Two Tribes '' held the UK number - one spot. In the end, "Relax '' remained on the Top 75 for 48 consecutive weeks and returned in February 1985 for four more, giving a total of 52.
The ban became an embarrassment for the BBC, especially given that UK commercial radio and television stations were still playing the song. Later in 1984 the ban was lifted and "Relax '' featured on both the Christmas Day edition of Top of the Pops and Radio 1 's rundown of the best - selling singles of the year.
Throughout the "Relax '' controversy, the band continued to publicly deny that the song 's lyrics were sexual. Nevertheless, by 1984, it was clear that the public were aware of the sexual nature of the lyrics, but the scandal had fuelled sales anyway. In 1985, with the release of the Welcome to the Pleasuredome album (which included "Relax ''), the band dropped any public pretense about the lyrics:
Everything I say is complete lies. Like, when people ask you what ' Relax ' was about, when it first came out we used to pretend it was about motivation, and really it was about shagging.
The track was reissued in September 1993, the first of a string of Frankie Goes to Hollywood singles to be reissued that year. It debuted at a high number six on the UK singles chart and peaked at number five the next week. It spent seven weeks on the Top 75 this time, thus extending its combined total to 59, making it the third longest runner of all time (seven other singles have since surpassed it; now it is in joint 10th place).
Although the 7 - inch version of the single remained unchanged throughout its initial release (a mix generally known as "Relax (Move) ''), promotional 7 - inch records featuring a substantially different mix of "Relax '' (entitled either "The Last Seven Inches '' or "Warp Mix '' because it is a compilation of other versions) were the subject of a limited 1984 release.
Three principal 12 - inch remixes of "Relax '' were eventually created by producer Trevor Horn:
One of the reasons we did all the remixes was that the initial 12 - inch version of ' Relax ' contained something called ' The Sex Mix ', which was 16 minutes long and did n't even contain a song. It was really Holly Johnson just jamming, as well as a bunch of samples of the group jumping in the swimming pool and me sort of making disgusting noises by dropping stuff into buckets of water! We got so many complaints about it -- particularly from gay clubs, who found it offensive -- that we cut it in half and reduced it down to eight minutes, by taking out some of the slightly more offensive parts (this became the "New York Mix ''). Then we got another load of complaints, because the single version was n't on the 12 - inch -- I did n't see the point in this at the time, but I was eventually put straight about it.
Horn attested that visits to New York 's Paradise Garage club led to the creation of the final "Relax (U.S. Mix) '', which ultimately replaced the original "Sex Mix '' / "New York Mix '' releases:
It was only when I went to this club and heard the sort of things they were playing that I really understood about 12 - inch remixes. Although I myself had already had a couple of big 12 - inch hits, I 'd never heard them being played on a big sound system, and so I then went back and mixed ' Relax ' again and that was the version which sold a couple of million over here (in the UK).
The original 12 - inch version of "Relax '', labelled "Sex Mix '', ran for over 16 minutes, and is broadly as described by Horn above. The subsequent "New York Mix '' was an 8 - minute - plus edit of the "Sex Mix '', and can only be distinguished by having 12ISZTAS1 etched on the vinyl. The final 12 - inch mix, containing no elements from the foregoing versions, was designated the "U.S. Mix '', and ran for approximately 7: 20. This was the most commonly available 12 - inch version of "Relax '' during its worldwide 1984 chart success.
The UK cassette single featured as the title track a unique amalgam of excerpts from the "Sex Mix '', "U.S. Mix '', "Move '' and an instrumental version of "Move ''.
Since virtually all of the UK "Relax '' 12 - inch singles were labelled "Sex Mix '', a method of differentiating between versions by reference to the record 's matrix numbers necessarily became de rigueur for collectors of Frankie Goes to Hollywood releases (and ultimately collectors of ZTT records in general).
"Relax (Come Fighting) '' was the version of the song included on the Welcome to the Pleasuredome album. This is ostensibly a variant of the 7 - inch single "Move '' mix, but readily distinguishable from it in many ways. For example, the "Move '' mix fades in on a foghorn type sound while the album mix fades in on sustained synth chords. Also, the backing vocals of the "Move '' mix are panned to the left, whereas they are mixed in the centre on the album version. Additionally, the "Move '' mix features a prominent reverberated kick drum sound during the introduction that also appears in other parts of the song, which is completely absent from the album mix. The album mix also has a certain post-production sheen (greater stereo separation of parts, more strategic uses of reverb, etc.) that is absent from the original 1983 7 - inch single mix. The later "1993 Classic Mix '' reissue is almost identical to the "Come Fighting '' album version.
The original airing of Relax on The Tube, before the band were signed to ZTT, featured another verse that was edited from all the released versions, "In heaven everything is fine, you 've got yours and I 've got mine '', presumably removed as it was taken directly from the David Lynch film Eraserhead.
The 7 - inch featured "One September Monday '', an interview between ZTT 's Paul Morley, Holly Johnson and Paul Rutherford. During the interview, Holly revealed that the group 's name derived from a page of the New Yorker magazine, headlined "Frankie Goes to Hollywood '' and featuring Frank Sinatra "getting mobbed by teenyboppers ''.
On all of the original 12 - inch releases, the B - side featured a cover of "Ferry ' Cross the Mersey '', followed by a brief dialogue involving Rutherford attempting to sign on, and an a cappella version of the title track 's chorus, segueing into an instrumental version of "Relax '', known as "From Soft to Hard ''. "From Soft to Hard '' has the same structure as the 7 - inch "Move '' mix, but is not simply an instrumental of this mix.
The UK cassette single included "Ferry ' Cross the Mersey '' and interview sections not included on "One September Monday ''.
The first official video for "Relax '', directed by Bernard Rose and set in a S&M themed gay nightclub, featuring the bandmembers accosted by buff leathermen, a glamorous drag queen, and an obese admirer dressed up as a Roman emperor, was allegedly banned by MTV and the BBC, prompting the recording of a second video, directed by Godley and Creme in early 1984, featuring the group performing with the help of laser beams. However, after the second video was made the song was banned completely by the BBC, meaning that neither video was ever broadcast on any BBC music programmes.
A live performance video of the song was directed by David Mallet, making the rounds at MTV.
Another MTV video of the studio version includes footage from the Brian De Palma film Body Double. Body Double, a popular 1984 erotic thriller film, contains a film within a film sequence in which Frankie Goes to Hollywood performs Relax on the set of a porn film.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The title track has periodically been reissued as a single in a number of remix forms.
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what power does the prime minister of australia have | Prime Minister of Australia - Wikipedia
The Prime Minister of the Commonwealth of Australia is the head of government of Australia. The individual who holds the office is the most senior Minister of the Crown, the leader of the Cabinet and the chairperson of the National Security Committee. The Prime Minister also has the responsibility of administering the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. The office is not mentioned in the Constitution of Australia and exists only through longstanding political convention and tradition. Despite this, in practice it is the most powerful parliamentary position in Australia. The individual who holds the office is commissioned by the Governor - General of Australia.
Almost always and according to convention, the Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party or largest party in a coalition of parties in the House of Representatives. However, there is no constitutional requirement that the Prime Minister sit in the House of Representatives, or even be a member of the federal parliament (subject to a constitutionally prescribed limit of three months), though by convention this is always the case. The only case where a member of the Senate was appointed Prime Minister was John Gorton, who subsequently resigned his Senate position and was elected as a member of the House of Representatives (Senator George Pearce was acting Prime Minister for seven months in 1916 while Billy Hughes was overseas).
Malcolm Turnbull has held the office of Prime Minister since 15 September 2015. He received his commission after replacing Tony Abbott as the leader of the Liberal Party, the dominant party in the Coalition government, following the outcome of the September 2015 Liberal leadership ballot.
The Prime Minister of Australia is appointed by the Governor - General of Australia under Section 64 of the Australian Constitution, which empowers the Governor - General, as the official representative of the monarch, to appoint government ministers of state and requires them to be members of the House of Representatives or the Senate, or become members within three months of the appointment. The Prime Minister and Treasurer are traditionally members of the House, but the Constitution does not have such a requirement. Before being sworn in as a Minister of the Crown, a person must first be sworn in as a member of the Federal Executive Council if they are not already a member. Membership of the Federal Executive Council entitles the member to the style of The Honourable (usually abbreviated to The Hon) for life, barring exceptional circumstances. The senior members of the Executive Council constitute the Cabinet of Australia.
The Prime Minister is, like other ministers, normally sworn in by the Governor - General and then presented with the commission (Letters patent) of office. When defeated in an election, or on resigning, the Prime Minister is said to "hand in the commission '' and actually does so by returning it to the Governor - General. In the event of a Prime Minister dying in office, or becoming incapacitated, or for other reasons, the Governor - General can terminate the commission. Ministers hold office "during the pleasure of the Governor - General '' (s. 64 of the Constitution of Australia), so theoretically, the Governor - General can dismiss a minister at any time, by notifying them in writing of the termination of their commission; however, their power to do so except on the advice of the Prime Minister is heavily circumscribed by convention.
Despite the importance of the office of Prime Minister, the Constitution does not mention the office by name. The conventions of the Westminster system were thought to be sufficiently entrenched in Australia by the authors of the Constitution that it was deemed unnecessary to detail them. The formal title of the portfolio has always been simply "Prime Minister '', except for the period of the Fourth Deakin Ministry (June 1909 to April 1910), when it was known as "Prime Minister (without portfolio) ''.
If a government can not get its appropriation (budget) legislation passed by the House of Representatives, or the House passes a vote of "no confidence '' in the government, the Prime Minister is bound by convention to immediately advise the Governor - General to dissolve the House of Representatives and hold a fresh election.
Following a resignation in other circumstances, or the death of a Prime Minister, the governor - general will generally appoint as Prime Minister the person elected as leader by the governing party or, in the case of a coalition, the senior party in the coalition. There have been four notable exceptions to this:
There were only three other cases where someone other than the leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives was Prime Minister:
Most of the Prime Minister 's powers derive from being head of Government. In practice, the Federal Executive Council will act to ratify all decisions made by the cabinet and decisions of the cabinet will always require the support of the Prime Minister. The powers of the governor - general to grant Royal Assent to legislation, to dissolve and prorogue parliament, to call elections and to make appointments are exercised on the advice of the Prime Minister.
The Prime Minister is also the responsible minister for the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, which is tasked with supporting the policy agendas of the Prime Minister and Cabinet through policy advice and the coordination of the implementation of key government programs, to manage Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander policy and programs and to promote reconciliation, to provide leadership for the Australian Public Service alongside the Australian Public Service Commission, to oversee the honours and symbols of the Commonwealth, to provide support to ceremonies and official visits, to set whole of government service delivery policy, and to coordinate national security, cyber, counterterrorism, regulatory reform, cities, population, data, and women 's policy.
The formal power to appoint the Governor - General lies with the Queen of Australia, but this appointment is done on the formal advice of the Prime Minister. By convention, this advice is provided by the Prime Minister alone, and thus the appointment is effectively the Prime Minister 's personal choice. The Prime Minister may also advise the monarch to dismiss the Governor - General, though it remains unclear how quickly the monarch would act on such advice in a constitutional crisis. This uncertainty, and the possibility of a "race '' between the Governor - General and Prime Minister to sack the other, was a key question in the 1975 constitutional crisis.
The power of the Prime Minister is subject to a number of limitations. Prime Ministers removed as leader of their party, or whose government loses a vote of no - confidence in the House of Representatives, are expected to advise an election of the lower house or resign the office. If they fail to do this they will be dismissed by the Governor - General.
The Prime Minister 's party will normally have a majority in the House of Representatives and party discipline is exceptionally strong in Australian politics, so passage of the government 's legislation through the House of Representatives is mostly a formality. Attaining the support of the Senate can be more difficult as government usually lacks an absolute majority because the Senate 's representation is based on overall proportion of votes and often includes minor parties.
On 1 July 2017, the Australian Government 's Remuneration Tribunal adjusted the Prime Ministerial salary, raising it to its current amount of $527,852.
Whilst in office, the Prime Minister has two official residences. The primary official residence is The Lodge in Canberra. Most Prime Ministers have chosen The Lodge as their primary residence because of its security facilities and close proximity to Parliament House. There have been some exceptions, however. James Scullin preferred to live at the Hotel Canberra (now the Hyatt Hotel) and Ben Chifley lived in the Hotel Kurrajong. More recently, John Howard used the Sydney Prime Ministerial residence, Kirribilli House, as his primary accommodation. On her appointment on 24 June 2010, Julia Gillard said she would not be living in The Lodge until such time as she was returned to office by popular vote at the next general election. (She became Prime Minister mid-term after replacing the incumbent, Kevin Rudd, who resigned in the face of an unwinnable party - room ballot.) During his first term, Rudd had a staff at The Lodge consisting of a senior chef and an assistant chef, a child carer, one senior house attendant, and two junior house attendants. At Kirribilli House in Sydney, there is one full - time chef and one full - time house attendant. The official residences are fully staffed and catered for both the Prime Minister and their family. In addition, both have extensive security facilities. These residences are regularly used for official entertaining, such as receptions for Australian of the Year finalists.
The Prime Minister receives a number of transport amenities for official business. The Royal Australian Air Force 's No. 34 Squadron transports the Prime Minister within Australia and overseas by specially converted Boeing Business Jets and smaller Challenger aircraft. The aircraft contain secure communications equipment as well as an office, conference room and sleeping compartments. The call - sign for the aircraft is "Envoy ''. For ground travel, the Prime Minister is transported in an armoured BMW 7 Series model (a German - made car, rather than British). It is referred to as "C - 1 '', or Commonwealth One, because of its licence plate. It is escorted by police vehicles from state and federal authorities.
Prime Ministers are usually granted certain privileges after leaving office, such as office accommodation, staff assistance, and a Life Gold Pass, which entitles the holder to travel within Australia for "non-commercial '' purposes at government expense.
Only one Prime Minister who had left the Federal Parliament ever returned. Stanley Bruce was defeated in his own seat in 1929 while Prime Minister, but was re-elected to parliament in 1931. Other Prime Ministers were elected to parliaments other than the Australian federal parliament: Sir George Reid was elected to the UK House of Commons (after his term as High Commissioner to the UK); and Frank Forde was re-elected to the Queensland Parliament (after his term as High Commissioner to Canada, and a failed attempt to re-enter the Federal Parliament).
The Lodge
Kirribilli House
Prime Ministerial car
Official aircraft
From time to time Prime Ministers are required to leave the country on government business and a deputy acts in their place during that time. In the days before jet aircraft, such absences could be for extended periods. For example, William Watt was acting prime Minister for 16 months, from April 1918 until August 1919, when Prime Minister Billy Hughes was away at the Paris Peace Conference, and Senator George Pearce was acting Prime Minister for more than seven months in 1916. An acting Prime Minister is also appointed when the prime minister takes leave. The Deputy Prime Minister most commonly becomes acting Prime Minister in those circumstances.
Three Prime Ministers have died in office -- Joseph Lyons (1939), John Curtin (1945) and Harold Holt (1967) -- and Robert Menzies resigned as Prime Minister in 1941. In each of these cases the Deputy Prime Minister (an unofficial office at the time) became an interim Prime Minister, pending an election of a new leader of the government party. In none of these cases was the interim Prime Minister successful at the subsequent election, however, The United Party agreed to make Arthur Fadden the Prime Minister, and leader of the Coalition, despite the fact that he was leader of the Party of the Junior Members
The powers and duties of an acting or interim Prime Minister is analogous to that of a caretaker Prime Minister.
As of September 2017, there are six living former Australian Prime Ministers.
The greatest number of living former Prime Ministers at any one time was eight. This has occurred twice:
Of the other Prime Ministers, Ben Chifley died only one year and six months after leaving the Prime Ministership and Alfred Deakin lived another nine years and five months.
All the others who have left office have lived at least another 10 years. Nine of them (Bruce, Cook, Fadden, Forde, Fraser, Gorton, Hughes, Watson, and Whitlam) lived more than 25 years after leaving the office, and all but one of them have survived longer than 30 years (Hughes lived for 29 years and 8 months following service).
The longest - surviving was Gough Whitlam, who lived 38 years and 11 months after office, surpassing Stanley Bruce 's previous record of 37 years and 10 months after leaving the office.
The three youngest people when they first became Prime Minister were:
The three oldest people when they first became Prime Minister were:
The three youngest people to last leave the office of Prime Minister were:
The three oldest people to last leave the office of Prime Minister were:
The longest serving Prime Minister was Sir Robert Menzies, who served in office twice: from 26 April 1939 to 28 August 1941, and again from 19 December 1949 to 26 January 1966. In total Robert Menzies spent 18 years, 5 months and 12 days in office. He served under the United Australia Party and the Liberal Party respectively.
The shortest - serving Prime Minister was Frank Forde, who was appointed to the position on 6 July 1945 after the death of John Curtin, and served until 13 July 1945 when Ben Chifley was elected leader of the Australian Labor Party.
Australian Labor Party Liberal Party of Australia Australian Country Party Nationalist Party of Australia United Australia Party Commonwealth Liberal Party National Labor Party Free Trade Party Protectionist Party
MP for Higgins, Vic, 1968 -- 1975 (retired)
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most top 40 hits without a number 1 | List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones - wikipedia
This is a comprehensive listing that highlights significant achievements and milestones based upon Billboard magazine 's singles charts, most notably the Billboard Hot 100. This list spans the period from the issue dated January 1, 1955 to present. The Billboard Hot 100 began with the issue dated August 4, 1958, and is currently the standard popular music chart in the United States.
Prior to the creation of the Hot 100, Billboard published four singles charts: "Best Sellers in Stores '', "Most Played by Jockeys '', "Most Played in Jukeboxes '' and "The Top 100 ''. These charts, which ranged from 20 to 100 slots, were phased out at different times between 1957 and 1958. Though technically not part of the Hot 100 chart history, select data from these charts are included for computational purposes, and to avoid unenlightening or misleading characterizations.
All items listed below are from the Hot 100 era, unless otherwise noted (pre-Hot 100 charts).
In 2008, for the 50th anniversary of the Hot 100, Billboard magazine compiled a ranking of the 100 best - performing songs on the chart over the 50 years, along with the best - performing artists. In 2013, Billboard revised the rankings for the chart 's 55th anniversary edition. In 2015, Billboard revised the rankings again. In 2018, the rankings were revised again for the Billboard chart 's 60th anniversary. Shown below are the top 10 songs and top 10 artists over the 60 - year period of the Hot 100, through July 2018. Also shown are the artists placing the most songs on the overall "all - time '' top 100 song list.
* -- re-released Source:
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Pre-Hot 100 Notes:
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The following songs have spent 26 or more weeks in the top ten.
Note: The year displayed is the year the songs ended their respective chart runs.
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Since 2009, at least one song debuted at number one per year. In 1995, four songs debuted at number one (a record amount).
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† -- "Purple Rain '' and "When Doves Cry '' reappeared on the Hot 100 for two weeks in 2016, and the above reflects their re-entries only. When the songs originally charted in 1984, their chart positions in their final week on the Hot 100 were well below the top 10.
† † -- A recurring holiday song charting during the Christmas season.
* -- "You Belong with Me '' later re-entered the Hot 100 as a single in 2009 to reach a peak of # 2. The recurring song 's final week on the Hot 100 was in 2010, when it was low as possible on the chart.
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† -- Contains vocal part, but is considered an instrumental. See Instrumental # Borderline cases for more.
† The biggest number - one listed by each artist reflects its overall performance on the Hot 100, as calculated by Billboard, and may not necessarily be the single which spent the most weeks at # 1 for the artist, such as Madonna 's "Like a Virgin '' (six weeks at # 1, compared to seven for "Take a Bow ''), Mariah Carey 's "We Belong Together '' (fourteen weeks at # 1, compared to sixteen for her duet with Boyz II Men, "One Sweet Day '') and Michael Jackson 's duet with Paul McCartney, "Say Say Say '' (six weeks at # 1, compared to seven for both his solo singles "Billie Jean '' and "Black or White '').
‡ Pre-Hot 100 charts and Hot 100.
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† Pre-Hot 100 charts and Hot 100.
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† Pre-Hot 100 charts. Chart notes: If counting Presley 's dual hit song "Do n't Be Cruel / Hound Dog '' separately then Elvis has 5 for 1956. Some Presley songs included here charted # 1 on Cashbox, but not on the Billboard Top 100, the precursor to the Billboard Hot 100.
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† This total includes Pre-Hot 100 charts and Hot 100. Elvis Presley 's total for the Hot 100 top 10 singles is 25.
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† If his career before the Hot 100 inception is included, Presley is credited with 114 Top 40 entries.
† Elvis Presley 's career predated the inception of the Hot 100 by two years. He has charted 149 singles on Billboard if tracking his entire career.
The artists with 150 or more consecutive weeks on the Hot 100:
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† The Beatles are the only act in history to have three consecutive, self - replacing # 1s.
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NOTE: Numbers listed here are, per Billboard 's rules, over one release.
† Pre-Hot 100 charts and Hot 100
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where does all of earth energy come from | World energy consumption - Wikipedia
World total primary energy consumption by fuel in 2015
World energy consumption is the total energy used by the entire human civilization. Typically measured per year, it involves all energy harnessed from every energy source applied towards humanity 's endeavours across every single industrial and technological sector, across every country. It does not include energy from food, and the extent to which direct biomass burning has been accounted for is poorly documented. Being the power source metric of civilization, World Energy Consumption has deep implications for humanity 's socio - economic - political sphere.
Institutions such as the International Energy Agency (IEA), the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), and the European Environment Agency record and publish energy data periodically. Improved data and understanding of World Energy Consumption may reveal systemic trends and patterns, which could help frame current energy issues and encourage movement towards collectively useful solutions.
Closely related to energy consumption is the concept of total primary energy supply (TPES), which - on a global level - is the sum of energy production minus storage changes. Since changes of energy storage over the year are minor, TPES values can be used as an estimator for energy consumption. However, TPES ignores conversion efficiency, overstating forms of energy with poor conversion efficiency (e.g. coal, gas and nuclear) and understating forms already accounted for in converted forms (e.g. photovoltaic or hydroelectricity). The IEA estimates that, in 2013, total primary energy supply (TPES) was 1.575 × 10 Wh (= 157.5 PWh, 5.67 × 10 joules, or 13,541 Mtoe). From 2000 -- 2012 coal was the source of energy with the largest growth. The use of oil and natural gas also had considerable growth, followed by hydropower and renewable energy. Renewable energy grew at a rate faster than any other time in history during this period. The demand for nuclear energy decreased, in part due to nuclear disasters (e.g. Three Mile Island 1979, Chernobyl 1986, and Fukushima 2011).
In 2011, expenditures on energy totalled over 6 trillion USD, or about 10 % of the world gross domestic product (GDP). Europe spends close to one - quarter of the world 's energy expenditures, North America close to 20 %, and Japan 6 %.
World total primary energy supply (TPES), or "primary energy '' differs from the world final energy consumption because much of the energy that is acquired by humans is lost as other forms of energy during the process of its refinement into usable forms of energy and its transport from its initial place of supply to consumers. For instance, when oil is extracted from the ground it must be refined into gasoline, so that it can be used in a car, and transported over long distances to gas stations where it can be used by consumers. World final energy consumption refers to the fraction of the world 's primary energy that is used in its final form by humanity.
In 2014, world primary energy supply amounted to 155,481 terawatt - hour (TWh) or 13,541 Mtoe, while the world final energy consumption was 109,613 TWh or about 29.5 % less than the total supply. World final energy consumption includes products as lubricants, asphalt and petrochemicals which have chemical energy content but are not used as fuel. This non-energy use amounted to 9,404 TWh (809 Mtoe) in 2012.
2014 World electricity generation (23,816 TWh) by source (IEA, 2016)
The United States Energy Information Administration regularly publishes a report on world consumption for most types of primary energy resources. For 2013, estimated world energy consumption was 5.67 × 10 joules, or 157,481 TWh. According to the IEA the total world energy consumption in past years was 143,851 TWh in 2008, 133,602 TWh in 2005, 117,687 TWh in 2000, and 102,569 TWh in 1990. In 2012 approximately 22 % of world energy was consumed in North America, 5 % was consumed South and Central America, 23 % was consumed in Europe and Eurasia, 3 % was consumed in Africa, and 40 % was consumed in the Asia Pacific region.
The total amount of electricity consumed worldwide was 19,504 TWh in 2013, 16,503 TWh in 2008, 15,105 TWh in 2005, and 12,116 TWh in 2000. By the end of 2014, the total installed electricity generating capacity worldwide was nearly 6.142 TW (million MW) which only includes generation connected to local electricity grids. In addition there is an unknown amount of heat and electricity consumed off - grid by isolated villages and industries. In 2014, the share of world energy consumption for electricity generation by source was coal at 40.8 %, natural gas at 21.6 %, nuclear at 10.6 %, hydro at 16.4 %, other sources (solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, etc.) at 6.3 % and oil at 4.3 %. Coal and natural gas were the most used energy fuels for generating electricity. The world 's electricity consumption was 18,608 TWh in 2012. This figure is about 18 % smaller than the generated electricity, due to grid losses, storage losses, and self - consumption from power plants (gross generation). Cogeneration (CHP) power stations use some of the heat that is otherwise wasted for use in buildings or in industrial processes.
In 2016 while total world energy came from 80 % fossil fuels, 10 % biofuels, 5 % nuclear and 5 % renewable (hydro, wind, solar, geothermal), only 18 % of that total world energy was in the form of electricity. Most of the other 82 % was used for heat and transportation.
Recently there has been a large increase in international agreements and national Energy Action Plans, such as the EU 2009 Renewable Energy Directive, to increase the use of renewable energy due to the growing concerns about pollution from energy sources that come from fossil fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas. One such initiative was the United Nations Development Programme 's World Energy Assessment in 2000 that highlighted many challenges humanity would have to overcome in order to shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources. From 2000 -- 2012 renewable energy grew at a rate higher than any other point in history, with a consumption increase of 176.5 million tonnes of oil. During this period, oil, coal, and natural gas continued to grow and had increases that were much higher than the increase in renewable energy. The following figures illustrate the growth in consumption of fossil fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas as well as renewable sources of energy during this period.
The energy consumption growth in the G20 slowed down to 2 % in 2011, after the strong increase of 2010. The economic crisis is largely responsible for this slow growth. For several years now, the world energy demand is characterized by the bullish Chinese and Indian markets, while developed countries struggle with stagnant economies, high oil prices, resulting in stable or decreasing energy consumption.
According to IEA data from 1990 to 2008, the average energy use per person increased 10 % while world population increased 27 %. Regional energy use also grew from 1990 to 2008: the Middle East increased by 170 %, China by 146 %, India by 91 %, Africa by 70 %, Latin America by 66 %, the USA by 20 %, the EU - 27 block by 7 %, and world overall grew by 39 %.
In 2008, total worldwide primary energy consumption was 132,000 terawatt - hours (TWh) or 474 exajoules (EJ). In 2012, primary energy demand increased to 158,000 TWh (567 EJ).
Energy consumption in the G20 increased by more than 5 % in 2010 after a slight decline of 2009. In 2009, world energy consumption decreased for the first time in 30 years by 1.1 %, or about 130 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe), as a result of the financial and economic crisis, which reduced world GDP by 0.6 % in 2009.
This evolution is the result of two contrasting trends: Energy consumption growth remained vigorous in several developing countries, specifically in Asia (+ 4 %). Conversely, in OECD, consumption was severely cut by 4.7 % in 2009 and was thus almost down to its 2000 levels. In North America, Europe and the CIS, consumptions shrank by 4.5 %, 5 % and 8.5 % respectively due to the slowdown in economic activity. China became the world 's largest energy consumer (18 % of the total) since its consumption surged by 8 % during 2009 (up from 4 % in 2008). Oil remained the largest energy source (33 %) despite the fact that its share has been decreasing over time. Coal posted a growing role in the world 's energy consumption: in 2009, it accounted for 27 % of the total.
Most energy is used in the country of origin, since it is cheaper to transport final products than raw materials. In 2008, the share export of the total energy production by fuel was: oil 50 % (1,952 / 3,941 Mt), gas 25 % (800 / 3,149 bcm) and hard coal 14 % (793 / 5,845 Mt).
Most of the world 's high energy resources are from the conversion of the sun 's rays to other energy forms after being incident upon the planet. Some of that energy has been preserved as fossil energy, some is directly or indirectly usable; for example, via solar PV / thermal, wind, hydro - or wave power. The total solar irradiance is measured by satellite to be roughly 1361 watts per square meter (see solar constant), though it fluctuates by about 6.9 % during the year due to the Earth 's varying distance from the sun. This value, after multiplication by the cross-sectional area intercepted by the Earth, is the total rate of solar energy received by the planet; about half, 89,000 TW, reaches the Earth 's surface.
The estimates of remaining non-renewable worldwide energy resources vary, with the remaining fossil fuels totaling an estimated 0.4 yottajoule (YJ) or 4 × 10 joules, and the available nuclear fuel such as uranium exceeding 2.5 YJ. Fossil fuels range from 0.6 to 3 YJ if estimates of reserves of methane clathrates are accurate and become technically extractable. The total power flux from the sun intercepting the Earth is 5.5 YJ per year, though not all of this is available for human consumption. The IEA estimates for the world to meet global energy demand for the two decades from 2015 to 2035 it will require investment of $48 trillion and "credible policy frameworks. ''
According to IEA (2012) the goal of limiting warming to 2 ° C is becoming more difficult and costly with each year that passes. If action is not taken before 2017, CO emissions would be locked - in by energy infrastructure existing in 2017. Fossil fuels are dominant in the global energy mix, supported by $523 billion subsidies in 2011, up almost 30 % on 2010 and six times more than subsidies to renewables.
Global warming emissions resulting from energy production are an environmental problem. Efforts to resolve this include the Kyoto Protocol, which is a UN agreement aiming to reduce harmful climate impacts, which a number of nations have signed. Limiting global temperature increase to 2 degrees Celsius, thought to be a risk by the SEI, is now doubtful.
To limit global temperature to a hypothetical 2 degrees Celsius rise would demand a 75 % decline in carbon emissions in industrial countries by 2050, if the population is 10 billion in 2050. Across 40 years, this averages to a 2 % decrease every year. In 2011, the emissions of energy production continued rising regardless of the consensus of the basic problem. Hypothetically, according to Robert Engelman (Worldwatch institute), in order to prevent collapse, human civilization would have to stop increasing emissions within a decade regardless of the economy or population (2009).
Greenhouse gases are not the only emissions of energy production and consumption. Large amounts of pollutants such as sulphurous oxides (SO), nitrous oxides (NO), and particulate matter (PM) are produced from the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass; the World Health Organisation estimates that 7 million premature deaths are caused each year by air pollution. Biomass combustion is a major contributor. In addition to producing air pollution like fossil fuel combustion, most biomass has high CO emissions.
Total primary energy supply of 13,699 mega-toe by source in 2014 (IEA, 2016)
The twentieth century saw a rapid twenty-fold increase in the use of fossil fuels. Between 1980 and 2006, the worldwide annual growth rate was 2 %. According to the US Energy Information Administration 's 2006 estimate, the estimated 471.8 EJ total consumption in 2004, was divided as given in the table above, with fossil fuels supplying 86 % of the world 's energy:
In 2000, China accounted for 28 % of world coal consumption, other Asia consumed 19 %, North America 25 % and the EU 14 %. The single greatest coal - consuming country is China. Its share of the world coal production was 28 % in 2000 and rose to 48 % in 2009. In contrast to China 's ~ 70 % increase in coal consumption, world coal use increased 48 % from 2000 to 2009. In practice, the majority of this growth occurred in China and the rest in other Asia. China 's energy consumption is mostly driven by the industry sector, the majority of which comes from coal consumption.
World annual coal production increased 1,905 Mt or 32 % in 6 years in 2011 compared to 2005, of which over 70 % was in China and 8 % in India. Coal production was in 2011 7,783 Mt, and 2009 6,903 Mt, equal to 12.7 % production increase in two years.
If production and consumption of coal continue at the rate as in 2008, proven and economically recoverable world reserves of coal would last for about 150 years. This is much more than needed for an irreversible climate catastrophe. Coal is the largest source of carbon dioxide emissions in the world. According to James Hansen the single most important action needed to tackle the climate crisis is to reduce CO emissions from coal. Indonesia and Australia exported together 57.1 % of the world coal export in 2011. China, Japan, South Korea, India and Taiwan had 65 % share of all the world coal import in 2011.
Coal fueled the industrial revolution in the 18th and 19th century. With the advent of the automobile, aeroplanes and the spreading use of electricity, oil became the dominant fuel during the twentieth century. The growth of oil as the largest fossil fuel was further enabled by steadily dropping prices from 1920 until 1973. After the oil shocks of 1973 and 1979, during which the price of oil increased from 5 to 45 US dollars per barrel, there was a shift away from oil. Coal, natural gas, and nuclear became the fuels of choice for electricity generation and conservation measures increased energy efficiency. In the U.S. the average car more than doubled the number of miles per gallon. Japan, which bore the brunt of the oil shocks, made spectacular improvements and now has the highest energy efficiency in the world. From 1965 to 2008, the use of fossil fuels has continued to grow and their share of the energy supply has increased. From 2003 to 2008, coal was the fastest growing fossil fuel.
It is estimated that between 100 and 135 billion tonnes of oil has been consumed between 1850 and the present.
In 2009, the world use of natural gas grew 31 % compared to 2000. 66 % of this growth was outside EU, North America, Latin America, and Russia. Others include the Middle East, Asia, and Africa. The gas supply increased also in the previous regions: 8.6 % in the EU and 16 % in the North America 2000 -- 2009.
As of 1 July 2016, the world had 444 operable grid - electric nuclear power reactors with 62 others under construction. Since commercial nuclear energy began in the mid 1950s, 2008 was the first year that no new nuclear power plant was connected to the grid, although two were connected in 2009.
Annual generation of nuclear power has been on a slight downward trend since 2007, decreasing 1.8 % in 2009 to 2558 TWh, and another 1.6 % in 2011 to 2518 TWh, despite increases in production from most countries worldwide, because those increases were more than offset by decreases in Germany and Japan. Nuclear power met 11.7 % of the world 's electricity demand in 2011. Source: IEA / OECD
Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources that are not significantly depleted by their use, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. Renewable energy is gradually replacing conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water / space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off - grid) energy services.
Based on REN21 's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 9 % coming from traditional biomass, 4.2 % as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8 % hydro electricity and 2 % electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US $214 billion in 2013, with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind, hydro, solar and biofuels. Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond.
The following table shows increasing nameplate capacity, and has capacity factors that range from 11 % for solar, to 40 % for hydropower.
From 2000 to 2013 the total renewable energy use has increased 6,450 TWh and total energy use 40,500 TWh.
Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the production of electrical power through the use of the kinetic energy of falling or flowing water. In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6 % of the world 's total electricity and 70 % of all renewable electricity, which continues the rapid rate of increase experienced between 2003 and 2009. Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia - Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 2,600 PJ (721 TWh) of production in 2010, representing around 17 % of domestic electricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam in Brazil, and Guri Dam in Venezuela. Nine of the worlds top 10 renewable electricity producers are primarily hydroelectric, one is wind.
Marine energy, also known as ocean energy and marine and hydrokinetic energy (MHK) includes tidal and wave power and is a relatively new sector of renewable energy, with most projects still in the pilot phase, but the theoretical potential is equivalent to 4 -- 18 million tonne of oil equivalent (toe). MHK development in U.S. and international waters includes projects using devices such as, wave energy converters in open coastal areas with significant waves, tidal turbines placed in coastal and estuarine areas, in - stream turbines in fast - moving rivers, ocean current turbines in areas of strong marine currents, and ocean thermal energy converters in deep tropical waters.
Wind power is growing at the rate of 17 % annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of 432,883 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2015, and is widely used in Europe, Asia, and the United States. Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 21 % of stationary electricity production in Denmark, 18 % in Portugal, 16 % in Spain, 14 % in Ireland and 9 % in Germany in 2010. As of 2011, 83 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis. Continuing strong growth, by 2016 wind generated 3 % of global power annually.
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever - evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, concentrated solar power and solar architecture, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces. The International Energy Agency projected that solar power could provide "a third of the global final energy demand after 2060, while CO emissions would be reduced to very low levels. '' Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. From 2012 to 2016 solar capacity tripled and now provides 1.3 % of global energy.
Geothermal energy is used commercially in over 70 countries. In 2004, 200 petajoules (56 TWh) of electricity was generated from geothermal resources, and an additional 270 petajoules (75 TWh) of geothermal energy was used directly, mostly for space heating. In 2007, the world had a global capacity for 7010100000000000000 ♠ 10 GW of electricity generation and an additional 7010280000000000000 ♠ 28 GW of direct heating, including extraction by geothermal heat pumps. Heat pumps are small and widely distributed, so estimates of their total capacity are uncertain and range up to 7011100000000000000 ♠ 100 GW.
Until the beginning of the nineteenth century biomass was the predominant fuel, today it has only a small share of the overall energy supply. Electricity produced from biomass sources was estimated at 44 GW for 2005. Biomass electricity generation increased by over 100 % in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Poland, and Spain. A further 220 GW was used for heating (in 2004), bringing the total energy consumed from biomass to around 264 GW. The use of biomass fires for cooking is excluded. World production of bioethanol increased by 8 % in 2005 to reach 33 gigalitres (8.7 × 10 US gal), with most of the increase in the United States, bringing it level to the levels of consumption in Brazil. Biodiesel increased by 85 % to 3.9 gigalitres (1.0 × 10 US gal), making it the fastest growing renewable energy source in 2005. Over 50 % is produced in Germany.
World total final consumption of 13,699 Mtoe by region in 2014 (IEA, 2016)
Energy consumption is loosely correlated with gross national product and climate, but there is a large difference even between the most highly developed countries, such as Japan and Germany with an energy consumption rate of 6 kW per person and the United States with an energy consumption rate of 11.4 kW per person. In developing countries, particularly those that are sub-tropical or tropical such as India, the per person energy use rate is closer to 0.7 kW. Bangladesh has the lowest consumption rate with 0.2 kW per person.
The US consumes 25 % of the world 's energy with a share of global GDP at 22 % and a share of the world population at 4.59 %. The most significant growth of energy consumption is currently taking place in China, which has been growing at 5.5 % per year over the last 25 years. Its population of 1.3 billion people (19.6 % of the world population) is consuming energy at a rate of 1.6 kW per person.
One measurement of efficiency is energy intensity. This is a measure of the amount of energy it takes a country to produce a dollar of gross domestic product.
Saudi Arabia, Russia and the United States accounted for 34 % of oil production in 2011. Saudi Arabia, Russia and Nigeria accounted for 36 % of oil export in 2011.
The table to the right shows the amounts of energy consumed worldwide in 2012 by four sectors, according to the Energy Information Administration of the US Department of Energy:
Of the total 120 PWh (7020432000000000000 ♠ 120 × 10 Wh) consumed, 19.4 were in the form of electricity, but this electricity required 61.7 PWh to produce. Thus the total energy consumption was around 160 PWh (ca 7020580280718941000 ♠ 550 × 10 Btu). The efficiency of a typical existing power plant is around 38 %. The new generation of gas - fired plants reaches a substantially higher efficiency of 55 %. Coal is the most common fuel for the world 's electricity plants.
Another report gives different values for the sectors, apparently due to different definitions. According to this, total world energy use per sector in 2008 was industry 28 %, transport 27 % and residential and service 36 %. Division was about the same in the year 2000.
The European Environmental Agency (EEA) measures final energy consumption (does not include energy used in production and lost in transportation) and finds that the transport sector is responsible for 31.8 % of final energy consumption, households 26.2 %, industry 25.6 %, services 13.5 % and agriculture 2.9 % in 2012. The use of energy is responsible for the majority of greenhouse gas emissions (79 %), with the energy sector representing 31 %, transport 19 %, industry 13 %, households 9 % and others 7 %.
While efficient energy use and resource efficiency are growing as public policy issues, more than 70 % of coal plants in the European Union are more than 20 years old and operate at an efficiency level of between 32 -- 40 %. Technological developments in the 1990s have allowed efficiencies in the range of 40 -- 45 % at newer plants. However, according to an impact assessment by the European Commission, this is still below the best available technological (BAT) efficiency levels of 46 -- 49 %. With gas - fired power plants the average efficiency is 52 % compared to 58 -- 59 % with best available technology (BAT), and gas and oil boiler plants operate at average 36 % efficiency (BAT delivers 47 %). According to that same impact assessment by the European Commission, raising the efficiency of all new plants and the majority of existing plants, through the setting of authorisation and permit conditions, to an average generation efficiency of 51.5 % in 2020 would lead to a reduction in annual consumption of 15 km (3.6 cu mi) of natural gas and 25 Mt (25,000,000 long tons; 28,000,000 short tons) of coal.
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is long island the longest island in the world | Long Island - wikipedia
Coordinates: 40 ° 48 ′ N 73 ° 18 ′ W / 40.8 ° N 73.3 ° W / 40.8; - 73.3
Long Island is a densely populated island off the East Coast of the United States, beginning at New York Harbor just 0.35 miles (0.56 km) from Manhattan Island and extending eastward into the Atlantic Ocean. The island comprises four counties in the U.S. state of New York. Kings and Queens Counties (the New York City boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens, respectively) and Nassau County share the western third of the island, while Suffolk County occupies the eastern two - thirds. More than half of New York City 's residents now live in Queens and Brooklyn. However, many people in the New York metropolitan area (including those in Brooklyn and Queens) colloquially use the term Long Island (or the Island) to refer exclusively to Nassau and Suffolk Counties, which are mainly suburban in character, conversely employing the term the City to mean Manhattan alone.
Broadly speaking, "Long Island '' may refer both to the main island and the surrounding outer barrier islands. North of the island is Long Island Sound, across which lie Westchester County, New York, and the state of Connecticut. Across the Block Island Sound to the northeast is the state of Rhode Island. To the west, Long Island is separated from the Bronx and the island of Manhattan by the East River. To the extreme southwest, it is separated from Staten Island and the state of New Jersey by Upper New York Bay, the Narrows, and Lower New York Bay. To the east lie Block Island -- which belongs to the State of Rhode Island -- and numerous smaller islands.
Both the longest and the largest island in the contiguous United States, Long Island extends 118 miles (190 km) eastward from New York Harbor to Montauk Point, with a maximum north - to - south distance of 23 miles (37 km) between Long Island Sound and the Atlantic coast. With a land area of 1,401 square miles (3,630 km), Long Island is the 11th - largest island in the United States and the 149th - largest island in the world -- larger than the 1,214 square miles (3,140 km) of the smallest U.S. state, Rhode Island.
With a Census - estimated population of 7,869,820 in 2017, constituting nearly 40 % of New York State 's population, Long Island is the most populated island in any U.S. state or territory, and the 18th-most populous island in the world (ahead of Ireland, Jamaica, and Hokkaidō). Its population density is 5,595.1 inhabitants per square mile (2,160.3 / km). If Long Island geographically constituted an independent metropolitan statistical area, it would rank fourth most populous in the United States; while if it were a U.S. state, Long Island would rank 13th in population and first in population density. Long Island is culturally and ethnically diverse, featuring some of the wealthiest and most expensive neighborhoods in the Western Hemisphere near the shorelines as well as working - class areas in all four counties.
As a hub of commercial aviation, Long Island contains two of the New York City metropolitan area 's three busiest airports, JFK International Airport and LaGuardia Airport, in addition to Islip MacArthur Airport; as well as two major air traffic control radar facilities, the New York TRACON and the New York ARTCC. Nine bridges and 13 tunnels (including railroad tunnels) connect Brooklyn and Queens to the three other boroughs of New York City. Ferries connect Suffolk County northward across Long Island Sound to the state of Connecticut. The Long Island Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad in North America and operates 24 / 7. Biotechnology companies and scientific research play a significant role in Long Island 's economy, including research facilities at Brookhaven National Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, State University of New York at Stony Brook, the New York University Tandon School of Engineering, the City University of New York, and Hofstra Northwell School of Medicine.
Prior to European contact, the Lenape people (named the Delaware by Europeans) inhabited the western end of Long Island, and spoke the Munsee dialect of Lenape, one of the Algonquian language family. Giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to record an encounter with the Lenapes, after entering what is now New York Bay in 1524. The eastern portion of the island was inhabited by speakers of the Mohegan - Montauk - Narragansett language group of Algonquian languages; they were part of the Pequot and Narragansett peoples inhabiting the area that now includes Connecticut and Rhode Island.
In 1609, the English navigator Henry Hudson explored the harbor and purportedly landed at Coney Island. Adriaen Block followed in 1615 and is credited as the first European to determine that both Manhattan and Long Island are islands.
Native American land deeds recorded by the Dutch from 1636 state that the Indians referred to Long Island as Sewanhaka (Sewanhacky and Sewanhacking were other spellings in the transliteration of Lenape). Sewan was one of the terms for wampum (commemorative stringed shell beads, for a while also used as currency by colonists in trades with the Lenape), and is also translated as "loose '' or "scattered '', which may refer either to the wampum or to Long Island. The name "' t Lange Eylandt alias Matouwacs '' (later shortened to "Lange Eylandt '') appears in Dutch maps from the 1650s. Later, the English referred to the land as "Nassau Island '', after the Dutch Prince William of Nassau, Prince of Orange (who later also ruled as King William III of England). It is unclear when the name "Nassau Island '' was discontinued.
The very first settlements on Long Island were by settlers from England and its colonies in present - day New England. Lion Gardiner settled nearby Gardiners Island. The first settlement on the geographic Long Island itself was on October 21, 1640, when Southold was established by the Rev. John Youngs and settlers from New Haven, Connecticut. Peter Hallock, one of the settlers, drew the long straw and was granted the honor to step ashore first. He is considered the first New World settler on Long Island. Southampton was settled in the same year. Hempstead followed in 1644, East Hampton in 1648, Huntington in 1653, Brookhaven in 1655, and Smithtown in 1665.
While the eastern region of Long Island was first settled by the English, the western portion of Long Island was settled by the Dutch; until 1664, the jurisdiction of Long Island was split between the Dutch and English, roughly at the present border between Nassau County and Suffolk County. The Dutch founded six towns in present - day Brooklyn beginning in 1645. These included: Brooklyn, Gravesend, Flatlands, Flatbush, New Utrecht, and Bushwick. The Dutch had granted an English settlement in Hempstead, New York (now in Nassau County) in 1644 but, after a boundary dispute, drove out English settlers from the Oyster Bay area. However, in 1664, the English returned to take over the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam, including Long Island.
The 1664 land patent granted to the Duke of York included all islands in Long Island Sound. The Duke of York held a grudge against Connecticut, as New Haven had hidden three of the judges who sentenced the Duke 's father, King Charles I, to death in 1649. Settlers throughout Suffolk County pressed to stay part of Connecticut, but Governor Sir Edmund Andros threatened to eliminate the settlers ' rights to land if they did not yield, which they did by 1676.
All of Long Island (as well as the islands between it and Connecticut) became part of the Province of New York within the Shire of York. Present - day Suffolk County was designated as the East Riding (of Yorkshire), present - day Brooklyn was part of the West Riding, and present - day Queens and Nassau were part of the larger North Riding. In 1683, Yorkshire was dissolved and the three original counties on Long Island were established: Kings, Queens, and Suffolk.
Early in the American Revolutionary War, the island was captured by the British from General George Washington in the Battle of Long Island, a decisive battle after which Washington narrowly evacuated his troops from Brooklyn Heights under a dense fog. After the British victory on Long Island, many Patriots fled, leaving mostly Loyalists behind. The island remained a British stronghold until the end of the war in 1783.
General Washington based his espionage activities on Long Island, due to the western part of the island 's proximity to the British military headquarters in New York City. The Culper Spy Ring included agents operating between Setauket and Manhattan. This ring alerted Washington to valuable British secrets, including the treason of Benedict Arnold and a plan to use counterfeiting to induce economic sabotage.
Long Island 's colonists served both Loyalist and Patriot causes, with many prominent families divided among both sides. During the occupation British troops used a number of civilian structures for defense and demanded to be quartered in the homes of civilians. A number of structures from this era remain. Among these are Raynham Hall, the Oyster Bay home of patriot spy Robert Townsend, and the Caroline Church in Setauket, which contains bullet holes from a skirmish known as the Battle of Setauket. Also in existence is a reconstruction of Brooklyn 's Old Stone House, on the site of the Maryland 400 's celebrated last stand during the Battle of Long Island.
In the 19th century, Long Island was still mainly rural and devoted to agriculture. The predecessor to the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) began service in 1836 from the South Ferry in Brooklyn, through the remainder of Brooklyn, to Jamaica in Queens. The line was completed to the east end of Long Island in 1844 (as part of a plan for transportation to Boston). Competing railroads (soon absorbed by the LIRR) were built along the south shore to accommodate travellers from those more populated areas. For the century from 1830 until 1930, total population roughly doubled every twenty years, with more dense development in areas near Manhattan. Several cities were incorporated, such as the City of Brooklyn in Kings County, and Long Island City in Queens.
Until the 1883 completion of the Brooklyn Bridge, the only means of travel between Long Island and the rest of the United States was by boat or ship. As other bridges and tunnels were constructed, areas of the island began to be developed as residential suburbs, first around the railroads that offered commuting into the city. On January 1, 1898, Kings County and portions of Queens were consolidated into The City of Greater New York, abolishing all cities and towns within them. The easternmost 280 square miles (730 km) of Queens County, which were not part of the consolidation plan, separated from Queens in 1899 to form Nassau County.
At the close of the 19th century, wealthy industrialists who made vast fortunes during the Gilded Age began to construct large "baronial '' country estates in Nassau County communities along the North Shore of Long Island, favoring the many properties with water views. Proximity to Manhattan attracted such men as J.P. Morgan, William K. Vanderbilt, and Charles Pratt, whose estates led to this area being nicknamed the Gold Coast. This period and the area was immortalized in fiction, such as F. Scott Fitzgerald 's The Great Gatsby, which has also been adapted in films.
Charles Lindbergh lifted off from Roosevelt Field with his Spirit of Saint Louis for his historic 1927 solo flight to Europe, one of the events that helped to establish Long Island as an early center of aviation during the 20th Century. Other famous aviators such as Wiley Post originated notable flights from Floyd Bennett Field in Brooklyn, which became the first major airport serving New York City before it was superseded by the opening of La Guardia Airport in 1939. Long Island was also the site of Mitchel Air Force Base and was a major center of military aircraft production by companies such as Grumman and Fairchild Aircraft during World War II and for some decades afterward. Aircraft production on Long Island extended all the way into the Space Age -- Grumman was one of the major contractors that helped to build the early lunar flight and space shuttle vehicles. Although the aircraft companies eventually ended their Long Island operations and the early airports were all later closed -- Roosevelt Field, for instance, became the site of a major shopping mall -- the Cradle of Aviation Museum on the site of the former Mitchel Field documents the Island 's key role in the history of aviation.
From the 1920s to the 1940s, Long Island began the transformation from backwoods and farms as developers created numerous suburbs. Numerous branches of the LIRR already enabled commuting from the suburbs to Manhattan. Robert Moses engineered various automobile parkway projects to span the island, and developed beaches and state parks for the enjoyment of residents and visitors from the city. Gradually, development also followed these parkways, with various communities springing up along the more traveled routes.
After World War II, suburban development increased with incentives under the G.I. Bill, and Long Island 's population skyrocketed, mostly in Nassau County and western Suffolk County. Second and third - generation children of immigrants moved out to eastern Long Island to settle in new housing developments built during the post-war boom. Levittown became noted as a suburb, where housing construction was simplified to be produced on a large scale. These provided opportunities for World War II military veterans returning home to buy houses and start a family.
By the start of the 21st century, a number of Long Island communities had successfully converted their assets from industrial uses to post-industrial roles. Brooklyn reversed decades of population decline and factory closings to resurface as a globally renowned cultural and intellectual hotbed. Gentrification has affected much of Brooklyn and a portion of Queens, relocating a sizeable swath of New York City 's population. On eastern Long Island, such villages as Port Jefferson, Patchogue, and Riverhead have been changed from inactive shipbuilding and mill towns into tourist - centric commercial centers with cultural attractions.
The descendants of late 19th and early 20th - century immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, and black migrants from the South, have been followed by more recent immigrants from Asia and Latin America. Long Island has many ethnic Irish, Jews, and Italians, as well as an increasing numbers of Asians and Hispanics, reflecting later migrations.
The westernmost end of Long Island contains the New York City boroughs of Brooklyn (Kings County) and Queens (Queens County). The central and eastern portions contain the suburban Nassau and Suffolk Counties. However, colloquial usage of the term "Long Island '' usually refers only to Nassau and Suffolk Counties. For example, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York has a district named "Long Island (Nassau - Suffolk Metro Division). '' At least as late as 1911, locations in Queens were still commonly referred to as being on Long Island. Some institutions in the New York City section of the island use the island 's names, like Long Island University and Long Island Jewish Medical Center. In 1985, the United States Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Maine that Long Island, while geographically an island, was not an island for legal purposes, given that New York State 's boundaries contained its offshore soil and seabeds.
Nassau County is more densely developed than Suffolk County. While affluent overall, Nassau County has pockets of more pronounced wealth with estates covering greater acreage within the Gold Coast of the North Shore and the Five Towns area on the South Shore. South Shore communities are built along protected wetlands of the island and contain white sandy beaches of Outer Barrier Islands fronting on the Atlantic Ocean. Dutch and English settlers from the time before the American Revolutionary War, as well as communities of Native Americans, populated the island. The 19th century saw the infusion of the wealthiest Americans in the so - called Gold Coast of the North Shore, where wealthy Americans and Europeans in the Gilded Age built lavish country homes.
In its easternmost sections, Suffolk County remains semi-rural, as in Greenport on the North Fork and some of the periphery of the area prominently known as The Hamptons, although summer tourism swells the population in those areas. The North Fork peninsula of Suffolk County 's East End has developed a burgeoning Wine Country region. In addition, the South Fork peninsula is known for beach communities, including the Hamptons, and for the Montauk Point Lighthouse at the eastern tip of the island. The Pine Barrens is a preserved pine forest encompassing much of eastern Suffolk County.
A detailed geomorphological study of Long Island provides evidence of glacial history of the kame and terminal moraines of the island which were formed by the advance and retreat of two ice sheets. Long Island, as part of the Outer Lands region, is formed largely of two spines of glacial moraine, with a large, sandy outwash plain beyond. These moraines consist of gravel and loose rock left behind during the two most recent pulses of Wisconsin glaciation during the Ice Ages some 21,000 years ago (19,000 BC). The northern moraine, which directly abuts the North Shore of Long Island at points, is known as the Harbor Hill moraine. The more southerly moraine, known as the Ronkonkoma moraine, forms the "backbone '' of Long Island; it runs primarily through the very center of Long Island, roughly coinciding with the length of the Long Island Expressway.
The land to the south of this moraine to the South Shore is the outwash plain of the last glacier. One part of the outwash plain was known as the Hempstead Plains, and this land contained one of the few natural prairies to exist east of the Appalachian Mountains. The glaciers melted and receded to the north, resulting in the difference between the topography of the North Shore beaches and the South Shore beaches. The North Shore beaches are rocky from the remaining glacial debris, while the South Shore 's are crisp, clear, outwash sand. Jayne 's Hill, at 401 feet (122 m), within Suffolk County near its border with Nassau County, is the highest hill along either moraine; another well - known summit is Bald Hill in Brookhaven Town, not far from its geographical center at Middle Island. The glaciers also formed Lake Ronkonkoma in Suffolk County and Lake Success in Nassau County, each a deep kettle lake.
Under the Köppen climate classification, Long Island lies in a transition zone between a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) and a humid continental climate (Dfa). The climate features long hot summers, with occasional thunderstorms, mild spring and fall weather, and cool to cold winters with a mix of snow and rain and stormier conditions. Springs can be cool and sometimes gloomy due to the relatively cooler temperatures of the Atlantic Ocean. The ocean also brings afternoon sea breezes that temper the heat in the warmer months and limit the frequency and severity of thunderstorms. Long Island has a moderately sunny climate, averaging 2,400 to 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.
Due to its coastal location, Long Island winter temperatures are significantly milder than most of the state. The coldest month is January, when average temperatures range from 30 to 35 ° F (− 1 to 2 ° C), and the warmest month is July, when average temperatures range from 70 to 80 ° F (21 to 27 ° C). Temperatures seldom fall below 5 ° F (− 15 ° C) or rise above 95 ° F (35 ° C). Long Island temperatures vary from west to east, with the western part (Nassau County, Queens, and Brooklyn) generally warmer than the east (Suffolk County). This is due to several factors: the western part is closer to the mainland and more densely developed, causing the "urban heat island '' effect, and Long Island 's land mass veers northward as one travels east. Also, daytime high temperatures on the eastern part of Long Island are cooler on most occasions due to moderation of the Atlantic Ocean and Long Island Sound. On dry nights with no clouds or wind, the Pine Barrens forest of eastern Suffolk County can be almost 20 degrees Fahrenheit (11 degrees Celsius) cooler than the rest of the island due to radiational cooling. Average dew points, a measure of atmospheric moisture, typically lie in the 60 -- 70 ° F (16 -- 21 ° C) range during July and August.
Precipitation is distributed fairly uniformly throughout the year, with approximately 3 -- 4 inches (76 -- 102 mm) on average during each month. Average yearly snowfall totals range from approximately 20 to 35 inches (51 to 89 cm), with the north shore and western parts averaging more than the south shore and the east end. In any given winter, however, some parts of the island can see up to 75 inches (190 cm) of snow or more. There are also some very quiet winters, in which most parts of the island could see less than 10 inches (25 cm) of snow.
On August 13, 2014, flash flooding occurred in western - central Suffolk County after a record - setting rainfall deposited more than three months ' worth of precipitation on the area within a few hours.
Long Island is somewhat vulnerable to tropical cyclones. While it lies north of where most tropical cyclones turn eastward and out to sea (most landfalls on the East Coast of the USA occur from North Carolina southward), several tropical cyclones have struck Long Island, including a devastating Category 3, the 1938 New England Hurricane (also known as the "Long Island Express ''), and another Category 3, Hurricane Carol in 1954. Other 20th - century storms that made landfall on Long Island at hurricane intensity include the Great Atlantic Hurricane of 1944, Hurricane Donna in 1960, Hurricane Belle in 1976, and Hurricane Gloria in 1985. Also, the eyewall of Hurricane Bob in 1991 brushed the eastern tip. In August 2011, portions of Long Island were evacuated in preparation for Hurricane Irene, a Category 1 hurricane which weakened to a tropical storm before it reached Long Island.
On October 29, 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused extensive damage to low - lying coastal areas of Nassau and Suffolk Counties, Brooklyn, and Queens, destroying or severely damaging thousands of area homes and other structures by ocean and bay storm surges. Hundreds of thousands of residents were left without electric power for periods of time ranging up to several weeks while the damage was being repaired. The slow - moving "Superstorm Sandy '' (so - nicknamed because its winds weakened below hurricane intensity as it made landfall) caused 90 % of Long Island households to lose power and an estimated $18 billion in damages in Nassau and Suffolk Counties alone. The storm also had a devastating impact on coastal communities in the Brooklyn and Queens portions of the island, including Coney Island in Brooklyn and the Rockaway Peninsula in Queens, although estimates of monetary damages there are usually calculated as part of the overall losses suffered in New York City as a whole. The extent of Sandy 's damages is second only to those caused by the 1938 Long Island Express, when adjusted for inflation. Although a lower central pressure was recorded in Sandy, the National Hurricane Center estimates that the 1938 hurricane had a lower pressure at landfall. Hurricane Sandy and its profound impacts have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of Long Island and New York City to minimize the risk of destructive consequences from another such event in the future.
Several smaller islands, though geographically distinct, are in proximity to Long Island and are often grouped with it. These islands include Fire Island, the largest of the outer barrier islands that parallels the southern shore of Long Island for approximately 31 miles (50 km); Plum Island, which was home to the Plum Island Animal Disease Center, a biological weapons research facility; as well as Robins Island, Gardiners Island, Fishers Island, Long Beach Barrier Island, Jones Beach Island, Great Gull Island, Little Gull Island, and Shelter Island.
Long Island is one of the most densely populated regions in the United States. As of the United States 2010 Census, the total population of all four counties of Long Island was 7,568,304, which was 39 % of the population of the State of New York. As of 2017, the proportion of New York City residents living on Long Island had risen to 58 %, given the 5,007,353 residents living in Brooklyn or Queens. Furthermore, the proportion of New York State 's population residing on Long Island has also been increasing, with Long Island 's Census - estimated population increasing 4.0 % since 2010, to 7,869,820 in 2017, representing 39.6 % of New York State 's Census - estimated 2017 population of 19,849,399 and with a population density of 5,617.3 inhabitants per square mile (2,168.9 / km) on Long Island. Long Island 's population is greater than 37 of the 50 U.S. states.
As of the 2010 census, the combined population of Nassau and Suffolk Counties was 2,832,882 people; Suffolk County 's share being 1,493,350 and Nassau County 's 1,339,532. Nassau County had a larger population for decades, but Suffolk County surpassed it in the 1990 census as growth and development continued to spread eastward. As Suffolk County has more than three times the land area of Nassau County, the latter still has a much higher population density. According to the U.S. Census Bureau 's 2008 American Community Survey, Nassau and Suffolk Counties had the 10th and 26th highest median household incomes in the nation, respectively.
Population figures from the U.S. Census Bureau Census 2010 show that whites are the largest racial group in all four counties, and are in the majority in Nassau and Suffolk Counties. In 2002, The New York Times cited a study by the non-profit group ERASE Racism, which determined that Nassau and Suffolk Counties constitute the most racially segregated suburbs in the United States.
In contrast, Queens is the most ethnically diverse county in the United States and the most diverse urban area in the world.
According to a 2000 report on religion, which asked congregations to respond, Catholics are the largest religious group on Long Island, with non-affiliated in second place. Catholics make up 52 % of the population of Nassau and Suffolk, versus 22 % for the country as a whole, with Jews at 16 % and 7 %, respectively, versus 1.7 % nationwide. Only a small percentage of Protestants responded, 7 % and 8 % respectively, for Nassau and Suffolk Counties. This is in contrast with 23 % for the entire country on the same survey, and 50 % on self - identification surveys.
A growing population of nearly half million Chinese Americans now live on Long Island. Rapidly expanding Chinatowns have developed in Brooklyn (布魯克 林) and Queens (皇后), with Chinese immigrants also moving into Nassau County, as did earlier European immigrants, such as the Irish and Italians. More recently, a Little India (लघु भारत) community has emerged in Hicksville, Nassau County, spreading eastward from the more established Little India enclaves in Queens.
Likewise, the Long Island Koreatown (롱 아일랜드 코리아 타운) originated in Flushing, Queens. It is expanding eastward along Northern Boulevard and into Nassau County.
Long Island is home to two Native American reservations, Poospatuck Reservation, and Shinnecock Reservation. Both reservations are in Suffolk County. Numerous island place names are Native American in origin.
A 2010 article in The New York Times stated that the expansion of the immigrant workforce on Long Island has not displaced any jobs from other Long Island residents. Half of the immigrants on Long Island hold white - collar positions.
The Counties of Nassau and Suffolk have been long renowned for their affluence. Long Island is home to some of the wealthiest communities in the United States, including The Hamptons, on the East End of the South Shore of Suffolk County; the Gold Coast, in the vicinity of the island 's North Shore, along Long Island Sound; and increasingly, the western shoreline of Brooklyn, facing Manhattan. In 2016, according to Business Insider, the 11962 zip code encompassing Sagaponack, within Southampton, was listed as the most expensive in the U.S., with a median home sale price of $8.5 million.
Long Island has played a prominent role in scientific research and in engineering. It is the home of the Brookhaven National Laboratory in nuclear physics and Department of Energy research. Long Island is also home to the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, which was directed for 35 years by James D. Watson (who, along with Francis Crick and Rosalind Franklin, discovered the double helix structure of DNA). Companies such as Sperry Rand, Computer Associates (headquartered in Islandia), Zebra Technologies (now occupying the former headquarters of Symbol Technologies, and a former Grumman plant in Holtsville), have made Long Island a center for the computer industry. Stony Brook University of the State University of New York and New York Institute of Technology conduct advanced medical and technological research.
Long Island is home to the East Coast 's largest industrial park, the Hauppauge Industrial Park, hosting over 1,300 companies which employ more than 71,000 individuals. Companies in the park and abroad are represented by the Hauppauge Industrial Association. As many as 20 % of Long Islanders commute to jobs in Manhattan. The eastern end of the island is still partly agricultural. Development of vineyards on the North Fork has spawned a major viticultural industry, replacing potato fields. Pumpkin farms have been added to traditional truck farming. Farms allow fresh fruit picking by Long Islanders for much of the year. Fishing continues to be an important industry, especially at Huntington, Northport, Montauk, and other coastal communities of the East End and South Shore.
From about 1930 to about 1990, Long Island was considered one of the aerospace manufacturing centers of the United States, with companies such as Grumman Aircraft, Republic, Fairchild, and Curtiss having had their headquarters and factories on Long Island. These operations have largely been phased out or significantly diminished.
Nassau County and Suffolk County each have their own governments, with a County Executive leading each. Each has a county legislature and countywide - elected officials, including district attorney, county clerk, and county comptroller. The towns in both counties have their own governments as well, with town supervisors and a town council. Nassau County is divided into three towns and two small incorporated cities (Glen Cove and Long Beach). Suffolk County is divided into ten towns.
Brooklyn and Queens, on the other hand, do not have county governments. As boroughs of New York City, both have borough presidents, which have been largely ceremonial offices since the shutdown of the New York City Board of Estimate. The respective Borough Presidents are responsible for appointing individuals to the Brooklyn Community Boards and Queens Community Boards, each of which serves an advisory function on local issues. Brooklyn 's sixteen members and Queens ' fourteen members represent the first and second largest borough contingents of the New York City Council.
Queens and Brooklyn are patrolled by the New York City Police Department. Nassau and Suffolk Counties are served by the Nassau County Police Department and Suffolk County Police Department, respectively, although several dozen villages and the two cities in Nassau County have their own police departments. The Nassau County Sheriff 's Department and Suffolk County Sheriff 's Office handle civil procedure, evictions, warrant service and enforcement, prisoner transport and detention, and operation of the county jail. New York State Police patrol state parks and parkways.
The secession of Nassau and Suffolk Counties on Long Island from New York was proposed as early as 1896, but talk was revived towards the latter part of the twentieth century. On March 28, 2008, Suffolk County Comptroller Joseph Sawicki proposed a plan that would make Nassau and Suffolk Counties on Long Island the 51st state of the United States of America. Sawicki claimed that all of the Nassau and Suffolk taxpayers ' money would remain locally, rather than the funds being dispersed all over the entire state of New York, with these counties sending to Albany over three billion dollars more than they receive back. The state of Long Island would have included nearly 3 million people (a larger population than that of fifteen other states). Nassau County executive Ed Mangano came out in support of such a proposal in April 2010 and commissioned a study on it.
Every major form of transportation serves Long Island, including aviation from John F. Kennedy International Airport, LaGuardia Airport, and Long Island MacArthur Airport, and multiple smaller airports; rail transportation on the Long Island Rail Road and the New York City Subway; bus routes from MTA Regional Bus Operations, Nassau Inter-County Express, and Suffolk County Transit; ferry service from NYC Ferry and multiple smaller ferry companies; and several major highways. There are historic and modern bridges, and recreational and commuter trails, serving various parts of Long Island.
There are currently ten road crossings out of Long Island, all within New York City limits at the extreme western end of the island. Plans for a Long Island Crossing at various locations in Nassau and Suffolk Counties (a proposed bridge or tunnel that would link Long Island to the south with New York or Connecticut to the north across Long Island Sound) have been discussed for decades, but there are currently no firm plans to construct such a crossing.
The MTA implements mass transportation for the New York metropolitan area including all five boroughs of New York City, the suburban counties of Dutchess, Nassau, Orange, Putnam, Rockland, Suffolk and Westchester, all of which together are the "Metropolitan Commuter Transportation District (MCTD) ''.
The MTA is the largest public transportation provider in the Western Hemisphere. Its agencies serve 14.6 million people spread over 5,000 square miles (13,000 km2) from New York City through the southeastern section of the state (including Long Island and the lower Hudson Valley), and Connecticut. Combined the MTA agencies now move more than 2.6 billion rail and bus customers a year while employing some 70,000 workers.
The Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) is the busiest commuter railroad system in North America, carrying an average of 282,400 passengers each weekday on 728 daily trains. Chartered on April 24, 1834, and operating continuously since, it is also the oldest railroad in the U.S. that is still operating under its original charter and name. The Metropolitan Transportation Authority has operated the LIRR as one of its two commuter railroads since 1966, and the LIRR is one of the few railroads worldwide that provides service all the time, year round. In July 2017, a $2 billion plan to add a third railroad track to the LIRR Main Line between the Floral Park and Hicksville stations in Nassau County was approved. Other LIRR projects, such as the Ronkonkoma Branch Double Track Project, are also underway. Five "readiness projects '' across the LIRR system, which will cost a combined $495 million, are also under construction in preparation for expanded peak - hour LIRR service after the completion of East Side Access, which will bring LIRR trains to Grand Central Terminal.
Nassau Inter-County Express (NICE) provides bus service in Nassau County, while Suffolk County Transit, an agency of the Suffolk County government, provides bus service in Suffolk County. In 2012, NICE replaced the former Long Island Bus in transporting Long Islanders across Nassau County while still allowing them to use MTA MetroCards as payment.
The Long Island Expressway, Northern State Parkway, and Southern State Parkway, all products of the automobile - centered planning of Robert Moses, are the island 's primary east - west high - speed controlled - access highways.
Roads in boldface are limited access roads. Sunrise Highway is only limited - access from western Suffolk County eastwards.
Being such a large, populous island with several airports connecting the island to the rest of the world, there are several hundred transportation companies that service the Long Island / New York City area. Winston airport shuttle, the oldest of these companies in business since 1973, was the first to introduce door - to - door shared - ride service to and from the major airports, which almost all transportation companies now utilize.
Many public and private high schools on Long Island are ranked among the best in the United States. Nassau and Suffolk Counties are the home of 125 public school districts containing a total of 656 public schools. It also hosts a number of private schools such as Friends Academy, Chaminade High School, Kellenberg Memorial High School, St. Anthony 's High School, and North Shore Hebrew Academy, as well as parochial schools, many of which are operated by the Catholic Diocese of Rockville Centre.
In contrast, all of Brooklyn and Queens are served by the New York City Department of Education, the largest school district in the United States. Three of the nine specialized high schools in New York City are located in the two Long Island boroughs, those being Brooklyn Latin School, Brooklyn Technical High School (one of the original three specialized schools), and Queens High School for the Sciences. Like Nassau and Suffolk Counties, they, too, are home to numerous private schools, such as Poly Prep Country Day School, Packer Collegiate Institute, and Saint Ann 's School, and Berkeley Carroll School, and parochial schools operated by the Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn.
Long Island is home to a range of higher - education institutions, both public and private. Brooklyn and Queens contain five of eleven senior colleges within CUNY, the public university system of New York City and one of the largest in the country. Among these are the notable institutions of Brooklyn College and Queens College. Brooklyn also contains private colleges such as Pratt Institute and the New York University Polytechnic School of Engineering, an engineering college that merged with New York University in 2014.
Several colleges and universities within the State University of New York system are located on Long Island, such as Stony Brook (which noted its health sciences research and medical center), as well as Nassau Community College and Suffolk County Community College that serve their respective counties. Private institutions include the New York Institute of Technology, Hofstra University and Adelphi University (both located in the Town of Hempstead), as well as Long Island University (with its C.W. Post campus, located on a former Gold Coast estate in Brookville, and a satellite campus in downtown Brooklyn). Long Island also contains the Webb Institute, a small naval architecture college in Glen Cove. In addition, the island is home to the United States Merchant Marine Academy, a Federal Service Academy located in Kings Point, on the North Shore.
Music on Long Island (Nassau and Suffolk) is strongly influenced by the proximity to New York City and by the youth culture of the suburbs. Psychedelic rock was widely popular in the 1960s as flocks of disaffected youth travelled to NYC to participate in protest and the culture of the time. R & B also has a history on Long Island, especially in areas close to New York City. In the late 1970s through the 1980s, the influence of radio station WLIR made Long Island one of the first places in the U.S. to hear and embrace European New Wave bands such as Depeche Mode, the Pet Shop Boys, and Culture Club. In the 1990s, hip - hop became very popular with rap pioneers Rakim, EPMD, and Public Enemy growing up on Long Island. More recently, newer bands have been making a name for themselves originating from Long Island, including Brand New, Austin Schoeffel, Jon Bellion, and Envy on the Coast.
Famous rock bands that originated on Long Island include The Rascals, The Ramones (from Queens), Dream Theater, Blue Öyster Cult, Twisted Sister and guitar virtuosos Donald (Buck Dharma) Roeser, John Petrucci, Steve Vai and Joe Satriani, as well as drummer Mike Portnoy. Rock and pop singer Billy Joel grew up in Hicksville, Long Island and his youthful life there is reflected in some of his music.
The Nassau Coliseum and Northwell Health at Jones Beach Theater are venues used by national touring acts as performance spaces for concerts. Northwell Health at Jones Beach Theater is an outdoor amphitheatre, located at Jones Beach State Park. It is a popular place to view summer concerts, with new as well as classic artists performing there during the summer months. It hosts a large Fourth of July fireworks show every year which fills the stands. People also park cars along the highway leading to the show, and others watch from the nearby beaches.
Long Island is also known for its school music programs. Many schools in Suffolk County have distinguished music programs, with high numbers of students who are accepted into the statewide All - State music groups, or even the National All - Eastern Coast music groups. Both the Suffolk County and Nassau County Music Educator 's Associations are recognized by The National Association for Music Education (NAfME), and host numerous events, competitions, and other music - related activities.
Long Island has historically been a center for fishing and seafood. This legacy continues in the Blue Point oyster, a now ubiquitous variety that was originally harvested on the Great South Bay and was the favorite oyster of Queen Victoria. Clams are also a popular food and clam digging a popular recreational pursuit, with Manhattan clam chowder reputed to have Long Island origins.
Of land - based produce, Long Island duck has a history of national recognition since the 19th century, with four duck farms continuing to produce 2 million ducks a year as of 2013. Two symbols of Long Island 's duck farming heritage are the Long Island Ducks minor - league baseball team and the Big Duck, a 1931 duck - shaped building that is a historic landmark and tourist attraction. In addition to Long Island 's duck industry, Riverhead contains one of the largest buffalo farms on the East coast.
Long Island is well known for its production of alcoholic beverages. Eastern Long Island is a significant producer of wines. Vineyards are most heavily concentrated on Long Island 's North Fork, which contains 38 wineries. Most of these contain tasting rooms, which serve as popular tourist attractions for visitors from across the New York metropolitan area. Long Island has also become a producer of diverse craft beers, with 15 microbreweries existing across Nassau and Suffolk Counties as of 2013. The largest of these is Blue Point Brewing Company, best known for its toasted lager. Long Island is also globally known for its signature cocktail, the Long Island Iced Tea, which purportedly was invented at the popular Babylon, Oak Beach Inn nightclub in the 1970s.
The eateries on Long Island are largely a product of the region 's local ethnic populations. Asian cuisines, Italian cuisine, Jewish cuisine, and Latin American cuisines were the most popular categories of ethnic cuisine on Long Island as of the second decade of the 2000s. Asian cuisines are predominantly represented by East Asian, South Asian, and Middle Eastern cuisines. Italian cuisine is found in ubiquitous pizzerias spread throughout the island, with the region hosting an annual competition, the Long Island Pizza Festival & Bake - Off. Jewish cuisine is likewise represented by delicatessens and bagel stores. Latin American cuisines span their geographical origins, ranging from Brazilian rodizios to Mexican taquerias.
The New York Mets baseball team plays at Citi Field in Flushing Meadows - Corona Park, Queens. Their former stadium, Shea Stadium was also home for the New York Jets football team from 1964 until 1983. The new stadium is designed with an exterior façade and main entry rotunda inspired by Brooklyn 's famous Ebbets Field (see below). The New York Mets had planned to move their Double - A farm team to Long Island, as part of the ambitious but now - defunct plan for Nassau County called The Lighthouse Project. The Brooklyn Cyclones are a minor league baseball team, affiliated with the New York Mets. The Cyclones play at MCU Park just off the boardwalk on Coney Island in Brooklyn. An artificial turf baseball complex named Baseball Heaven is located in Yaphank.
The Barclays Center, a sports arena, business, and residential complex built partly on a platform over the Atlantic Yards at Atlantic Avenue in Brooklyn, is the current home of the Brooklyn Nets basketball team and the New York Islanders hockey team. The move from New Jersey in the summer of 2012 marked the return to Long Island for the Nets franchise, which played at Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Uniondale from 1972 to 1977. The Islanders played at Nassau Coliseum from their 1972 inception through 2015.
Ebbets Field, which stood in Brooklyn from 1913 until its demolition in 1960, was the home of the Brooklyn Dodgers baseball team, who moved to California after the 1957 Major League Baseball season to become the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Dodgers won several National League pennants in the 1940s and 1950s, losing several times in the World Series -- often called Subway Series -- to their Bronx rivals, the New York Yankees. The Dodgers won their lone championship in Brooklyn in the 1955 World Series versus the Yankees.
Despite this success during the latter part of the team 's stay in Brooklyn, they were a second - division team with an unspectacular winning record for much of their history there -- but nonetheless became legendary for the almost - fanatical devotion of the Brooklynites who packed the relatively small ballpark to vigorously root for the team they affectionately called, "Dem Bums ''. Loss of the Dodgers to California was locally considered a civic tragedy that negatively affected the community far more than did the similar moves of other established teams to new cities in the 1950s, including the Dodgers ' long - time arch - rival New York Giants, who also left for California after 1957.
Long Island is also home to the Long Island Ducks minor league baseball team of the Atlantic League. Their stadium, Bethpage Ballpark, is located in Central Islip. The Brooklyn Cyclones minor league baseball team, affiliated with the New York Mets, plays in the Short - Season A classification New York -- Penn League. The Cyclones play at MCU Park just off the Coney Island boardwalk in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. The New York Dragons of the Arena Football League played their home games at Nassau Coliseum. The two main rugby union teams are the Long Island RFC in East Meadow and the Suffolk Bull Moose in Stony Brook.
The New York Sharks are a women 's American football team that are currently a member of the Women 's Football Alliance. The New York Sharks home field is at Aviator Sports Complex in Brooklyn.
Long Island has a professional soccer club, the New York Cosmos, who play in the Division 2 North American Soccer League at James M. Shuart Stadium in Hempstead.
Long Island has historically been a hotbed of lacrosse at the youth and college level, which made way for a Major League Lacrosse team in 2001, the Long Island Lizards. The Lizards play at Mitchel Athletic Complex in Uniondale.
Long Island has a wide variety of golf courses found all over the island. Two of the most famous are the Shinnecock Hills Golf Club and the public Bethpage Black Course that both has hosted multiple U.S. Open tournaments as well as several other top level international championships. Queens also hosts one of the four tennis grand slams, the US Open. Every August (September, in Olympic years) the best tennis players in the world travel to Long Island to play the championships, which is held in the USTA National Tennis Center, located adjacent to Citi Field in Flushing Meadows Park. The complex also contains the biggest tennis stadium in the world, the Arthur Ashe Stadium.
Long Island also has two horse racing tracks, Aqueduct Racetrack in Ozone Park, Queens and Belmont Park on the Queens / Nassau border in Elmont, home of the Belmont Stakes. The longest dirt thoroughbred racecourse in the world is also located at Belmont Park. Another category of sporting events popular in this region involves firematic racing events, involving many local volunteer fire departments.
Long Island is home to numerous famous athletes, including Hall of Famers Jim Brown, Julius Erving, John Mackey, Whitey Ford, Nick Drahos, and Carl Yastrzemski. Others include Gold Medalists Sue Bird, Sarah Hughes and Derrick Adkins, D'Brickashaw Ferguson, Billy Donovan, Larry Brown, Rick Pitino, John McEnroe, Jumbo Elliott, Mick Foley, Zack Ryder, Matt Serra, Boomer Esiason, Vinny Testaverde, Craig Biggio, Frank Catalanotto, Greg Sacks, Rob Burnett, Steve Park, Frank Viola, Chris Weidman, Marques Colston and Speedy Claxton.
Several current NHL players were born and / or raised on Long Island, such as Vancouver Canucks Christopher Higgins and Matt Gilroy, Nashville Predators Eric Nystrom, Toronto Maple Leaf Mike Komisarek, Pittsburgh Penguin Rob Scuderi, and New Jersey Devil Keith Kinkaid. Both Komisarek and Higgins played on the same Suffolk County Hockey League team at an early age, and later played on the Montreal Canadiens together. Nick Drahos was an All Scholastic and All Long Island honoree at Lawrence High School, Nassau Co. in 1936 and 1937, and a two - time Unanimous National College All - American in the years of 1939 and 1940 at Cornell University.
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stevie wonder for once in my life song | For Once in My Life - wikipedia
"For Once in My Life '' is a swing song written by Ron Miller and Orlando Murden for Motown Records ' Stein & Van Stock publishing company, and first recorded in 1966.
It was written and first recorded as a slow ballad. There are differing accounts of its earliest versions, although it seems that it was first recorded by Barbara McNair, but first released in 1966 by Jean DuShon. Other early versions of the ballad were issued by The Four Tops, The Temptations, Diana Ross and Tony Bennett, whose recording was the first to reach the pop charts.
The most familiar and successful version of "For Once in My Life '' is an uptempo arrangement by Stevie Wonder, recorded in 1967. Wonder 's version, issued on Motown 's Tamla label, was a top - three hit in the United States and the United Kingdom in late 1968 and early 1969.
Miller and Murden wrote the song in 1965 as a slow ballad, and passed it around various singers so that it could be tried out and refined. Among those who, it is claimed, heard and performed the song in about 1966 -- but did not record it -- are Jo Thompson, a club singer in Detroit; Sherry Kaye, who may have performed it in a musical revue at the Gem Theater; and Johnny Hartman, who turned it down.
Jean DuShon was one of the singers who was originally tapped by Ron Miller to demo the song as he was fine - tuning the composition. Miller was impressed by DuShon 's rendition, and her version, produced by Esmond Edwards, was issued as a single on Chess Records ' Cadet label in October 1966. It was chosen "Pick Hit of the Week '' by Detroit 's WXYZ radio. Although the record label gave the sole songwriting credit to Murden, Motown CEO Berry Gordy discovered that Miller -- who was contracted to Motown -- had co-written the song, and reportedly asked Chess not to promote the single. DuShon dropped "For Once in My Life '' from her nightclub act and later said: "It was a very big disappointment in my life. I stopped singing it ' cause I did n't have the song. I did n't have anything. It was n't mine anymore. ''
At Motown, the song was recorded, perhaps as early as October 1965, by Barbara McNair backed up by a symphony orchestra and produced by Frank Wilson. Some sources suggest that the song was originally written for McNair; others that Gordy, hearing the song, insisted that she record it. However, her version was not released until it appeared on her November 1966 album, Here I Am. It was also released as the B - side of her 1968 single, "Where Would I Be Without You ''. In later years, McNair re-recorded the song with a faster tempo.
Singer Jack Soo claimed that he was the first male artist to record a version of the song, after he joined Motown in 1965 as one of their first non-African American artists. The record was never released and was permanently shelved in the Motown archives. Another singer contracted to Motown at the time, Connie Haines, also claimed to have recorded an early unreleased version. This was verified when her version was released on an MP3 download album Motown Unreleased 1965 on December 11, 2015.
The Four Tops recorded the song on their album 4 Tops On Broadway, released in March 1967 and, like McNair 's recording, produced as a slow ballad by Frank Wilson.
The Temptations also recorded the song for their pop standards based album The Temptations in a Mellow Mood, released in July 1967. Baritone singer Paul Williams sings the lead vocal on the song, and it subsequently became his showcase number in the Temptations ' live shows. Williams ' most famous performance of the number was during The Supremes and Temptations ' TCB television special in 1968, a performance cited as the apex of Williams ' career. The song also made its way into The Temptations 1998 made - for - television miniseries on NBC. After celebrating The Temptations ' (and Motown 's) first Grammy Award win for "Cloud Nine '', the actor who portrays Paul Williams (Christian Payton) sings the slow ballad version.
Also in 1967, Tony Bennett 's recording of the song peaked at number 91 on the Billboard Pop Singles chart (number 8 on the Easy Listening survey) and was the title track of his album For Once in My Life. "For Once in My Life '' remained in Bennett 's concert repertoire into the 2000s. In 2006 Bennett teamed up with Stevie Wonder to record a ballad tempo version for his Duets: An American Classic album, for which Bennett and Wonder received a Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. Bennett also performed it on the grand finale of the sixth season of American Idol and in the Grammy Award - sponsored tribute Stevie Wonder: Songs in the Key of Life -- An All - Star Salute, which aired February 16, 2015, on CBS.
Stevie Wonder 's version was recorded at about the same time as The Temptations ' in the summer of 1967. However, Berry Gordy did not like Wonder 's version, an upbeat rendition produced by Henry Cosby. Gordy vetoed the single 's release, and the recording was shelved. Billie Jean Brown, the head of the Motown Quality Control department, finally coerced Gordy into allowing Wonder 's version to be released in October 1968.
Contrary to Gordy 's instincts, "For Once in My Life '' was a highly successful record, peaking at number - two on both the Billboard Pop Singles and Billboard R&B Singles (it was held off from the number - one spot on each chart by another Motown single Gordy had originally vetoed, Marvin Gaye 's "I Heard It Through the Grapevine ''). "For Once in My Life '', issued by Tamla with "Angie Girl '' as its B - side, was later included as the title track on Wonder 's For Once in My Life album.
Wonder 's version of the track is often singled out by bassists as the greatest example of James Jamerson 's playing style, with no two bars of music played alike during the whole song; a completely improvisational line that is both melodic and complementary to Wonder 's vocal. Background vocals are by The Originals (Freddie Gorman, Walter Gaines, Hank Dixon, C.P. Spencer) and The Andantes (Jackie Hicks, Marlene Barrow, Louvain Demps), and instrumentation by The Funk Brothers.
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where are the most densely populated regions in india located | List of Cities in India by Population - wikipedia
The following tables are the list of cities in India by population. Often cities are bifurcated into multiple regions (municipalities) which results in creation of cities within cities which may figure in the list. The entire work of this article is based on Census of India, 2011, conducted by the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, under Ministry of Home Affairs (India), Government of India.
The list includes the cities and not urban agglomerations.
Definitions:
The cities listed in bold are the capitals of the respective state / union territory.
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u2 popmart live from mexico city full concert | PopMart: live from Mexico City - wikipedia
PopMart: Live from Mexico City is a concert video release by rock band U2 from their PopMart Tour. Recorded on 3 December 1997 at Foro Sol on the band 's featured stop in Mexico City, Mexico, it was released on VHS and Video CD in November 1998, and was re-released in September 2007 on DVD. It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video in 2000. Selected songs from the release were featured on the 2000 live album, Hasta la Vista Baby! U2 Live from Mexico City.
The show opens with the non-dance version of "Mofo, '' and contains standard PopMart setlist inclusions. Bono forgets some of the lyrics of "Desire '' during the acoustic set. While minor edits were made before release (such as Bono telling a fan to turn his laser pointer off at the end of "New Year 's Day '') this is the only U2 home video to date to contain a concert 's complete setlist. Selected tracks from this performance were later released on the 2000 exclusive fan club - only live album, Hasta la Vista Baby!
"Pop Muzik '' and "Lemon '' (Perfecto mix) are pre-recorded and played as the band makes its grand entrances through the audience at the beginning of the show and via mirrorball lemon for the first encore.
All songs were written by U2, except for "Pop Muzik, '' which was written by M 's Robin Scott.
PopMart: Live from Mexico City was one of the first titles slated for release in the DVD format and previews for it appeared on PolyGram DVDs of the time. PolyGram quietly cancelled the release. In July 2007 Universal Music announced a September 2007 DVD release, under the Island Records label. The DVD was released in one and two - disc editions, similar to the preceding DVD release of Zoo TV: Live from Sydney. Both editions feature the concert in its original 4: 3 aspect ratio, remixed with Dolby Digital 5.1, DTS 5.1, and PCM Stereo audio. The two - disc format features the following bonus features on disc two:
Selections from the Mexico City concert were released on the live album Hasta la Vista Baby! U2 Live from Mexico City. The album was released exclusively to members of U2 's fan club magazine, Propaganda, in 2000. It features 14 songs from the band 's 25 - song performance.
All tracks written by U2, except "Pop Muzik '' which was written and recorded by M.
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who sang mangal bhavan amangal hari in ramcharitmanas | Ramcharitmanas - Wikipedia
Ramcharitmanas (Devanāgarī: श्रीरामचरितमानस, IAST: ŚrīRāmacaritamānasa), is an epic poem in the language Awadhi, composed by the 16th - century Indian bhakti poet Goswami Tulsidas (c. 1532 -- 1623). Ramcharitmanas literally means "Lake of the deeds of Rama ''. Ramcharitmanas is considered as one of the greatest works of Hindi literature, Indian literature as well as of the world literature. The work has variously been acclaimed as "the living sum of Indian culture '', "the tallest tree in the magic garden of medieval Indian poetry '', "the greatest book of all devotional literature '' and "the best and most trustworthy guide to the popular living faith of the Indian people ''.
Divisions
Sama vedic
Yajur vedic
Atharva vedic
Vaishnava puranas
Shaiva puranas
Tulsidas (the Sanskrit name of Tulsidas can be transliterated in two ways. Using the IAST transliteration scheme, the name is written as Tulasīdāsa, as pronounced in Sanskrit. Using the Hunterian transliteration scheme, it is written as Tulsidas or Tulsīdās, as pronounced in Hindi). Tulsidas was a great scholar of Sanskrit. However, he wanted the story of Rama to be accessible to the general masses and not just the Sanskrit - speaking elite. In order to make the story of Rama as accessible to the layman as to the scholar, Tulsidas chose to write in Awadhi, a local dialect of Hindi which was in vogue as the language of general parlance in large parts of north India during the composition of the work. Tradition has it that Tulsidas had to face a lot of criticism from the sanskrit scholars of Varanasi for being a bhasha (vernacular) poet. However, Tulsidas remained steadfast in his resolve for simplifying the knowledge contained in the Vedas, the Upanishads and the Puranas to the common people. Subsequently, his work was accepted by all.
Ramcharitmanas, made available the story of Rama to the common man to sing, meditate and perform on. The writing of Ramcharitmanas also heralded many a cultural tradition, most significantly that of the tradition of Ramlila, the dramatic enactment of the text. Ramcharitmanas is considered by many as a work belonging to the Saguna school of the Bhakti movement in Hindi literature.
Tulsidas began writing the Ramcharitmanas in Ayodhya in Vikram Samvat 1631 (1574 CE). The exact date is stated within the poem as being the ninth day of the month of Chaitra, which is the birthday of Rama, Rama Navami. Ramcharitmanas was composed at Ayodhya, Varanasi & Chitrakoot. India was under the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar (1556 - 1605 CE) during this period. This also makes Tulsidas a contemporary of William Shakespeare.
The Ramcharitmanas is written in vernacular Awadhi language, The core of the work is considered by some to be a poetic retelling of the events of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana by Valmiki. The Valmiki Ramayana is centered on the narrative of Rama, the scion of the family tree of king Raghu of the Sun Dynasty. Rama was the crown prince of Ayodhya and is considered in Hindu tradition as the seventh Avatar of Vishnu. However, the Ramacharitmanas is by no means a word - to - word copy of the Valmiki Ramayana nor an abridged re-telling of the latter. Ramcaritmanas has elements from many other Ramayanas written earlier in Sanskrit and other Indian dialects as well as stories from Puranas. Tulsidas himself never writes Ramcharitmanas as being a retelling of Valmiki Ramayana. He calls the epic Ramcharitmanas as the story of Rama, that was stored in the mind (Mānasa) of Shiva before he narrated the same to His wife Parvati. Tulsidas claims to have received the story through his guru, Narharidas. Tulsidas was a naive (Acheta) child and the story was stored in his mind (Mānasa) for long before he wrote it down as Ramcharitmanas. Some understand this passage of the Ramcharitmanas to mean that Tulsidas at first could not grasp the story fully as he was a naïve young boy. His guru graciously repeated it again and again so that he could understand and remember it. Then he narrated the story and named it Ramcharitmanas as Shiva himself called it. The epic poem is, therefore, also referred to as Tulsikrit Ramayana (literally, The Ramayana composed by Tulsidas).
The Ramcharitmanas is a masterpiece of vernacular literature. Some believe it to represent a challenge to the dominance of high - class Brahmanical Sanskrit, echoing the revolt of Buddha against Brahmanical elitism. However, this interpretation appears faulty as Tulsidas himself was a brahmin and often talks very highly of the Brahmins in Ramcharitmanas and other books written by him. It was the attempt of Tulsidas to reconcile the different stories of Rama and to bring the story within the reach of the common man.
Ramcharitmanas consists of seven Kāndas (literally "books '' or "episodes '', cognate with cantos). Tulsidas compared the seven Kāndas of the epic to seven steps leading into the holy waters of Lake Manasarovar "which purifies the body and the soul at once ''.
The first two parts, Bāl Kāṇḍ (Childhood Episode) and Ayodhyā Kāṇḍ (Ayodhya Episode), make up more than half of the work. The other parts are Araṇya Kāṇḍ (Forest Episode), Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ (Kishkindha Episode), Sundar Kāṇḍ (Pleasant Episode), Laṅkā Kāṇḍ (Lanka Episode), and Uttar Kāṇḍ (Later Episode). The work is primarily composed in the Chaupai metre (four - line quatrains), separated by the Doha metre (two - line couplets), with occasional Soratha and various Chhand metres.
Every chapter of the Ramcharitmanas begins with an invocation or Mangalācharaņ. It is customary of the Indian tradition of writing that the author begins a new book with invocation to the Gods to ensure that the sankalpa is finished unhindered. The first three or four verses of each Kānd are typically in the form of invocations.
Bāl Kāṇḍ begins with a hymn honouring the goddess Saraswati and the god Ganesha, the deities related to knowledge, wisdom, speech and auspiciousness.
Ayodhyā Kāṇḍ begins with the famous verse dedicated to the god Shiva: May He in whose lap shines forth the Daughter of the mountain king, who carries the celestial stream on His head, on whose brow rests the crescent moon, whose throat holds poison and whose breast is support of a huge serpent, and who is adorned by the ashes on His body, may that chief of gods, the Lord of all, the Destroyer of the universe, the omnipresent Śhiva, the moon - like Śańkara, ever protect me. ''
Araṇya Kāṇḍ 's first verse again extols Shiva: I reverence Bhagavan Śańkara, the progeny of Brahmā, the very root of the tree of piety, the beloved, devotee of King Śri Rama, the full moon that brings joy to the ocean of wisdom, the sun that opens the lotus of dispassion, the wind that disperses the clouds of ignorance, who dispels the thick darkness of sin and eradicates the threefold agony and who wipes off all calumny and obloquy.
Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ commences with the following verse: Lovely as a jasmine and a blue lotus, of surpassing strength, repositories of wisdom, endowed with natural grace, excellent bowmen, hymned by the Vedas, and lovers of the cow and Brāhmaņas, who appeared in the form of mortal men through their own Māyā (deluding potency) as the two noble scions of Raghu, the armours of true dharma, friendly to all and journeying in quest for Sita, may they both grant us Devotion.
Sundar Kāṇḍ begins with a hymn in the praise of Rama: I adore the Lord of the universe bearing the name of Rama, the chief of the Raghu 's line and the crest - jewel of kings, the mine of compassion, the dispeller of all sins, appearing in human form through His Māyā (deluding potency), the greatest of all gods, knowable through Vedānta (the Upanishads), constantly worshipped by Brahmā (the Creator), Śhambhu (Śivā), and Śeşa (the serpent - god), the one who bestows of supreme peace in the form of final beatitude, placid, eternal, beyond the ordinary means of cognition, sinless and all - pervading.
Laṅkā Kāṇḍ begins with this hymn: I adore Śri Rama, the supreme Deity, the object of worship even by Śivā (the destroyer of Kāma, the God of Love), the Dispeller of the fear of rebirth, the lion to quell the mad elephant in the form of Death, the Master of Yogīs, attainable through immediate knowledge, the storehouse of good qualities, unconquerable, attributeless, immutable, beyond the realm of Māyā, the Lord of celestials, intent on killing the evil - doers, the only protector of the Brāhmaņas, beautiful as a cloud laden with moisture, who has lotus like eyes and appeared in the form of an earthly king.
Uttar Kāṇḍ begins with the following hymn: I unceasingly extol Śri Ramā, the praiseworthy lord of Jānakī (Sītā, Janakā 's daughter and the wife of Rama), the chief of Raghu 's line, possessed of a form greenish blue, the color of the neck of a peacock and adorned with an insignia of Brahmā pada, the lotus - foot, which testifies to His being the greatest of all gods - rich in splendour, clad in yellow robes, lotus - eyed, ever - propitious, holding a bow and arrow in His hands, riding an aerial car named Puşpakā, accompanied by a host of monkeys and waited upon by His own brother Lakşmaņa.
Tulsidas ends every chapter in a similar manner describing the ending in the Sanskrit language.
Every Kānd is formally concluded by Goswami Tulsidas. The following is an example of the ending of Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ:
Translation: "Thus ends the fourth descent into the Mānasa lake of Sri Rama 's exploits, that eradicates all the impurities of the kali age. '' All the other Kāndas are concluded in the same way where the word caturthah is substituted, according to the Kānd being concluded.
Ramcharitmanas is structured around three separate conversations. The conversations happen between Shiva and Parvati, Sages Bharadwaj and Yajnavalkya and finally Kakbhushundi and the king of birds, Garuda. Some scholars are of the opinion that there is also an underlying personal conversation between Tulsidas and Lord Rama all through the text of Ramcharitmanas.
The Child Episode
Tulsidas begins the story with an invocation to various deities, his guru, and saints who have preceded him and those who will succeed him in the future. Homage is paid to Valmiki for bringing the Ramayana to the devotees of Rama. Next are introduced and praised the various characters of the epic beginning with the birthplace of Rama, the holy city of Ayodhya. Praises are bestowed on Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya and Rama 's father, and his queens Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra. Tulsidas then praises King Janaka, the father - in - law of Rama), and his family. He goes on to praise the brothers of Rama - Bharata, Lakshman & Shatrughna and sings the glories of Hanuman, the constant companion to Rama, Sugriva, the monkey king and Jambavan, the leader of bears. Next, the characters of Sita and Rama are introduced.
The story of Ramcharitmanas is then underway. It begins with the meeting of two sages - Bharadwaj and Yajnavalkya. Bharadwaj asks Yajnavalkya to narrate in detail the story of Rama. Yajnavalkya begins with how Shiva came about retelling the story of Rama to his wife Parvati. (The great story of Sati 's self - immolation, the destruction of her father Daksha 's sacrifice, the rebirth of Sati as Parvati and her marriage to Shiva). Shiva explains five different reasons as to why Rama incarnated on earth in different ages Kalpa (aeon). Each of these stories is discussed in detail, with the primary message being that Rama incarnated on earth to protect the righteous who follow the path of Dharma. The story then moves to the birth of Ravana and his brothers. Post this point, the narration is done at different times by Shiva, Yajnavalkya, Kakbhushundi and Tulsidas.
The story now moves to the abode of Brahma where Brahma and the other Hindu Devas are found mulling on the ways to rid the earth of Ravana and his excesses. Unable to find a solution, they pray to Shiva and ask him for his guidance on where to find the supreme God who will come to their rescue. Shiva tells them that they do n't need to go anywhere to find the Supreme God for He resides in the hearts of his devotees. All the Devas then Pray to the supreme Brahman to rid the earth of the demons wreaking havoc on men as well as Devas. Brahman shows compassion to all and announces in an Akashvani that He will be born in the Sun Dynasty to save the Devas and His devotees from the demons.
The story then moves to Ayodhya. One fine day, Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya, realizes that he has become old and still issueless... He conveys his distress to sage Vasistha, the family guru, and seeks the way forward. Vasistha comforts Dasharatha and tells him that he will have four sons. Vasistha requests Shringi Rishi to perform the Putrakām yajna (vedic yajna for the birth of sons). Tulsidas states that the birth of Rama and his brothers took place on the ninth day of the Chaitra month. It was the fortnight of the moon, known as the shukla period.
The story then moves on and Rama and His brothers are now grown - up boys. The sage Vishvamitra arrives at Dashratha 's royal court where the King receives his eminent guest with great honour. Sage Vishvamitra lived in the forest and was performing great sacrifices. However, the demons Maricha and Subahu would always desecrate the ceremonial offerings. He knew that Rama had taken birth on earth to protect his devotees and so he decided to visit Dashratha to ask him a favour. The sage asks the king to let his sons accompany him to the forest. Reluctantly the king agrees. Rama knew before hand the intention of Vishvamitra in asking him to come along with him. He asures the sage that he would obey his commands. Lakshman kills Subahu and Rama kills Maricha, the dreaded demons.
The story then moves to the deliverance of Ahalya. Rama, Lakshman and Vishvamitra venture on a journey and reach the beautiful kingdom of the Videhas, Mithila. The king of Mithila, Janaka, welcomes the great sage and asks him who are the two boys accompanying him... Janaka is overcome by great emotion as he is able to sense the true nature of their mission... The brothers then set out to discover the beautiful city and visit Janaka 's garden. This is an important section of the manās as it portrays the first meeting of Rama and Sita...
In the meanwhile, King Janaka arranges a swayamvara ceremony for his daughter Sita. A swayamvara ceremony is a Vedic ritual in which a prospective bride selects her groom from among a group of suitors who attend the ceremony. Sita falls in love with Rama at first sight in Janaka 's garden and prays to Gauri that she may get Rama as her husband. King Janaka sends a messenger to invite Rama, Laksman and Sage Vishvamitra to attend the swayamvara. Janaka puts a condition to identify the right groom for Sita. The great bow of Shiva by the name of Pinaka was kept in the arena. Any suitor who would be able to string Pinaka would be married to Sita. Many princes try but fail to even nudge the mammoth bow. This causes great distress to Janaka who wonders aloud if the earth has become devoid of brave men. This statement of Janaka angers Lakshman who retorts that no one talks in this vein, when a gathering like this, has the presence of scions of the Sun Dynasty. Rama gently nudges him to keep calm as Vishwamitra asks him to break the bow and make Janaka happy once again... Rama steps in and effortlessly lifts and strings the divine bow. In a swift move, he breaks the bow. The breaking of Pinaka causes a great noise that disturbs the great sage Parashurama in his meditation and he storms into the swayamvara arena in great anger vowing to kill whoever had dared to break the bow of lord Shiva. Lakshman enters into an argument with Parashurama, paying scant respect to the sage who was known for his bursts of anger and was known to slay whoever dared to oppose him. Ultimately, Rama brings him around. Parashurama comes to know the real nature of Lord Rama as the ultimate Brahman, pays his respects and leaves for the forests for meditation. Sita places the wreath of victory around the neck of Rama in accordance with the rules of the swayamvara and is thus wedded to him.
However, Sita being his beloved daughter, Janaka desires to conduct a grand marriage of Sita and Rama in accordance with both Vedic and laukik (traditional) customs. Janaka dispatches messengers to Ayodhya to inform Dashratha and his family about the marriage of Rama and Sita and invites them for the formal consummation of marriage ceremony. Dashratha starts with a great marriage procession, consisting of Rama 's family, friends and well wishers in addition to Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma and all Devas who take up human form and depart for Mithila.
After a grand wedding, the kind of which had never been witnessed in the universe, Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya where there was a great celebration and much rejoicing.
The Ayodhya Episode
Ayodhya was described as being like a heaven on earth ever since Rama and Sita came back from Mithila. As King Dasaratha was getting old, he wanted to install his son Rama as Prince Regent. He decided to start the ceremonies for his coronation the very next day. The Devas however became very concerned at the prospect of Rama remaining in Ayodhya, and not pursuing the wicked Ravana, and vanquishing him. Something had to happen if Rama was to embark on his mission to rid the world of Ravana. They approached Goddess Saraswati for help.
King Dashratha has three wives. Queen Kaushalya is the principal queen and the mother of Rama. Queen Kaikeyi is the mother of Bharata and Queen Sumitra is the mother of Lakshman and Shatrughna. Saraswati decides to influence the mind of one of Queen Kaikeyi 's maid servants named Manthara. Manthara 's mind harbors evil intentions and she begins to talk to Queen Kaikeyi in harsh and conceited tones. She finds fault with Kaikeyi for being supportive of the king 's plan of installing Rama, as Prince Regent when her own mind tells her that Bharata would clearly be a greater king. At that time Bharata is in Kaikeya country visiting his uncle and so he is unaware of what is happening in Ayodhya. Slowly Queen Kaikeyi 's mind is poisoned. Manthara reminds Queen Kaikeyi of the two boons that the King had promised her. Kaikeyi enters the private room in the royal palace, where the King gives audience to his queens, and awaits Dashratha. Dashratha is greatly alarmed and concerned that Kaikeyi is sitting in the sulking chamber, while the entire population of Ayodhya is greatly happy and eagerly anticipating the coronation of Rama. Queen Kaikeyi speaks harshly to Dashratha, which surprises the king. She reminds him of the two boons he promised her and to his bewilderment, asks him to install her son Bharata as Prince Regent and send Rama into the forest for 14 years. Queen Kaikeyi is unmoved by Dashratha 's lamentations and finally the king emotionally breaks down. The king 's assistant Sumantra sends for Rama with a request to meet his father.
Queen Kaikeyi speaks to Rama and explains to him the boons that she had asked of His father. Rama is actually the Supreme Personality of Godhead incarnated on earth, yet He accepts His stepmother 's request and decides to leave the kingdom as it serves his purpose as well. The people of Ayodhya remonstrate against Queen Kaikeyi who firmly believes that she is doing the right thing. Rama attempts to dissuade Lakshman and Sita from joining him but is unable to do so. The scene becomes very emotional as Rama, Sita and Lakshman greet their mothers before finally going to Dashratha to take leave of him. Dashratha attempts, in vain, to try to talk Sita out of joining Rama in the forest.
The residents of Ayodhya ca n't spare the thought of being away from Rama and decide to join him in the forest. Rama, Sita, Lakshman and Sumantra go incognito and in the dead of the night leave the city and move into the forest. They leave for a place called Sringaverapur after which they meet Guha, the Nishad king. They arrive at Prayag, the holy city where the Rivers Ganges, Yamuna and Saraswati meet. Rama meets with the Sage Bharadwaj at his ashram. Rama is overwhelmed with the reception and love shown by the people inhabiting the banks of the Yamuna. Rama then meets Sage Valmiki, the author of the Ramayan at Chitrakoot dham. Valmiki recognises the true opulence of Rama and sings His praises. At this point Tulsidas takes great care to describe the beauty of the land of Chitrakoot with some inspiring poetry.
Rama asks Sumantra to return to Ayodhya which saddens Sumantra. He not only wants to stay with Rama, he is also afraid of going back only to face the anger and wrath of the citizens of Ayodhya. Rama persuades him to go back. On returning to Ayodhya, Sumantra meets Dashratha, who asks him the whereabouts of Rama. The pain of separation from Rama is too much for Dashratha who passes away crying Rama 's name.
Sage Vashishtha knows that Rama will not return to the kingdom and so immediately sends an envoy to call Bharata and Shatrughna back to Ayodhya. Bharata learns of all that has happened and chastises his mother, Queen Kaikeyi. He is greatly pained and blames himself for Rama leaving Ayodhya. He accuses her of bringing ruin to the family. Shatrughna comes across Manthara and beats her in rage. They approach Queen Kaushalya and see her in a sorry state. Bharata begs for her forgiveness and loudly laments while the Queen attempts to pacify him. She asks him to carry out his duty and rule Ayodhya, but Bharata can not bear the thought of sitting on the throne with his father dead and his brothers in exile in the forest. The cremation of King Dashratha takes place. Bharata and Shatrughna decide to go into the forest and ask Rama to return to Ayodhya and take the throne. Many citizens as well as the royal family, who have been grieving ever since Rama had left them, decide to join the brothers.
The Nishads see the approaching royal party and become suspicious. Guha approaches Bharata to understand his motive for bringing such a large party to the forest. He assumes that Bharata has some sinister motive. Bharata shows his love for Rama and Guha is moved to tears by his love for his brother. The royal procession then moves forward to Chitrakoot. Lakshman sees the huge army of people with Bharata and immediately begins to chastise Bharata. Rama counters this by praising the greatness of Bharata, leaving Lakshman feeling sorry for his harsh words. Bharata finally arrives at Chitrakoot where the brothers are all reunited once again. They collectively mourn the passing of their father and perform his Shraddha (obsequies) along with Sage Vashistha leading the ceremony.
Despite all of Bharata 's convincing, Rama is true to the word given to his father and step mother Kaikeyi, and vows that he will fulfill her wish. Bharata says that he simply can not sit on the throne while Rama wanders in the forest. He asks Rama for his sandals, which he would place at the throne and would only act as Rama 's representative and not as a full - fledged king. With much sorrow and hurt, Bharata leaves Rama and returns to Ayodhya. He decides that he would not live in the kingdom while Rama is in exile and so lives like a hermit in a nearby town called Nandigram.
The Forest Episode
Rama, Sita and Lakshman wander in the forest and come across the hermitage of a sage called Atri. Atri sees them approaching and is overcome with great joy. Sita is embraced by Atri 's wife, Anasuya. Anusuya talks to Sita at length about the duties of a devoted wife.
Rama, Sita and Lakshman venture further into the forest and encounter Viradha. Viradha attempts to capture Sita. Rama kills him by burying him in a ditch. They then visit the ashram of Sage Sarabhanga. Rama asks him of where he should go for shelter in the forest. He is advised to visit the sage Sutiksna. As Rama approaches Sutiksna, the latter comes out of his meditation. He tells Rama that he had been awaiting his arrival, and had even turned down the offer of entering the heavenly planets.
Continuing on their journey through the forest, they meet with Sage Agastya where Rama pays his respect to the sage. Agastya gifts divine weapons to Rama and advises him to venture further into the forest and into the region of Dandaka. Rama meets with the eagle, Jatayu. Rama, Sita and Lakshman take up abode at Panchavati and build a beautiful ashram, as per the advice of Agastya. Laksman becomes nostalgic of the past and begins to talk harshly about Kaikeyi. Rama pacifies him and explains that it is sinful to speak of his mother in such a way.
The story takes a new turn, as Rama, Sita and Lakshman are approached by the sister of the demon - king Ravana, called Surpanakha. She immediately takes a liking to Rama and falls in love with him. She disguises herself and talks to Rama in sweet tones. Rama rejects her advances explaining that he is already married and advises her to approach Laksman as he is unmarried. However, Laksman also rejects her advances. Surpanakha takes it as a great insult to be spurned like this, and attempts to hurt Sita. Laksman takes hold of his sword and lops off Surpanakha 's ear lobes and nose. Feeling humiliated, Surpanakha leaves the forest and goes to the abode of her brothers Khara, Dusana and Trisira. They are angry at the treatment meted out to their sister and leave with the intention of killing Rama. All three brothers are vanquished by Rama.
Surpanakha is greatly upset and visits Ravana at his residence in Lanka. She explains all that has happened, after which Ravana calls for his old friend Maricha. Ravana hatches a plot and asks Maricha to disguise himself as a golden deer, so that Ravana may then kidnap Sita. Maricha has already felt the power of Rama (as mentioned in Bālakāṇḍa) and is apprehensive, however, he thinks that he is going to die either way since Ravana will kill him in rage for refusing him. Ravana and Marich immediately leave for Rama 's forest abode. Maricha takes his position and instantly Sita is attracted by his deer form. Rama knows that Ravana 's intentions and orders Sita to place her shadow (Maya Sita) in her place, while she would hide in the fire. She asks Rama time and time again to hunt for the deer and bring it to her. Rama runs after the deer and is soon quite a far distance away from the ashram. Rama releases an arrow and hits the deer. Impersonating Rama 's voice, Marich shouts out to Laksman to help him. Maya Sita (hereafter called simply Sita) hears the cry and orders Laksman to go help his brother. Ravana, while posing as a begging minstrel, uses this opportunity to forcibly kidnap Sita from the ashram. Jatayu, the eagle, sees Ravana 's sinful act and attempts to fight with him, but Ravana has too much power and cuts off Jatayu 's wings and leaves him for dead. Rama and Lakshman return to find the ashram empty. They anxiously set out to find Sita and find the severely wounded eagle. Jatayu dies in Rama 's lap and receives liberation. As they continue to look for Sita they come across the hermitage of Shabari. Tulsidas says that Shabari washes the feet of Ram with tears from her eyes and feeds him half eaten wild berries to ensure he gets only sweet ones. She is given liberation by Rama.
The brothers then head towards the Pampasarovar lake.
The Kiśkindhā Region Episode
High up in the Rishyamuk mountains, Sugriva sees Rama and Laksman at the foothills. He consults Hanuman as to whether he thinks they have been sent by his brother Bali. Hanuman disguises himself as a Brahmin and approaches the brothers. Hanuman recognises the true nature of Rama as God - incarnation and surrenders himself to his Holy feet. He tells the brothers that his king, Sugriva, wishes to extend his friendship to Them and will help Them to find Sita. Rama asks Sugriva why he resides in the mountains instead of Kishkindha, where Sugriva tells of his feud with his brother Bali. Rama sympathises with Sugriva and decides to help Sugriva in return for the latter 's help in finding Sita. Ram kills Bali and installs Sugriva as king of Kishkindha and Angada, Bali 's son, as prince regent. Sugriva becomes too attached to his new regal lifestyle and forgets about his agreement with Rama, which fills Rama with great anger. Rama asks Laksman to bring Sugriva to him. Laksman enters the royal court and threatens to burn the entire city to ashes. Sugriva is gravely worried and asks Hanuman to pacify him. Laksman escorts Sugriva to Rama and upon seeing Him, Sugriva falls as His feet and begs forgiveness.
Sugriva immediately orders the gathering of the region 's bear and monkey community. Armies of bears and monkeys are dispatched north, south east and west to search for Sita. Rama knew that only Hanuman was really capable of finding Sita. He asks Hanuman to narrate the agony of separation from her and then hands over his ring. Hanuman is joined by Angad, Nala, Kesari and Jambavan as well as many others as they head to the south. As the army approach the coast, Jambavan and Angad see a cave by the shore of the ocean. The cave is occupied by Sampati (who is actually Jatayu 's older brother). There is a conversation during which Angad explains that Jatayu died serving Rama and thereafter Sampati narrates his biography. He tells the monkeys that he is sure that Sita is captive in Ashok Vatika in Lanka. The island is 400 miles away and requires someone who is able to jump the distance. Jambavan deduces that Hanuman is the only one capable of the task.
The Pleasant Episode
Hanuman takes Jambavan 's suggestion and immediately takes off for Lanka. He climbs onto the mountain and using it as a pivot, launches himself into the air. He meets Surasa, the mother of serpents and passes her test. The ocean demoness tries to capture Hanuman, thinking of him as a bird. He quickly kills her and then lands on the shore of the ocean in Lanka. He sees beautiful lush gardens, groves, lakes and reservoirs. Hanuman takes a minute form and, remembering Rama, enters Lanka. He is accosted by the demon Lankini whom he hits with his fist and causes her to fall to the ground.
Hanuman flies through the various palaces and gardens for his search of Sita, and amongst all the demonic activities going on in Lanka, Hanuman sees a palace where Sri Hari 's name is being chanted. He is drawn towards the palace and decides to visit the inhabitant. The palace belongs to Ravana 's brother, Vibhishan. Hanuman narrates Rama katha (story) and then introduces himself. Hanuman proceeds to Ashok Vatika where he finally sees Sita. He positions himself on a branch of a tree, under which Sita was sitting, and contemplates his next move. He sees Ravana walk towards Sita and beg her to glance at least once toward him. She simply looks at a blade of grass to insult him. Ravana threatens to behead Sita but is calmed down by his wife, Mandodari. Hanuman has to use all his powers of calm not to react to Ravana 's threats. When all is quiet again, Hanuman begins to sing the glory of Rama in sweet tones. He then approaches Sita and explains who he is. He presents the ring lord Rama had given him and Sita is overjoyed. She blesses Hanuman with many kind words and boons.
Hanuman tells Sita that he is hungry and asks for her permission to eat fruits from the grove. He not only eats but manages to destroy large parts of it. He easily kills one of Ravana 's sons, prince Aksaya. Indrajit arrives in the grove and Hanuman allows himself to be captured. He is brought in front of the king of Lanka, Ravana. Ravana orders his death, however, Vibhishan reminds him that Hanuman is an envoy and can not be killed according to religious principle. Ravana decides to humiliate Hanuman by setting his tail on fire. Large amounts of clothes are tied to his tail and soaked in oil. Hanuman chants the name of Rama and his tail begins to get longer, and more cloth and oil is used. He changes from his small form into a gigantic form and decides to torch alight the whole of Lanka.
He returns to the ocean to extinguish his tail and then goes to Sita to reassure her that the next time she sees him, it will be with Rama. He bids farewell to Sita and leaps back towards Angad and Jambavan. The monkey army then ventures back to where Sugriva, Rama and Lakshman are waiting. On arrival Hanuman explains all that happened and immediately an army is prepared to go south towards Lanka.
Meanwhile, in Lanka, both Mandodari and Vibhishan ask Ravana to hand Sita back to Rama. Ravana takes great exception to this suggestion and begins to insult Vibhishan particularly. He tells him he has no need for a weakling like him and that he is no longer needed. Vibhishan decides to join Rama at Kishkindha. Vibhishan falls at Ram 's feet and asks him for protection. The army deliberate over how to cross the ocean to Lanka. The deity of the seas tells Rama of the boon obtained by the monkey brothers Nila and Nala, and that they have the power to build a bridge to link the seashore to Lanka.
The Lanka Episode
Jambavan asks the monkeys Nala and Nila to begin work on building the bridge across the sea. The Mānas states that entire mountain ranges were used by Nala and Nila to complete their objective. Rama remembers Lord Shiva and decides to install a shrine for Rameswaram. Upon completion, the army of Rama begins to cross the bridge and arrives at Lanka, taking camp on Mount Suvela. Ravana hears of the advances of Rama 's army and feels greatly agitated. Mandodari asks Ravana to return Sita to Rama as she fears for her husband 's life. Ravana is dismissive of Rama 's power and pacifies his wife. Next, Ravana 's son Prahasta attempts to reinforce his mothers sentiments, but all to no avail.
Rama fires a warning shot from his retreat in Suvela. The arrow strikes Ravana 's crown and royal umbrella. Mandodari once again attempts to convince Ravana of handing Sita back to Rama. Meanwhile, Rama asks Jambavan what should be done. Jambavan suggests that they send Angada, as messenger, to give Ravana a chance to return Sita. On reaching Ravana 's court, Angada explains he is the ambassador of Rama, and tells Ravana that he still has time to save himself from destruction. Ravana insults Angada and his refusal to comply makes war inevitable.
The war begins with great ferocity as Ravana loses half of his army on the first day. Indrajit, Ravan 's son, is required to enter the battle far earlier than he expected. He severely wounds Lakshman with his special weapon, the Saang. Hanumanji is ordered to fetch the doctor of Lanka called Sushena. Sushena tells Rama that there exists a herb called Sanjivani which can only be found in the Himalayan mountains. It is the only hope to save Lakshman. Hanuman immediately reassures Rama that he shall find this herb. As Hanuman is about to leave, Ravana orders the demon Kalanemi to impede him. However, Hanuman kills Kalanemi with ease. Hanuman reaches the mountain and ca n't find the herb. In his frustration he decides to take the entire mountain to Lanka.
Hanuman makes good speed towards Lanka when suddenly he is shot by an arrow as he approaches Nandigram. Hanuman is mistaken to be a demon by Bharat. Hanuman falls to the ground together with the great hill. Hanuman regains consciousness and recognizes that Bharata is Rama 's brother. He continues on to Lanka where he delivers the Sanjivani herb and Sushena treats Lakshman. Rama embraces Hanuman with great pride and affection. Ravan takes the news of Lakshman 's recovery very badly and decides to awaken his brother Kumbhakarna. Kumbhakarna kills indiscriminantly and wreaks much havoc. Rama releases an arrow which kills him instantly. The death of his brother scares Ravan greatly. Indrajit hastily tries to arrange a ceremony to receive great boons and powers but is interrupted by Hanuman and Angada. Lakshman takes up arms against Indrajit and kills him. Rama throws numerous arrows at Ravana but is unable to kill him. He asks Vibhishan on how to kill his brother after which Rama finally kills Ravana. The war is over.
Ravana 's funeral takes place and Vibhishan is crowned the king of Lanka. Hanuman carries the happy news to Sita in Ashok vatika. Finally Rama and Sita are reunited. Rama and the army prepare to depart Lanka and return towards Ayodhya. Rama, Sita, Lakshman and the senior monkeys travel back in Ravana 's flying vehicle, Pushpak Vimaan.
The Epilogue
It is now the day before Rama is to return to Ayodhya after serving his exile. Bharata is anxious that his brother still has n't arrived. The Mānas mentions that Bharata had passed his days shedding tears for fourteen years in Nandigram. Hanuman meets Bharata telling him of the arrival of Rama, Sita and Laksman. Bharata rushes to Ayodhya to tell the citizens of the great news. As the Pushpak Vimaan landed in Ayodhya the citizens shouted chants of ' Glory be to Ramchandra '. Rama, Sita and Laksman collectively touch the feet of the sage Vashishta on arriving in Ayodhya and thereafter greet all that have gathered in the assembly. Lastly Rama meets Bharata with great affection and love. Rama 's coronation takes place and he is finally crowned king of Ayodhya. Shiva arrives to glorify the festivities further and asks Rama of the boon that he may have firm and undeviating devotion of Rama 's feet.
In conclusion to the tale, Rama has twin sons named Lava and Kusha. The other brothers each have two sons as well. It is mentioned that great sages like Nārad and Sanaka visit Ayodhya to meet with Rama and to see his great city.
In the subsequent passages of Uttar Kānd the biography of Saint Kakbhushundi is given, followed by a description of what is to be expected in the current age of Kaliyuga. Shiva ends his narration of the Rama Katha to Parvati as does Kakbhushundi to Garuda. It is not mentioned whether Yajnavalkya finishes his recitation to Bharadwaj. Finally, Goswami Tulsidas concludes his retelling of the Shri Ramcharitmanas. The Rudrastakam in Sanskrit is a part of this Kanda.
During the Bālakāṇḍa, it is mentioned that Shiva is retelling the story of Rama (Rama Katha) to his spouse Parvati. During this retelling, Shiva explains as many as five reasons why Rama incarnated on earth.
The brothers Jay and Vijay are the two favoured gate keepers of Hari. Due to a curse, by the Brahmin Sanaka and his three brothers, Jay and Vijay were born in the species of the demons. One took the birth of Hiranyakashipu and the other was born as Hiranyaksha. The Supreme incarnated Himself as Varaha in order to kill Hiranyaksha, while incarnating as Narasimha to kill Hiranyakashipu. Even though these brothers are killed by Hari Himself, they do not attain liberation as the Brahman 's had cursed them to three births and so were reborn as the powerful demons Ravana and Kumbhakarna. Hari took a human incarnation, as Rama, to kill Ravana and Kumbhakarna.
Nārad Muni was wandering in Himalayan mountains and begins to think about Vishnu. He instantly falls into a deep meditative trance. Seeing the sage 's state, Indra becomes apprehensive as he sees Nārad 's trance as a threat to his own position as the chief of demigods in heaven. Indra asks Kamadeva to disturb Nārad 's trance. He creates an illusion of fragrant flowers, delightful breezes and such. Heavenly damsels are called but all this has no effect on the sage. Kamadeva accepts defeat and falls at Nārad 's feet, addressing him with deep humility. He recalls all that happened to Shiva and becomes puffed up with pride of his defeating of Kamadeva. Shiva admonishes him not to repeat the story to Hari.
Nārad visits Vishnu at his abode, and unable to control his pride, re-tells his episode with Kamadeva, ignoring all that Shiva had advised. Vishnu further fans Nārad 's pride by telling him that his steadfast vow of celibacy is so strong that he can never be smitten. Nārad then departs Vishnu 's abode. Hari tells Laksmi that he has a plan and sets his illusory powers (maya) into operation. As Nārad departs Vaikuntha, Vishnu creates a beautiful illusory city with illusionary inhabitants. The city is ruled by King Sheelanidhi, who has a beautiful daughter called Vishvamohini. Nārad is intrigued with the city and decides to visit the king. Nārad sees the king 's daughter and falls in love with her. The king explains that he wishes to marry his daughter to a suitable man. Nārad devises a plot to get the princess to choose him.
Nārad approaches Hari and asks him for the gift of great beauty. Vishnu says that he will do only that which is beneficial to Nārad. The sage is glad at heart and thinks that with Vishnu 's favour, the princess will surely choose him. In reality the Hari had made Nārad look hideous. The entire royal court is aware of Nārad 's appearance, but says nothing. The princess filled with rage as soon as she sees Nārad 's ugly form and completely ignores him. He sees a reflection of his face in water and is consumed with rage. He instantly goes back to Vaikuntha and begins to speak to Hari in ugly tones. He curses Hari, "You made me look like a monkey; therefore You shall have monkeys for Your mates. And as You have grievously wronged me, so shall You suffer the pangs of separation from Your wife ''. Hari accepts Nārad 's curse and instantly withdraws his illusionary spell.
Nārad realises that there is no city and there is no Visvamohini, and is dismayed at what he has done. He begs Vishnu to invalidate his curse. Hari explains that it was His will and advises Nārad to chant his name to absolve himself of any sin. Nārad returns to his abode chanting the praises of Ram.
Svayambhuva Manu had Shatarupa as his wife. Manu ruled the earth for many years and carried out the Lord 's commandments. He longed to devotion to Hari and decides to give up rulership to his son so that he can retire to the forest with Satarupa and meditate upon the Lord. Manu and Satarupa settle at the banks of the Sarayu river and devoutly repeat the twelve - syllable Mantra, calling out to who is the source of many Brahmas, Vishnus and Shivas emanate. Some commentators indicate that the twelve - syllable mantra is the Vishnu mantra (Oṃ Namo Bhagavate Vāsudevāya). Rambhadracharya comments that the twelve - letter mantra is the coupled mantra for Sita and Rama.
Manu and Shatarupa first sacrifice food and then water and are finally willing to sacrifice air. Brahma, Hari and Shiva call on Manu but Manu and Satarupa are resolute and do not swerve on their sacrifices. A great voice from the heavens tells Manu, in sweet tones, to ask for a boon. Rama and Sita approach Manu in a beautiful form, which leaves Manu overcome with emotion. Manu explains now that he and Satarupa have seen the Lord 's lotus feet, all their desires have been met. Manu has one longing but does n't know how to ask the Lord. Finally he asks, "O gracious Lord, I tell You my sincere wish: I would have a son like You. I have nothing to conceal from You. ''
The Lord announces that it shall be, however, where would he find a son like Himself? The Lord tells Manu that He Himself would be a son to him. The Lord then asks Satarupa of her wish. She says that she greatly likes the boon received by her husband and wants the same. Bowing at the Lord 's feet, Manu then asks one more favour. He asks that he be dependent on which is granted. The Lord then commands the couple to dwell in Indra 's capital in heaven.
The Lord explains that after some time Manu would be born as the king of Ayodhya, Dashrath and Satarupa as Kausalya. He would then manifest Himself in the royal household as their son. He reassured the couple that their desire would be accomplished.
Prior to the birth of Rama, Muni Bharadwaja is told the story of King Pratapbhanu by Yajnavalkya. There is a kingdom called Kaikay where Satyaketu is king. He has two sons, Pratapbhanu and Arimardana and rules his kingdom with his prime minister Dharamaruchi. Satyaketu abdicates and hands the reign to Pratapbhanu, who becomes conqueror of the world.
Once Pratapbhanu goes into the forest to hunt and sees a wild boar. The boar is actually the demon Kalaketu in disguise who runs away from the king. Pratapbhanu gives chase deeper into the forest. Pratapbhanu chases for many miles and becomes thirsty. He approaches a fake saints ashram, where the resident fake saint wants to hurt and insult Pratapbhanu due to a previous incident. Pratapbhanu does n't recognise the saint, who begins to sweet talk the king and says that by pure love, he wishes to impart boons onto the king. The king asks to be invicible and never ageing, which the fake saint grants, but with the condition that he needs to win favour of all Brahmans. The fake saint advises that the king arrange the cooking of holy food (prasadam) to feed the bramanas, who would surely be in his favour for such an act of kindness. The fake saint 's real intention is to trap the king and repay him for his old grievances.
The fake saint asks the king to go rest, and that he would arrange the feast for the bramanas using his mystic powers. Pratapbhanu waits for three days for the fake saint. Kalaketu, now disguised as a priest, approaches the King in his court and says that he has been sent to cook the holy food. The entire brahmana community is invited. A heavenly voice from above warns the brahmanas that the food is unpure and they should run away immediately. They curse the king that he, his kingdom and entire family are wiped from the face of earth. They also curse that he be born a demon in his next life. The heavenly voice says that the brahmana 's curse is ill thought, as Pratapbhanu is not to blame. Since their curse can not be taken back, the voice says that it is the Brahmana community that will bare the brunt of the evil of his next life.
Pratapbhanu is distraught and quickly goes to his kitchen to find Kalaketu. The king is pained and cries as he realises Kalaketu has vanished. The brahmanas feel sorry for Pratapbhanu and tell him that his evil next life will be ended by Supreme Vishnu himself. As per the curse, Pratapbhanu, Arimardam and Dharmaruchi are all killed as other neighbouring kings invade Kaikay.
Pratapbhanu is reborn as Ravan, Arimardam is reborn as Kumbhkarna and Dharmaruchi as Vibhishan. All three take great penances and are approached by Brahma and Shiva and are asked for any boon. Ravan asks that no one should be able to kill me except the tribes of man and monkeys. Kumbhkarna asks for uninterrupted sleep for periods of six months. Vibhishan asks for unshakeable love for the feet of Vishnu.
The story of how Shiva came about retelling Ramkatha to his consort Parvati is retold in great detail within the Bālakāṇḍa. This part of the story is narrated by Sant Yajnavalkya to Bharadvaj Muni.
In the age of Treta, Shiva, accompanied by His consort Bhavani Sati, went to visit Rishi Agastya. The Rishi being pleased with Shiva 's visit, began to narrate the eternal story of Ram. Shiva listens with great pleasure and then they return towards Their abode. Around these exact days Ram had descended on earth and was wondering the Dandaka forest with Sita and Lakshman. Shiva ponders how he can catch sight of Ram. He finally sees Ram, who is frantically searching for Sita, and instantly joins his palms and prays "Glory to the Redeemer of the universe, who is Truth, Consciousness and Bliss ''. Sati can not recognise Ram and wonders why her Supreme Shiva is praising a mortal. Shiva is the knower of all truth and instantly reads Sati 's thoughts. He advises her to not harbour such doubts and accept that she had seen Ram, whom Agastya had praised earlier. He finally says that if she is still not convinced then she should seek to verify this truth herself. Shiva observes as Sati takes the guise of Sita. Ram and Lakshman instantly see through Sati 's disguised and asks about Shiva 's whereabouts. Sati feels very uncomfortable and heads towards Shiva, thinking of how she is going to explain her folly of questioning His word.
Shiva asks her to tell the truth of how she tested Ram. Sati is unable to tell the truth and says that she did not test Ram, but praised his as You had. Sati forgets that Shiva knows all that has happened and is disappointed that she was disguised as his Sita. He decides that Sati is too chaste to abandon and it is a sin to continue to be her Husband and so from then he has no connection with Sati in her current body. Sati concludes that Shiva has come to know everything and feels very foolish for having tried deceiving Him. Shiva sits under a banyan tree and enters into a long trance. Sati feel extremely sorry but accepts that providence is repaying her for her sins. Many years pass and Shiva finally ends his trance whilst praising Ram. Sati bows down at Shiva 's feet, after which he seats Sati opposite him and he begins to tell stories of Vishnu 's exploits.
While Shiva is narrating the stories of Vishnu, the air is filled with celestial beings. Sati asks Shiva what the occasion is. Shiva explains that Her father Daksha has organised a great sacrifice where many demigods were invited. All except Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva were invited as Daksha had developed a hatred towards the Gods. Sati thinks of Her father and asks if She may visit him at this time. Shiva says that they have no formal invite and that all of Sati 's sisters are invited but because of his animosity towards Shiva, Her father has not invited us. Shiva tries to reason with Sati, that no good can come of Her attending, but Tulsidas explains that a daughters ties to her father are very strong.
When she reaches her father 's abode, no one welcomes Her apart from Her mother. Daksha does not even acknowledge Her and actually burns with anger that She has turned up uninvited. Sati looks around and sees no oblations set apart for Shiva and the lack of respect of her father causes Her mind to rage with great anger. She faces Her father 's court and announces that Shiva is the father of the universe and the beneficent of all. It is the same Shiva that Her father vilifies. She burns Her body with the fires of Yoga. Her guards are beaten and thrashed. When Shiva came to know this, he sends Virabhadra, who wreaks havoc of the sacrifice and Daksha is slain. As Sati is about to die, She asks Lord Hari of the boon that she be devoted to Shiva 's feet in successive births. She is reborn as Parvati, the daughter of Himachal and Mena.
Years after the birth of Parvati, Nārad Muni visits her parents Himachal and Mena. Himachal asks Nārad what the future holds for his daughter. Nārad says that Parvati will be adorned with good traits and win unfailing love of her husband. She will remain ever united with him and bring great glory upon her parents. The only drawback is that her husband will be an ascetic with matted hair who is naked and of hideous accoutrements. Himachal and Mena become disconsolate while Parvati is greatly pleased, as she senses from Nārad 's words that her boon from Vishnu is coming true. Nārad explains to Himachal that the only person who shows the virtues as described by him is Shiva. Parvati 's parents are immediately uplifted and as Nārad leaves, he asks Parvati to fix Her thoughts on Hari and practice austerity. The young Parvati enters the forest and performs great penances in order to obtain Shiva. Her body thins greatly due to her self - mortification after which Brahma declares that she should cease her severe penances as Shiva would soon be hers. History had produced many great sages, but none had performed such penances as this. Brahma instructs that her father would soon come for her and that she should return home with him.
Ever since Sati had quit her body, Shiva had begun chanting Ram 's name and entered into a great trance. Through his mystic power, Ram asks Shiva to marry Parvati. Shiva says that this is not a justifiable request but the word of a master can not be set aside and must be obeyed. Shiva remains in his great trance. Around that time the demon Tāraka was causing distress and was in full flourish. Brahma declares that the son of Shiva will kill Tāraka, but for this to happen His wedding with Parvati needs to be arranged and for that to happen, Shiva 's trance has to be broken. It is decided that the God of Love should be sent to awaken Shiva. He fires five arrows of flowers at Shiva 's breast, the trance is broken and Shiva awakens. Shiva is enraged and, through his third eye, reduces Love to ashes. Love 's consort Rati faints as soon as she hears of her husband 's demise. Seeing the helpless woman, Shiva foretells that her husband will now be called bodiless and shall dominate all without a body form. When Krishna descends on earth, her husband would be born as His son Pradyumna. Thereafter Brahma and other gods approach Shiva and declare that they wish to witness His wedding with their own eyes. Remembering Vishnu 's early request, Shiva gladly agrees and Brahma proceeds to arrange the marriage.
Shiva has no real family and so his attendants begin to adorn Him for His wedding to Parvati. His hair is formed into a crown with serpents forming a crest. Serpents form His earrings, bracelets and adorn his neck and He is smeared in ashes and has lion 's skin wrapped around His loins. He heads the wedding procession and Vishnu and Brahma, as well as a host of spirits, gandharavs and danavs follow behind. After the wedding, Parvati and Shiva return to Kailash where Parvati asks questions around Rama 's divinity. Here Shiva begins his narration of Ram Leela.
On the ninth day of the Chaitra month, the Manas describes that the Sun is at its meridian and the climate is neither cold nor hot. There is a cool, soft and fragrant breeze. The woods are full of blossom and the rivers or in full flow. Brahma deduces that the time for Ram 's birth is approaching and the heavenly beings all crowd over the skies to glimpse sight of the auspicious moment. The sky resounds of music and song as the heavenly beings offer their praises to the Supreme Personality of Godhead.
Here begins one of the most famous chhands from the Manas, the Ram Janam Stuti. The stuti begins with the appearance of Ram. Mother Kaushalya 's is filled with joy as she marvels over Ram 's dark complexion and his four armed form. He is adorned with jewels and a garland of Sylvan flowers and is described as being an ocean of beauty. Kaushalya joins her palms and prays. "O Infinite, How can I praise You! The Vedas and Puranas reveal you to be the repository of all virtues. You are the Lord of Laksmi and the lover of all of Your devotees and have appeared for my good. Every pore of Your body contains multitudes of universes and the thought that You stayed in my womb is truly staggering. '' Ram smiles and exhorts Kaushalya by telling her the charming account of her previous birth so that she can accept Him as her own child. Kaushalya asks Ram to give up His current superhuman form and to start to indulge in childish sports that are dear to a mother 's heart. Ram, described as the Lord of immortals, immediately becomes an infant and begins to cry.
Tulsidas concludes that whoever sings this Stuti attains the abode of Lord Vishnu and never falls into the well of mundane existence. The Stuti has therefore been immortalised and it is a popular prayer sung on the occasion of Ram 's birthday.
Ahalya, the wife of Rishi Gautam, was a beautiful woman. Indra, king of the gods, was tempted and decided to seduce her with trickery. Early morning Rishi Gautam when the dawn had arrived go down to the nearby Ganges for his usual morning bath. While the Rishi was bathing at the river, Indra assumed Gautam 's form and visited Ahalya, fooling her into thinking he was her husband. When Gautam returned, he encountered Indra, emerging from his hut in his (Gautam 's) form. Spiritually powerful, Gautam employed his divine vision to see the whole episode. Enraged, he cursed Indra with impotence. Losing his potency, Indra lost heaven to demons and sat prayerfully in a lotus flower for thousands of years in order to repent. Rishi Gautam, in a blind rage, also cursed his wife, Ahalya, to turn into a boulder. Innocent of any intentional wrongdoing, Ahalya begged for forgiveness. Gautam relented somewhat and said that when Ram is incarnated, he will bless her and break her curse.
Ram, while going to Mithila for Sita Svayamvar along with Sage Vishwamitra and Laksman, stopped at the, then - uninhabited, hermitage of Rishi Gautam. Vishwamitra narrated Ahalya 's story to Ram, and asked him to free her. Ram touched the boulder with his foot and Ahalya was immediately released from the curse. She fell to Ram 's feet and washed his feet with her tears. She felt that her curse had become her fortune as she got the opportunity to seek Ram 's refuge in person. She then returned to her husband 's place.
Many scholars have commented on the sudden ending to the Manas. Valmiki 's Uttar Kānd goes into great detail about Sita going into the forest, as a result of disapproving gossip of the citizens of Ayodhya, during the rule of Ram over Ayodhya. Sitaji asks mother Earth to receive her and Ram leaves His human form and returns to His celestial abode. Tulsidas decides not to mention these at all. The Katha Kar Morari Bapu has mentioned in many of his retellings of Ram Katha, that Tulsidasji did n't want to end the Manas in heartache for Sita. Tulsidas refers to Sita as his mother (as well as the mother of the entire universe) many times in the poem and so, on an emotional level, this becomes very understandable. She has endured enough pain throughout the Manas and so ends his retelling at a relatively happy moment. It is said that there are some Vaishnav devotees who will only recite the Bālakāṇḍa of the Manas, as this is seen as the happiest period of Ram and Sita 's lila on earth. However, Ramchritmans at few places do make reference of Sita 's abandonment, birth of lav - kush and Ram 's demise to his abode. These stories thus can be said to have mentioned in brief.
An unpublished English poetic translation of Ramcharitmanas is provided by (Late) Binda Prasad Khattri of New Market, Banda, Uttar Pradesh. Apparently, the translation can be sung essentially in the same way and with the same rhythm as the original Hindi work.
Frederick Growse translated the Ramcharitmanas into English under the title The Ramayan of Tulsidas during the nineteenth century. His translation remains in print.
The English commentary by Morari Bapu, Mangal Ramayan, is an English composition of one of his orrated Ram Katha commentaries. The book contains all the translations of prayers, Doha, Chaupais, and Chandan sung by Bapu, as well as an in - depth disccusion behind the meanings of the poetry.
Tulsi Manas Mandir
Notes
References
Online sources
Bibliography
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which all countries have visa on arrival for indian passport holders | Visa requirements for Indian citizens - Wikipedia
Visa requirements for Indian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of India. As of 22 July 2018, Indian citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 59 countries and territories, (tied with passports from Uzbekistan) and ranking the Indian passport 78th in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley Passport Index.
The requirement for a visa was removed by Indonesia and Ukraine in July 2017, Qatar in August 2017, Serbia in September 2017, Tunisia in October 2017. Visa free status was granted to parts of the Russian Far East: Primorye and the rest of Khabarovsk, Sakhalin, Chukotka and Kamchatka regions in 2018.
Australia started offering an online, e600 visitor visa to Indian passport bearers in July 2017. Kyrgyzstan followed suit with online visitor visas in September 2017, Armenia in November 2017, both Vietnam and Uzbekistan in July 2018.
Indians already in possession of a valid UK, US, Canada or Schengen visa became eligible to apply for a visa on arrival for Oman in October 2017. Armenia in November 2017,
All Indian passport bearers became eligible for a visa on arrival for Gabon in October 2017, Rwanda in January 2018, Zimbabwe, Angola and Jordan in February 2018, the Bahamas (but only with a valid Schengen, UK, US or Canadian visa) on 24 April 2018 and Iran on 22 July 2018.
Eligible Indian travellers can now participate in the Global Entry program for expedited entry into the United States.
France abolished airport transit visas (ATA) for Indian nationals after 23 July 2018.
Visa requirements for Indian citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognised countries and restricted zones:
The Indian Government has not drafted any laws to mandate reciprocity in visa agreements with other countries. While a very small number of bilateral agreements have concluded with reciprocity for visa arrangements, a large number of visa relationships continue to be highly skewed to one side or the other.
In 2015, Iran revoked visa - on - arrival for Indian citizens after it was included as one of the eight countries in India 's Prior Reference Category, which would be excluded from India 's visa liberalisation plans for foreign tourists. The other countries on the list at the time were Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iraq, Somalia, Nigeria and Sudan.
India has, by default, achieved full reciprocity in visa free or e-Visa privileges with following countries:
India has achieved partial reciprocity with following countries, where Indian Immigration rules afford the citizens of the following countries slightly lesser visa privileges than what the following countries provide for Indian Citizens:
Visa privileges provided by Indian immigration for citizens of these countries are considerably less than the visa privileges provided by these countries to Indian citizens:
Many countries have entry restrictions on foreigners that go beyond the common requirement of having either a valid visa or a visa exemption. Such restrictions may be health related or impose additional documentation requirements on certain classes of people for diplomatic or political purposes.
In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela and Vietnam.
Turkey requires passports to be valid for at least 150 days upon entry.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months beyond the period of intended stay include European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom), Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland (and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals), Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova, New Zealand and 3 months validity on arrival in Albania, Honduras, Macedonia, Panama, Qatar and Senegal.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the period of intended stay include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macao and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. Some countries have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other 's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled).
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being available.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia, require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has recently visited one.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead that reads: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of late 2017 the list contains 699 persons.
Upon request, the authorities of the largely unrecognized Republic of Artsakh may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
Some countries (for example, Canada and the United States and Fiji) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest those travellers that refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside.
Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China when entering through Shenzhen airport, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Japan, Malaysia upon entry and departure, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan.
Additionally, the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors that need to apply for a visa.
According to the statistics these are the numbers of Indian visitors to various countries in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
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what is the meaning of the song ballroom blitz | The Ballroom Blitz - wikipedia
"The Ballroom Blitz '' (often called "Ballroom Blitz '') is a song by the British rock band The Sweet, written by Nicky Chinn and Mike Chapman.
"The Ballroom Blitz '' was inspired by an incident on 27 January 1973 when the band was performing at the Grand Hall in Kilmarnock, Scotland and were driven offstage by a barrage of bottles.
Recorded at Audio International Studio, 18 Rodmarton Street, London.
The song appeared on the US and Canadian versions of Desolation Boulevard but never appeared on a Sweet album in the UK, other than hits compilations.
The initial guitar and drum riff of the song has similarity to a 1963 song by Bobby Comstock called "Let 's Stomp ''.
The first known cover of "The Ballroom Blitz '' was by the Les Humphries Singers in 1975, which was the first German single to reach # 1 in New Zealand. In 1979, the song was covered by the Damned, which featured Lemmy from Motörhead on bass guitar. It was released as a B - side to "I Just Ca n't Be Happy Today '' and featured as a bonus track on their CD reissue of Machine Gun Etiquette. Other covers include renditions by Krokus in 1984, the 1988 Surf Punks album "Oh no! Not them again. '' (in the lyrics jacket, instead of the lyrics, it says "you should know the words by now '', Christian rock band Calibretto 13 on their album Enter the Danger Brigade in 2000, Tia Carrere on the soundtrack to Wayne 's World in 1992, and thrash metal band Nuclear Assault on their 1991 album Out of Order. In 2016, The Struts recorded a cover of the song for the soundtrack of The Edge of Seventeen. In 2017, The Featherz covered the song on their debut album Five Year Itch. This was originally intended for the CD edition of their 2016 single Forget All You Know.
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drafting tool is used when drawing vertical lines | Technical drawing tool - wikipedia
Technical drawing tools include and are not limited to: pens, rulers, compasses, protractors and drawing utilities. Drafting tools may be used for measurement and layout of drawings, or to improve the consistency and speed of creation of standard drawing elements. The tools used for manual technical drawing have been displaced by the advent of the personal computer and its common utilization as the main tool in computer - aided drawing, draughting and design (CADD).
The ancient Egyptians are known to have used wooden corner rulers. Ancient Nuragic people in Sardinia used compasses made of bronze, like the one displayed in showcase 25 in the Nuragic department of the National Archeological Museum G.A. Sanna in Sassari. In ancient Greece, evidence has been found of the use of styli and metal chisels, scale rulers and triangle rulers. Excavations in Pompeii have found a bronze tool kit used by the Romans, which contained triangle rulers, compasses and a ruler to use with a pen.
Although a variety of styli were developed in ancient times and were still being used in the 18th century, quills were generally used as the main drawing tool. Styli were also used in the form of ivory or ebony pencils.
Protractors have been used to measure and draw angles and arcs of a circle accurately since about the 13th century, although mathematics and science demanded more detailed drawing instruments. The adjustable corner ruler was developed in the 17th century, but a feasible screw - tightened version not until the 1920s.
In the 17th century, a stylus that could draw a line with a specific width called a ruling pen was developed. The stylus had two curved metal pieces which were joined by a screw. Ink was trickled between the blades, from which it flowed evenly across the paper. The basic model was maintained for a long time, with minor modifications, until the 1930s when the German technical drawing pens came to the market.
Artists (including Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer, Nicholas Bion and George Adams) generally made drawing tools for themselves. Industrial production of technical drawing instruments started in 1853, when Englishman William Stanley (1829 -- 1909) founded a technical manufacturing company in London. Even then, however, most tools were still made by hand.
In the 1930s the equipment available expanded: drawing apparatus and Rapidograph - drawing pens appeared, improving the line quality and, especially, producing consistent line width. In addition to the Rapidograph stylus, a more traditional Grafos - type stylus was used for a long time, where different line widths were achieved by changing the pen nib. For instance in Finland Grafos was commonly used as a primary drawing tool still in the early 1970s.
Equipment changed radically during the 1990s, when computer - aided design almost completely ousted drawing by hand. Technical design has changed from drawing by hand to producing computer - aided design drawings, where drawings are no longer "drawn '', but are built from a virtually - produced model. Drawings are not necessarily produced in hard copy at all, and if they are needed they are printed automatically by a computer program. Hand - drawn designs, however, are still widely used in the draft design stage.
Traditional and typical styli used for technical drawing are pencils and technical pens.
Pencils in use are usually mechanical pencils with a standard lead thickness. The usual line widths are 0.18 mm, 0.25 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.7 mm. Hardness varies usually from HB to 2H. Softer lead gives a better contrast, but harder lead gives a more accurate line. Bad contrast of the lead line in general is problematic when photocopying, but new scanning copy techniques have improved the final result. Paper or plastic surfaces require their own lead types.
In most cases, the final drawings are drawn with ink, on either plastic or tracing paper. The pen is generally a Rapidograph - type technical pen, a marker pen that draws lines of consistent width (so - called steel marker pen). The pen has an ink container which contains a metal tube, inside which is a thin metal needle or wire, the soul. Ink is absorbed between the needle and the tube wall, preventing an excessive amount of ink from being released. The needle has a weight and by waving the pen back and forth the needle is released and the ink can run. Originally, the tank was filled from an ink bottle; newer pens use ink cartridges.
Each line width has its own stylus. The line width is standardized: In Finland, the most commonly used set is 0.13 mm, 0.18 mm, 0.25 mm, 0.35 mm, 0.50 mm and 0.70 mm. Separate styli are used for tracing paper and plastic, because plastic requires a harder pen tip. To function well they require regular maintenance, the finest marker pens in particular.
The drawing board is an essential tool. Paper will be attached and kept straight and still, so that the drawing can be done with accuracy. Generally, different kind of assistance rulers are used in drawing. The drawing board is usually mounted to a floor pedestal in which the board turns to a different position, and also its height can be adjustable. Smaller drawing boards are produced for table - top use. In the 18th and 19th centuries, drawing paper was dampened and then its edges glued to the drawing board. After drying the paper would be flat and smooth. The completed drawing was then cut free. Paper could also be secured to the drawing board with drawing pins or even C - clamps. More recent practice is to use self - adhesive tape to secure paper to the board, including the sophisticated use of individualized adhesive dots from a dispensing roll. Some drawing boards are magnetized, allowing paper to be held down by long steel strips. Boards used for overlay drafting or animation may include registration pins or peg bars to ensure alignment of multiple layers of drawing media.
A T - square is a straightedge which uses the edge of the drawing board as a support. It is used with the drafting board to draw horizontal lines and to align other drawing instruments. Wooden, metal, or plastic triangles with 30 ° and 60 ° angles or with two 45 ° angles are used to speed drawing of lines at these commonly used angles. A continuously adjustable 0 -- 90 ° protractor is also in use. An alternative to the T - square is the parallel bar which is permanently attached to the drawing board. It has a set of cables and pulleys to allow it to be positioned anywhere on the drawing surface while still remaining parallel to the bottom of the board. The drafting machine replaces the T - square and triangles.
A drafting machine is a device which is mounted to the drawing board. It has rulers whose angles can be precisely adjusted with a controlling mechanism. There are two main types of apparatus: an arm - type parallelogram apparatus based on a hinged arm; and a track - type apparatus which moves on a rail mounted to the top of the drawing board. The accuracy of the arm type apparatus is better in the middle of the board, decreasing towards the edges, whereas a track machine has a constant accuracy over the whole board. The drawing head of a track - type drafting machine slides on bearings in a vertical rail, which in turn is moved along a horizontal, top - mounted rail. Both apparatus types have an adjustable drawing - head with rules attached to a protractor scale so that the angle of the rules may be adjusted.
A drafting machine allows easy drawing of parallel lines over the paper. The adjustable angle between the rulers allows the lines to be drawn in varying accurate angles. Rulers may also be used as a support for separate special rulers and letter templates. The rules are replaceable and they can be for example scale - rules.
Drawing apparatus has evolved from a drawing board mounted parallel ruler and a pantograph, which is a device used for copying objects in an adjustable ratio of sizes.
French curves are made of wood, plastic or celluloid. Some set squares also have these curves cut in the middle. French curves are used for drawing curves which can not be drawn with compasses. A faint freehand curve is first drawn through the known points; the longest possible curve that coincides exactly with the freehand curve is then found out from the French curves. Finally, a neat continuous curve is drawn with the aid of the French curves.
Rulers used in technical drawing are usually made of polystyrene. Rulers come in two types according to the design of their edge. A ruler with a straight edge can be used with lead pencils and felt pens, whereas when a technical pen is used the edge must be grooved to prevent the spread of the ink.
An scale ruler is a scaled, three - edged ruler which has six different scales marked to its sides. A typical combination for building details is 1: 20, 1: 50, 1: 100, 1: 25, 1: 75 and 1: 125. There are separate rulers for zoning work as well as for inch units. Today scale rulers are made of plastic, formerly they were made of hardwood. A pocket - sized version is also available, with scales printed on flexible plastic strips.
Compasses are used for drawing circles or arc segments of circles. One form has two straight legs joined by a hinge; one leg has a sharp pivot point and the other has a holder for a technical pen or pencil. Another form, the beam compass, has the pivot point and pen holder joined by a trammel bar, useful when drawing very large radius arcs. Often a circle template is used instead of a compass when predefined circle sizes are required.
Templates contain pre-dimensioned holes in the right scale to accurately draw a symbol or sign.
Letter templates are used for drawing text, including digits and letter characters. Diagrams are usually of a standard letter shape and size to conform to standards of encodings (e.g. DIN or ANSI). For example, in Finland the series used is 1.8 mm, 2.5 mm, 3.5 mm, 5.0 mm and 7.0 mm. Except for the very biggest ones, the templates are only suitable for technical pen drawing.
For drawing circles and circle - arcs, circle templates which contain a set of suitably - sized holes are used. Templates are also available for other geometric shapes such as squares and for drawing ellipses, as well as many specialized varieties for other purposes.
There are also specific templates to provide user with the most common symbols in use in different branches of designing. For example, the architect templates can be used to draw different sized doors with their "opening arcs '', building and equipment symbols and furniture. The templates also provide the symbols for thermal insulation.
Two methods of drawing smooth curves in manual drafting are the use of French curves and flat splines (flexible curves). A French curve is a drawing aid with many different smoothly - varying radiused curves on it; the manual drafter can fit the French curve to some known reference points and draw a smooth curved line between them. A spline is a flexible ruler, usually rubber or plastic coated with a metal "backbone '', which can be smoothly shaped to follow a desired curve and allows drawing a smooth line between initial reference points. Sometimes a spline is temporarily held in position with small weights.
A perspective machine is an instrument designed to create perspective drawings.
Silk - paper - like translucent drafting paper that wrinkles when wetted. It is primarily suitable for pencils and felt tip pens. Pencil marks can be corrected to some extent with an eraser.
Sandwich paper - like, thin translucent sheet of paper. Manufactured in different strengths, the surface may be slightly polished. This paper also wrinkles upon wetting. Suitable for pencil and felt tipped pens, and with limitations for technical pens. An eraser can be used for pencil lines. Ink is difficult to erase without damage.
Drafting linen was formerly used for technical drawings. It was durable and held up to handling, but it was difficult to use in modern whiteprints for reproduction, and shrinking was a concern.
Polished sandwich paper - like, translucent thick paper, which comes in different strengths. Wrinkles upon wetting. Suitable for both graphite pencils and technical pens. An eraser or sharp scraper tool is used for corrections.
Translucent plastic film, which is usually of gray or a light khaki shade. Common types are 0.05, 0.07 and 0.10 mm thick. These films are also used in photocopying. The most commonly used materials are polyesters, and sometimes also PVC or polycarbonate; arguably, a proprietary eponym or genericized trademark for this is called Mylar.
In drawing, plastic 's specific advantages over translucent paper are higher mechanical strength and dimensional accuracy; plastic does not, unlike paper, shrink or stretch with changing air humidity. Plastic is also as a surface completely flat, while the surface of paper is relatively rough. Plastic is suitable for both pencils and drawing pens. However, the surface tends to wear the pen tips, which must be made of hard - metal alloy. Ordinary ink is not absorbed into the plastic at all, so the lines can easily be removed with an eraser. Photocopier marks can be removed by scraping.
Drawing inks can be divided into two groups: India ink and polymer inks. India ink is used on paper and drafting film plastics. The most commonly used India ink is a colloidal mixture of water and carbon black.
Dry transfer decals can speed the production of repetitive drawing elements such as borders, title blocks, line types, shading, and symbols. They were frequently used in the production of schematic drawings, maps, and printed circuit board artwork, for example. Dry transfer lettering such as Letraset was used especially in lettering larger size document annotations, or when consistency of lettering was especially required.
Many copies of technical drawings may be required in the construction of a project. Reproductions must be accurate as to size and shape, but for many purposes need not be permanent. The blueprint process was first used for mechanical reproduction of drawings. Drawing offices may use diazo or whiteprint processes. Where the volume of drawings reproduced justifies the cost of the machine, a large format photocopier using xerography can reproduce drawings at lower cost than re-plotting them.
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who is the chief minister of andhra pradesh | List of chief ministers of Andhra Pradesh - Wikipedia
The Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh is the chief executive of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. As per the Constitution of India, the Governor of Andhra Pradesh is the state 's de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly, the governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given that he has the confidence of the assembly, the chief minister 's term is for five years and is subject to no term limits.
Andhra Pradesh was created in 1956 by the merger of the Telangana region of Hyderabad State into Andhra State. Two chief ministers each from the Indian National Congress party had served these predecessor states. The first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh was Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, later the sixth President of India. Including him, 13 out of 16 chief ministers belonged to the Congress party. Among these is P.V. Narasimha Rao, who went on to become the ninth Prime Minister of India. The remaining three chief ministers were from the Telugu Desam Party, including N. Chandrababu Naidu, the longest - serving Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh (over eleven years). Naidu is also the current incumbent, serving since 8 June 2014, a few days after Telangana was officially carved out of Andhra Pradesh into a separate state.
Hyderabad State included nine Telugu districts of Telangana, four Kannada districts in Gulbarga division and four Marathi districts in Aurangabad division.
Andhra State consisted of Kosta and Rayalaseema regions. This state was carved out of Madras state in 1953.
On 1 November 1956, Hyderabad State ceased to exist; its Gulbarga and Aurangabad divisions were merged into Mysore State and Bombay State respectively. Its remaining Telugu - speaking portion, Telangana, was added to Andhra State to form the new state of Andhra Pradesh.
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man in the high castle synopsis episode 1 | The Man in the High Castle (TV series) - Wikipedia
The Man in the High Castle is an American dystopian alternative history television series produced by Amazon Studios, Scott Free Productions, Headline Pictures, Electric Shepherd Productions and Big Light Productions. The series is loosely based on the 1962 novel of the same name by science fiction author Philip K. Dick. In the series ' alternate version of 1962 America, the Axis powers have won World War II and divided the United States into two puppet states: the Greater Nazi Reich and the Japanese Pacific States. The series follows characters whose destinies intertwine after coming into contact with a series of propaganda films that show a vastly different history from that of their own.
Premiering in January 2015, the pilot was Amazon 's "most - watched since the original series development program began. '' The next month Amazon ordered episodes to fill out a ten - episode season, which was released in November, to positive reviews. A second season of ten episodes premiered in December 2016, with a third season announced a few weeks later to be released in 2018.
The central characters are Juliana Crain, Frank Frink, Joe Blake, John Smith, Nobusuke Tagomi, and Takeshi Kido. The series takes place in an alternate 1962.
Juliana Crain is a San Francisco woman who becomes entangled with the resistance when her half - sister Trudy is killed by the Kempeitai, just after giving Juliana a film reel that contains newsreel - style footage depicting an alternate history in which the Allies won World War II and Germany and Japan were defeated. The film is entitled The Grasshopper Lies Heavy, and is part of a series of similar newsreels being collected by someone referred to as "The Man in the High Castle ''. Juliana believes the newsreel reflects some sort of alternate reality and that it is part of some kind of larger truth about how the world should be. Her boyfriend, Frank Frink (who keeps his Jewish roots hidden in order to avoid extradition and death at the hands of the Nazis), believes that the newsreel has no relation to real - life events. Juliana learns Trudy was carrying the film to Canon City, Colorado, in the Neutral Zone, where she was going to meet someone. Juliana decides to travel there in Trudy 's place to find out what her half - sister 's mission was. When she arrives in Canon City, she encounters Joe Blake.
Blake is a 27 - year - old New Yorker who is a double agent working for the Nazis under Obergruppenführer John Smith, a former US Army officer who joined the Nazis and rose through the ranks to become a senior officer in the SS. Blake is pretending to be a member of the resistance while he searches for the resistance contact in Canon City, which is Juliana, substituting for Trudy.
Nobusuke Tagomi is a high - ranking Japanese official (the Trade Minister) in San Francisco. He meets in secret with Nazi official Rudolph Wegener, who is traveling incognito as Swedish businessman Victore Baynes. Tagomi and Wegener are concerned about the power vacuum that will exist when the Reich 's Führer Adolf Hitler dies, or is forced to step down due to his worsening Parkinson 's disease. Wegener explains that Hitler 's successor will want to use the Reich 's nuclear bombs against Japan to gain control of the rest of the former United States. Currently, however, Japan and the Third Reich are engaged in a cold war full of tension but no open warfare, with the Japanese lagging behind the Germans technologically.
Frank Frink ends up being arrested when the Japanese and the Nazis become suspicious of Juliana 's activities. Not having the information they seek, he is unable to give the Japanese what they are looking for, and they kill Frink 's sister and her two children in retaliation, using their Jewish heritage as an excuse for their executions. This leads Frink to plan to kill the visiting Japanese Crown Prince and Princess, but he ultimately decides against going through with his plan.
Season Two of the show broadly encompasses Frank Frink deciding to forgo his hesitancy and relative pacifism and choosing to become a committed member of the American Resistance to the Japanese Empire inside the Pacific States, eventually participating in a successful terrorist bombing of a central - command building of the Pacific States government in downtown San Francisco. The attack kills many members of the Japanese military and other top - level leadership.
Juliana Crain claims asylum in the Nazi Reich using their San Francisco Embassy so she can escape Japanese soldiers who hold her responsible for at least one murder. John Smith, seeing that her asylum claim is unlikely to succeed, steps in to the interrogation room and assumes command of her claim himself, ensuring it goes through, and he takes her to New York without Joe Blake 's knowledge. Joe Blake himself discovers he was a product of the Lebensborn programme, and also that he is the sole biological son of a top - ranking Nazi official in Berlin, Martin Heusmann. Eventually Blake reconciles with Heusmann on the personal level and, in so doing, becomes second - in - command of the Chancellorship after Adolf Hitler dies and the Nazi leadership in Berlin grants Heusmann the Reich 's Acting Chancellor title, which they do quickly and almost by default.
Hitler 's death is abruptly pinned upon Japanese spies, and Heusmann suddenly announces on television that the Japanese agents whom he claims assassinated the Führer will be brought to justice by any means necessary, including war. John Smith is the only high - ranking Nazi official to be suspicious of the nature of Heusmann 's sudden announcement. To gain insight in to why it has happened, he interrogates another high - ranking Nazi, Reinhard Heydrich, who reveals a far - reaching conspiracy led by Heusmann designed to result in a Nazi nuclear onslaught against the Japanese Empire that will kill tens of millions of Japanese, decimate their Empire, level Tokyo, kill their Emperor, and force the surviving Japanese to permanently absorb themselves in to a global Nazi Reich. John Smith undertakes carefully - calculated stealth actions to disrupt and dismantle the Heusmann conspiracy and, as a final act, travels to Berlin and informs Heinrich Himmler -- the Nazi Reichsführer and not involved in the conspiracy -- of the existence of the conspiracy. Audiotapes, together with physical and written evidence reaching too deep within the existing Reich 's power structure to be dismissed as hearsay, are handed personally by John Smith over to the Reichsführer, who then angrily leads Smith and several of his closest Berlin subordinates in to the late Führer 's office occupied by the Acting Chancellor. He arrests Heusmann for high treason and the murder of Adolf Hitler, detains Joe Blake along with Heusmann, and then addresses the Volkshalle packed with hundreds of thousands of Reich civilians and uniformed stormtroopers, nixing the war - declaration speech meant to have been delivered by Heusmann and instead informing the Reich of Heusmann 's conspiracy and John Smith 's exposing of it. Upon learning this, the entire Volkshalle erupts in to a celebratory mood marked by repeated mass Nazi salutes of Himmler 's men in general and then John Smith in particular.
The second season ends with Himmler and John Smith implicitly assuming command of the Reich, and an implied new era of peace and tranquility between the Japanese Empire and the Greater Nazi Reich. Juliana Crain continues to live out her asylum claim inside New York Nazi territory, and the final few minutes of the final episode of the second season show Trudy (or an alternate - universe version of her) alive and well. In a basement somewhere, John Smith is given access to a room filled to bursting with reels of films watched by the late Führer.
The pilot and the second episode were screened at a special Comic - Con event. The season premiered on November 20, 2015.
The second season was released on December 16, 2016.
In 2010, it was announced that the BBC would co-produce a four - part TV adaptation of The Man in the High Castle for BBC One together with Headline Pictures, FremantleMedia Enterprises and Scott Free Films. Director Ridley Scott was to act as executive producer of the adaptation by Howard Brenton.
On February 11, 2013, Variety reported that Syfy was adapting the book as a four - part miniseries, with Ridley Scott and Frank Spotnitz as executive producers, co-produced with Scott Free Prods., Headline Pictures and Electric Shepherd Prods.
On October 1, 2014, Amazon.com began filming the pilot episode in Roslyn, Washington, for a new television drama to be aired on their Prime web video streaming service. This has been adapted by Frank Spotnitz and is being produced for Amazon by Ridley Scott, David Zucker and Jordan Sheehan for Scott Free, Stewart Mackinnon and Christian Baute for Headline Pictures, Isa Hackett and Kalen Egan for Electric Shepherd and Spotnitz 's Big Light Productions. The pilot episode was released by Amazon Studios on January 15, 2015. Amazon Studios ' production process is somewhat different from those of other conventional television channels. They produce pilot episodes of a number of different prospective programs, then release them and gather data on their success. The most promising shows are then picked up as regular series. On February 18, 2015, Amazon.com announced that The Man in the High Castle was given the green - light along with four other series, and a full season would be produced.
Production for the pilot episode began in October 2014. Principal filming took place in Seattle, with the city standing in for San Francisco and locations in New York City, as well as Roslyn, Washington, which was the long - time shooting location for Northern Exposure. Sites used in Seattle include the Seattle Center Monorail, the Paramount Theatre, a newspaper office in the Pike Place Market area, as well as various buildings in the city 's Capitol Hill, International District, and Georgetown neighborhoods. In Roslyn, the production used external shots of the Roslyn Cafe which featured prominently in Northern Exposure along with several local businesses and scenery.
In April 2015, filming took place in Vancouver, British Columbia, in the downtown area of West Georgia Street, along the promenade of the Coast Capital Savings building. In May and June 2015 filming also took place at the University of British Columbia. Exterior shots of Hohenwerfen Castle in Werfen, Austria, were filmed in September 2015 for the tenth episode of the first season.
Amazon announced that they were bringing on new executive producer and showrunner Eric Overmyer for season three to replace Frank Spotnitz after his sudden departure from the show during the middle of season two.
The first season of The Man in the High Castle received acclaim from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives season 1 an approval rating of 95 % based on reviews from 58 critics, with an average rating of 7.54 out of 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "By executive producer Ridley Scott, The Man in the High Castle is unlike anything else on TV, with an immediately engrossing plot driven by quickly developed characters in a fully realized post-WWII dystopia. '' Metacritic gives the first season a score of 77 out of 100, based on reviews from 30 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Meredith Woerner from io9 wrote, "I can honestly say I loved this pilot. It 's an impressive, streamlined undertaking of a fairly complicated and very beloved novel. '' Matt Fowler from IGN gave 9.2 out of 10 and described the series as a "a superb, frightening experience filled with unexpected twists and (some sci - fi) turns. '' Brian Moylan of The Guardian was positive and praised the convincing depiction as well as the complex, and gripping, plot. The Los Angeles Times described the pilot as "provocative '' and "smartly adapted by The X-Files ' Frank Spotnitz. '' The Daily Telegraph said it was "absorbing '' and Wired called it "must - see viewing. '' Entertainment Weekly said it was "engrossing '' and "a triumph in world - building, '' cheering, "The Man in the High Castle is king. ''
After its first season, Rolling Stone included it on a list of the forty best science fiction television shows of all time.
Amazon subsequently announced it was the service 's most - streamed original series and had been renewed for a second season. Season 2 was met with mixed reviews. Rotten Tomatoes gives the second season an approval rating of 63 % based on reviews from 19 critics, with an average rating of 6.86 out of 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Although its plot is admittedly unwieldy, The Man in the High Castle 's second season expands its fascinating premise in powerful new directions, bolstered by stunning visuals, strong performances, and intriguing new possibilities. '' Metacritic gives season 2 a score of 62 out of 100, based on reviews from ten critics.
As part of an advertising campaign for the release of the first season, one entire New York City Subway car was covered with Nazi and Imperial Japanese imagery as seen in the show, including multiple American flags with the Nazi eagle emblem in place of the 50 stars and multiple flags of the fictional Pacific States. In response to criticism from "state lawmakers and city leaders '', the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) released a statement saying that there were no grounds to reject the ads due to the fact that neutral content subway ad standards only prohibit advertising that is a political advertisement or disparages an individual or group. MTA spokesperson Kevin Ortiz stated that, "The MTA is a government agency and ca n't accept or reject ads based on how we feel about them; we have to follow the standards approved by our board. Please note they 're commercial ads. '' Spokesperson Adam Lisberg said, "This advertising, whether you find it distasteful or not, obviously they 're not advertising Nazism; they 're advertising a TV show. '' After complaints from New York State Governor Andrew Cuomo and New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio, initial reports indicated that Amazon pulled the advertisement from the subway. It was later announced that it was the MTA, not Amazon, that pulled the ad, due to pressure from Governor Cuomo.
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what is the official name of the us interstate highway system | Interstate Highway System - Wikipedia
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The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways (commonly known as the Interstate Highway System, Interstate Freeways, or simply the Interstate) is a network of controlled - access highways that forms a part of the National Highway System of the United States. The system is named for President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who championed its formation. Construction was authorized by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, and the original portion was completed 35 years later, although some urban routes were cancelled and never built. The network has since been extended and, as of 2013, it had a total length of 47,856 miles (77,017 km). As of 2013, about one - quarter of all vehicle miles driven in the country use the Interstate system. In 2006, the cost of construction was estimated at about $425 billion (equivalent to $526 billion in 2016).
The United States government 's efforts to construct a national network of highways began on an ad hoc basis with the passage of the Federal Aid Road Act of 1916, which provided for $75 million over a five - year period for matching funds to the states for the construction and improvement of highways. The nation 's revenue needs associated with World War I prevented any significant implementation of this policy, which expired in 1921.
In December 1918, E.J. Mehren, a civil engineer and the editor of Engineering News - Record, presented his "A Suggested National Highway Policy and Plan '' during a gathering of the State Highway Officials and Highway Industries Association at the Congress Hotel in Chicago. In the plan, Mehren proposed a 50,000 - mile (80,000 km) system, consisting of five east - west routes and 10 north -- south routes. The system would include two percent of all roads and would pass through every state at a cost of $25,000 per mile ($16,000 / km), providing commercial as well as military transport benefits.
As the landmark 1916 law expired, new legislation was passed -- the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 (Phipps Act). This new road construction initiative once again provided for federal matching funds for road construction and improvement, $75 million allocated annually. Moreover, this new legislation for the first time sought to target these funds to the construction of a national road grid of interconnected "primary highways, '' setting up cooperation among the various state highway planning boards.
The Bureau of Public Roads asked the Army to provide a list of roads that it considered necessary for national defense. In 1922, General John J. Pershing, former head of the American Expeditionary Force in Europe during the war, complied by submitting a detailed network of 20,000 miles (32,000 km) of interconnected primary highways -- the so - called Pershing Map.
A boom in road construction followed throughout the decade of the 1920s, with such projects as the New York parkway system constructed as part of a new national highway system. As automobile traffic increased, planners saw a need for such an interconnected national system to supplement the existing, largely non-freeway, United States Numbered Highways system. By the late 1930s, planning had expanded to a system of new superhighways.
In 1938, President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave Thomas MacDonald, chief at the Bureau of Public Roads, a hand - drawn map of the United States marked with eight superhighway corridors for study. In 1939, Bureau of Public Roads Division of Information chief Herbert S. Fairbank wrote a report called Toll Roads and Free Roads, "the first formal description of what became the interstate highway system '' and, in 1944, the similarly themed Interregional Highways.
The Interstate Highway System gained a champion in President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was influenced by his experiences as a young Army officer crossing the country in the 1919 Army Convoy on the Lincoln Highway, the first road across America. Eisenhower gained an appreciation of the Reichsautobahn system, the first "national '' implementation of modern Germany 's Autobahn network, as a necessary component of a national defense system while he was serving as Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in Europe during World War II. He recognized that the proposed system would also provide key ground transport routes for military supplies and troop deployments in case of an emergency or foreign invasion.
The publication in 1955 of the General Location of National System of Interstate Highways, informally known as the Yellow Book, mapped out what became the Interstate System. Assisting in the planning was Charles Erwin Wilson, who was still head of General Motors when President Eisenhower selected him as Secretary of Defense in January 1953.
The Interstate Highway System was authorized on June 29, 1956 by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, popularly known as the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act of 1956.
Three states have claimed the title of first Interstate Highway. Missouri claims that the first three contracts under the new program were signed in Missouri on August 2, 1956. The first contract signed was for upgrading a section of US Route 66 to what is now designated Interstate 44. On August 13, 1956, Missouri awarded the first contract based on new Interstate Highway funding; this work began on US 40 (now I - 70) in St. Charles County.
Kansas claims that it was the first to start paving after the act was signed. Preliminary construction had taken place before the act was signed, and paving started September 26, 1956. The state marked its portion of I - 70 as the first project in the United States completed under the provisions of the new Federal - Aid Highway Act of 1956.
The Pennsylvania Turnpike could also be considered one of the first Interstate Highways. On October 1, 1940, 162 miles (261 km) of the highway now designated I ‐ 70 and I ‐ 76 opened between Irwin and Carlisle. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania refers to the turnpike as the Granddaddy of the Pikes.
Milestones in the construction of the Interstate Highway System include:
The initial cost estimate for the system was $25 billion over 12 years; it ended up costing $114 billion (adjusted for inflation, $425 billion in 2006 dollars) and took 35 years.
The system was proclaimed complete in 1992, but two of the original interstates -- I - 95 and I - 70 -- are not continuous: both of these discontinuities are due to local opposition, which has blocked efforts to build the necessary connections to fully complete the system.
I - 95 is discontinuous in New Jersey because of the cancellation of the Somerset Freeway. This situation is being remedied; the Pennsylvania Turnpike / Interstate 95 Interchange Project currently under construction will connect the separate sections of I ‐ 95 to form a continuous route, completing the final section of the original plan. Construction began in 2010.
Likewise, I - 70 is discontinuous in Pennsylvania, because of the lack of a direct interchange with the Pennsylvania Turnpike at the eastern end of the concurrency near Breezewood. Traveling in either direction, I - 70 traffic must exit the freeway and use a short stretch of US 30 (which includes a number of roadside services) to rejoin I - 70. The interchange was not originally built because of a legacy federal funding rule, since relaxed, which restricted the use of federal funds to improve roads financed with tolls. Solutions have been proposed to eliminate the discontinuity, but they have been blocked by local opposition, fearing a loss of business.
The Interstate Highway system has been expanded numerous times. The expansions have both created new designations and extended existing designations. For example, I - 49, added to the system in the 1980s as a freeway in Louisiana, was designated as an expansion corridor, and FHWA approved the expanded route north from Lafayette, to Kansas City, Missouri. The freeway exists today as separate completed segments, with segments under construction or in the planning phase between them.
In 1966, the FHWA designated the entire Interstate Highway System as part of the larger Pan-American Highway System, and at least two proposed Interstate expansions were initiated to help trade with Canada and Mexico spurred by the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Long term plans for I - 69, which currently exists in several separate completed segments (the largest of which are in Indiana and Texas), is to have the highway route extend from Tamaulipas, Mexico to Ontario, Canada. The planned I - 11 will then bridge the Interstate gap between Phoenix, Arizona and Las Vegas, Nevada, and thus form part of the CANAMEX Corridor (along with I - 19, and portions of I - 10 and I - 15) between Sonora, Mexico and Alberta, Canada.
Political opposition from residents canceled many freeway projects around the United States, including:
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) has defined a set of standards that all new Interstates must meet unless a waiver from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is obtained. One almost absolute standard is the controlled access nature of the roads. With few exceptions, traffic lights (and cross traffic in general) are limited to toll booths and ramp meters (metered flow control for lane merging during rush hour).
Being freeways, Interstate Highways usually have the highest speed limits in a given area. Speed limits are determined by individual states. From 1974 to 1987, the maximum speed limit on any highway in the United States was 55 miles per hour (90 km / h), in accordance with federal law.
Typically, lower limits are established in Northeastern and coastal states, while higher speed limits are established in inland states west of the Mississippi River. For example, the maximum speed limit is 75 mph (120 km / h) in northern Maine, varies between 50 and 70 mph (80 and 115 km / h) from southern Maine to New Jersey, and is 50 mph (80 km / h) in New York City and the District of Columbia. Currently, rural speed limits elsewhere generally range from 65 to 80 miles per hour (105 to 130 km / h). Several portions of various highways such as I - 10 and I - 20 in rural western Texas, I - 80 in Nevada between Fernley and Winnemuca (except around Lovelock) and portions of I - 15, I - 80, and I - 84 in Utah have a speed limit of 80 mph (130 km / h). Other interstate highways in Idaho, Montana, South Dakota and Wyoming also have the same high speed limits.
In some areas, speed limits on Interstates can be significantly lower in areas where they traverse significantly hazardous areas. The maximum speed limit on I - 90 is 50 mph (80 km / h) in downtown Cleveland because of two sharp curves with a suggested limit of 35 mph (55 km / h) in a heavily congested area; I - 70 through Wheeling, West Virginia, has a maximum speed limit of 45 mph (70 km / h) through the Wheeling Tunnel and most of downtown Wheeling; and I - 68 has a maximum speed limit of 40 mph (65 km / h) through Cumberland, Maryland, because of multiple hazards including sharp curves and narrow lanes through the city. In some locations, low speed limits are the result of lawsuits and resident demands; after holding up the completion of I - 35E in St. Paul, Minnesota, for nearly 30 years in the courts, residents along the stretch of the freeway from the southern city limit to downtown successfully lobbied for a 45 mph (70 km / h) speed limit in addition to a prohibition on any vehicle weighing more than 9,000 pounds (4,100 kg) gross vehicle weight. I - 93 in Franconia Notch State Park in northern New Hampshire has a speed limit of 45 mph (70 km / h) because it is a parkway that consists of only one lane per side of the highway. On the other hand, Interstates 15, 80 and 84 in Utah have speed limits as high as 70 mph (115 km / h) within the Salt Lake City, Cedar City, and St George areas, and I - 25 in New Mexico within the Santa Fe and Las Vegas areas along with I - 20 in Texas along Odessa and Midland and I - 29 in North Dakota along the Grand Forks area have higher speed limits of 75 mph (120 km / h).
As one of the components of the National Highway System, Interstate Highways improve the mobility of military troops to and from airports, seaports, rail terminals, and other military bases. Interstate Highways also connect to other roads that are a part of the Strategic Highway Network, a system of roads identified as critical to the U.S. Department of Defense.
The system has also been used to facilitate evacuations in the face of hurricanes and other natural disasters. An option for maximizing traffic throughput on a highway is to reverse the flow of traffic on one side of a divider so that all lanes become outbound lanes. This procedure, known as contraflow lane reversal, has been employed several times for hurricane evacuations. After public outcry regarding the inefficiency of evacuating from southern Louisiana prior to Hurricane Georges ' landfall in September 1998, government officials looked towards contraflow to improve evacuation times. In Savannah, Georgia, and Charleston, South Carolina, in 1999, lanes of I - 16 and I - 26 were used in a contraflow configuration in anticipation of Hurricane Floyd with mixed results.
In 2004 contraflow was employed ahead of Hurricane Charley in the Tampa, Florida area and on the Gulf Coast before the landfall of Hurricane Ivan; however, evacuation times there were no better than previous evacuation operations. Engineers began to apply lessons learned from the analysis of prior contraflow operations, including limiting exits, removing troopers (to keep traffic flowing instead of having drivers stop for directions), and improving the dissemination of public information. As a result, the 2005 evacuation of New Orleans, Louisiana, prior to Hurricane Katrina ran much more smoothly.
A widespread urban legend states that one out of every five miles of the Interstate Highway System must be built straight and flat so as to be usable by aircraft during times of war. Contrary to popular lore, Interstate Highways are not designed to serve as airstrips.
The numbering scheme for the Interstate Highway System was developed in 1957 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). The association 's present numbering policy dates back to August 10, 1973. Within the continental United States, primary Interstates -- also called main line Interstates or two - digit Interstates -- are assigned numbers less than 100.
In the numbering scheme for the primary routes, east - west highways are assigned even numbers and north - south highways are assigned odd numbers. Odd route numbers increase from west to east, and even - numbered routes increase from south to north (to avoid confusion with the U.S. Highways, which increase from east to west and north to south), though there are exceptions to both principles in several locations. This numbering system usually holds true even if the local direction of the route does not match the compass directions. For example, I - 94 between Chicago and Milwaukee runs primarily north - south, but bears an east - west designation to match its overall orientation, with the "east '' label matching the local southward routing, and so on. In some cases the deviation can be drastic; for example, I - 64 runs almost exactly the wrong way in the Hampton Roads region, where sections that once were labeled "east '' running almost due west have had these labels removed due to confusion in the Norfolk, Virginia, area. While in many cases, this is due to relatively short deviations, compared to the overall routing of the highway, it is not always the case. For example, I - 26 is labeled east - west as its number suggests, but it carries a more generally north - south routing. Some states, such as Michigan on I - 69 have chosen to violate the numbering conventions by signing the route to match its local orientation rather than the normal convention. Numbers divisible by five are intended to be major arteries among the primary routes, carrying traffic long distances. Major north -- south arterial Interstates increase in number from I - 5 between Canada and Mexico along the West Coast to I ‐ 95 between Canada and Miami, Florida along the East Coast; the exception is I - 45, which does not leave the state of Texas, running from Galveston to Dallas. Major west -- east arterial Interstates increase in number from I - 10 between Santa Monica, California, and Jacksonville, Florida, to I - 90 between Seattle, Washington, and Boston, Massachusetts, with two exceptions. The exception is I - 30, which is shorter unlike the other major east - west interstates, running from Fort Worth, Texas to Little Rock, Arkansas. There is no I - 50 and I - 60, as routes with those numbers would likely pass through states that currently have U.S. Highways with the same numbers, which is not normally allowed under highway administration guidelines.
Several two - digit numbers are shared between road segments at opposite ends of the country for various reasons. Some such highways are incomplete Interstates (such as I - 69 and I - 74) and some just happen to share route designations (such as I - 76, I - 84, I ‐ 86, and I - 88). Some of these were due to a change in the numbering system as a result of a new policy adopted in 1973. Previously, letter - suffixed numbers were used for long spurs off primary routes; for example, western I ‐ 84 was I ‐ 80N, as it went north from I ‐ 80. The new policy stated, "No new divided numbers (such as I - 35W and I - 35E, etc.) shall be adopted. '' The new policy also recommended that existing divided numbers be eliminated as quickly as possible; however, an I - 35W and I - 35E still exist in the Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex in Texas, and an I - 35W and I - 35E that run through Minneapolis and Saint Paul, Minnesota, still exist. Additionally, due to Congressional requirements, three sections of I - 69 in southern Texas will be divided into I - 69W, I - 69E, and I - 69C (for Central).
AASHTO policy allows dual numbering to provide continuity between major control points. This is referred to as a concurrency or overlap. For example, I ‐ 75 and I ‐ 85 share the same roadway in Atlanta; this 7.4 - mile (11.9 km) section, called the Downtown Connector, is labeled both I ‐ 75 and I ‐ 85. Concurrencies between Interstate and U.S. Route numbers are also allowed in accordance with AASHTO policy, as long as the length of the concurrency is reasonable. In rare instances, two highway designations sharing the same roadway are signed as traveling in opposite directions; one such wrong - way concurrency is found between Wytheville and Fort Chiswell, Virginia, where I ‐ 81 north and I ‐ 77 south are equivalent (with that section of road traveling almost due east), as are I ‐ 81 south and I ‐ 77 north.
Auxiliary Interstate Highways are circumferential, radial, or spur highways that principally serve urban areas. These types of Interstate Highways are given three - digit route numbers, which consist of a single digit prefixed to the two - digit number of its parent Interstate Highway. Spur routes deviate from their parent and do not return; these are given an odd first digit. Circumferential and radial loop routes return to the parent, and are given an even first digit. Unlike primary Interstates, three - digit Interstates are signed as either east -- west or north -- south, depending on the general orientation of the route, without regard to the route number. For instance, I - 190 in Massachusetts is labeled north -- south, while I - 195 in New Jersey is labeled east -- west. Some looped Interstate routes use inner -- outer directions instead of compass directions, when the use of compass directions would create ambiguity. Due to the large number of these routes, auxiliary route numbers may be repeated in different states along the mainline. Some auxiliary highways do not follow these guidelines, however.
The Interstate Highway System also extends to Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico, even though they have no direct land connections to any other states or territories. However, their residents still pay federal fuel and tire taxes.
The Interstates in Hawaii, all located on the most populous island of Oahu, carry the prefix H. There are three one - digit routes in the state (H - 1, H - 2, and H - 3) and one auxiliary route (H - 201). These Interstates connect several military and naval bases together, as well as the important cities and towns spread across Oahu, and especially the metropolis of Honolulu.
Both Alaska and Puerto Rico also have public highways that receive 90 percent of their funding from the Interstate Highway program. The Interstates of Alaska and Puerto Rico are numbered sequentially in order of funding without regard to the rules on odd and even numbers. They also carry the prefixes A and PR, respectively. However, these highways are signed according to their local designations, not their Interstate Highway numbers. Furthermore, these routes were neither planned according to nor constructed to the official Interstate Highway standards.
On one - or two - digit Interstates, the mile marker numbering almost always begins at the southern or western state line. If an Interstate originates within a state, the numbering begins from the location where the road begins in the south or west. Exceptions exist for Interstate Highways that used segments of roadway that were built prior to Interstate Highway standards being formalized and were grandfathered into the system.
Three - digit Interstates with an even first number that form a complete circumferential (circle) bypass around a city feature mile markers that are numbered in a clockwise direction, beginning just west of an Interstate that bisects the circumferential route near a south polar location. In other words, mile marker 1 on I - 465, a 53 - mile (85 km) route around Indianapolis, is just west of its junction with I - 65 on the south side of Indianapolis (on the south leg of I - 465), and mile marker 53 is just east of this same junction. An exception is I - 495 in the Washington, D.C. Metropolitan Area, with mileposts increasing counterclockwise because part of that road is also part of I - 95.
The exit numbers of interchanges are either sequential or distance - based so that the exit number is the same as the nearest mile marker. Under the latter system, a single mile with multiple exits may be assigned letter suffixes, for example on I ‐ 890 in New York.
AASHTO defines a category of special routes separate from primary and auxiliary Interstate designations. These routes do not have to comply to Interstate construction standards but are routes that may be identified and approved by the association. The same route marking policy applies to both US Numbered Highways and Interstate Highways; however, business route designations are sometimes used for Interstate Highways. Known as Business Loops and Business Spurs, these routes principally travel through the corporate limits of a city, passing through the central business district when the regular route is directed around the city. They also use a green shield instead of the red and blue shield.
Interstate highways and their rights of way are owned by the state in which they were built. The last federally owned portion of the Interstate System was the Woodrow Wilson Bridge on the Washington DC Capital Beltway. The new bridge was completed in 2009 and is collectively owned by Virginia and Maryland. Maintenance is generally the responsibility of the state department of transportation. However, there are some segments of Interstate owned and maintained by local authorities.
About 70 percent of the construction and maintenance costs of Interstate Highways in the United States have been paid through user fees, primarily the fuel taxes collected by the federal, state, and local governments. To a much lesser extent they have been paid for by tolls collected on toll highways and bridges. The Highway Trust Fund, established by the Highway Revenue Act in 1956, prescribed a three - cent - per - gallon fuel tax, soon increased to 4.5 cents per gallon. Since 1993 the tax has remained at 18.4 cents per gallon.
The rest of the costs of these highways are borne by general fund receipts, bond issues, designated property taxes, and other taxes. The federal contribution comes overwhelmingly from motor vehicle and fuel taxes (93.5 percent in 2007), and it makes up about 60 percent of the contributions by the states. However, any local government contributions are overwhelmingly from sources besides user fees. The portion of the user fees spent on highways themselves covers about 57 percent of their costs, with about one - sixth of the user fees being sent to other programs, including the mass transit systems in large cities. Some large sections of Interstate Highways that were planned or constructed before 1956 are still operated as toll roads. Others have had their construction bonds paid off and they have become toll - free, such as in Connecticut (I ‐ 95), Maryland (I ‐ 95), Virginia (I ‐ 95), and Kentucky (I ‐ 65).
As American suburbs have expanded, the costs incurred in maintaining freeway infrastructure have also grown, leaving little in the way of funds for new Interstate construction. This has led to the proliferation of toll roads (turnpikes) as the new method of building limited - access highways in suburban areas. Some Interstates are privately maintained (for example, the VMS company maintains I ‐ 35 in Texas) to meet rising costs of maintenance and allow state departments of transportation to focus on serving the fastest - growing regions in their states.
Parts of the Interstate System might have to be tolled in the future to meet maintenance and expansion demands, as has been done with adding toll HOV / HOT lanes in cities such as Atlanta, Dallas, and Los Angeles. Although part of the tolling is an effect of the SAFETEA ‐ LU act, which has put an emphasis on toll roads as a means to reduce congestion, present federal law does not allow for a state to change a freeway section to a tolled section for all traffic.
Approximately 2,900 miles (4,700 km) of toll roads are included in the Interstate Highway System. While federal legislation initially banned the collection of tolls on Interstates, many of the toll roads on the system were either completed or under construction when the Interstate Highway System was established. Since these highways provided logical connections to other parts of the system, they were designated as Interstate highways. Congress also decided that it was too costly to either build toll - free Interstates parallel to these toll roads, or directly repay all the bondholders who financed these facilities and remove the tolls. Thus, these toll roads were grandfathered into the Interstate Highway System.
Toll facilities designated as Interstate highways (such as the Massachusetts Turnpike) were typically allowed to continue collecting tolls, but are generally ineligible to receive federal funds for maintenance and improvements. Some toll roads that did receive federal funds to finance emergency repairs (notably the Connecticut Turnpike (I - 95) following the Mianus River Bridge collapse) were required to remove tolls as soon as the highway 's construction bonds were paid off. In addition, these toll facilities were grandfathered from Interstate Highway standards. A notable example is the western approach to the Benjamin Franklin Bridge in Philadelphia, where I - 676 has a surface street section through a historic area.
Policies on toll facilities and Interstate Highways have since changed. The Federal Highway Administration has allowed some states to collect tolls on existing Interstate Highways, while a recent extension of I - 376 included a section of Pennsylvania Route 60 that was tolled by the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission before receiving Interstate designation. Also, newer toll facilities (like the tolled section of I - 376, which was built in the early 1990s) must conform to Interstate standards. A new addition of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices in 2009 requires a black - on - yellow "Toll '' sign to be placed above the Interstate trailblazer on Interstate Highways that collect tolls.
Legislation passed in 2005 known as SAFETEA - LU, encouraged states to construct new Interstate Highways through "innovative financing '' methods. SAFETEA - LU facilitated states to pursue innovative financing by easing the restrictions on building interstates as toll roads, either through state agencies or through public -- private partnerships. However, SAFETEA - LU left in place a prohibition of installing tolls on existing toll - free Interstates, and states wishing to toll such routes to finance upgrades and repairs must first seek approval from Congress.
Interstate Highways financed with federal funds are known as "chargeable '' Interstate routes, and are considered part of the 42,000 - mile (68,000 km) network of highways. Federal laws also allow "non-chargeable '' Interstate routes, highways funded similarly to state and U.S. Highways to be signed as Interstates, if they both meet the Interstate Highway standards and are logical additions or connections to the system. These additions fall under two categories: routes that already meet Interstate standards, and routes not yet upgraded to Interstate standards. Only routes that meet Interstate standards may be signed as Interstates once their proposed number is approved.
Interstate Highways are signed by a number placed on a trademarked red, white, and blue sign. The colors red, white, and blue are chosen because they are the colors of the American flag. In the original design, the name of the state was displayed above the highway number, but in many states, this area is now left blank, allowing for the printing of larger and more - legible digits. The sign usually measures 36 inches (91 cm) high, and is 36 inches (91 cm) wide for two - digit Interstates or 45 inches (110 cm) for three - digit Interstates.
Interstate business loops and spurs use a special shield in which the red and blue are replaced with green, the word "BUSINESS '' appears instead of "INTERSTATE '', and the word "SPUR '' or "LOOP '' usually appears above the number. The green shield is employed to mark the main route through a city 's central business district, which intersects the associated Interstate highway at one (spur) or both (loop) ends of the business route. The route usually traverses the main thoroughfare (s) of the city 's downtown area or other major business district. A city may have more than one Interstate - derived business route, depending on the number of Interstates passing through a city and the number of significant business districts therein.
Over time, the design of the Interstate shield has changed. In 1957 the Interstate shield designed by Texas Highway Department employee Richard Oliver was introduced, the winner of a contest that included 100 entries; at the time, the shield color was a dark navy blue and only 17 inches (43 cm) wide. The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) standards revised the shield in the 1961, 1971, and 1978 editions.
The majority of Interstates have exit numbers. All traffic signs and lane markings on the Interstates are supposed to be designed in compliance with the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD). There are, however, many local and regional variations in signage.
For many years, California was the only state that did not use an exit numbering system. It was granted an exemption in the 1950s due to having an already largely completed and signed highway system; placing exit number signage across the state was deemed too expensive. To control costs, California began to incorporate exit numbers on its freeways in 2002 -- Interstate, U.S., and state routes alike. Caltrans commonly installs exit number signage only when a freeway or interchange is built, reconstructed, retrofitted, or repaired, and it is usually just tacked onto the top - right corner of an already existing sign. Newer signs along the freeways follow this practice as well. Most exits along California 's Interstates now have exit number signage, particularly in rural areas. California, however, still does not use mileposts, although a few exist for experiments or for special purposes.
Exit numbers correspond to Interstate mileage markers in most states. On I ‐ 19 in Arizona, however, length is measured in kilometers instead of miles because, at the time of construction, a push for the United States to change to a metric system of measurement had gained enough traction that it was mistakenly assumed that all highway measurements would eventually be changed to metric; proximity to metric - using Mexico may also have been a factor, as I ‐ 19 indirectly connects I ‐ 10 to the Mexican Federal Highway system via surface streets in Nogales. Mileage count increases from west to east on most even - numbered Interstates; on odd - numbered Interstates mileage count increases from south to north. Some highways, including the New York State Thruway, use sequential exit - numbering schemes. Exits on the New York State Thruway count up from Yonkers traveling north, and then west from Albany.
As of November 2010, the Illinois State Tollway Authority has redone the mileage markers to be uniform with the rest of the state on I ‐ 90 (Jane Addams Memorial / Northwest Tollway) and the I ‐ 94 section of the Tri ‐ State Tollway, which previously had matched the I ‐ 294 section starting in the south at I ‐ 80 / I ‐ 94 / IL Route 394. The tollway is also currently in the process of adding exit number tabs to the exits.
Many northeastern states label exit numbers sequentially, regardless of how many miles have passed between exits. States in which Interstate exits are still numbered sequentially are Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, and Vermont; as such, five of the main Interstate highways that remain completely within these states (87, 88, 89, 91, and 93) have interchanges numbered sequentially along their entire routes. Maine, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Georgia, and Florida followed this system for a number of years, but since converted to mileage - based exit numbers. Georgia renumbered in 2000, while Maine did so in 2004. The Pennsylvania Turnpike uses both mile marker numbers and sequential numbers. Mile marker numbers are used for signage, while sequential numbers are used for numbering interchanges internally. The New Jersey Turnpike, including the portions that are signed as I ‐ 95 and I ‐ 78, also has sequential numbering, but other Interstates within New Jersey use mile markers.
I ‐ 87 in New York State is numbered in three sections. The first section makes up the Major Deegan Expressway in the Bronx, with interchanges numbered sequentially from 1 to 14. The second section of I ‐ 87 is a part of the New York State Thruway that starts in Yonkers (exit 1) and continues north to Albany (exit 24); at Albany, the Thruway turns west and becomes I ‐ 90 for exits 25 to 61. From Albany north to the Canadian border, the exits on I ‐ 87 are numbered sequentially from 1 to 44 along the Adirondack Northway. This often leads to confusion as there is more than one exit on I ‐ 87 with the same number. For example, exit 4 on Thruway section of I ‐ 87 connects with the Cross County Parkway in Yonkers, but exit 4 on the Northway is the exit for the Albany airport. These two exits share a number but are located 150 miles (240 km) apart.
There are four common signage methods on Interstates:
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the great majority of which tracts pass through the corpus callosum | Commissural fiber - wikipedia
The commissural fibers or transverse fibers are axons that connect the two hemispheres of the brain. In contrast to commissural fibers, association fibers connect regions within the same hemisphere of the brain, and projection fibers connect each region to other parts of the brain or to the spinal cord.
The commissural fibers make up tracts that include the corpus callosum, the anterior commissure, and the posterior commissure.
The corpus callosum is the largest commissural tract in the human brain. It consists of about 200 - 300 million axons that connect the two cerebral hemispheres. The corpus callosum is essential to the communication between the two hemispheres.
A recent study of individuals with agenesis of the corpus callosum suggests that the corpus callosum plays a vital role in problem solving strategies, verbal processing speed, and executive performance. Specifically, the absence of a fully developed corpus callosum is shown to have a significant relationship with impaired verbal processing speed and problem solving.
Another study of individuals with multiple sclerosis provides evidence that structural and microstructural abnormalities of the corpus callosum are related to cognitive dysfunction. Particularly, verbal and visual memory, information processing speed, and executive tasks were shown to be impaired when compared to healthy individuals. Physical disabilities in multiple sclerosis patients also seem to be related to abnormalities of the corpus callosum, but not to the same extent of other cognitive functions.
Using diffusion tensor imaging, researchers have been able to produce a visualization of this network of fibers, which shows the corpus callosum has an anteroposterior topographical organization that is uniform with the cerebral cortex.
The anterior commissure (also known as the precommissure) is a tract that connects the two temporal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres across the midline, and placed in front of the columns of the fornix. The great majority of fibers connecting the two hemispheres travel through the corpus callosum, which is over 10 times larger than the anterior commissure, and other routes of communication pass through the hippocampal commissure or, indirectly, via subcortical connections. Nevertheless, the anterior commissure is a significant pathway that can be clearly distinguished in the brains of all mammals.
Using diffusion tensor imaging, researchers were able to approximate the location of the anterior commissure where it crosses the midline of the brain. This tract can be observed to be in the shape of a bicycle as it branches through various areas of the brain. Through diffusion tensor imaging results, the anterior commissure was categorized into two fiber systems: 1) the olfactory fibers and 2) the non-olfactory fibers.
The posterior commissure (also known as the epithalamic commissure) is a rounded nerve tract crossing the middle line on the dorsal aspect of the upper end of the cerebral aqueduct. It is important in the bilateral pupillary light reflex.
Evidence suggests the posterior commissure is a tract that plays a role in language processing between the right and left hemispheres of the brain. It connects the pretectal nuclei. A case study described recently in The Irish Medical Journal discussed the role the posterior commissure plays in the connection between the right occipital cortex and the language centers in the left hemisphere. This study explains how visual information from the left side of the visual field is received by the right visual cortex and then transferred to the word form system in the left hemisphere though the posterior commissure and the splenium. Disruption of the posterior commissure can cause alexia without agraphia. It is evident from this case study of alexia without agraphia that the posterior commissure plays a vital role in transferring information from the right occipital cortex to the language centers of the left hemisphere.
The lyra or hippocampal commissure.
Aging
Age - related decline in the commissury fiber tracts that make up the corpus callosum indicate the corpus callosum is involved in memory and executive function. Specifically, the posterior fibers of the corpus callosum are associated with episodic memory. Perceptual processing decline is also related to diminished integrity of occipital fibers of the corpus callosum. Evidence suggests that the genu of the corpus callosum does not contribute significantly to any one cognitive domain in the elderly. As fiber tract connectivity in the corpus callosum declines due to aging, compensatory mechanisms are found in other areas of the corpus callosum and frontal lobe. These compensatory mechanisms, increasing connectivity in other parts of the brain, may explain why elderly individuals still display executive function as a decline of connectivity is seen in regions of the corpus callosum.
Older adults compared to younger adults show poorer performance in balance exercises and tests. A decline in white matter integrity of the corpus callosum in older individuals may explain declines in the ability to balance. Changes in the white matter integrity of the corpus callosum may also be related to cognitive and motor function decline as well. Decreased white matter integrity effects proper transmission and processing of sensorimotor information. White matter degeneration of the genu of the corpus callosum is also associated with gait, balance impairment, and the quality of postural control.
The corpus callosum allows for communication between the two hemispheres and is found only in placental mammals (the eutherians), while it is absent in monotremes and marsupials, as well as other vertebrates such as birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish. The anterior commissure serves as the primary mode of interhemispheric communication in marsupials, and which carries all the commissural fibers arising from the neocortex (also known as the neopallium), whereas in placental mammals the anterior commissure carries only some of these fibers).
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 843 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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when was the song yes we have no bananas written | Yes! We have No Bananas - wikipedia
"Yes! We Have No Bananas '' is a novelty song by Frank Silver and Irving Cohn published July 19, 1923. It became a major hit in 1923 (placing No. 1 for five weeks) when it was recorded by Billy Jones, Billy Murray, Arthur Hall, Irving Kaufman, and others. It was recorded later by Benny Goodman and his Orchestra, Spike Jones & His City Slickers, and many more. It also inspired a follow - up song, "I 've Got the Yes! We Have No Bananas Blues '', recorded by Billy Jones, Sam Lanin (with vocals by Irving Kaufman and others in 1923.
Frank Silver explained the origin of the song to Time Magazine: "I am an American, of Jewish ancestry, with a wife and a young son. About a year ago my little orchestra was playing at a Long Island hotel. To and from the hotel I was wont to stop at a fruit stand owned by a Greek, who began every sentence with ' Yess. ' The jingle of his idiom haunted me and my friend Cohn. Finally I wrote this verse and Cohn fitted it with a tune. '' Silver may have been influenced by an actual shortage of Gros Michel bananas in the early 20th century.
The song was the theme of the outdoor relief protests in Belfast in 1932. These were a unique example of Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland protesting together, and the song was used because it was one of the few non-sectarian songs that both communities knew. The song lent its title to a book about the depression in Belfast.
The term has been resurrected on many occasions, including during rationing in the United Kingdom in World War II, when the British government banned imports of bananas for five years. Shop owners put signs stating "Yes, we have no bananas '' in their shop windows in keeping with the war spirit.
The song was the subject of a column by Sigmund Spaeth, who suggested that the melody could have been derived from a combination of parts of other songs, including the "Hallelujah Chorus '' from Messiah by Handel, "My Bonnie Lies Over The Ocean '', "I Dreamt I Dwelt in Marble Halls '', "Aunt Dinah 's Quilting Party '', and Cole Porter 's "An Old - Fashioned Garden ''.
Replacing the original lyrics with the appropriate melodic phrases, you get:
Hallelujah, Bananas! Oh, bring back my Bonnie to me I dreamt that I dwelt in marble halls -- the kind that you seldom see I was seeing Nellie home, to an old - fashioned garden: but, Hallelujah, Bananas! Oh, bring back my Bonnie to me!
Spaeth subsequently repeated his argument as an expert witness.
The song appeared in the popular Archie Comics.
The song is referenced several times in Tender is the Night by F. Scott Fitzgerald.
The song was mentioned in the film Only Angels Have Wings (1939) and played on a wind - up record player by Audrey Hepburn in Sabrina (1954).
In the musical film Luxury Liner (1948), the Pied Pipers performed the song.
In the movie Sabrina, starring Audrey Hepburn and Humphrey Bogart. The two go out boating and play the song on an old fashioned crank phonograph, as Sabrina sings along (1954).
A German version, "Ausgerechnet Bananen '', was featured in Billy Wilder 's slapstick comedy One, Two, Three (1961), played by an over-the - hill dance band at a drab East Berlin hotel bar.
The song was used as a leitmotif in The Comic (1969), often to underscore serious moments in the life of the film 's protagonist (played by Dick Van Dyke).
In The English Patient (1996), a few verses are sung as a joke.
In the Mel Brooks film Dracula: Dead and Loving It (1995), comic homage is paid to the song when Harvey Korman responds to a question from Mel Brooks saying, "Yes, we have Nosferatu! We have Nosferatu today! ''
A snippet is also sung by Craig Sheffer 's character in A River Runs Through It (1992).
In concerts in the 1970s, Harry Chapin used the title line of this song as part of a comedic alternative ending to his song "30,000 Pounds of Bananas ''.
Brazilian composers Braguinha and Alberto Ribeiro wrote in 1938 an answer for the song called "Yes, nós temos bananas '' (Yes, we do have bananas) first recorded by the singer and composer Almirante.
The song was often used by singer and comedian Jimmy Durante on The Jimmy Durante Show in the 1950s and 1960s.
The song was parodied more than once on The Muppet Show, sung by various anthropomorphic fruits and vegetables and at one point The Swedish Chef.
In The Simpsons episode "Bart 's Girlfriend '' (November 6, 1994), Homer briefly sings, and then laments, the song.
In The Brady Bunch episode "Never Too Young '', Greg, Marcia and Jan are looking through a record collection as they prep for a Roaring Twenties party. Jan reads the title of the record, finding it groovy and far out. She remarks, "Today that sounds more like a group instead of a song ''.
The Cleveland Show referenced the song, on the Season 1 episode, "Gone With The Wind ''.
In the 1994 Iron Man cartoon, Hawkeye references the song while making fun of alien character Century, who apparently comes from a planet where everything said in a song is true.
More recently, the phrase was used in 2006, when Cyclone Larry destroyed a large portion of Australia 's banana crop, leading to a shortage for most of the year.
New York Times ran an article in 2008 (Open Editorial), with the Title "Yes, We Will have no Banana '', and the outcome of fungal diseases afflicting the Cavendish Banana.
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relative to a surrounding hypertonic solution the contents of a red blood cell is | Tonicity - wikipedia
Tonicity is a measure of the effective osmotic pressure gradient, as defined by the water potential of two solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane. In other words, tonicity is the relative concentration of solutes dissolved in solution which determine the direction and extent of diffusion. It is commonly used when describing the response of cells immersed in an external solution.
Unlike osmotic pressure, tonicity is influenced only by solutes that can not cross the membrane, as only these exert an effective osmotic pressure. Solutes able to freely cross the membrane do not affect tonicity because they will always be in equal concentrations on both sides of the membrane. It is also a factor affecting imbibition.
There are three classifications of tonicity that one solution can have relative to another: hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic.
A hypertonic solution has a greater concentration of solutes than another solution. In biology, the tonicity of a solution usually refers to its solute concentration relative to that of another solution on the opposite side of a cell membrane; a solution outside of a cell is called hypertonic if it has a greater concentration of solutes than the cytosol inside the cell. When a cell is immersed in a hypertonic solution, osmotic pressure tends to force water to flow out of the cell in order to balance the concentrations of the solutes on either side of the cell membrane. The cytosol is conversely categorized as hypotonic, opposite of the outer solution.
When plant cells are in a hypertonic solution, the flexible cell membrane pulls away from the rigid cell wall, but remains joined to the cell wall at points called plasmodesmata. The cells often take on the appearance of a pincushion, and the plasmodesmata almost cease to function because they become constricted, a condition known as plasmolysis. In plant cells the terms isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic can not strictly be used accurately because the pressure exerted by the cell wall significantly affects the osmotic equilibrium point.
Some organisms have evolved intricate methods of circumventing hypertonicity. For example, saltwater is hypertonic to the fish that live in it. Because the fish need a large surface area in their gills in contact with seawater for gas exchange, they lose water osmotically to the sea from gill cells. They respond to the loss by drinking large amounts of saltwater, and actively excreting the excess salt. This process is called osmoregulation.
A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes than another solution. In biology, a solution outside of a cell is called hypotonic if it has a lower concentration of solutes relative to the cytosol. Due to osmotic pressure, water diffuses into the cell, and the cell often appears turgid, or bloated. For cells without a cell wall such as animal cells, if the gradient is large enough, the uptake of excess water can produce enough pressure to induce cytolysis, or rupturing of the cell. When plant cells are in a hypotonic solution, the central vacuole takes on extra water and pushes the cell membrane against the cell wall. Due to the rigidity of the cell wall, it pushes back, preventing the cell from bursting. This is called turgor pressure.
A solution is isotonic when its effective osmole concentration is the same as that of another solution. In biology, the solutions on either side of a cell membrane are isotonic if the concentration of solutes outside the cell is equal to the concentration of solutes inside the cell. In this case the cell neither swells nor shrinks because there is no concentration gradient to induce the diffusion of large amounts of water across the cell membrane. Water molecules freely diffuse through the plasma membrane in both directions, and as the rate of water diffusion is the same in each direction, the cell will neither gain nor lose water.
An iso - osmolar solution can be hypotonic if the solute is able to penetrate the cell membrane. For example, an iso - osmolar urea solution is hypotonic to red blood cells, causing their lysis. This is due to urea entering the cell down its concentration gradient, followed by water. The osmolarity of normal saline, 9 grams NaCl dissolved in water to a total volume of one liter, is a close approximation to the osmolarity of NaCl in blood (about 290 mOsm / L). Thus, normal saline is almost isotonic to blood plasma. Neither sodium nor chloride ions can freely pass through the plasma membrane, unlike urea.
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who owns worlds of fun in kansas city | Worlds of Fun - wikipedia
Worlds of Fun is a 235 - acre amusement park in Kansas City, Missouri, United States. The park opened in 1973 and is owned and operated by Cedar Fair, which purchased the park from Hunt - Midwest in 1995. Admission to Worlds of Fun includes access to Oceans of Fun, a water park adjacent to the amusement park.
Worlds of Fun opened on May 26, 1973, at a cost of $10 million. It is situated at the northern edge of a vast industrial complex in the bluffs above the Missouri River in Clay County, Missouri. At the time of its opening, numerous modernization projects across Kansas City were in progress including the opening of Kansas City International Airport, Kemper Arena (now called Hy - Vee Arena) and the Truman Sports Complex. Mid-America Enterprises, seeking to capitalize on the citywide expansion movement, began construction on a new amusement park in 1969. The park was originally planned to complement a 500 - acre (2.0 km) hotel and entertainment complex, but a lagging economy during the park 's early years derailed the idea.
In 1974, the first addition to Worlds of Fun was the 4000 - seat Forum Amphitheater opened in the Europa section of the park. In 1976, a new section opened in honor of the United States Bicentennial -- the 200th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence -- and was named Bicentennial Square. The new section included the debut of Screamroller from Arrow Dynamics, which was a replica of the first modern - looping roller coaster, Corkscrew, that opened a year earlier at Knott 's Berry Farm.
In 1982, Oceans of Fun opened next door as the largest water park in the world. Also the same year, a sub-world "River City '' was opened in Americana bordering the Orient section. Screamroller was transformed into Extremeroller the following year, which featured stand - up trains instead of the original sit - down models making it the first looping, stand - up roller coaster in North America. Several years later in 1989, Worlds of Fun ended the decade with the addition of Timber Wolf, a wooden roller coaster that initially ranked high in several national polls.
Cedar Fair LP purchased Worlds of Fun in 1995. The new owners invested $10 million with the addition of Mamba, a D.H. Morgan Manufacturing steel hypercoaster, to the park 's attraction lineup in 1998.
The park takes its theme from the Jules Verne book, Around the World in Eighty Days. Worlds of Fun is divided into five major sections (Scandinavia, Africa, Europa, the Orient, and Americana). Rides, attractions, shops, shows, and restaurants are named according to the area theme. Guests enter the park in Scandinavia. In 1997 the Americana "main entrance '' was closed for the creation of Grand Prix, so the "back gate '' became the "main gate '' ever since. The next world to the left is Africa, continuing in a clockwise roation, guest would then enter the Americana section, followed by the Orient. The Europa section is located in the approximate center of the circle.
Within Americana, lies the sub-section of Planet Snoopy (the area of the park specifically for young children). Originally added in 1978 as an expansion of Americana, over the years the grounds have changed its identity several times. Initially it was called "Aerodrome '' (1978 -- 86) with futuristic rides for adults, it then became a children 's area called "Pandamonium! '' (1987 -- 97), then "Berenstain Bear Country '' (1997 -- 2000), and "Camp Snoopy '' (2001 -- 2010), and is currently "Planet Snoopy '', new to the 2011 season. Past sub-sections have also included Bicentennial Square, River City, and Beat Street, which all have been absorbed back into Americana.
Despite the lack of an Australian / Oceanic section, the Australian - themed Boomerang roller coaster is incorporated into Africa.
Past Roller Coasters
Flat Rides / Attractions
Oceans of Fun is Worlds of Fun 's water park. It opened in 1982 as the world 's largest water park. It is included with admission to Worlds of Fun, beginning in the 2013 season.
Fast Lane is Worlds of Fun 's new ' two line ' system for 2012. For a cost between $30 and $50 (in addition to normal admission charges), visitors receive a wrist band that enables them to bypass the ' normal - wait ' line and enter the ' Fast Lane ' to significantly reduce their wait time.
During Halloween Haunt, a similar system named ' Fright Lane ' is sold. Essentially the same purpose as Fast Lane, it significantly reduces wait time of select haunted attractions. ' Fright Lane + ' includes a ' Skeleton Key ', a key that grants you special access to secret, intense rooms in six of the eight haunted houses. In addition, you receive special seating for Ed Alonzo 's Psycho Circus of Magic and Mayhem. ' Fright Lane Max ' is a VIP system that allows you special seating at Overlord 's Awakening, a meal, limited edition Haunt T - shirts, plus all perks listed above.
In 2005 Worlds of Fun opened the first on - site resort. The campground is adjacent to the park, and is located "behind '' Mamba. The Village has 22 cabins and 20 cottages and 82 sites for RVs, complete with electric and TV cable hook ups. Each cabin or cottage can fit 6 -- 8 people.
"Snoopy 's Hot Summer Lights '' which debuted in 2010 was an immersive light and sound experience starring the Peanuts characters. Snoopy 's Hot Summer Lights features over 2 million LED lights and a variety of audio soundtracks through the Africa and Europa sections of the park. Along the walkway there were replicas of Snoopy and other characters for guests to view. Snoopy 's Hot Summer Lights was a one million dollar investment that used special effects and sound design, custom designed for Worlds of Fun by Emmy Award - Winning RWS and Associates. Snoopy 's Hot Summer Lights opened for its original run on June 4 and ran through September 5, 2010.
Halloween Haunt is a Halloween event that takes place during the Halloween season. It is included in the price of admission.
As of 2018, it features 12 Extreme Haunts, including eight mazes and four scare zones, along with three spectacular shows.
Cole Lindbergh, former manager of the park 's games department, was featured in a 2011 episode of Public Radio International 's This American Life, "Amusement Park. '' In the nine - minute prologue, host Ira Glass interviews Lindbergh about his management philosophy and plays segments from several YouTube videos he made to promote the park 's games.
Finnish Fling and Octopus rides.
Le Taxi Tour 's line queue in Europa.
Le Taxi Tour in action.
The Sea Dragon in Scandinavia
The Flying Dutchman is reported to be founder Lamar Hunt 's favorite ride.
Zulu at night
Thunderhawk
The Skyliner Ferris wheel at Worlds of Fun.
Nighttime at Worlds of Fun.
Boomerang 's full profile
Prowler 's main drop.
Prowler 's queue line.
Mamba and Timber Wolf.
Coaster 's Diner near Mamba.
Prowler 's train ascending the lift hill.
Fury of the Nile in action.
Fury of the Nile 's signature turnstile dock.
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who decides where the water in the colorado river system goes | Colorado River compact - wikipedia
The Colorado River Compact is a 1922 agreement among seven U.S. states in the basin of the Colorado River in the American Southwest governing the allocation of the water rights to the river 's water among the parties of the interstate compact. The agreement was signed at a meeting at Bishop 's Lodge, near Santa Fe, New Mexico, by representatives of the seven states the Colorado river and its tributaries pass through on the way to Mexico.
The Colorado River is managed and operated under numerous compacts, federal laws, court decisions and decrees, contracts, and regulatory guidelines collectively known as "The Law of the River. ''
The compact divides the river basin into two areas, the Upper Division (comprising Colorado, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming) and the Lower Division (Nevada, Arizona and California). The compact requires the Upper Basin states not to deplete the flow of the river below 7,500,000 acre feet (9.3 km) during any period of ten consecutive years. Based on rainfall patterns observed in the years before the treaty 's signing in 1922, the amount specified in the compact was assumed to allow a roughly equal division of water between the two regions. The states within each basin were required to divide their 7,500,000 - acre (30,000 km) foot per year (289 m3 / s) share allotment among themselves. The compact enabled the widespread irrigation of the Southwest, as well as the subsequent development of state and federal water works projects under the United States Bureau of Reclamation. Such projects included the Hoover Dam and Lake Powell.
The current specific annual allotments in the Lower Basin were established in 1928 as part of the Boulder Canyon Project, while the current specific annual allotments in the Upper Basin were established by the Upper Colorado River Basin Compact of 1948. They are:
In addition to this, 1,500,000 - acre - foot (1.9 × 10 m) / year of Colorado River water is allocated to Mexico, pursuant to the treaty relating to the use of waters of the Colorado and Tijuana rivers and of the Rio Grande, signed February 3, 1944, and its supplementary protocol signed November 14, 1944. Also, the lower basin can get an additional 1,100,000 - acre - foot (1.4 × 10 m) / year in surplus conditions.
The compact was the fruit of several years of negotiations among the states. The seven states had previously formed the League of the Southwest in 1917 to promote development along the river. In 1921, Congress authorized the states to enter into a compact for allocation of the river resources. The agreement was approved by Congress in 1922, the same year it was signed. Colorado River Compact was signed by the delegates from the seven Colorado River Basin states: Wyoming, Colorado, Utah and New Mexico were designated Upper Basin states and California, Arizona and Nevada as the Lower Basin states. This compact determined that the water would be shared equally among the upper and lower basin states. Prior to the compact, the name of the river was standardized along its length. Previously the portion of the river upstream from its confluence with the Green River had been known locally as the "Grand River ''. The change was opposed by many local residents in Utah and Colorado, and the new name was enforced locally by acts of the state legislatures in both states in the early 1920s. One of the major concerns both today and back in the 1920s was the expanding population, and this increased the demand for water, particularly in California. In more recent years, mainly because of Las Vegas, Nevada has been looking for more use of the Colorado River.
In 1934, Arizona, unhappy with California 's decision to dam and divert the river, called out the National Guard and even commissioned a two boat "navy. '' The matter was eventually settled in court.
The agreement was controversial even at the time, however. Arizona, for example, was dissatisfied with the lower basin allotment. Led by Fred Colter, the state refused to sign the agreement, and did not do so until two months after Colter 's death in 1944. The specific allotments were disputed by Arizona until the United States Supreme Court upheld the amount in the 1963 decision in Arizona v. California. The agreement ended many years of dispute, clearing the way for the Central Arizona Project, authorized by Congress in 1968. Mexico was able to gain some of the river rights, Arizona took steps to protect its water rights and keep from California gaining too large of a share, which ultimately led to the Arizona v. California supreme Court Case. The Arizona v. Colorado court case lasted 11 years and cost over $5 million and 50 lawyers. This case set the precedent of SCOTus using water rights. The case ultimately decided that the Boulder Canyon Provision was correct for the lower states (which are California, Nevada, and Arizona). The Court ultimately ruled in favor of Arizona, however they agreed with the way that California interpreted that it got surplus water was correct and so there was essentially some compromise on both sides.
Since the development of the Colorado River Compact, California has been using the surplus water that has been left over from other states. With increasing population growth in the Southwest there is concern that this surplus soon will not exist for California 's use. In 2001, Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt signed an interim agreement, determining how water surplus from the Colorado River will be allocated between the states, and creating a fifteen - year period to allow California time to put conservation methods in place to reduce the state 's water usage and dependence on Colorado River water.
There is also concern regarding Nevada 's increasing population and the state 's water usage. Nevada, with the smallest water allocation in the lower river basin, may find in the near future that the water supplied by the Colorado River will not meet the state 's growing needs. In 2008 Southern Nevada Water Authority General Manager Pat Mulroy said that she does not support a water reallocation. This is because all of the states in the river basin have experienced growth she says that it is unlikely that Nevada 's allocation would increase, and it could even decrease. Instead Nevada, like California, may have to work on conservation methods as well as finding other water sources to support the state 's growing population.
Development was the prime concern of the Colorado River Compact, when signed in 1922. Using and reusing the river water as well as frequent damming results in an unfavorable environment for native fish species. Dams block fish passage, reduce natural silt deposition along flood plains and in deltas, and change water temperatures -- all negatively impacting the natural ecosystem. (14) The high water usage has also caused the river delta, located in Mexico, to significantly deteriorate. Once a lush and green area from the high amounts of silt deposit, the plentiful ecosystem has now all but disappeared. The Colorado River had been over allocated since the beginning of its time, as during the during the signing of the Colorado River Compact, the flows were vastly overestimated and much more generous than they should have been. It was originally estimated to have 17 million acre - feet a year, but even prior to the drought flows have often been less than a third of that.
In recent years, the compact has become the focus of even sharper criticism, in the wake of a protracted decrease in precipitation in the region. Specifically, the amount of water allocated was based on an expectation that the river 's average flow was 16,400,000 acre feet (20.2 km) per year (641 m3 / s). Subsequent tree ring studies, however, have concluded that the long - term average water flow of the Colorado is significantly less. Estimates have included 13,200,000 acre feet (16.3 km) per year (516 m3 / s), 13,500,000 acre feet (16.7 km) per year (528 m / s), and 14,300,000 acre feet (17.6 km) per year (559 m / s). Many analysts have concluded that when the compact was negotiated, the period used as the basis for "average '' flow of the river (1905 -- 1922) included periods of abnormally high precipitation, and that the recent drought in the region is in fact a return to historically typical patterns. The decrease in precipitation has led to widespread dropping of reservoir levels in the region, in particular at Lake Powell, created by the Glen Canyon Dam in 1963, where the exposure of long - inundated canyons has prompted calls for the reservoir to be permanently drained and decommissioned.
In December 2007, a set of interim guidelines on how to allocate Colorado River water in the event of shortages was signed by the Secretary of the Interior. The guidelines are described as interim because they extend through 2026, and, "acknowledging the potential for impacts due to climate change and increased hydrologic variability, '' interim guidelines provide "the opportunity to gain valuable operating experience for the management of Lake Powell and Lake Mead, particularly for low reservoir conditions... whether during the interim period or thereafter. '' The agreement specifies three levels of shortage conditions, depending on the level of Lake Mead:
On August 15, 2008, Arizona Senator John McCain called for the compact to be renegotiated. Due to the Senator 's position as the Republican Party nominee in the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election and Colorado 's swing state status, criticism of the compact may have gained national significance.
Minute 319. On November 20, 2012, the International Boundary and Water Commission of the United States and Mexico signed an agreement termed "Minute 319, '' which updated the Law of the River to address how the 1,500,000 acre feet (1.9 km) of Colorado River water that Mexico receives every year would be affected by surplus or drought conditions. Under surplus conditions (when the surface elevation of Lake Mead is above 1,145 feet (349 m) relative to mean sea level) the annual flow to Mexico will increase by 40,000 acre feet (0.049 km). In cases where the surface elevation of Lake Mead is higher than that, the extra deliveries to Mexico progressively increase, reaching a maximum of an additional 200,000 acre feet (0.25 km) per year.
Minute 319 also specifies that deliveries to Mexico will be reduced under drought conditions. Starting from the base allocation of 1,500,000 acre feet (1.9 km) per year, annual deliveries will be reduced by 50,000 acre feet (0.062 km) if the surface elevation of Lake Mead is between 1,075 feet (328 m) and 1,050 feet (320 m) above mean sea level; reduced by 70,000 acre feet (0.086 km) acre - feet if the elevation is 1,050 feet (320 m) to 1,025 feet (312 m); and reduced by 125,000 acre feet (0.154 km) if the surface elevation is below 1,025 feet (312 m).
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all of the following had colonies in west africa by 1900 except | Scramble for Africa - wikipedia
The Scramble for Africa was the occupation, division, and colonisation of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the Partition of Africa and by some the Conquest of Africa. In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under European control; by 1914 it had increased to almost 90 percent of the continent, with only Ethiopia (Abyssinia), the Dervish state (a portion of present - day Somalia) and Liberia still being independent.
The Berlin Conference of 1884, which regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa, is usually referred to as the starting point of the scramble for Africa. Consequent to the political and economic rivalries among the European empires in the last quarter of the 19th century, the partitioning, or splitting up of Africa was how the Europeans avoided warring amongst themselves over Africa. The later years of the 19th century saw the transition from "informal imperialism '' (hegemony), by military influence and economic dominance, to direct rule, bringing about colonial imperialism.
The Portuguese established the first firm post-Middle Ages European settlements, trade posts, permanent fortifications and ports of call along the coast of the African continent, from the beginning of the Age of Discovery during the 15th century. But Europeans showed comparatively little interest in (and less knowledge of) the interior for some two centuries thereafter.
European exploration of the African interior began in earnest at the end of the 18th century. By 1835, Europeans had mapped most of northwestern Africa. In the middle decades of the 19th century, famous European explorers included David Livingstone and H.M. Stanley, each of whom mapped vast areas of Southern Africa and Central Africa. Arduous expeditions in the 1850s and 1860s by Richard Burton, John Speke and James Grant located the great central lakes and the source of the Nile. By the end of the 19th century Europeans had charted the Nile from its source, traced the courses of the Niger, Congo and Zambezi Rivers, and realised the vast resources of Africa.
Even as late as the 1870s, European states still controlled only ten percent of the African continent, with all their territories located near the coast. The most important holdings were Angola and Mozambique, held by Portugal; the Cape Colony, held by the United Kingdom; and Algeria, held by France. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent of European control.
Technological advances facilitated European expansion overseas. Industrialisation brought about rapid advancements in transportation and communication, especially in the forms of steam navigation, railways and telegraphs. Medical advances also played an important role, especially medicines for tropical diseases. The development of quinine, an effective treatment for malaria, made vast expanses of the tropics more accessible for Europeans.
Sub-Saharan Africa, one of the last regions of the world largely untouched by "informal imperialism '', was also attractive to Europe 's ruling elites for economic, political and social reasons. During a time when Britain 's balance of trade showed a growing deficit, with shrinking and increasingly protectionist continental markets due to the Long Depression (1873 -- 96), Africa offered Britain, Germany, France, and other countries an open market that would garner them a trade surplus: a market that bought more from the colonial power than it sold overall.
In addition, surplus capital was often more profitably invested overseas, where cheap materials, limited competition, and abundant raw materials made a greater premium possible. Another inducement for imperialism arose from the demand for raw materials unavailable in Europe, especially copper, cotton, rubber, palm oil, cocoa, diamonds, tea, and tin, to which European consumers had grown accustomed and upon which European industry had grown dependent. Additionally, Britain wanted the southern and eastern coasts of Africa for stopover ports on the route to Asia and its empire in India.
However, in Africa -- excluding the area which became the Union of South Africa in 1910 -- the amount of capital investment by Europeans was relatively small, compared to other continents. Consequently, the companies involved in tropical African commerce were relatively small, apart from Cecil Rhodes 's De Beers Mining Company. Rhodes had carved out Rhodesia for himself; Léopold II of Belgium later, and with considerable brutality, exploited the Congo Free State. These events might detract from the pro-imperialist arguments of colonial lobbyists such as the Alldeutscher Verband, Francesco Crispi and Jules Ferry, who argued that sheltered overseas markets in Africa would solve the problems of low prices and over-production caused by shrinking continental markets.
John A. Hobson argued in Imperialism that this shrinking of continental markets was a key factor of the global "New Imperialism '' period.
William Easterly of New York University, however, disagrees with the link made between capitalism and imperialism, arguing that colonialism is used mostly to promote state - led development rather than "corporate '' development. He has stated that "imperialism is not so clearly linked to capitalism and the free markets... historically there has been a closer link between colonialism / imperialism and state - led approaches to development. ''
The rivalry between Britain, France, Germany, and the other European powers accounts for a large part of the colonization.
While tropical Africa was not a large zone of investment, other overseas regions were. The vast interior between Egypt and the gold and diamond - rich southern Africa had strategic value in securing the flow of overseas trade. Britain was under political pressure to secure lucrative markets against encroaching rivals in China and its eastern colonies, most notably India, Malaya, Australia and New Zealand. Thus, it was crucial to secure the key waterway between East and West -- the Suez Canal. However, a theory that Britain sought to annex East Africa during the 1880 onwards, out of geostrategic concerns connected to Egypt (especially the Suez Canal), has been challenged by historians such as John Darwin (1997) and Jonas F. Gjersø (2015).
The scramble for African territory also reflected concern for the acquisition of military and naval bases, for strategic purposes and the exercise of power. The growing navies, and new ships driven by steam power, required coaling stations and ports for maintenance. Defense bases were also needed for the protection of sea routes and communication lines, particularly of expensive and vital international waterways such as the Suez Canal.
Colonies were also seen as assets in "balance of power '' negotiations, useful as items of exchange at times of international bargaining. Colonies with large native populations were also a source of military power; Britain and France used large numbers of British Indian and North African soldiers, respectively, in many of their colonial wars (and would again be utilised in the coming World Wars). In the age of nationalism there was pressure for a nation to acquire an empire as a status symbol; the idea of "greatness '' became linked with the sense of duty underlying many nations ' strategies.
In the early 1880s, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza was exploring the Kingdom of Kongo for France, at the same time Henry Morton Stanley explored it on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, who would have it as his personal Congo Free State (see section below). France occupied Tunisia in May 1881, which may have convinced Italy to join the German - Austrian Dual Alliance in 1882, thus forming the Triple Alliance. The same year, Britain occupied Egypt (hitherto an autonomous state owing nominal fealty to the Ottoman Empire), which ruled over Sudan and parts of Chad, Eritrea, and Somalia. In 1884, Germany declared Togoland, the Cameroons and South West Africa to be under its protection; and France occupied Guinea. French West Africa (AOF) was founded in 1895, and French Equatorial Africa in 1910.
Germany was hardly a colonial power before the New Imperialism period, but would eagerly participate in this race. Fragmented in various states, Germany was only unified under Prussia 's rule after the 1866 Battle of Königgrätz and the 1870 Franco - Prussian War. A rising industrial power close on the heels of Britain, Germany began its world expansion in the 1880s. After isolating France by the Dual Alliance with Austria - Hungary and then the 1882 Triple Alliance with Italy, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck proposed the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference, which set the rules of effective control of a foreign territory. Weltpolitik (world policy) was the foreign policy adopted by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890, with the aim of transforming Germany into a global power through aggressive diplomacy, the acquisition of overseas colonies, and the development of a large navy.
Some Germans, claiming themselves of Friedrich List 's thought, advocated expansion in the Philippines and Timor; others proposed to set themselves up in Formosa (modern Taiwan), etc. At the end of the 1870s, these isolated voices began to be relayed by a real imperialist policy, backed by mercantilist thesis. In 1881, Hübbe - Schleiden, a lawyer, published Deutsche Kolonisation, according to which the "development of national consciousness demanded an independent overseas policy ''. Pan-Germanism was thus linked to the young nation 's imperialist drives. In the beginning of the 1880s, the Deutscher Kolonialverein was created, and got its own magazine in 1884, the Kolonialzeitung. This colonial lobby was also relayed by the nationalist Alldeutscher Verband. Generally, Bismarck was opposed to widespread German colonialism, but he had to resign at the insistence of the new German Emperor Wilhelm II on 18 March 1890. Wilhelm II instead adopted a very aggressive policy of colonisation and colonial expansion.
Germany 's expansionism would lead to the Tirpitz Plan, implemented by Admiral von Tirpitz, who would also champion the various Fleet Acts starting in 1898, thus engaging in an arms race with Britain. By 1914, they had given Germany the second - largest naval force in the world (roughly three - fifths the size of the Royal Navy). According to von Tirpitz, this aggressive naval policy was supported by the National Liberal Party rather than by the conservatives, implying that imperialism was supported by the rising middle classes.
Germany became the third - largest colonial power in Africa. Nearly all of its overall empire of 2.6 million square kilometres and 14 million colonial subjects in 1914 was found in its African possessions of Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika. Following the 1904 Entente cordiale between France and the British Empire, Germany tried to isolate France in 1905 with the First Moroccan Crisis. This led to the 1905 Algeciras Conference, in which France 's influence on Morocco was compensated by the exchange of other territories, and then to the Agadir Crisis in 1911. Along with the 1898 Fashoda Incident between France and Britain, this succession of international crises reveals the bitterness of the struggle between the various imperialist nations, which ultimately led to World War I.
Italy took possession of parts of Eritrea in 1870 and 1882. Following its defeat in the First Italo -- Ethiopian War (1895 -- 1896), it acquired Italian Somaliland in 1889 -- 90 and the whole of Eritrea (1899). In 1911, it engaged in a war with the Ottoman Empire, in which it acquired Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (modern Libya). In 1919 Enrico Corradini -- who fully supported the war, and later merged his group in the early fascist party (PNF) -- developed the concept of Proletarian Nationalism, supposed to legitimise Italy 's imperialism by a mixture of socialism with nationalism:
We must start by recognizing the fact that there are proletarian nations as well as proletarian classes; that is to say, there are nations whose living conditions are subject... to the way of life of other nations, just as classes are. Once this is realised, nationalism must insist firmly on this truth: Italy is, materially and morally, a proletarian nation.
The Second Italo - Abyssinian War (1935 -- 36), ordered by the Fascist Benito Mussolini, would actually be one of the last colonial wars (that is, intended to colonise a foreign country, as opposed to wars of national liberation), occupying Ethiopia -- which had remained the last independent African territory, apart from Liberia.
David Livingstone 's explorations, carried on by Henry Morton Stanley, excited imaginations with Stanley 's grandiose ideas for colonisation; but these found little support owing to the problems and scale of action required, except from Léopold II of Belgium, who in 1876 had organised the International African Association (the Congo Society). From 1869 to 1874, Stanley was secretly sent by Léopold II to the Congo region, where he made treaties with several African chiefs along the Congo River and by 1882 had sufficient territory to form the basis of the Congo Free State. Léopold II personally owned the colony from 1885 and used it as a source of ivory and rubber.
While Stanley was exploring Congo on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, the Franco - Italian marine officer Pierre de Brazza travelled into the western Congo basin and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in 1881, thus occupying today 's Republic of the Congo. Portugal, which also claimed the area due to old treaties with the native Kongo Empire, made a treaty with Britain on 26 February 1884 to block off the Congo Society 's access to the Atlantic.
By 1890 the Congo Free State had consolidated its control of its territory between Leopoldville and Stanleyville, and was looking to push south down the Lualaba River from Stanleyville. At the same time, the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes was expanding north from the Limpopo River, sending the Pioneer Column (guided by Frederick Selous) through Matabeleland, and starting a colony in Mashonaland.
To the west, in the land where their expansions would meet, was Katanga, site of the Yeke Kingdom of Msiri. Msiri was the most militarily powerful ruler in the area, and traded large quantities of copper, ivory and slaves -- and rumors of gold reached European ears. The scramble for Katanga was a prime example of the period. Rhodes and the BSAC sent two expeditions to Msiri in 1890 led by Alfred Sharpe, who was rebuffed, and Joseph Thomson, who failed to reach Katanga. Leopold sent four CFS expeditions. First, the Le Marinel Expedition could only extract a vaguely worded letter. The Delcommune Expedition was rebuffed. The well - armed Stairs Expedition was given orders to take Katanga with or without Msiri 's consent. Msiri refused, was shot, and the expedition cut off his head and stuck it on a pole as a "barbaric lesson '' to the people. The Bia Expedition finished the job of establishing an administration of sorts and a "police presence '' in Katanga.
Thus, the half million square kilometers of Katanga came into Leopold 's possession and brought his African realm up to 2,300,000 square kilometres (890,000 sq mi), about 75 times larger than Belgium. The Congo Free State imposed such a terror regime on the colonised people, including mass killings and forced labour, that Belgium, under pressure from the Congo Reform Association, ended Leopold II 's rule and annexed it in 1908 as a colony of Belgium, known as the Belgian Congo.
The brutality of King Leopold II of Belgium in his former colony of the Congo Free State, now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, was well documented; up to 8 million of the estimated 16 million native inhabitants died between 1885 and 1908. According to the former British diplomat Roger Casement, this depopulation had four main causes: "indiscriminate war '', starvation, reduction of births and diseases. Sleeping sickness ravaged the country and must also be taken into account for the dramatic decrease in population; it has been estimated that sleeping sickness and smallpox killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River.
Estimates of the total death toll vary considerably. As the first census did not take place until 1924, it is difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. Casement 's report set it at three million. William Rubinstein wrote: "More basically, it appears almost certain that the population figures given by Hochschild are inaccurate. There is, of course, no way of ascertaining the population of the Congo before the twentieth century, and estimates like 20 million are purely guesses. Most of the interior of the Congo was literally unexplored if not inaccessible. '' See Congo Free State for further details including numbers of victims.
A similar situation occurred in the neighbouring French Congo. Most of the resource extraction was run by concession companies, whose brutal methods, along with the introduction of disease, resulted in the loss of up to 50 percent of the indigenous population. The French government appointed a commission, headed by de Brazza, in 1905 to investigate the rumoured abuses in the colony. However, de Brazza died on the return trip, and his "searingly critical '' report was neither acted upon nor released to the public. In the 1920s, about 20,000 forced labourers died building a railroad through the French territory.
French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps had obtained many concessions from Isma'il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan, in 1854 -- 56, to build the Suez Canal. Some sources estimate the workforce at 30,000, but others estimate that 120,000 workers died over the ten years of construction due to malnutrition, fatigue and disease, especially cholera. Shortly before its completion in 1869, Khedive Isma'il borrowed enormous sums from British and French bankers at high rates of interest. By 1875, he was facing financial difficulties and was forced to sell his block of shares in the Suez Canal. The shares were snapped up by Britain, under its Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli, who sought to give his country practical control in the management of this strategic waterway. When Isma'il repudiated Egypt 's foreign debt in 1879, Britain and France seized joint financial control over the country, forcing the Egyptian ruler to abdicate, and installing his eldest son Tewfik Pasha in his place. The Egyptian and Sudanese ruling classes did not relish foreign intervention.
During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces. In 1881, the Mahdist revolt erupted in Sudan under Muhammad Ahmad, severing Tewfik 's authority in Sudan. The same year, Tewfik suffered an even more perilous rebellion by his own Egyptian army in the form of the Urabi Revolt. In 1882, Tewfik appealed for direct British military assistance, commencing Britain 's administration of Egypt. A joint British - Egyptian military force ultimately defeated the Mahdist forces in Sudan in 1898. Thereafter, Britain (rather than Egypt) seized effective control of Sudan.
The occupation of Egypt, and the acquisition of the Congo were the first major moves in what came to be a precipitous scramble for African territory. In 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference to discuss the African problem. The diplomats put on a humanitarian façade by condemning the slave trade, prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages and firearms in certain regions, and by expressing concern for missionary activities. More importantly, the diplomats in Berlin laid down the rules of competition by which the great powers were to be guided in seeking colonies. They also agreed that the area along the Congo River was to be administered by Léopold II of Belgium as a neutral area, known as the Congo Free State, in which trade and navigation were to be free. No nation was to stake claims in Africa without notifying other powers of its intentions. No territory could be formally claimed prior to being effectively occupied. However, the competitors ignored the rules when convenient and on several occasions war was only narrowly avoided.
Britain 's administration of Egypt and the Cape Colony contributed to a preoccupation over securing the source of the Nile River. Egypt was overrun by British forces in 1882 (although not formally declared a protectorate until 1914, and never an actual colony); Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya and Uganda were subjugated in the 1890s and early 20th century; and in the south, the Cape Colony (first acquired in 1795) provided a base for the subjugation of neighboring African states and the Dutch Afrikaner settlers who had left the Cape to avoid the British and then founded their own republics. Theophilus Shepstone annexed the South African Republic (or Transvaal) in 1877 for the British Empire, after it had been independent for twenty years. In 1879, after the Anglo - Zulu War, Britain consolidated its control of most of the territories of South Africa. The Boers protested, and in December 1880 they revolted, leading to the First Boer War (1880 -- 81). British Prime Minister William Gladstone signed a peace treaty on 23 March 1881, giving self - government to the Boers in the Transvaal. The Jameson Raid of 1895 was a failed attempt by the British South Africa Company and the Johannesburg Reform Committee to overthrow the Boer government in the Transvaal. The Second Boer War, fought between 1899 and 1902, was about control of the gold and diamond industries; the independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (or Transvaal) were this time defeated and absorbed into the British Empire.
The French thrust into the African interior was mainly from the coasts of West Africa (modern day Senegal) eastward, through the Sahel along the southern border of the Sahara, a huge desert covering most of present - day Senegal, Mali, Niger, and Chad. Their ultimate aim was to have an uninterrupted colonial empire from the Niger River to the Nile, thus controlling all trade to and from the Sahel region, by virtue of their existing control over the Caravan routes through the Sahara. The British, on the other hand, wanted to link their possessions in Southern Africa (modern South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland, and Zambia), with their territories in East Africa (modern Kenya), and these two areas with the Nile basin.
The Sudan (which in those days included most of present - day Uganda) was the key to the fulfillment of these ambitions, especially since Egypt was already under British control. This "red line '' through Africa is made most famous by Cecil Rhodes. Along with Lord Milner, the British colonial minister in South Africa, Rhodes advocated such a "Cape to Cairo '' empire, linking the Suez Canal to the mineral - rich Southern part of the continent by rail. Though hampered by German occupation of Tanganyika until the end of World War I, Rhodes successfully lobbied on behalf of such a sprawling African empire.
If one draws a line from Cape Town to Cairo (Rhodes 's dream), and one from Dakar to the Horn of Africa (now Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia), (the French ambition), these two lines intersect somewhere in eastern Sudan near Fashoda, explaining its strategic importance. In short, Britain had sought to extend its East African empire contiguously from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope, while France had sought to extend its own holdings from Dakar to the Sudan, which would enable its empire to span the entire continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea.
A French force under Jean - Baptiste Marchand arrived first at the strategically located fort at Fashoda, soon followed by a British force under Lord Kitchener, commander in chief of the British Army since 1892. The French withdrew after a standoff and continued to press claims to other posts in the region. In March 1899, the French and British agreed that the source of the Nile and Congo Rivers should mark the frontier between their spheres of influence.
Although the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference had set the rules for the Scramble for Africa, it had not weakened the rival imperialists. The 1898 Fashoda Incident, which had seen France and the British Empire on the brink of war, ultimately led to the signature of the Entente Cordiale of 1904, which countered the influence of the European powers of the Triple Alliance. As a result, the new German Empire decided to test the solidity of such influence, using the contested territory of Morocco as a battlefield.
Thus, Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Tangiers on 31 March 1905 and made a speech in favor of Moroccan independence, challenging French influence in Morocco. France 's influence in Morocco had been reaffirmed by Britain and Spain in 1904. The Kaiser 's speech bolstered French nationalism, and with British support the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé, took a defiant line. The crisis peaked in mid-June 1905, when Delcassé was forced out of the ministry by the more conciliation - minded premier Maurice Rouvier. But by July 1905 Germany was becoming isolated and the French agreed to a conference to solve the crisis. Both France and Germany continued to posture up until the conference, with Germany mobilizing reserve army units in late December and France actually moving troops to the border in January 1906.
The 1906 Algeciras Conference was called to settle the dispute. Of the thirteen nations present, the German representatives found their only supporter was Austria - Hungary. France had firm support from Britain, the US, Russia, Italy and Spain. The Germans eventually accepted an agreement, signed on 31 May 1906, whereby France yielded certain domestic changes in Morocco but retained control of key areas.
However, five years later the Second Moroccan Crisis (or Agadir Crisis) was sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat Panther to the port of Agadir on 1 July 1911. Germany had started to attempt to surpass Britain 's naval supremacy -- the British navy had a policy of remaining larger than the next two naval fleets in the world combined. When the British heard of the Panther 's arrival in Morocco, they wrongly believed that the Germans meant to turn Agadir into a naval base on the Atlantic.
The German move was aimed at reinforcing claims for compensation for acceptance of effective French control of the North African kingdom, where France 's pre-eminence had been upheld by the 1906 Algeciras Conference. In November 1911 a convention was signed under which Germany accepted France 's position in Morocco in return for territory in the French Equatorial African colony of Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo).
France and Spain subsequently established a full protectorate over Morocco (30 March 1912), ending what remained of the country 's formal independence. Furthermore, British backing for France during the two Moroccan crises reinforced the Entente between the two countries and added to Anglo - German estrangement, deepening the divisions that would culminate in the First World War.
Following the Berlin Conference at the end of the 19th century, the British, Italians, and Ethiopians sought to claim lands owned by the Somalis such as the Warsangali Sultanate, the Ajuran Sultanate and the Gobroon Dynasty.
The Dervish State was a state established by Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, a Somali religious leader who gathered Muslim soldiers from across the Horn of Africa and united them into a loyal army known as the Dervishes. This Dervish army enabled Hassan to carve out a powerful state through conquest of lands sought after by the Ethiopians and the European powers. The Dervish State successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region. Due to these successful expeditions, the Dervish State was recognised as an ally by the Ottoman and German empires. The Turks also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, and the Germans promised to officially recognise any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.
After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain 's use of aircraft.
Between 1904 and 1908, Germany 's colonies in German South - West Africa and German East Africa were rocked by separate, contemporaneous native revolts against their rule. In both territories the threat to German rule was quickly defeated once large - scale reinforcements from Germany arrived, with the Herero rebels in German South - West Africa being defeated at the Battle of Waterberg and the Maji - Maji rebels in German East Africa being steadily crushed by German forces slowly advancing through the countryside, with the natives resorting to guerrilla warfare. German efforts to clear the bush of civilians in German South - West Africa then resulted in a genocide of the population.
In total, as many as 65,000 Herero (80 % of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Namaqua (50 % of the total Namaqua population) either starved, died of thirst, or were worked to death in camps such as Shark Island Concentration Camp between 1904 and 1908. Characteristic of this genocide was death by starvation and the poisoning of the population 's wells whilst they were trapped in the Namib Desert.
In its earlier stages, imperialism was generally the act of individual explorers as well as some adventurous merchantmen. The colonial powers were a long way from approving without any dissent the expensive adventures carried out abroad. Various important political leaders, such as Gladstone, opposed colonisation in its first years. However, during his second premiership between 1880 and 1885 he could not resist the colonial lobby in his cabinet, and thus did not execute his electoral promise to disengage from Egypt. Although Gladstone was personally opposed to imperialism, the social tensions caused by the Long Depression pushed him to favor jingoism: the imperialists had become the "parasites of patriotism '' (John A. Hobson). In France, then Radical politician Georges Clemenceau also adamantly opposed himself to it: he thought colonisation was a diversion from the "blue line of the Vosges '' mountains, that is revanchism and the patriotic urge to reclaim the Alsace - Lorraine region which had been annexed by the German Empire with the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt. Clemenceau actually made Jules Ferry 's cabinet fall after the 1885 Tonkin disaster. According to Hannah Arendt in The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), this expansion of national sovereignty on overseas territories contradicted the unity of the nation state which provided citizenship to its population. Thus, a tension between the universalist will to respect human rights of the colonised people, as they may be considered as "citizens '' of the nation state, and the imperialist drive to cynically exploit populations deemed inferior began to surface. Some, in colonising countries, opposed what they saw as unnecessary evils of the colonial administration when left to itself; as described in Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness (1899) -- published around the same time as Kipling 's The White Man 's Burden -- or in Louis - Ferdinand Céline 's Journey to the End of the Night (1932).
Colonial lobbies emerged to legitimise the Scramble for Africa and other expensive overseas adventures. In Germany, France, and Britain, the middle class often sought strong overseas policies to ensure the market 's growth. Even in lesser powers, voices like Enrico Corradini claimed a "place in the sun '' for so - called "proletarian nations '', bolstering nationalism and militarism in an early prototype of fascism.
However, by the end of World War I the colonial empires had become very popular almost everywhere in Europe: public opinion had been convinced of the needs of a colonial empire, although most of the metropolitans would never see a piece of it. Colonial exhibitions had been instrumental in this change of popular mentalities brought about by the colonial propaganda, supported by the colonial lobby and by various scientists. Thus, the conquest of territories were inevitably followed by public displays of the indigenous people for scientific and leisure purposes. Karl Hagenbeck, a German merchant in wild animals and a future entrepreneur of most Europeans zoos, thus decided in 1874 to exhibit Samoa and Sami people as "purely natural '' populations. In 1876, he sent one of his collaborators to the newly conquered Egyptian Sudan to bring back some wild beasts and Nubians. Presented in Paris, London, and Berlin these Nubians were very successful. Such "human zoos '' could be found in Hamburg, Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Milan, New York City, Paris, etc., with 200,000 to 300,000 visitors attending each exhibition. Tuaregs were exhibited after the French conquest of Timbuktu (visited by René Caillié, disguised as a Muslim, in 1828, thereby winning the prize offered by the French Société de Géographie); Malagasy after the occupation of Madagascar; Amazons of Abomey after Behanzin 's mediatic defeat against the French in 1894. Not used to the climatic conditions, some of the indigenous exposed died, such as some Galibis in Paris in 1892.
Geoffroy de Saint - Hilaire, director of the Parisian Jardin d'acclimatation, decided in 1877 to organise two "ethnological spectacles '', presenting Nubians and Inuit. The public of the Jardin d'acclimatation doubled, with a million paying entrances that year, a huge success for these times. Between 1877 and 1912, approximately thirty "ethnological exhibitions '' were presented at the Jardin zoologique d'acclimatation. "Negro villages '' would be presented in Paris ' 1878 and 1879 World 's Fair; the 1900 World 's Fair presented the famous diorama "living '' in Madagascar, while the Colonial Exhibitions in Marseilles (1906 and 1922) and in Paris (1907 and 1931) would also display human beings in cages, often nudes or quasi-nudes. Nomadic "Senegalese villages '' were also created, thus displaying the power of the colonial empire to all the population.
In the US, Madison Grant, head of the New York Zoological Society, exposed Pygmy Ota Benga in the Bronx Zoo alongside the apes and others in 1906. At the behest of Grant, a prominent scientific racist and eugenicist, zoo director Hornaday placed Ota Benga in a cage with an orangutan and labeled him "The Missing Link '' in an attempt to illustrate Darwinism, and in particular that Africans like Ota Benga are closer to apes than were Europeans. Other colonial exhibitions included the 1924 British Empire Exhibition and the successful 1931 Paris "Exposition coloniale ''.
From the beginning of the 20th century onward, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers. The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk. In the 20th century, Africa saw the biggest increase in its population due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to peace, famine relief, medicine, and above all, the end or decline of the slave trade. Africa 's population has grown from 120 million in 1900 to over 1 billion today.
During the New Imperialism period, by the end of the 19th century, Europe added almost 9,000,000 square miles (23,000,000 km) -- one - fifth of the land area of the globe -- to its overseas colonial possessions. Europe 's formal holdings now included the entire African continent except Ethiopia, Liberia, and Saguia el - Hamra, the latter of which would be integrated into Spanish Sahara. Between 1885 and 1914, Britain took nearly 30 % of Africa 's population under its control; 15 % for France, 11 % for Portugal, 9 % for Germany, 7 % for Belgium and 1 % for Italy. Nigeria alone contributed 15 million subjects, more than in the whole of French West Africa or the entire German colonial empire. It was paradoxical that Britain, the staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire thanks to its long - standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the "scramble for Africa '', reflecting its advantageous position at its inception. In terms of surface area occupied, the French were the marginal victors but much of their territory consisted of the sparsely populated Sahara.
The political imperialism followed the economic expansion, with the "colonial lobbies '' bolstering chauvinism and jingoism at each crisis in order to legitimise the colonial enterprise. The tensions between the imperial powers led to a succession of crises, which finally exploded in August 1914, when previous rivalries and alliances created a domino situation that drew the major European nations into World War I. Austria - Hungary attacked Serbia to avenge the murder by Serbian agents of Austrian crown prince Francis Ferdinand, Russia would mobilise to assist allied Serbia, Germany would intervene to support Austria - Hungary against Russia. Since Russia had a military alliance with France against Germany, the German General Staff, led by General von Moltke decided to realise the well prepared Schlieffen Plan to invade and quickly knock France out of the war before turning against Russia in what was expected to be a long campaign. This required an invasion of Belgium which brought Britain into the war against Germany, Austria - Hungary and their allies. German U-Boat campaigns against ships bound for Britain eventually drew the United States into what had become World War I. Moreover, using the Anglo - Japanese Alliance as an excuse, Japan leaped onto this opportunity to conquer German interests in China and the Pacific to become the dominating power in the Western Pacific, setting the stage for the Second Sino - Japanese War (starting in 1937) and eventually World War II.
After the First World War, Germany 's possessions were partitioned among Britain (which took a sliver of western Cameroon, Tanzania, western Togo, and Namibia), France (which took most of Cameroon and eastern Togo) and Belgium (which took Rwanda and Burundi).
Later, during the Interwar period, with the Second Italo - Ethiopian War Italy would annex Ethiopia, which formed together with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland the Italian East Africa (A.O.I., "Africa Orientale Italiana '', also defined by the fascist government as L'Impero).
The British were primarily interested in maintaining secure communication lines to India, which led to initial interest in Egypt and South Africa. Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as Cecil Rhodes to establish a Cape - Cairo railway and to exploit mineral and agricultural resources. Control of the Nile was viewed as a strategic and commercial advantage.
Liberia was the only nation in Africa that was a colony and a protectorate of the United States. Liberia was founded, colonised, established and controlled by the American Colonization Society, a private organisation established in order to relocate freed African - American and Caribbean slaves from the United States and the Caribbean islands in 1821. Liberia declared its independence from the American Colonization Society on July 26, 1847. Liberia is Africa 's oldest democratic republic, and the second - oldest black republic in the world (after Haiti).
Ethiopia maintained its independence from Italy after the Battle of Adwa which resulted in the Treaty of Addis Ababa. With the exception of the occupation between 1936 and 1941 by Benito Mussolini 's military forces, Ethiopia is Africa 's oldest independent nation.
The new scramble for Africa began with the emergence of the Afro - Neo-Liberal capitalist movement in Post-Colonial Africa. When African nations began to gain independence during the Post World War II Era, their post colonial economic structures remained undiversified and linear. In most cases, the bulk of a nation 's economy relied on cash crops or natural resources. The decolonisation process kept independent African nations at the mercy of colonial powers due to structurally - dependent economic relations. Structural Adjustment Programs led to the privatization and liberalization of many African political and economic systems, forcefully pushing Africa into the global capitalist market. The economic decline in the 1990s fostered democratization by the World Bank intervening in the political and economic affairs of Africa once again. All of these factors led to Africa 's forced development under Western ideological systems of economics and politics.
In the era of globalization, many African countries have emerged as petro - states (for example Sudan, Cameroon, Nigeria, Angola). These are nations with an economic and political partnership between transnational oil companies and the ruling elite class in oil - rich African nations. Numerous countries have entered into a neo-imperial relationship with Africa during this time period. Mary Gilmartin notes that "material and symbolic appropriation of space (is) central to imperial expansion and control ''; nations in the globalization era who invest in controlling land internationally are engaging in neo-imperialism. Chinese (and other Asian countries) state oil companies have entered Africa 's highly competitive oil sector. China National Petroleum Corporation purchased 40 % of Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. Furthermore, Sudan exports 50 -- 60 % of its domestically produced oil to China, making up 7 % of China 's imports. China has also been purchasing equity shares in African oil fields, invested in industry related infrastructure development and acquired continental oil concessions throughout Africa.
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when did france win the last world cup | France at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
This is a record of France 's results at the FIFA World Cup. France was one of the four European teams that participated at the inaugural World Cup in 1930 and have appeared in 15 FIFA World Cups, tied for the sixth most of any country. The national team is one of eight to have won the FIFA World Cup title and one of only six to have done so more than once.
The French team won its first World Cup title in 1998. The tournament was played on home soil and France defeated Brazil 3 -- 0 in the final match. The tournament was hosted in France once before in 1938, where France was eliminated by defending champions Italy in the quarter finals.
In 2006, France finished as runners - up, losing on penalties (5 -- 3) to Italy after the game was tied 1 -- 1 after 120 minutes. The team has also finished in third place on two occasions, in 1958 and 1986, and in fourth place once, in 1982. In 2018 France won the World Cup for the second time 4 -- 2 against Croatia in Luzhniki Stadium, Russia.
Head coach: Aimé Jacquet
Assistant referees: Arnaldo Pinto (Brazil) Merere Gonzales (Trinidad and Tobago) Fourth official: Mario Sánchez Yanten (Chile)
Assistant referees: Reynaldo Salinas (Honduras) Luis Torres Zúñiga (Costa Rica) Fourth official: Alberto Tejada Noriega (Peru)
Assistant referees: Nimal Wickeramatunge (Sri Lanka) Emanuel Zammit (Malta) Fourth official: Vítor Melo Pereira (Portugal)
Assistant referees: Nimal Wickeramatunge (Sri Lanka) Lencie Fred (Vanuatu) Fourth official: Esse Baharmast (United States)
Assistant referees: Mark Warren (England) Nicolae Grigorescu (Romania) Fourth official: Said Belqola (Morocco)
Assistant referees: Fernando Tresaco Gracia (Spain) Jorge Díaz Gálvez (Chile) Fourth official: Epifanio González Chávez (Paraguay)
The 1998 final was held on 12 July at the Stade de France, Saint - Denis. France defeated holders Brazil 3 -- 0, with two goals from Zinedine Zidane and a stoppage time strike from Emmanuel Petit. The win gave France their first World Cup title, becoming the sixth national team after Uruguay, Italy, England, West Germany and Argentina to win the tournament on their home soil. They also inflicted the heaviest defeat on Brazil since 1930.
The pre-match build up was dominated by the omission of Brazilian striker Ronaldo from the starting lineup only to be reinstated 45 minutes before kick - off. He managed to create the first open chance for Brazil in the 22nd minute, dribbling past defender Thuram before sending a cross out on the left side that goalkeeper Fabien Barthez struggled to hold onto. France however took the lead in the 27th minute after Brazilian defender Roberto Carlos conceded a corner which Zidane scored with a header from the right. Three minutes before half - time, Zidane scored his second goal of the match, similarly another header from a corner, this time from the left side. The tournament hosts went down to ten men in the 68th minute as Marcel Desailly was sent off for a second bookable offence. Brazil reacted to this by making an attacking substitution and although they applied pressure France sealed the win with a third goal: substitute Patrick Vieira set up his club teammate Petit in a counterattack to shoot low past goalkeeper Cláudio Taffarel.
French president Jacques Chirac was in attendance to congratulate and commiserate the winners and runners - up respectively after the match. Several days after the victory, winning manager Aimé Jacquet announced his resignation from the French team with immediate effect.
Goalkeeper Fabien Barthez also shares the FIFA World Cup record for most matches without conceding a goal, which he achieved ten times. The only other player to have reached that number is England 's Peter Shilton.
Just Fontaine scored all his 13 World Cup goals in 1958, where France reached third place. This makes him record holder for most goals scored in a single FIFA World Cup. At the time, it also made him the most successful World Cup scorer of all time until the record was broken by West Germany 's Gerd Müller in the World Cup final of 1974.
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who said if you don't work you don't eat | He who does not work, neither shall he eat - wikipedia
He who does not work, neither shall he eat is a New Testament aphorism originally by Paul the Apostle, later cited by John Smith in Jamestown, Virginia, and by Lenin during the Russian Revolution.
The aphorism is found in the Second Epistle of Paul the Apostle (with Silvanus and Timothy) to the Thessalonians, in which Paul writes:
that is,
The Greek phrase οὐ θέλει ἐργᾰ́ζεσθαι ou thélei ergázesthai means "is not willing to work ''. Other English translations render this as "would '' or "will not work '', which may confuse readers unaccustomed to this use of the verb "will '' in the archaic sense of "want to, desire to ''.
In the spring of 1609, John Smith cited the aphorism to the colonists of Jamestown:
Countrymen, the long experience of our late miseries I hope is sufficient to persuade everyone to a present correction of himself, And think not that either my pains nor the adventurers ' purses will ever maintain you in idleness and sloth...
... the greater part must be more industrious, or starve...
You must obey this now for a law, that he that will not work shall not eat (except by sickness he be disabled). For the labors of thirty or forty honest and industrious men shall not be consumed to maintain a hundred and fifty idle loiterers.
According to Vladimir Lenin, "He who does not work shall not eat '' is a necessary principle under socialism, the preliminary phase of the evolution towards communist society. The phrase appears in his 1917 work, The State and Revolution. Through this slogan Lenin explains that in socialist states only productive individuals could be allowed access to the articles of consumption.
The socialist principle, "He who does not work shall not eat '', is already realized; the other socialist principle, "An equal amount of products for an equal amount of labor '', is also already realized. But this is not yet communism, and it does not yet abolish "bourgeois law '', which gives unequal individuals, in return for unequal (really unequal) amounts of labor, equal amounts of products.
This is a "defect '', says Marx, but it is unavoidable in the first phase of communism; for if we are not to indulge in utopianism, we must not think that having overthrown capitalism people will at once learn to work for society without any rules of law. (Chapter 5, Section 3, "The First Phase of Communist Society '')
In accordance with Lenin 's understanding of the socialist state, article twelve of the 1936 Soviet Constitution states:
In the USSR work is a duty and a matter of honor for every able - bodied citizen, in accordance with the principle: "He who does not work, neither shall he eat. ''
In Lenin 's writing, this was not so much directed at lazy or unproductive workers, but rather the bourgeoisie. (Marxist theory defines the bourgeoisie as the group of those who buy the labor - power of workers and engage it in the process of production, deriving profits from the surplus value thus expropriated. Once communism was realised, that is, after the abolition of property and the law of value, no - one would live off the labor of others.)
Neither did the principle apply to those rendered incapable of work by old age or disability. These groups would have a right to society 's products because they were not at fault for their condition. The elderly, in particular, had worked during their youth, and so could not be denied life 's basic necessities. The Soviet state would then, at least theoretically, provide a basic level of social security.
The principle was enunciated in the Russian Constitution of 1918.
Leon Trotsky wrote that: "The old principle: who does not work shall not eat, has been replaced with a new one: who does not obey shall not eat. ''
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in chemestry a soluble base or a solution of a base | Base (chemistry) - wikipedia
In chemistry, bases are substances that, in aqueous solution, are slippery to the touch, taste astringent, change the color of indicators (e.g., turn red litmus paper blue), react with acids to form salts, promote certain chemical reactions (base catalysis), accept protons from any proton donor, and / or contain completely or partially displaceable OH ions. Examples of bases are the hydroxides of the alkali metals and the alkaline earth metals (NaOH, Ca (OH), etc.).
These particular substances produce hydroxide ions (OH) in aqueous solutions, and are thus classified as Arrhenius bases. For a substance to be classified as an Arrhenius base, it must produce hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution. In order to do so, Arrhenius believed the base must contain hydroxide in the formula. This makes the Arrhenius model limited, as it can not explain the basic properties of aqueous solutions of ammonia (NH) or its organic derivatives (amines). There are also bases that do not contain a hydroxide ion but nevertheless react with water, resulting in an increase in the concentration of the hydroxide ion. An example of this is the reaction between ammonia and water to produce ammonium and hydroxide. In this reaction ammonia is the base because it accepts a proton from the water molecule. Ammonia and other bases similar to it usually have the ability to form a bond with a proton due to the unshared pair of electrons that they possess. In the more general Brønsted -- Lowry acid -- base theory, a base is a substance that can accept hydrogen cations (H) -- otherwise known as protons. In the Lewis model, a base is an electron pair donor.
In water, by altering the autoionization equilibrium, bases yield solutions in which the hydrogen ion activity is lower than it is in pure water, i.e., the water has a pH higher than 7.0 at standard conditions. A soluble base is called an alkali if it contains and releases OH ions quantitatively. However, it is important to realize that basicity is not the same as alkalinity. Metal oxides, hydroxides, and especially alkoxides are basic, and counteranions of weak acids are weak bases.
Bases can be thought of as the chemical opposite of acids. However, some strong acids are able to act as bases. Bases and acids are seen as opposites because the effect of an acid is to increase the hydronium (H O) concentration in water, whereas bases reduce this concentration. A reaction between an acid and base is called neutralization. In a neutralization reaction, an aqueous solution of a base reacts with an aqueous solution of an acid to produce a solution of water and salt in which the salt separates into its component ions. If the aqueous solution is saturated with a given salt solute, any additional such salt precipitates out of the solution.
The notion of a base as a concept in chemistry was first introduced by the French chemist Guillaume François Rouelle in 1754. He noted that acids, which at that time were mostly volatile liquids (like acetic acid), turned into solid salts only when combined with specific substances. Rouelle considered that such a substance serves as a "base '' for the salt, giving the salt a "concrete or solid form ''.
General properties of bases include:
The following reaction represents the general reaction between a base (B) and water to produce a conjugate acid (BH) and a conjugate base (OH):
The equilibrium constant, K, for this reaction can be found using the following general equation:
In this equation, both the base (B) and the extremely strong base (the conjugate base) compete with one another for the proton. As a result, bases that react with water have relatively small equilibrium constant values. The base is weaker when it has a lower equilibrium constant value.
Bases react with acids to neutralize each other at a fast rate both in water and in alcohol. When dissolved in water, the strong base sodium hydroxide ionizes into hydroxide and sodium ions:
and similarly, in water the acid hydrogen chloride forms hydronium and chloride ions:
When the two solutions are mixed, the H O and OH ions combine to form water molecules:
If equal quantities of NaOH and HCl are dissolved, the base and the acid neutralize exactly, leaving only NaCl, effectively table salt, in solution.
Weak bases, such as baking soda or egg white, should be used to neutralize any acid spills. Neutralizing acid spills with strong bases, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, can cause a violent exothermic reaction, and the base itself can cause just as much damage as the original acid spill.
Bases are generally compounds that can neutralize an amount of acids. Both sodium carbonate and ammonia are bases, although neither of these substances contains OH groups. Both compounds accept H when dissolved in protic solvents such as water:
From this, a pH, or acidity, can be calculated for aqueous solutions of bases. Bases also directly act as electron - pair donors themselves:
A base is also defined as a molecule that has the ability to accept an electron pair bond by entering another atom 's valence shell through its possession of one electron pair. There are a limited number of elements that have atoms with the ability to provide a molecule with basic properties. Carbon can act as a base as well as nitrogen and oxygen. Fluorine and sometimes rare gases possess this ability as well. This occurs typically in compounds such as butyl lithium, alkoxides, and metal amides such as sodium amide. Bases of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen without resonance stabilization are usually very strong, or superbases, which can not exist in a water solution due to the acidity of water. Resonance stabilization, however, enables weaker bases such as carboxylates; for example, sodium acetate is a weak base.
A strong base is a basic chemical compound that can remove a proton (H) from (or deprotonate) a molecule of even a very weak acid (such as water) in an acid - base reaction. Common examples of strong bases include hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, like NaOH and Ca (OH), respectively. Due to their low solubility, some bases, such as alkaline earth hydroxides, can be used when the solubility factor is not taken into account. One advantage of this low solubility is that "many antacids were suspensions of metal hydroxides such as aluminum hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide. '' These compounds have low solubility and have the ability to stop an increase in the concentration of the hydroxide ion, preventing the harm of the tissues in the mouth, oesophagus, and stomach. As the reaction continues and the salts dissolve, the stomach acid reacts with the hydroxide produced by the suspensions. Strong bases hydrolyze in water almost completely, resulting in the leveling effect. '' In this process, the water molecule combines with a strong base, due to the water 's amphoteric ability; and, a hydroxide ion is released. Very strong bases can even deprotonate very weakly acidic C -- H groups in the absence of water. Here is a list of several strong bases:
The cations of these strong bases appear in the first and second groups of the periodic table (alkali and earth alkali metals).
Acids with ap K of more than about 13 are considered very weak, and their conjugate bases are strong bases.
Group 1 salts of carbanions, amides, and hydrides tend to be even stronger bases due to the extreme weakness of their conjugate acids, which are stable hydrocarbons, amines, and dihydrogen. Usually these bases are created by adding pure alkali metals such as sodium into the conjugate acid. They are called superbases, and it is impossible to keep them in water solution because they are stronger bases than the hydroxide ion. As such, they deprotonate the conjugate acid water. For example, the ethoxide ion (conjugate base of ethanol) in the presence of water undergoes this reaction.
Examples of superbases are:
When a neutral base forms a bond with a neutral acid, a condition of electric stress occurs. The acid and the base share the electron pair that formerly only belonged to the base. As a result, a high dipole moment is created, which can only be destroyed by rearranging the molecules.
Basic substances can be used as insoluble heterogeneous catalysts for chemical reactions. Some examples are metal oxides such as magnesium oxide, calcium oxide, and barium oxide as well as potassium fluoride on alumina and some zeolites. Many transition metals make good catalysts, many of which form basic substances. Basic catalysts have been used for hydrogenations, the migration of double bonds, in the Meerwein - Ponndorf - Verley reduction, the Michael reaction, and many other reactions. Both CaO and BaO can be highly active catalysts if they are treated with high temperature heat.
Examples of solid bases include:
Depending on a solid surface 's ability to successfully form a conjugate base by absorbing an electrically neutral acid, the basic strength of the surface is determined. "The number of basic sites per unit surface area of the solid '' is used to express how much base is found on a solid base catalyst. Scientists have developed two methods to measure the amount of basic sites: titration with benzoic acid using indicators and gaseous acid adsorption. A solid with enough basic strength will absorb an electrically neutral acid indicator and cause the acid indicator 's color to change to the color of its conjugate base. When performing the gaseous acid adsorption method, nitric oxide is used. The basic sites are then determined using the amount of carbon dioxide than is absorbed.
When there is a hydrogen ion gradient between two sides of the biological membrane, the concentration of some weak bases are focused on only one side of the membrane. Weak bases tend to build up in acidic fluids. Acid gastric contains a higher concentration of weak base than plasma. Acid urine, compared to alkaline urine, excretes weak bases at a faster rate.
The number of ionizable hydroxide (OH -) ions present in one molecule of base is called the acidity of bases. On the basis of acidity bases can be classified into three types: monoacidic, diacidic and triacidic.
When one molecule of a base via complete ionization produces one hydroxide ion, the base is said to be a monoacidic base. Examples of monoacidic bases are:
Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, silver hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, etc.
When one molecule of base via complete ionization produces two hydroxide ions, the base is said to be diacidic. Examples of diacidic bases are:
Barium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, zinc hydroxide, iron (II) hydroxide, tin (II) hydroxide, lead (II) hydroxide, copper (II) hydroxide, etc.
When one molecule of base via complete ionization produces three hydroxide ions, the base is said to be triacidic. Examples of triacidic bases are:
Aluminium hydroxide, ferrous hydroxide, Gold Trihydroxide,
The concept of base stems from an older alchemichal notion of "the matrix '':
The term "base '' appears to have been first used in 1717 by the French chemist, Louis Lémery, as a synonym for the older Paracelsian term "matrix. '' In keeping with 16th - century animism, Paracelsus had postulated that naturally occurring salts grew within the earth as a result of a universal acid or seminal principle having impregnated an earthy matrix or womb... Its modern meaning and general introduction into the chemical vocabulary, however, is usually attributed to the French chemist, Guillaume - François Rouelle... Rouelle explicitly defined a neutral salt as the product formed by the union of an acid with any substance, be it a water - soluble alkali, a volatile alkali, an absorbent earth, a metal, or an oil, capable of serving as "a base '' for the salt "by giving it a concrete or solid form. '' Most acids known in the 18th century were volatile liquids or "spirits '' capable of distillation, whereas salts, by their very nature, were crystalline solids. Hence it was the substance that neutralized the acid which supposedly destroyed the volatility or spirit of the acid and which imparted the property of solidity (i.e., gave a concrete base) to the resulting salt.
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who chooses the electors in the electoral college | Electoral College (United states) - wikipedia
The United States Electoral College is the mechanism established by the United States Constitution for the election of the president and vice president of the United States by small groups of appointed representatives, electors, from each state and the District of Columbia. The Constitution specifies that each state legislature individually determines its own process for appointing electors. In practice, all state legislatures use popular voting to choose a slate of electors who are pledged to vote for a particular party 's candidate. Thus, today the president and vice president are effectively chosen through indirect election by the citizens.
The Twelfth Amendment requires each elector to cast one vote for president and another vote for vice president. In each state and the District of Columbia, electors are chosen every four years on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and then meet to cast ballots on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December. The candidates who receive a majority of electoral votes among the states are elected president and vice president of the United States when the Electoral College vote is certified by Congress in early January. Pursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the terms for president and vice president end at noon on January 20 following an election for those offices; the new terms for those offices then begin.
Each state chooses electors, equal in number to that state 's combined total of senators and representatives. There are a total of 538 electors, corresponding to the 435 representatives and 100 senators, plus the three electors for the District of Columbia as provided by the Twenty - third Amendment. The Constitution bars any federal official, elected or appointed, from being an elector. The Office of the Federal Register is charged with administering the Electoral College. Since the mid-19th century when all electors have been popularly chosen, the Electoral College has elected the candidate who received the most popular votes nationwide, except in four elections: 1876, 1888, 2000, and 2016. In 1824, there were six states in which electors were legislatively appointed, rather than popularly elected, so the true national popular vote is uncertain; the electors failed to select a winning candidate, so the matter was decided by the House of Representatives.
All states except California (before 1913), Maine, and Nebraska have chosen electors on a "winner - take - all '' basis since the 1880s. Under the winner - take - all system, the state 's electors are awarded to the candidate with the most votes in that state, thus maximizing the state 's influence in the national election. Maine and Nebraska use the "congressional district method, '' selecting one elector within each congressional district by popular vote and awarding two electors by a statewide popular vote. Although no elector is required by federal law to honor his pledge, there have been very few occasions when an elector voted contrary to a pledge, and never once has it impacted the final outcome of a national election.
If no candidate for president receives a majority of electoral votes for president, the Twelfth Amendment provides that the House of Representatives will select the president, with each of the fifty state delegations casting one vote. If no candidate for vice president receives a majority of electoral votes for vice president, then the Senate will select the vice president, with each of the 100 senators having one vote.
The Constitutional Convention in 1787 used the Virginia Plan as the basis for discussions, as the Virginia delegation had proposed it first. The Virginia Plan called for the Congress to elect the president. Delegates from a majority of states agreed to this mode of election. However, a committee formed to work out various details including the mode of election of the president, recommended instead the election be by a group of people apportioned among the states in the same numbers as their representatives in Congress (the formula for which had been resolved in lengthy debates resulting in the Connecticut Compromise and Three - Fifths Compromise), but chosen by each state "in such manner as its Legislature may direct. '' Committee member Gouverneur Morris explained the reasons for the change; among others, there were fears of "intrigue '' if the president were chosen by a small group of men who met together regularly, as well as concerns for the independence of the president if he were elected by the Congress. However, once the Electoral College had been decided on, several delegates (Mason, Butler, Morris, Wilson, and Madison) openly recognized its ability to protect the election process from cabal, corruption, intrigue, and faction. Some delegates, including James Wilson and James Madison, preferred popular election of the executive. Madison acknowledged that while a popular vote would be ideal, it would be difficult to get consensus on the proposal given the prevalence of slavery in the South:
There was one difficulty however of a serious nature attending an immediate choice by the people. The right of suffrage was much more diffusive in the Northern than the Southern States; and the latter could have no influence in the election on the score of Negroes. The substitution of electors obviated this difficulty and seemed on the whole to be liable to the fewest objections.
The Convention approved the Committee 's Electoral College proposal, with minor modifications, on September 6, 1787. Delegates from states with smaller populations or limited land area such as Connecticut, New Jersey, and Maryland generally favored the Electoral College with some consideration for states. At the compromise providing for a runoff among the top five candidates, the small states supposed that the House of Representatives with each state delegation casting one vote would decide most elections.
In The Federalist Papers, James Madison explained his views on the selection of the president and the Constitution. In Federalist No. 39, Madison argued the Constitution was designed to be a mixture of state - based and population - based government. Congress would have two houses: the state - based Senate and the population - based House of Representatives. Meanwhile, the president would be elected by a mixture of the two modes.
Alexander Hamilton in Federalist No. 68 laid out what he believed were the key advantages to the Electoral College. The electors come directly from the people and them alone for that purpose only, and for that time only. This avoided a party - run legislature, or a permanent body that could be influenced by foreign interests before each election. Hamilton explained the election was to take place among all the states, so no corruption in any state could taint "the great body of the people '' in their selection. The choice was to be made by a majority of the Electoral College, as majority rule is critical to the principles of republican government. Hamilton argued that electors meeting in the state capitals were able to have information unavailable to the general public. Hamilton also argued that since no federal officeholder could be an elector, none of the electors would be beholden to any presidential candidate.
Another consideration was the decision would be made without "tumult and disorder, '' as it would be a broad - based one made simultaneously in various locales where the decision - makers could deliberate reasonably, not in one place where decision - makers could be threatened or intimidated. If the Electoral College did not achieve a decisive majority, then the House of Representatives was to choose the president from among the top five candidates, ensuring selection of a presiding officer administering the laws would have both ability and good character. Hamilton was also concerned about somebody unqualified, but with a talent for "low intrigue, and the little arts of popularity, '' attaining high office.
Additionally, in the Federalist No. 10, James Madison argued against "an interested and overbearing majority '' and the "mischiefs of faction '' in an electoral system. He defined a faction as "a number of citizens whether amounting to a majority or minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community. '' What was then called republican government (i.e., federalism, as opposed to direct democracy), with its varied distribution of voter rights and powers, would countervail against factions. Madison further postulated in the Federalist No. 10 that the greater the population and expanse of the Republic, the more difficulty factions would face in organizing due to such issues as sectionalism.
Although the United States Constitution refers to "Electors '' and "electors, '' neither the phrase "Electoral College '' nor any other name is used to describe the electors collectively. It was not until the early 19th century the name "Electoral College '' came into general usage as the collective designation for the electors selected to cast votes for president and vice president. The phrase was first written into federal law in 1845 and today the term appears in 3 U.S.C. § 4, in the section heading and in the text as "college of electors. ''
Article II, Section 1, Clause 2 of the Constitution states:
Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.
Article II, Section 1, Clause 4 of the Constitution states:
The Congress may determine the Time of chusing (sic) the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.
Article II, Section 1, Clause 3 of the Constitution provided the original plan by which the electors chose the president and vice president. Under the original plan, the candidate who received a majority of votes from the electors would become president; the candidate receiving the second most votes would become vice president.
The original plan of the Electoral College was based upon several assumptions and anticipations of the Framers of the Constitution:
According to the text of Article II, however, each state government was free to have its own plan for selecting its electors, and the Constitution does not explicitly require states to popularly elect their electors. Several different methods for selecting electors are described at length below.
The emergence of political parties and nationally coordinated election campaigns soon complicated matters in the elections of 1796 and 1800. In 1796, Federalist Party candidate John Adams won the presidential election. Finishing in second place was Democratic - Republican Party candidate Thomas Jefferson, the Federalists ' opponent, who became the vice president. This resulted in the president and vice president being of different political parties.
In 1800, the Democratic - Republican Party again nominated Jefferson for president and also nominated Aaron Burr for vice president. After the election, Jefferson and Burr both obtained a majority of electoral votes, but tied one another with 73 votes each. Since ballots did not distinguish between votes for president and votes for vice president, every ballot cast for Burr technically counted as a vote for him to become president, despite Jefferson clearly being his party 's first choice. Lacking a clear winner by constitutional standards, the election had to be decided by the House of Representatives pursuant to the Constitution 's contingency election provision.
Having already lost the presidential contest, Federalist Party representatives in the lame duck House session seized upon the opportunity to embarrass their opposition by attempting to elect Burr over Jefferson. The House deadlocked for 35 ballots as neither candidate received the necessary majority vote of the state delegations in the House (the votes of nine states were needed for a conclusive election). Jefferson achieved electoral victory on the 36th ballot, but only after Federalist Party leader Alexander Hamilton -- who disfavored Burr 's personal character more than Jefferson 's policies -- had made known his preference for Jefferson.
Responding to the problems from those elections, the Congress proposed on December 9, 1803, and three - fourths of the states ratified by June 15, 1804, the Twelfth Amendment. Starting with the 1804 election, the amendment requires electors cast separate ballots for president and vice president, replacing the system outlined in Article II, Section 1, Clause 3.
Alexander Hamilton described the framers ' view of how electors would be chosen: "A small number of persons, selected by their fellow - citizens from the general mass, will be most likely to possess the information and discernment requisite to such complicated (tasks). '' The founders assumed this would take place district by district. That plan was carried out by many states until the 1880s. For example, in Massachusetts in 1820, the rule stated "the people shall vote by ballot, on which shall be designated who is voted for as an Elector for the district. '' In other words, the people did not place the name of a candidate for a president on the ballot, instead they voted for their local elector, whom they trusted later to cast a responsible vote for president.
Some states reasoned that the favorite presidential candidate among the people in their state would have a much better chance if all of the electors selected by their state were sure to vote the same way -- a "general ticket '' of electors pledged to a party candidate. So the slate of electors chosen by the state were no longer free agents, independent thinkers, or deliberative representatives. They became "voluntary party lackeys and intellectual non-entities. '' Once one state took that strategy, the others felt compelled to follow suit in order to compete for the strongest influence on the election.
When James Madison and Hamilton, two of the most important architects of the Electoral College, saw this strategy being taken by some states, they protested strongly. Madison and Hamilton both made it clear this approach violated the spirit of the Constitution. According to Hamilton, the selection of the president should be "made by men most capable of analyzing the qualities adapted to the station (of president). '' According to Hamilton, the electors were to analyze the list of potential presidents and select the best one. He also used the term "deliberate. '' Hamilton considered a pre-pledged elector to violate the spirit of Article II of the Constitution insofar as such electors could make no "analysis '' or "deliberate '' concerning the candidates. Madison agreed entirely, saying that when the Constitution was written, all of its authors assumed individual electors would be elected in their districts and it was inconceivable a "general ticket '' of electors dictated by a state would supplant the concept. Madison wrote to George Hay,
The district mode was mostly, if not exclusively in view when the Constitution was framed and adopted; & was exchanged for the general ticket (many years later).
The Founders assumed that electors would be elected by the citizens of their district and that elector was to be free to analyze and deliberate regarding who is best suited to be president.
Madison and Hamilton were so upset by what they saw as a distortion of the framers ' original intent that they advocated a constitutional amendment to prevent anything other than the district plan: "the election of Presidential Electors by districts, is an amendment very proper to be brought forward, '' Madison told George Hay in 1823. Hamilton went further. He actually drafted an amendment to the Constitution mandating the district plan for selecting electors.
In 1789, at - large popular vote, the winner - take - all method, began with Pennsylvania and Maryland; Virginia and Delaware used a district plan by popular vote, and in the five other states participating in the election (Connecticut, Georgia, Maryland, New Hampshire New Jersey and South Carolina), state legislatures chose. By 1800, Virginia and Rhode Island voted at - large, Kentucky, Maryland and North Carolina voted popularly by district, and eleven states voted by state legislature. Beginning in 1804 there was a definite trend towards the winner - take - all system for statewide popular vote.
States using their state legislature to choose presidential electors have included fourteen states from all regions of the country. By 1832, only South Carolina used the state legislature, and it abandoned the method after 1860. States using popular vote by district have included ten states from all regions of the country. By 1832 there was only Maryland, and from 1836 district plans fell out of use until the 20th century, though Michigan used a district plan for 1892 only.
Since 1836, statewide, winner - take - all popular voting for electors has been the almost universal practice. As of 2016, Maine (from 1972) and Nebraska (from 1996) use the district plan, with two at - large electors assigned to support the winner of the statewide popular vote.
Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment allows for a state 's representation in the House of Representatives to be reduced if a state unconstitutionally denies people the right to vote. The reduction is in keeping with the proportion of people denied a vote. This amendment refers to "the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, '' among other elections, the only place in the Constitution mentioning electors being selected by popular vote.
On May 8, 1866, during a debate on the Fourteenth Amendment, Thaddeus Stevens, the leader of the Republicans in the House of Representatives, delivered a speech on the amendment 's intent. Regarding Section 2, he said:
The second section I consider the most important in the article. It fixes the basis of representation in Congress. If any State shall exclude any of her adult male citizens from the elective franchise, or abridge that right, she shall forfeit her right to representation in the same proportion. The effect of this provision will be either to compel the States to grant universal suffrage or so shear them of their power as to keep them forever in a hopeless minority in the national Government, both legislative and executive.
Federal law (2 U.S.C. § 6) implements Section 2 's mandate.
For 1789, the first Wednesday in February next be the day for the Electors to assemble in their respective States and vote for a President from Resolution of 13 September 1788 by the Confederation (Continental) Congress. For 1792 through 1884, the Electors shall meet and give their votes on the first Wednesday in December from 1 Stat. 239, Section 2. For 1889 through 1933, the Electors of each State shall meet and give their votes on the second Monday in January next following their appointment from 24 Stat. 373, Section 1. For 1936 to the present, the Electors of President and Vice President of each State shall meet and give their votes on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December next following their appointment from 62 Stat. 673, now codified as United States Code: Title 3, Section 7 (3 USC 7).
Even though the aggregate national popular vote is calculated by state officials, media organizations, and the Federal Election Commission, the people only indirectly elect the president, as the national popular vote is not the basis for electing the president or vice president. The president and vice president of the United States are elected by the Electoral College, which consists of 538 presidential electors from the fifty states and Washington, D.C. Presidential electors are selected on a state - by - state basis, as determined by the laws of each state. Since the election of 1824, most states have appointed their electors on a winner - take - all basis, based on the statewide popular vote on Election Day. Maine and Nebraska are the only two current exceptions, as both states use the congressional district method. Although ballots list the names of the presidential and vice presidential candidates (who run on a ticket), voters actually choose electors when they vote for president and vice president. These presidential electors in turn cast electoral votes for those two offices. Electors usually pledge to vote for their party 's nominee, but some "faithless electors '' have voted for other candidates or refrained from voting.
A candidate must receive an absolute majority of electoral votes (currently 270) to win the presidency or the vice presidency. If no candidate receives a majority in the election for president or vice president, the election is determined via a contingency procedure established by the Twelfth Amendment. In such a situation, the House chooses one of the top three presidential electoral vote - winners as the president, while the Senate chooses one of the top two vice presidential electoral vote - winners as vice president.
A state 's number of electors equals the number of representatives plus two electors for both senators the state has in the United States Congress. The number of representatives is based on the respective populations, determined every 10 years by the United States Census. Each representative represents on average 711,000 persons.
Under the Twenty - third Amendment, Washington, D.C., is allocated as many electors as it would have if it were a state, but no more electors than the least populous state. The least populous state (which is Wyoming, according to the 2010 census) has three electors; thus, D.C. can not have more than three electors. Even if D.C. were a state, its population would entitle it to only three electors; based on its population per electoral vote, D.C. has the second highest per capita Electoral College representation, after Wyoming.
Currently, there is a total of 538 electors, there being 435 representatives and 100 senators, plus the three electors allocated to Washington, D.C. The six states with the most electors are California (55), Texas (38), New York (29), Florida (29), Illinois (20), and Pennsylvania (20). The seven smallest states by population -- Alaska, Delaware, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming -- have three electors each. This is because each of these states is entitled to one representative and two senators.
Candidates for elector are nominated by state chapters of nationally oriented political parties in the months prior to Election Day. In some states, the electors are nominated by voters in primaries, the same way other presidential candidates are nominated. In some states, such as Oklahoma, Virginia and North Carolina, electors are nominated in party conventions. In Pennsylvania, the campaign committee of each candidate names their respective electoral college candidates (an attempt to discourage faithless electors). Varying by state, electors may also be elected by state legislatures, or appointed by the parties themselves.
Article II, Section 1, Clause 2 of the Constitution requires each state legislature to determine how electors for the state are to be chosen, but it disqualifies any person holding a federal office, either elected or appointed, from being an elector. Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, any person who has sworn an oath to support the United States Constitution in order to hold either a state or federal office, and later rebelled against the United States directly or by giving assistance to those doing so, is disqualified from being an elector. However, the Congress may remove this disqualification by a two - thirds vote in each House.
Since the Civil War, all states have chosen presidential electors by popular vote. This process has been normalized to the point the names of the electors appear on the ballot in only eight states: Rhode Island, Tennessee, Louisiana, Arizona, Idaho, Oklahoma, North Dakota and South Dakota.
The Tuesday following the first Monday in November has been fixed as the day for holding federal elections, called the Election Day. In 48 states and Washington, D.C., the "winner - takes - all method '' is used (electors selected as a single bloc). Maine and Nebraska use the "congressional district method '', selecting one elector within each congressional district by popular vote and selecting the remaining two electors by a statewide popular vote. This method has been used in Maine since 1972 and in Nebraska since 1996.
The current system of choosing electors is called the "short ballot ''. In most states, voters choose a slate of electors, and only a few states list on the ballot the names of proposed electors. In some states, if a voter wants to write in a candidate for president, the voter is also required to write in the names of proposed electors.
After the election, each state prepares seven Certificates of Ascertainment, each listing the candidates for president and vice president, their pledged electors, and the total votes each candidacy received. One certificate is sent, as soon after Election Day as practicable, to the National Archivist in Washington D.C. The Certificates of Ascertainment are mandated to carry the State Seal, and the signature of the Governor (in the case of the District of Columbia, the Certificate is signed by the Mayor of the District of Columbia.)
The Electoral College never meets as one body. Electors meet in their respective state capitals (electors for the District of Columbia meet within the District) on the Monday after the second Wednesday in December, at which time they cast their electoral votes on separate ballots for president and vice president.
Although procedures in each state vary slightly, the electors generally follow a similar series of steps, and the Congress has constitutional authority to regulate the procedures the states follow. The meeting is opened by the election certification official -- often that state 's secretary of state or equivalent -- who reads the Certificate of Ascertainment. This document sets forth who was chosen to cast the electoral votes. The attendance of the electors is taken and any vacancies are noted in writing. The next step is the selection of a president or chairman of the meeting, sometimes also with a vice chairman. The electors sometimes choose a secretary, often not himself an elector, to take the minutes of the meeting. In many states, political officials give short speeches at this point in the proceedings.
When the time for balloting arrives, the electors choose one or two people to act as tellers. Some states provide for the placing in nomination of a candidate to receive the electoral votes (the candidate for president of the political party of the electors). Each elector submits a written ballot with the name of a candidate for president. In New Jersey, the electors cast ballots by checking the name of the candidate on a pre-printed card; in North Carolina, the electors write the name of the candidate on a blank card. The tellers count the ballots and announce the result. The next step is the casting of the vote for vice president, which follows a similar pattern.
Each state 's electors must complete six Certificates of Vote. Each Certificate of Vote must be signed by all of the electors and a Certificate of Ascertainment must be attached to each of the Certificates of Vote. Each Certificate of Vote must include the names of those who received an electoral vote for either the office of president or of vice president. The electors certify the Certificates of Vote and copies of the Certificates are then sent in the following fashion:
A staff member of the President of the Senate collects the Certificates of Vote as they arrive and prepares them for the joint session of the Congress. The Certificates are arranged -- unopened -- in alphabetical order and placed in two special mahogany boxes. Alabama through Missouri (including the District of Columbia) are placed in one box and Montana through Wyoming are placed in the other box. Before 1950, the Secretary of State 's office oversaw the certifications, but since then the Office of Federal Register in the Archivist 's office reviews them to make sure the documents sent to the archive and Congress match and that all formalities have been followed, sometimes requiring states to correct the documents.
Faithless electors are those who either cast electoral votes for someone other than the candidate of the party that they pledged to vote for or who abstain. Twenty - nine states plus the District of Columbia have passed laws to punish faithless electors, although none have ever been enforced. Many constitutional scholars claim that state restrictions would be struck down if challenged based on Article II and the Twelfth Amendment. In 1952, the constitutionality of state pledge laws was brought before the Supreme Court in Ray v. Blair, 343 U.S. 214 (1952). The Court ruled in favor of state laws requiring electors to pledge to vote for the winning candidate, as well as removing electors who refuse to pledge. As stated in the ruling, electors are acting as a functionary of the state, not the federal government. Therefore, states have the right to govern the process of choosing electors. The constitutionality of state laws punishing electors for actually casting a faithless vote, rather than refusing to pledge, has never been decided by the Supreme Court. However, in his dissent in Ray v. Blair, Justice Robert Jackson wrote: "no one faithful to our history can deny that the plan originally contemplated what is implicit in its text -- that electors would be free agents, to exercise an independent and nonpartisan judgment as to the men best qualified for the Nation 's highest offices. ''
While many laws punish a faithless elector only after the fact, states like Michigan also specify a faithless elector 's vote be voided.
As electoral slates are typically chosen by the political party or the party 's presidential nominee, electors usually have high loyalty to the party and its candidate: a faithless elector runs a greater risk of party censure than of criminal charges.
In 2000, elector Barbara Lett - Simmons of Washington, D.C., chose not to vote, rather than voting for Al Gore as she had pledged to do. In 2016, seven electors voted contrary to their pledges. Faithless electors have never changed the outcome of any presidential election.
The Twelfth Amendment mandates Congress assemble in joint session to count the electoral votes and declare the winners of the election. The session is ordinarily required to take place on January 6 in the calendar year immediately following the meetings of the presidential electors. Since the Twentieth Amendment, the newly elected Congress declares the winner of the election; all elections before 1936 were determined by the outgoing House.
The meeting is held at 1 p.m. in the Chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives. The sitting vice president is expected to preside, but in several cases the president pro tempore of the Senate has chaired the proceedings. The vice president and the Speaker of the House sit at the podium, with the vice president in the seat of the Speaker of the House. Senate pages bring in the two mahogany boxes containing each state 's certified vote and place them on tables in front of the senators and representatives. Each house appoints two tellers to count the vote (normally one member of each political party). Relevant portions of the Certificate of Vote are read for each state, in alphabetical order.
Members of Congress can object to any state 's vote count, provided objection is presented in writing and is signed by at least one member of each house of Congress. An objection supported by at least one senator and one representative will be followed by the suspension of the joint session and by separate debates and votes in each House of Congress; after both Houses deliberate on the objection, the joint session is resumed. A state 's certificate of vote can be rejected only if both Houses of Congress vote to accept the objection. In that case, the votes from the State in question are simply ignored. The votes of Arkansas and Louisiana were rejected in the presidential election of 1872.
Objections to the electoral vote count are rarely raised, although it did occur during the vote count in 2001 after the close 2000 presidential election between Governor George W. Bush of Texas and the vice president of the United States, Al Gore. Gore, who as vice president was required to preside over his own Electoral College defeat (by five electoral votes), denied the objections, all of which were raised by only several representatives and would have favored his candidacy, after no senators would agree to jointly object. Objections were again raised in the vote count of the 2004 elections, and on that occasion the document was presented by one representative and one senator. Although the joint session was suspended, the objections were quickly disposed of and rejected by both Houses of Congress. If there are no objections or all objections are overruled, the presiding officer simply includes a state 's votes, as declared in the certificate of vote, in the official tally.
After the certificates from all states are read and the respective votes are counted, the presiding officer simply announces the final result of the vote and, provided the required absolute majority of votes was achieved, declares the names of the persons elected president and vice president. This announcement concludes the joint session and formalizes the recognition of the president - elect and of the vice president - elect. The senators then depart from the House Chamber. The final tally is printed in the Senate and House journals.
The Twelfth Amendment requires the House of Representatives to go into session immediately to vote for a president if no candidate for president receives a majority of the electoral votes (since 1964, 270 of the 538 electoral votes).
In this event, the House of Representatives is limited to choosing from among the three candidates who received the most electoral votes for president. Each state delegation votes en bloc -- each delegation having a single vote; the District of Columbia does not receive a vote. A candidate must receive an absolute majority of state delegation votes (i.e., at present, a minimum of 26 votes) in order for that candidate to become the president - elect. Additionally, delegations from at least two thirds of all the states must be present for voting to take place. The House continues balloting until it elects a president.
The House of Representatives has chosen the president only twice: in 1801 under Article II, Section 1, Clause 3; and in 1825 under the Twelfth Amendment.
If no candidate for vice president receives an absolute majority of electoral votes, then the Senate must go into session to elect a vice president. The Senate is limited to choosing from the two candidates who received the most electoral votes for vice president. Normally this would mean two candidates, one less than the number of candidates available in the House vote. However, the text is written in such a way that all candidates with the most and second most electoral votes are eligible for the Senate election -- this number could theoretically be larger than two. The Senate votes in the normal manner in this case (i.e., ballots are individually cast by each senator, not by state delegations). However, two - thirds of the senators must be present for voting to take place.
Additionally, the Twelfth Amendment states a "majority of the whole number '' of senators (currently 51 of 100) is necessary for election. Further, the language requiring an absolute majority of Senate votes precludes the sitting vice president from breaking any tie that might occur, although some academics and journalists have speculated to the contrary.
The only time the Senate chose the vice president was in 1837. In that instance, the Senate adopted an alphabetical roll call and voting aloud. The rules further stated, "(I) fa majority of the number of senators shall vote for either the said Richard M. Johnson or Francis Granger, he shall be declared by the presiding officer of the Senate constitutionally elected Vice President of the United States ''; the Senate chose Johnson.
Section 3 of the Twentieth Amendment specifies if the House of Representatives has not chosen a president - elect in time for the inauguration (noon EST on January 20), then the vice president - elect becomes acting president until the House selects a president. Section 3 also specifies Congress may statutorily provide for who will be acting president if there is neither a president - elect nor a vice president - elect in time for the inauguration. Under the Presidential Succession Act of 1947, the Speaker of the House would become acting president until either the House selects a president or the Senate selects a vice president. Neither of these situations has ever occurred.
Source: Presidential Elections 1789 -- 2000 at Psephos (Adam Carr 's Election Archive) Note: In 1788, 1792, 1796, and 1800, each elector cast two votes for president.
Before the advent of the short ballot in the early 20th century, as described above, the most common means of electing the presidential electors was through the general ticket. The general ticket is quite similar to the current system and is often confused with it. In the general ticket, voters cast ballots for individuals running for presidential elector (while in the short ballot, voters cast ballots for an entire slate of electors). In the general ticket, the state canvass would report the number of votes cast for each candidate for elector, a complicated process in states like New York with multiple positions to fill. Both the general ticket and the short ballot are often considered at - large or winner - takes - all voting. The short ballot was adopted by the various states at different times; it was adopted for use by North Carolina and Ohio in 1932. Alabama was still using the general ticket as late as 1960 and was one of the last states to switch to the short ballot.
The question of the extent to which state constitutions may constrain the legislature 's choice of a method of choosing electors has been touched on in two U.S. Supreme Court cases. In McPherson v. Blacker, 146 U.S. 1 (1892), the Court cited Article II, Section 1, Clause 2 which states that a state 's electors are selected "in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct '' and wrote these words "operat (e) as a limitation upon the state in respect of any attempt to circumscribe the legislative power ''. In Bush v. Palm Beach County Canvassing Board, 531 U.S. 70 (2000), a Florida Supreme Court decision was vacated (not reversed) based on McPherson. On the other hand, three dissenting justices in Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98 (2000), wrote: "(N) othing in Article II of the Federal Constitution frees the state legislature from the constraints in the State Constitution that created it. ''
In the earliest presidential elections, state legislative choice was the most common method of choosing electors. A majority of the state legislatures selected presidential electors in both 1792 (9 of 15) and 1800 (10 of 16), and half of them did so in 1812. Even in the 1824 election, a quarter of state legislatures (6 of 24) chose electors. In that election, Andrew Jackson lost in spite of having pluralities of both the popular and electoral votes, with the outcome being decided by the six state legislatures choosing the electors. Some state legislatures simply chose electors, while other states used a hybrid method in which state legislatures chose from a group of electors elected by popular vote. By 1828, with the rise of Jacksonian democracy, only Delaware and South Carolina used legislative choice. Delaware ended its practice the following election (1832), while South Carolina continued using the method until it seceded from the Union in December 1860. South Carolina used the popular vote for the first time in the 1868 election.
Excluding South Carolina, legislative appointment was used in only four situations after 1832:
Legislative appointment was brandished as a possibility in the 2000 election. Had the recount continued, the Florida legislature was prepared to appoint the Republican slate of electors to avoid missing the federal safe - harbor deadline for choosing electors.
The Constitution gives each state legislature the power to decide how its state 's electors are chosen and it can be easier and cheaper for a state legislature to simply appoint a slate of electors than to create a legislative framework for holding elections to determine the electors. As noted above, the two situations in which legislative choice has been used since the Civil War have both been because there was not enough time or money to prepare for an election. However, appointment by state legislature can have negative consequences: bicameral legislatures can deadlock more easily than the electorate. This is precisely what happened to New York in 1789 when the legislature failed to appoint any electors.
Another method used early in U.S. history was to divide the state into electoral districts. By this method, voters in each district would cast their ballots for the electors they supported and the winner in each district would become the elector. This was similar to how states are currently separated by congressional districts. However, the difference stems from the fact every state always had two more electoral districts than congressional districts. As with congressional districts, moreover, this method is vulnerable to gerrymandering.
Under such a system, electors would be selected in proportion to the votes cast for their candidate or party, rather than being selected by the statewide plurality vote.
There are two versions of the congressional district method: one has been implemented in Maine and Nebraska; another has been proposed in Virginia. Under the implemented congressional district method, the electoral votes are distributed based on the popular vote winner within each of the states ' congressional districts; the statewide popular vote winner receives two additional electoral votes.
In 2013, a different version of the congressional district method was proposed in Virginia. This version would distribute Virginia 's electoral votes based on the popular vote winner within each of Virginia 's congressional districts; the two statewide electoral votes would be awarded based on which candidate won the most congressional districts, rather than on who won Virginia 's statewide popular vote.
The congressional district method can more easily be implemented than other alternatives to the winner - takes - all method, in view of major party resistance to relatively enabling third parties under the proportional method. State legislation is sufficient to use this method. Advocates of the congressional district method believe the system would encourage higher voter turnout and incentivize presidential candidates to broaden their campaigns in non-competitive states. Winner - take - all systems ignore thousands of popular votes; in Democratic California there are Republican districts, in Republican Texas there are Democratic districts. Because candidates have an incentive to campaign in competitive districts, with a district plan, candidates have an incentive to actively campaign in over thirty states versus seven "swing '' states. Opponents of the system, however, argue candidates might only spend time in certain battleground districts instead of the entire state and cases of gerrymandering could become exacerbated as political parties attempt to draw as many safe districts as they can.
Unlike simple congressional district comparisons, the district plan popular vote bonus in the 2008 election would have given Obama 56 % of the Electoral College versus the 68 % he did win, it "would have more closely approximated the percentage of the popular vote won (53 %) ''.
Of the 43 states whose electoral votes could be affected by the congressional district method, only Maine and Nebraska apply it today. Maine has four electoral votes, based on its two representatives and two senators. Nebraska has two senators and three representatives, giving it five electoral votes. Maine began using the congressional district method in the election of 1972. Nebraska has used the congressional district method since the election of 1992. Michigan used the system for the 1892 presidential election, and several other states used various forms of the district plan before 1840: Virginia, Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, North Carolina, Massachusetts, Illinois, Maine, Missouri, and New York.
The congressional district method allows a state the chance to split its electoral votes between multiple candidates. Prior to 2008, neither Maine nor Nebraska had ever split their electoral votes. Nebraska split its electoral votes for the first time in 2008, giving John McCain its statewide electors and those of two congressional districts, while Barack Obama won the electoral vote of Nebraska 's 2nd congressional district. Following the 2008 split, some Nebraska Republicans made efforts to discard the congressional district method and return to the winner - takes - all system. In January 2010, a bill was introduced in the Nebraska legislature to revert to a winner - take - all system; the bill died in committee in March 2011. Republicans had also passed bills in 1995 and 1997 to eliminate the congressional district method in Nebraska, but those bills were vetoed by Democratic Governor Ben Nelson.
In 2010, Republicans in Pennsylvania, who controlled both houses of the legislature as well as the governorship, put forward a plan to change the state 's winner - takes - all system to a congressional district method system. Pennsylvania had voted for the Democratic candidate in the five previous presidential elections, so some saw this as an attempt to take away Democratic electoral votes. Although Democrat Barack Obama won Pennsylvania in 2008, he won only 55 % of Pennsylvania 's popular vote. The district plan would have awarded him 11 of its 21 electoral votes, a 52.4 % that is closer to the popular vote yet still overcoming Republican gerrymandering. The plan later lost support. Other Republicans, including Michigan state representative Pete Lund, RNC Chairman Reince Priebus, and Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker, have floated similar ideas.
Arguments between proponents and opponents of the current electoral system include four separate but related topics: indirect election, disproportionate voting power by some states, the winner - takes - all distribution method (as chosen by 48 of the 50 states), and federalism. Arguments against the Electoral College in common discussion focus mostly on the allocation of the voting power among the states. Gary Bugh 's research of congressional debates over proposed constitutional amendments to abolish the Electoral College reveals reform opponents have often appealed to a traditional version of representation, whereas reform advocates have tended to reference a more democratic view.
The elections of 1876, 1888, 2000, and 2016 produced an Electoral College winner who did not receive at least a plurality of the nationwide popular vote. In 1824, there were six states in which electors were legislatively appointed, rather than popularly elected, so it is uncertain what the national popular vote would have been if all presidential electors had been popularly elected. When no candidate received a majority of electoral votes in 1824, the election was decided by the House of Representatives and so could be considered distinct from the latter four elections in which all of the states had popular selection of electors. The true national popular vote was also uncertain in the 1960 election, and the plurality for the winner depends on how votes for Alabama electors are allocated.
Opponents of the Electoral College claim such outcomes do not logically follow the normative concept of how a democratic system should function. One view is the Electoral College violates the principle of political equality, since presidential elections are not decided by the one - person one - vote principle. Outcomes of this sort are attributable to the federal nature of the system. Supporters of the Electoral College argue candidates must build a popular base that is geographically broader and more diverse in voter interests than either a simple national plurality or majority. Neither is this feature attributable to having intermediate elections of presidents, caused instead by the winner - takes - all method of allocating each state 's slate of electors. Allocation of electors in proportion to the state 's popular vote could reduce this effect.
Proponents of a national popular vote point out combined population of the 50 biggest cities (not including metropolitan areas) only amounts to 15 % of the population, and that candidates in popular vote elections for governor and U.S. Senate, and for statewide allocation of electoral votes, do not ignore voters in less populated areas. In addition, it is already possible to win the required 270 electoral votes by winning only the 11 most populous states; what currently prevents such a result is the organic political diversity between those states (three reliably Republican states, four swing states, and four reliably Democratic states), not any inherent quality of the Electoral College itself. If all of those states came to lean reliably for one party, then the Electoral College itself would bring about an urban - centric victory.
Elections where the winning candidate loses the national popular vote typically result when the winner builds the requisite configuration of states (and thus captures their electoral votes) by small margins, but the losing candidate secures large voter margins in the remaining states. In this case, the very large margins secured by the losing candidate in the other states would aggregate to a plurality of the ballots cast nationally. However, commentators question the legitimacy of this national popular vote; pointing out that the national popular vote observed under the Electoral College system does not reflect the popular vote observed under a National Popular Vote system; as each electoral institution produces different incentives for, and strategy choices by, presidential campaigns. Because the national popular vote is irrelevant under the electoral college system, it is generally presumed candidates base their campaign strategies around the existence of the Electoral College; any close race has candidates campaigning to maximize electoral votes by focusing their get - out - the - vote efforts in crucially needed swing states and not attempting to maximize national popular vote totals by using limited campaign resources to run up margins or close up gaps in states considered "safe '' for themselves or their opponents, respectively. Conversely, the institutional structure of a national popular vote system would encourage candidates to pursue voter turnout wherever votes could be found, even in "safe '' states they are already expected to win, and in "safe '' states they have no hope of winning.
Educational YouTuber CGP Grey, who has produced several short videos criticizing the Electoral College, has illustrated how it is technically possible to win the necessary 270 electoral votes while winning only 22 % of the overall popular vote, by winning the barest simple majority of the 39 smallest states and the District of Columbia. Though the current political geography of the United States makes such an election unlikely (it would require winning both reliably Democratic jurisdictions like Massachusetts and D.C. and reliably Republican states like Utah and Alaska), he argues that a system in which such a result is even remotely possible is "indefensible. ''
The United States is the only country that elects a politically powerful president via an electoral college and the only one in which a candidate can become president without having obtained the highest number of votes in the sole or final round of popular voting.
According to this criticism, the Electoral College encourages political campaigners to focus on a few so - called "swing states '' while ignoring the rest of the country. Populous states in which pre-election poll results show no clear favorite are inundated with campaign visits, saturation television advertising, get - out - the - vote efforts by party organizers and debates, while "four out of five '' voters in the national election are "absolutely ignored '', according to one assessment. Since most states use a winner - takes - all arrangement in which the candidate with the most votes in that state receives all of the state 's electoral votes, there is a clear incentive to focus almost exclusively on only a few key undecided states; in recent elections, these states have included Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Florida in 2004 and 2008, and also Colorado in 2012. In contrast, states with large populations such as California, Texas, and New York, have in recent elections been considered "safe '' for a particular party -- Democratic for California and New York and Republican for Texas -- and therefore campaigns spend less time and money there. Many small states are also considered to be "safe '' for one of the two political parties and are also generally ignored by campaigners: of the 13 smallest states, six are reliably Democratic, six are reliably Republican, and only New Hampshire is considered as a swing state, according to critic George C. Edwards III. In the 2008 election, campaigns did not mount nationwide efforts but rather focused on select states.
Except in closely fought swing states, voter turnout is largely insignificant due to entrenched political party domination in most states. The Electoral College decreases the advantage a political party or campaign might gain for encouraging voters to turn out, except in those swing states. If the presidential election were decided by a national popular vote, in contrast, campaigns and parties would have a strong incentive to work to increase turnout everywhere. Individuals would similarly have a stronger incentive to persuade their friends and neighbors to turn out to vote. The differences in turnout between swing states and non-swing states under the current electoral college system suggest that replacing the Electoral College with direct election by popular vote would likely increase turnout and participation significantly.
According to this criticism, the electoral college reduces elections to a mere count of electors for a particular state, and, as a result, it obscures any voting problems within a particular state. For example, if a particular state blocks some groups from voting, perhaps by voter suppression methods such as imposing reading tests, poll taxes, registration requirements, or legally disfranchising specific minority groups, then voting inside that state would be reduced, but as the state 's electoral count would be the same, disenfranchisement has no effect on the overall electoral tally. Critics contend that such disenfranchisement is partially obscured by the Electoral College. A related argument is the Electoral College may have a dampening effect on voter turnout: there is no incentive for states to reach out to more of its citizens to include them in elections because the state 's electoral count remains fixed in any event. According to this view, if elections were by popular vote, then states would be motivated to include more citizens in elections since the state would then have more political clout nationally. Critics contend the electoral college system insulates states from negative publicity as well as possible federal penalties for disenfranching subgroups of citizens.
Legal scholars Akhil Amar and Vikram Amar have argued the original Electoral College compromise was enacted partially because it enabled the southern states to disenfranchise its slave populations. It permitted southern states to disfranchise large numbers of slaves while allowing these states to maintain political clout within the federation by using the three - fifths compromise. They noted that constitutional Framer James Madison believed the question of counting slaves had presented a serious challenge but that "the substitution of electors obviated this difficulty and seemed on the whole to be liable to the fewest objections. '' Akhil and Vikram Amar added that
The founders ' system also encouraged the continued disfranchisement of women. In a direct national election system, any state that gave women the vote would automatically have doubled its national clout. Under the Electoral College, however, a state had no such incentive to increase the franchise; as with slaves, what mattered was how many women lived in a state, not how many were empowered... a state with low voter turnout gets precisely the same number of electoral votes as if it had a high turnout. By contrast, a well - designed direct election system could spur states to get out the vote.
Territories of the United States, such as Puerto Rico, the Northern Mariana Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and Guam, are not entitled to electors in presidential elections. Constitutionally, only U.S. states (per Article II, Section 1, Clause 2) and Washington, D.C. (per the Twenty - third Amendment) are entitled to electors. Guam has held non-binding straw polls for president since the 1980s to draw attention to this fact. This means that roughly 4 million Americans do not have the right to vote in presidential elections. Various scholars consequently conclude that the U.S. national - electoral process is not fully democratic.
Researchers have variously attempted to measure which states ' voters have the greatest impact in such an indirect election.
Each state gets a minimum of three electoral votes, regardless of population, which gives low - population states a disproportionate number of electors per capita. For example, an electoral vote represents nearly four times as many people in California as in Wyoming. Sparsely populated states are likely to be increasingly overrepresented in the electoral college over time, because Americans are increasingly moving to big cities, most of which are in big states. This analysis gives a strong advantage to the smallest states, but ignores any extra influence that comes from larger states ' ability to deliver their votes as a single bloc.
Countervailing analyses which do take into consideration the sizes of the electoral voting blocs, such as the Banzhaf power index (BPI) model based on probability theory lead to very different conclusions about voters relative power. In 1968, John F. Banzhaf III (who developed the Banzhaf power index) determined that a voter in the state of New York had, on average, 3.312 times as much voting power in presidential elections as a voter in any other U.S. state. It was found that based on 1990 census and districting, individual voters in California, the largest state, had 3.3 times more individual power to choose a President than voters of Montana, the largest of the minimum 3 elector states. Because Banzhaf 's method ignores the demographic makeup of the states, it has been criticized for treating votes like independent coin - flips. More empirically based models of voting yield results that seem to favor larger states less.
In practice, the winner - take - all manner of allocating a state 's electors generally decreases the importance of minor parties. However, it has been argued the Electoral College is not a cause of the two - party system, and that it had a tendency to improve the chances of third - party candidates in some situations.
While many of the critics of the Electoral College wish to abolish or weaken it, others are seeking to strengthen it, at least in regard to its original aim of preventing the election of demagogues by too direct of a system of election. Allowing for representatives to vote their conscience dispassionately for the good of the country is considered hampered by the potential for legal consequences in some states at being a faithless elector (though the Constitutionality of these laws have to date not been challenged) and the lack of secret ballot by electors in the voting process itself may lead to a consequent stigma and even death threats for those voting against the electorate.
Proponents of the Electoral College claim that it prevents a candidate from winning the presidency by simply winning in heavily populated urban areas, and pushes candidates to make a wider geographic appeal than they would if they simply had to win the national popular vote. They believe that adoption of the popular vote would shift the disproportionate focus to large cities at the expense of rural areas.
The United States of America is a federal coalition that consists of component states. Proponents of the current system argue the collective opinion of even a small state merits attention at the federal level greater than that given to a small, though numerically equivalent, portion of a very populous state. The system also allows each state the freedom, within constitutional bounds, to design its own laws on voting and enfranchisement without an undue incentive to maximize the number of votes cast.
For many years early in the nation 's history, up until the Jacksonian Era, many states appointed their electors by a vote of the state legislature, and proponents argue that, in the end, the election of the president must still come down to the decisions of each state, or the federal nature of the United States will give way to a single massive, centralized government.
In his book A More Perfect Constitution, Professor Larry Sabato elaborated on this advantage of the Electoral College, arguing to "mend it, do n't end it, '' in part because of its usefulness in forcing candidates to pay attention to lightly populated states and reinforcing the role of the state in federalism.
Instead of decreasing the power of minority groups by depressing voter turnout, proponents argue that by making the votes of a given state an all - or - nothing affair, minority groups can provide the critical edge that allows a candidate to win. This encourages candidates to court a wide variety of such minorities and advocacy groups.
Proponents of the Electoral College see its negative effect on third parties as beneficial. They argue the two party system has provided stability because it encourages a delayed adjustment during times of rapid political and cultural change. They believe it protects the most powerful office in the country from control by what these proponents view as regional minorities until they can moderate their views to win broad, long - term support across the nation. Advocates of a national popular vote for president suggest that this effect would also be true in popular vote elections. Of 918 elections for governor between 1948 and 2009, for example, more than 90 % were won by candidates securing more than 50 % of the vote, and none have been won with less than 35 % of the vote.
According to this argument, the fact the Electoral College is made up of real people instead of mere numbers allows for human judgment and flexibility to make a decision, if it happens that a candidate dies or becomes legally disabled around the time of the election. Advocates of the current system argue that human electors would be in a better position to choose a suitable replacement than the general voting public. According to this view, electors could act decisively during the critical time interval between when ballot choices become fixed in state ballots until mid-December when the electors formally cast their ballots. In the election of 1872, losing Liberal Republican candidate Horace Greeley died during this time interval, which resulted in disarray for the Democratic Party, who also supported Greeley, but the Greeley electors were able to split their votes for different alternate candidates. A situation in which the winning candidate died has never happened. In the election of 1912, Vice President Sherman died shortly before the election when it was too late for states to remove his name from their ballots; accordingly, Sherman was listed posthumously, but the eight electoral votes that Sherman would have received were cast instead for Nicholas Murray Butler.
Some supporters of the Electoral College note that it isolates the impact of any election fraud, or other such problems, to the state where it occurs. It prevents instances where a party dominant in one state may dishonestly inflate the votes for a candidate and thereby affect the election outcome. For instance, recounts occur only on a state - by - state basis, not nationwide. Results in a single state where the popular vote is very close -- such as Florida in 2000 -- can decide the national election.
The closest the United States has come to abolishing the Electoral College occurred during the 91st Congress (1969 -- 1971). The presidential election of 1968 resulted in Richard Nixon receiving 301 electoral votes (56 % of electors), Hubert Humphrey 191 (35.5 %), and George Wallace 46 (8.5 %) with 13.5 % of the popular vote. However, Nixon had received only 511,944 more popular votes than Humphrey, 43.5 % to 42.9 %, less than 1 % of the national total.
Representative Emanuel Celler (D -- New York), chairman of the House Judiciary Committee, responded to public concerns over the disparity between the popular vote and electoral vote by introducing House Joint Resolution 681, a proposed Constitutional amendment that would have replaced the Electoral College with a simpler plurality system based on the national popular vote. With this system, the pair of candidates who had received the highest number of votes would win the presidency and vice presidency provided they won at least 40 % of the national popular vote. If no pair received 40 % of the popular vote, a runoff election would be held in which the choice of president and vice president would be made from the two pairs of persons who had received the highest number of votes in the first election. The word "pair '' was defined as "two persons who shall have consented to the joining of their names as candidates for the offices of President and Vice President. ''
On April 29, 1969, the House Judiciary Committee voted 28 to 6 to approve the proposal. Debate on the proposal before the full House of Representatives ended on September 11, 1969 and was eventually passed with bipartisan support on September 18, 1969, by a vote of 339 to 70.
On September 30, 1969, President Richard Nixon gave his endorsement for adoption of the proposal, encouraging the Senate to pass its version of the proposal, which had been sponsored as Senate Joint Resolution 1 by Senator Birch Bayh (D -- Indiana).
On October 8, 1969, the New York Times reported that 30 state legislatures were "either certain or likely to approve a constitutional amendment embodying the direct election plan if it passes its final Congressional test in the Senate. '' Ratification of 38 state legislatures would have been needed for adoption. The paper also reported that six other states had yet to state a preference, six were leaning toward opposition and eight were solidly opposed.
On August 14, 1970, the Senate Judiciary Committee sent its report advocating passage of the proposal to the full Senate. The Judiciary Committee had approved the proposal by a vote of 11 to 6. The six members who opposed the plan, Democratic Senators James Eastland of Mississippi, John Little McClellan of Arkansas, and Sam Ervin of North Carolina, along with Republican Senators Roman Hruska of Nebraska, Hiram Fong of Hawaii, and Strom Thurmond of South Carolina, all argued that although the present system had potential loopholes, it had worked well throughout the years. Senator Bayh indicated that supporters of the measure were about a dozen votes shy from the 67 needed for the proposal to pass the full Senate. He called upon President Nixon to attempt to persuade undecided Republican senators to support the proposal. However, Nixon, while not reneging on his previous endorsement, chose not to make any further personal appeals to back the proposal.
On September 8, 1970, the Senate commenced openly debating the proposal and the proposal was quickly filibustered. The lead objectors to the proposal were mostly Southern senators and conservatives from small states, both Democrats and Republicans, who argued abolishing the Electoral College would reduce their states ' political influence. On September 17, 1970, a motion for cloture, which would have ended the filibuster, received 54 votes to 36 for cloture, failing to receive the then required a two - thirds majority of senators voting. A second motion for cloture on September 29, 1970, also failed, by 53 to 34. Thereafter, the Senate majority leader, Mike Mansfield of Montana, moved to lay the proposal aside so the Senate could attend to other business. However, the proposal was never considered again and died when the 91st Congress ended on January 3, 1971.
On March 22, 1977, President Jimmy Carter wrote a letter of reform to Congress that also included his expression of essentially abolishing the Electoral College. The letter read in part:
My fourth recommendation is that the Congress adopt a Constitutional amendment to provide for direct popular election of the President. Such an amendment, which would abolish the Electoral College, will ensure that the candidate chosen by the voters actually becomes President. Under the Electoral College, it is always possible that the winner of the popular vote will not be elected. This has already happened in three elections, 1824, 1876, and 1888. In the last election, the result could have been changed by a small shift of votes in Ohio and Hawaii, despite a popular vote difference of 1.7 million. I do not recommend a Constitutional amendment lightly. I think the amendment process must be reserved for an issue of overriding governmental significance. But the method by which we elect our President is such an issue. I will not be proposing a specific direct election amendment. I prefer to allow the Congress to proceed with its work without the interruption of a new proposal.
President Carter 's proposed program for the reform of the Electoral College was very liberal for a modern president during this time, and in some aspects of the package, it went beyond original expectations. Newspapers like The New York Times saw President Carter 's proposal at that time as "a modest surprise '' because of the indication of Carter that he would be interested in only eliminating the electors but retaining the electoral vote system in a modified form.
Newspaper reaction to Carter 's proposal ranged from some editorials praising the proposal to other editorials, like that in the Chicago Tribune, criticizing the president for proposing the end of the Electoral College.
In a letter to The New York Times, Representative Jonathan B. Bingham (D - New York) highlighted the danger of the "flawed, outdated mechanism of the Electoral College '' by underscoring how a shift of fewer than 10,000 votes in two key states would have led to President Gerald Ford being reelected despite Jimmy Carter 's nationwide 1.7 million - vote margin.
On January 5, 2017, Representative Steve Cohen (D - Tennessee) introduced a joint resolution proposing a constitutional amendment that would replace the Electoral College with the popular election of the President and Vice President. Unlike the Bayh -- Celler amendment 40 % threshold for election, Cohen 's proposal only requires a candidate to have the "greatest number of votes '' to be elected.
Several states plus the District of Columbia have joined the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact. The compact is based on the current rule in Article II, Section 1, Clause 2 of the Constitution, which gives each state legislature the plenary power to determine how it chooses its electors. Those jurisdictions joining the compact agree to eventually pledge their electors to the winner of the national popular vote.
The compact will not come into effect until the number of states agreeing to the compact equals a majority (at least 270) of all electors. Some scholars have suggested that Article I, Section 10, Clause 3 of the Constitution requires congressional consent before the compact could be enforceable; thus, any attempted implementation of the compact could face court challenges to its constitutionality.
As of 2018, 10 states and the District of Columbia have joined the compact; collectively, these jurisdictions control 165 electoral votes, which is 61 % of the 270 required for the compact to take effect. Only strongly "blue '' states have joined the compact, each of which returned large victory margins for Barack Obama in the 2012 election.
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how many siblings does lincoln have in the loud house | The Loud House - wikipedia
The Loud House is an American animated television series created by animator and comic illustrator Chris Savino for Nickelodeon. The series revolves around the chaotic everyday life of a boy named Lincoln Loud, who is the middle child and only son in a large family of 11 children. It is set in a fictional town in Michigan called Royal Woods which is based on Chris Savino 's hometown of Royal Oak.
The series was pitched to the network in 2013 as a two - minute short film entered in the annual Animated Shorts Program. It was greenlighted for production the following year. Episodes are produced at Nickelodeon Animation Studio in Burbank, California and animated by the Canadian studio Jam Filled Entertainment. The series is based on Savino 's own childhood growing up in a large family, and its animation is largely influenced by newspaper comic strips.
Nickelodeon first released two preview episodes of The Loud House to its website in April 2016. The series officially premiered on May 2, 2016. Two seasons have since been broadcast, and a third is currently airing. Paramount Pictures and Nickelodeon Movies announced in March 2017 that the program will be adapted into a theatrical feature film, with a planned release date of February 7, 2020.
The Loud House has gained high ratings since its debut, becoming the top - rated children 's animated series on American television within its first month on the air. The series has received widespread attention and nominations at the 28th GLAAD Media Awards and the 29th GLAAD Media Awards for its inclusion of Howard and Harold McBride, two supporting characters who are a married gay couple, whose introduction into the series led to a ratings surge. In May 2017, the main characters of the series were featured on the front cover of Variety as an example of cultural and ethnic diversity impacting television programs.
On March 6, 2018, it was announced that The Loud House has been renewed for a fourth season, and a spin - off series, which is currently under the working title Los Casagrandes, has been greenlit.
In the fictional town of Royal Woods, Michigan, Lincoln Loud is the only boy and middle child in a family of eleven children. He has ten sisters with distinctive personalities: bossy eldest child Lori; ditzy fashionista Leni; musician Luna; comedian Luan; athletic Lynn; gloomy goth Lucy; polar - opposite twins Lana and Lola; child genius Lisa, and baby Lily. Lincoln occasionally breaks the fourth wall to explain to viewers the chaotic conditions and sibling relationships of the household, and continually devises plans to make his life in the house better.
Nickelodeon and its YouTube channel have done a series of podcasts called Listen Out Loud where each member of the Loud family does a podcast revolving around their topics.
The Loud House was created by Chris Savino for Nickelodeon. Savino based the series on his own experiences growing up in a large family. Early in development, the Loud family was going to be composed of rabbits, but this was terminated when an executive asked Savino to make them human. However, the idea of the Loud family being rabbits became used as Lincoln 's dream in the Season 3 episode "White Hare. '' He pitched the idea to Nickelodeon in 2013 as a 21⁄2 - minute short for their annual Animated Shorts Program. In June 2014, Nickelodeon announced that The Loud House had been picked up for a season of 13 episodes. The episode order was later increased to 26. On May 25, 2016, Nickelodeon announced that the series had been picked up for a second season of 14 episodes later increased to 26. On October 19, 2016, the series had been picked up for a third season of 26 episodes. Savino has cited Peanuts and Polly and Her Pals as influences on the show 's characterizations and animation. Newspaper comic strips are also influences on the show 's background art.
On October 17, 2017, Cartoon Brew reported that Chris Savino was suspended from the studio due to allegations of sexual harassment, the report noting that rumors of Savino 's behavior have existed for "at least a decade. '' On October 19, a Nickelodeon spokesperson confirmed that Savino had been fired from the studio, and that the series will continue production without him. Six days later on October 23, Savino spoke for the first time since his firing saying he said he was "deeply sorry '' for his actions. Alongside the announcement of the series being greenlit for a fourth season, it was revealed that story editor Mike Rubiner had now been named executive producer and showrunner. On May 30, 2018, Savino was suspended from The Animation Guild, IATSE Local 839, for one year.
The series debuted on Nickelodeon on Monday, May 2, 2016 at 5: 00PM (ET / PT), with new episodes premiering every weekday that month. The first trailer for the series premiered on March 13, 2016. The series is also aired on AFN Family.
Internationally, the series premiered in Israel and Italy on May 15. It premiered in Latin America, Brazil, Poland, Germany, France and Africa the following day. It began airing in Southeast Asia on May 20. Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and Ireland 's Nickelodeon channels premiered the series on May 30. In Canada, YTV aired a sneak peek of the series on September 5, 2016, which was followed by an official premiere on September 6, 2016.
The series premiered on May 15, 2016 in the Middle East and North Africa, on Nickelodeon Arabia. However, it is dubbed in Gulf Arabic.
The Loud House has received positive reviews, specifically for its animation, voice acting, characterization, and the heartwarming themes of each episode. Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media praised the show 's voice cast and thematic messages, writing that "kids will come to The Loud House for the laughs, but they 'll return for the ensemble cast and the surprisingly heartwarming themes that dominate every story. '' Kevin Johnson of The A.V. Club gave the series a B+, noting that "the female characters are defined by their traits, but never judged for them. ''
The characters of Howard and Harold McBride have received praise for being a positive representation of a married gay couple. They are the first married gay couple to be featured in a Nicktoon. Laura Bradley of Vanity Fair stated that The Loud House "handles the topic (of same - sex marriage) in exactly the right way... this kind of casual representation in children 's programming is a milestone. '' De Elizabeth of Teen Vogue wrote, "The best part is that the show does n't treat these characters any differently, or even introduce them with a heavy asterisk about their marital status. '' The Frisky 's Tai Gooden mentioned that "kids who have two dads (or moms) will be more than thrilled to see a family they can identify with on TV. '' Time reported that "people are thrilled about Nickelodeon 's decision '' to include a gay couple. However, the characters have been met with criticism from conservative media groups. The American Family Association objected to scenes featuring the McBride parents and attempted to push for the episode to be edited to no avail, saying that "Nickelodeon should stick to entertaining instead of pushing an agenda. '' The Kenya Film Classification Board also called for the suspension of the series on Pay TV service provider DStv, saying that the animated series "promotes the Lesbian, Gay and Transgender agenda. ''
The Loud House became the number - one children 's animated series on television within its first month on the air. Throughout May 2016, it received an average of 68 % more viewers in its target audience of children aged 6 -- 11 than broadcasts on Nickelodeon in May of the previous year. As of June 2016, it was Nickelodeon 's highest - rated program, beating SpongeBob SquarePants with an average Nielsen rating of 4.9 among the 2 -- 11 demographic at the time.
The Los Angeles Times cited The Loud House as a major factor in maintaining Nickelodeon 's position as the highest - rated children 's network in summer 2016. During the show 's fourth week of premieres, Cyma Zarghami announced that it was continuing to draw more viewers than any other program on the channel.
The show 's highest - rated episode, with 2.28 million viewers upon its premiere, is "Two Boys and a Baby ''. This was the first episode to air after it was announced that Howard and Harold McBride would be debuting on the program. The first episode of The Loud House shown at prime time, "11 Louds a Leapin ' '', was the seventh most - viewed telecast across all U.S. households on Friday, November 25, 2016.
The Loud House 's portrayal of married gay couple Howard and Harold McBride was nominated for Outstanding Individual Episode at the 28th GLAAD Media Awards and for Outstanding Kids & Family Programming at the 29th GLAAD Media Awards. The series was also nominated for Favorite Cartoon at both the 2017 Kids ' Choice Awards and the 2018 Kids ' Choice Awards.
On March 28, 2017, Paramount 's motion picture president Marc Evans announced a movie based on the series originally set for release on February 7, 2020.
A spinoff with the working title Los Casagrandes was put into development by Nickelodeon in March 2018. It will feature Bobby and Ronnie Anne Santiago as well as their extended Casagrande family living in the as - yet - unnamed big city. The spinoff was greenlit to series on July 2, 2018.
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jab pyar kisise hota hai old movie songs | Jab Pyar Kisi Se Hota Hai - Wikipedia
Jab Pyar Kisi Se Hota Hai (English: When One Falls in Love) is a 1961 Bollywood movie that became a box office hit. It was written, produced, and directed by Nasir Hussain. The first film Hussain ever produced, it featured Dev Anand and Hussain fixture Asha Parekh in the leading roles. Pran played the villain in the film and Rajindernath starred in a supporting role.
Hussain would rework some of the elements from this film into a later film, Teesri Manzil (1966). This was also the only time that he used Shankar Jaikishan as music directors and Dev Anand in a leading role. The playback singers were Mohammed Rafi and Lata Mangeshkar.
Nisha belongs to a very wealthy family of Neelgaon, India. She is now of marriageable age, and her businessman dad, Sardar Roop Singh wants her to marry his friend 's son, Sohan, but Nisha dislikes him. While traveling to Darjeeling with a dance troupe, she meets with her dad 's business associates ' son, Popat Lal, and after a few misadventures, both fall in love with each other. She takes him to meet her dad where he can also finalize his business transaction, but when Roop comes inside, he finds that Popat has disappeared, and in his place is another man claiming to be the real Popat. Nisha 's heart is broken and she starts to hate Popat. She does meet with Popat, who tells her that his real name is Sunder and both had been promised to each other by their respective parents, but Roop had subsequently changed his mind. Nisha believes him and agrees to marry him without her father 's blessings. When the marriage is to take place, a man named Khanna comes over and tells Nisha that Sunder is already married to woman named Shanti, who he subsequently killed, and had been the primary accused in this case by the police. Watch what impact this news has on the marriage, and see what excuses Sunder now comes up with.
The music was by Shankar Jaikishan, and interestingly, the whole soundtrack was sung only by Mohammed Rafi and Lata Mangeshkar. Many of the songs went on to become classics and are still remembered even now, particularly, "Jiya O Jiya '' and "Teri Zulphon Se Judai '', sung by Mohammad Rafi, were big hits as well as "Sau Saal Pehle '', by Mohammad Rafi and Lata Mangeshkar. "Sau Saal Pehle '' was later used in the Tamil film Vallavanukku Vallavan as "Manam Ennum ''.
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who played the original emperor in star wars | Palpatine - wikipedia
Sheev Palpatine (also known by his Sith identity Darth Sidious and publicly as Senator Palpatine, then Supreme Chancellor Palpatine, and later Emperor Palpatine) is a fictional character and one of the primary antagonists of the Star Wars franchise, mainly portrayed by Ian McDiarmid. In the original trilogy, he is depicted as the aged, pale - faced and cloaked Emperor of the Galactic Empire and the Sith master of Darth Vader. In the prequel trilogy, he is portrayed as a middle - aged charismatic Senator from Naboo who uses deception and political manipulation to rise to the position of Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic before transforming the Republic into the Empire.
Though outwardly appearing to be a well - intentioned public servant and supporter of democracy prior to being Emperor, he is actually Darth Sidious, the Dark Lord of the Sith -- a cult of practitioners of the dark side of the Force previously thought to have been extinct for a millennium, and master of Darth Maul and Count Dooku. As his Sith identity, he is the mastermind behind the Clone Wars conflict. Playing both sides of the Republic and the Separatists, as Chancellor, Palpatine uses the conflict to gain more political power and stay in office long after his term has expired. He ultimately reorganizes the Republic into the Galactic Empire, declaring the Jedi as traitors who had attempted to assassinate him, having most killed through Order 66, and declaring himself as Emperor. He also manipulates Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker into turning to the dark side and serving as his new apprentice. Palpatine 's reign is brought to an end when Vader unexpectedly turns against the dark side in order to save Luke Skywalker from being killed by his master.
Since the initial theatrical run of Return of the Jedi, Palpatine has become a widely recognized popular culture symbol of evil, sinister deception, dictatorship, tyranny, and the subversion of democracy.
The Emperor is briefly mentioned in the original Star Wars, the first film in the original trilogy. Grand Moff Tarkin explains to the fellow Imperials that the Emperor has dissolved the Senate.
The Emperor first appears (in hologram form) in The Empire Strikes Back to address his Sith apprentice Darth Vader.
In 1983 's Return of the Jedi, the Emperor appears in person to oversee the last stages of the second Death Star 's construction. He assures Darth Vader that they will together turn Luke Skywalker to the dark side. Unknown to Vader, the Emperor plans to replace his apprentice with Luke. When Vader brings Luke before his master, the Emperor tempts Luke to join the dark side by appealing to the young Jedi 's fear for his friends, whom he has lured into a trap. This leads to a lightsaber duel in which Luke defeats and nearly kills Vader. The Emperor tells Luke to kill Vader and take his place, but Luke refuses and declares himself a Jedi. Enraged, the Emperor attacks Luke with Force lightning. Moved by his son 's cries of pain, Anakin Skywalker throws the Emperor into a shaft on the Death Star, killing him.
In the 1999 prequel Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, which is set 32 years before Star Wars, Palpatine is depicted as a middle - aged Galactic Senator from the planet Naboo who is secretly the Sith Lord Darth Sidious. As Sidious, he advises the corrupt Trade Federation to blockade and invade Naboo. Queen Padmé Amidala of Naboo flees to the planet Coruscant to receive counsel from Palpatine, unaware that he actually engineered the invasion. After a plea for help from the senate results in bureaucratic delays, Palpatine persuades the queen to call for a motion of no confidence against Supreme Chancellor Finis Valorum.
When Padmé attempts to liberate Naboo, Sidious sends his Sith apprentice Darth Maul there to capture Padme. The invasion is eventually thwarted and Maul is defeated in a lightsaber duel with Obi - Wan Kenobi. Palpatine uses the crisis to be elected the new Chancellor of the Republic. He then returns to Naboo, where he befriends the young Anakin, telling the boy that, "We will watch your career with great interest ''.
In the 2002 sequel Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones, Palpatine exploits constitutional loopholes to remain in office even after the official expiration of his term. Meanwhile, Sidious continues to manipulate events from behind the scenes by having his new Sith apprentice Count Dooku lead a movement of planets in seceding to form the Confederacy of Independent Systems.
With the Separatists secretly building a battle droid army, Palpatine uses the situation to have himself granted emergency powers. Palpatine feigns reluctance to accept this authority, promising to return it to the Senate once the crisis has ended. His first act is to allow a clone army 's creation to counter the Separatist threat; this results in the first battle of the Clone Wars. With the galaxy now at war as Sidious planned, Dooku brings him the secret plans for an ultimate weapon.
In the 2005 sequel Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith, Palpatine is captured by cyborg Separatist General Grievous, as part of a plan devised by Sidious. Palpatine is rescued by Anakin and Obi - Wan, but not before the Jedi confront Dooku again. A duel ensues in which Anakin defeats Dooku. Palpatine urges Anakin to kill the unarmed Dooku; after some hesitance, Anakin kills Dooku in cold blood. Palpatine then escapes with his Jedi rescuers and returns to Coruscant. By this point, Palpatine has become a virtual dictator, able to take any action in the Senate. He makes Anakin his personal representative on the Jedi Council who deny Anakin 's Jedi master 's rank and order to spy on the Chancellor. Palpatine tells Anakin the story of a powerful Sith Lord who was able to manipulate life and death but was killed by his own apprentice (Palpatine himself). Eventually, Palpatine reveals his secret Sith Lord identity to Anakin; he knows that Anakin has been having prophetic visions of Padmé dying in childbirth, and offers to teach his master 's secrets to save Padme 's life.
Anakin informs Jedi Master Mace Windu of Palpatine 's treachery. With three other Jedi masters at his side, Windu attempts to arrest Palpatine, but Palpatine produces a lightsaber from his sleeve and quickly dispatches all but Windu. Palpatine engages Windu in a duel and fires Force lightning at the Jedi master, but Windu deflects the lightning back at its source, deforming Palpatine 's face into the gray, wizened visage seen in the original trilogy. Just as Windu is about to dispatch Palpatine, Anakin appears and intervenes on the Sith Lord 's behalf, allowing Palpatine to kill Windu with another blast of lightning, throwing Windu out of a window high above Coruscant; Anakin then pledges himself to the dark side as Vader.
Palpatine orders the clone troopers to turn on their Jedi generals through order 66, while dispatching Vader to kill everyone inside the Jedi Temple and then murder the Separatist leaders on the planet Mustafar. Palpatine declares the Jedi to have committed treason and attempted to assassinate him, then reorganizing the Republic into the Galactic Empire, with himself as Emperor. In his office, Jedi Master Yoda confronts him and engages the Sith Lord in a lightsaber duel that ends in a stalemate. Sensing more danger, Palpatine travels to Mustafar and finds his new apprentice near death following a duel with Obi - Wan. After returning to Coruscant, he rebuilds Vader 's burned, mutilated body with the black armored suit from the original trilogy. Palpatine then tells Vader that Padmé was killed in the heat of Vader 's anger, breaking what remains of his apprentice 's spirit. Palpatine is last seen watching the original Death Star 's construction, with Vader and Wilhuff Tarkin at his side.
In the 2008 animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars and the subsequent animated series (set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith), Palpatine continues to serve as Supreme Chancellor while his Sith identity remains behind the scenes via holograms. Palpatine was voiced by Ian Abercrombie (from 2008 to his death in 2012), and by Tim Curry (from 2012 to 2014).
In the film, Sidious engineers a Separatist plot where Count Dooku turns Jabba the Hutt against the Republic by kidnapping his son Rotta and framing the Jedi for it. Meanwhile, Palpatine suggests that the Republic ally itself with the Hutts. Although Anakin Skywalker and Padawan Ahsoka Tano foil the plot, the outcome suits Palpatine 's ends: Jabba places Hutt hyperspace routes at the Republic 's disposal.
In season two, Sidious hires bounty hunter Cad Bane to infiltrate the Jedi Temple and steal a holocron. He then takes a valuable Kyber memory crystal that contains the names of thousands of Force - sensitive younglings - the future of the Jedi Order - from around the galaxy. The final stage of the plot: to bring four Force - sensitive children to Sidious 's secret facility on Mustafar. Anakin and Ahsoka again foil the plot, but Bane escapes and all evidence of Sidious ' involvement is lost.
In season five, Sidious personally travels to the planet Mandalore to confront Darth Maul after becoming leader of Death Watch, killing Savage Opress before torturing Maul with the intent to make use of his former apprentice.
In season six, Sidious goes to lengths to conceal his plan 's full nature from the Jedi by silencing Clone Trooper Fives from learning of Order 66, and having Dooku wipe out anything tied to the former Jedi Master 's connection to the conspiracy.
In Star Wars Rebels, Palpatine remains the Emperor of the Galactic Empire.
He briefly appears offscreen at the end of season two 's premiere "The Siege of Lothal '' (voiced by Sam Witwer). Darth Vader informs Palpatine that the Rebel Alliance cell on Lothal has been broken. However, Vader tells him that Ahsoka Tano is alive and is now helping the Rebels. Palpatine sees this as an opportunity to seek out other remaining Jedi (such as Obi - Wan Kenobi). Palpatine then tells Vader to dispatch an Inquisitor to hunt down Ahsoka.
Palpatine returns physically in season four (voiced again by Ian McDiarmid). In the episodes "Wolves and a Door '' and "A World Between Worlds '', he appears as a hologram overseeing the excavation of the Lothal Jedi Temple, which contains a portal to a separate dimension of the Force outside of space and time, which Palpatine considers a ' conduit between the living and the dead ' and could give him unrivaled power of the Force itself if he can access it. Shortly after Ezra Bridger reaches through time and space to rescue Ahsoka from being killed by Vader, Palpatine sets up a portal that shows Kanan Jarrus 's final moments. While Ezra wants to reach through the portal and rescue Kanan, Ahsoka dissuades Ezra from it. Palpatine then reveals himself through the portal and attempts to gain access to the world by shooting fiery Sith energy that can allow him to gain access if the energy can tie down Ezra for long enough. However, Ahsoka and Ezra manage to evade him and both go their separate ways, thus denying Palpatine full power.
Palpatine later returns in the series finale "Family Reunion - and Farewell ''. In the episode, Ezra, having surrendered himself to Thrawn to protect Lothal, is taken by him to a room containing a reconstructed section of the ruined Jedi Temple and a hologram of Palpatine 's pre-disfigurement self from the prequel trilogy. Palpatine, having acknowledged the threat Ezra faces to the Empire, presents himself as a kindly figure and shows Ezra a vision of his dead parents through a doorway, promising that the youth will be with them if entering it. Ezra is initially mesmerized by Palpatine 's promise and goes to enter the door, but finally resists and destroys the reconstructed Jedi Temple and the illusion. Palpatine 's hologram emerges from the rubble, flickering to show his true self, and commands his Royal Guards to kill Ezra, though Ezra manages to defeat them and escape. According to series creator Dave Filoni, the events of Rogue One and A New Hope happen shortly after this episode, thus refocusing Palpatine 's attention from Ezra and Lothal 's liberation to the Rebel Alliance and Luke Skywalker.
The first appearance of Palpatine in Star Wars literature was in Alan Dean Foster 's (writing as George Lucas) novelization of the script of A New Hope, published as Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker (1976).
Star Wars: Lords of the Sith was subsequently announced as one of the first four canon novels to be released in 2014 and 2015. In Lords of the Sith, Vader and Palpatine find themselves hunted by revolutionaries on the Twi'lek planet Ryloth.
Star Wars Battlefront II adds a canonical tale spanning the destruction of the second Death Star through the events of The Force Awakens. The story takes an Imperial perspective, following an elite squadron known as Inferno Squad, led by protagonist Iden Versio, as they help to execute Operation Cinder following the Emperor 's death. Operation: Cinder was carried out by the Galactic Empire as a means of devastating several Imperial planets in 4 ABY, only a few weeks following the Battle of Endor. The operation was part of the "Contingency '', a plan devised by Emperor Palpatine to ensure that the Empire and its enemies did not outlive him should he perish. The plan was put into action following the Emperor 's death during the Battle of Endor.
In April 2014, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise by Lucasfilm. Star Wars Legends literature elaborates on Palpatine 's role in Star Wars fiction outside of the films.
Palpatine / Darth Sidious is a central character in Genndy Tartakovsky 's Star Wars: Clone Wars micro-series, which is set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith. The character 's likeness in the series is based on that in The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones, and he is voiced by Nick Jameson. In the first chapter, Palpatine is informed by Obi - Wan Kenobi that the Jedi have discovered that the InterGalactic Banking Clan has established battle droid factories on the planet Muunilinst. Palpatine agrees to send a strike force that includes Anakin Skywalker, and suggests that Anakin be given "special command '' of Obi - Wan 's fighters. Yoda and Obi - Wan initially speak against the idea, but reluctantly concede. In the seventh chapter, a holographic image of Sidious appears shortly after Dooku trains Dark Jedi Asajj Ventress. Sidious orders Ventress to track down and kill Anakin. He remarks to Dooku that Ventress is certain to be defeated, but that the point of her mission is to test Anakin. In the final chapters, a hologram of Sidious again appears and orders General Grievous to begin an assault on the galactic capital. Later, the Separatist invasion of Coruscant begins and Palpatine watches from his apartment in the 500 Republica. Grievous breaks through the Chancellor 's window and attempts to kidnap him, leading to a long chase while Palpatine is protected by Jedi Shaak Ti, Roron Corobb and Foul Moudama. After Grievous apprehends the Jedi, Palpatine is taken on board the Invisible Hand, setting the stage for Revenge of the Sith.
Palpatine made his first major appearance in Legends in 1991 and 1992, with the Dark Empire series of comic books written by Tom Veitch and illustrated by Cam Kennedy. In the series (set six years after Return of the Jedi), Palpatine is resurrected as the Emperor Reborn or "Palpatine the Undying ''. His spirit returns from the netherworld of the Force with the aid of Sith ghosts on Korriban, the Sith world, and possesses the body of Jeng Droga, one of Palpatine 's elite spies and assassins known as the Emperor 's Hands. Droga flees to a secret Imperial base on the planet Byss, where the Emperor 's advisor Sate Pestage exorcises Palpatine 's spirit and channels it into one of many clones created by Palpatine before his death. Palpatine attempts to resume control of the galaxy, but Luke Skywalker, now a senior Jedi Knight, sabotages his plans. Luke destroys most of Palpatine 's cloning tanks, but is only able to defeat the Emperor with help from Leia Organa Solo, who has received rudimentary Jedi training from Luke. The two repel a Force storm Palpatine had created and turn it back onto him, once again destroying his physical form.
Palpatine 's ultimate fate is further chronicled in the Dark Empire II and Empire 's End series of comics. The Dark Empire II series, published from 1994 to 1995, details how the Emperor is once again reborn on Byss into a clone body. Palpatine tries to rebuild the Empire as the Rebel Alliance grows weak. In Empire 's End (1995), a traitorous Imperial guard bribes Palpatine 's cloning supervisor to tamper with the Emperor 's stored DNA samples. This causes the clones to deteriorate at a rapid rate. Palpatine tries to possess the body of Anakin Solo, the infant son of Leia Organa and Han Solo, before the clone body dies, but is thwarted once again by Luke Skywalker. Palpatine is killed by a blaster shot fired by Han, but his spirit is captured by the mortally wounded Jedi Empatojayos Brand. When Brand dies, he takes Palpatine 's spirit with him into the netherworld of the Force, destroying the Sith Lord once and for all.
Novels and comics published before 1999 focus on Palpatine 's role as Galactic Emperor. Shadows of the Empire (1996) by Steve Perry and The Mandalorian Armor (1998) by K.W. Jeter -- all set between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi -- show how Palpatine uses crime lords such as Prince Xizor and bounty hunters like Boba Fett to fight his enemies. Barbara Hambly 's novel Children of the Jedi (1995), set eight years after Return of the Jedi, features a woman named Roganda Ismaren who claims that Palpatine fathered her son Irek. The Jedi Prince series of novels introduces an insane, three - eyed mutant named Triclops who is revealed to be Palpatine 's illegitimate son. Created from DNA extracted from Palpatine and placed into a woman, he was born mutated, cast away and forgotten. Triclops had a son named Ken who became known as the "Jedi Prince ''.
Beginning in 1999 with Terry Brooks ' novelization of The Phantom Menace, Star Wars writers chronicled the role of Palpatine prior to A New Hope as a politician and Sith Lord. The comic "Marked '' by Rob Williams, printed in Star Wars Tales 24 (2005), and Michael Reaves ' novel Darth Maul: Shadow Hunter (2001) explain Darth Sidious ' relationship with his apprentice Darth Maul. Cloak of Deception (2001) by James Luceno follows Reaves ' novel and details how Darth Sidious encourages the Trade Federation to build an army of battle droids in preparation for the invasion of Naboo. Cloak of Deception also focuses on Palpatine 's early political career, revealing how he becomes a confidante of Chancellor Finis Valorum and acquainted with Padmé Amidala, newly elected queen of Naboo. Palpatine 's role during the Clone Wars as Chancellor of the Republic and Darth Sidious is portrayed in novels such as Matthew Stover 's Shatterpoint (2003), Steven Barnes ' The Cestus Deception (2004), Sean Stewart 's Yoda: Dark Rendezvous (2004), and Luceno 's Labyrinth of Evil (2005) and Darth Plagueis (2012).
The 2012 novel Star Wars: Darth Plageuis depicts Palpatine 's early life as the son of Naboo 's influential senator, Cosinga Palpatine, as well as his first encounters with his future Sith master, Darth Plageuis. In the novel, Palpatine murders his parents to prove his worthiness as a Sith apprentice, and serves at Plageuis ' right hand for 11 years until murdering him as well.
Following the theatrical release of Revenge of the Sith, Star Wars literature focused on Palpatine 's role after the creation of the Empire. John Ostrander 's comic Star Wars Republic 78: Loyalties (2005) chronicles how, shortly after seizing power, Emperor Palpatine sends Darth Vader to assassinate Sagoro Autem, an Imperial captain who plans to defect from the Empire. In Luceno 's novel Dark Lord: The Rise of Darth Vader (2005) (set shortly after Revenge of the Sith), the Emperor sends Darth Vader to the planet Murkhana to discover why clone troopers there refused to carry out Order 66 against their Jedi generals. Palpatine hopes these early missions will teach Vader what it means to be a Sith and crush any remnants of Anakin Skywalker.
In Star Wars fiction, Palpatine is a cunning politician, a ruthless emperor, and an evil Sith Lord. The Star Wars Databank describes him as "the supreme ruler of the most powerful tyrannical regime the galaxy had ever witnessed '' and Stephen J. Sansweet 's Star Wars Encyclopedia calls him "evil incarnate ''.
As a senator, Palpatine is "unassuming, yet ambitious ''. In Cloak of Deception, James Luceno writes that Palpatine carefully guards his privacy and "others found his reclusiveness intriguing, as if he led a secret life ''. Despite this, he has many allies in the government. Luceno writes, "What Palpatine lacked in charisma, he made up for in candor, and it was that directness that had led to his widespread appeal in the senate... For in his heart he judged the universe on his own terms, with a clear sense of right and wrong. '' In Terry Brooks ' novelization of The Phantom Menace, Palpatine claims to embrace democratic principles. He tells Queen Amidala, "I promise, Your Majesty, if I am elected (chancellor of the Republic), I will restore democracy to the Republic. I will put an end to the corruption that has plagued the Senate. '' A Visual Dictionary states that he is a self - proclaimed savior.
As Emperor, however, Palpatine abandons any semblance of democracy, as noted in Star Wars, when he abolishes the Imperial Senate. Sansweet states, "His Empire... is based on tyranny. ''
Revenge of the Sith implies that Palpatine was the apprentice of Darth Plagueis, while later Expanded Universe materials say explicitly that he was. Palpatine is characterized as "the most powerful practitioner of the Sith ways in modern times. '' Palpatine is so powerful that he is able to mask his true identity from the Jedi for decades. In the novel Shatterpoint, Mace Windu remarks to Yoda, "A shame (Palpatine) ca n't touch the Force. He might have been a fine Jedi. ''
The Star Wars Databank explains that the Force "granted him inhuman dexterity and speed, agility enough to quickly kill three Jedi Masters '' (as depicted in Revenge of the Sith). Stover describes the duel between Yoda and Palpatine in his novelization of Revenge of the Sith thus: "From the shadow of a black wing, a small weapon... slid into a withered hand and spat a flame - colored blade (.) When the blades met it was more than Yoda against Palpatine, more the millennia of Sith against the legions of Jedi; this was the expression of the fundamental conflict of the universe itself. Light against dark. Winner take all. '' During the duel, Yoda realizes that Sidious is a superior swordsman, and represents a small but powerful Sith Order that had changed and evolved over the years, while the Jedi had not: "He had lost before he started. He had lost before he was born. ''
According to the Databank and New Essential Guide to Characters, Palpatine possesses great patience and his maneuverings are as a dejarik grandmaster moves pieces on a board. He is depicted as a diabolical genius.
Palpatine was not given a first name in any canonical or "Star Wars Legends '' sources until 2014, when the character 's first name -- Sheev -- was revealed in the novel Tarkin, written by James Luceno. The Lucasfilm Story Group approached Del Rey Books and asked if they wanted to use the name, which was created by George Lucas, in the Tarkin novel, to which Del Rey agreed.
Lucas 's conceptualization of Palpatine and the role the character plays in Star Wars changed over time. From Return of the Jedi onwards, Palpatine became the ultimate personification of evil in Star Wars, replacing Darth Vader as the central villain.
When the original Star Wars trilogy was filmed, the Emperor was unnamed and his throne - world unidentified. The name would not be used in film until the prequel trilogy and the first mention of the name Palpatine came from the prologue of Alan Dean Foster 's 1976 novelization of A New Hope, which detailed the Emperor 's rise to power. Foster writes,
Aided and abetted by restless, power - hungry individuals within the government, and the massive organs of commerce, the ambitious Senator Palpatine caused himself to be elected President of the Republic. He promised to reunite the disaffected among the people and to restore the remembered glory of the Republic. Once secure in office he declared himself Emperor, shutting himself away from the populace. Soon he was controlled by the very assistants and boot - lickers he had appointed to high office, and the cries of the people for justice did not reach his ears.
However, it is unclear whether Lucas intended Palpatine to be the reigning Emperor or just the first of a succession of Emperors. Michael Kaminski, author of The Secret History of Star Wars, claims that Lucas ' initial notes discuss a line of corrupt Emperors, not just one. If Palpatine was the first, Kaminski infers, he would therefore not be the current. Later Lucas would abandon this idea, opting instead to focus on a sole villainous ruler.
During story conferences for The Empire Strikes Back, Lucas and Leigh Brackett decided that "the Emperor and the Force had to be the two main concerns in the Empire Strikes Back; the Emperor had barely been dealt with in the first movie, and the intention in the sequel was to deal with him on a more concrete level. '' Lucas ultimately decided instead to feature the Emperor in Return of the Jedi.
In that film, the initial conception of Palpatine was superseded by his depiction as a dictatorial ruler adept in the dark side of the Force. The Emperor was inspired by the villain Ming the Merciless from the Flash Gordon comic books. The characterization of Palpatine as an ambitious and ruthless politician dismantling a democratic republic to achieve supreme power is in part inspired by the real - world examples of Julius Caesar, Napoleon Bonaparte, Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong, Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler. Other elements of the character come from Richard Nixon. Lucas said that Nixon 's presidency "got me to thinking historically about how do democracies get turned into dictatorships. Because the democracies are n't overthrown; they 're given away. '' Lucas also said, "The whole point of the movies, the underlying element that makes the movies work, is that you, whether you go backwards or forwards, you start out in a democracy, and democracy turns into a dictatorship, and then the rebels make it back into a democracy. ''
Lucas wanted to establish the Emperor as the true source of evil in Star Wars. Screenwriter Lawrence Kasdan noted, "My sense of the relationship between Darth Vader and the Emperor is that the Emperor is much more powerful... and that Vader is very much intimidated by him. Vader has dignity, but the Emperor in Jedi really has all the power. '' He explained that the climax of the film is a confrontation between Darth Vader and his master. In the first scene that shows the Emperor, he arrives at the Death Star and is greeted by a host of stormtroopers, technicians, and other personnel. Lucas states he wanted it to look like the military parades on "May Day in Russia. ''
Lucas fleshed out the Emperor in the prequel films. According to Lucas, Palpatine 's role in The Phantom Menace is to explain "how Anakin Skywalker came to be Palpatine 's apprentice '' and the events that lead to his rise to power. The true identity of Darth Sidious -- the phantom menace -- is left a mystery, and his relationship to Palpatine is not clear, though popular consensus agreed that Darth Sidious and Palpatine were one and the same. Film critic Jonathan L. Bowen remarks, "Debates raged on the Internet concerning the relationship between Darth Sidious and Senator Palpatine. Most fans believed the two characters are actually the same person with logic seeming to support their conclusion. '' Bowen notes that the debate was fueled by the fact that "suspiciously Darth Sidious does not appear in the credits. ''
In Star Wars and History published by Lucasfilm, it describes Palpatine 's consolidation of power as being similar to the Roman political figure Augustus, named Octavian before renaming himself. Both legitimized authoritarian rule by saying that corruption in the Senate was hampering the powers of the head of state; both pressured the Senate to grant extraordinary powers to deal with a crisis, falsely claiming that they would rescind those powers once the crisis was over; and both relied on their strong control over military force.
When the Emperor first appeared in The Empire Strikes Back, he was portrayed by Marjorie Eaton under heavy makeup. Chimpanzee eyes were superimposed into darkened eye sockets during post-production "in order to create a truly unsettling image ''. The character was voiced by Clive Revill. The makeup was sculpted by Phil Tippett and applied by Rick Baker, who initially used his own wife, Elaine, for the makeup tests.
"With Kershner, '' Revill said, "you had to keep the reins tight -- you could n't go overboard. It was the perfect example of the old adage ' less is more ' -- the Emperor does n't say very much. But when he finally appears, it 's at a point in the saga when everyone 's waiting to see him. It 's the Emperor, the arch villain of all time, and when he says there 's a great disturbance in the Force, I mean, that 's enough oomph! '' Years later, during production of Revenge of the Sith, Lucas decided to shoot new footage for The Empire Strikes Back to create continuity between the prequels and original trilogy. Thus, in the 2004 DVD release of The Empire Strikes Back Special Edition, the original version of the Emperor was replaced by Scottish Shakespearean actor Ian McDiarmid, and the dialogue between the Emperor and Darth Vader was revised.
Lucas and director Richard Marquand cast McDiarmid to play Emperor Palpatine for Return of the Jedi. He was in his late 30s and had never played a leading role in a feature film, though he had made minor appearances in films like Dragonslayer (1981). After Return of the Jedi, he resumed stage acting in London. In an interview with BackStage, McDiarmid revealed that he "never had his sights set on a film career and never even auditioned for the role of Palpatine. '' He elaborated, "I got called in for the interview after a Return of the Jedi casting director saw me perform in the Sam Shepard play Seduced at a studio theatre at the Royal Court. I was playing a dying Howard Hughes. ''
McDiarmid was surprised when Lucas approached him 16 years after Return of the Jedi to reprise the role of Palpatine. In an interview, he stated, "When we were doing Return of the Jedi there was a rumor that George Lucas had nine films in his head, and he 'd clearly just completed three of them. '' McDiarmid added, "Someone said that, ' Oh, I think what he might do next is go back in time, and show how Vader came to be. ' It never occurred to me in a million years that I would be involved in that, because I thought, ' oh well, then he 'll get a much younger actor to play Palpatine. That would be obvious. '' However, "I was the right age, ironically, for the first prequel when it was made... So I was in the very strange and rather wonderful paradox of playing myself when young at my own age, having played myself previously when 100 - and - I - do n't - know - what. ''
Palpatine 's role in the prequel films required McDiarmid to play two dimensions of the same character. Recalling the initial days of shooting The Phantom Menace, McDiarmid stated, "Stepping onto the set of Episode I for the first time was like going back in time, due to my experience in Jedi. Palpatine 's an interesting character; he 's conventional on the outside, but demonic on the inside -- he 's on the edge, trying to go beyond what 's possible. '' McDiarmid added another layer to the character in Attack of the Clones. He noted, "(Palpatine) is a supreme actor. He has to be even more convincing than somebody who is n't behaving in a schizophrenic fashion, so he 's extra charming, or extra professional -- and for those who are looking for clues, that 's almost where you can see them. '' McDiarmid illuminated on the scene where Padmé Amidala is almost assassinated:
There 's a moment in one scene of the new film where tears almost appear in his eye. These are crocodile tears, but for all those in the movie, and perhaps watching the movie itself, they 'll see he is apparently moved -- and of course, he is. He can just do it. He can, as it were, turn it on. And I suppose for him, it 's also a bit of a turn - on -- the pure exercise of power is what he 's all about. That 's the only thing he 's interested in and the only thing that can satisfy him -- which makes him completely fascinating to play, because it is an evil soul. He is more evil than the devil. At least Satan fell -- he has a history, and it 's one of revenge.
In Revenge of the Sith, McDiarmid played a darker interpretation of the character. He explained that "(...) when you 're playing a character of solid blackness, that in itself is very interesting, in the sense that you have no other motivation other than the accumulation of power. It 's not so much about not having a moral center, it 's just that the only thing that mattered is increasing power. '' He admitted, "I 've been trying to find a redeeming feature to Palpatine, and the only one I 've got so far is that he 's clearly a patron of the arts because he goes to the opera. '' McDiarmid compared the character to Iago from William Shakespeare 's Othello:
Everything he does is an act of pure hypocrisy, and that 's interesting to play. I suppose it 's rather like playing Iago. All the characters in the play -- including Othello until the end -- think that "Honest Iago '' is a decent guy doing his job, and he 's quite liked. But at the same time there 's a tremendous evil subconscious in operation.
McDiarmid noticed that the script for Revenge of the Sith demanded more action from his character than in previous films. Lightsaber combat was a challenge to the 60 - year - old actor, who, like his costars, took fencing lessons. The close - up shots and non-acrobatic sequences of the duel between Palpatine and Mace Windu were performed by McDiarmid. Advanced fencing and acrobatic stunts were executed by McDiarmid 's doubles, Michael Byrne, Sebastian Dickins, and Bob Bowles.
McDiarmid 's performance as Palpatine was generally well received by critics. Todd McCarthy of Variety commented, "Entertaining from start to finish and even enthralling at times, ' Sith ' has some acting worth writing home about, specifically McDiarmid 's dominant turn as the mastermind of the evil empire. '' Ed Halter of The Village Voice wrote that "Ian McDiarmid 's unctuous Emperor turns appropriately vampiric as he attempts to draw Anakin into the Sith fold with promises of eternal life. '' Still, his performance was not without detractors; David Edelstein of Slate critiqued, "McDiarmid is n't the subtlest of satanic tempters. With his lisp and his clammy little leer, he looks like an old queen keen on trading an aging butt - boy (Count Dooku) for fresh meat -- which leaves Anakin looking more and more like a 15 - watt bulb. '' McDiarmid had expressed interest in reprising the role of Palpatine in the planned Star Wars: Underworld TV series, which remains un-produced.
Ian McDiarmid required little make - up in The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones. He recalled, "I 'm... slightly aged (in Attack of the Clones). In the last film, I had a fairly standard make - up on, but now, they 're starting to crinkle my face. '' Transforming McDiarmid into Emperor Palpatine in Return of the Jedi and Revenge of the Sith, however, required extensive make - up. McDiarmid remarked in an interview with Star Wars Insider magazine, "Yes -- that was a four - hour job, initially, although we got it down to about two - and - a-half in the end. But this was just a little bit of latex here and there, a little bit of skin - scrunching. '' He told the Homing Beacon newsletter, "When my face changes in the film, my mind went back to the early silent movie of The Phantom of the Opera with Lon Chaney, Sr. '' Film critic Roger Ebert wrote that he "looks uncannily like Death in The Seventh Seal '' (1957) and film historian Robin Wood compares him to the hag from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937).
Palpatine 's wardrobe, tailored by costume designer Trisha Biggar, played an important part in the development of the character throughout the films. In Attack of the Clones, explained McDiarmid, "The costumes... have got much more edge to them, I think, than the mere senator had in The Phantom Menace. So we see the trappings of power. '' In the next episode, McDiarmid remarked, "To wear the costumes as the character I play is wonderfully empowering. '' McDiarmid 's favorite costume in Revenge of the Sith was a high - collared jacket that resembles snake or lizard skin. He stated that "it just feels reptilian, which is exactly right for (Palpatine). '' According to Trisha Biggar, Palpatine 's costumes proved the most daunting challenge. She said, "His six costumes get progressively darker and more ornately decorated throughout the movie. He wears greys and browns, almost going to black, taking him toward the dark side. ''
With the premiere of Return of the Jedi and the prequel films and the accompanying merchandising campaign, Palpatine became an icon in American popular culture. Kenner / Hasbro produced and marketed a series of action figures of the character from 1983 to 2005. According to John Shelton Lawrence and Robert Jewett, "These action figures allow children (' 4 & up ') to handle the symbols of the Force. ''
Academics have debated the relationship of Palpatine to modern culture. Religion scholars Ross Shepard Kraemer, William Cassidy, and Susan Schwartz compare Palpatine and Star Wars heroes to the theological concept of dualism. They insist, "One can certainly picture the evil emperor in Star Wars as Satan, complete with his infernal powers, leading his faceless minions such as his red - robed Imperial Guards. '' Lawrence and Jewett argue that Vader killing Palpatine in Return of the Jedi represented "the permanent subduing of evil ''.
Since Return of the Jedi and the prequel films, Palpatine 's name has been invoked as a caricature in politics. A Seattle Post-Intelligencer editorial noted that anti-pork bloggers were caricaturing West Virginia Senator Robert Byrd as "the Emperor Palpatine of pork '', with Senator Ted Stevens of Alaska having "clear aspirations to be his Darth Vader. '' The charge followed a report that linked a secret hold on the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006 to the two senators. Politicians have made comparisons as well. In 2005, Democratic Senator Frank Lautenberg of New Jersey compared Republican Majority Leader Bill Frist of Tennessee to Palpatine in a speech on the Senate floor, complete with a visual aid.
A Fox News editorial stated "no cultural icon can exist without someone trying to stuff it into a political ideology. The Star Wars saga, the greatest pop culture icon of the last three decades, is no exception... Palpatine 's dissolution of the Senate in favor of imperial rule has been compared to Julius Caesar 's marginalization of the Roman Senate, Hitler 's power - grab as chancellor, and FDR 's court - packing scheme and creation of the imperial presidency. ''
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where does cuba lie in relation to the united states | Geography of Cuba - wikipedia
Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean Sea. Cuba has an official area (land area) of 109,884 km (42,426 sq mi). Its area is 110,860 km (42,800 sq mi) including coastal and territorial waters. The main island (Cuba) has 5,746 km (3,570 mi) of coastline and 28.5 km (17.7 mi) of land borders -- all figures including the United States territory at Guantánamo Bay, where the U.S. Navy 's Guantanamo Bay Naval Base is located.
Cuba lies west of the North Atlantic Ocean, east of the Gulf of Mexico, south of the Straits of Florida, northwest of the Windward Passage, and northeast of the Yucatán Channel. The main island (Cuba) makes up most of the land area 104,556 km (40,369 sq mi).
The island is 1,250 km (780 mi) long and 191 km (119 mi) across its widest points and 31 km (19 mi) across its narrowest points. The largest island outside the main island is the Isla de la Juventud (Isle of Youth) in the southwest, with an area of 2,200 km (850 sq mi).
Cuba is located 77 km (48 mi) west of Haiti across the Windward Passage, 21 km (13 mi) south of the Bahamas, 150 km (93 mi) south of Florida, 210 km (130 mi) east of Mexico, and 140 km (87 mi) north of Jamaica.
Cuba is the largest country by land area in the Caribbean. Its main island is the seventeenth - largest island in the world by land area. The island rises between the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean. It is bordered on the north by the Straits of Florida, on the northeast by Nicholas Channel and the Old Bahama Channel. The southern part is bounded by the Windward Passage and the Cayman Trench, while the southwest lies in the Caribbean Sea. To the west, it reaches to the Yucatán Channel, and the northwest is open to the Gulf of Mexico.
More than 4,000 islands and cays are found in the surrounding sea and bays. The southern coast includes such archipelagos as Jardines de la Reina and the Canarreos. The northeastern shore is lined by the Sabana - Camagüey Archipelago, which includes Jardines del Rey and is composed of approximately 2,517 cays and islands. The Colorados Archipelago is developed on the north - western coast.
Terrain is mostly flat to rolling plains, with rugged hills and mountains in the southeast. The lowest point is the Caribbean Sea at 0 m (sea level) and the highest point is Pico Turquino at 1,974 m (6,476 ft), part of the Sierra Maestra mountain range, located in the southeast of the island.
Other mountain ranges are Sierra Cristal in the southeast, Escambray Mountains in the center of the island, and Sierra del Rosario in the northwest. White sand beaches (most notably in Varadero), as well as mangroves and marshes can be found in the coastal area. The largest is the Zapata Swamp, with over 4,520 km (1,750 sq mi).
Cuba has negligible inland water area. The largest natural water mirror is Laguna de Leche at 67.2 km (25.9 sq mi), while the man - made Zaza Reservoir, at 113.5 km (43.8 sq mi), is the largest inland water surface by area in the country.
Cuba makes maritime claims that include a territorial sea of 12 nautical miles (22.2 km; 13.8 mi) and an exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical miles (370.4 km; 230.2 mi).
Extreme points in Cuba are:
Natural resources include cobalt, nickel, iron ore, copper, salt, timber, silica, oil and petroleum. At one time, the whole island was covered with forests and there are still many cedar (Cedrela odorata), chechem (Metopium brownei), mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni), and other valuable trees. Large areas were cleared to grow more sugarcane, and so few trees remained that timber had to be imported.
The most important Cuban mineral economic resource is nickel. Cuba has the second largest nickel reserves in the world after Russia. Sherritt International, a Canadian energy company, operates a large nickel mining facility in Moa, Cuba. Another leading mineral resource is cobalt, a byproduct of nickel mining operations. Cuba ranks as the fifth largest producer of refined cobalt in the world.
Petroleum is extracted on Cuba 's northern shore, in the provinces of La Habana and Matanzas. Recent petroleum exploration has revealed that the North Cuba Basin could produce approximately 4.6 billion barrels (730,000,000 m) to 9.3 billion barrels (1.48 × 10 m) of petroleum. As of 2006, Cuba has now started to test - drill these locations for possible exploitation. The petroleum is of low quality, and used for energy generation only.
Sugarcane was the most important part of the economy in Cuba 's history, and is still grown on large areas. Extensive irrigation systems are developed in the south of Sancti Spíritus Province. Tobacco, used for some of the world 's cigars, is grown especially in the Pinar del Río Province.
Cuba 's climate is tropical savanna in the Koppen Climate classification. The dry season lasts from November to April and the rainy season from May to October.
Cuba is an archipelago of islands located in the Caribbean Sea, with the geographic coordinates 21 ° 3N, 80 ° 00W. Cuba is the principal island, which is surrounded by four main groups of islands. These are the Colorados, the Sabana - Camagüey, the Jardines de la Reina and the Canarreos. The main island of Cuba constitutes most of the nation 's land area or 104,556 km (40,369 sq mi) and is the seventeenth - largest island in the world by land area. The second largest island in Cuba is the Isla de la Juventud (Isle of Youth) in the southwest, with an area of 2,200 km (850 sq mi). Cuba has a total land area of 109,884 km (42,426 sq mi).
The main island consists mostly of flat to rolling plains. At the southeastern end is the Sierra Maestra, a range of steep mountains whose highest point is the Pico Real del Turquino at 1,974 metres (6,476 ft). The climate is tropical, though moderated by trade winds. In general (with local variations), there is a drier season from November to April, and a rainier season from May to October. The average temperature is 23.1 ° C (73.6 ° F) in January and 27 ° C (80.6 ° F) in July.
Cuba lies in the path of hurricanes, and these destructive storms are most common in September and October. Havana is the largest city and capital; other major cities include Santiago de Cuba and Camagüey. Better known smaller towns include Baracoa which was the first Spanish settlement on Cuba, Trinidad, a UNESCO world heritage site, and Bayamo.
Cuba is divided into 15 Provinces and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud). The provinces are further subdivided into level 3 subdivisions, called municipalities (Spanish: Municipios), of which there are 168 following the 2010 administrative redistribution.
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which side of the white house is the front | North Lawn (White House) - wikipedia
The North Lawn at the White House in Washington, DC, is bordered on the north by Pennsylvania Avenue with a wide view of the mansion, and is screened by dense plantings on the east from East Executive Drive and the Treasury Building, and on the west from West Executive Drive and the Old Executive Office Building. Because it is bordered by Pennsylvania Avenue, the White House 's official street address, the North Lawn is sometimes described as the front lawn.
A semicircular driveway runs from the northwest gate through the North Portico, sweeping back to Pennsylvania Avenue through the northeast gate. A circular pool with fountain is centered on the north portico of the White House.
Visiting heads of state enter the White House grounds, and are officially welcomed here prior to a state dinner. Public tours, which begin on East Executive Drive, exit through the North Portico, and visitors exit from the northeast gate.
White House correspondents, for television news, often stand on the North Lawn with the North Portico as a backdrop.
A reviewing stand is erected on the North Lawn facing Pennsylvania Avenue prior to the inauguration of the president. The president uses the enclosed structure to review the parade, which proceeds from the U.S. Capitol.
Pierre - Charles L'Enfant's 1793 plan of the city of Washington placed the President 's House facing a convergence of radial avenues centered on the North Lawn. In 1850, landscape designer Andrew Jackson Davis attempted to soften the geometry of the L'Enfant plan.
In 1848 a bronze statue of Thomas Jefferson was placed in middle of the lawn by President James K. Polk; it was replaced by a pool and "gurg '' steam - driven fountain in 1871. Through the remainder of the 19th century the North Lawn was planted with increasingly complex seasonal "carpet '' style flower bedding punctuated by tropical plants borrowed from the White House glass houses.
President Theodore Roosevelt, who had engaged the architectural firm of McKim, Mead, and White to reconfigure and rebuild part of the White House in 1902, was induced to simplify the grounds, removing what was increasingly seen as Victorian clutter. The bedding scheme on the North Lawn was greatly simplified. Later, in 1934, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt engaged Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. to evaluate the grounds and recommend changes. Olmsted understood the need to offer presidents and their families a modicum of privacy balancing with the requirement for public views of the White House. The Olmsted plan presented the landscape largely as seen today: retaining or planting large specimen trees and shrubs on the perimeter to create boundaries for visual privacy, but opened with generous sight lines of the house from north and south. The lawn is planted with a grass variety called tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea). (1)
Trees on the North lawn include fern - leaf beech (Fagus sylvatica asplenifolia), American elm (Ulmus americana), white oak (Quercus alba), white saucer magnolia (Magnolia × soulangeana), red maple (Acer rubrum), American Chestnut Tree (Castanea dentata) and American and English boxwood (Buxus species).
The pool is planted seasonally with borders of tulips edged by grape hyacinth (Muscari armeniacum) for spring, red geranium (Pelargonium) and Dusty Miller (Senecio cineraria) in summer, and chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium) in fall.
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 54 '' N 77 ° 02 ′ 12 '' W / 38.8983 ° N 77.0366 ° W / 38.8983; - 77.0366
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who drove the m & m car in 2005 | Joe Gibbs Racing - wikipedia
Monster Energy Cup Series: 2017 Hollywood Casino 400 (Kansas) Xfinity Series: 2017 Kansas Lottery 300 (Kansas)
Joe Gibbs Racing (JGR) is an American professional stock car racing team owned and operated by former Washington Redskins coach Joe Gibbs, who first started racing on the NASCAR circuit in 1991, and J.D. Gibbs, his son. Headquartered in Huntersville, North Carolina, roughly 10 miles (16 km) northwest of Charlotte Motor Speedway, the team has amassed four Cup Series championships since the year 2000.
For the team 's first sixteen seasons, JGR ran cars from General Motors. During that period, the team won their three championships, two in Pontiac Grand Prixs and one in a Chevrolet Monte Carlo. Despite this, Joe Gibbs Racing announced during the 2007 season that they would be ending their arrangement with GM at the end of the year and begin running Toyotas the following season. This partnership would eventually bring Toyota their first Sprint Cup when Kyle Busch won the championship in 2015.
In the Monster Energy Cup Series, the team currently fields four full - time entries: the No. 11 FedEx / Sport Clips Toyota Camry for Denny Hamlin, the No. 18 M&M 's / Interstate Batteries Camry for Kyle Busch, the No. 19 ARRIS Camry for Daniel Suárez, and the No. 20 DeWalt / Tide PODS / Circle K Camry for Matt Kenseth. In the Xfinity Series, the team currently fields three full - time entries: the No. 18 NOS Energy Drink Camry for part - time drivers Kyle Busch, and Daniel Suárez; the No. 19 NOS Energy Drink / Tunity / Surface Sunscreen / BrainGear Camry for Matt Tifft, and the No. 20 Reser 's Fine Foods / Hisense / Interstate Batteries / Gamestop / DeWalt Camry part - time for Erik Jones.
The team also has a strong development program for up and coming drivers, grooming future Sprint Cup Winners Joey Logano and Aric Almirola and winning one championship in the East Division of the NASCAR Camping World Series (now K&N Pro Series) with Logano. The organization teamed up with former NFL player Reggie White in 2004 to create a diversity program, fielding drivers such as Almirola, Marc Davis, and Darrell Wallace Jr., and forming the basis for NASCAR 's own Drive for Diversity program. Currently Matt Tifft is under development contracts, driving in the Xfinity Series for JGR.
The team was founded by Gibbs in 1991 after exploring opportunities with Don Meredith, who currently serves as the team 's Executive Vice President. In 1997, Gibbs ' son J.D. Gibbs was named team president. In 1998, the team began construction on its current facility in Huntersville, North Carolina. The team expanded to a two - car operation in 1999 with Tony Stewart 's No. 20 Home Depot car, then a three - car operation in 2005 with the No. 11 FedEx car currently driven by Denny Hamlin and owned by J.D. Gibbs. The team expanded to four cars for the 2015 season with Carl Edwards driving the No. 19 car, following former Roush Racing teammate Matt Kenseth to JGR.
After winning three Cup championships and over 70 NASCAR races in Chevrolet and Pontiac equipment, it was announced in September 2007 that the team would be switching to Toyota (who had just entered the Cup series that year) following the end of their commitment with General Motors at the end of the season. It was believed that the executives at JGR felt as if they were n't as important as some of the other GM teams such as Hendrick Motorsports and Richard Childress Racing, leading to the decision to swap manufacturers. According to Joe Gibbs, Toyota offered the team resources and options they "were not going to be able to afford to do '' if they remained at GM.
In 2012, JGR shuttered its in - house Sprint Cup Series engine program, merging with California - based Toyota Racing Development which currently provides engines to JGR as well as Furniture Row Racing. The team continues to build engines for its own Xfinity Series operations and those of RAB Racing and JGL Racing, the Camping World Truck Series operations of Kyle Busch Motorsports, and the Truck Series and ARCA Racing Series operations of Venturini Motorsports. The team further has a technical alliance with Furniture Row Racing, a two car team based in Denver, Colorado.
The No. 11 car (the number J.D. Gibbs wore playing football at College of William & Mary) began in 2004. Ricky Craven, recently released from PPI Motorsports finished 30th at Talladega with sponsorship from Old Spice, and Busch Series driver J.J. Yeley ran two races in the car with Vigoro / The Home Depot sponsorship.
The No. 11 car went full - time in 2005, with new sponsor FedEx coming on to fund the full season in a multi-year deal. Jason Leffler, who had driven for JGR in the Busch series, was signed to drive the No. 11 for the full season, while Dave Rogers was named the crew chief. The new team struggled early on in the season. Leffler missed the Coca - Cola 600 at Charlotte, with FedEx Freight moving over to the 18 car that Bobby Labonte would drive to a second - place finish. Rogers was reassigned and replaced with veteran crew chief Mike Ford in June, then former Cup champion Terry Labonte was hired to run the road course at Sonoma, qualifying 8th and finishing a solid 12th. After 19 starts with a best finish of 12th and sitting 36th in points, Leffler was released from the ride. Terry Labonte ran the next three races, then ran the Fall Richmond race finishing 9th. J.J. Yeley ran 4 races with a best finish of 25th. In November, it was announced that Denny Hamlin would drive the car for the remainder of the season, then run for Rookie of the Year in 2006. Hamlin ran seven races, finished in the top 10 three times, and earned a pole at Phoenix International Raceway.
Hamlin was awarded the No. 11 FedEx Express full - time ride in 2006 in addition to his full - time Busch schedule in the No. 20 Rockwell Automation Chevrolet. Hamlin was part of a large and strong rookie class, including teammate J.J. Yeley, Clint Bowyer, Martin Truex, Jr., David Stremme, Brent Sherman, and Reed Sorenson. Hamlin opened the season by winning the Budweiser Shootout non-points race, holding off Dale Earnhardt, Jr. on a green - white - checker restart. In June, Hamlin scored his first Cup Series victory at the difficult Pocono Raceway. Hamlin started on the pole, then battled back from a cut tire to take the victory. In his return to the track in July, Hamlin again won the pole, then proceeded to lead 151 of 200 laps en route to a second victory, the first rookie to sweep both Pocono races. Hamlin credited his prowess on the track to practicing on the racing simulator NASCAR Racing 2003 Season. Hamlin 's strong performance earned the rookie a berth in the Chase for the NEXTEL Cup, where he would finish 3rd in points. Until 2016, Hamlin was the only rookie to make the Chase.
In 2007, Hamlin won the first of two races at New Hampshire International Speedway in 2007, and finished 12th in points. In 2008, Hamlin won the Gatorade Duel and the first race at Martinsville Speedway, and improved to eighth in points. He qualified for the Chase again in 2009 after winning the second race at Pocono Raceway and Richmond International Raceway. He ended the season with four victories after winning Martinsville and Homestead - Miami Speedway in the chase. 2010 was Hamlin and the 11 team 's breakout year. They won at Martinsville and Denny followed the win by having knee surgery. After the surgery, the team won 4 of the next 10 races at Texas, Darlington, Pocono, and Michigan. The team made the chase after another win at Richmond. The team won races during the chase at Martinsville and Texas and held the points lead going into the season finale. However, an early wreck would put them behind the competition, and Hamlin wound up finishing second to Jimmie Johnson during the 2010 chase. Hamlin later admitted to putting too much pressure on himself during the Chase, which mentally impacted him. As a result, Mike Ford took a "no compromise '' attitude for 2011, hoping to right the ship. However, the team struggled throughout 2011, with multiple blown engines and a single win at Michigan to push the No. 11 into the Chase. Hamlin would finish 9th in the final standings. At season 's end, Mike Ford was released as crew chief and was replaced by Tony Stewart 's crew chief Darian Grubb.
Under Darian Grubb the team started 2012 off in the best way possible by winning the second race of the season at Phoenix. That win was followed with another victory at Kansas six weeks later. The 11 team once again proved dominant on the short tracks pulling off a convincing win in the Bristol Night Race in August. The week after Bristol, the No. 11 FedEx team brought home another victory at Atlanta Motor Speedway, making the No. 11 the car number with the most wins in NASCAR with 200 wins. Hamlin then won the Sylvania 300, giving Joe Gibbs Racing its 100th win.
Hamlin 's 2013 season began with an on - and - off track feud with former teammate Joey Logano. Initially started on Twitter, the on track incidents began at Bristol in March, where Hamlin spun Logano in turns 1 and 2, leading Logano to confront Hamlin after the race. The rivalry continued into the next race at Auto Club Speedway, where the two fought for the lead in the closing laps. In the final corner, the two collided, allowing JGR teammate Kyle Busch to win the race, and sending Hamlin 's 11 car into a non-SAFER barrier wall near pit road. This wreck would mark the beginning of a difficult season for Hamlin, as he suffered a lower back fracture and was forced to sit out several races. Veteran Mark Martin replaced Hamlin at one of Denny 's better tracks, Martinsville Speedway, where he scored a top 10. Brian Vickers then drove the car for the next three races, scoring an 8th - place finish at Texas. Though Hamlin returned to the car at Talladega Superspeedway, he never returned to form during the year, with only 8 top 10s on the year. He did score a win at the season finale at Homestead.
After Jason Leffler 's death in 2013, the 11 team paid tribute to their former driver by running a white FedEx scheme at Michigan similar to the one Leffler ran in 2005.
In the 2014 Auto Club 400, Sam Hornish, Jr. replaced Hamlin due to Hamlin having what was thought to be sinus infection, but later revealed to be a piece of metal in his eye that impaired his vision. Hornish, who was actually on standby for teammate Matt Kenseth, finished a solid 17th in his return to Cup.
At the 2015 Food City 500, Erik Jones replaced Hamlin after the latter suffered neck spasms. Jones took the car to a 26th - place finish, but Hamlin started the race and was credited with the finish.
In 2016, Hamlin started his season out well, winning the 2016 Daytona 500 by beating out Martin Truex Jr. by 0.010 seconds, the closest finish in Daytona 500 history. The win was also the first for his rookie crew chief, Mike Wheeler.
Joe Gibbs Racing debuted at the 1992 Daytona 500 with second - generation driver Dale Jarrett driving the No. 18 Interstate Batteries - sponsored Chevrolet Lumina to a 36th - place finish after a crash. The team improved dramatically the next year, when Jarrett won the Daytona 500, and finished a then career - high 4th in points. Jarrett won a race at Charlotte but he slipped to 16th in points in 1994, and moved to Robert Yates Racing 's famed 28 car for 1995.
The team replaced Jarrett with Bobby Labonte, younger brother of Terry Labonte and 1993 Rookie of the Year runner - up. In 1995, Labonte won 3 races, sweeping both Michigan events and winning at Charlotte, finishing 10th in points. This would mark the beginning of a decade of success between Labonte, Joe Gibbs Racing, and Interstate Batteries. In 1996 the team struggled to win until the season finale at Atlanta and finished 11th in points. In 1997 the team had a similar year to the previous but managed to improve to 7th in points. Their lone win came at the season finale. The team improved in 1998 by winning races at Atlanta and Talladega en route to 6th place in points.
1999 was a breakout year for the No. 18 team. They scored 5 wins which came at Dover, Michigan, Atlanta and both races at Pocono. The team came just short of the championship and finished 2nd in points to Jarrett, once again at Atlanta. The team continued their success in the next season, winning the second race of the season at Rockingham. Labonte 's next win was the Brickyard 400 at the famed Indianapolis Motor Speedway. His third win came at the Southern 500 at Darlington recovering from a hard practice crash and taking the lead on a late race pit stop to win the rain and darkness shortened event. His fourth and final win of the year came at Charlotte a month later. Labonte would hold the points lead for 25 consecutive races to win the 2000 NASCAR Winston Cup Series Championship.
The team faced disappointment in 2001 after high expectations following the championship season, winning only 2 races at Pocono and Atlanta and finishing 6th in points. 2002 was the team 's worst year since Labonte joined the team, scoring only one win at Martinsville and finished a disappointing 16th in points. The team rebounded in 2003 scoring 2 wins at Atlanta and Homestead to finish 8th in points. Even though the team made some progression in 2004, the team fired crew chief Michael "Fatback '' McSwain midseason, with Brandon Thomas taking over for the rest of the year. The team went winless to finish 12th in points. Steve Addington, a Gibbs Busch Series crew chief, was named new crew chief for the 2005 season, but a rash of troubles, some caused by mechanical problems, continued to daunt the team. The high point of the year was the Coca - Cola 600, when he finished second to Jimmie Johnson by half a car - length. Labonte finished 24th in the championship standings, and the team 's regression led to his departure following the end of 2005. Bobby Labonte earned all 21 of his career Cup Series wins in the car, as well as the Winston Cup championship in 2000. He would depart for the 43 car of Petty Enterprises.
After Labonte 's departure, Gibbs announced that JGR Busch Series driver and former USAC standout J.J. Yeley would replace him in the No. 18 for 2006, joining fellow rookie teammate Denny Hamlin. Yeley had a dismal rookie season with only three top tens while failing to finish seven races, leading to a 29th - place points finish. Yeley 's sophomore campaign was only slightly better, earning a pole at Michigan and scoring three more top tens to finish 21st in points. Yeley moved to JGR - affiliated Hall of Fame Racing for 2008.
On August 14, 2007, it was announced that 22 - year - old Kyle Busch had signed a contract to drive the number 18 with Joe Gibbs Racing through 2010, leaving Hendrick Motorsports ' number 5 car after a successful but controversial tenure with the organization. Mars, Inc. 's M&M 's brand was signed as the team 's primary sponsor, leaving Robert Yates Racing, while longtime partner Interstate Batteries scaled down to be a secondary sponsor and six race primary sponsor. Joe Gibbs racing also left General Motors in favor of becoming Toyota 's highest - profile team. Busch gave Toyota its first Cup win on March 9, 2008, leading a race - high 173 laps to win the Kobalt Tools 500 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. In his first year in the 18, Busch had brought the car back to its former glory, winning 7 additional races (Talladega, Darlington, Dover, Infineon, Daytona, Chicagoland, and Watkins Glen) and would finish tenth in points.
In 2009, Busch opened the season by winning his Gatorade Duel qualifying race, but finished 41st in the race after a crash. He won the third race of the season from the pole at Las Vegas, and scored additional wins at Richmond and both Bristol races, but failed to qualify for the Chase by only 8 points. As a result, longtime JGR crew chief Steve Addington was fired near the end of the season, and coincidentally went to crew chief for Kyle 's brother Kurt Busch at Penske Racing. Dave Rogers, Busch 's Nationwide Series crew chief, took over the pit box in 2010. The year produced 3 victories at Richmond, Dover and Bristol, but more struggles in the final 10 races led to a 7th - place finish in the standings. 2011 was an up and down year for the 18 team. The team won at Bristol and Richmond early in the season, as well as the inaugural Cup race at Kentucky and the August race at Michigan. At Texas Motor Speedway in November, Busch was parked by NASCAR for the remainder of the race weekend after intentionally spinning out Ron Hornaday in the Truck Series race. Michael McDowell would replace Busch that weekend, finishing a dismal 33rd. Mars, Inc proceeded to pull its sponsorship for the final two races, with Interstate Batteries covering those races. Busch was relegated to tenth in the final standings.
In 2012, Busch won the Budweiser Shootout to open the season, and scored a single points - paying victory, the spring race at Richmond. He would miss making the Chase for the Sprint Cup by 3 points, but scored 7 top 5 and 8 top 10 finishes during the final ten races, finishing the year in 13th place and nearly 100 points ahead of 14th place Ryan Newman. In 2013, Busch won the second Budweiser Duel qualifying race, and won the pole at the spring Bristol race, finishing second. He also swept the spring Fontana and Texas race weekends, winning the Nationwide and Cup races, giving Joe Gibbs his first win at Fontana in Sprint Cup competition and first win for himself at Texas. He would win at Watkins Glen and Atlanta. Busch 's four wins and career - high 22 top ten finishes would lead to a fourth - place finish in the championship, the highest of his career. In 2014, Busch earned a spot in the new Chase for the Sprint Cup with his early season win at Fontana. Busch would be eliminated in the second round, after being swept up in a wreck at Talladega, and would finish tenth in points.
For 2015, sponsor Mars, Inc. introduced a new green paint scheme to promote Crispy M&M 's on the 18 car. After an injury to Kyle Busch in the season - opening Xfinity Series race, the No. 18 started the 2015 season with two - time Truck Series champion Matt Crafton making his Sprint Cup debut at the 2015 Daytona 500, finishing 18th. The next week, David Ragan was announced as interim driver, moving from his full - time ride at Front Row Motorsports. Ragan drove the car for nine races through Talladega and scored a single top - five finish at Martinsville, before moving to Michael Waltrip Racing. Development driver Erik Jones, who drove for Busch in the Camping World Truck Series, made his first series start at Kansas. Jones ran in the top ten for much of the race, before crashing on the front stretch and finishing 40th. After missing a total of 11 races, Busch returned to the car for the Sprint All - Star Race at Charlotte, receiving a waiver from NASCAR to be eligible for the Chase for the Sprint Cup provided he win a race and gain a top 30 position in the championship standings. At Sonoma in June, his fifth start of the year, Busch scored his first victory of the season. It was also the first time he and his brother Kurt Busch had finished first and second in any Cup Series event. Busch would then win three consecutive races -- Kentucky, New Hampshire, and Indianapolis -- with four total wins across a five race span. The latter victory was also Busch 's first Brickyard 400 victory, the first for manufacturer Toyota, and marked the first time a driver swept both the Cup and Xfinity races at Indianapolis. Busch would go on to make the 2015 Chase for the Sprint Cup. At the second Phoenix race, Busch would be one of the four drivers going to Homestead - Miami Speedway with an opportunity to win the Sprint Cup championship after the race was stopped by NASCAR due to rain. The following weekend at Homestead - Miami Speedway, Busch would go on to win the race as well as his first Sprint Cup title. He and brother Kurt join Bobby and Terry Labonte as the only brothers in NASCAR 's top series to win championships. This was the 2nd championship for the No. 18 car. Busch ended the season with 5 wins, 12 top fives, and 16 top tens in only 25 starts. It was the first championship for manufacturer Toyota and fourth for team owner Joe Gibbs.
On May 13, 2016, JGR announce that Kyle Busch will drive the number 75 car at the All - Star race only, to celebrate M&Ms 75th anniversary.
Prior to expanding to four full - time cars, JGR had occasionally fielded a fourth car for R&D or driver development purposes. Mike Bliss drove several races for JGR in 2004 in a No. 80 car. In 2007, development driver Aric Almirola made his NEXTEL Cup debut in the No. 80 at Las Vegas with Joe Gibbs Driven sponsoring. Almirola started 31st and finished 40th after a crash. He was scheduled to drive at the All - Star Race and Coca - Cola 600, but he suffered a practice crash and the car was withdrawn from both races. He would leave the team later in the season for Ginn Racing and Dale Earnhardt, Inc.
In 2008, 18 - year - old Joey Logano was scheduled to run several late - season races in preparation for running the full 2009 season. Logano drove the No. 02 (reverse of the 20), with an inverted Home Depot scheme of teammate Tony Stewart 's. He was scheduled to make his Sprint Cup debut at Richmond International Raceway, but qualifying was rained out by Tropical Storm Hanna. The 02 attempted again at Loudon and at Atlanta, but qualifying was rained out in both races as well, leading Logano to make his debut in JGR - affiliated Hall of Fame Racing 's No. 96 at Loudon and miss the Atlanta race. Logano made the race in his fourth attempt with Gibbs at Texas, starting last and finishing 40th, several laps down.
In 2009 Farm Bureau Insurance, who had been banned from the Nationwide Series due to the Viceroy Rule, moved up to sponsor 6 Sprint Cup Series races for JGR, including 3 for the 02 car at Charlotte, Texas, and Homestead. David Gilliland was tabbed to drive the car in the three events, with a best finish of 25th at Charlotte. After the 2009 season, Farm Bureau Insurance announced they would not return for the 2010 season.
In 2013, Elliott Sadler was signed to drive the renumbered No. 81 (reverse of 18) for three races, with his former sponsor at Robert Yates Racing, Mars, Inc., promoting their new Alert Energy Caffeine Gum on the car. Sadler was scheduled to run at Kansas Speedway, Talladega Superspeedway and a third unannounced race. The deal was made in part to avoid conflict on the 18 car with Kyle Busch 's sponsor Monster Energy. For Sadler, it was his first start in the Sprint Cup Series since the 2012 Daytona 500, and his first opportunity since he was forced to turn down a part - time deal at Michael Waltrip Racing that same year (ultimately taken by 2013 teammate Brian Vickers) by then - owner Richard Childress. At Kansas, he got out of the racing groove and wrecked in turn 3 on lap 85, relegating him to a 40th - place finish. He failed to qualify at Talladega after rain washed out qualifying and was set by owner points as the No. 81 was too low in points. After Alert Energy was pulled from the market, Doublemint sponsored the car at Talladega.
After not running in 2014, the fourth car returned full - time in 2015 as the No. 19 with Carl Edwards driving. New partner Arris Group signed on to sponsor 17 races, while Stanley Black & Decker moved from Richard Petty Motorsports to sponsor 12 races. Comcast / Xfinity, Sport Clips, and Edwards ' longtime sponsor Subway Restaurants also sponsored the car. Darian Grubb made his return to JGR as Edwards ' crew chief. Edwards won his first race with JGR at Charlotte in May. Starting third, he led a total of 25 laps, using fuel mileage strategy to take the victory. He also went on to win at Darlington Raceway and finished the season 5th in points.
On January 11, 2017, Edwards announced that he was stepping away from NASCAR effective immediately, and it was announced that 2016 Xfinity Series champion Daniel Suárez would replace Edwards in the No. 19 car starting at the Daytona 500 in 2017.
Tony Stewart debuted the No. 20 The Home Depot - sponsored car at the 1999 Daytona 500, qualifying on the outside pole. He won three races at Richmond, Phoenix and Homestead as well as the Winston Open and the NASCAR Rookie of the Year honors and finished 4th in points. 2000 was an up and down year for Stewart as he won six races, including both Dover races, Martinsville, New Hampshire, Michigan and Homestead but only finished 6th in points. 2001 was another good year for Stewart, as he won the Budweiser Shootout, Richmond, Infineon, and Bristol and finished 2nd in the overall standings.
2002 was a break - out year for Stewart with wins at Atlanta, Richmond, and Watkins Glen along with the Budweiser Shootout and the team won the 2002 points championship. In 2003, Stewart won twice at Pocono and Charlotte and finished 7th in the points standings. The next year, the team had a similar year to later year, with 2 wins and finished 6th in points in the first ever chase.
Stewart won his second championship in 2005. After winning the Gatorade Duel, the team did n't win again until Infineon and then they went on to win the Pepsi 400 at Daytona, followed by New Hampshire, Indianapolis, and Watkins Glen and held the championship through the Chase.
2006 statistically was Stewart 's worst season. After winning early at Martinsville, Stewart suffered an injury at Charlotte and was replaced during Dover. He won the Pepsi 400 again at Daytona but missed the Chase. During the Chase, Stewart won 3 races at Kansas, Atlanta, and Texas and finished 11th in points. 2007 was another good year for him and the team. Though Stewart won both the Budweiser Shootout and Gatorade Duel, an early wreck smashed his Daytona 500 hopes. He and the team won 3 races though at Chicagoland, Indianapolis, and Watkins Glen and finished 6th in points.
Following the team 's switch from Chevrolet to Toyota, Stewart 's performance dwindled, earning ten Top 5 's and sixteen Top 10 's. Stewart 's only win for this season was the 2008 AMP Energy 500 at Talladega in a controversial finish. Stewart was passed on the final lap by rookie Regan Smith, who would cross the finish line in first. Smith, however, was found to be passing below the yellow line upon video review, and per NASCAR rules had his position revoked, giving Stewart the win. On June 9, 2008, Stewart was granted a release from his final year of his contract with Joe Gibbs Racing, ending a twelve - year relationship with the organization that included over 30 wins and two Cup Series Championships. Stewart moved to Haas CNC Racing, renamed Stewart - Haas Racing after Stewart purchased a 50 % ownership stake from founder Gene Haas, in part to return to longtime manufacturer Chevrolet.
On August 25, 2008, Joe Gibbs Racing announced that 18 - year - old Joey Logano would replace Stewart as the driver of the No. 20 car for the 2009 season, after only making his NASCAR debut in May 2008 and running abbreviated Nationwide and Cup schedules. Longtime crew chief Greg Zipadelli remained with JGR for Logano 's rookie season. Logano 's first win came in the rain - shortened Lenox Industrial Tools 301 at New Hampshire Motor Speedway after a fuel mileage gamble, becoming the youngest winner in Sprint Cup Series history. Logano beat former open - wheel drivers Max Papis and Scott Speed for the Rookie of the Year Award, with seven top - tens and a 20th - place points finish.
Logano failed to win in 2010 and finished 16th in points.
In 2011, Logano again was winless and finished 24th in points. On October 13, 2011, Joe Gibbs Racing announced The Home Depot will become co-primary sponsor for Logano 's car with Dollar General. Dollar General is set to sponsor 12 races while the other 22 will continue to be sponsored by The Home Depot. The Home Depot had served as the sole primary sponsor of the No. 20 car since its debut with Tony Stewart in 1999. Logano won his second career race at Pocono from the pole in the 2012 Pocono 400 after passing Mark Martin with 3 laps to go.
Beginning in 2013, the No. 20 car was taken over by Matt Kenseth, who left Roush Fenway Racing, as Joey Logano moved to the No. 22 at Penske Racing. The team had a resurgence, with Kenseth winning five races in the regular season (Las Vegas, Kansas, Darlington, Kentucky, and Bristol), and led the most laps at several other races (Daytona 500, Kansas, Richmond and Talladega). Kenseth also won the first two races of the Chase at Chicagoland and New Hampshire Motor Speedway, bringing the team up to 7 wins -- which was more wins in a single season than the car had ever achieved with Stewart or Logano.
It was announced in September 2014 that Stanley Black & Decker would leave Richard Petty Motorsports to sponsor JGR in the Cup Series for 2015. This move reunited Kenseth with longtime sponsor DeWalt for six races as a primary, and the entire season as an associate. Kenseth won the Food City 500 in Support of Steve Byrnes And Stand Up To Cancer at Bristol in April, his first victory since 2013.
On November 3rd, Kenseth was suspended 2 races for intentionally wrecking Joey Logano at Martinsville. Erik Jones was named the replacement driver for Kenseth in both of those races, with Jones finishing 12th and 19th in those races.
In 2016 Kenseth won twice at Dover and New Hampshire and finished 5th in points after he was wrecked while leading at Phoenix by Alex Bowman. Dollar General would leave the team at the end of the season. On July 11, 2017 JGR announced that Erik Jones would replace Kenseth in the No. 20 car in 2018.
The No. 11 team began racing in 2011. JGR signed 22 - year - old Brian Scott (former driver of the No. 11 with Braun Racing) to a two - year contract, with Kevin Kidd announced as the crew chief, and Scott bringing sponsorship from his family - owned Shore Lodge. The new team was constantly hampered by bad luck during races, with 5 DNF 's on the season. Scott earned a pole, two top 5 's and seven top 10s, finishing 8th in points. For 2012, Dollar General expanded its sponsorship deal with JGR, sponsoring the No. 11 car for the full season. Despite showing speed, the team continued to struggle finishing races (7 DNF 's), and had a best finish of 3rd at Dover, with Scott finishing 9th in points.
In 2013, Scott was replaced by veteran Elliott Sadler, who finished second in the championship standings in the two prior seasons. Sadler brought sponsorship from OneMain Financial with him from Richard Childress Racing. After winning four races in 2012, Sadler went winless in 2013, though he did score 20 top 10 's en route to a fourth - place points finish. Sadler scored his first win for JGR at Talladega in 2014, leading a race high 40 laps. On October 31, 2014, it was announced that Sadler would depart for Roush Fenway Racing 's Nationwide program, taking the OneMain sponsorship with him. The team 's points and crew were moved to the No. 18 for the 2015 season, and the number was reassigned in 2016 to Kaulig Racing for Blake Koch.
The current 18 car came under JGR control when owner Joe Gibbs purchased the No. 44 Shell Oil - sponsored Pontiac from his Cup Series driver Bobby Labonte, who had been operating the team under his control. The team made its debut under the Gibbs banner at the 1998 NAPA Auto Parts 300 with then - IndyCar driver Tony Stewart driving. Stewart he qualified 9th but finished 31st after a crash. At the next week at Rockingham Speedway, Stewart qualified on the pole, led 60 laps and finished 2nd. Stewart ran a total of 22 races that year, with five top - five finishes and winning two pole positions. Labonte ran five races that year in that car in 1998, winning the Diamond Hill Plywood 200.
The team switched to No. 18 with sponsorship from MBNA for 1999. Labonte ran only one race before he suffered shoulder injuries in a qualifying crash at Darlington. Late in the year, Jason Leffler, like Stewart an accomplished open wheel racer, ran four races in the car that year, his best finish being a 20th at Memphis Motorsports Park. Leffler ran the car full - time in 2000, winning a pole at Texas Motor Speedway, and posting three top - ten finishes. After that season, he left for the Cup Series with Chip Ganassi Racing, and Jeff Purvis took his place. Purvis started off strong and was seventh in points but was released after the GNC Live Well 250 because of sponsorship issues. Mike McLaughlin replaced him, finishing seventh in points that season. Despite going winless in 2002, he moved up to fourth place in points. However, owner Joe Gibbs wanted his son Coy in a full - time ride, leaving McLaughlin without a ride. In his rookie season, Gibbs had two Top 10 finishes and finished runner - up to David Stremme for Rookie of the Year.
The team scaled back to a part - time schedule for 2004. In November 2003, JGR signed highly touted USAC Champion J.J. Yeley to a multi-year contract, beginning his stock car career with eight ARCA Racing Series events and 10 - 12 Busch Series races in the 2004 season. The Home Depot 's Vigoro Lawn and Garden Products would sponsor Yeley 's efforts, making their BGN debut at Las Vegas in March. In his first race, Yeley qualified a strong seventh, but finished 23rd and two laps down. Yeley would end up running 17 races, garnering four Top 10 finishes and finishing fourth in Rookie of the Year standings behind future Cup drivers Kyle Busch, Clint Bowyer, and Paul Menard. Bobby Labonte ran two races with a best finish of 7th, while Denny Hamlin finished a strong sixth at the fall race at Darlington. Yeley ran the car full - time in 2005, finishing in the top - ten twelve times and finishing 11th in points. Yeley continued to run full - time in 2006, finishing 5th in the points standings with three poles, nine Top 5 's, 22 Top 10 's, and 27 Top 15 's. Yeley announced in Daytona that he would be driving in the No. 1 Miccosukee Gaming and Resorts - sponsored Chevrolet for Phoenix Racing in the 2007 NASCAR Busch Series.
In January 2007, former Brewco Motorsports development driver and ARCA standout Brad Coleman signed to drive the No. 18 car for 17 of the 35 races, with Carino 's Italian Grill sponsoring his efforts. Kevin Conway was signed for eight races beginning at Bristol in March with Z - Line Designs sponsoring, while Tony Stewart and development driver Aric Almirola filled out the schedule with Goody 's Headache Powder and ConAgra Foods sponsorships. Almirola put the car on the pole at the season opener at Daytona, and had a best finish of 4th at Charlotte. Coleman earned his first career Busch Series pole at Talladega, and had three Top 5 's and five Top 10 's. Without sponsorship for a full - time ride with JGR, Coleman returned to the renamed Baker Curb Racing following the season and signed a development contract with Hall of Fame Racing.
For 2008, the No. 18 was piloted by the team of Denny Hamlin and Kyle Busch with a sponsorship coming from Southern Farm Bureau, Interstate Batteries, and Z - Line Designs. Despite running a partial schedule, Busch won ten races in 2008, including eight in the No. 18, and would finish seventh in points while Hamlin scored a single victory in the No. 18 at Dover. 18 - year - old JGR development driver Marc Davis made his one and only national series start for the team in October at Memphis Motorsports Park with DLP HDTV sponsoring.
In 2009, Kyle Busch won the Nationwide Series Championship driving the No. 18 Z - Line Designs / NOS Toyota.
In 2010, Kyle Busch ran most of the races that were paired with Sprint Cup Series races, while Brad Coleman returned to run the stand - alone races. For 2011, Busch drove the No. 18 for a majority of the season, splitting the ride with Michael McDowell, who ran both Iowa races, Lucas Oil Raceway, and the road courses Road America and Circuit Gilles Villeneuve with a sponsorship from Pizza Ranch. McDowell won the pole at Road America and dominated until late race contact with another car. Drivers Kelly Bires, Drew Herring, and Joey Logano also took turns in the 18. Bires ran at Richmond and Chicago with International Comfort Products Corporation, Herring drove at the second Nashville race with Sport Clips, and Logano drove the 18 at Chicago, Dover, Kansas, and Phoenix. For 2012 the 18 would have a similar lineup, featuring Hamlin, Logano, Herring, McDowell, and Ryan Truex. Logano would take a whooping seven victories with the 18 team, handing the team the Nationwide Owners ' Championship. For 2013, the 18 and 20 teams swapped. Matt Kenseth drove the 18 for 16 races with sponsorship from Reser 's Fine Foods and GameStop. He won the July race at Daytona and the October race at Kansas. The 18 car did not run in 2014.
On August 19, 2014, JGR announced that Toyota Series and K&N Pro Series East driver Daniel Suárez would drive the No. 18 full - time in 2015 with a sponsorship from Arris Group, running for Rookie of the Year. Suárez had a strong rookie season, earning eight top fives, 18 top tens, and three poles to finish fifth in points and beat out Darrell Wallace, Jr. for Rookie of the Year.
The team inherited the No. 54 's points and equipment in 2016, fielding multiple drivers, starting with former JGR driver Bobby Labonte at Daytona. Kyle Busch drove a limited schedule, with former sponsor NOS Energy Drink (owned by Monster Beverage) funding both Busch and Labonte 's efforts. Matt Tifft was scheduled to drive 13 races for the team, but was replaced for several races as he recovered from a removal of a tumor in his brain. Sam Hornish Jr. replaced Tifft for the June Xfinity race at Iowa, and won the race. David Ragan ran the July Xfinity race at Daytona, and won the pole, and was in contention for the win, but crashed on the final lap of the race. Road course specialist Owen Kelly ran the road course races at Mid-Ohio and Road America, and Dakoda Armstrong ran the July Xfinity race at Iowa.
The No. 19 team made its debut at the 2005 CarQuest Auto Parts 300. It was driven by Bobby Labonte and sponsored by Banquet Foods. Labonte ran seven races that year, with three top - tens. With Labonte moving to Petty Enterprises, JGR development driver Aric Almirola ran the car in seven races in 2006. Tony Stewart also drove the car at select races in 2006, using his NEXTEL Cup crew when he raced. The No. 19 team was disbanded after the 2006 season. In 2012 The Car returned as the No. 54 & After running the 54 for his own team in 2012 with only one win (by his brother Kurt), Kyle Busch returned to JGR 's strong Nationwide program with the No. 54 as a fourth JGR car, running 26 races and bringing sponsor Monster Energy with him. Parker Kligerman would take over the newly renumbered 77 for KBM. Busch did n't take long to get to victory lane. He won the pole, lead the most laps, and won the race in only the second race of the 2013 season at Phoenix International Raceway. He then scored victories at Bristol (4th race) and at Fontana (5th race). During the 2013 season, he won a total of 12 races. Joey Coulter, Owen Kelly, and Drew Herring also ran in the 54, which finished 2nd in the owner 's championship to the Team Penske No. 22 by one point.
For the 2014 season, Kyle Busch ran part - time the No. 54 car, running all Sprint Cup Series companion races except Talladega and Daytona in July. Former IRL champion Sam Hornish, Jr., who was not re-signed by Team Penske after scoring a win and finishing 2nd in Nationwide points in 2013, ran 7 races to help compete for the owner 's championship. At Iowa in May, Hornish won the Get To Know Newton 250, beating Ryan Blaney 's 22 for his third career win. The 54 once again finished 2nd in owners points to the Penske 22.
In 2015, Kyle Busch suffered injuries during the season - opening race at Daytona. He broke his leg after hitting the inside wall that had no SAFER barrier installed. His replacements were announced to be Erik Jones (at least 3 races), Cup series teammate Denny Hamlin (5 races), and road course veteran Boris Said (7 races). Busch returned to the Xfinity Series at Michigan in June and scored his first win of the season. Jones scored a win the following race at Chicagoland, his second of the season.
The team was renumbered back to No. 19 for 2016 with Daniel Suárez and sponsor ARRIS moving from the 18 team, maintaining the same sponsor - number combination used by Carl Edwards in the Cup Series. Suárez got his first win at Michigan after a last lap pass to Kyle Busch. Suárez scored three victories and won the 2016 championship, becoming the first foreign - born driver to win a NASCAR National championship.
It was announced that in 2017, Matt Tifft would drive full - time in the 19, with rookie crew chief Matt Beckham on the box.
dAfter JGR purchased the team from Gary Bechtel in 2000, the team received sponsorship from Porter - Cable. Despite missing three races, driver Jeff Purvis had eleven Top 10 's and one pole, finishing 11th in points. The team switched to No. 20 for 2001, and Mike McLaughlin was named the driver. Without a major sponsor, McLaughlin was able to win the Subway 300 and was sixth in points when Gibbs decided to shut down his team due to sponsorship problems. He moved to the No. 18 and finished seventh in points that year. Coy Gibbs ran five races in the No. 20 in 2002, with a sponsorship from ConAgra Foods. His best finish was a 14th at Kentucky Speedway. After he moved to the 18, Gibbs was replaced by Mike Bliss and Rockwell Automation came aboard as a sponsor. Bliss had fourteen Top 10 's and finished 10th in points. In 2004, he pulled off a win at Lowe 's Motor Speedway and had three poles. In 2005, Denny Hamlin came aboard and posted eleven Top 10 's and finished fifth points, the third - place finisher in rookie points. He ran the full schedule in the No. 20 in 2006, winning two races and finishing fourth in points.
Hamlin and developmental driver Aric Almirola split duties in the 20 in 2007 with sponsorship from Rockwell Automation, with Tony Stewart also piloting the No. 20 at Atlanta. With Hamlin running several non-companion races, Almirola would occasionally qualify the car that Hamlin would later drive. Hamlin took the car to victory lane in four races, including Darlington, Milwaukee, Michigan, and Dover. The win at Milwaukee was controversial, with Almirola putting the car on the pole and starting the race because of the fact that Hamlin was delayed flying from Sonoma Raceway. Almirola started the car and led the first 43 laps but was still relieved by Hamlin during a caution due to obligations to his sponsorship from Rockwell. Almirola was credited as the winner for starting the race, but did not participate in the victory celebration. He would leave JGR after the season. The No. 20 finished 2nd in the owners points behind RCR 's No. 29.
In 2008, the No. 20 was shared by Hamlin, Kyle Busch, and Stewart for nine races before defending NASCAR Camping World East Series champion Joey Logano was named the driver of the 20 for the rest of the season 's races except for Loudon (which Stewart won in the No. 20), Daytona (which Hamlin won in the No. 20), and Chicago (which Busch won in the No. 18). All four drivers of the No. 20 won races driving it in 2008. For 2009, 20 - year - old Brad Coleman returned to JGR for a part - time schedule, sharing the ride with Logano and Hamlin. In 2010, Joey Logano, Denny Hamlin and Matt DiBenedetto shared the No. 20 car, with Hamlin winning at Darlington and Logano winning at Kentucky and Kansas. For 2011, Logano returned to the No. 20 with sponsorships from GameStop and Sport Clips. Logano ran the first 10 races but picked up last minute sponsorship from Harvest Investments to run Nashville. Due to a lack of sponsorship, the 20 was unable to run a full schedule for the owners championship. In the 20, Logano grabbed his first superspeedway win at the July Daytona race with help from Kyle Busch. The 20 was also driven by Denny Hamlin at Las Vegas, Richmond, and Darlington, with Hamlin winning at Richmond. Drew Herring drove the 20 with Sport Clips at both Iowa races, where Herring won the pole for the May race, and Lucas Oil Raceway. Ryan Truex stepped into the 20 late in the season for six races, finishing second to Logano at Dover after dominating the race.
The 20 team returned in 2012 to run most of the season. Its primary driver lineup consisted of Logano, Hamlin, Truex, and JGR development driver Darrell Wallace, Jr. Michael Waltrip Racing driver Clint Bowyer also drove the No. 20 at Daytona when Hamlin was sidelined from the race by back problems.
Starting in the 2013 season, 2003 Busch Series Champion Brian Vickers joined the team driving the 20 for the full season with sponsorship from Dollar General, in addition to a partial Sprint Cup Series schedule in Michael Waltrip Racing 's 55 car. Dollar General had sponsored Vickers in the past with Braun Racing, and like teammate Elliott Sadler, Vickers was attempting to reclaim his career in the second - tier series. After 30 starts, Vickers was sidelined with a second incidence of blood clots, replaced by Denny Hamlin and Drew Herring in the final three races of the season. Though he went winless, Vickers scored 13 top 5 's and 18 top 10 's to finish 10th in points. He would leave for a full - time ride at MWR at the end of the year.
The 20 team continued to run full - time in 2014. Matt Kenseth drove the No. 20 in a total of 18 races, with GameStop sponsoring 10 races and Reser 's Fine Foods sponsoring 7 races. Sam Hornish, Jr. and Kenseth each ran 1 race and Kenny Habul 2 races with Habul 's Sun Energy 1 sponsoring. Darrell Wallace, Jr. ran at Talladega in the spring with Toyota Care and Daytona in July with Coca - Cola "Share a Coke ''. Daniel Suárez made his debut at RIR, finishing 19th. Michael McDowell ran at both Iowa races with Pizza Ranch. Denny Hamlin returned to the 20 at Chicagoland in September with Sport Clips, finishing 32nd after a blown engine. Development driver Justin Boston, running the full ARCA schedule, made his debut in the 20 at Kentucky later in the month, with sponsor Zloop E-Recycling. Kenseth scored a win in the final race of the season at Homestead Miami Speedway, and the 20 would finish 9th in owners points.
Erik Jones was scheduled to run a limited schedule in the No. 20 car in 2015, with Kenny Habul and SunEnergy1 also returning for the three road courses. Jones, whose schedule was expanded due to Kyle Busch 's injury, scored his first Xfinity win in his 9th career start at Texas in April, leading a race - high 79 laps. Ross Kenseth, son of Sprint Cup Series champion Matt Kenseth, made his Xfinity Series debut at Chicagoland Speedway on June 20. David Ragan made a single start at Daytona in July with Interstate Batteries sponsorship. Kenny Wallace made his final career start in the 20 car at Iowa Speedway in August, with longtime sponsor U.S. Cellular. Wallace started seventh and finished 15th. Matt Tifft made his Xfinity Series debut at Kentucky in September, finishing 10th. Denny Hamlin drove a total of six races in the 20; two with SunEnergy 1 sponsorship, three with Hisense, and running a throwback scheme at Darlington in September with Sport Clips sponsoring. Hamlin scored three wins, all of which were from the pole starting position. Matt Kenseth ran five races with Reser 's Fine Foods, scoring four - second - place finishes.
Erik Jones drove the car full - time in 2016, with Gamestop, Reser 's, Hisense, Interstate Batteries and Dewalt as the sponsors.
In 2017 the 20 is being driven part - time by a variety of different drivers. Denny Hamlin, Erik Jones, Kyle Benjamin, Christopher Bell, and Ryan Preece are among them.
From 2000 to 2002, Joe Gibbs fielded trucks numbered 20 and 48 in the then Craftsman Truck Series for his sons Coy and J.D. Gibbs, neither of whom are currently competitors in NASCAR. Coy ran 12 races in 2000, then the full 2001 and 2002 seasons, with 21 top 10 's and 10th - place points finishes in the latter two seasons. J.D. only ran a total of 8 races over the three seasons, with no top 10 finishes.
From 2004 to 2006, JGR drivers drove in the Truck Series for Chevrolet - affiliated Morgan - Dollar Motorsports, fielding Bobby Labonte, Tony Stewart, Denny Hamlin, J.J. Yeley, Jason Leffler, and Aric Almirola in select races. In 2006, JGR contracted Spears Motorsports to field Almirola in their 75 truck for his rookie Truck season. Almirola had 3 top 10 's (compared to 2 top 10 's in four starts the previous year), finishing 18th in points.
JGR drivers currently compete in the Camping World Truck Series through Kyle Busch Motorsports, owned by Cup Series driver Kyle Busch. KBM uses JGR - built engines in competition. Busch himself, along with Daniel Suárez, Cody Coughlin, Christopher Bell, and William Byron currently drive for KBM.
In 1999, Joe Gibbs Racing field No. 18 car for Jason Leffler for one race. Leffler finish 5th at Atlanta. In 2000, Leffler returned at Charlotte, he started 2nd and led one lap, however he crashed with 55 of 67 laps completed.
From 2004 to 2005, Joe Gibbs Racing partnered with Shaver Motorsports to field development drivers in the ARCA Racing Series. Denny Hamlin finished third in the 2004 season finale at Talladega. J.J. Yeley ran the 2005 season opener at Daytona, as part of his development deal with JGR. Aric Almirola ran the 2005 finale at Talladega.
Leffler raced one race in 1999 and one race in 2000 with No. 18.
On December 15, 2016, it was announced that JGR would field a car for Riley Herbst full - time in the 2017 season. Matt Tifft ran the season opener at Daytona due to Herbst not being eligible to compete in the race.
In 2017, Riley Herbst was entered at the season opener in Daytona in the team 's second car (No. 81), but he was ineligible to race. Herbst and Zane Smith were both were ineligible to run the season opener at Daytona, though ARCA allowed both to participate in practice.
Following the 2008 Chicagoland race, NASCAR made a regulation change specifically to Toyota, which mandated them to run a smaller restrictor plate to cut horsepower by estimated 15 to 20 horsepower (15 kW) from their engines. After the August 16, 2008 NASCAR Nationwide Series race at Michigan International Speedway, NASCAR used a dynometer to test the horsepower of several cars from all competing manufacturers. While testing the Joe Gibbs Racing cars, officials found that the throttle pedal on the two Joe Gibbs Racing cars had been manipulated using magnets a quarter - inch thick to prevent the accelerator from going 100 percent wide open. Joe Gibbs issued a statement saying "we will take full responsibility and accept any penalties NASCAR levies against us '' and "we will also investigate internally how this incident took place and who was involved and make whatever decisions are necessary to ensure that this kind of situation never happens again. '' Seven crew members were suspended indefinitely and two drivers and the team were penalized 150 points apiece.
In 2008, Gibbs branched out into motorcycle racing, forming the JGRMX team competing in the AMA motocross and supercross championships. The team is based in Huntersville, North Carolina and is managed by Gibbs ' son, Coy Gibbs.
On January 5, 2008 the Muscle Milk / Toyota / JGRMX Team made its racing debut in the first round of the 2008 Supercross Series in Anaheim, CA with riders Josh Hansen and Josh Summey. They had had Josh Grant and Cody Cooper ride for the team in 2009, with Grant winning the opening round of Supercross at Anaheim. Grant and Justin Brayton rode for the team in 2010, and Davi Millsaps replaced Grant in 2011. James Stewart replaced Brayton in 2012, and won the Oakland Supercross. Grant and Brayton returned as the team 's two riders in 2013. Phil Nicoletti joined them in 2014. Justin Barcia and Weston Peick replaced Grant and Brayton on the team in 2015, with Barcia winning two nationals (Budds Creek and RedBud). In 2017, the team switched from Yamaha to Suzuki and added a 250cc effort, with Nicoletti and Matt Bisceglia.
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who declared war on us after pearl harbor | Consequences of the attack on Pearl Harbor - wikipedia
The results of the attack on Pearl Harbor were many and significant.
Prior to the attack, public opinion in the United States had not been unanimous. When polled in January 1940, 60 % of Americans were in favor of helping the United Kingdom in the war. A majority of Americans believed that the safety of the United States was contingent on the UK winning the war, and an even larger majority believed that the UK would lose the war if the United States stopped sending war materials to the United Kingdom. Despite this, the same poll reported that 88 % of Americans would not support entering the war against Germany and Italy.
Americans were more unsure on the prospect of conflict with Japan around the same timeframe. In a February Gallup poll, a majority of Americans believed that the United States should intervene in Japan 's conquest of the Dutch East Indies and Singapore. However, in the same poll, only 39 % supported going to war with Japan, while 46 % opposed the prospect.
Public support for assisting the United Kingdom rose through 1940, reaching about 65 % by May 1941. However, opinions on the prospect of becoming involved against Germany and Italy still remained quite high with 80 % disapproval.
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor. After two hours of bombing, 18 U.S. ships were sunk or damaged, 188 U.S. aircraft were destroyed, and 2,403 men were killed.
The day after the attack, President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed a joint session of the 77th United States Congress. Roosevelt called December 7 "a date which will live in infamy ''. Congress declared war on the Empire of Japan amid outrage at the attack, the deaths of thousands of Americans, and the late delivery of the note from the Japanese government breaking off relations with the U.S. government. Pacifist Representative Jeannette Rankin, a Republican from Montana, cast the only dissenting vote. Roosevelt signed the declaration of war later the same day. Continuing to intensify its military mobilization, the U.S. government finished converting to a war economy, a process begun by provision of weapons and supplies to the Soviet Union and the British Empire. Japanese Americans from the West Coast were sent to internment camps for the duration of the war.
The attack on Pearl Harbor immediately galvanized a divided nation into action. Public opinion had been moving towards support for entering the war during 1941, but considerable opposition remained until the attack. Overnight, Americans united against the Empire of Japan in response to calls to "Remember Pearl Harbor. '' A poll taken between December 12 -- 17, 1941, showed that 97 % of respondents supported a declaration of war against Japan. Further polling showed a dramatic increase in support for every able - bodied man serving in the military, up to 70 % in December 1941. American solidarity in the war effort probably made possible the unconditional surrender position later taken by the Allied Powers. Some historians, among them Samuel Eliot Morison, believe the attack doomed Imperial Japan to defeat simply because it awakened the "sleeping giant '', regardless of whether the fuel depots or machine shops had been destroyed or even if the carriers had been caught in port and sunk. U.S. industrial and military capacity, once mobilized, was able to pour overwhelming resources into both the Pacific and Atlantic theaters. Others, such as Clay Blair, Jr., and Mark Parillo believe Japanese trade protection was so incompetent that American submarines alone might have strangled Japan into defeat.
The closest friend Roosevelt had in the developing Allied alliance, Sir Winston Churchill, stated that his first thought regarding American assistance to the United Kingdom was that "We have won the war '' very soon after Pearl Harbor had been attacked.
Perceptions of treachery in the attack before a declaration of war sparked fears of sabotage or espionage by Japanese sympathizers residing in the U.S., including citizens of Japanese descent and was a factor in the subsequent Japanese internment in the western United States. Other factors included misrepresentations of intelligence information suggesting sabotage, notably by General John DeWitt, commanding general of Western Defense Command on the Pacific Coast, who had personal feelings against Japanese Americans. In February 1942, Roosevelt signed United States Executive Order 9066, requiring all Japanese Americans to submit themselves for internment.
Propaganda made repeated use of the attack, because its effect was enormous and impossible to counter. "Remember Pearl Harbor! '' became the watchwords of the war.
The American government understated the damage inflicted, in hopes of preventing the Japanese from learning it, but the Japanese had, through surveillance, a good estimate.
On December 8, 1941, Japan declared war on the United States and the British Empire. The Japanese document discussed world peace and the disruptive actions of the United States and the United Kingdom. The document claimed all avenues for averting war had been exhausted by the Government of Japan.
Although the Imperial Japanese government had made some effort to prepare their population for war via anti-U.S. propaganda, it appears most Japanese were surprised, apprehensive, and dismayed by the news they were now at war with the U.S., a country many of them admired. Nevertheless, the people at home and overseas thereafter generally accepted their government 's account of the attack and supported the war effort until their nation 's surrender in 1945.
Japan 's national leadership at the time appeared to have believed war between the U.S. and Japan had long been inevitable. In any case, Japanese - American relationships had already significantly deteriorated since Japan 's invasion of China beginning in the early 1930s, of which the United States strongly disapproved. In 1942, Saburō Kurusu, former Japanese ambassador to the United States, gave an address in which he talked about the "historical inevitability of the war of Greater East Asia. '' He said war had been a response to Washington 's longstanding aggression toward Japan. For example, provocations against Japan included the San Francisco School incident, Naval Limitations Treaty, other unequal treaties, the Nine Power Pact, constant economic pressure against Japan, culminating in the "belligerent '' scrap metal and oil embargo in 1941 by the United States and Allied countries to contain and / or reverse the actions of the Empire of Japan especially in Indochina during her expansion of influence and interests throughout Asia. In light of Japan 's dependence on imported oil, the trade embargoes were especially significant. These pressures directly influenced Japan to go into alliance with Germany and Italy through the Tripartite Pact. According to Kurusu, because of these reasons, the Allies had already provoked war with Japan long before the attack at Pearl Harbor, and the United States was already preparing for war with Japan. Kurusu also states the United States was also looking for world domination, beyond just Asia, with "sinister designs ''. Some of this view seems to have been shared by Adolf Hitler, when he called it one of the reasons Germany declared war on the United States. He also had mentioned European imperialism toward Japan many years before. Therefore, according to Kurusu, Japan had no choice but to defend itself and so should rapidly continue to militarize, bring Germany and Italy closer as allies and militarily combat the United States, Britain, and the Netherlands.
Japan 's leaders also saw themselves as justified in their conduct, believing that they were building the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. They also explained Japan had done everything possible to alleviate tension between the two nations. The decision to attack, at least for public presentation, was reluctant and forced on Japan. Of the Pearl Harbor attack itself, Kurusu said it came in direct response to a virtual ultimatum from the U.S. government, the Hull note, and so the surprise attack was not treacherous. Since the Japanese - American relationship already had hit its lowest point, there was no alternative; in any case, had an acceptable settlement of differences been reached, the Carrier Striking Task Force could have been called back.
On December 11, 1941, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy declared war on the United States, and the United States reciprocated, formally entering the war in Europe.
German dictator Adolf Hitler and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini were under no obligation to declare war on the United States under the mutual defense terms of the Tripartite Pact until the US counterattacked Japan. However, relations between the European Axis Powers and the United States had deteriorated since 1937. On December 4, 1941, the Germans learned of the U.S. military 's contingency planning to get troops in Continental Europe by 1943; this was Rainbow Five, made public by sources unsympathetic to Roosevelt 's New Deal, and published by the Chicago Tribune on that date. Moreover, with Roosevelt 's initiation of a Neutrality Patrol, which in fact also escorted British ships, as well as orders to U.S. Navy destroyers first to actively report U-boats, then "shoot on sight '', American neutrality was honored more in the breach than observance.
Having been unaware of Japanese plans, Hitler was initially furious that the United States had been dragged into the war at a time when he had not yet acquired full control of continental Europe -- on the very day of the Pearl Harbor attack, Hitler himself had issued his Nacht und Nebel decree, concerning the suppression of resistance activities within Nazi - occupied lands. Hitler, who had previously declared the Japanese "Honorary Aryans '' claimed that "this is what happens when your allies are not Anglo - Saxons ''. However, he decided war with the United States was unavoidable, and the Pearl Harbor attack, the publication of Rainbow Five, and Roosevelt 's post-Pearl Harbor address, which focused on European affairs as well as the situation with Japan, probably contributed to the declaration. Hitler expected the United States would soon declare war on Germany in any event. He disastrously underestimated American military production capacity, the United States ' own ability to fight on two fronts, and the time his own Operation Barbarossa would require. Similarly, the Nazis may have hoped the declaration of war, a showing of solidarity with Japan, would result in closer collaboration with the Japanese in Eurasia, particularly against the Soviet Union -- something that would not materialize, due to existing relations between Moscow and Tokyo at that time, as well as information submitted in mid-September 1941 by the Soviets ' top spy in Japan, Richard Sorge, that the Japanese armed forces were not likely to abrogate any treaties between Japan and the Soviets unless:
The decision to declare war on the United States allowed the United States to enter the European war in support of the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union without much public opposition.
Even as early as mid-March 1941, President Roosevelt was quite acutely aware of Hitler 's hostility towards the United States, and the destructive potential it presented, in reference to Hitler 's statement of a "new order in Europe '' during the Führer 's own Berlin Sportpalast speech of January 30, 1941, the eighth anniversary of the Nazis ' Machtergreifung:
... Nazi forces are not seeking mere modifications in colonial maps or in minor European boundaries. They openly seek the destruction of all elective systems of government on every continent, including our own. They seek to establish systems of government based on the regimentation of all human beings by a handful of individual rulers who seize power by force.
Yes, these men and their hypnotized followers call this a "New Order. '' It is not new, and it is not order. For order among nations presupposes something enduring, some system of justice under which individuals over a long period of time are willing to live. Humanity will never permanently accept a system imposed by conquest, and based on slavery. These modern tyrants find it necessary to their plans to eliminate all democracies -- eliminate them one by one. The nations of Europe, and indeed we, ourselves, did not appreciate that purpose. We do now.
Author Ian Kershaw records Hitler 's initial reaction to the attack, when he was first informed about it on the evening of 7 December at Führer Headquarters: "We ca n't lose the war at all. We now have an ally which has never been conquered in 3,000 years ''. Well before the attack, in 1928 Hitler had confided in the text of his then - unpublished Zweites Buch that while the Soviet Union was the most important immediate foe that the Third Reich had to defeat, the United States was the most important long - term challenge to Nazi aims.
Hitler awarded Imperial Japanese ambassador to Nazi Germany Hiroshi Ōshima the Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle in Gold (1st class) after the attack, praising Japan for striking hard and without first declaring war.
As a result of the Japanese attack on the Americans, William Lyon Mackenzie King, the Prime Minister of the Dominion of Canada advised George VI, King of Canada, that a state of war should exist between Canada and Japan.
In the late evening of December 7, 1941, the Canadian Prime Minister, W.L. Mackenzie King, announced the Cabinet 's decision to declare war on Japan. The King approved Canada 's declaration of war in the following proclamation issued on December 8, 1941.
Whereas by and with the advice of our Privy Council for Canada we have signified our approval of the issue of a proclamation in the Canada Gazette declaring that a state of war with Japan exists and has existed in Canada as and from the 7th day of December 1941.
Now, therefore, we do hereby declare and proclaim that a state of war with Japan exists and has existed as and from the seventh day of December 1941.
Of all which our loving subjects and all others whom these presents may concern are hereby required to take notice and to govern themselves accordingly.
Canada remained focused on the European theatre however, and following VE Day was still in the process of transitioning its military force for a campaign in east Asia and the western Pacific when VJ Day arrived.
President Roosevelt appointed the Roberts Commission, headed by U.S. Supreme Court Justice Owen Roberts, to investigate and report facts and findings with respect to the attack on Pearl Harbor. It was the first of many official investigations (nine in all). Both the Fleet commander, Rear Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, and the Army commander, Lieutenant General Walter Short (the Army had been responsible for air defense of Hawaii, including Pearl Harbor, and for general defense of the islands against hostile attack), were relieved of their commands shortly thereafter. They were accused of "dereliction of duty '' by the Roberts Commission for not making reasonable defensive preparations. None of the investigations conducted during the War, nor the Congressional investigation afterward, provided enough reason to reverse those actions. The decisions of the Navy and War Departments to relieve both was controversial at the time and has remained so. However, neither was court - martialed as would normally have been the result of dereliction of duty. On May 25, 1999, the U.S. Senate voted to recommend both officers be exonerated on all charges, citing "denial to Hawaii commanders of vital intelligence available in Washington ''.
A Joint Congressional Committee was also appointed, on September 14, 1945, to investigate the causes of the attack and subsequent disaster, and was convened on November 15, 1945.
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor coupled with their alliance with the Nazis and the ensuing war in the Pacific fueled anti-Japanese sentiment, racism, xenophobia, and anti-Axis sentiment in the Allied nations like never before. Japanese, Japanese - Americans and Asians having a similar physical appearance were regarded with deep seated suspicion, distrust and hostility. The attack was viewed as having been conducted in an extremely underhanded way and also as a very "treacherous '' or "sneaky attack ''. Suspicions were further fueled by the Niihau Incident, as historian Gordon Prange stated "the rapidity with which the three resident Japanese went over to the pilot 's cause '' which troubled the Hawaiians. "The more pessimistic among them cited the Niihau Incident as proof that no one could trust any Japanese, even if an American citizen, not to go over to Japan if it appeared expedient. ''
The attack, the subsequent declarations of war, and fear of "Fifth Columnists '' resulted in internment of Japanese, German, and Italian populations in the United States and others, for instance the Japanese American internment, German American internment, Italian American internment, and Japanese Canadian internment. The attack resulted in the United States fighting the Germans and Italians among others in Europe and Japan in the Pacific.
The consequences were world - changing. Prime Minister Winston Churchill knew that the survival of the British Empire depended on American aid, and since 1940 had frequently asked Roosevelt to declare war. Churchill aide John Colville stated that the prime minister and American Ambassador John Gilbert Winant, who also supported the British, "sort of danced around the room together '' as the United States would now enter the war, making a British victory likely. Churchill later wrote, "Being saturated and satiated with emotion and sensation, I went to bed and slept the sleep of the saved and thankful. '' By opening the Pacific War, which ended in the unconditional surrender of Japan, it broke the power of an Asian check on Soviet expansion. The Allied victory in this war and subsequent U.S. emergence as a dominant world power, eclipsing Britain, have shaped international politics ever since.
Pearl Harbor is generally regarded as an extraordinary event in American history, remembered as the first time since the War of 1812 that America was attacked in strength on its territory by another country -- with only the September 11 attacks almost 60 years later being of a similarly catastrophic scale. It was the first decisive defeat for the United States in World War II. It has become synonymous with "surprise attack '' ever since in American parlance. The U.S. mistakes of intelligence collection, sharing, and analysis leading to the Japanese success at Pearl Harbor did not, in the end, lead to lessons learned.
Some Japanese today feel they were compelled to fight because of threats to their national interests and an embargo imposed by the United States, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. The most important embargo was on oil on which its Navy and much of the economy was dependent. For example, Japan Times, an English - language newspaper owned by one of the major news organizations in Japan (Asahi Shimbun), ran numerous columns in the early 2000s echoing Kurusu 's comments in reference to the Pearl Harbor attack.
In putting the Pearl Harbor attack into context, Japanese writers repeatedly contrast the thousands of U.S. non-combatants killed there with the hundreds of thousands of Japanese civilians killed in U.S. air attacks on Japan later in the war, even without mentioning the 1945 atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States.
However, in spite of the perceived inevitability of the war by many Japanese, many also believe the Pearl Harbor attack, although a tactical victory, was actually part of a seriously flawed strategy for engaging in war with the U.S. As one columnist wrote, "The Pearl Harbor attack was a brilliant tactic, but part of a strategy based on the belief that a spirit as firm as iron and as beautiful as cherry blossoms could overcome the materially wealthy United States. That strategy was flawed, and Japan 's total defeat would follow. '' In 1991, the Japanese Foreign Ministry released a statement saying Japan had intended to make a formal declaration of war to the United States at 1 p.m. Washington time, 25 minutes before the attack at Pearl Harbor was scheduled to begin. This officially acknowledged something that had been publicly known for years. Diplomatic communications had been coordinated well in advance with the attack, but had failed delivery at the intended time. It appears the Japanese government was referring to the "14 - part message '', which did not actually break off negotiations, let alone declare war, but did officially raise the possibility of a break in relations. However, because of various delays, the Japanese ambassador was unable to deliver this message until well after the attack had begun.
Imperial Japanese military leaders appear to have had mixed feelings about the attack. Fleet Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto was unhappy about the botched timing of the breaking off of negotiations. He is on record as having said, in the previous year, "I can run wild for six months... after that, I have no expectation of success. '' The reports of American reactions, terming it a "sneak attack '' and "infamous behavior '', confirmed that the effect on American morale had been the opposite of intended.
The Prime Minister of Japan during World War II, Hideki Tōjō later wrote, "When reflecting upon it today, that the Pearl Harbor attack should have succeeded in achieving surprise seems a blessing from Heaven. ''
Yamamoto had said, regarding the imminent war with the United States, "Should hostilities once break out between Japan and the United States, it is not enough that we take Guam and the Philippines, nor even Hawaii and San Francisco. We would have to march into Washington and sign the treaty in the White House. I wonder if our politicians (who speak so lightly of a Japanese - American war) have confidence as to the outcome and are prepared to make the necessary sacrifices? ''
There are some revisionists in Japan who claim that the Attack on Pearl Harbor was a legitimate attack. These historical perspectives are often claimed by Japanese Shintoist and nationalists and have been criticized from both inside and outside Japan.
While not specifically directed at revisionism, but more as a likely result of Prime Minister Shinzo Abe 's controversial visits to the Yasukuni Shrine, where some 1,600 war criminals were enshrined after their executions, by February 2015 some concern within the Imperial House of Japan -- which normally does not issue such statements -- over the issue was voiced by Crown Prince Naruhito. Naruhito stated on his 55th birthday (February 23, 2015) that it was "important to look back on the past humbly and correctly '', in reference to Japan 's role in World War II - era war crimes, and that he was concerned about the ongoing need to "correctly pass down tragic experiences and the history behind Japan to the generations who have no direct knowledge of the war, at the time memories of the war are about to fade ''.
The attack was notable for its considerable destruction, as putting most of the U.S. battleships out of commission was regarded -- in both navies and by most military observers worldwide -- as a tremendous success for Japan. Influenced by the earlier Battle of Taranto, which pioneered the all - aircraft naval attack but resulted in far less damage and casualties, the Japanese struck against Pearl Harbor on a much larger scale than did the British at Taranto.
The attack was a great shock to all the Allies in the Pacific Theater, and it was initially believed Pearl Harbor changed the balance of power, similar to how Taranto did the Mediterranean, both in the attackers ' favor. Three days later, with the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse off the coast of Malaya, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill exclaimed, "In all the war I never received a more direct shock. As I turned and twisted in bed the full horror of the news sank in upon me. There were no British or American capital ships in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific except the American survivors of Pearl Harbor who were hastening back to California. Over this vast expanse of waters Japan was supreme and we everywhere were weak and naked. ''
However, Pearl Harbor did not have as crippling an effect on American operations as initially thought. Unlike the close confines of the Mediterranean, the vast expanses of the Pacific limited the tactical value of battleships as a fleet in being. Furthermore, unlike new fast battleships such as the Iowa class, the slow battleships were incapable of operating with carrier task forces, so once repaired they were relegated to delivering pre-invasion bombardments during the island hopping offensive against Japanese - held islands. These Pearl Harbor veterans were later part of a force that defeated IJN battleships at the Battle of Surigao Strait, an engagement very lopsided in the USN 's favor in any case. A major flaw of Japanese strategic thinking was a belief that the ultimate Pacific battle would be between battleships of both sides, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain Alfred Mahan. Seeing the decimation of battleships at the hands of aircraft, Yamamoto (and his successors) hoarded his battleships for a "decisive battle '' that never happened, only committing a handful to the forefront of the Battles of Midway and Guadalcanal.
One of the main Japanese objectives was to destroy the three American aircraft carriers stationed in the Pacific, but they were not present: Enterprise was returning from Wake, Lexington from Midway, and Saratoga was under refit at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. Had Japan sunk the American carriers, the U.S. would have sustained significant damage to the Pacific Fleet 's ability to conduct offensive operations for a year or so (given no further diversions from the Atlantic Fleet). As it was, the elimination of the battleships left the U.S. Navy with no choice but to place its faith in aircraft carriers and submarines -- particularly the large numbers under construction of the U.S. Navy 's Essex - class aircraft carriers, eleven of which had been ordered before the attack -- the very weapons with which the U.S. Navy halted and eventually reversed the Japanese advance.
Despite the perception of this battle as a devastating blow to America, only three ships were permanently lost to the U.S. Navy. These were the battleships Arizona, Oklahoma, and the old battleship Utah (then used as a target ship); nevertheless, much usable material was salvaged from them, including the two aft main turrets from Arizona. The majority of each battleship 's crews survived; there were exceptions as heavy casualties resulted from Arizona 's magazine exploding and the Oklahoma capsizing. Four ships sunk during the attack were later raised and returned to duty, including the battleships California, West Virginia and Nevada. California and West Virginia had an effective torpedo - defense system which held up remarkably well, despite the weight of fire they had to endure, resulting in most of their crews being saved. Maryland and Tennessee suffered relatively light damage, as did Pennsylvania, which was in drydock at the time.
Chester Nimitz said later, "It was God 's mercy that our fleet was in Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. '' Nimitz believed if Kimmel had discovered the Japanese approach to Pearl Harbor, he would have sortied to meet them. With the American carriers absent and Kimmel 's battleships at a severe disadvantage to the Japanese carriers, the likely result would have been the sinking of the American battleships at sea in deep water, where they would have been lost forever with tremendous casualties (up to twenty thousand dead), instead of in Pearl Harbor, where the crews could easily be rescued, and six battleships ultimately restored to duty. This was also the reaction of Joseph Rochefort, head of HYPO, when he remarked the attack was cheap at the price.
Many of the surviving battleships were extensively refitted, including the replacement of their outdated secondary battery of anti-surface 5 "/ 51 caliber guns with more useful turreted dual - purpose 5 '' / 38 caliber guns, allowing them to better cope with the new tactical reality. Addition of modern radar to the salvaged vessels would give them a marked qualitative advantage over those of the IJN.
The repaired U.S. battleships primarily provided fire support for amphibious landings. Their low speed was a liability to their deployment in the vast expanses of the Pacific, for instance they could not accompany the fleet carriers that had become the dominant combatants. Six of the Standard Type vessels participated in the last battleship versus battleship engagement in naval history, the Battle of Surigao Strait, where none of them were hit. During active duty, being well protected by escorts and air cover, none of the Pearl Harbor battleships suffered serious damage save for Pennsylvania which was permanently crippled by a torpedo in the closing stages of the war; on September 2, 1945, West Virginia was among the Allied fleet in Tokyo Bay when the Japanese officially surrendered.
The attack on Pearl Harbor failed to sight, or destroy, any of the Pacific Fleet 's three aircraft carriers; they had been designated as primary targets along with the battleships. The carriers Lexington and Enterprise were ferrying additional fighters to American bases on the islands of Wake and Midway while Saratoga was under refit at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. At the time of the Japanese attack, the US was expecting imminent war with Japan, beginning in any of several places, such as the Philippines or Allied bases in Borneo. Nagumo 's hesitation, and failure to find and destroy the American carriers, may have been a product of his lack of faith in the attack plan, and of the fact he was a gunnery officer, not an aviator. In addition, Yamamoto 's targeting priorities, placing battleships first in importance, reflected an out - of - date Mahanian doctrine, and an inability to extrapolate from history, given the damage German submarines did to British trade in World War I. In the end, Japan achieved surprisingly little for all her daring and apparent success. This all happened at a time when the first thirteen examples, CV - 9 through CV - 21, of the pivotal Essex - class aircraft carriers had been ordered by the United States Congress and were under construction -- not one of the thirteen Essex - class carriers built and commissioned during the war years to serve with the U.S. Navy before August 1945 was sunk by the Axis forces in World War II.
Cruisers, essential to carrier task forces later in the war, had been considered tertiary targets and only three suffered damage. Of 27 destroyers present, only two were lost: Cassin and Downes were total losses as ships, but their machinery was salvaged and fitted into new hulls, retaining their original names, while Shaw was raised and returned to service.
Tank farms, containing 140 million U.S. gallons (530 million liters) of bunker oil, were unscathed, providing a ready source of fuel for American fleets at the submarine base. About this missed opportunity, Admiral Chester Nimitz would later say, "Had the Japanese destroyed the oil, it would have prolonged the war another two years. '' These were vital to the initial phase of the war, and to commerce raiding throughout, and illustrate the deficiencies of Japanese planning for the attack. The Navy Yard, critical to ship maintenance, and repair of ships damaged in the attack was untouched. The engineering and initial repair shops, as well as the torpedo store, were intact. Other items of base infrastructure and operation, such as power generation, continued to operate normally. Also critical to the way the Pacific War was actually fought was the cryptanalysis unit, Station HYPO, located in the basement of the old Administration Building. It was undamaged and even benefited by gaining staff from unemployed ship 's bands.
The Army Air Force 's loss of aircraft must be balanced against the fact that many of them were obsolete, such as the P - 40 's predecessor, the P - 36. Japan might have achieved a good deal more with not much additional effort or loss.
California, West Virginia, Nevada US ships lost: Lexington, Yorktown, Wasp, Hornet US ships gained: Essex, North Carolina, Washington, South Dakota, Indiana, Massachusetts, Alabama Japanese ships lost: Shoho, Akagi, Kaga, Soryu, Hiryu, Hiei, Kirishima Japanese ships gained: Yamato, Musashi, Junyo, Hiyo.
Of the 22 Japanese ships that took part in the attack, only one survived the war. As of 2006, the only U.S. ships in Pearl Harbor during the attack still remaining afloat are the Coast Guard Cutter Taney and the yard tug Hoga. Both remained active over 50 years after the attack and have been designated museum ships.
A common view is that the Japanese fell victim to victory disease because of the perceived ease of their first victories. It has also been stated by the Japanese military commanders and politicians who visited and lived in the United States, that their leadership (mostly military personnel) took the war with the United States relatively lightly, compared to them. For instance, Admiral Yamamoto and General Tadamichi Kuribayashi expressed concerns about the greater industrial power of the United States.
The politics of a "Europe First '' strategy, loss of air cover over Pearl Harbor, and subsequent loss of the Philippines, meant the U.S. Army and Army Air Forces were unable to play a significant role in the Pacific War for several months. Japan was temporarily free of worries about the major rival Pacific naval power, which was at least part of the intention for the attack. Because Australian, New Zealand, Dutch and most British forces were already in Europe, Japan conquered nearly all of Southeast Asia, the Southwest Pacific, and extended her reach far into the Indian Ocean, without significant interference. The various Japanese advances were a nearly complete tactical success.
In the long term, the attack on Pearl Harbor was a grand strategic blunder for Japan. Indeed, Admiral Yamamoto, who conceived it, predicted even success here could not win a war with the United States, because American productive capacity was too large. It spurred the United States into a determination to fight to complete victory. The war resulted in the destruction of the Japanese armed forces, the occupation of the home islands (a state never before achieved in Japan 's history), and the occupation of Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands by the United States until 1972, while the Soviet Russian re-annexation of the Kurile Islands and Sakhalin Island 's southern part, and the restoration of Formosa (Taiwan) to China, and the loss of Korea have not been reversed to this day.
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where was chitty chitty bang bang beach scene filmed | Chitty Chitty Bang Bang - wikipedia
Chitty Chitty Bang Bang is a 1968 British musical adventure fantasy film, directed by Ken Hughes and written by Roald Dahl and Hughes, loosely based on Ian Fleming 's 1964 novel Chitty - Chitty - Bang - Bang: The Magical Car. The film stars Dick Van Dyke, Sally Ann Howes, Adrian Hall, Heather Ripley, Lionel Jeffries, James Robertson Justice, Robert Helpmann and Gert Fröbe.
The film was produced by Albert R. Broccoli, the regular co-producer of the James Bond series of films (also based on Ian Fleming novels). John Stears supervised the special effects. Irwin Kostal supervised and conducted the music, while the musical numbers, written by Richard M. and Robert B. Sherman of Mary Poppins, were staged by Marc Breaux and Dee Dee Wood. The song "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang '' was nominated for an Academy Award.
The story opens with a montage of European Grand Prix races in which one particular car appears to win every race it runs in from 1907 through 1908. However, in its final 1909 race, the car crashes and catches fire, ending its racing career. The car eventually ends up in an old garage in rural England, where two children, Jeremy and Jemima Potts, have grown fond of it. However, a man in the junkyard intends to buy the car from the garage owner, Mr. Coggins, for scrap. The children, who live with their father Caractacus Potts, an eccentric inventor, and the family 's equally peculiar grandfather, implore their father to buy the car, but Caractacus can not afford it. While playing truant from school, they meet Truly Scrumptious, a beautiful upper - class woman with her own motor car, who brings them home to report their truancy to their father. After she leaves, Caractacus promises the children that he will save the car, but is taken aback at the cost he has committed himself to. He looks for ways to raise money to avoid letting them down.
Later that evening, Potts discovers that the sweets produced by a machine he has invented can be played like a flute. He tries to sell the "Toot Sweets '' to Truly 's father, Lord Scrumptious, a major confectionery manufacturer. He is almost successful until the whistle attracts a pack of dogs who overrun the factory, resulting in Caractacus 's proposition being rejected.
Caractacus next takes his automatic hair - cutting machine to a carnival to raise money, but his invention accidentally ruins the hair of a customer. Potts eludes the man by joining a song - and - dance act. He becomes the centre of the show and earns enough in tips to buy the car and rebuild it. They name the car "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang '' for the unusual noise of its engine. In the first trip in the car, Caractacus, the children, and Truly picnic on the beach. Caractacus tells them a tale about nasty Baron Bomburst, the tyrant of fictional Vulgaria, who wants to steal Chitty Chitty Bang Bang.
As Potts tells his story, the quartet and the car are stranded by high tide and are attacked by pirates working for the Baron. All of a sudden, Chitty deploys huge flotation devices and transforms into a power boat, and they escape Bomburst 's yacht and return to shore. The Baron sends two spies to capture the car, but they capture Lord Scrumptious, then Grandpa Potts, mistaking each for the car 's creator. Caractacus, Truly, and the children see Grandpa being taken away by airship, and they give chase. When they accidentally drive off a cliff, Chitty sprouts wings and propellers and begins to fly. They follow the airship to Vulgaria and find a land without children; the Baroness Bomburst abhors them and imprisons any she finds. Grandpa has been ordered by the Baron to make another floating car, and he bluffs his abilities to avoid being executed. The Potts ' party is hidden by the local Toymaker, who now works only for the childish Baron. Chitty is discovered and taken to the castle. While Caractacus and the toymaker search for Grandpa and Truly searches for food, the children are caught by the Baroness ' Child Catcher.
The Toymaker takes Truly and Caractacus to a grotto beneath the castle where the townspeople have been hiding their children. They concoct a scheme to free the children and the village from the Baron. The Toymaker sneaks them into the castle disguised as life - size dolls for the Baron 's birthday. Caractacus snares the Baron, and the children swarm into the banquet hall, overcoming the Baron 's palace guards and guests. In the ensuing chaos, the Baron, Baroness, and the evil Child Catcher are captured. The Potts family and Truly fly back to England. When they arrive home, Lord Scrumptious surprises Caractacus with an offer to buy the Toot Sweet as a canine confection. Caractacus, realising that he will be rich, rushes to tell Truly the news. They kiss, and Truly agrees to marry him. As they drive home, he acknowledges the importance of pragmatism, as the car takes off into the air again.
The cast includes:
The part of Truly Scrumptious had originally been offered to Julie Andrews, to reunite her with Van Dyke after their success in Mary Poppins. Andrews rejected the role specifically because she considered that the part was too close to the Poppins mould. Instead, Sally Ann Howes was given the role. Dick Van Dyke was cast after he turned down the role of Fagin from another 1968 musical Oliver! (which ended up going to Ron Moody).
Hughes said he did not enjoy making the film. "We took too long to make it, '' he said. "I sweated over it for about a year and really it was a only a children 's film. I think such a thing should be made quickly and with enthusiasm. My enthusiasm ran out long before the end. ''
The Caractacus Potts inventions in the film were created by Rowland Emett; by 1976, Time magazine, describing Emett 's work, said no term other than "Fantasticator... could remotely convey the diverse genius of the perky, pink - cheeked Englishman whose pixilations, in cartoon, watercolor and clanking 3 - D reality, range from the celebrated Far Tottering and Oyster Creek Railway to the demented thingamabobs that made the 1968 movie Chitty Chitty Bang Bang a minuscule classic. ''
Six Chitty - Chitty Bang - Bang cars were created for the film, only one of which was fully functional. At a 1973 auction in Florida, one of them sold for $37,000, equal to $203,972 today. The original "hero '' car, in a condition described as fully functional and road - going, was offered at auction on 15 May 2011 by a California - based auction house. The car sold for $805,000, less than the $1 -- 2 million it was expected to reach. It was purchased by New Zealand film director Sir Peter Jackson.
The film was the tenth most popular at the US box office in 1969.
Time began its review by saying the film is a "picture for the ages -- the ages between five and twelve '' and ended noting that "At a time when violence and sex are the dual sellers at the box office, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang looks better than it is simply because it 's not not all all bad bad ''; the film 's "eleven songs have all the rich melodic variety of an automobile horn. Persistent syncopation and some breathless choreography partly redeem it, but most of the film 's sporadic success is due to Director Ken Hughes 's fantasy scenes, which make up in imagination what they lack in technical facility. ''
The New York Times critic Renata Adler wrote, "in spite of the dreadful title, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang... is a fast, dense, friendly children 's musical, with something of the joys of singing together on a team bus on the way to a game ''; Adler called the screenplay "remarkably good '' and the film 's "preoccupation with sweets and machinery seems ideal for children ''; she ends her review on the same note as Time: "There is nothing coy, or stodgy or too frightening about the film; and this year, when it has seemed highly doubtful that children ought to go to the movies at all, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang sees to it that none of the audience 's terrific eagerness to have a good time is betrayed or lost. ''
Film critic Roger Ebert reviewed the film, writing: "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang contains about the best two - hour children 's movie you could hope for, with a marvelous magical auto and lots of adventure and a nutty old grandpa and a mean Baron and some funny dances and a couple of (scary) moments. ''
In 2008 film critic and historian Leonard Maltin considered the picture "one big Edsel, with totally forgettable score and some of the shoddiest special effects ever. '' In 2013, Entertainment Weekly named Helpmann 's depiction of the Child Catcher the 32nd of the "50 Most Vile Movie Villains. ''
As of 5 July 2018, the film has a 67 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 27 reviews with an average rating of 5.6 / 10.
The film was nominated for the American Film Institute 's 2006 AFI 's Greatest Movie Musicals list.
The original soundtrack album, as was typical of soundtrack albums, presented mostly songs with very few instrumental tracks. The songs were also edited, with specially recorded intros and outros and most instrumental portions removed, both because of time limitations of the vinyl LP and the belief that listeners would not be interested in listening to long instrumental dance portions during the songs.
The soundtrack has been released on CD four times, the first two releases using the original LP masters rather than going back to the original music masters to compile a more complete soundtrack album with underscoring and complete versions of songs. The 1997 Rykodisc release included several quick bits of dialogue from the film between some of the tracks and has gone out of circulation. On 24 February 2004, a few short months after MGM released the movie on a 2 - Disc Special Edition DVD, Varèse Sarabande reissued a newly remastered soundtrack album without the dialogue tracks, restoring it to its original 1968 LP format.
In 2011, Kritzerland released the definitive soundtrack album, a 2 - CD set featuring the Original Soundtrack Album plus bonus tracks, music from the Song and Picture Book Album on disc 1, and the Richard Sherman Demos, as well as six Playback Tracks (including a long version of international covers of the theme song). Inexplicably, this release was limited to only 1,000 units.
In April 2013, Perseverance Records re-released the Kritzerland double CD set with expansive new liner notes by John Trujillo and a completely new designed booklet by Perseverance regular James Wingrove.
Chitty Chitty Bang Bang was released numerous times in the VHS format. In 1998 the film saw its first DVD release. The year 2003 brought a two - disc "Special Edition '' release. On 2 November 2010, 20th Century Fox released a two - disc Blu - ray and DVD combination set featuring the extras from the 2003 release as well as new features. The 1993 LaserDisc release by MGM / UA Home Video was the first home video release with the proper 2.20: 1 Super Panavision 70 aspect ratio.
The film did not follow Fleming 's novel closely. A separate novelisation of the film was published at the time of the film 's release. It basically followed the film 's story but with some differences of tone and emphasis, e.g. it mentioned that Caractacus Potts had had difficulty coping after the death of his wife, and it made it clearer that the sequences including Baron Bomburst were extended fantasy sequences. It was written by John Burke.
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the doctrine of specific nerve energies was proposed by | Law of specific nerve energies - wikipedia
The law of specific nerve energies, first proposed by Johannes Peter Müller in 1835, is that the nature of perception is defined by the pathway over which the sensory information is carried. Hence, the origin of the sensation is not important. Therefore, the difference in perception of seeing, hearing, and touch are not caused by differences in the stimuli themselves but by the different nervous structures that these stimuli excite. For example, pressing on the eye elicits sensations of flashes of light because the neurons in the retina send a signal to the occipital lobe. Despite the sensory input 's being mechanical, the experience is visual.
Here is Müller 's statement of the law, from Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen für Vorlesungen, 2nd Ed., translated by Edwin Clarke and Charles Donald O'Malley:
As the above quotation shows, Müller 's law seems to differ from the modern statement of the law in one key way. Müller attributed the quality of an experience to some specific quality of the energy in the nerves. For example, the visual experience from light shining into the eye, or from a poke in the eye, arises from some special quality of the energy carried by optic nerve, and the auditory experience from sound coming into the ear, or from electrical stimulation of the cochlea, arises from some different, special quality of the energy carried by the auditory nerve. In 1912, Lord Edgar Douglas Adrian showed that all neurons carry the same energy, electrical energy in the form of action potentials. That means that the quality of an experience depends on the part of the brain to which nerves deliver their action potentials (e.g., light from nerves arriving at the visual cortex and sound from nerves arriving at the auditory cortex).
In 1945, Roger Sperry showed that it is the location in the brain to which nerves attach that determines experience. He studied amphibians whose optic nerves cross completely, so that the left eye connects to the right side of the brain and the right eye connects to the left side of the brain. He was able to cut the optic nerves and cause them to regrow on the opposite side of the brain so that the left eye now connected to the left side of the brain and the right eye connected to the right side of the brain. He then showed that these animals made the opposite movements from the ones they would have made before the operation. For example, before the operation, the animal would move to the left to get away from a large object approaching from the right. After the operation, the animal would move to the right in response to the same large object approaching from the right. Sperry showed similar results in other animals including mammals (rats), this work contributing to his Nobel Prize in 1981.
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what does serena williams do for a living | Serena Williams - wikipedia
$86,360,661 (as of July 16, 2018)
Serena Jameka Williams (born September 26, 1981) is an American professional tennis player. The Women 's Tennis Association (WTA) ranked her world No. 1 in singles on eight separate occasions between 2002 and 2017. She reached the No. 1 ranking for the first time on July 8, 2002. On her sixth occasion, she held the ranking for 186 consecutive weeks, tying the record set by Steffi Graf for the most consecutive weeks as No. 1 by a female tennis player. In total, she has been No. 1 for 319 weeks, which ranks third in the "Open Era '' among female players behind Steffi Graf and Martina Navratilova. Some commentators, players and sports writers regard Williams as the greatest female tennis player of all time.
Williams holds the most Grand Slam titles in singles, doubles, and mixed doubles combined among active players. Her 39 major titles puts her joint - third on the all - time list and second in the Open Era: 23 in singles, 14 in women 's doubles, and two in mixed doubles. She is the most recent female player to have held all four Grand Slam singles titles simultaneously (2002 -- 03 and 2014 -- 15) and the third player to achieve this record twice after Rod Laver and Steffi Graf. She is also the most recent player to have won a Grand Slam title on each surface (hard, clay and grass) in one calendar year. She is also, together with her sister Venus, the most recent player to have held all four Grand Slam women 's doubles titles simultaneously (2009 -- 10).
Her total of 23 Grand Slam singles titles marks the record for the most Grand Slam wins by a tennis player in the Open Era, and is second on the all - time list behind Margaret Court (24). She is the only tennis player in history (man or woman) to have won singles titles at least six times in three of the four Grand Slam tournaments, and the only player ever to have won two Grand Slams seven times each (Wimbledon titles and Australian Open titles). She is also the only tennis player to have won ten Grand Slam singles titles in two separate decades. She has won an all - time record of 13 Grand Slam singles titles on hard court. Williams holds the Open Era record for most titles won at the Australian Open (7) and shares the Open Era record for most titles won at the US Open with Chris Evert (6). She also holds the all - time record for the most women 's singles matches won at the Grand Slams with 325 matches.
Williams has won 14 Grand Slam doubles titles, all with her sister Venus, and the pair are unbeaten in Grand Slam doubles finals. As a team, she and Venus have the third most women 's doubles Grand Slam titles, behind the 18 titles of Natasha Zvereva (14 with Gigi Fernández) and the record 20 titles won by Martina Navratilova and Pam Shriver. Williams is also a five - time winner of the WTA Tour Championships in the singles division. She has also won four Olympic gold medals, one in women 's singles and three in women 's doubles -- an all - time record shared with her sister, Venus. The arrival of the Williams sisters has been credited with ushering in a new era of power and athleticism on the women 's professional tennis tour. Earning almost $29 million in prize money and endorsements, Williams was the highest paid female athlete in 2016. She repeated this feat in 2017 when she was the only woman on Forbes ' list of the 100 highest paid athletes with $27 million in prize money and endorsements. She has won the ' Laureus Sportswoman of the Year ' award four times (2003, 2010, 2016, 2018), and in December 2015, she was named Sportsperson of the Year by Sports Illustrated magazine.
Williams was born in Saginaw, Michigan, to Oracene Price and Richard Williams, and is the youngest of Price 's five daughters: half - sisters Yetunde, Lyndrea, and Isha Price, and full older sister Venus. When the children were young, the family moved to Compton, California, where Williams started playing tennis at the age of three. Her father home - schooled Serena and her sister, Venus. Williams has three half - brothers and three half - sisters from her father 's first marriage. While he and subsequently her mother have been the official coaches, other mentors who helped her learn the game included Richard Williams, a Compton man who shared her father 's name and would go on to found The Venus and Serena Williams Tennis / Tutorial Academy.
When Williams was nine, she and her family moved from Compton to West Palm Beach, Florida, so that she could attend the tennis academy of Rick Macci; Macci began to provide additional coaching. Macci did not always agree with Williams 's father, but respected that "he treated his daughters like kids, allowed them to be little girls ''. Richard stopped sending his daughters to national junior tennis tournaments when Williams was 10, since he wanted them to go slowly and to focus on school work. Experiences of racism also drove this experience, as Richard Williams had heard white parents talk about the Williams sisters in a derogatory manner during tournaments. At that time, Williams had a 46 -- 3 record on the United States Tennis Association junior tour and was ranked number one among under - 10 players in Florida. In 1995, when Williams was in the ninth grade, her father pulled his daughters out of Macci 's academy and, from then on, took over all coaching at their home. When asked in 2000 whether having followed the normal path of playing regularly on the junior circuit would have been beneficial, Williams responded: "Everyone does different things. I think for Venus and I, we just attempted a different road, and it worked for us. ''
Williams is primarily a baseline player, and her game is built around taking immediate control of rallies with her powerful and consistent serve, return of serve, and forceful groundstrokes from both her forehand and backhand swings. Williams 's forehand is considered to be among the most powerful shots in the women 's game, as is her double - handed backhand. Williams strikes her backhand groundstroke using an open stance, and uses the same open stance for her forehand. Williams 's aggressive play, a "high risk '' style, is balanced in part by her serve, which most say is the greatest in women 's tennis history. She consistently projects great pace and placement with her serves; in the 2013 Australian Open, she had a peak serve speed of 128.6 mph (207.0 km / h) which is the third fastest all - time among female players (only Venus 's 129 mph and Sabine Lisicki 's 131 mph recorded speeds are faster). What makes her serve even more deadly is her ball placement and her ability to consistently place powerful shots with great accuracy. At the 2012 Championships at Wimbledon, she hit a women 's tournament record of 102 aces, which was more than any of the men hit during the two weeks, a rarity given that aces are more common in the men 's game. Williams also possesses a very solid and powerful overhead. Although many think of Williams as only an offensive player, she also plays a strong defensive game. She has stated that her favorite surface is clay because it gives her extra time to set up her shots.
Williams is known for producing exceptional comebacks, particularly on the Grand Slam level. She has won three Grand Slam singles titles after saving match points, (the 2003 Australian Open semifinal versus Kim Clijsters, the 2005 Australian Open semifinal versus Maria Sharapova, and the 2009 Wimbledon semifinal versus Elena Dementieva), a feat achieved more often than any other player in history. She also came back from a 3 -- 5 deficit in the third set against Kim Clijsters in the 1999 US Open en route to her first Grand Slam singles title. In the 2012 US Open final against Victoria Azarenka, she was down 3 -- 5 in the third set and found herself two points away from losing the match. Williams then proceeded to win the next 4 games and defeated Azarenka. In the semi-finals of the 2015 French Open, Williams was ill and barely able to walk during changeovers, yet beat her opponent, Timea Bacsinszky, 6 -- 0 in the third set. Another improbable win occurred in the third round of the 2015 Wimbledon Championships, when she recovered from two breaks of service in the third set to defeat Great Britain 's number - one female player, Heather Watson. Williams has bounced back from a set down to win in 37 Grand Slam matches.
In recent years, Williams has shown an ability to serve aces at critical moments. One of these instances was the 2013 French Open final, where in the last game of the match, she fired three aces, including one which clocked at 123 mph (198 km / h) on match point. She repeated the feat similarly against Angelique Kerber in the finals of the 2016 Wimbledon Championships to tie the Open Era record for Grand Slam singles titles. Williams fired three un-returnable serves in her final service game before winning the match and the title with a casual forehand volley on the next point.
Williams 's parents wanted their daughter to wait until she was 16 to participate in professional tournaments. However, in 1995 just after turning 14, Williams planned to make her professional debut as a wild - card entry in the Bank of the West Classic in Oakland, California, but was denied by the WTA due to age - eligibility restrictions of the organization. She subsequently filed an antitrust lawsuit against the women 's tour, but withdrew it at the behest of her parents. Her first professional event was in October 1995 at the Bell Challenge in Quebec, where she used a wild - card entry to circumvent age - eligibility rules. She lost in the first round of qualifying to then 18 - year - old American Annie Miller, winning just two games.
Williams did not play a tournament in 1996. The following year, she lost in the qualifying rounds of three tournaments, before winning her first main - draw match in November at the Ameritech Cup Chicago. Ranked No. 304, she upset No. 7, Mary Pierce, and No. 4, Monica Seles, recording her first career wins over top 10 players and becoming the lowest - ranked player in the Open Era to defeat two top - 10 opponents in one tournament. She ultimately lost in the semifinals to No. 5, Lindsay Davenport. She finished 1997 ranked No. 99.
Williams began 1998 at the Medibank International Sydney. As a qualifier ranked No. 96, she defeated No. 3 Davenport in the quarterfinals, before losing to Arantxa Sánchez Vicario in the semifinals. Williams made her debut in the main draw of a Grand Slam tournament at the Australian Open, where she defeated sixth - seeded Irina Spîrlea in the first round, before losing to her sister, Venus, in the second round in the first professional match for the sisters. Williams reached six other quarterfinals during the year, but lost all of them, including her first match against No. 1 - ranked Martina Hingis at the Lipton International Players Championships in Key Biscayne, and her second match against Venus at the Italian Open in Rome. She failed to reach the quarterfinals of any Grand Slam tournament the remainder of the year, losing in the fourth round of the French Open to Arantxa Sánchez Vicario, and the third round of the US Open to Spîrlea. She withdrew from Wimbledon two games into a match with Virginia Ruano Pascual, after straining her calf muscle during the first set. She did, however, win the mixed doubles titles at Wimbledon and the US Open with Max Mirnyi, completing the Williams family 's sweep of the 1998 mixed doubles Grand Slam tournaments. Williams won her first professional title in doubles in Oklahoma City with Venus, becoming the third pair of sisters to win a WTA title. Williams and her sister won two more doubles titles together during the year. Williams finished the year ranked No. 20 in singles. To date, 1998 is the only year in which Williams failed to win a Major title when she competed at all four majors.
A 16 - year - old Serena competed in a tennis "Battle of the Sexes '', along with her sister Venus Williams, against Karsten Braasch at the 1998 Australian Open. At the time Braasch was ranked 203rd. The Williams sisters had claimed they could beat any man outside the top 200, and he accepted the challenge. Not known for having an ideal training regimen, Braasch nonetheless beat both Williams sisters, playing a single set against each. The score vs Serena was 6 -- 1 and vs Venus 6 -- 2. Braasch said afterward, "500 and above, no chance. '' The sisters later tweaked the number to beating men outside the top 350.
Williams lost in the third round of the 1999 Australian Open to Sandrine Testud. A month later, Williams won her first professional singles title when she defeated Amélie Mauresmo in the final of the Open Gaz de France in Paris. With Venus also winning the IGA Superthrift Classic in Memphis, Tennessee that day, the pair became the first sisters to win professional tournaments in the same week. In March of that year, at the Evert Cup in California, Williams won her first Tier I title, defeating Steffi Graf in the final. Soon afterward at the Miami Masters, Williams had her 16 - match winning streak ended by her sister in the first all - sister singles final in WTA history, and she then made her top - 10 debut, at No. 9. She then lost in the quarterfinals of the Italian Open and the German Open, and the third round of the French Open, where she and Venus won the women 's doubles title. Williams then missed Wimbledon because of injury. When she returned to the tour, Williams won a Fed Cup singles match and then won the JPMorgan Chase Open in Los Angeles, beating Julie Halard - Decugis in the final. She then defeated in succession Grand Slam champions Kim Clijsters, Conchita Martínez, Monica Seles, and defending champion Lindsay Davenport to reach the US Open final, where she defeated No. 1, Hingis, to become the second African - American woman, after Althea Gibson in 1958, to win a Grand Slam singles tournament. The Williams sisters also won the doubles title at this tournament. To complete her 1999 season, Williams won a doubles match in the Fed Cup final against Russia. Williams ended the year ranked No. 4 in just her second full year on the main tour.
Williams started 2000 by losing in the fourth round of the Australian Open to Elena Likhovtseva. She failed to defend her titles in Paris and Indian Wells, although she did win the Faber Grand Prix in Germany. Soon afterwards, Williams missed the French Open because of injury. She returned from injury at Wimbledon, where she lost to Venus in the semifinals, but the pair won the doubles title at the event. Williams successfully defended her title in Los Angeles, defeating Davenport in the final. She reached the final of the Du Maurier Open where an injury forced her to retire from her match with Hingis. Her defense of the US Open title ended when she lost in the quarterfinals to Davenport. Williams teamed with Venus to win the gold medal in doubles at the Sydney Olympics that September. She ended the year winning the Toyota Princess Cup in Japan and she finished the year ranked No. 6.
Williams began 2001 losing to Martina Hingis in the quarterfinals of the Medibank International in Sydney and the Australian Open in Melbourne. Williams and her sister won the doubles title at the latter tournament, becoming only the fifth doubles team in history to win all four Grand Slam women 's doubles titles during their career, completing a "Career Grand Slam ''. Her next event was the Pacific Life Open in California, where she defeated Kim Clijsters in the final. However, the final was marred by the behavior of the crowd toward Williams and her family. Crowd members were incensed at the perceived match fixing of games involving the family after Venus withdrew before their semifinal. Neither Williams nor her sister entered the tournament for fourteen years until Williams entered in 2015 as a wildcard (and the top seed). The following week at the Ericsson Open in Miami, Williams lost to Jennifer Capriati in the quarterfinals. She then lost in the quarterfinals to Capriati at both the French Open and Wimbledon. This was the fourth consecutive Grand Slam tournament at which Williams had exited in the quarterfinals. During the North American hard - court season, she lost in the quarterfinals of Los Angeles against Monica Seles, then captured her second title of the year at the Rogers Cup, defeating Capriati in the final. Williams reached the final of the 2001 US Open, losing to sister Venus. That was the first Grand Slam tournament final contested by two sisters during the Open Era. At the 2001 season - ending Tour Championships, Williams won the championship by walkover when Davenport withdrew before the start of the final due to a knee injury. Williams finished 2001 at No. 6 for the second straight year.
Early 2002, injury saw Williams retire from the semifinal at the Medibank International Sydney and later withdraw from the Australian Open.
Returning from injury, Williams won her first title of the year in Scottsdale, Arizona, defeating No. 2 Jennifer Capriati, in the final. She then won the Miami Masters for the first time, becoming one of three players in the Open Era to defeat the world 's top 3 ranked players at one tournament, after beating No. 3, Martina Hingis, in the quarterfinals, No. 2 Venus in the semifinals, and the top ranked player, Capriati, in the final. Serena 's straight set win over Venus was her second career win over her sister.
Williams played three clay - court tournaments before the 2002 French Open. Her first tournament was at Charleston, where she was the third seed. Williams reached the quarterfinals before losing to Patty Schnyder. She reached her first clay - court final in May, at the Eurocard German Open losing to Justine Henin in a third set tiebreak. Williams went on to win her first clay court title at the Italian Open, defeating Capriati in the semifinals and Henin in the final. This raised her ranking to a new high of No. 3. Williams was the third seed at the French Open at Roland Garros, where she claimed her first title there by defeating defending champion Capriati in the semifinals and sister Venus in the final to win her second Grand Slam tournament title (and her first in two - and - a-half years). As a result of raising the trophy at Court Philippe Chatrier, Williams rose to a career high of No. 2, second only to Venus.
At Wimbledon, Williams won tennis ' oldest championship for the first time in her life, defeating Venus to win a Grand Slam singles title without dropping a set for the first time in her career. This victory earned Williams the world No. 1 ranking for the first time in her life, dethroning her sister and becoming only the third African - American woman to hold that ranking. The Williams sisters also won the doubles title at the tournament, the fifth Grand Slam doubles title for the pair. Williams played just one tournament between Wimbledon and the US Open, losing in the quarterfinals of the JPMorgan Chase Open in Los Angeles to American Chanda Rubin and ending a 21 - match winning streak. The top - seeded player at the US Open, Williams reached the final where, for the third Grand Slam in a row, she defeated her sister to win the title, the second US Open crown of her career. Williams won two consecutive singles titles in the fall, defeating Kim Clijsters to win the Toyota Princess Cup in Tokyo, and Anastasia Myskina to win the Sparkassen Cup in Leipzig, Germany. She reached the final at the year - end Home Depot Championships at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, where she lost to fifth - seeded Clijsters in straight sets, ending an 18 - match winning streak.
Williams finished 2002 with a 56 -- 5 W / L record, eight singles titles, and the No. 1 ranking. She was the first African - American to end a year with that ranking since Althea Gibson in 1958 and was the first woman to win three Grand Slam tournament titles in one year since Hingis in 1997. Her three consecutive Grand Slam titles to close 2002 also made Williams only the third player in tennis history to win the "Surface Slam '', three Slam titles on three surfaces in the same calendar year, after Navratilova (1984) and Graf (1993, 1995, 1996).
At the 2003 Australian Open, Williams reached the tournament 's semifinals for the first time, where she recovered from 5 -- 1 down in the third set and saved two match points before defeating Clijsters. In the final, Serena faced Venus for the fourth consecutive Grand Slam tournament final, defeating her older sister to become the sixth woman in the Open Era to complete a career Grand Slam, alongside Margaret Court, Billie Jean King, Chris Evert, Martina Navratilova, and Steffi Graf. She also became the fifth woman to hold all Grand Slam singles titles simultaneously, joining Maureen Connolly Brinker, Court, Graf, and Navratilova. This feat was dubbed the "Serena Slam '' by the press. The Williams sisters won their sixth Grand Slam doubles title together at this event.
During the spring of 2003, Williams captured the singles titles at the Open Gaz de France and the Sony Ericsson Open. Williams 's winning streak came to an end when she lost the final of the Family Circle Cup to Henin, her first loss of the year after 21 wins. She also lost to Mauresmo in the semifinals of the Internazionali BNL d'Italia in Rome. Despite these losses, Williams was the top seed at the French Open, where she lost in the semifinals to eventual champion Henin, marking Williams 's first loss in a Grand Slam tournament since 2001. The match was controversial, as Williams questioned Henin 's sportsmanship, and spectators applauded Williams 's errors. Williams rebounded from the French Open loss a couple weeks later at the Wimbledon Championships, defeating Henin in the semifinals and Venus in the final. This was Williams 's second consecutive Wimbledon title and her sixth Grand Slam singles title overall. Wimbledon was Williams 's last tournament of 2003; she pulled out of three events in the USA and then underwent surgery on the quadriceps tendon in her knee in early August. Williams was initially expected to be out for six to eight weeks.
After eight months away from the tour, during which time her desire was questioned, Williams began her comeback at the 2004 NASDAQ - 100 Open in Miami in March, where she made a triumphant return as she won the title for the third consecutive year.
Although ranked No. 7, Williams was seeded second at the French Open, where, after winning four matches, she lost to Capriati in the quarterfinals. This was the first time that Williams had lost before the semifinals at a Grand Slam singles tournament since Wimbledon in 2001. A few weeks later, even though her ranking had dropped to No. 10, Williams was seeded first at Wimbledon. She won six matches en route to the final, where she was defeated by 13th - seeded Sharapova in straight sets. This loss caused her ranking to drop out of the top 10 for the first time since 1999. Later that summer, Williams reached her third final of the year at the JPMorgan Chase Open in Los Angeles where she lost to Lindsay Davenport which was her first loss to the American since the 2000 US Open. After missing her national championship in 2003, Williams returned for the 2004 US Open, where she was seeded third despite her No. 11 ranking. She lost in the U.S. Open quarterfinals to Capriati in three sets in controversial fashion. That fall, Williams won her second title of the year, at the China Open, defeating US Open champion Svetlana Kuznetsova in the final. Williamses successful season allowed her to qualify for the Tour Championships, held again in Los Angeles. In the round - robin phase of the tournament, Williams defeated Dementieva and Anastasia Myskina and lost to Davenport, but still advanced to the elimination stage. After winning her semifinal, she lost to Sharapova in the final, where she suffered an abdominal injury. Williams finished 2004 ranked No. 7, but did not win a Grand Slam singles tournament for the first season since 2001.
At the 2005 Australian Open, Williams rejected suggestions that she and sister Venus were a declining force in tennis, following Venus 's early exit. Williams saved three match points to defeat Sharapova 8 -- 6 in the third of their semifinal. In the final, Williams defeated top seed Davenport to win her second Australian Open and seventh Grand Slam singles title, winning 12 of the last 15 games. The win moved Williams back to No. 2 but stated she was targeting the top spot.
Williams completed just two tournaments between the Australian Open and Wimbledon, losing to Venus in Miami and at Internazionali BNL d'Italia to Francesca Schiavone as Williams suffered a series of retirements and withdraws. A reoccurring ankle injury causing her to miss the French Open. She returned for Wimbledon as the 4th - seeded player, but was defeated in the third round by No. 85, Jill Craybas. At the US Open, Williams lost to her sister Venus in the fourth round. This was the earliest the sisters had met in a Grand Slam tournament since their first meeting, at the 1998 Australian Open. Williams played just one more match that fall, a loss to No. 127 Sun Tiantian at the tournament in Beijing. She failed to qualify for the year - end championship for the first time since 1998 and she finished the year 2005 ranked No. 11, her first time finishing the season outside the top 10 since 1998.
Williams made her 2006 debut at the Australian Open. Defending the title, Williams lost to Daniela Hantuchová in the third round. After the tournament, she told the press that she was injured, blaming a lack of fitness and a knee injury for keeping her off the court. However, in her biography, Williams claims that she was actually suffering from depression. She stayed away from pro tennis for six months during the 2006 season. After she had shut herself off from the world for a period, Williams saw a therapist daily. After a chance meeting with a young girl who idolized Williams and believed that she could still win, Williams signed up to play in Cincinnati, her first tournament since Melbourne. Williams had slipped to No. 139, the lowest ranking she had held since 1997. On her return, Williams defeated Myskina and Bethanie Mattek, before losing in the semifinals to Vera Zvonareva. She also reached the semifinals in Los Angeles, losing to Janković in straight sets. At the US Open, Williams needed a wildcard to enter the tournament, as her ranking at the cut - off time was No. 139, outside the automatic 102. However her ranking had improved to 79th by the time the tournament came around. She lost to top - seeded Mauresmo in the fourth round. Following the US Open, she did not play again in 2006, ending the year ranked No. 95, her lowest year - end ranking since 1997.
Williams began 2007 with renewed confidence, stating her intention to return to the top of the rankings, a comment 1987 Wimbledon men 's singles champion and commentator Pat Cash branded "deluded ''.
Williams lost in the quarterfinals of the Hobart International, a warm - up for the Australian Open where Williams was unseeded because of her No. 81 ranking and was widely regarded as "out of shape ''. She experienced a huge amount of pressure on herself prior to the tournament, coming from her fans and the press as well as Williams herself about her weight, focus and needing a good showing.
Shortly before her first match, a representative from Nike paid her a visit in the players ' lounge, informing her that if she did not perform to her accustomed level, the company might drop her. Williams claimed that Nike 's ultimatum meant that she would have to reach the quarterfinals at least.
The distraction from Nike did not distract Williams, as she lost just three games to Mara Santangelo and defeated Anne Kremer in straight sets. By this point, a blister had developed on Williams 's foot and she had contracted a cold. In the third round, Williams found herself two points away from going home against Nadia Petrova, but fought back to win in three sets, which was her first win over a top - 10 player since defeating Lindsay Davenport in the 2005 Australian Open final. Williams then made it all the way to the final, defeating Janković, Pe'er and Vaidišová. Williams described them as "good players. Strong players. Players who certainly did n't expect an overweight, out - of - shape, has been champion like me to give them a game. '' Williams also found herself two points from going out against Peer before turning it around. By the time Williams had reached the final, the cold and blister had both left. Previewing the finals, Tracy Austin stated that, although Williams had a great tournament, she believed that the ride was over and that Sharapova would have no trouble with Williams. Williams thought it was mean and unnecessary and used it as motivation along with other criticism. In the final, Williams lost just three games against Maria Sharapova winning her first title at any tournament since winning the 2005 Australian Open 24 months prior. Williams became the first player since Chris O'Neil to win the title while not being seeded, and claimed her third Australian Open and eighth Grand Slam singles title overall. The win elevated Williams to 14th in the rankings. Williams dedicated the title to her deceased half - sister Yetunde. Her performance in the final was described in the press as "one of the best performances of her career '' and "arguably the most powerful display ever seen in women 's tennis ''. In her post match interview, Williams took a swipe at her critics, stating that she had proved them wrong. Williams won the Sony Ericsson Open in Miami for the fourth time by defeating Justine Henin. Williams had to record a come - from - behind win after being whitewashed in the first set and saving two match points in the second. She played for her country in the Fed Cup for the first time since 2003 in a tie against Belgium, and won her opening match but withdrew from her second, because of a knee injury.
At the French Open, Williams lost in the quarterfinals to Henin. During her fourth round match against Hantuchová at Wimbledon, Williams collapsed from an acute muscle spasm at 5 -- 5 in the second set. After a medical timeout and holding serve to force a tiebreak, rain forced play to be suspended for nearly two hours. When the players returned, Williams won the match in three sets. Williams then lost her quarterfinal match with Henin, whilst suffering from the injuries sustained in the previous round. At the US Open, Williams lost her third consecutive Grand Slam singles quarterfinal to Henin. Williams reached the final of Kremlin Cup, losing to Elena Dementieva. Williams qualified for the WTA Championships, but retired from her first match with Anna Chakvetadze with a knee injury and subsequently withdrew from the event. Williams finished 2007 as No. 7 and the top - ranked American for the first time since 2003.
Williams started 2008 by participating on the U.S. team that won the Hopman Cup with Mardy Fish. At the Australian Open she lost in the quarterfinals to Jelena Janković, her fourth straight loss in the quarterfinals of a Grand Slam singles tournament. In the women 's doubles event, she and Venus were defeated in the quarterfinals. Williams withdrew from her next three scheduled tournaments because of an urgent need for dental surgery. Williams then won three consecutive singles titles at Bangalore and her fifth Miami title, tying Steffi Graf for the most singles titles at this tournament.
Williams won at the Family Circle Cup, her first clay - court title since the 2002 French Open. Her 17 - match winning streak was ended by Dinara Safina in the quarterfinals of Berlin. Williams withdrew in Rome in the quarterfinals against Alizé Cornet due to a back injury. Williams was the only former winner of the French Open in the draw, but lost in the third round to Katarina Srebotnik.
At Wimbledon, Williams reached the finals for the first time in four years but lost to her older sister Venus in straight sets, in their first Slam final since 2003. Serena and Venus teamed to win the women 's doubles title in their first Grand Slam women 's doubles title since 2003. Williams played at Stanford, but retired 6 -- 2, 3 -- 1 down with a left knee injury from her semifinal match against qualifier Aleksandra Wozniak. The injury forced her to withdraw from Los Angeles. At the Olympics in Beijing, Williams lost to Dementieva in the quarterfinals. Serena and Venus won the gold medal in doubles, beating Anabel Medina Garrigues and Virginia Ruano Pascual in the final. At the US Open, Williams defeated sister Venus, Safina and Jelena Janković in the final. This was her third US Open and ninth Grand Slam singles title. The victory returned her to the No. 1 ranking for the first time since 2003. At the year - end championships she defeated Safina and lost to Venus in her round - robin matches, but withdrew from her match against Dementieva, citing a stomach muscle injury. She ended 2008 ranked No. 2 and with four singles titles, her strongest performance in both respects since 2003.
Williams began 2009 at the Medibank International losing in the semifinals to Elena Dementieva. At the Australian Open, she claimed her tenth Grand Slam singles title by defeating Dinara Safina in the final in 59 minutes. This win returned her to the No. 1 ranking and resulted in her becoming the all - time career prize money leader in women 's sports, overtaking golfer Annika Sörenstam. In women 's doubles, with Venus, they captured the title for the third time.
At the Open GdF Suez, Williams withdrew before her semifinal with Dementieva because of a knee injury. Serena then played at Dubai, losing to Venus in the last 4.
At the Sony Ericsson Open Williams, hampered with ankle and quad injuries, was upset in the final by Victoria Azarenka. This was the first of four consecutive losses for her, the longest losing streak of her career. She was defeated in her opening matches at Barcelona, Rome, and Madrid. Despite not having won a match on clay in 2009 before the French Open, she lost in the quarterfinals to the eventual champion Svetlana Kuznetsova. This ended her 18 - match Grand Slam tournament winning streak. She rebounded at Wimbledon, saving a match point in defeating fourth seeded Dementieva in the semifinals. In the final, Serena defeated her sister Venus to win her third Wimbledon title and her 11th Grand Slam singles title. Serena and Venus teamed to win the women 's doubles title at Wimbledon for the second consecutive year, their ninth Grand Slam title in women 's doubles.
As a US Open preparation, Williams played at Cincinnati losing in the third round, followed by a semifinal defeat at the Rogers Cup. At the US Open, she lost in the semifinals to eventual champion Kim Clijsters amid controversy involving shouting at a line judge when defending match point, an offense which cost Williams the point and consequently the match. She continued in the doubles competition, teaming up with Venus to win their third Grand Slam doubles title of the year and tenth of their career. Williams won all three of her round - robin matches at the year - end WTA Tour Championships, defeating Venus, Dementieva, and Kuznetsova, saving a match point against Venus. She then advanced to the final, when Wozniacki retired from their semifinal match. In the final, Williams defeated Venus for her second singles title at this event.
Williams finished the year ranked No. 1 for the second time in her career, having played in 16 tournaments, more than any other year. She also broke the record previously set by Justine Henin for the most prize money earned by a female tennis player in one year, with Williams earning $6,545,586. For doubles that year, the Williams sisters finished the year ranked No. 2, despite playing only six tournaments together as a pair. Williams had won five Grand Slam tournament titles, putting her total of Grand Slam titles won thus far at 23, and she was consequently named Female Athlete of the Year by the Associated Press for 2009. Williams was also the ITF World Champion in both the singles and doubles events.
In 2010, Williams 's first scheduled tournament was in Sydney, losing in the final to Elena Dementieva. At the Australian Open, Williams was the defending champion in both singles and doubles. She reached the final and defeated Justine Henin, who had just recently come out of retirement, for her twelfth Grand Slam singles title. In doubles, Williams and her sister, Venus, successfully defended their title by defeating Cara Black and Liezel Huber in the final.
Williams withdrew with a leg injury from her next few events, and returned at the Rome Masters, losing to Jelena Janković in the semifinals. At Madrid, she fell to Nadia Petrova in the third round but partnered Venus to win the doubles title.
At the French Open, Williams was defeated by Samantha Stosur in the quarterfinals. She and Venus were the top seeds in the doubles event and won the title, defeating Květa Peschke and Katarina Srebotnik in the final to win their fourth consecutive Grand Slam doubles title and improving their doubles ranking to No. 1.
Williams 's next tournament was Wimbledon, where she defeated Russian Vera Zvonareva in the final without facing a break point and breaking the serve of Zvonareva three times. She did not lose a set in the tournament.
After the match, Martina Navratilova said that Williams is in the top five of all the women 's tennis players in all of history, which she said that "it 's not just about how many Slams you win or how many tournaments you win -- it 's just your game overall. And she 's definitely got all the goods. '' Serena was the defending champion in doubles with her sister Venus, winning the last two years. They lost in the quarterfinals to Elena Vesnina and Zvonareva. In Munich on July 7, Williams stepped on broken glass while in a restaurant, and the injury caused her to miss the rest of the year.
Williams ended the year ranked No. 4 in singles, despite having played only six tournaments, and No. 11 in doubles after four tournaments.
On March 2, 2011, she confirmed that she had suffered a hematoma and a pulmonary embolism.
Williams finally made a return to the practice court in March 2011. She made her first appearance on the WTA tour in almost a year in Eastbourne. Williams lost in round two to Vera Zvonareva, in a match that lasted over three hours. Her next tournament was Wimbledon, where she was the defending champion. She reached the round of 16, where she lost to Marion Bartoli. After the loss her ranking dropped to 169. Williams won her first titles since her return to tennis triumphing in Stanford and Toronto. At the Western & Southern Open, Williams defeated Lucie Hradecká, only to withdraw the next day, citing a right toe injury. She then played at the US Open going all the way to the final losing to Samantha Stosur, during a match which featured her verbally abusing the chair umpire. The US Open final turned out to be Williams 's last match in 2011, and she ended the year ranked No. 12 with two titles and with a 22 -- 3 record for the season. She only participated in six tournaments throughout the season.
Williams started the 2012 season at the Brisbane International, however, during her match against Bojana Jovanovski, she injured her left ankle when serving for the match. As a result, Williams was forced to withdraw from the tournament. Next she participated at the Australian Open where she was upset by Ekaterina Makarova in the fourth round. After a month layoff, Williams returned to competition in Miami losing in the quarterfinals to Caroline Wozniacki. Williams then won consecutive titles at Charleston and Madrid beating Lucie Šafářová and Victoria Azarenka, but withdrew from her semifinal match against Li Na in Rome citing a lower back injury. Williams suffered her first ever loss in the opening round of a Grand Slam tournament at the French Open against Virginie Razzano. Williams notched up a 33 -- 1 record for the second half of the season winning five titles in the process. Williams won her fifth Wimbledon singles title, her fourteenth Grand Slam title; setting a serving record of 24 aces by a female in a match as well as having the most aces, male or female, during the tournament (102). Williams returned to America to successfully defend her title in Stanford beating CoCo Vandeweghe in the final. Williams then returned to Wimbledon to represent her country at the Olympic Games where she won gold, defeating rival Maria Sharapova in a dominating performance. Williams failed to drop more than three games per set en route to winning the medal. Williams undefeated streak ended with a loss in Cincinnati to Angelique Kerber. In New York City, Williams went on to win her fourth US Open singles title and her 15th career Grand Slam title overall beating Azarenka in the final. Williams ended the season by competing at the WTA Championships and went undefeated throughout the tournament to win the event for her third title. Williams was voted WTA Player of the Year for the fourth time. Based on her brilliant show in 2012, Williams was also named International Tennis Federation World Champion. Williams also returned to doubles competitions with Venus; in the pair 's first tournament since 2010 Wimbledon, they claimed their fifth Wimbledon doubles title and the 13th grand slam doubles title. The pair successfully defended their Olympic doubles title which meant that they became the only tennis players to win four gold medals.
Williams 's first tournament of the 2013 season was in Brisbane, where she won the title without dropping a set. Williams was upset in the quarterfinals of the Australian Open by fellow American player Sloane Stephens. By virtue of defeating Petra Kvitová in Doha, Williams returned to the No. 1 position for the sixth time in her career and became the oldest woman in the Open Era to hold the ranking. Williams went on to lose to Victoria Azarenka in the final. In the Miami final, Williams lost a set to Maria Sharapova for the first time since 2008. However, this setback did not stop Williams who recorded her 70th come - from - behind win. The win made Williams a six - time champion in Miami breaking the record she held with Steffi Graf and became only the fourth woman in the Open Era to have won a tournament at least six times. Williams successfully defended her Charleston title, winning it for the third time overall. Williams won her fiftieth career singles title in Madrid, defeating Sharapova in the final. Williams then played Rome, where she won the title without dropping a set, defeating Victoria Azarenka in the final to take her second title. Williams only dropped ten games in reaching the quarterfinals at Roland Garros. There, she played Svetlana Kuznetsova and lost her first set of the tournament. In the semi final Williams only lost one game when she defeated Sara Errani, something seven - time French Open champion Chris Evert described as the finest female performance on clay she had ever seen. Williams defeated Sharapova to claim her second Roland Garros title, her sixteenth grand slam tournament title overall. She became the fourth woman in the Open Era after Navratilova, Evert and Graf to win each Grand Slam tournament title on at least two occasions. At Wimbledon, she advanced easily to the fourth round before being upset by eventual finalist Sabine Lisicki in three sets. After Wimbledon, Williams won the Swedish Open by defeating Johanna Larsson in the final, the tournament win marked the first occasion that she had won an International level title. By winning the tournament this meant that Williams had managed to be undefeated on clay during the season.
Williams won her 3rd Rogers Cup title in Toronto beating Sorana Cîrstea in the final. Williams reached the final of the Western & Southern Open for the first time but lost to Azarenka. At the US Open, Williams began as top seed and defending champion. She reached the final -- rematch of the 2012 final against Azarenka -- and won in three sets, capturing her 17th Grand Slam singles title. Williams became the oldest US Open champion in the Open Era and pushed her career prize money past $50 million. After the US Open, Williams beat Jelena Janković to win the China Open in Beijing for her 10th title of 2013. Williams went through the WTA Championships undefeated winning the final against Li Na, to become the first person to defend the title since Justine Henin in 2007. Williams won her 11th title of 2013 becoming the 8th player to win 11 titles or more in a year and the first since Martina Hingis in 1997. Also, she became the oldest person to win the WTA Championships and 4th player to win it 4 times or more. By winning the championship, Williams became the first woman to win more than $10 million in a season and with her total of $12,385,572, only Rafael Nadal, in 2013, and Novak Djokovic, in 2011, 2012 and 2013, have earned more money in one season.
Williams finished as the year end No. 1 for the third time, becoming the oldest No. 1 player in WTA history. She was also named the 2013 ITF World Champion, the fourth time that she has been given the World Champion 's crown. Williams received two prizes at the 2013 ESPY Awards. Williams won Best Female Athlete and Best Female Tennis Player. Williams is just the fourth person to win Best Female Athlete on two occasions and she won Best Female Tennis player for a record sixth time. In late December 2013, Williams capped off her year by receiving the Associated Press 2013 Female Athlete of the Year award, her third AP award after 2002 and 2009. Only two women, Chris Evert and Babe Didrikson, have been chosen more often as AP Athlete of the Year since the annual awards were first handed out in 1931.
Williams defended her title at the Brisbane International by defeating No. 2, Victoria Azarenka, in the final. At the Australian Open she ended up losing to former No. 1, Ana Ivanovic, in the fourth round. At Dubai, Williams lost her semi-final match to Alizé Cornet in straight sets. Williams next headed to the Miami Open where she won her record seventh title with a straight - sets victory over No. 2 Li Na. Williams lost to Jana Čepelová in the second round of the Family Circle Cup. She made it to the quarterfinals at the Madrid Open before withdrawing with a left thigh injury. Williams won her third title of the season at the Rome. She was then handed the worst loss of her Grand Slam tournament career by Garbiñe Muguruza at the second round of the French Open, who defeated Serena losing just four games in two sets. Alizé Cornet defeated Williams for the second time in the year in the third round of Wimbledon, thus handing Williams her earliest Wimbledon exit since 2005. Serena was then forced to withdraw from the doubles event alongside sister Venus while trailing 0 -- 3 in the second round. A disoriented Serena hit 4 consecutive doubles faults and was having trouble with both her ball toss and movement before being removed from what has been described as one of the most unusual scenes ever seen in tennis.
Williams rebounded by winning 19 out of her next 20 matches (losing only to sister Venus in the semifinals of the Rogers Cup). This streak include titles at the Bank of the West Classic as well as her first Western & Southern Open title and her third consecutive and sixth overall US Open singles title which she won without having dropped a set. With this victory Williams tied Chris Evert for most singles titles won by a woman at the US Open in the Open Era. Williams also tied Evert and Navratilova 's 18 Grand Slam singles titles won in the Open Era. By virtue of having won both the US Open and the US Open Series, Williams collected $4,000,000 -- the biggest payday in tennis history. At the Wuhan Open a viral illness forced her to retire while up a break in the first set against Alizé Cornet. Cornet thus became the first woman since Justine Henin in 2007 to record three victories over Williams in one year. At the China Open Williams retired prior to her quarterfinal match versus Samantha Stosur. At the 2014 WTA Finals in Singapore Williams advanced to the final for the third consecutive year despite having equaled her career worst loss in her second round robin match versus Simona Halep. Williams won her fifth WTA Finals title by avenging her loss to Halep in the championship match for her seventh title of the year. Williams finished the year ranked No. 1 for the fourth time in her career. She held the No. 1 ranking for the entire calendar year, a feat not accomplished since Steffi Graf in 1996. She was also voted WTA Player of the Year and ITF World Champion for a third consecutive year (sixth overall).
Williams began the 2015 season by representing the United States alongside John Isner at the Hopman Cup. The American pair lost the final to the Poland. At the Australian Open Williams defeated Maria Sharapova for the 16th consecutive time to claim her 6th Australian Open singles title and 19th career Grand Slam singles title, winning the title on her third match point in the second set. With this victory Williams surpassed both, Evert and Navratilova, for second most Grand Slam singles titles won in the Open Era. The title was also her sixth Grand Slam singles title since turning 30 years of age, three more than the next closest to do so (Margaret Court, Martina Navratilova with three each). She is the only player in history to win all four Grand Slams at least once after having turned 30. The following weekend, Serena and sister Venus traveled to Buenos Aires to face Argentina in a World Group II tie for Fed Cup. She played and won her only match against María Irigoyen to help Team USA to a 4 -- 1 win over Argentina. Williams announced that she would be competing at the Indian Wells Masters ending her 14 - year boycott of the event. Upon her return Williams received a standing ovation from the crowd and won her first match in straight sets. She reached the semifinals, where she was due to face No. 3, Simona Halep, for a place in the final, but was forced to withdraw because of a knee injury. By virtue of having defeated Sabine Lisicki in the quarterfinals of the Miami Open, Williams became only the eighth woman in the Open Era to record 700 match wins in her career. This also made her one of only three active players to have won 700 or more matches in singles, others being Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal. In the semifinals she won against Halep to advance to her tenth final at the event where she won a record eighth title and extended her winning streak to 21 by beating Carla Suárez Navarro.
As preparation for the clay court season (and to ensure her eligibility for the 2016 Summer Olympics), Williams travelled to Brindisi, Italy, to face Italy 's team for a place in the Fed Cup 's World Group. Williams lost the decisive doubles match alongside Alison Riske to Sara Errani and Flavia Pennetta, and as a result the United States team were relegated to World Group II. It was Williams 's first loss in the Fed Cup. However, she maintained her perfect record in singles by defeating Camila Giorgi and Errani. The week of April 20 marked Williams 's 114th consecutive week ranked No. 1, the third - longest run in WTA history, behind Steffi Graf 's 186 weeks and Navratilova 's 156. Williams suffered her first defeat of the season in the semifinals of the Mutua Madrid Open to No. 4, Petra Kvitová. This loss ended a 27 - match winning streak for Williams as well as a 50 - match winning streak at Premier - Mandatory events, and also a 19 - match winning streak at the particular event. Williams played one match at the 2015 Internazionali BNL d'Italia before withdrawing from the tournament with an elbow injury.
By virtue of having defeated Victoria Azarenka in the third round of the French Open, Williams became the first woman in the Open Era to win 50 matches at all four of the Grand Slams. Williams then defeated Sloane Stephens to reach her 40th Grand Slam singles quarterfinal. Williams won her next match easily, but had to come back from a set down in the semifinals versus Timea Bacsinszky for the fourth time in five matches to reach the final. She would go on to defeat Lucie Šafářová from the Czech Republic in three sets to win her third French Open and 20th Grand Slam singles title.
The win made Williams only the third person in history to win each Grand Slam at least three times, joining Margaret Court and Steffi Graf. She is the first player to win three straight Grand Slams since she did it herself during the Serena Slam. She also became the first player to win the Australian - French Open double since Jennifer Capriati in 2001.
Williams completed her second "Serena Slam '' (winning all four Grand Slams in a row) by winning the 2015 Wimbledon Championships -- her 6th Wimbledon and 21st Grand Slam singles title overall. Her path to victory at Wimbledon was particularly challenging. She was down a double break in the third round versus Heather Watson and two points from defeat twice before rallying for the win and becoming the first player to qualify for the WTA Finals (the earliest that a player had qualified since the event switched to the round - robin format in 2003). Williams then defeated three former No. 1 players -- Venus Williams, Victoria Azarenka and Maria Sharapova -- in succession to advance to the final. Awaiting her there was 21 - year - old Garbiñe Muguruza, who had previously handed Williams the worst Grand Slam tournament defeat of her career at the 2014 French Open. Williams defeated Muguruza in a tight two - setter.
The victory made Williams the oldest woman in the Open Era to win a grand slam singles title, in addition to having the distinction of being the oldest ladies ' grand slam singles champion of all time. It also was her eighth consecutive victory in Grand Slam singles finals appearances, breaking Steffi Graf 's Open Era record of seven from 1995 through 1999 and, on the men 's side, tying Pete Sampras 's Open Era record of eight from 1995 through 2000. Her 21st Grand Slam singles titles equaled the tally of the rest of the women 's tour, combined. The week of July 13 marked the first time in WTA history that the No. 1 player had more than twice as many points as No. 2. Following her win at Wimbledon, Williams was awarded her 7th ESPY for Best Female Tennis Player.
Williams played one match at the Swedish Open in Båstad before withdrawing with an elbow injury. She was the defending champion at the Bank of the West Classic but withdrew from the tournament in order for her elbow to get better. Williams had her 19 match winning streak ended by 18 - year - old Swiss Belinda Bencic, the No. 20, in three tight sets in the semifinals of the Canadian Open. It was her second defeat of the year and first on hard courts since the 2014 WTA Finals. The next week Williams defended her title at the Western & Southern Open with a straight sets victory over No. 3 Simona Halep for her 69th WTA title, breaking a tie with Evonne Goolagong for standalone fifth-most WTA titles won. Williams 's attempt at capturing the "Grand Slam '' (winning all four Grand Slams in a calendar year) came to an end in the semifinals of the US Open, where she lost to Roberta Vinci in three sets. The loss has been described by some as one of the biggest upsets in tennis history. Nonetheless, Williams secured the year - end No. 1 ranking with her results at the tournament. On October 1, Williams called an end to her season, stating that she had been injured for most of the year and wanted to address her fitness issues. Prior to the announcement, coach Patrick Mouratoglou hinted that Williams might not play again in 2015 due to a lack of motivation and disappointment following her loss at the Open. On October 5, Williams surpassed Chris Evert for third-most weeks ranked world No. 1. Williams held the No. 1 ranking the entire season for the second consecutive year, finishing there for the fifth time in her career. She was voted WTA Player of the Year for the seventh time in her career. On December 14, Sports Illustrated announced Williams as their Sportsperson of the Year. She thus became the third solo woman, and first since 1983, to receive the award. Williams was also named ITF World Champion for the sixth time in her career. Soon after, it was announced that she was voted Female Athlete of the Year by the Associated Press for the fourth time.
Williams withdrew from the Hopman Cup after retiring from her singles match against Australia Gold with inflammation of her left knee. Her next tournament was the Australian Open, where she was the No. 1 seed and defending champion. She reached the final without dropping a set, including wins over No. 5, Maria Sharapova, and No. 4, Agnieszka Radwańska, and faced first time Grand Slam finalist Angelique Kerber. She was considered the heavy favorite to win the title, as she had never lost an Australian Open final or semi-final. She also dominated the head - to - head against Kerber, having lost only once in six meetings and having not lost a set to her in four years. However, Williams lost the final in three sets and Kerber won her first Grand Slam title. This marked Williams 's first - ever loss in the final of the Australian Open, as well as her first three - set loss in the final of a Grand Slam. She had previously been 6 -- 0 and 8 -- 0 respectively.
The week of February 15 marked Williams 's 157th consecutive week ranked No. 1, passing Navratilova 's mark of 156 to have the second - longest run in WTA history behind Steffi Graf 's 186. She competed in Indian Wells as the No. 1 seed. She reached her first final here since winning in 2001 and before boycotting the event, by defeating Simona Halep in the quarterfinals and Agnieszka Radwańska in the semifinals. She did not drop a set en route to the final. However, Williams was upset by No. 13 seed Victoria Azarenka, whom she had defeated the last five times the pair had met, in straight sets. This marked the first time since 2004 where Williams lost two consecutive finals. She next played the Miami Open as the defending champion. She lost in the fourth round to Svetlana Kuznetsova. This marked her first loss here since 2012 and ended her 20 match winning streak in Miami. This was also her earliest exit here since 2000, where she lost in the same round. During the clay court swing, Williams withdrew from Madrid but entered Rome. She beat Anna - Lena Friedsam and Christina McHale to progress to the quarterfinals where she defeated Svetlana Kuznetsova to avenge her loss in Miami. She then went on to beat Irina - Camelia Begu and Madison Keys to win her 70th career WTA title and to win her first title of the year. This was her third Rome title in four years and fourth overall.
At the French Open, Williams dropped only one set en route to the final. She defeated Yulia Putintseva in the quarter - finals despite being five points away from losing. She then beat surprise semi-finalist Kiki Bertens to reach her fourth French Open final where she faced Garbiñe Muguruza in a repeat of last year 's Wimbledon final where Williams was victorious. However, the result was not the same as that Wimbledon final as Williams lost to Muguruza in straight sets. With this loss, Williams had lost two consecutive Grand Slam finals for the first time in her career. On top of failing to equal Steffi Graf 's Open Era record of 22 Grand Slam singles titles, Williams also completed the Career Grand Slam runner - up set with this loss.
At Wimbledon, Williams only lost one set en route to the final where she faced Angelique Kerber in a rematch of their Australian Open final earlier in the year. This time, Williams defeated Kerber in straight sets to finally equal Steffi Graf 's record of 22 Grand Slams in the Open Era. This was Williams 's first Grand Slam title of the year, as well as her 71st career WTA title overall. In what was a brilliant serving performance, Williams only faced one break point in the whole match against Kerber which she saved with an ace. Later that day, Williams partnered with sister Venus to win their sixth Wimbledon doubles title and 14th doubles Grand Slam title overall, keeping their perfect record at Grand Slam doubles finals intact. On July 24, 2016, Williams withdrew from Rogers Cup citing a shoulder inflammation injury. She next participated in the Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, where she was the defending gold medalist in both singles and doubles and was the heavy favourite to retain those titles. Partnering with her sister Venus in the doubles, they suffered a shock exit in the first round, losing to the Czech duo of Lucie Šafářová and Barbora Strýcová, which ended their career record of 15 -- 0 dating back to the 2000 Olympics. In singles, after defeating Daria Gavrilova and Alizé Cornet in the first two rounds, Williams faced Ukraine 's Elina Svitolina in the third round in what was a rematch of this year 's French Open fourth round, but lost to the Ukrainian, bringing an end to her Olympics campaign. Days after the Olympics, Williams took a late wildcard for the Western & Southern Open, where she was the defending champion, but then decided to withdraw due to concerns from the same shoulder injury / inflammation from earlier in the summer.
The week of September 5, 2016, marked Williams 's 186th consecutive week ranked No. 1, equalling Steffi Graf 's record for longest run in WTA history. However, in the semifinals of the US Open, Williams lost to Karolína Plíšková. Having won the US Open, Angelique Kerber became the No. 1, ending Williams 's No. 1 streak. Williams also pulled out of the WTA Finals due to a shoulder injury.
Williams started her 2017 season by participating in the WTA Auckland Open for the first time in her career. She defeated Pauline Parmentier to win her first match played since the US Open. In the second round however, Williams surprisingly lost to Madison Brengle. Williams displayed her top form from the outset of the Australian Open. Williams beat former and present top 10 players Belinda Bencic, Lucie Šafářová, Johanna Konta among others to reach her 8th Australian Open Final. On January 28, 2017, Williams won the Australian Open for an Open Era record seventh time, defeating her sister, Venus. This was her 23rd Grand Slam singles title, surpassing Steffi Graf 's Open Era record of 22. It was the first time in the Open Era that two players aged 35 or older competed in the final of a Grand Slam tournament. The win ensured her return to the No. 1 ranking. Williams subsequently withdrew from the Indian Wells and Miami Opens, citing a knee injury. However, on April 19, 2017, she revealed that she was 20 weeks pregnant and would miss the remainder of the season. The timing means that she would have been roughly five weeks pregnant when she won the Australian Open. In interviews, she maintained that she intended to return to tennis after her pregnancy, including setting the (in her own words) "outrageous plan '' of competing in the 2018 Australian Open. On September 1, 2017, Williams gave birth to a daughter named Alexis Olympia Ohanian Jr. Despite being absent from the game, she ended the season ranked No. 22.
On December 30, 2017 Williams played an exhibition match at the World Tennis Championship in Abu Dhabi, losing to reigning Roland Garros Champion Jeļena Ostapenko. This was her first match since giving birth. However, on January 5, 2018 Williams withdrew from the upcoming Australian Open, citing a lack of sufficient preparation in the wake of her pregnancy. Shortly after her announcement an interview with Vogue was published in which Williams revealed that she had suffered another pulmonary embolism after giving birth, leaving her bedridden for six weeks and delaying her return to training.
After overcoming her pregnancy - induced problems, Williams returned to the tennis court with her sister. They lost to Lesley Kerkhove and Demi Schuurs (Netherlands) in the Fed Cup 's first round on February 11. Despite saying she was 100 % ready to come back to tennis, Serena suffered back to back early exits at Indian Wells & Miami, losing third round at Indian Wells to her sister Venus and first round at Miami losing to 2018 Indian Wells champion Naomi Osaka.
Williams made her return to Grand Slam tennis at the 2018 French Open, playing singles as well as doubles with her sister Venus. In the first round, she defeated Kristyna Pliskova in two tight sets before defeating 17th seed Ashleigh Barty in the second round. Then she defeated 11th seed Julia Goerges to set up a fourth - round match against 28th seed Maria Sharapova, who she had beaten 18 consecutive times since 2004. Unfortunately, Williams withdrew - due to an injury to her pectoral muscle sustained in a third - round match in doubles where she and Venus were defeated by Andreja Klepač and María José Martínez Sánchez.
In July Williams entered the Wimbledon Championship and was controversially seeded # 25. With a world ranking at the time of 181, many felt that the decision showed bias. Others argued that the All England Club, who do n't base their seedings, as other grand slam tournaments do, on players ' current world rankings had sensibly taken Williams ' excellent historic record at the tournament into account. Williams herself said: "I think I would be very ungrateful if I sat here and said (the seeding) was too low, to be honest. In fact, I was pleasantly surprised. I came in here expecting that maybe I would n't get a seed. '' Her seeding meant that Dominika Cibulková lost her place as a seeded player.
By the second week of the tournament, the decision had begun to look like a good one -- or a moot point -- depending on one 's point of view as, for the first time in grand slam history, not one of the top ten seeded female players had made it to the quarter finals. On her way to the quarter finals, Williams had beaten Arantxa Rus of Holland in round one, Viktoriya Tomova of Bulgaria in round 2, Kristina Mladenovic of France in round 3 and Evgeniya Rodina of Russia in round 4. She had not yet lost a set in any of her matches to that point. Williams then beat Italian Camila Giorgi in the quarter finals after yielding one set, and became the lowest ranked player to ever reach the Wimbledon semi-finals. Williams met 13th seed Julia Görges of Germany in the semi final and beat her comfortably two sets to love (6 -- 2 6 -- 4) in just over an hour to reach her tenth Wimbledon final which she lost in two sets (3 - 6 3 - 6) in 65 minutes to Angelique Kerber of Germany in a rematch of the 2016 Wimbledon final. This was Serena 's first major final since the 2017 Australian Open.
Williams has played older sister Venus in 29 professional matches since 1998. Overall, Serena is 17 -- 12 against her sister. Serena has played Venus 15 times in Grand Slam singles and 13 times in other tournaments (including 11 finals). They have met in nine Grand Slam tournament finals, with Serena winning seven times. Beginning with the 2002 French Open, they played each other in four consecutive Grand Slam finals, which was the first time in the Open Era that the same two players had contested consecutive finals in Grand Slam singles.
Williams leads the series 7 -- 6. One of Williams 's first rivalries was with Martina Hingis, who turned pro less than one year before her (Hingis in October 1994, Williams in 1995). They first played each other at the 1998 Miami Open where Hingis won in three sets. All but one of their matches was played on a hard court with the exception being a contest on clay in Rome 1999, which Hingis won in straight sets. Their last match took place at the 2002 Miami Open with Williams winning in a loss of just four games. Hingis was forced to briefly retire citing ankle injuries.
Williams leads the series 10 -- 7. Once considered one of the best rivalries in women 's tennis, the competition between Williams and Capriati was stiff with 12 out of their 17 meetings going to three sets. The rivalry, starting in 1999, began one sided with Capriati winning four of their first five matches. Williams would then go on to win the next eight. Williams and Capriati played with similar styles, both known for using their power and athleticism to gain quick advantages in points.
Williams leads the series 8 -- 6. Henin and Williams met 14 times, five of which were in tournament finals. In grand slams they have faced each other seven times with Henin leading 4 -- 3. Opposite personalities and styles of play are often cited as what made their rivalry entertaining. In the semifinals of the 2003 French Open, when at 4 -- 2, 30 -- 0 on Williams 's serve in the third set, Henin raised her hand to indicate she was not ready to receive; Williams then put her serve into the net. The umpire did not see Henin raise her hand, and thus did not allow Williams a first serve. Williams lost the game and would go on to lose the match. Their last match took place in the final of the 2010 Australian Open where Williams won in three sets, earning her 12th Grand Slam title.
When both the Williams sisters entered the top ten and started meeting in tournaments, unsubstantiated rumors of match fixing started to circulate. John McEnroe, while commenting on the 2000 Wimbledon semifinal between the two sisters, said that "Serena may not be allowed to win. Richard may have something to say about this. '' Elena Dementieva, a fellow professional player, said during a post match interview after losing to Venus at the Indian Wells quarterfinals in 2001, that Richard Williams decided the results between the two sisters. Venus pulling out at the last minute garnered much speculation in the press, with fans demanding their money back.
After injuring herself in the quarterfinal match against Dementieva, her sister, Venus Williams, defaulted to Serena in the semifinals. Although Venus told the tournament official hours beforehand that she would have to default, the official word was not given until 10 minutes before the scheduled start (in the hopes that Venus would change her mind), angering fans who had come to see the match. Consequently, during the final against Kim Clijsters two days later, the spectators jeered Serena from when she first took the court for warm - up through the final trophy presentation including cheering double faults and errors with no intervention from the tournament officials. Despite these attacks, Williams went on to win the tournament.
At the Ericsson Open the following week, Richard Williams said racist comments were made to him in the stands, and the tournament director refused to offer Williams an apology for how she was treated. As a result, neither sister played the tournament even though it had become a mandatory stop on the WTA tour since 2009. In 2015, Williams decided to end her 14 - year boycott and played.
In her US Open quarterfinal match against Jennifer Capriati, an incorrect overrule was made by chair umpire Mariana Alves, the video review showed this to be an error (as Williams 's shot was inside the court). This quarter - final match was testing the new technology during the match. There were incorrect lines calls made late in the third set of the match. Williams argued with the chair over a couple of calls during the match, but was not successful. Capriati won the match, with Serena herself acknowledging that this was primarily due to her 57 unforced errors, but accused Alves of temporary insanity nevertheless and said that she "felt cheated. '' In a post-match interview Capriati sharply observed that bad calls had gone against her in the past as well. Alves did not officiate for the remainder of the tournament; this however was not punitive, as commonly thought, as she was not scheduled to officiate. The controversy renewed calls for, and was widely given credit for, the adoption of technology such as the MacCAM and Hawk - Eye systems.
In the US Open semifinal round against Kim Clijsters, Williams slammed her racquet on the court after losing the first set. She was given a warning, with a potential second violation carrying a one - point penalty. While trailing 4 -- 6, 5 -- 6, 15 -- 30, Williams 's second serve was called a foot fault, resulting in two match points for Clijsters. Williams gestured with her racquet to the lineswoman who had made the call and yelled at her, with profanities and a threat to shove a tennis ball down the lineswoman 's throat. During the subsequent on - court conference between the chair umpire, the lineswoman, US Open officials, and Williams, a television microphone picked up Williams saying to the lineswoman, "I did n't say I would kill you! Are you serious? '' The incident resulted in Williams being penalized a point for unsportsmanlike conduct -- necessitated by the earlier warning for racquet abuse -- meaning Clijsters won the match 6 -- 4, 7 -- 5. The following day, Williams was issued the maximum permissible on - site fine of $10,000 (plus $500 for racquet abuse). After further investigation, the Grand Slam Committee in November 2009 fined her $175,000 in lieu of suspending her from the 2010 US Open or other Grand Slam events. They also placed her on a two - year probation, so if Williams committed another offense in the following two years at Grand Slams, she would be suspended from participating in the following US Open. If she committed no offenses in the next two years, her fine would be reduced to $82,500. Williams initially refused to apologize for her outburst, both in her post-match press conference and in an official statement released the following day. She eventually did, stating "I just really wanted to apologize sincerely because I 'm a very prideful person, and I 'm a very intense person and a very emotional person '', and "I wanted to offer my sincere apologies to anyone that I may have offended. '' She said she was humbled by the experience.
In the final of the 2011 US Open against Samantha Stosur, Williams shouted "Come on! '' as the Australian attempted to return a forehand Williams believed to be a winner. The chair umpire Eva Asderaki awarded the point to Stosur based on the USTA 's deliberate hindrance rule, which states, "If a player commits any act which hinders his opponent in making a stroke, then, if this is deliberate, he shall lose the point or if involuntary, the point shall be replayed. '' As the point was 30 -- 40 on Williams 's serve, the penalty gave the break of serve to Stosur. Williams became angry with the chair umpire and made several gestures and unflattering comments toward her during the next changeover, including telling Asderaki that if she ever saw the umpire coming toward her, she should "look the other way ''. Williams initially gained momentum in the set following the penalty, breaking back in the next game, but eventually flagged and lost the match, 2 -- 6, 3 -- 6. At the end of the match, she declined to offer the customary handshake to Asderaki. Williams mentioned the incident in her post-match speech as the tournament runner - up, asserting, "I hit a winner, but I guess it did n't count '', but added, "It would n't have mattered in the end. Sam played really well. '' A writer for ESPN suggested that Williams could avoid being found to have violated the terms of the "probation '' on which she was placed following her 2009 outburst, as she did not appear to have used profanity in addressing Asderaki during the match. In the end, Williams was fined $2,000 and was not barred from competing in the 2012 US Open because "Williams 's conduct, while verbally abusive, (did) not rise to the level of a major offence under the Grand Slam code of conduct. ''
Williams is hailed by many coaches, players and sportscasters to be the best tennis player in the Open Era. Her numerous victories on court and strong character have largely been a positive influence on young girls and boys who see Williams as a role model and an ambassador of tennis.
Williams announced her engagement to Reddit co-founder Alexis Ohanian on December 29, 2016. She planned to move to San Francisco with Ohanian after the wedding. Williams and Ohanian were married on November 16, 2017, in New Orleans. Guests at the wedding included Beyoncé, Anna Wintour, Kelly Rowland and Kim Kardashian West.
On April 19, 2017, Williams posted a sideways picture of herself on Snapchat focused on her mid-section. It had the caption, "20 weeks '', sparking speculation that Williams was pregnant. Later that evening, her spokesperson confirmed that the couple was expecting. The fact that she was 20 weeks pregnant when announcing her pregnancy meant that she was 8 weeks pregnant when she won the Australian Open in January.
On September 1, 2017, Williams gave birth to a daughter, named Alexis Olympia Ohanian. Williams had a cesarean - section delivery due to complications (specifically, blood clots in her lungs and a pulmonary embolism, or PE, which had caused trouble breathing) during the labor of her daughter and, at first, was devastated about it.
Williams was raised a Jehovah 's Witness, but says she has "never really practiced it ''. She often thanks Jehovah after winning matches.
In the early 2000s, Williams wore Puma apparel and footwear on court. She used the Wilson Hammer 6.4 Stretch Power Holes racquet. Today, she is endorsed by Nike and uses the Wilson Blade 104.
Williams also has endorsement deals with Gatorade, Delta Air Lines, Audemars Piguet, Aston Martin, Pepsi, Beats by Dre headphones, Mission Athletecare, Berlei bras, OPI Products, OnePiece, IBM, Mini, Intel, Tempur and Chase Bank.
Williams is the current CSO (Chief Sporting Officer) for British luxury automobile manufacturer Aston Martin. She accepted the contract in June 2015. Williams then posted her first experience on social media service Twitter, and said: "I 'm loving my first day on the job as Chief Sporting Officer and Director of Fun! '', stating her optimism on the job as the CSO.
Williams has been noted for her unusual and colorful outfits on court. In 2002, there was much talk when she wore a black lycra catsuit at the US Open. At the 2004 US Open, Williams wore denim skirts and knee - high boots -- tournament officials, however, did not allow her to wear the boots during matches. At the 2008 Wimbledon, white trench coat she wore during warm - up for her opening match was the subject of much discussion since it was worn despite sunny weather. Some social scientists have argued that the most negative reactions to Williams ' on - court fashion statements, especially in newspaper coverage of the Australian Open and Wimbledon, combines with writers ' fixation upon her muscular body to distract from her on - court accomplishments and fit this commentary within centuries - old narratives of the "pornographic eroticism '' and "sexual grotesquerie '' of African and African - American women.
Williams formerly had a special line with Puma. In April 2004, she signed a deal worth US $40 million for a line with Nike. Since 2004, she has also run her own line of designer apparel, "Aneres '' -- her first name spelled backward. In 2009, she launched a signature collection of handbags and jewelry. The collection, Signature Statement, is sold mainly on the Home Shopping Network (HSN).
In early 2010, Williams became a certified nail technician in preparation for her upcoming nail collection with a company called HairTech. In 2015, she became the first black female athlete to have a picture by herself on the cover of Vogue, which she did for the April 2015 issue. In 2015, she also presented her HSN Signature Statement collection for the second time at the New York Fashion Week Show -- a clothing line exclusively made for the retailer HSN.
Williams has become more involved in social change as her career has progressed, primarily using social media as a medium of expressing her views. In 2016 she posted her support of Black Lives Matter on her Facebook page, voicing her concern about her young nephew being in danger from police officers due to his skin color. During American tennis player Tennys Sandgren 's breakthrough run to the quarterfinals of the 2018 Australian Open, it was revealed that he tweeted insensitive words about the LGBT community, followed members of the alt - right, and referred to an article describing Williams 's on - court behavior as "disgusting ''. Williams responded by tweeting her displeasure, saying, "@ TennysSandgren I do n't need or want one. But there is a entire group of people that deserves an apology. I cant look at my daughter and tell her I sat back and was quiet. No! she will know how to stand up for herself and others - through my example. '' Additionally, she attached an image that read, "Maturity is being able to apologize and admit when you 're wrong because you know that your mistakes do n't define you ''.
Williams has appeared on television and also provided voice work on animated shows: in a 2001 episode of The Simpsons Serena joined the animation along with sister Venus, Pete Sampras and Andre Agassi. She has also provided guest voice work in a 2005 episode of Playhouse Disney 's animated kids show Higglytown Heroes and a 2007 episode of the Nickelodeon cartoon Avatar: The Last Airbender, which she has described as her "favorite show ''.
Williams has posed for the 2003 and 2004 editions of the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue. In April 2005, MTV announced plans to broadcast a reality show around the lives of Serena and Venus, which was eventually aired on ABC Family. Williams has appeared twice on MTV 's Punk 'd and in 2007, appeared in the ABC reality television series Fast Cars and Superstars: The Gillette Young Guns Celebrity Race. In 2002, she played Miss Wiggins in the season 3 episode "Crouching Mother, Hidden Father '' of My Wife and Kids; she has also guest - starred in episodes of The Bernie Mac Show, ER and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. In 2007, Williams appeared in the music video of "I Want You '' by the American rapper Common, alongside performers Alicia Keys and Kanye West.
In late 2009, Williams became the first active female professional athlete to appear in a feminine hygiene product advertising campaign. A series of online videos and print advertisements for Tampax Pearl tampons showed her hitting balls at Mother Nature, played by Catherine Lloyd Burns, to prevent Mother Nature giving her a red - wrapped gift, representing her menstrual period. In the online videos, the two have dueling press conferences over the "bad blood '' between them. "A lot of celebrities are not open to working with our brand, and we 're thrilled that Serena is '', said a brand manager for Tampax at Procter & Gamble.
In July 2012, she appeared in the ABC comedic improv television series Trust Us with Your Life and as a lawyer on the Lifetime television series Drop Dead Diva.
To celebrate the 35th anniversary of Pac - Man, Williams made a cameo appearance in the movie Pixels, which starred Adam Sandler and Kevin James, and premiered on July 24, 2015.
Williams is known to be close to Beyoncé and made a cameo appearance dancing in Beyoncé 's music video for the song Sorry in the hit album Lemonade. Williams said the director told her, "We would love for you to be in this particular song. It 's about strength and it 's about courage and that 's what we see you as. ''
In addition to English as her native language, Williams also speaks conversational French, and knows some Spanish and Italian. At the 2013, 2015, 2016 and 2018 French Open she gave her on - court interviews in French, much to the crowd 's delight.
In August 2009, Williams and her sister Venus became minority owners of the Miami Dolphins after purchasing a small stake in the team. They live near each other in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, which is about an hour 's drive from the Dolphins ' stadium. They are the first Black women to hold any amount of ownership in an NFL franchise.
In 2008, as part of the Serena Williams Foundation 's work, Williams helped to fund the construction of the Serena Williams Secondary School in Matooni, Kenya. The Serena Williams Foundation also provides university scholarships for underprivileged students in the United States. In 2016, the Serena Williams Fund partnered with Helping Hands Jamaica to build the Salt Marsh Primary School for Jamaican youth in Trelawny Parish. She received a Celebrity Role Model Award from Avon Foundation in 2003 for work in breast cancer. Williams has also been involved in a number of clinics at schools and community centers, particularly those which have programs focusing on at - risk youth. She has also won the "Young Heroes Award '' from Big Brothers Big Sisters of Greater L.A. and Inland (2003) and the "Family Circle and Prudential Financial Player Who Makes a Difference Award '' (2004). In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Williams, along with other ATP and WTA stars, decided to forgo their final day of preparation for the 2010 Australian Open to form a charity event in which all proceeds will go to the Haiti earthquake victims. Serena, along with her sister Venus, is a supporter and contributor of First Serve Miami, a foundation for youth who want to learn tennis but are socially and economically challenged. She has been an International Goodwill Ambassador with UNICEF since 2011 and has helped launch UNICEF 's Schools for Asia campaign.
In addition to the Serena Williams Fund in 2016, Serena and Venus collaborated on the Williams Sisters Fund to work on philanthropic projects together. Also in 2016, in their childhood home of Compton, California Serena and Venus teamed up to found the Yetunde Price Resource Center, in honor of their late sister. The Resource Center provides services to families affected by community violence.
Williams 's return to Indian Wells in 2015 was done in partnership with the Equal Justice Initiative, a non-profit organization that provides legal representation to those who might have been denied a fair trial. EJI executive director Bryan Stevenson lauded her courage in supporting his organization. "It 's so rare when athletes at the top of their game are willing to embrace a set of issues that, for a lot of people, are edgier '', he said. "This is not aid to orphans... She was standing when a lot of her contemporaries remain seated, speaking up when others are being quiet. ''
In 2014, Williams began hosting an annual charity run named "The Serena Williams Ultimate Fun Run ''. The event is in support of the Serena Williams Fund, which helps underprivileged individuals and communities that are affected by senseless violence and to ensure equal access to education of youth.
In 2017, Williams became Ambassador for the Allstate Foundation 's Purple Purse project, an initiative to provide financial empowerment to domestic abuse victims. In a press release, Vicky Dinges, Allstate 's senior vice president of corporate responsibility, said, "we are thrilled to welcome Serena, a longtime advocate and role model for so many, to the Purple Purse family. Her voice will bring new audiences into this critical conversation. ''
Other charitable organizations Williams supports include the Elton John AIDS Foundation, Great Ormond Street Hospital, Hearts of Gold, the Common Ground Foundation, the Small Steps Project, the HollyRod Foundation, Beyond the Boroughs National Scholarship Fund, World Education, the Eva Longoria Foundation, the Caliber Foundation and the Cure for MND Foundation.
The Williams sisters, with author Hilary Beard, wrote a book titled Venus & Serena: Serving From The Hip: 10 Rules For Living, Loving and Winning, which was published in 2005. During the 2009 Wimbledon Championships, Williams said that she is in the process of writing a TV show storyline, which will be converted into script form by her agency. She stated that the show will represent subject matter from a mix of popular American television shows such as Desperate Housewives, and Family Guy. Williams released her first solo autobiography entitled On the Line, following the 2009 US Open.
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restoration of effective function is the goal of which level of prevention | Preventive healthcare - wikipedia
Preventive healthcare (alternately preventive medicine or prophylaxis) consists of measures taken for disease prevention, as opposed to disease treatment. Just as health encompasses a variety of physical and mental states, so do disease and disability, which are affected by environmental factors, genetic predisposition, disease agents, and lifestyle choices. Health, disease, and disability are dynamic processes which begin before individuals realize they are affected. Disease prevention relies on anticipatory actions that can be categorized as primal, primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention.
Each year, millions of people die of preventable deaths. A 2004 study showed that about half of all deaths in the United States in 2000 were due to preventable behaviors and exposures. Leading causes included cardiovascular disease, chronic respiratory disease, unintentional injuries, diabetes, and certain infectious diseases. This same study estimates that 400,000 people die each year in the United States due to poor diet and a sedentary lifestyle. According to estimates made by the World Health Organization (WHO), about 55 million people died worldwide in 2011, two thirds of this group from non-communicable diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and chronic cardiovascular and lung diseases. This is an increase from the year 2000, during which 60 % of deaths were attributed to these diseases. Preventive healthcare is especially important given the worldwide rise in prevalence of chronic diseases and deaths from these diseases.
There are many methods for prevention of disease. It is recommended that adults and children aim to visit their doctor for regular check - ups, even if they feel healthy, to perform disease screening, identify risk factors for disease, discuss tips for a healthy and balanced lifestyle, stay up to date with immunizations and boosters, and maintain a good relationship with a healthcare provider. Some common disease screenings include checking for hypertension (high blood pressure), hyperglycemia (high blood sugar, a risk factor for diabetes mellitus), hypercholesterolemia (high blood cholesterol), screening for colon cancer, depression, HIV and other common types of sexually transmitted disease such as chlamydia, syphilis, and gonorrhea, mammography (to screen for breast cancer), colorectal cancer screening, a pap test (to check for cervical cancer), and screening for osteoporosis. Genetic testing can also be performed to screen for mutations that cause genetic disorders or predisposition to certain diseases such as breast or ovarian cancer. However, these measures are not affordable for every individual and the cost effectiveness of preventive healthcare is still a topic of debate.
Preventive healthcare strategies are described as taking place at the primal, primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention levels. In the 1940s, Hugh R. Leavell and E. Gurney Clark coined the term primary prevention. They worked at the Harvard and Columbia University Schools of Public Health, respectively, and later expanded the levels to include secondary and tertiary prevention. Goldston (1987) notes that these levels might be better described as "prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation '', though the terms primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention are still in use today. The concept of primal prevention has been created much more recently, in relation to the new developments in molecular biology over the last fifty years, more particularly in epigenetics, which point to the paramount importance of environmental conditions - both physical and affective - on the organism during its fetal and newborn life (or so - called primal life).
Primordial prevention refers to measures designed to avoid the development of risk factors in the first place, early in life.
A separate category of "health promotion '' has recently been propounded. This health promotion par excellence is based on the ' new knowledge ' in molecular biology, in particular on epigenetic knowledge, which points to how much affective - as well as physical - environment during fetal and newborn life may determine each and every aspect of adult health. This new way of promoting health is now commonly called primal prevention. It consists mainly in providing future parents with pertinent, unbiased information on primal health and supporting them during their child 's primal period of life (i.e., "from conception to first anniversary '' according to definition by the Primal Health Research Centre, London). This includes adequate parental leave - ideally for both parents - with kin caregiving and financial help where needed.
Another related concept is primordial prevention which to refers to all measures designed to prevent the development of risk factors in the first place, early in life.
Primary prevention consists of traditional "health promotion '' and "specific protection. '' Health promotion activities are current, non-clinical life choices. For example, eating nutritious meals and exercising daily, that both prevent disease and create a sense of overall well - being. Preventing disease and creating overall well - being, prolongs our life expectancy. Health - promotional activities do not target a specific disease or condition but rather promote health and well - being on a very general level. On the other hand, specific protection targets a type or group of diseases and complements the goals of health promotion. In the case of a sexually transmitted disease such as syphilis health promotion activities would include avoiding microorganisms by maintaining personal hygiene, routine check - up appointments with the doctor, general sex education, etc. whereas specific protective measures would be using prophylactics (such as condoms) during sex and avoiding sexual promiscuity.
Food is very much the most basic tool in preventive health care. The 2011 National Health Interview Survey performed by the Centers for Disease Control was the first national survey to include questions about ability to pay for food. Difficulty with paying for food, medicine, or both is a problem facing 1 out of 3 Americans. If better food options were available through food banks, soup kitchens, and other resources for low - income people, obesity and the chronic conditions that come along with it would be better controlled A "food desert '' is an area with restricted access to healthy foods due to a lack of supermarkets within a reasonable distance. These are often low - income neighborhoods with the majority of residents lacking transportation. There have been several grassroots movements in the past 20 years to encourage urban gardening, such as the GreenThumb organization in New York City. Urban gardening uses vacant lots to grow food for a neighborhood and is cultivated by the local residents. Mobile fresh markets are another resource for residents in a "food desert '', which are specially outfitted buses bringing affordable fresh fruits and vegetables to low - income neighborhoods. These programs often hold educational events as well such as cooking and nutrition guidance. Programs such as these are helping to provide healthy, affordable foods to the people who need them the most.
Scientific advancements in genetics have significantly contributed to the knowledge of hereditary diseases and have facilitated great progress in specific protective measures in individuals who are carriers of a disease gene or have an increased predisposition to a specific disease. Genetic testing has allowed physicians to make quicker and more accurate diagnoses and has allowed for tailored treatments or personalized medicine. Similarly, specific protective measures such as water purification, sewage treatment, and the development of personal hygienic routines (such as regular hand - washing) became mainstream upon the discovery of infectious disease agents such as bacteria. These discoveries have been instrumental in decreasing the rates of communicable diseases that are often spread in unsanitary conditions.
Secondary prevention deals with latent diseases and attempts to prevent an asymptomatic disease from progressing to symptomatic disease. Certain diseases can be classified as primary or secondary. This depends on definitions of what constitutes a disease, though, in general, primary prevention addresses the root cause of a disease or injury whereas secondary prevention aims to detect and treat a disease early on. Secondary prevention consists of "early diagnosis and prompt treatment '' to contain the disease and prevent its spread to other individuals, and "disability limitation '' to prevent potential future complications and disabilities from the disease. For example, early diagnosis and prompt treatment for a syphilis patient would include a course of antibiotics to destroy the pathogen and screening and treatment of any infants born to syphilitic mothers. Disability limitation for syphilitic patients includes continued check - ups on the heart, cerebrospinal fluid, and central nervous system of patients to curb any damaging effects such as blindness or paralysis.
Finally, tertiary prevention attempts to reduce the damage caused by symptomatic disease by focusing on mental, physical, and social rehabilitation. Unlike secondary prevention, which aims to prevent disability, the objective of tertiary prevention is to maximize the remaining capabilities and functions of an already disabled patient. Goals of tertiary prevention include: preventing pain and damage, halting progression and complications from disease, and restoring the health and functions of the individuals affected by disease. For syphilitic patients, rehabilitation includes measures to prevent complete disability from the disease, such as implementing work - place adjustments for the blind and paralyzed or providing counseling to restore normal daily functions to the greatest extent possible.
The leading cause of death in the United States was tobacco. However, poor diet and lack of exercise may soon surpass tobacco as a leading cause of death. These behaviors are modifiable and public health and prevention efforts could make a difference to reduce these deaths.
The leading causes of preventable death worldwide share similar trends to the United States. There are a few differences between the two, such as malnutrition, pollution, and unsafe sanitation, that reflect health disparities between the developing and developed world.
In 2010, 7.6 million children died before reaching the age of 5. While this is a decrease from 9.6 million in the year 2000, it is still far from the fourth Millennium Development Goal to decrease child mortality by two - thirds by the year 2015. Of these deaths, about 64 % were due to infection (including diarrhea, pneumonia, and malaria). About 40 % of these deaths occurred in neonates (children ages 1 -- 28 days) due to pre-term birth complications. The highest number of child deaths occurred in Africa and Southeast Asia. In Africa, almost no progress has been made in reducing neonatal death since 1990. India, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Pakistan, and China contributed to almost 50 % of global child deaths in 2010. Targeting efforts in these countries is essential to reducing the global child death rate.
Child mortality is caused by a variety of factors including poverty, environmental hazards, and lack of maternal education. The World Health Organization created a list of interventions in the following table that were judged economically and operationally "feasible, '' based on the healthcare resources and infrastructure in 42 nations that contribute to 90 % of all infant and child deaths. The table indicates how many infant and child deaths could have been prevented in the year 2000, assuming universal healthcare coverage.
Obesity is a major risk factor for a wide variety of conditions including cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, certain cancers, and type 2 diabetes. In order to prevent obesity, it is recommended that individuals adhere to a consistent exercise regimen as well as a nutritious and balanced diet. A healthy individual should aim for acquiring 10 % of their energy from proteins, 15 - 20 % from fat, and over 50 % from complex carbohydrates, while avoiding alcohol as well as foods high in fat, salt, and sugar. Sedentary adults should aim for at least half an hour of moderate - level daily physical activity and eventually increase to include at least 20 minutes of intense exercise, three times a week. Preventive health care offers many benefits to those that chose to participate in taking an active role in the culture. The medical system in our society is geared toward curing acute symptoms of disease after the fact that they have brought us into the emergency room. An ongoing epidemic within American culture is the prevalence of obesity. Eating healthier and routinely exercising plays a huge role in reducing an individuals risk for type 2 diabetes. About 23.6 million people in the United States have diabetes. Of those, 17.9 million are diagnosed and 5.7 million are undiagnosed. Ninety to 95 percent of people with diabetes have type 2 diabetes. Diabetes is the main cause of kidney failure, limb amputation, and new - onset blindness in American adults.
STIs are common both in history and in today 's society. STIs can be asymptomatic or cause a range of symptoms. Condom and other barrier use reduces the risk of acquiring some STIs. STI prophylaxis includes: condom use, abstinence, testing and screening a partner, regular health check - ups, and certain medications such as Truvada.
Thrombosis is a serious circulatory disease affecting thousands, usually older persons undergoing surgical procedures, women taking oral contraceptives and travelers. Consequences of thrombosis can be heart attacks and strokes. Prevention can include: exercise, anti-embolism stockings, pneumatic devices, and pharmacological treatments.
In recent years, cancer has become a global problem. Low and middle income countries share a majority of the cancer burden largely due to exposure to carcinogens resulting from industrialization and globalization. However, primary prevention of cancer and knowledge of cancer risk factors can reduce over one third of all cancer cases. Primary prevention of cancer can also prevent other diseases, both communicable and non-communicable, that share common risk factors with cancer.
Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer - related deaths in the United States and Europe and is a major cause of death in other countries. Tobacco is an environmental carcinogen and the major underlying cause of lung cancer. Between 25 % and 40 % of all cancer deaths and about 90 % of lung cancer cases are associated with tobacco use. Other carcinogens include asbestos and radioactive materials. Both smoking and second - hand exposure from other smokers can lead to lung cancer and eventually death. Therefore, prevention of tobacco use is paramount to prevention of lung cancer.
Individual, community, and statewide interventions can prevent or cease tobacco use. 90 % of adults in the US who have ever smoked did so prior to the age of 20. In - school prevention / educational programs, as well as counseling resources, can help prevent and cease adolescent smoking. Other cessation techniques include group support programs, nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), hypnosis, and self - motivated behavioral change. Studies have shown long term success rates (> 1 year) of 20 % for hypnosis and 10 % - 20 % for group therapy.
Cancer screening programs serve as effective sources of secondary prevention. The Mayo Clinic, Johns Hopkins, and Memorial Sloan - Kettering hospitals conducted annual x-ray screenings and sputum cytology tests and found that lung cancer was detected at higher rates, earlier stages, and had more favorable treatment outcomes, which supports widespread investment in such programs.
Legislation can also affect smoking prevention and cessation. In 1992, Massachusetts (United States) voters passed a bill adding an extra 25 cent tax to each pack of cigarettes, despite intense lobbying and a $7.3 million spent by the tobacco industry to oppose this bill. Tax revenue goes toward tobacco education and control programs and has led to a decline of tobacco use in the state.
Lung cancer and tobacco smoking are increasing worldwide, especially in China. China is responsible for about one - third of the global consumption and production of tobacco products. Tobacco control policies have been ineffective as China is home to 350 million regular smokers and 750 million passive smokers and the annual death toll is over 1 million. Recommended actions to reduce tobacco use include: decreasing tobacco supply, increasing tobacco taxes, widespread educational campaigns, decreasing advertising from the tobacco industry, and increasing tobacco cessation support resources. In Wuhan, China, a 1998 school - based program, implemented an anti-tobacco curriculum for adolescents and reduced the number of regular smokers, though it did not significantly decrease the number of adolescents who initiated smoking. This program was therefore effective in secondary but not primary prevention and shows that school - based programs have the potential to reduce tobacco use.
Skin cancer is the most common cancer in the United States. The most lethal form of skin cancer, melanoma, leads to over 50,000 annual deaths in the United States. Childhood prevention is particularly important because a significant portion of ultraviolet radiation exposure from the sun occurs during childhood and adolescence and can subsequently lead to skin cancer in adulthood. Furthermore, childhood prevention can lead to the development of healthy habits that continue to prevent cancer for a lifetime.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends several primary prevention methods including: limiting sun exposure between 10 AM and 4 PM, when the sun is strongest, wearing tighter - weave natural cotton clothing, wide - brim hats, and sunglasses as protective covers, using sunscreens that protect against both UV - A and UV - B rays, and avoiding tanning salons. Sunscreen should be reapplied after sweating, exposure to water (through swimming for example) or after several hours of sun exposure. Since skin cancer is very preventable, the CDC recommends school - level prevention programs including preventive curricula, family involvement, participation and support from the school 's health services, and partnership with community, state, and national agencies and organizations to keep children away from excessive UV radiation exposure.
Most skin cancer and sun protection data comes from Australia and the United States. An international study reported that Australians tended to demonstrate higher knowledge of sun protection and skin cancer knowledge, compared to other countries. Of children, adolescents, and adults, sunscreen was the most commonly used skin protection. However, many adolescents purposely used sunscreen with a low sun protection factor (SPF) in order to get a tan. Various Australian studies have shown that many adults failed to use sunscreen correctly; many applied sunscreen well after their initial sun exposure and / or failed to reapply when necessary. A 2002 case - control study in Brazil showed that only 3 % of case participants and 11 % of control participants used sunscreen with SPF > 15.
Cervical cancer ranks among the top three most common cancers among women in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Asia. Cervical cytology screening aims to detect abnormal lesions in the cervix so that women can undergo treatment prior to the development of cancer. Given that high quality screening and follow - up care has been shown to reduce cervical cancer rates by up to 80 %, most developed countries now encourage sexually active women to undergo a pap test every 3 -- 5 years. Finland and Iceland have developed effective organized programs with routine monitoring and have managed to significantly reduce cervical cancer mortality while using fewer resources than unorganized, opportunistic programs such as those in the United States or Canada.
In developing nations in Latin America, such as Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, and Cuba, both public and privately organized programs have offered women routine cytological screening since the 1970s. However, these efforts have not resulted in a significant change in cervical cancer incidence or mortality in these nations. This is likely due to low quality, inefficient testing. However, Puerto Rico, which has offered early screening since the 1960s, has witnessed an almost a 50 % decline in cervical cancer incidence and almost a four-fold decrease in mortality between 1950 and 1990. Brazil, Peru, India, and several high - risk nations in sub-Saharan Africa which lack organized screening programs, have a high incidence of cervical cancer.
Colorectal cancer is globally the second most common cancer in women and the third-most common in men, and the fourth most common cause of cancer death after lung, stomach, and liver cancer, having caused 715,000 deaths in 2010.
It is also highly preventable; about 80 percent of colorectal cancers begin as benign growths, commonly called polyps, which can be easily detected and removed during a colonoscopy. Other methods of screening for polyps and cancers include fecal occult blood testing. Lifestyle changes that may reduce the risk of colorectal cancer include increasing consumption of whole grains, fruits and vegetables, and reducing consumption of red meat (see Colorectal cancer).
Access to healthcare and preventive health services is unequal, as is the quality of care received. A study conducted by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) revealed health disparities in the United States. In the United States, elderly adults (> 65 years old) received worse care and had less access to care than their younger counterparts. The same trends are seen when comparing all racial minorities (black, Hispanic, Asian) to white patients, and low - income people to high - income people. Common barriers to accessing and utilizing healthcare resources included lack of income and education, language barriers, and lack of health insurance. Minorities were less likely than whites to possess health insurance, as were individuals who completed less education. These disparities made it more difficult for the disadvantaged groups to have regular access to a primary care provider, receive immunizations, or receive other types of medical care. Additionally, uninsured people tend to not seek care until their diseases progress to chronic and serious states and they are also more likely to forgo necessary tests, treatments, and filling prescription medications.
These sorts of disparities and barriers exist worldwide as well. Oftentimes there are decades of gaps in life expectancy between developing and developed countries. For example, Japan has an average life expectancy that is 36 years greater than that in Malawi. Low - income countries also tend to have fewer physicians than high - income countries. In Nigeria and Myanmar, there are fewer than 4 physicians per 100,000 people while Norway and Switzerland have a ratio that is ten-fold higher. Common barriers worldwide include lack of availability of health services and healthcare providers in the region, great physical distance between the home and health service facilities, high transportation costs, high treatment costs, and social norms and stigma toward accessing certain health services.
With lifestyle factors such as diet and exercise rising to the top of preventable death statistics, the economics of healthy lifestyle is a growing concern. There is little question that positive lifestyle choices provide an investment in health throughout life. To gauge success, traditional measures such as the quality years of life method (QALY), show great value. However, that method does not account for the cost of chronic conditions or future lost earnings because of poor health. Developing future economic models that would guide both private and public investments as well as drive future policy to evaluate the efficacy of positive lifestyle choices on health is a major topic for economists globally.
Americans spend over three trillion a year on health care but have a higher rate of infant mortality, shorter life expectancies, and a higher rate of diabetes than other high - income nations because of negative lifestyle choices. Despite these large costs, very little is spent on prevention for lifestyle - caused conditions in comparison. The Journal of American Medical Association estimates that $101 billion was spent in 2013 on the preventable disease of diabetes, and another $88 billion was spent on heart disease. In an effort to encourage healthy lifestyle choices, workplace wellness programs are on the rise; but the economics and effectiveness data are still continuing to evolve and develop.
Health insurance coverage impacts lifestyle choices. In a study by Sudano and Baker, even intermittent loss of coverage has negative effects on healthy choices. The potential repeal of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) could significantly impact coverage for many Americans, as well as "The Prevention and Public Health Fund '' which is our nation 's first and only mandatory funding stream dedicated to improving the public 's health. Also covered in the ACA is counseling on lifestyle prevention issues, such as weight management, alcohol use, and treatment for depression. Policy makers can have substantial effects on the lifestyle choices made by Americans.
Because chronic illnesses predominate as a cause of death in the US and pathways for treating chronic illnesses are complex and multifaceted, prevention is a best practice approach to chronic disease when possible. In many cases, prevention requires mapping complex pathways to determine the ideal point for intervention. In addition to efficacy, prevention is considered a cost - saving measure. Cost - effectiveness analysis of prevention is achievable, but impacted by the length of time it takes to see effects / outcomes of intervention. This makes prevention efforts difficult to fund -- particularly in strained financial contexts. Prevention potentially creates other costs as well, due to extending the lifespan and thereby increasing opportunities for illness. In order to establish reliable economics of prevention for illnesses that are complicated in origin, knowing how best to assess prevention efforts, i.e. developing useful measures and appropriate scope, is required.
Overview
There is no general consensus as to whether or not preventive healthcare measures are cost - effective, but they increase the quality of life dramatically. There are varying views on what constitutes a "good investment. '' Some argue that preventive health measures should save more money than they cost, when factoring in treatment costs in the absence of such measures. Others argue in favor of "good value '' or conferring significant health benefits even if the measures do not save money Furthermore, preventive health services are often described as one entity though they comprise a myriad of different services, each of which can individually lead to net costs, savings, or neither. Greater differentiation of these services is necessary to fully understand both the financial and health effects.
A 2010 study reported that in the United States, vaccinating children, cessation of smoking, daily prophylactic use of aspirin, and screening of breast and colorectal cancers had the most potential to prevent premature death. Preventive health measures that resulted in savings included vaccinating children and adults, smoking cessation, daily use of aspirin, and screening for issues with alcoholism, obesity, and vision failure. These authors estimated that if usage of these services in the United States increased to 90 % of the population, there would be net savings of $3.7 billion, which comprised only about - 0.2 % of the total 2006 United States healthcare expenditure. Despite the potential for decreasing healthcare spending, utilization of healthcare resources in the United States still remains low, especially among Latinos and African - Americans. Overall, preventive services are difficult to implement because healthcare providers have limited time with patients and must integrate a variety of preventive health measures from different sources.
While these specific services bring about small net savings not every preventive health measure saves more than it costs. A 1970s study showed that preventing heart attacks by treating hypertension early on with drugs actually did not save money in the long run. The money saved by evading treatment from heart attack and stroke only amounted to about a quarter of the cost of the drugs. Similarly, it was found that the cost of drugs or dietary changes to decrease high blood cholesterol exceeded the cost of subsequent heart disease treatment. Due to these findings, some argue that rather than focusing healthcare reform efforts exclusively on preventive care, the interventions that bring about the highest level of health should be prioritized.
Cohen et al. (2008) outline a few arguments made by skeptics of preventive healthcare. Many argue that preventive measures only cost less than future treatment when the proportion of the population that would become ill in the absence of prevention is fairly large. The Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group conducted a 2012 study evaluating the costs and benefits (in quality - adjusted life - years or QALY 's) of lifestyle changes versus taking the drug metformin. They found that neither method brought about financial savings, but were cost - effective nonetheless because they brought about an increase in QALY 's. In addition to scrutinizing costs, preventive healthcare skeptics also examine efficiency of interventions. They argue that while many treatments of existing diseases involve use of advanced equipment and technology, in some cases, this is a more efficient use of resources than attempts to prevent the disease. Cohen et al. (2008) suggest that the preventive measures most worth exploring and investing in are those that could benefit a large portion of the population to bring about cumulative and widespread health benefits at a reasonable cost.
There are at least four nationally implemented childhood obesity interventions in the United States: the Sugar - Sweetened Beverage excise tax (SSB), the TV AD program, active physical education (Active PE) policies, and early care and education (ECE) policies. They each have similar goals of reducing childhood obesity. The effects of these interventions on BMI have been studied, and the cost - effectiveness analysis (CEA) has led to a better understanding of projected cost reductions and improved health outcomes. The Childhood Obesity Intervention Cost - Effectiveness Study (CHOICES) was conducted to evaluate and compare the CEA of these four interventions.
Gortmaker, S.L. et al. (2015) states: "The four initial interventions were selected by the investigators to represent a broad range of nationally scalable strategies to reduce childhood obesity using a mix of both policy and programmatic strategies... 1. an excise tax of $0.01 per ounce of sweetened beverages, applied nationally and administered at the state level (SSB), 2. elimination of the tax deductibility of advertising costs of TV advertisements for "nutritionally poor '' foods and beverages seen by children and adolescents (TV AD), 3. state policy requiring all public elementary schools in which physical education (PE) is currently provided to devote ≥ 50 % of PE class time to moderate and vigorous physical activity (Active PE), and 4. state policy to make early child educational settings healthier by increasing physical activity, improving nutrition, and reducing screen time (ECE). ''
The CHOICES found that SSB, TV AD, and ECE led to net cost savings. Both SSB and TV AD increased quality adjusted life years and produced yearly tax revenue of 12.5 billion US dollars and 80 million US dollars, respectively.
Some challenges with evaluating the effectiveness of child obesity interventions include:
The cost - effectiveness of preventive care is a highly debated topic. While some economists argue that preventive care is valuable and potentially cost saving, others believe it is an inefficient waste of resources. Preventive care is composed of a variety of clinical services and programs including annual doctor 's check - ups, annual immunizations, and wellness programs.
Clinical Preventive Services & Programs
Research on preventive care addresses the question of whether it is cost saving or cost effective and whether there is an economics evidence base for health promotion and disease prevention. The need for and interest in preventive care is driven by the imperative to reduce health care costs while improving quality of care and the patient experience. Preventive care can lead to improved health outcomes and cost savings potential. Services such as health assessments / screenings, prenatal care, and telehealth and telemedicine can reduce morbidity or mortality with low cost or cost savings. Specifically, health assessments / screenings have cost savings potential, with varied cost - effectiveness based on screening and assessment type. Inadequate prenatal care can lead to an increased risk of prematurity, stillbirth, and infant death. Time is the ultimate resource and preventive care can help mitigate the time costs. Telehealth and telemedicine is one option that has gained consumer interest, acceptance and confidence and can improve quality of care and patient satisfaction.
Understanding the Economics for Investment
There are benefits and trade - offs when considering investment in preventive care versus other types of clinical services. Preventive care can be a good investment as supported by the evidence base and can drive population health management objectives. The concepts of cost saving and cost - effectiveness are different and both are relevant to preventive care. For example, preventive care that may not save money may still provide health benefits. Thus, there is a need to compare interventions relative to impact on health and cost.
Preventive care transcends demographics and is applicable to people of every age. The Health Capital Theory underpins the importance of preventive care across the lifecycle and provides a framework for understanding the variances in health and health care that are experienced. It treats health as a stock that provides direct utility. Health depreciates with age and the aging process can be countered through health investments. The theory further supports that individuals demand good health, that the demand for health investment is a derived demand (i.e. investment is health is due to the underlying demand for good health), and the efficiency of the health investment process increases with knowledge (i.e. it is assumed that the more educated are more efficient consumers and producers of health).
The prevalence elasticity of demand for prevention can also provide insights into the economics. Demand for preventive care can alter the prevalence rate of a given disease and further reduce or even reverse any further growth of prevalence. Reduction in prevalence subsequently leads to reduction in costs.
Economics for Policy Action
There are a number of organizations and policy actions that are relevant when discussing wthe economics of preventive care services. The evidence base, viewpoints, and policy briefs from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and efforts by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) all provide examples that improve the health and well - being of populations (e.g. preventive health assessments / screenings, prenatal care, and telehealth / telemedicine). The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA, ACA) has major influence on the provision of preventive care services, although it is currently under heavy scrutiny and review by the new administration. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the ACA makes preventive care affordable and accessible through mandatory coverage of preventive services without a deductible, copayment, coinsurance, or other cost sharing.
The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), a panel of national experts in prevention and evidence - based medicine, works to improve health of Americans by making evidence - based recommendations about clinical preventive services. They do not consider the cost of a preventive service when determining a recommendation. Each year, the organization delivers a report to Congress that identifies critical evidence gaps in research and recommends priority areas for further review.
The National Network of Perinatal Quality Collaboratives (NNPQC), sponsored by the CDC, supports state - based perinatal quality collaboratives (PQCs) in measuring and improving upon health care and health outcomes for mothers and babies. These PQCs have contributed to improvements such as reduction in deliveries before 39 weeks, reductions in healthcare associated blood stream infections, and improvements in the utilization of antenatal corticosteroids.
Telehealth and telemedicine has realized significant growth and development recently. The Center for Connected Health Policy (The National Telehealth Policy Resource Center) has produced multiple reports and policy briefs on the topic of Telehealth and Telemedicine and how they contribute to preventive services.
Policy actions and provision of preventive services do not guarantee utilization. Reimbursement has remained a significant barrier to adoption due to variances in payer and state level reimbursement policies and guidelines through government and commercial payers. Americans use preventive services at about half the recommended rate and cost - sharing, such as deductibles, co-insurance, or copayments, also reduce the likelihood that preventive services will be used. Further, despite the ACA 's enhancement of Medicare benefits and preventive services, there were no effects on preventive service utilization, calling out the fact that other fundamental barriers exist.
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act also known as just the Affordable Care Act or Obamacare was passed and became law in the United States on March 23, 2010. The finalized and newly ratified law was to address many issues in the U.S. healthcare system, which included expansion of coverage, insurance market reforms, better quality, and the forecast of efficiency and costs. Under the insurance market reforms the act required that insurance companies no longer exclude people with pre-existing conditions, allow for children to be covered on their parents plan until the age of 26, expand appeals that dealt with reimbursement denials. The Affordable Care Act also banned the limited coverage imposed by health insurances and insurance companies were to include coverage for preventive health care services. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force has categorized and rated preventive health services as either ' '' A '' or "B '', as to which insurance companies must comply and present full coverage. Not only has the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force provided graded preventive health services that are appropriate for coverage they have also provided many recommendations to clinicians and insurers to promote better preventive care to ultimately provide better quality of care and lower the burden of costs.
Health insurance and Preventive Care Healthcare insurance companies are willing to pay for preventive care despite the fact that patients are not acutely sick in hope that it will prevent them from developing a chronic disease later on in life. Today, health insurance plans offered through the Marketplace, mandated by the Affordable Care Act are required to provide certain preventive care services free of charge to patients. Section 2713 of the Affordable Care Act, specifies that all private Marketplace and all employer - sponsored private plans (except those grandfathered in) are required to cover preventive care services that are ranked A or B by the US Preventive Services Task Force free of charge to patients. For example, UnitedHealthcare insurance company has published patient guidelines at the beginning of the year explaining their preventive care coverage.
Evaluating Incremental Benefits of Preventive Care Evaluating the incremental benefits of preventive care requires longer period of time when compared to acute ill patients. Inputs into the model such as, discounting rate and time horizon can have significant effects of the results. One controversial subject is use of 10 - year time frame to assess cost effectiveness of diabetes preventive services by the Congressional Budget Office.
The preventive care services mainly focuses on chronic disease, the Congressional Budget Office has provided guidance that further research in the area of the economic impacts of obesity in the US before the CBO can estimate budgetary consequences. A bipartisan report published in May 2015, recognizes that the potential of the preventive care to improve patients health at individual and population levels while decreasing the healthcare expenditure.
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who lived with the apes in africa and had a girlfriend called jane | Dian Fossey - wikipedia
Dian Fossey (/ daɪˈæn /; January 16, 1932 -- c. December 26, 1985) was an American primatologist and conservationist known for undertaking an extensive study of mountain gorilla groups from 1966 until her death in 1985. She studied them daily in the mountain forests of Rwanda, initially encouraged to work there by paleoanthropologist Louis Leakey. Her 1983 book, Gorillas in the Mist, combines her scientific study of the gorillas at Karisoke Research Center with her own personal story. It was adapted into a 1988 film of the same name.
Called one of the foremost primatologists in the world, Fossey, along with Jane Goodall and Birutė Galdikas, were the so - called Trimates, a group of three prominent researchers on primates (Fossey on gorillas; Goodall on common chimpanzees; and Galdikas on orangutans). The three were sent by Leakey to study great apes in their natural environments.
During her time in Rwanda, she actively supported conservation efforts, strongly opposed poaching and tourism in wildlife habitats, and made more people acknowledge sapient gorillas. Fossey was brutally murdered in her cabin at a remote camp in Rwanda in December 1985. It has been theorized that her murder was linked to her conservation efforts.
Fossey was born in San Francisco, California, the daughter of Kathryn "Kitty '' (née Kidd), a fashion model, and George E. Fossey III, an insurance agent. Her parents divorced when she was six. Her mother remarried the following year, to businessman Richard Price. Her father tried to keep in full contact, but her mother discouraged it, and all contact was subsequently lost. Fossey 's stepfather, Richard Price, never treated her as his own child. He would not allow Fossey to sit at the dining room table with him or her mother during dinner meals. A man adhering to strict discipline, Richard Price offered Fossey little to no emotional support. Struggling with personal insecurity, Fossey turned to animals as a way to gain acceptance. Her love for animals began with her first pet goldfish and continued throughout her entire life. At age six, she began horse riding, earning a letter from her school; by her graduation in 1954, Fossey had established herself as an equestrienne.
Educated at Lowell High School, following the guidance of her stepfather she enrolled in a business course at the College of Marin. However, spending her summer on a ranch in Montana at age 19 rekindled her love of animals, and she enrolled in a pre-veterinary course in biology at the University of California, Davis. In defiance to her stepfather 's wishes that she attend a business school, Dian wanted to spend her professional life working with animals. As a consequence, Dian 's parents failed to give her any substantial amount of financial support throughout her adult life. She supported herself by working as a clerk at White Front (a department store), doing other clerking and laboratory work, and laboring as a machinist in a factory.
Although Fossey had always been an exemplary student, she had difficulties with basic sciences including chemistry and physics, and failed her second year of the program. She transferred to San Jose State College, where she became a member of Kappa Alpha Theta sorority, to study occupational therapy, receiving her bachelor 's degree in 1954. Initially following her college major, Fossey began a career in occupational therapy. She interned at various hospitals in California and worked with tuberculosis patients. Fossey was originally a prizewinning equestrian, which drew her to Kentucky in 1955, and a year later took a job as an occupational therapist at the Kosair Crippled Children 's Hospital in Louisville.
Her shy and reserved personality allowed her to work well with the children at the hospital. Fossey became close with her coworker Mary White "Gaynee '' Henry, secretary to the hospital 's chief administrator and the wife of one of the doctors, Michael J. Henry. The Henrys invited Fossey to join them on their family farm, where she worked with livestock on a daily basis and also experienced an inclusive family atmosphere that had been missing for most of her life. During her free time she would pursue her love of horses.
Fossey turned down an offer to join the Henrys on an African tour due to lack of finances, but in 1963 she borrowed $8,000 (one year 's salary), took out her life savings and went on a seven - week visit to Africa. In September 1963, she arrived in Nairobi, Kenya. While there, she met actor William Holden, owner of Treetops Hotel, who introduced her to her safari guide, John Alexander. Alexander became her guide for the next seven weeks through Kenya, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Rhodesia. Alexander 's route included visits to Tsavo, Africa 's largest national park; the saline lake of Manyara, famous for attracting giant flocks of flamingos; and the Ngorongoro Crater, well known for its abundant wildlife. The final two sites for her visit were Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania (the archeological site of Louis and Mary Leakey); and Mt. Mikeno in Congo, where in 1959, American zoologist George Schaller had carried out a yearlong pioneering study of the mountain gorilla. At Olduvai Gorge, Fossey met the Leakeys while they were examining the area for hominid fossils. Leakey talked to Fossey about the work of Jane Goodall and the importance of long - term research of the great apes. Although she had broken her ankle while visiting the Leakeys, by October 16, Fossey was staying in Walter Baumgartel 's small hotel in Uganda, the Travellers Rest. Baumgartel, an advocate of gorilla conservation, was among the first to see the benefits that tourism could bring to the area, and he introduced Fossey to Kenyan wildlife photographers Joan and Alan Root. The couple agreed to allow Fossey and Alexander to camp behind their own camp, and it was during these few days that Fossey first encountered wild mountain gorillas. After staying with friends in Rhodesia, Fossey returned home to Louisville to repay her loans. She published three articles in The Courier - Journal newspaper, detailing her visit to Africa.
When Leakey made an appearance in Louisville while on a nationwide lecture tour, Fossey took the color supplements that had appeared about her African trip in The Courier - Journal to show to Leakey, who remembered her and her interest in mountain gorillas. Three years after the original safari, Leakey suggested that Fossey could undertake a long - term study of the gorillas in the same manner as Jane Goodall had with chimpanzees in Tanzania. Leakey lined up funding for Fossey to research mountain gorillas, and Fossey left her job to relocate to Africa.
After studying Swahili and auditing a class on primatology (the scientific study of primates) during the eight months it took to get her visa and funding, Fossey arrived in Nairobi in December 1966. With the help of Joan Root and Leakey, Fossey acquired the necessary provisions and an old canvas - topped Land Rover which she named "Lily ''. On the way to the Congo, Fossey visited the Gombe Stream Research Centre to meet Goodall and observe her research methods with chimpanzees. Accompanied by photographer Alan Root, who helped her obtain work permits for the Virunga Mountains, Fossey began her field study at Kabara, in the Congo in early 1967, in the same meadow where Schaller had made his camp seven years earlier. Root taught her basic gorilla tracking, and his tracker Sanwekwe later helped in Fossey 's camp. Living in tents on mainly tinned produce, once a month Fossey would hike down the mountain to "Lily '' and make the two - hour drive to the village of Kikumba to restock.
Fossey identified three distinct groups in her study area, but could not get close to them. She eventually found that mimicking their actions and making grunting sounds assured them, together with submissive behavior and eating of the local celery plant. She later attributed her success with habituating gorillas to her experience working as an occupational therapist with autistic children. Like George Schaller, Fossey relied greatly on individual "noseprints '' for identification, initially via sketching and later by camera.
Fossey had arrived in the Congo in locally turbulent times. Known as the Belgian Congo until its independence in June 1960, unrest and rebellion plagued the new government until 1965, when Lieutenant General Joseph - Désiré Mobutu, by then commander - in - chief of the national army, seized control of the country and declared himself president for five years during what is now called the Congo Crisis. During the political upheaval, a rebellion and battles took place in the Kivu Province. On July 9, 1967, soldiers arrived at the camp to escort Fossey and her research workers down, and she was interred at Rumangabo for two weeks. Fossey eventually escaped through bribery to Walter Baumgärtel 's Travellers Rest Hotel in Kisoro, where her escort was arrested by the Ugandan military. Advised by the Ugandan authorities not to return to Congo, after meeting Leakey in Nairobi, Fossey agreed with him against US Embassy advice to restart her study on the Rwandan side of the Virungas. In Rwanda, Fossey had met local American expatriate Rosamond Carr, who introduced her to Belgian local Alyette DeMunck; DeMunck had a local 's knowledge of Rwanda and offered to find Fossey a suitable site for study.
On September 24, 1967, Fossey founded the Karisoke Research Center, a remote rainforest camp nestled in Ruhengeri province in the saddle of two volcanoes. For the research center 's name, Fossey used "Kari '' for the first four letters of Mount Karisimbi that overlooked her camp from the south, and "soke '' for the last four letters of Mount Bisoke, the slopes of which rose to the north, directly behind camp. Established 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) up Mount Bisoke, the defined study area covered 25 square kilometres (9.7 sq mi). She became known by locals as Nyirmachabelli, or Nyiramacibiri, roughly translated as "The woman who lives alone on the mountain. ''
Unlike the gorillas from the Congo side of the Virungas, the Karisoke area gorillas had never been partially habituated by Schaller 's study; they knew humans only as poachers, and it took longer for Fossey to be able to study the Karisoke gorillas at a close distance.
Many research students left after not being able to handle the cold, dark, and extremely muddy conditions around Karisoke on the slopes of the Virunga Volcanoes, where paths usually had to be cut through six - foot - tall grass with a machete.
While hunting had been illegal in the national park of the Virunga Volcanoes in Rwanda since the 1920s, the law was rarely enforced by park conservators, who were often bribed by poachers and paid a salary less than Fossey 's own African staff. On three occasions, Fossey wrote that she witnessed the aftermath of the capture of infant gorillas at the behest of the park conservators for zoos; since gorillas will fight to the death to protect their young, the kidnappings would often result in up to 10 adult gorillas ' deaths. Through the Digit Fund, Fossey financed patrols to destroy poachers ' traps in the Karisoke study area. In four months in 1979, the Fossey patrol consisting of four African staffers destroyed 987 poachers ' traps in the research area 's vicinity. The official Rwandan national park guards, consisting of 24 staffers, did not eradicate any poachers ' traps during the same period. In the eastern portion of the park not patrolled by Fossey, poachers virtually eradicated all the park 's elephants for ivory and killed more than a dozen gorillas.
Fossey helped in the arrest of several poachers, some of whom served or are serving long prison sentences.
In 1978, Fossey attempted to prevent the export of two young gorillas, Coco and Pucker, from Rwanda to the zoo in Cologne, Germany. During the capture of the infants at the behest of the Cologne Zoo and Rwandan park conservator, 20 adult gorillas had been killed. The infant gorillas were given to Fossey by the park conservator of the Virunga Volcanoes for treatment of injuries suffered during their capture and captivity. With considerable effort, she restored them to some approximation of health. Over Fossey 's objections, the gorillas were shipped to Cologne, where they lived nine years in captivity, both dying in the same month. She viewed the holding of animals in "prison '' (zoos) for the entertainment of people as unethical.
While gorillas from rival gang groups on the mountains that were not part of Fossey 's study had often been found poached five to ten at a time, and had spurred Fossey to conduct her own anti-poaching patrols, Fossey 's study groups had not been direct victims of poaching until Fossey 's favorite gorilla Digit was killed in 1978. Later that year, the silverback of Digit 's Group 4, named for Fossey 's Uncle Bert, was shot in the heart while trying to save his son, Kweli, from being seized by poachers cooperating with the Rwandan park conservator. Kweli 's mother, Macho, was also killed in the raid, but Kweli was not captured due to Uncle Bert 's intervention; however, three - year - old Kweli died slowly and painfully of gangrene, from being brushed by a poacher 's bullet.
According to Fossey 's letters, ORTPN (the Rwandan national park system), the World Wildlife Fund, African Wildlife Foundation, Fauna Preservation Society, the Mountain Gorilla Project and some of her former students tried to wrest control of the Karisoke research center from her for the purpose of tourism, by portraying her as unstable. In her last two years, Fossey claims not to have lost any gorillas to poachers; however, the Mountain Gorilla Project, which was supposed to patrol the Mount Sabyinyo area, tried to cover up gorilla deaths caused by poaching and diseases transmitted through tourists. Nevertheless, these organizations received most of the public donations directed toward gorilla conservation. The public often believed their money would go to Fossey, who was struggling to finance her anti-poaching and bushmeat hunting patrols, while organizations collecting in her name put it into tourism projects and as she put it "to pay the airfare of so - called conservationists who will never go on anti-poaching patrols in their life. '' Fossey described the differing two philosophies as her own "active conservation '' or the international conservation groups ' "theoretical conservation. ''
Fossey strongly opposed wildlife tourism, as gorillas are very susceptible to human anthroponotic diseases like influenza for which they have no immunity. Fossey reported several cases in which gorillas died because of diseases spread by tourists. She also viewed tourism as an interference into their natural wild behavior. Fossey also criticized tourist programs, often paid for by international conservation organizations, for interfering with both her research and the peace of the mountain gorillas ' habitat, and was concerned Jane Goodall, who actually joined a chimpanzee society as a member, was inappropriately changing her study subjects ' behavior.
Today, however, the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International promotes tourism, which they say helps to create a stable and sustainable local community dedicated to protecting the gorillas and their habitat.
Fossey is responsible for the revision of a European Community project that converted parkland into pyrethrum farms. Thanks to her efforts, the park boundary was lowered from the 3,000 - meter line to the 2,500 - meter line.
Sometime during the day on New Year 's Eve 1977, Fossey 's favorite gorilla, Digit, was killed by poachers. As the sentry of study group 4, he defended the group against six poachers and their dogs, who ran across the gorilla study group while checking antelope traplines. Digit took five spear wounds in ferocious self - defence and managed to kill one of the poachers ' dogs, allowing the other 13 members of his group to escape. Poachers sell gorilla hands as delicacies, magic charms or to make ash trays. Digit was decapitated, and his hands cut off for ashtrays, for the price of $20. After his mutilated body was discovered by research assistant Ian Redmond, Fossey 's group captured one of the killers. He revealed the names of his five accomplices, three of whom were later imprisoned.
Fossey subsequently created the Digit Fund (now the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International in the US) to raise money for anti-poaching patrols. In addition, a consortium of international gorilla funds arose to accept donations in light of Digit 's death and increased attention on poaching. Fossey mostly opposed the efforts of the international organizations, which she felt inefficiently directed their funds towards more equipment for Rwandan park officials, some of whom were alleged to have ordered some of the gorilla poachings in the first place.
The deaths of some of her most studied gorillas caused Fossey to devote more of her attention to preventing poaching and less on scientific publishing and research. Fossey became more intense in protecting the gorillas and began to employ more direct tactics: she and her staff cut animal traps almost as soon as they were set; frightened, captured and humiliated the poachers; held their cattle for ransom; burned their hunting camps and even mats from their houses. Fossey also constantly challenged the local officials to enforce the law and assist her.
During her African safari, Fossey met Alexie Forrester, the brother of an African she had been dating in Louisville; Fossey and Forrester later became engaged. In her later years, Fossey became involved with National Geographic photographer Bob Campbell after a year of working together at Karisoke, with Campbell promising to leave his wife. Eventually the pair grew apart through her dedication to the gorillas and Karisoke, along with his need to work further afield and on his marriage. In 1970, studying for her Ph. D. at Darwin College, University of Cambridge, she discovered she was pregnant and had an abortion, later commenting that "you ca n't be a cover girl for National Geographic magazine and be pregnant. '' She graduated with a Doctor of Philosophy in Zoology in 1976. Fossey had other relationships throughout the years and always had a love for children. Since Fossey would rescue any abused or abandoned animal she saw in Africa or near Karisoke, she acquired a menagerie in the camp, including a monkey who lived in her cabin, Kima, and a dog, Cindy. Fossey held Christmas parties every year for her researchers, staffers, and their families, and she developed a genuine friendship with Jane Goodall.
Fossey had been plagued by lung problems from an early age and, later in her life, suffered from advanced emphysema brought on by years of heavy cigarette smoking. As the debilitating disease progressed -- further aggravated by the high mountain altitude and damp climate -- Fossey found it increasingly difficult to conduct field research, frequently suffering from shortness of breath and requiring the help of an oxygen tank when climbing or hiking long distances.
In the early morning of December 27, 1985, Fossey was discovered murdered in the bedroom of her cabin located at the far edge of the camp in the Virunga Mountains, Rwanda. Her body was found face - up near the two beds where she slept, roughly 7 feet (2 m) away from a hole that her assailant (s) had apparently cut in the wall of the cabin. Wayne Richard McGuire, Fossey 's last research assistant at Karisoke, was summoned to the scene by Fossey 's house servant and found her bludgeoned to death, reporting that "when I reached down to check her vital signs, I saw her face had been split, diagonally, with one machete blow. '' The cabin was littered with broken glass and overturned furniture, with a 9 - mm handgun and ammunition beside her on the floor. Robbery was not believed to be the motive for the crime, as Fossey 's valuables were still in the cabin, including her passport, handguns, and thousands of dollars in U.S. bills and traveler 's checks.
The last entry in her diary read:
When you realize the value of all life, you dwell less on what is past and concentrate more on the preservation of the future.
Fossey is buried at Karisoke, in a site that she herself had constructed for her deceased gorilla friends. She was buried in the gorilla graveyard next to Digit, and near many gorillas killed by poachers. Memorial services were also held in New York, Washington, and California.
A will purporting to be Fossey 's bequeathed all of her estate (including the proceeds from the film Gorillas in the Mist) to the Digit Fund to underwrite anti-poaching patrols. Fossey did not mention her family in the will, which was unsigned. Her mother, Hazel Fossey Price, challenged the will and was successful. Supreme Court Justice Swartwood threw out the will and awarded the estate to her mother, including about $4.9 million in royalties from a recent book and upcoming movie, stating that the document "was simply a draft of her purported will and not a will at all. '' Price said she was working on a project to preserve the work her daughter had done for the mountain gorillas in Rwanda, located in eastern central Africa south of Uganda.
After Fossey 's death, her entire staff were arrested. This included Rwandan Emmanuel Rwelekana, a tracker who had been fired from his job after he allegedly tried to kill Fossey with a machete, according to the government 's account of McGuire 's trial. All were later released except Rwelekana, who was later found dead in prison, supposedly having hanged himself.
Rwandan courts later tried and convicted Wayne McGuire in absentia for her murder. The alleged motive was that McGuire murdered Fossey in order to steal the manuscript of the sequel to her 1983 book, Gorillas in the Mist. At the trial investigators said McGuire was not happy with his own research and wanted to use "any dishonest means possible '' to complete his work. McGuire had returned to the United States in July 1987, and because no extradition treaty exists between the U.S. and Rwanda, McGuire, whose guilt is still widely questioned, has not served his sentence.
Following his return to the U.S., McGuire gave a brief statement at a news conference in Century City, Los Angeles, saying Fossey had been his "friend and mentor '', calling her death "tragic '' and the charges "outrageous ''. Thereafter, McGuire was largely absent from public notice until 2005, when news broke that he had been accepted for a job with the Health and Human Services division of the State of Nebraska. The job offer was revoked upon discovery of his relation to the Fossey case.
Several subsequent books, including Farley Mowat 's biography of Fossey, Woman in the Mists (New York, NY: Warner Books, 1987), have suggested alternate theories regarding her murder including intimations that she may have been killed by financial interests linked to tourism or illicit trade.
Fossey was reported to have captured and held Rwandans whom she suspected of poaching. She allegedly beat a poacher 's testicles with stinging nettles. After her murder, Fossey 's National Geographic editor, Mary Smith, told Shlachter that on visits to the United States, Fossey would "load up on firecrackers, cheap toys and magic tricks as part of her method to mystify the (Africans) -- hold them at bay. ''
Writing in The Wall Street Journal in 2002, Tunku Varadarajan described Fossey at the end of her life as colorful, controversial, and "a racist alcoholic who regarded her gorillas as better than the African people who lived around them. ''
Fossey made discoveries about gorillas including how females transfer from group to group over the decades, gorilla vocalization, hierarchies and social relationships among groups, rare infanticide, gorilla diet, and how gorillas recycle nutrients. Fossey 's research was funded by the Wilkie Foundation and the Leakey Home, with primary funding from the National Geographic Society.
By 1980, Fossey, who had obtained her PhD at Cambridge University in the UK, was recognized as the world 's leading authority on the physiology and behavior of mountain gorillas, defining gorillas as being "dignified, highly social, gentle giants, with individual personalities, and strong family relationships. '' Fossey lectured as professor at Cornell University in 1981 -- 83. Her bestselling book Gorillas in the Mist was praised by Nikolaas Tinbergen, the Dutch ethologist and ornithologist who won the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Her book remains the best - selling book about gorillas.
After her death, Fossey 's Digit Fund in the US was renamed the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International. The Karisoke Research Center is operated by the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International, and continues the daily gorilla monitoring and protection that she started.
Shirley McGreal, a friend of Fossey, continues to work for the protection of primates through the work of her International Primate Protection League (IPPL) one of the few wildlife organizations that according to Fossey effectively promotes "active conservation ''.
Between Fossey 's death and the 1994 Rwandan genocide, Karisoke was directed by former students, some of whom had opposed her. During the genocide and subsequent period of insecurity, the camp was completely looted and destroyed. Today only remnants are left of her cabin. During the civil war, the Virunga National Park was filled with refugees, and illegal logging destroyed vast areas.
The Rwandan people adapted the traditional household baby naming ceremony Kwita Izina to use with the gorillas.
Her 82nd birthday in 2014 was marked by a Google Doodle appearing on its search homepage worldwide.
Mowat 's Virunga, whose British and U.S. editions are called Woman in the Mists: The Story of Dian Fossey and the Mountain Gorillas of Africa, was the first book - length biography of Fossey, and it serves as an insightful counterweight to the many omissions in Fossey 's own story, being derived from Fossey 's actual letters and entries in her journals. Harold Hayes 's book The Dark Romance of Dian Fossey was published in 1989 after extensive interviews with people who lived and worked with Fossey. Haye 's book shows Fossey in a less positive or romanticized light than previous accounts had done. The film Gorillas in the Mist was based on Hayes ' 1987 article in Life magazine, as cited in the film 's credits, instead of Fossey 's self - edited autobiography by that title.
No One Loved Gorillas More (2005) was written by Camilla de la Bedoyere and published by National Geographic in the United States and Palazzo Editions in the United Kingdom. Gorilla Dreams: The Legacy of Dian Fossey was written by the investigative journalist Georgianne Nienaber and published in 2006. This account of Fossey 's story is told as if in her own words from beyond the grave. Fossey is also prominently featured in a book by Vanity Fair journalist Alex Shoumatoff called African Madness, in which the author expands on Fossey 's controversial behaviors, implying that Fossey provoked her own murder by way of her private and public inflammatory interactions with people. The author also wrote a lengthy article titled "The Fatal Obsession of Dian Fossey ''.
A Forest in the Clouds: My Year among the Mountain Gorillas in the Remote Enclave of Dian Fossey, by John Fowler, is a first - person account from inside Dian Fossey 's camp. The author gives a candid and vivid portrait of Fossey 's mercurial personality, her ill treatment of staff and research students, and her alcohol - fueled tirades. The book also shows the daily workings of camp, Fossey 's dependence on her students and the movement to remove her from Karisoke years before her brutal murder.
The Kentucky Opera Visions Program, in Louisville, has written an opera about Fossey, entitled Nyiramachabelli; it premiered on May 23, 2006.
Universal Studios bought the film rights to Gorillas in the Mist from Fossey in 1985, and Warner Bros. Studios bought the rights to the Hayes article, despite its having been severely criticized by Rosamond Carr. As a result of a legal battle between the two studios, a co-production was arranged. Portions of the story and the Hayes article were adapted for the film Gorillas in the Mist, starring Sigourney Weaver. The book covers Fossey 's scientific career in great detail and omits material on her personal life, such as her affair with photographer Bob Campbell. In the film, the affair with Campbell (played by Bryan Brown) forms a major subplot. The Hayes article preceding the movie portrayed Fossey as a woman obsessed with gorillas, who would stop at nothing to protect them. The film includes scenes of Fossey 's ruthless dealings with poachers, including a scene in which she sets fire to a poacher 's home.
In the 2011 BBC documentary All Watched Over by Machines of Loving Grace, Adam Curtis uses Fossey as a symbol of the ideology of ecology, a balance of nature and western post-colonial political exploits in Africa.
In December 2017, Dian Fossey: Secrets in the Mist, a three - hour series, aired on the National Geographic Channel, The series tells the story of Fossey 's life, work, murder and legacy, using archive footage and still images, interviews with people who knew and worked with her, specially shot footage and reconstruction.
-- -- A Forest in the Clouds: My Year Among the Mountain Gorillas in the Remote Enclave of Dian Fossey John Fowler Pegasus Books ISBN 978 - 1 - 68177 - 633 - 0
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the first country to implement icd-10 codes was | ICD - 10 - wikipedia
ICD - 10 is the 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), a medical classification list by the World Health Organization (WHO). It contains codes for diseases, signs and symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances, and external causes of injury or diseases. Work on ICD - 10 began in 1983 and was completed in 1992.
The code set allows more than 14,400 different codes and permits the tracking of many new diagnoses. The codes can be expanded to over 16,000 codes by using optional sub-classifications.
The WHO provides detailed information about ICD online, and makes available a set of materials online, such as an ICD - 10 online browser, ICD - 10 Training, ICD - 10 online training, ICD - 10 online training support, and study guide materials for download.
The International version of ICD is the base classification for the national modifications of ICD. The adapted versions may differ in a number of ways.
The following is a list of ICD - 10 codes.
Some 27 countries use ICD - 10 for reimbursement and resource allocation in their health system. Some have made modifications to ICD to better accommodate this use of ICD - 10. The article below makes reference to some of these modifications. The unchanged international version of ICD - 10 is used in about 110 countries for performing cause of death reporting and statistics.
The national versions may differ from the base classification in the level of detail, incomplete adoption of a category, or the addition of procedure codes. For example; the ICD - 10 Clinical Modification (ICD - 10 - CM) used in the US has some 93,000 codes, compared to the ~ 16,000 within the international version.
Brazil introduced ICD - 10 in 1996.
Canada introduced ICD - 10 - CA in 2000. Canada implemented ICD - 10 in a staggered fashion across nine of the 10 provinces between the years of 2001 and 2004. As data was returned, comparison was undertaken of information classified by ICD - 9 and ICD - 10, beginning with volumes and length of stay within major diagnostic groups.
The large scale realignment of individual diagnostic and procedural codes demanded close analysis of the impacts to existing indicators of healthcare delivery. Using data reported in 2001 and 2002, the Canadian Institute for Health Information, an independent organization that works with the federal government, tabulated the input. Rigorous statistical analysis was conducted to evaluate the comparability of ICD - 9 codes to ICD - 10 codes as they pertained to the Canadian version of diagnostic groups, Case Mix Groups (CMGs), which are used in the patient classification system to group together patients with similar characteristics.
China adopted ICD - 10 in 2002.
The Czech Republic adopted ICD - 10 in 1994, one year after official release from WHO. The Czech Republic uses the international version without any local modifications. The Czech Republic adopted all updates to the international version (namely in 2004, 2010, 2011, 2012).
France introduced a clinical addendum to ICD - 10 in 2005. See also website of the ATIH.
Germany: ICD - 10 - GM (German Modification)
A Korean modification has existed since 2008.
The Dutch translation of ICD - 10 is ICD10 - nl, which was created by the WHO - FIC Network in 1994. There is an online dictionary.
The ministry of health of Russia ordered in 1997 to transfer all health organizations to ICD - 10.
ICD - 10 was implemented in July 2005 under the auspice of the National ICD - 10 Implementation Task Team which is a joint task team between the National Department of Health and the Council for Medical Schemes.
The current Swedish translation of ICD - 10 was created in 1997. A clinical modification has added more detail and omits codes of the international version in the context of clinical use of ICD:
The codes F64. 1 (Dual - role transvestism), F64. 2 (Gender identity disorder of childhood), F65. 0 (Fetishism), F65. 1 (Fetishistic transvestism), F65. 5 (Sadomasochism), F65. 6 (Multiple disorders of sexual preference) are not used in Sweden since 1 January 2009 according to a decision by the present Director General of The National Board of Health and Welfare, Sweden. The code O60. 0 (Preterm labor without delivery) is not used in Sweden; instead, since 1 January 2009, the Swedish extension codes to O47 (False labor) are recommended for use.
First published in 1998, the ICD - 10 - TM (Thai Modification) is a Thai language version of ICD - 10. Maintenance and development of ICD - 10 - TM is the responsibility of the Thai Health Coding Center (THCC), a department of the Thai Ministry of Public Health. The current version of ICD - 10 - TM is based on the 2016 version of ICD - 10. An unusual feature of the index of ICD - 10 - TM is that it is bilingual, containing both Thai and English trails.
Along with Czechoslovakia and Denmark; Thailand was one of the first adopters of ICD - 10 for coding purposes.
ICD - 10 was first mandated for use in the UK in 1995. In 2010 the UK Government made a commitment to update the UK version of ICD - 10 every three years. On 1 April 2016, following a year 's delay, ICD - 10 5th Edition replaced the 4th Edition as the mandated diagnostic classification within the UK.
The US has used ICD - 10 - CM since October 1, 2015. This national variant of ICD - 10 was provided by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) and the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), and the use of ICD - 10 - CM codes are now mandated for all inpatient medical reporting requirements. There are over 70,000 ICD - 10 - CM codes, which is up from around 14,000 ICD - 9 - CM codes.
The use of ICD - 10 for coding of death certificates and mortality data was mandated in the United States beginning in 1999.
The deadline for the United States to begin using Clinical Modification ICD - 10 - CM for diagnosis coding and Procedure Coding System ICD - 10 - PCS for inpatient hospital procedure coding was set at October 1, 2015, which is a year later than a previous 2014 deadline. Before that 2014 deadline, the previous deadline has been a year before that on October 1, 2013. All HIPAA "covered entities '' must make the change; a pre-requisite to ICD - 10 - CM is the adoption of EDI Version 5010 by January 1, 2012. Enforcement of 5010 transition by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS), however, was postponed by CMS until March 31, 2012, with the federal agency citing numerous factors, including slow software upgrades. The implementation of ICD - 10 - CM has been subject to previous delays. In January 2009, the date was pushed back by two years, to October 1, 2013, rather than an earlier proposal of October 1, 2011.
The most recent pushback of the implementation date has inspired a mixed reaction from the healthcare community. Even though the deadline for ICD - 10 was pushed back repeatedly, CMS recommended that medical practices take several years to prepare for implementation of the new code set. The basic structure of the ICD - 10 - CM code is the following: Characters 1 -- 3 (the category of disease); 4 (etiology of disease); 5 (body part affected); 6 (severity of illness); and 7 (placeholder for extension of the code to increase specificity). Not only must new software be installed and tested, but medical practices must provide training for physicians, staff members, and administrators. They will also need to develop new practice policies and guidelines, and update paperwork and forms. For convenience, practices may also create "crosswalks '' that will convert their most frequently used ICD - 9 - CM codes to the ICD - 10 - CM equivalents.
Two of the most common reasons for pushback are 1) the long list of potentially relevant codes for a given condition (such as rheumatoid arthritis) which can be confusing and reduce efficiency and 2) the seemingly absurd conditions assigned codes (such as W55. 22XA: Struck by cow, initial encounter and V91. 07XA: Burn due to water - skis on fire, initial encounter).
The US also has the ICD - 10 Procedure Coding System (ICD - 10 - PCS), a coding system that contains 76,000 procedure codes that is not used by other countries.
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where does the last name griffin come from | Griffin (surname) - wikipedia
Griffin is a surname of primarily Irish origin. Griffin was the 75th most common surname on the island of Ireland in 1891. It was estimated in 2000 that Griffin is the 114th most common surname in the U.S., with a population in the order of two hundred thousand.
The surname "Griffin '' has two primary Gaelic sources in Ireland, which pertain to the towns of Ballygriffey in Co. Clare, and Ballygriffin in Co. Cork.
The spelling "Ó Gríofa '' (male) / "Ní Ghríofa '' (female) is associated with the Co. Clare family, whose surname was also anglicised as "O'Griffey '' or "Griffey ''. "Ó Gríofa '' translates to English as "descendant of the Griffin - like ''. Prior to the Irish spelling review, "Ó Gríofa '' was spelt "Ó Gríobhtha ''.
The "Ó Grifín '' (male) / "Ní Ghrifín '' (female) spelling belongs to the Kerry family.
In Ireland, the name can also be associated with the Welsh surname "Griffith '', but to a much lesser degree.
The surname "Griffin '' in Wales, generally speaking, is a variant of the surname "Griffith '', or other similar Welsh names.
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the main battles of the spanish american war occurred in which parts of the world | Spanish -- American war - wikipedia
American victory
United States
Spain
American:
Spanish:
The higher naval losses may be attributed to the disastrous naval defeats inflicted on the Spanish at Manila Bay and Santiago de Cuba.
The Spanish -- American War (Spanish: Guerra hispano - americana or Guerra hispano - estadounidense; Filipino: Digmaang Espanyol - Amerikano) was fought between the United States and Spain in 1898. Hostilities began in the aftermath of the internal explosion of USS Maine in Havana Harbor in Cuba, leading to U.S. intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. American acquisition of Spain 's Pacific possessions led to its involvement in the Philippine Revolution and ultimately in the Philippine -- American War.
The main issue was Cuban independence. Revolts had been occurring for some years in Cuba against Spanish rule. The U.S. later backed these revolts upon entering the Spanish -- American War. There had been war scares before, as in the Virginius Affair in 1873, but in the late 1890s, U.S. public opinion was agitated by anti-Spanish propaganda led by newspaper publishers such as Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst which used yellow journalism to call for war. The business community across the United States had just recovered from a deep depression and feared that a war would reverse the gains. It lobbied vigorously against going to war.
The United States Navy armored cruiser USS Maine had mysteriously sunk in Havana Harbor; political pressures from the Democratic Party pushed the administration of Republican President William McKinley into a war that he had wished to avoid.
President McKinley signed a joint Congressional resolution demanding Spanish withdrawal and authorizing the President to use military force to help Cuba gain independence on April 20, 1898. In response, Spain severed diplomatic relations with the United States on April 21. On the same day, the U.S. Navy began a blockade of Cuba. On April 23, Spain stated that it would declare war if the U.S. forces invaded its territory. On April 25, Congress declared that a state of war between the U.S. and Spain had de facto existed since April 21, the day the blockade of Cuba had begun. The United States sent an ultimatum to Spain demanding that it surrender control of Cuba, but due to Spain not replying soon enough, the United States assumed Spain had ignored the ultimatum and continued to occupy Cuba.
The ten - week war was fought in both the Caribbean and the Pacific. As the American agitators for war well knew, U.S. naval power proved decisive, allowing expeditionary forces to disembark in Cuba against a Spanish garrison already facing nationwide Cuban insurgent attacks and further wasted by yellow fever. American, Cuban, and Philippine forces obtained the surrender of Santiago de Cuba and Manila despite the good performance of some Spanish infantry units and fierce fighting for positions such as San Juan Hill. Madrid sued for peace after two obsolete Spanish squadrons sunk in Santiago de Cuba and Manila Bay and a third, more modern fleet was recalled home to protect the Spanish coasts.
The result was the 1898 Treaty of Paris, negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S. which allowed it temporary control of Cuba and ceded ownership of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine islands. The cession of the Philippines involved payment of $20 million ($588,320,000 today) to Spain by the U.S. to cover infrastructure owned by Spain.
The defeat and loss of the last remnants of the Spanish Empire was a profound shock to Spain 's national psyche and provoked a thorough philosophical and artistic reevaluation of Spanish society known as the Generation of ' 98. The United States gained several island possessions spanning the globe and a rancorous new debate over the wisdom of expansionism. It was one of only five U.S. wars (against a total of eleven sovereign states) to have been formally declared by the U.S. Congress.
The combined problems arising from the Peninsular War (1807 -- 1814), the loss of most of its colonies in the Americas in the early 19th - century Spanish American wars of independence, and three Carlist Wars (1832 -- 1876) marked the low point of Spanish colonialism. Liberal Spanish elites like Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and Emilio Castelar offered new interpretations of the concept of "empire '' to dovetail with Spain 's emerging nationalism. Cánovas made clear in an address to the University of Madrid in 1882 his view of the Spanish nation as based on shared cultural and linguistic elements -- on both sides of the Atlantic -- that tied Spain 's territories together.
Cánovas saw Spanish imperialism as markedly different in its methods and purposes of colonization from those of rival empires like the British or French. Spaniards regarded the spreading of civilization and Christianity as Spain 's major objective and contribution to the New World. The concept of cultural unity bestowed special significance on Cuba, which had been Spanish for almost four hundred years, and was viewed as an integral part of the Spanish nation. The focus on preserving the empire would have negative consequences for Spain 's national pride in the aftermath of the Spanish -- American War.
In 1823, the fifth American President James Monroe (1758 -- 1831, served 1817 -- 1825) enunciated the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that the United States would not tolerate further efforts by European governments to retake or expand their colonial holdings in the Americas or to interfere with the newly independent states in the hemisphere; at the same time, the doctrine stated that the U.S. would respect the status of the existing European colonies. Before the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865), Southern interests attempted to have the United States purchase Cuba and convert it into a new slave territory. The pro-slavery element proposed the Ostend Manifesto proposal of 1854. It was rejected by anti-slavery forces.
After the American Civil War and Cuba 's Ten Years ' War, U.S. businessmen began monopolizing the devalued sugar markets in Cuba. In 1894, 90 % of Cuba 's total exports went to the United States, which also provided 40 % of Cuba 's imports. Cuba 's total exports to the U.S. were almost twelve times larger than the export to her mother country, Spain. U.S. business interests indicated that while Spain still held political authority over Cuba, economic authority in Cuba, acting - authority, was shifting to the US.
The U.S. became interested in a trans - isthmus canal either in Nicaragua, or in Panama, where the Panama Canal would later be built (1903 -- 1914), and realized the need for naval protection. Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was an especially influential theorist; his ideas were much admired by future 26th President Theodore Roosevelt, as the U.S. rapidly built a powerful naval fleet of steel warships in the 1880s and 1890s. Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897 -- 1898 and was an aggressive supporter of an American war with Spain over Cuban interests.
Meanwhile, the "Cuba Libre '' movement, led by Cuban intellectual José Martí until his death in 1895, had established offices in Florida. The face of the Cuban revolution in the U.S. was the Cuban "Junta '', under the leadership of Tomás Estrada Palma, who in 1902 became Cuba 's first president. The Junta dealt with leading newspapers and Washington officials and held fund - raising events across the US. It funded and smuggled weapons. It mounted a large propaganda campaign that generated enormous popular support in the U.S. in favor of the Cubans. Protestant churches and most Democrats were supportive, but business interests called on Washington to negotiate a settlement and avoid war.
Cuba attracted enormous American attention, but almost no discussion involved the other Spanish colonies of the Philippines, Guam, or Puerto Rico. Historians note that there was no popular demand in the United States for an overseas colonial empire -- Americans did not admire the British Empire or the others.
The first serious bid for Cuban independence, the Ten Years ' War, erupted in 1868 and was subdued by the authorities a decade later. Neither the fighting nor the reforms in the Pact of Zanjón (February 1878) quelled the desire of some revolutionaries for wider autonomy and ultimately independence. One such revolutionary, José Martí, continued to promote Cuban financial and political autonomy in exile. In early 1895, after years of organizing, Martí launched a three - pronged invasion of the island.
The plan called for one group from Santo Domingo led by Máximo Gómez, one group from Costa Rica led by Antonio Maceo Grajales, and another from the United States (preemptively thwarted by U.S. officials in Florida) to land in different places on the island and provoke an uprising. While their call for revolution, the grito de Baíre, was successful, the result was not the grand show of force Martí had expected. With a quick victory effectively lost, the revolutionaries settled in to fight a protracted guerrilla campaign.
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, the architect of Spain 's Restoration constitution and the prime minister at the time, ordered General Arsenio Martínez - Campos, a distinguished veteran of the war against the previous uprising in Cuba, to quell the revolt. Campos 's reluctance to accept his new assignment and his method of containing the revolt to the province of Oriente earned him criticism in the Spanish press.
The mounting pressure forced Cánovas to replace General Campos with General Valeriano Weyler, a soldier who had experience in quelling rebellions in overseas provinces and the Spanish metropole. Weyler deprived the insurgency of weaponry, supplies, and assistance by ordering the residents of some Cuban districts to move to reconcentration areas near the military headquarters. This strategy was effective in slowing the spread of rebellion. In the United States, this fueled the fire of anti-Spanish propaganda. In a political speech President William McKinley used this to ram Spanish actions against armed rebels. He even said this "was not civilized warfare '' but "extermination ''.
The Spanish Government regarded Cuba as a province of Spain rather than a colony, and depended on it for prestige and trade, and as a training ground for the army. Spanish Prime Minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo announced that "the Spanish nation is disposed to sacrifice to the last peseta of its treasure and to the last drop of blood of the last Spaniard before consenting that anyone snatch from it even one piece of its territory ''. He had long dominated and stabilized Spanish politics. He was assassinated in 1897 by Italian anarchist Michele Angiolillo, leaving a Spanish political system that was not stable and could not risk a blow to its prestige.
The eruption of the Cuban revolt, Weyler 's measures, and the popular fury these events whipped up proved to be a boon to the newspaper industry in New York City, where Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World and William Randolph Hearst of the New York Journal recognized the potential for great headlines and stories that would sell copies. Both papers denounced Spain, but had little influence outside New York. American opinion generally saw Spain as a hopelessly backward power that was unable to deal fairly with Cuba. American Catholics were divided before the war began, but supported it enthusiastically once it started.
The U.S. had important economic interests that were being harmed by the prolonged conflict and deepening uncertainty about the future of Cuba. Shipping firms that had relied heavily on trade with Cuba now suffered losses as the conflict continued unresolved. These firms pressed Congress and McKinley to seek an end to the revolt. Other American business concerns, specifically those who had invested in Cuban sugar, looked to the Spanish to restore order. Stability, not war, was the goal of both interests. How stability would be achieved would depend largely on the ability of Spain and the U.S. to work out their issues diplomatically.
While tension increased among the Cubans and Spanish Government, popular support of intervention began to spring up in the United States, due to the emergence of the "Cuba Libre '' movement and the fact that many Americans had drawn parallels between the American Revolution and the Cuban revolt, seeing the Spanish Government as the tyrannical colonial oppressor. Historian Louis Pérez notes that "The proposition of war in behalf of Cuban independence took hold immediately and held on thereafter. Such was the sense of the public mood. '' At the time many poems and songs were written in the United States to express support of the "Cuba Libre '' movement. At the same time, many African Americans, facing growing racial discrimination and increasing retardation of their civil rights, wanted to take part in the war because they saw it as a way to advance the cause of equality, service to country hopefully helping to gain political and public respect amongst the wider population.
President McKinley, well aware of the political complexity surrounding the conflict, wanted to end the revolt peacefully. In accordance with this policy, McKinley began to negotiate with the Spanish government, hoping that the negotiations would be able to end the yellow journalism in the United States, and therefore, end the loudest calls to go to war with Spain. An attempt was made to negotiate a peace before McKinley took office, however, the Spanish refused to take part in the negotiations. In 1897 McKinley appointed Stewart L. Woodford as the new minister to Spain, who again offered to negotiate a peace. In October 1897, the Spanish government still refused the United States offer to negotiate between the Spanish and the Cubans, but promised the U.S. it would give the Cubans more autonomy. However, with the election of a more liberal Spanish government in November, Spain began to change their policies in Cuba. First, the new Spanish government told the United States that it was willing to offer a change in the Reconcentration policies (the main set of policies that was feeding yellow journalism in the United States) if the Cuban rebels agreed to a cessation of hostilities. This time the rebels refused the terms in hopes that continued conflict would lead to U.S. intervention and the creation of an independent Cuba. The liberal Spanish government also recalled the Spanish Governor General Valeriano Weyler from Cuba. This action alarmed many Cubans loyal to Spain.
The Cubans loyal to Weyler began planning large demonstrations to take place when the next Governor General, Ramon Blanco, arrived in Cuba. U.S. consul Fitzhugh Lee learned of these plans and sent a request to the U.S. State Department to send a U.S. warship to Cuba. This request lead to USS Maine being sent to Cuba. While Maine was docked in Havana, an explosion sank the ship. The sinking of Maine was blamed on the Spanish and made the possibility of a negotiated peace very slim. Throughout the negotiation process, the major European powers, especially Britain, France, and Russia, generally supported the American position and urged Spain to give in. Spain repeatedly promised specific reforms that would pacify Cuba but failed to deliver; American patience ran out.
McKinley sent USS Maine to Havana to ensure the safety of American citizens and interests, and to underscore the urgent need for reform. Naval forces were moved in position to attack simultaneously on several fronts if the war was not avoided. As Maine left Florida, a large part of the North Atlantic Squadron was moved to Key West and the Gulf of Mexico. Others were also moved just off the shore of Lisbon, and still others were moved to Hong Kong.
At 9: 40 on the evening of February 15, 1898, Maine sank in Havana Harbor after suffering a massive explosion. While McKinley urged patience and did not declare that Spain had caused the explosion, the deaths of 250 out of 355 sailors on board focused American attention. McKinley asked Congress to appropriate $50 million for defense, and Congress unanimously obliged. Most American leaders took the position that the cause of the explosion was unknown, but public attention was now riveted on the situation and Spain could not find a diplomatic solution to avoid war. Spain appealed to the European powers, most of whom advised it to accept U.S. conditions for Cuba in order to avoid war. Germany urged a united European stand against the United States but took no action.
The U.S. Navy 's investigation, made public on March 28, concluded that the ship 's powder magazines were ignited when an external explosion was set off under the ship 's hull. This report poured fuel on popular indignation in the US, making the war inevitable. Spain 's investigation came to the opposite conclusion: the explosion originated within the ship. Other investigations in later years came to various contradictory conclusions, but had no bearing on the coming of the war. In 1974, Admiral Hyman George Rickover had his staff look at the documents and decided there was an internal explosion. A study commissioned by National Geographic magazine in 1999, using AME computer modelling, stated that the explosion could have been caused by a mine, but no definitive evidence was found.
After Maine was destroyed, New York City newspaper publishers Hearst and Pulitzer decided that the Spanish were to blame, and they publicized this theory as fact in their papers. They both used sensationalistic and astonishing accounts of "atrocities '' committed by the Spanish in Cuba by using headlines in their newspapers, such as "Spanish Murderers '' and "Remember The Maine ''. Their press exaggerated what was happening and how the Spanish were treating the Cuban prisoners. The stories were based on factual accounts, but most of the time, the articles that were published were embellished and written with incendiary language causing emotional and often heated responses among readers. A common myth falsely states that when illustrator Frederic Remington said there was no war brewing in Cuba, Hearst responded: "You furnish the pictures and I 'll furnish the war. ''
This new "yellow journalism '' was, however, uncommon outside New York City, and historians no longer consider it the major force shaping the national mood. Public opinion nationwide did demand immediate action, overwhelming the efforts of President McKinley, Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed, and the business community to find a negotiated solution. Wall Street, big business, high finance and Main Street businesses across the country were vocally opposed to war and demanded peace. After years of severe depression, the economic outlook for the domestic economy was suddenly bright again in 1897. However, the uncertainties of warfare posed a serious threat to full economic recovery. "War would impede the march of prosperity and put the country back many years, '' warned the New Jersey Trade Review. The leading railroad magazine editorialized, "From a commercial and mercenary standpoint it seems peculiarly bitter that this war should come when the country had already suffered so much and so needed rest and peace. '' McKinley paid close attention to the strong anti-war consensus of the business community, and strengthened his resolve to use diplomacy and negotiation rather than brute force to end the Spanish tyranny in Cuba.
A speech delivered by Republican Senator Redfield Proctor of Vermont on March 17, 1898, thoroughly analyzed the situation and greatly strengthened the pro-war cause. Proctor concluded that war was the only answer. Many in the business and religious communities which had until then opposed war, switched sides, leaving McKinley and Speaker Reed almost alone in their resistance to a war. On April 11, McKinley ended his resistance and asked Congress for authority to send American troops to Cuba to end the civil war there, knowing that Congress would force a war.
On April 19, while Congress was considering joint resolutions supporting Cuban independence, Republican Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado proposed the Teller Amendment to ensure that the U.S. would not establish permanent control over Cuba after the war. The amendment, disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba, passed the Senate 42 to 35; the House concurred the same day, 311 to 6. The amended resolution demanded Spanish withdrawal and authorized the President to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuba gain independence from Spain. President McKinley signed the joint resolution on April 20, 1898, and the ultimatum was sent to Spain. In response, Spain severed diplomatic relations with the United States on April 21. On the same day, the U.S. Navy began a blockade of Cuba. Spain stated, it would declare war if the U.S. forces invaded its territory, on April 23. On April 25, the U.S. Congress declared that a state of war between the U.S. and Spain had de facto existed since April 21, the day the blockade of Cuba had begun.
The Navy was ready, but the Army was not well - prepared for the war and made radical changes in plans and quickly purchased supplies. In the spring of 1898, the strength of the Regular U.S. Army was just 25,000 men. The Army wanted 50,000 new men but received over 220,000 through volunteers and the mobilization of state National Guard units, even gaining nearly 100,000 men on the first night after the explosion of USS Maine.
The overwhelming consensus of observers in the 1890s, and historians ever since, is that an upsurge of humanitarian concern with the plight of the Cubans was the main motivating force that caused the war with Spain in 1898. McKinley put it succinctly in late 1897 that if Spain failed to resolve its crisis, the United States would see "a duty imposed by our obligations to ourselves, to civilization and humanity to intervene with force. '' Intervention in terms of negotiating a settlement proved impossible -- neither Spain nor the insurgents would agree. Louis Perez states, "Certainly the moralistic determinants of war in 1898 has been accorded preponderant explanatory weight in the historiography. '' By the 1950s, however, American political scientists began attacking the war as a mistake based on idealism, arguing that a better policy would be realism. They discredited the idealism by suggesting the people were deliberately misled by propaganda and sensationalist yellow journalism. Political scientist Robert Osgood, writing in 1953, led the attack on the American decision process as a confused mix of "self - righteousness and genuine moral fervor, '' in the form of a "crusade '' and a combination of "knight - errantry and national self - assertiveness. '' Osgood argued:
In his War and Empire, Prof. Paul Atwood of the University of Massachusetts (Boston) writes:
The Spanish -- American War was fomented on outright lies and trumped up accusations against the intended enemy... War fever in the general population never reached a critical temperature until the accidental sinking of the USS Maine was deliberately, and falsely, attributed to Spanish villainy... In a cryptic message... Senator Lodge wrote that ' There may be an explosion any day in Cuba which would settle a great many things. We have got a battleship in the harbor of Havana, and our fleet, which overmatches anything the Spanish have, is masked at the Dry Tortugas.
In his autobiography, Theodore Roosevelt gave his views of the origins of the war:
Our own direct interests were great, because of the Cuban tobacco and sugar, and especially because of Cuba 's relation to the projected Isthmian (Panama) Canal. But even greater were our interests from the standpoint of humanity... It was our duty, even more from the standpoint of National honor than from the standpoint of National interest, to stop the devastation and destruction. Because of these considerations I favored war.
In the 333 years of Spanish rule, the Philippines developed from a small overseas colony governed from the Viceroyalty of New Spain to a land with modern elements in the cities. The Spanish - speaking middle classes of the 19th century were mostly educated in the liberal ideas coming from Europe. Among these Ilustrados was the Filipino national hero José Rizal, who demanded larger reforms from the Spanish authorities. This movement eventually led to the Philippine Revolution against Spanish colonial rule. The revolution had been in a state of truce since the signing of the Pact of Biak - na - Bato in 1897, with revolutionary leaders having accepted exile outside of the country.
On April 23, 1898, a document appeared in the Manila Gazette newspaper warning of the impending war and calling for Filipinos to participate on the side of Spain.
The first battle between American and Spanish forces was at Manila Bay where, on May 1, Commodore George Dewey, commanding the U.S. Navy 's Asiatic Squadron aboard USS Olympia, in a matter of hours defeated a Spanish squadron under Admiral Patricio Montojo. Dewey managed this with only nine wounded. With the German seizure of Tsingtao in 1897, Dewey 's squadron had become the only naval force in the Far East without a local base of its own, and was beset with coal and ammunition problems. Despite these problems, the Asiatic Squadron not only destroyed the Spanish fleet but also captured the harbor of Manila.
Following Dewey 's victory, Manila Bay was filled with the warships of Britain, Germany, France, and Japan. The German fleet of eight ships, ostensibly in Philippine waters to protect German interests, acted provocatively -- cutting in front of American ships, refusing to salute the United States flag (according to customs of naval courtesy), taking soundings of the harbor, and landing supplies for the besieged Spanish.
The Germans, with interests of their own, were eager to take advantage of whatever opportunities the conflict in the islands might afford. There was a fear at the time that the islands would become a German possession. The Americans called the bluff of the Germans, threatening conflict if the aggression continued, and the Germans backed down. At the time, the Germans expected the confrontation in the Philippines to end in an American defeat, with the revolutionaries capturing Manila and leaving the Philippines ripe for German picking.
Commodore Dewey transported Emilio Aguinaldo, a Filipino leader who had led rebellion against Spanish rule in the Philippines in 1896, from exile in Hong Kong to the Philippines to rally more Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. By June 9, Aguinaldo 's forces controlled the provinces of Bulacan, Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Bataan, Zambales, Pampanga, Pangasinan, and Mindoro, and had laid siege to Manila. On June 12, Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the Philippines.
On August 5, on instructions from Spain, Governor General Basilo Augistin turned over command of the Philippines to his deputy, Fermin Jaudenes. On August 13, with American commanders unaware that a cease - fire had been signed between Spain and the U.S. on the previous day in Washington D.C., American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish in the Battle of Manila. This battle marked the end of Filipino -- American collaboration, as the American action of preventing Filipino forces from entering the captured city of Manila was deeply resented by the Filipinos. This later led to the Philippine -- American War, which would prove to be more deadly and costly than the Spanish -- American War.
The U.S. had sent a force of some 11,000 ground troops to the Philippines. On August 14, 1899, Spanish Captain - General Jaudenes formally capitulated and U.S. General Merritt formally accepted the surrender and declared the establishment of a U.S. military government in occupation. That same day, the Schurman Commission recommended that the U.S. retain control of the Philippines, possibly granting independence in the future. On December 10, 1898, the Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. Armed conflict broke out between U.S. forces and the Filipinos when U.S. troops began to take the place of the Spanish in control of the country after the end of the war, resulting in the Philippine -- American War.
On June 20, a U.S. fleet commanded by Captain Henry Glass, consisting of the protected cruiser USS Charleston and three transports carrying troops to the Philippines, entered Guam 's Apra Harbor, Captain Glass having opened sealed orders instructing him to proceed to Guam and capture it. Charleston fired a few rounds at Fort Santa Cruz without receiving return fire. Two local officials, not knowing that war had been declared and believing the firing had been a salute, came out to Charleston to apologize for their inability to return the salute as they were out of gunpowder. Glass informed them that the U.S. and Spain were at war.
The following day, Glass sent Lieutenant William Braunersruehter to meet the Spanish Governor to arrange the surrender of the island and the Spanish garrison there. Some 54 Spanish infantry were captured and transported to the Philippines as prisoners of war. No U.S. forces were left on Guam, but the only U.S. citizen on the island, Frank Portusach, told Captain Glass that he would look after things until U.S. forces returned.
Theodore Roosevelt advocated intervention in Cuba, both for the Cuban people and to promote the Monroe Doctrine. While Assistant Secretary of the Navy, he placed the Navy on a war - time footing and prepared Dewey 's Asiatic Squadron for battle. He also worked with Leonard Wood in convincing the Army to raise an all - volunteer regiment, the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry. Wood was given command of the regiment that quickly became known as the "Rough Riders ''.
The Americans planned to capture the city of Santiago de Cuba to destroy Linares ' army and Cervera 's fleet. To reach Santiago they had to pass through concentrated Spanish defenses in the San Juan Hills and a small town in El Caney. The American forces were aided in Cuba by the pro-independence rebels led by General Calixto García.
For quite some time the Cuban public believed the United States government to possibly hold the key to its independence, and even annexation was considered for a time, which historian Louis Pérez explored in his book Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy. The Cubans harbored a great deal of discontent towards the Spanish Government, due to years of manipulation on the part of the Spanish. The prospect of getting the United States involved in the fight was considered by many Cubans as a step in the right direction. While the Cubans were wary of the United States ' intentions, the overwhelming support from the American public provided the Cubans with some peace of mind, because they believed that the United States was committed to helping them achieve their independence. However, with the imposition of the Platt Amendment of 1903 after the war, as well as economic and military manipulation on the part of the United States, Cuban sentiment towards the United States became polarized, with many Cubans disappointed with continuing American interference.
From June 22 to 24, the Fifth Army Corps under General William R. Shafter landed at Daiquirí and Siboney, east of Santiago, and established an American base of operations. A contingent of Spanish troops, having fought a skirmish with the Americans near Siboney on June 23, had retired to their lightly entrenched positions at Las Guasimas. An advance guard of U.S. forces under former Confederate General Joseph Wheeler ignored Cuban scouting parties and orders to proceed with caution. They caught up with and engaged the Spanish rearguard of about 2,000 soldiers led by General Antero Rubín who effectively ambushed them, in the Battle of Las Guasimas on June 24. The battle ended indecisively in favor of Spain and the Spanish left Las Guasimas on their planned retreat to Santiago.
The U.S. Army employed Civil War - era skirmishers at the head of the advancing columns. Three of four of the U.S. soldiers who had volunteered to act as skirmishers walking point at the head of the American column were killed, including Hamilton Fish II (grandson of Hamilton Fish, the Secretary of State under Ulysses S. Grant), and Captain Allyn K. Capron, Jr., whom Theodore Roosevelt would describe as one of the finest natural leaders and soldiers he ever met. Only Oklahoma Territory Pawnee Indian, Tom Isbell, wounded seven times, survived.
The Battle of Las Guasimas showed the U.S. that quick - thinking American soldiers would not stick to the linear tactics which did not work effectively against Spanish troops who had learned the art of cover and concealment from their own struggle with Cuban insurgents, and never made the error of revealing their positions while on the defense. Americans advanced by rushes and stayed in the weeds so that they, too, were largely invisible to the Spaniards who used un-targeted volley fire to try to mass fires against the advancing Americans. While some troops were hit, this technique was mostly a waste of bullets as the Americans learned to duck as soon as they heard the Spanish word Fire, "Fuego '' yelled by the Spanish officers. Spanish troops were equipped with smokeless powder arms that also helped them to hide their positions while firing.
Regular Spanish troops were mostly armed with modern charger - loaded, 7 mm 1893 Spanish Mauser rifles and using smokeless powder. The high - speed 7 × 57mm Mauser round was termed the "Spanish Hornet '' by the Americans because of the supersonic crack as it passed overhead. Other irregular troops were armed with Remington Rolling Block rifles in. 43 Spanish using smokeless powder and brass - jacketed bullets. U.S. regular infantry were armed with the. 30 -- 40 Krag -- Jørgensen, a bolt - action rifle with a complex rotating magazine. Both the U.S. regular cavalry and the volunteer cavalry used smokeless ammunition. In later battles, state volunteers used the. 45 -- 70 Springfield a single - shot black powder rifle.
On July 1, a combined force of about 15,000 American troops in regular infantry and cavalry regiments, including all four of the army 's "Colored '' regiments, and volunteer regiments, among them Roosevelt and his "Rough Riders '', the 71st New York, the 2nd Massachusetts Infantry, and 1st North Carolina, and rebel Cuban forces attacked 1,270 entrenched Spaniards in dangerous Civil War - style frontal assaults at the Battle of El Caney and Battle of San Juan Hill outside of Santiago. More than 200 U.S. soldiers were killed and close to 1,200 wounded in the fighting, thanks to the high rate of fire the Spanish put down range at the Americans. Supporting fire by Gatling guns was critical to the success of the assault. Cervera decided to escape Santiago two days later. First Lieutenant John J. Pershing, nicknamed "Black Jack '', oversaw the 10th Cavalry Unit during the war. Pershing and his unit fought in the Battle of San Juan Hill. Pershing was cited for his gallantry during the battle.
The Spanish forces at Guantánamo were so isolated by Marines and Cuban forces that they did not know that Santiago was under siege, and their forces in the northern part of the province could not break through Cuban lines. This was not true of the Escario relief column from Manzanillo, which fought its way past determined Cuban resistance but arrived too late to participate in the siege.
After the battles of San Juan Hill and El Caney, the American advance halted. Spanish troops successfully defended Fort Canosa, allowing them to stabilize their line and bar the entry to Santiago. The Americans and Cubans forcibly began a bloody, strangling siege of the city. During the nights, Cuban troops dug successive series of "trenches '' (raised parapets), toward the Spanish positions. Once completed, these parapets were occupied by U.S. soldiers and a new set of excavations went forward. American troops, while suffering daily losses from Spanish fire, suffered far more casualties from heat exhaustion and mosquito - borne disease. At the western approaches to the city, Cuban general Calixto Garcia began to encroach on the city, causing much panic and fear of reprisals among the Spanish forces.
The major port of Santiago de Cuba was the main target of naval operations during the war. The U.S. fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season; Guantánamo Bay, with its excellent harbor, was chosen. The 1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay happened between June 6 and 10, with the first U.S. naval attack and subsequent successful landing of U.S. Marines with naval support.
On April 23, a council of senior admirals of the Spanish Navy had decided to order Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete 's squadron of four armored cruisers and three torpedo boat destroyers to proceed from their present location in Cape Verde (having left from Cadiz, Spain) to the West Indies.
The Battle of Santiago de Cuba on July 3, was the largest naval engagement of the Spanish -- American War and resulted in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron (also known as the Flota de Ultramar). In May, the fleet of Spanish Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete had been spotted by American forces in Santiago harbor, where they had taken shelter for protection from sea attack. A two - month stand - off between Spanish and American naval forces followed.
When the Spanish squadron finally attempted to leave the harbor on July 3, the American forces destroyed or grounded five of the six ships. Only one Spanish vessel, the new armored cruiser Cristóbal Colón, survived, but her captain hauled down her flag and scuttled her when the Americans finally caught up with her. The 1,612 Spanish sailors who were captured, including Admiral Cervera, were sent to Seavey 's Island at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine, where they were confined at Camp Long as prisoners of war from July 11 until mid-September.
During the stand - off, U.S. Assistant Naval Constructor, Lieutenant Richmond Pearson Hobson had been ordered by Rear Admiral William T. Sampson to sink the collier USS Merrimac in the harbor to bottle up the Spanish fleet. The mission was a failure, and Hobson and his crew were captured. They were exchanged on July 6, and Hobson became a national hero; he received the Medal of Honor in 1933, retired as a Rear Admiral and became a Congressman.
Yellow fever had quickly spread amongst the American occupation force, crippling it. A group of concerned officers of the American army chose Theodore Roosevelt to draft a request to Washington that it withdraw the Army, a request that paralleled a similar one from General Shafter, who described his force as an "army of convalescents ''. By the time of his letter, 75 % of the force in Cuba was unfit for service.
On August 7, the American invasion force started to leave Cuba. The evacuation was not total. The U.S. Army kept the black Ninth U.S. Cavalry Regiment in Cuba to support the occupation. The logic was that their race and the fact that many black volunteers came from southern states would protect them from disease; this logic led to these soldiers being nicknamed "Immunes ''. Still, when the Ninth left, 73 of its 984 soldiers had contracted the disease.
In May 1898, Lt. Henry H. Whitney of the United States Fourth Artillery was sent to Puerto Rico on a reconnaissance mission, sponsored by the Army 's Bureau of Military Intelligence. He provided maps and information on the Spanish military forces to the U.S. government before the invasion.
The American offensive began on May 12, 1898, when a squadron of 12 U.S. ships commanded by Rear Adm. William T. Sampson of the United States Navy attacked the archipelago 's capital, San Juan. Though the damage inflicted on the city was minimal, the Americans established a blockade in the city 's harbor, San Juan Bay. On June 22, the cruiser Isabel II and the destroyer Terror delivered a Spanish counterattack, but were unable to break the blockade and Terror was damaged.
The land offensive began on July 25, when 1,300 infantry soldiers led by Nelson A. Miles disembarked off the coast of Guánica. The first organized armed opposition occurred in Yauco in what became known as the Battle of Yauco.
This encounter was followed by the Battle of Fajardo. The United States seized control of Fajardo on August 1, but were forced to withdraw on August 5 after a group of 200 Puerto Rican - Spanish soldiers led by Pedro del Pino gained control of the city, while most civilian inhabitants fled to a nearby lighthouse. The Americans encountered larger opposition during the Battle of Guayama and as they advanced towards the main island 's interior. They engaged in crossfire at Guamaní River Bridge, Coamo and Silva Heights and finally at the Battle of Asomante. The battles were inconclusive as the allied soldiers retreated.
A battle in San Germán concluded in a similar fashion with the Spanish retreating to Lares. On August 9, 1898, American troops that were pursuing units retreating from Coamo encountered heavy resistance in Aibonito in a mountain known as Cerro Gervasio del Asomante and retreated after six of their soldiers were injured. They returned three days later, reinforced with artillery units and attempted a surprise attack. In the subsequent crossfire, confused soldiers reported seeing Spanish reinforcements nearby and five American officers were gravely injured, which prompted a retreat order. All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended on August 13, after U.S. President William McKinley and French Ambassador Jules Cambon, acting on behalf of the Spanish Government, signed an armistice whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over Puerto Rico.
With defeats in Cuba and the Philippines, and both of its fleets destroyed, Spain sued for peace and negotiations were opened between the two parties. After the sickness and death of British consul Edward Henry Rawson - Walker, American admiral George Dewey requested the Belgian consul to Manila, Édouard André, to take Rawson - Walker 's place as intermediary with the Spanish Government.
Hostilities were halted on August 12, 1898, with the signing in Washington of a Protocol of Peace between the United States and Spain. After over two months of difficult negotiations, the formal peace treaty, the Treaty of Paris, was signed in Paris on December 10, 1898, and was ratified by the United States Senate on February 6, 1899.
The United States gained Spain 's colonies of the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico in the treaty, and Cuba became a U.S. protectorate. The treaty came into force in Cuba April 11, 1899, with Cubans participating only as observers. Having been occupied since July 17, 1898, and thus under the jurisdiction of the United States Military Government (USMG), Cuba formed its own civil government and gained independence on May 20, 1902, with the announced end of USMG jurisdiction over the island. However, the U.S. imposed various restrictions on the new government, including prohibiting alliances with other countries, and reserved the right to intervene. The U.S. also established a perpetual lease of Guantánamo Bay.
The war lasted ten weeks. John Hay (the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom), writing from London to his friend Theodore Roosevelt, declared that it had been "a splendid little war ''. The press showed Northerners and Southerners, blacks and whites fighting against a common foe, helping to ease the scars left from the American Civil War. Exemplary of this was the fact that four former Confederate States Army generals had served in the war, now in the U.S. Army and all of them again carrying similar ranks. These officers included Matthew Butler, Fitzhugh Lee, Thomas L. Rosser and Joseph Wheeler, though only the latter had seen action. Still, in an exciting moment during the Battle of Las Guasimas, Wheeler apparently forgot for a moment which war he was fighting, having supposedly called out "Let 's go, boys! We 've got the damn Yankees on the run again! ''
The war marked American entry into world affairs. Since then, the U.S. has had a significant hand in various conflicts around the world, and entered many treaties and agreements. The Panic of 1893 was over by this point, and the U.S. entered a long and prosperous period of economic and population growth, and technological innovation that lasted through the 1920s.
The war redefined national identity, served as a solution of sorts to the social divisions plaguing the American mind, and provided a model for all future news reporting.
The idea of American imperialism changed in the public 's mind after the short and successful Spanish -- American War. Due to the United States ' powerful influence diplomatically and militarily, Cuba 's status after the war relied heavily upon American actions. Two major developments emerged from the Spanish -- American War: one, it greatly enforced the United States ' vision of itself as a "defender of democracy '' and as a major world power, and two, it had severe implications for Cuban -- American relations in the future. As historian Louis Pérez argued in his book Cuba in the American Imagination: Metaphor and the Imperial Ethos, the Spanish -- American War of 1898 "fixed permanently how Americans came to think of themselves: a righteous people given to the service of righteous purpose ''.
The war greatly reduced the Spanish Empire. Spain had been declining as an imperial power since the early 19th century as a result of Napoleon 's invasion. The loss of Cuba caused a national trauma because of the affinity of peninsular Spaniards with Cuba, which was seen as another province of Spain rather than as a colony. Spain retained only a handful of overseas holdings: Spanish West Africa (Spanish Sahara), Spanish Guinea, Spanish Morocco, and the Canary Islands.
The Spanish soldier Julio Cervera Baviera, who served in the Puerto Rican Campaign, published a pamphlet in which he blamed the natives of that colony for its occupation by the Americans, saying, "I have never seen such a servile, ungrateful country (i.e., Puerto Rico)... In twenty - four hours, the people of Puerto Rico went from being fervently Spanish to enthusiastically American... They humiliated themselves, giving in to the invader as the slave bows to the powerful lord. '' He was challenged to a duel by a group of young Puerto Ricans for writing this pamphlet.
Culturally, a new wave called the Generation of ' 98 originated as a response to this trauma, marking a renaissance in Spanish culture. Economically, the war benefited Spain, because after the war large sums of capital held by Spaniards in Cuba and the United States were returned to the peninsula and invested in Spain. This massive flow of capital (equivalent to 25 % of the gross domestic product of one year) helped to develop the large modern firms in Spain in the steel, chemical, financial, mechanical, textile, shipyard, and electrical power industries. However, the political consequences were serious. The defeat in the war began the weakening of the fragile political stability that had been established earlier by the rule of Alfonso XII.
The Teller Amendment, which was enacted on April 20, 1898, was a promise from the United States to the Cuban people that it was not declaring war to annex Cuba, but to help it gain its independence from Spain. The Platt Amendment was a move by the United States ' government to shape Cuban affairs without violating the Teller Amendment.
The U.S. Congress had passed the Teller Amendment before the war, promising Cuban independence. However, the Senate passed the Platt Amendment as a rider to an Army appropriations bill, forcing a peace treaty on Cuba which prohibited it from signing treaties with other nations or contracting a public debt. The Platt Amendment was pushed by imperialists who wanted to project U.S. power abroad (in contrast to the Teller Amendment which was pushed by anti-imperialists who called for a restraint on U.S. rule). The amendment granted the United States the right to stabilize Cuba militarily as needed. In addition, the Platt Amendment permitted the United States to deploy Marines to Cuba if its freedom and independence was ever threatened or jeopardized by an external or internal force. The Platt Amendment also provided for a permanent American naval base in Cuba. Guantánamo Bay was established after the signing of the Cuban -- American Treaty of Relations in 1903. Thus, despite that Cuba technically gained its independence after the war ended, the United States government ensured that it had some form of power and control over Cuban affairs.
The U.S. annexed the former Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam. The notion of the United States as an imperial power, with colonies, was hotly debated domestically with President McKinley and the Pro-Imperialists winning their way over vocal opposition led by Democrat William Jennings Bryan, who had supported the war. The American public largely supported the possession of colonies, but there were many outspoken critics such as Mark Twain, who wrote The War Prayer in protest.
Roosevelt returned to the United States a war hero, and he was soon elected governor of New York and then became the vice president. At the age of 42 he became the youngest man to become President after the assassination of President William McKinley.
The war served to further repair relations between the American North and South. The war gave both sides a common enemy for the first time since the end of the Civil War in 1865, and many friendships were formed between soldiers of northern and southern states during their tours of duty. This was an important development, since many soldiers in this war were the children of Civil War veterans on both sides.
The African - American community strongly supported the rebels in Cuba, supported entry into the war, and gained prestige from their wartime performance in the Army. Spokesmen noted that 33 African - American seamen had died in the Maine explosion. The most influential Black leader, Booker T. Washington, argued that his race was ready to fight. War offered them a chance "to render service to our country that no other race can '', because, unlike Whites, they were "accustomed '' to the "peculiar and dangerous climate '' of Cuba. One of the Black units that served in the war was the 9th Cavalry Regiment. In March 1898, Washington promised the Secretary of the Navy that war would be answered by "at least ten thousand loyal, brave, strong black men in the south who crave an opportunity to show their loyalty to our land, and would gladly take this method of showing their gratitude for the lives laid down, and the sacrifices made, that Blacks might have their freedom and rights. ''
In 1904, the United Spanish War Veterans was created from smaller groups of the veterans of the Spanish -- American War. Today, that organization is defunct, but it left an heir in the Sons of Spanish -- American War Veterans, created in 1937 at the 39th National Encampment of the United Spanish War Veterans. According to data from the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, the last surviving U.S. veteran of the conflict, Nathan E. Cook, died on September 10, 1992, at age 106. (If the data is to be believed, Cook, born October 10, 1885, would have been only 12 years old when he served in the war.)
The Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States (VFW) was formed in 1914 from the merger of two veterans organizations which both arose in 1899: the American Veterans of Foreign Service and the National Society of the Army of the Philippines. The former was formed for veterans of the Spanish -- American War, while the latter was formed for veterans of the Philippine -- American War. Both organizations were formed in response to the general neglect veterans returning from the war experienced at the hands of the government.
To pay the costs of the war, Congress passed an excise tax on long - distance phone service. At the time, it affected only wealthy Americans who owned telephones. However, the Congress neglected to repeal the tax after the war ended four months later, and the tax remained in place for over 100 years until, on August 1, 2006, it was announced that the U.S. Department of the Treasury and the IRS would no longer collect the tax.
The change in sovereignty of Puerto Rico, like the occupation of Cuba, brought about major changes in both the insular and U.S. economies. Before 1898 the sugar industry in Puerto Rico was in decline for nearly half a century. In the second half of the nineteenth century, technological advances increased the capital requirements to remain competitive in the sugar industry. Agriculture began to shift toward coffee production, which required less capital and land accumulation. However, these trends were reversed with U.S. hegemony. Early U.S. monetary and legal policies made it both harder for local farmers to continue operations and easier for American businesses to accumulate land. This, along with the large capital reserves of American businesses, led to a resurgence in the Puerto Rican nuts and sugar industry in the form of large American owned agro-industrial complexes.
At the same time, the inclusion of Puerto Rico into the U.S. tariff system as a customs area, effectively treating Puerto Rico as a state with respect to internal or external trade, increased the codependence of the insular and mainland economies and benefitted sugar exports with tariff protection. In 1897 the United States purchased 19.6 percent of Puerto Rico 's exports while supplying 18.5 percent of its imports. By 1905 these figures jumped to 84 percent and 85 percent, respectively. However, coffee was not protected, as it was not a product of the mainland. At the same time, Cuba and Spain, traditionally the largest importers of Puerto Rican coffee, now subjected Puerto Rico to previously nonexistent import tariffs. These two effects led to a decline in the coffee industry. From 1897 to 1901 coffee went from 65.8 percent of exports to 19.6 percent while sugar went from 21.6 percent to 55 percent. The tariff system also provided a protected market place for Puerto Rican tobacco exports. The tobacco industry went from nearly nonexistent in Puerto Rico to a major part of the country 's agricultural sector.
The Spanish -- American War was the first U.S. war in which the motion picture camera played a role. The Library of Congress archives contain many films and film clips from the war. In addition, a few feature films have been made about the war. These include
The United States awards and decorations of the Spanish -- American War were as follows:
The governments of Spain and Cuba also issued a wide variety of military awards to honor Spanish, Cuban, and Philippine soldiers who had served in the conflict.
Further Notes:
The text of the document as published in the cited source was as follows:
OFFICE OF THE GOVERNMENT AND OF THE CAPTAIN - GENERAL OF THE PHILIPPINES
Fellow Spaniards,
Hostilities between Spain and the United States have broken out.
The moment has come for us to show the world that we are more than courageous to triumph over those, who, feigning to be loyal friends, took advantage of our misfortunes and capitalized on our nobility by making use of the means civilized nations consider as condemnable and contemptible.
The Americans, gratified with their social progress, have drained off our patience and have instigated the war through wicked tactics, treacherous acts, and violations of human rights and internal agreements.
Fighting will be short and decisive. God of victories will render this victory glorious and complete as demanded by reason and justice to our cause.
Spain, counting on the sympathies of all nations, will come out in triumph from this new test, by shattering and silencing the adventurers of those countries which, without cohesiveness and post, offer to humanity shameful traditions and the ungrateful spectacle of some embassies within which jointly dwell intrigues and defamation, cowardice and cynicism.
A US squadron, manned by strangers, by ignorant undisciplined men, is coming into the Archipelago for the purpose of grabbing from us what we consider to be our life, honor freedom. It tries to inspire (motivate) American sailors by saying that we are weak, they are encouraged to keep on with an undertaking that can be accomplished; namely of substituting the Catholic religion with Protestantism, they consider you as a people who impedes growth; they will seize your wealth as if you do not know your rights to property; they will snatch away from you those they consider as useful to man their ships, to be exploited as workers in their fields and factories.
Useless plans! Ridiculous boastings!
Your indomitable courage suffices to hold off those who dare to bring it to reality. We know you will not allow them to mock the faith you are professing, their feet to step on the temple of the true God, incredulity to demolish the sacred images you honor; you will not allow the invaders to desecrate the tombs of your forefathers; to satisfy their immodest passions at the expense of your wives and daughters ' honor; you will not allow them to seize all the properties you have put up through honest work in order to assure your future; you will not allow them to commit any of those crimes inspired by their wickedness and greed, because your bravery and patriotism suffice in scaring them away and knocking down the people who, calling themselves civilized and cultured, resort to the extermination of the natives of North America instead of trying to attract them to live a civilized life and of progress.
Filipinos! Prepare yourself for the battle and united together under the glorious Spanish flag, always covered with laurels, let us fight, convinced that victory will crown our efforts and let us reply the intimations of our enemies with a decision befitting a Christian and patriot, with a cry of "Long live Spain! ''
Manila, April 23, 1898
Your general BASILO AUGISTIN
It has been a splendid little war; begun with the highest motives, carried on with magnificent intelligence and spirit, favored by the fortune which loves the brave. It is now to be concluded, I hope, with that firm good nature which is after all the distinguishing trait of our American character.
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who was the man the roland garros tennis tournament was named after | Roland Georges Garros - Wikipedia
Eugène Adrien Roland Georges Garros (French pronunciation: (ʁɔlɑ̃ ɡaʁɔs); 6 October 1888 -- 5 October 1918) was an early French aviator and a fighter pilot during World War I.
Eugène Adrien Roland Georges Garros was born in Saint - Denis, Réunion, and studied at the Lycée Janson de Sailly and HEC Paris. He started his aviation career in 1909 flying a Demoiselle (Dragonfly) monoplane, an aircraft that only flew well with a small lightweight pilot. He gained Ae. C.F. licence no. 147 in July 1910. In 1911 Garros graduated to flying Blériot monoplanes and entered a number of European air races with this type of machine, including the 1911 Paris to Madrid air race and the Circuit of Europe (Paris - London - Paris), in which he came second.
On 4 September 1911, he set an altitude record of 3,950 m (12,960 ft). The following year, on 6 September 1912, after Austrian aviator Philipp von Blaschke had flown to 4,360 m (14,300 ft), he regained the height record by flying to 5,610 m (18,410 ft).
By 1913 he had switched to flying the faster Morane - Saulnier monoplanes, and gained fame for making the first non-stop flight across the Mediterranean Sea from Fréjus in the south of France to Bizerte in Tunisia in a Morane - Saulnier G. The following year, Garros joined the French army at the outbreak of World War I.
Reports published in August 1914 claimed Garros was involved in the "first air battle in world history '' and that he had flown his plane into a Zeppelin, destroying the airship and killing its pilots and himself. This story was quickly contradicted by reports that Garros was alive and well in Paris. Such early reports maintained that an unidentified French pilot had indeed rammed and destroyed a Zeppelin, however, German authorities refuted the story. Later sources indicated the first aerial victory against a Zeppelin occurred in June 1915 and that earlier reports, including that of Garros, had been discredited.
In the early stages of the air war in World War I the problem of mounting a forward - firing machine gun on combat aircraft was considered by a number of individuals. The so - called "interrupter gear '' did not come into use until Anthony Fokker developed a synchronization device which had a large impact on air combat; however, Garros also had a significant role in the process of achieving this goal.
As a reconnaissance pilot with the Escadrille MS26, Garros visited the Morane - Saulnier Works in December 1914. Saulnier 's work on metal deflector wedges attached to propeller blades was taken forward by Garros; he eventually had a workable installation fitted to his Morane - Saulnier Type L aircraft. The Aero Club of America awarded him a medal for this invention three years later. Garros achieved the first ever shooting - down of an aircraft by a fighter firing through a tractor propeller, on 1 April 1915; two more victories over German aircraft were achieved on 15 and 18 April 1915.
On 18 April 1915, either Garros 's fuel line clogged or, by other accounts, his aircraft was downed by ground fire, and he glided to a landing on the German side of the lines. Garros failed to destroy his aircraft completely before being taken prisoner: most significantly, the gun and armoured propeller remained intact. Legend has it that after examining the plane, German aircraft engineers, led by Fokker, designed the improved interrupter gear system. In fact the work on Fokker 's system had been going for at least six months before Garros 's aircraft fell into their hands. With the advent of the interrupter gear the tables were turned on the Allies, with Fokker 's planes shooting down many Allied aircraft, leading to what became known as the Fokker Scourge.
Garros finally managed to escape from a POW camp in Germany on 14 February 1918, after several attempts, and rejoined the French army. He settled into Escadrille 26 to pilot a Spad, and claimed two victories on 2 October 1918, one of which was confirmed.
On 5 October 1918, he was shot down and killed near Vouziers, Ardennes, a month before the end of the war and one day before his 30th birthday. His adversary was probably German ace Hermann Habich from Jasta 49.
Garros is erroneously called the world 's first fighter ace. In fact, he shot down only four aircraft; the definition of "ace '' is five or more victories. The honour of becoming the first ace went to another French airman, Adolphe Pégoud.
A tennis centre, which he attended religiously when he was studying in Paris, was named after him in the 1920s, the Stade de Roland Garros. The stadium accommodates the French Open, one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments. Consequently, the tournament is officially called Les internationaux de France de Roland - Garros (the "French Internationals of Roland Garros '').
According to Vũ Trọng Phụng 's urban novel Dumb Luck (1936), during colonial times the Hanoi government named the city 's main tennis stadium after Roland Garros.
The international airport of La Réunion, Roland Garros Airport, is also named after him. The place where he landed in Bizerte is called place of Roland Garros.
The French car manufacturer Peugeot commissioned a ' Roland Garros ' limited edition version of its 205 model in celebration of the tennis tournament that bears his name. The model included special paint and leather interior. Because of the success of this special edition, Peugeot later created Roland Garros editions of its 106, 108, 206, 207, 208, 306, 307, 406, and 806 models.
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who started the first library on wheels in 1905 | Bookmobile - wikipedia
A bookmobile or mobile library is a vehicle designed for use as a library. Bookmobiles expand the reach of traditional libraries by transporting books to potential readers, providing library services to people in otherwise - underserved locations (such as remote areas) and / or circumstances (such as residents of retirement homes). Bookmobile services and materials (such as Internet access, large print books, and audiobooks), may be customized for the locations and populations served.
In addition to motor vehicles, bookmobiles have been based on various means of conveyance, including bicycles, boats, and trains, as well as elephants, camels, horses, mules, and donkeys.
In the United States of America, The American School Library (1839) was a traveling frontier library published by Harper & Brothers. The Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History has the only complete original set of this series complete with its wooden carrying case.
The British Workman reported in 1857 about a perambulating library operating in a circle of eight villages, in Cumbria. A Victorian merchant and philanthropist, George Moore, had created the project to "diffuse good literature among the rural population ''.
The Warrington Perambulating Library, set up in 1858, was another early British mobile library. This horse - drawn van was operated by the Warrington Mechanics ' Institute, which aimed to increase the lending of its books to enthusiastic local patrons.
Fairfax County, Virginia had a bookmobile operating in the northwestern part of the county in 1890. County - wide bookmobile service was begun in 1940, in a truck loaned by the Works Progress Administration ("WPA ''). The WPA support of the bookmobile ended in 1942, but the service did not.
One of the earliest mobile libraries in the United States was a mule - drawn wagon carrying wooden boxes of books. It was created in 1904 by the People 's Free Library of Chester County, South Carolina, and served the rural areas there.
Another early mobile library service was developed by Mary Lemist Titcomb (1857 -- 1932). As a librarian in Washington County, Maryland, Titcomb was concerned that the library was not reaching all the people it could. The annual report for 1902 listed 23 "branches '', each being a collection of 50 books in a case that was placed in a store or post office throughout the county. Realizing that even this did not reach the most rural residents, the Washington County Free Library began a "book wagon '' in 1905, taking the library materials directly to people 's homes in remote parts of the county.
With the rise of motorized transport in America, a pioneering librarian in 1920 named Sarah Byrd Askew began driving her specially outfitted Model T to provide library books to rural areas in New Jersey. The automobile remained rare, however, and in Minneapolis, the Hennepin County Public Library operated a horse - drawn book wagon starting in 1922.
Following the Great Depression in the United States, a WPA effort from 1935 to 1943 called the Pack Horse Library Project covered the remote coves and mountainsides of Kentucky and nearby Appalachia, bringing books and similar supplies on foot and on hoof to those who could not make the trip to a library on their own. Sometimes these "packhorse librarians '' relied on a centralized contact to help them distribute the materials.
The "Library in Action '' was a late - 1960s bookmobile program in the Bronx, NY, run by interracial staff that brought books to teenagers of color in under - served neighborhoods.
Bookmobiles reached their height of popularity in the mid-twentieth century.
Bookmobiles are still in use, operated by libraries, schools, activists, and other organizations. Although some feel the bookmobile is an outmoded service, giving reasons like high costs, advanced technology, impracticality, and ineffectiveness, others cite the ability of the bookmobile to be more cost - efficient than building more branch libraries would be and its high use among its patrons as support for its continuation. To meet the growing demand for "greener '' bookmobiles that deliver outreach services to their patrons, some bookmobile manufacturers have introduced significant advances to reduce their carbon footprint, such as solar / battery solutions in lieu of traditional generators, and all - electric and hybrid - electric chassis. Bookmobiles have also taken on an updated form in the form of m libraries, also known as mobile libraries in which patrons are delivered content electronically
The Internet Archive runs its own bookmobile to print out - of - copyright books on demand. The project has spun off similar efforts elsewhere in the developing world.
National Bookmobile Day, which is sponsored by the American Library Association, is celebrated in April each year, on the Wednesday of National Library Week.
Brazil - 2011
Brazil - 2017
Colombia - 2006 Biblioburro
Norway - 2011 Epos
Switzerland - 2007
In Glasgow, Scotland in 2002, MobileMeet -- a gathering of about 50 mobile libraries that was held annually by the IFLA -- there were "mobiles from Sweden, Holland, Ireland, England, and of course Scotland. There were big vans from Edinburgh and small vans from the Highlands. Many of the vans were proudly carrying awards from previous meets. ''
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who was the boy who drove the pink panther car | Panthermobile (Show car) - Wikipedia
The Panthermobile is a show car built for the cartoon TV series The Pink Panther Show.
Called "the world 's most flamboyant vehicle '', the bright pink custom car was built in 1969 at Bob Reisner California Show Cars by Ed "Newt '' Newton, TV personality Dan Woods, and customizers Joe Bailon, Bill "The Leadslinger '' Hines, and Bill Honda. It was used in the title and credit sequences of the original cartoon.
It was one of several famous television show cars of the era, including the original Batmobile, the Monkeemobile, and the Munster Koach, and one of many radical contemporary custom cars, such as Red Baron.
The Panthermobile cost $100,000 to build (1976 dollars).
Built on an Oldsmobile Toronado chassis, it measured 23 ft (700 cm) long and 6 ft (180 cm) wide, with an exposed driving compartment (requiring the driver to wear a helmet). (In the cartoon 's title sequence, the driver was a boy.) Instead of rearview mirrors, the driver had a camera and black - and - white television monitor. The body is sheet metal, rather than fiberglass.
Behind the open cockpit was a compartment, accessed by a large clamshell door opening to the curb side, which contained pink shag - covered reclining seats, square - tufted upholstery, half a dozen faux - fur pillows, a mobile phone, and a bar. The upholstery was done by Joe Perez.
The seven liter Oldsmobile V8 engine, longitudinally - mounted right behind the driver 's head, drove the front wheels.
The car was a challenge to drive, with the long snout.
The Panthermobile was purchased at auction in 2011 and restored by Galpin Auto Sports in Los Angeles, California, under the supervision of Dave Shuten. A complete restoration of the car 's drivetrain, suspension, interior, and paint was required.
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who did the lakers trade for magic johnson | 1979 NBA draft - wikipedia
The 1979 NBA draft was the 33rd annual draft of the National Basketball Association (NBA). The draft was held on June 25, 1979, before the 1979 -- 80 season. In this draft, 22 NBA teams took turns selecting amateur U.S. college basketball players and other eligible players, including international players. The first two picks in the draft belonged to the teams that finished last in each conference, with the order determined by a coin flip. The Los Angeles Lakers, who obtained the New Orleans Jazz ' first - round pick in a trade, won the coin flip and were awarded the first overall pick, while the Chicago Bulls were awarded the second pick. The remaining first - round picks and the subsequent rounds were assigned to teams in reverse order of their win -- loss record in the previous season. A player who had finished his four - year college eligibility was eligible for selection. If a player left college early, he would not be eligible for selection until his college class graduated. Larry Bird would have been eligible to join this draft class because his "junior eligible '' draft status from being taken by Boston in 1978 would expire the minute the 1979 draft began, but Bird and the Celtics agreed on a 5 - year contract in time to avoid that. Before the draft, five college underclassmen were declared eligible for selection under the "hardship '' rule. These players had applied and gave evidence of financial hardship to the league, which granted them the right to start earning their living by starting their professional careers earlier. Prior to the draft, the Jazz relocated from New Orleans to Salt Lake City and became the Utah Jazz. The draft consisted of 10 rounds comprising the selection of 202 players.
Magic Johnson from Michigan State University, one of the "hardship '' players, was selected first overall by the Los Angeles Lakers. Johnson, who had just finished his sophomore season in college, became the first underclassman to be drafted first overall. He went on to win the NBA championship with the Lakers in his rookie season. He also won the Finals Most Valuable Player Award, becoming the first rookie ever to win the award. He spent his entire 13 - year career with the Lakers and won five NBA championships. He also won three Most Valuable Player Awards, three Finals Most Valuable Player Awards, ten consecutive All - NBA Team selections and twelve All - Star Game selections. For his achievements, he has been inducted to the Basketball Hall of Fame. He was also named to the list of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History announced at the league 's 50th anniversary in 1996. After retiring as a player, Johnson went on to have a brief coaching career as an interim head coach of the Lakers in 1994.
Sidney Moncrief, the fifth pick, won two Defensive Player of the Year Awards and was selected to five consecutive All - NBA Teams, five consecutive All - Defensive Teams and five consecutive All - Star Games. In "The Book of Basketball '', Bill Simmons noted that then - Lakers GM Jerry West had actually wanted to trade down from the # 1 pick and use it to get Moncrief along with more players and picks, but Jerry Buss vetoed West 's plans because Buss wanted Magic to be the new face of the team he was just finishing his full purchase of. Jim Paxson, the twelfth pick, was selected to one All - NBA Team and two All - Star Games. Bill Cartwright, the third pick, won three consecutive NBA championships with the Chicago Bulls from 1991 through 1993. He also had one All - Star Game selection, which occurred in his rookie season. He then became the Bulls ' head coach for three seasons. Bill Laimbeer, the 65th pick, won two NBA championships with the Detroit Pistons in 1989 and 1990 and was selected to four All - Star Games. After retiring, he coached the Detroit Shock of the Women 's National Basketball Association (WNBA) for eight seasons, leading them to three WNBA championships in 2003, 2006 and 2008. Mark Eaton, who had only completed one year of college basketball, was selected by the Phoenix Suns with the 107th pick. He opted to return to college basketball and later joined the NBA in 1982, after he was drafted again by the Utah Jazz in the 1982 draft. During his eleven - year career with the Jazz, he won two Defensive Player of the Year Awards and was selected to five consecutive All - Defensive Team and one All - Star Game. Two other players from this draft, eighth pick Calvin Natt and 73rd pick James Donaldson, were also selected to one All - Star Game each.
In the fourth round, the Boston Celtics selected Nick Galis from Seton Hall University with the 68th pick. However, he suffered a serious injury in the training camp and was waived by the Celtics before the season started. Galis, who was born in the United States to Greek parents, opted to play in Greece. He never played in the NBA and spent all of his professional career in Greece, where he helped the country emerge as an international basketball power. He won a Eurobasket title, 8 Greek championships, 7 Greek cups as well as numerous personal honors and awards. He has been inducted into both the FIBA Hall of Fame and the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame.
The following list includes other draft picks who have appeared in at least one NBA game.
^ 1: Even though Mark Eaton was a freshman, he was eligible to be drafted because he was already four years out of high school and therefore he did not need to apply for early entry.
1961
1966
1967
1968
1970
1980
1988
1989
1995
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who sings only you know and i know | Dave Mason - wikipedia
David Thomas "Dave '' Mason (born 10 May 1946) is an English singer - songwriter and guitarist from Worcester, who first found fame with the rock band Traffic. Over the course of his career, Mason has played and recorded with many notable pop and rock musicians, including Paul McCartney, George Harrison, the Rolling Stones, Jimi Hendrix, Eric Clapton, Michael Jackson, David Crosby, Graham Nash, Steve Winwood, Fleetwood Mac, Delaney & Bonnie, Leon Russell and Cass Elliot. One of Mason 's best known songs is "Feelin ' Alright '', recorded by Traffic in 1968 and later by many other performers, including Joe Cocker, whose version of the song was a hit in 1969. For Traffic, he also wrote "Hole in My Shoe '', a psychedelic pop song that became a hit in its own right. "We Just Disagree '', Mason 's 1977 solo US hit, written by Jim Krueger, has become a staple of US Classic Hits and Adult Contemporary radio playlists.
In 2004, Mason was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a founding member of Traffic.
Mason 's tenure with Traffic was disjointed. He co-founded the group, but left following the recording of their debut album, Mr. Fantasy (1967), only to rejoin halfway through the sessions for their next album, Traffic (1968), after which he left again. Last Exit (1969), a compilation of odds and ends, features little material by Mason apart from his song "Just for You ''. Traffic later re-formed without Mason, although he briefly toured with the band in 1971 and played on Welcome to the Canteen. In his brief spells with the group, Mason never quite fit in; Steve Winwood later recalled, "We all (Winwood, Jim Capaldi and Chris Wood) tended to write together, but Dave would come in with a complete song that he was going to sing and tell us all what he expected us to play. No discussion, like we were his backing group. ''
Mason was a friend of guitarist Jimi Hendrix, whose career was launched in England in 1966. Hendrix first heard the song "All Along the Watchtower '', from Bob Dylan 's album John Wesley Harding, with Mason at the apartment of a friend who had acquired a prior release of the album. Hendrix recorded his own version at Olympic Studios, South West London, with Mason playing 12 - string acoustic guitar. The song was released on the album Electric Ladyland in September 1968. Mason also sings backing vocals on "Crosstown Traffic ''. When it came out as a single in October, it hit No. 5 in the UK Singles Chart and reached the Top 40 in the U.S. Mason later recorded his own version of the song for his 1974 album, Dave Mason, with Bob Glaub on bass. Mason appears on the Rolling Stones ' 1968 album Beggars Banquet, although uncredited. Mason 's connection was Jimmy Miller, who served as producer for the Stones and Traffic. In 1969 -- 1970, Mason toured with Delaney and Bonnie and Friends, along with Eric Clapton and George Harrison. Mason appears on George Harrison 's 1970 solo set All Things Must Pass. In 1970, Mason was slated to be the second guitarist for Derek and the Dominos. He played on their early studio sessions, including the Phil Spector production of "Tell the Truth '', which was later withdrawn from sale (and is now a collectors item). He also played at their first gig at the London Lyceum but left the group soon after that. He co-wrote the song "Big Thirst '' on Oh How We Danced, by Jim Capaldi (Mason 's bandmate in the Hellions, Deep Feeling, and Traffic), and played the guitar solo on "Do n't Be a Hero ''.
After Traffic, Mason pursued a moderately successful solo career. His first single was "Just for You ''; on the B - side, "Little Woman, '' he was backed by the band Family, following his production of Family 's first album, 1968 's Music in a Doll 's House (which included "Never Like This, '' an original Mason song). His songwriting and sound culminated on his 1970 album Alone Together featuring "Only You Know and I Know, '' which reached No. 42 on the Billboard chart. In the early 1970s he enlisted his friend, singer - songwriter Ray Kennedy, to tour and write for his next album. In the mid - to late 1970s, he toured and recorded with guitarist Jim Krueger, keyboardist Mike Finnigan, bassist Gerald Johnson and drummer Rick Jaeger. In 1977, Mason had his biggest hit with "We Just Disagree '', written by Krueger. Reaching No. 12 on the Billboard Hot 100, it was later successfully recorded by country singer Billy Dean. Mason played himself in the film Skatetown, U.S.A., performing two songs in a roller disco as well as writing and performing the film 's theme song.
Mason 's 1980 single, "Save Me '', featured a duet with Michael Jackson. In 1988, a duet with Phoebe Snow, called "Dreams I Dream '' reached # 11 on the US adult contemporary charts.
For a brief period in the 1990s, Mason joined Fleetwood Mac and released the album Time with them in 1995. In 1997 Mason was scheduled to be a member of Ringo Starr & His All - Starr Band, performing "Only You Know and I Know '', "We Just Disagree '' and "Feelin Alright '', but he was dropped from rehearsals before the tour started.
In 2002, he released the DVD Dave Mason: Live at Sunrise, a recording of a live performance at the Sunrise Musical Theater in Sunrise, Florida, backed by Bobby Scumaci on keyboards, Johnne Sambataro on rhythm guitar (who rejoined Mason for the DVD, after previously touring with him in 1978), Richard Campbell on bass and Greg Babcock on drums.
At one time, Mason lived in the Ojai Valley in California. As of 2005, he was performing about 100 shows a year with the Dave Mason Band across the U.S. and Canada.
Mason is a proponent of music education for children. In 2005, he signed on as an official supporter of Little Kids Rock, a non-profit organisation that provides free musical instruments and lessons to children in American public schools. He sits on the organization 's board of directors as an honorary member. Mason also is a founding board member of Yoga Blue, a non-profit organisation devoted to teaching yoga and other holistic practices to those recovering from substance abuse and other self - destructive disorders. Mason and his longtime friend Ted Knapp have founded Rock Our Vets, an all volunteer 501 (c) 3 charity supported by many other musical talents, helping veterans with whatever needs to be done. The charity has focused on providing food and clothing to homeless veterans, laptop computers for vets aspiring to continue their education, as well as suicide prevention.
See Traffic discography
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where does the banks family live in mary poppins | Mary Poppins (film) - wikipedia
Mary Poppins is a 1964 American musical - fantasy film directed by Robert Stevenson and produced by Walt Disney, with songs written and composed by the Sherman Brothers. The screenplay is by Bill Walsh and Don DaGradi, loosely based on P.L. Travers 's book series Mary Poppins. The film, which combines live - action and animation, stars Julie Andrews in her feature film debut as Mary Poppins, who visits a dysfunctional family in London and employs her unique brand of lifestyle to improve the family 's dynamic. Dick Van Dyke, David Tomlinson, and Glynis Johns are featured in supporting roles. The film was shot entirely at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California using painted London background scenes.
Mary Poppins was released on August 27, 1964, to critical acclaim. It received a total of 13 Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture -- a record for any other film released by Walt Disney Studios -- and won five; Best Actress for Andrews, Best Film Editing, Best Original Music Score, Best Visual Effects, and Best Original Song for "Chim Chim Cher - ee ''. In 2013, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. Mary Poppins is widely considered to be Walt Disney 's crowning live - action achievement, his only film to gain a Best Picture nomination at the Oscars in his lifetime.
A sequel titled Mary Poppins Returns, directed by Rob Marshall is scheduled to be released on December 25, 2018.
In Edwardian London, 1910, Bert entertains a crowd as a one - man band when he senses a change in the wind. Afterwards, he directly addresses the audience, and gives them a tour of Cherry Tree Lane, stopping outside the Banks family 's home. George Banks returns home to learn from Winifred that Katie Nanna has left their service after Jane and Michael ran away again. They are returned shortly after by Constable Jones, who reveals the children were chasing a lost kite. The children ask him to help build a better kite, but he dismisses them. Taking it upon himself to hire a new nanny, Mr. Banks advertises for a stern, no - nonsense nanny. Instead, Jane and Michael present their own advertisement for a kinder, sweeter nanny. But once Mr. Banks rips up the letter, and throws the scraps in the fireplace, the remains of the advertisement magically float up, and out into the air.
The next day finds a number of elderly, sour - faced nannies waiting outside. Then, a strong gust of wind blows them away, and Jane and Michael witness a young nanny descending from the sky using her umbrella. Presenting herself to Mr. Banks, Mary Poppins calmly produces the children 's restored advertisement, and agrees with its requests, but promises the astonished banker she will be firm with his children. As Mr Banks puzzles over the advertisement 's return, Mary Poppins hires herself, and convinces him it was originally his idea. She meets the children, then helps them tidy their nursery through song, before heading out for a walk in the park.
Outside, they meet Bert, working as a screever; Mary Poppins uses her magic to transport the group into one of the drawings. While the children ride on a carousel, Mary Poppins and Bert go on a leisurely stroll, and are served tea by a quartet of penguin waiters. Mary Poppins enchants the carousel horses, and participates in a horse race, which she wins. While being asked to describe her victory, Mary Poppins announces the nonsense word "Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious ''. However, the outing is ruined when a thunderstorm demolishes Bert 's drawings, returning the group to London.
On another outing, the four meet Uncle Albert, who has floated up in the air due to his uncontrollable laughter; they join him for a tea party on the ceiling, telling jokes.
Mr. Banks becomes annoyed by his family 's cheery atmosphere, and threatens to fire Mary Poppins. Instead, Mary Poppins inverts his attempt by convincing him to take the children to the bank for a day. Mr. Banks takes Jane and Michael to the bank, where they meet Mr. Dawes Sr. and his son. Mr. Dawes aggressively attempts to have Michael invest his tuppence in the bank, snatching it from him. Michael demands it back, causing other customers to misinterpret, and all demand their own money back, causing a bank run.
Jane and Michael flee the bank, getting lost in the East End until they run into Bert, now working as a chimney sweep, who escorts them home. The three and Mary Poppins venture onto the rooftops, where they have a song - and - dance number with other chimney sweeps. Then, Mr. Banks returns home, receives a phone call from his employers, and speaks with Bert, who tells him he should spend more time with his children before growing up. Jane and Michael give their father Michael 's tuppence in the hope to make amends.
Mr. Banks walks through London to the bank, where he is given a humiliating cashiering, and is dismissed. Looking to the tuppence for words, he blurts out "Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious! '', tells one of Uncle Albert 's jokes, and happily heads home. Dawes mulls over the joke, but finally "gets '' it, and floats up into the air, laughing.
The next day, the wind changes, meaning Mary Poppins must leave. A happier Mr. Banks is found at home, having fixed his children 's kite, and takes the family out to fly it. In the park, the Banks meet Mr. Dawes Jr, who reveals his father died laughing from the joke, and re-employs Mr. Banks as a junior partner. With her work done, Mary Poppins flies away, with Bert bidding her farewell, telling her not to stay away too long.
The first book in the Mary Poppins book series was the film 's main basis. According to the 40th Anniversary DVD release of the film in 2004, Disney 's daughters fell in love with the Mary Poppins books and made him promise to make a film based on them. Disney first attempted to purchase the film rights to Mary Poppins from P.L. Travers as early as 1938 but was rebuffed because Travers did not believe a film version of her books would do justice to her creation. In addition, Disney was known at the time primarily as a producer of cartoons and had yet to produce any major live - action work. For more than 20 years, Disney periodically made efforts to convince Travers to allow him to make a Poppins film. He finally succeeded in 1961, although Travers demanded and got script approval rights. The Sherman Brothers composed the music score and were also involved in the film 's development, suggesting the setting be changed from the 1930s to the Edwardian era. Pre-production and song composition took about two years.
Travers was an adviser to the production. However, she disapproved of the dilution of the harsher aspects of Mary Poppins ' character, felt ambivalent about the music, and so hated the use of animation that she ruled out any further adaptations of the later Mary Poppins novels. She objected to a number of elements that actually made it into the film. Rather than original songs, she wanted the soundtrack to feature known standards of the Edwardian period in which the story is set. She also objected to the animated sequence. Disney overruled her, citing contract stipulations that he had final say on the finished print. Much of the Travers - Disney correspondence is part of the Travers collection of papers in the Mitchell Library of New South Wales, Australia. The relationship between Travers and Disney is detailed in Mary Poppins She Wrote, a biography of Travers, by Valerie Lawson. The biography is the basis for two documentaries on Travers, The Real Mary Poppins, and Lisa Matthews ' The Shadow of Mary Poppins. Their relationship during the development of the film was also dramatized in the 2013 film, Saving Mr. Banks.
Julie Andrews, who was making her feature film acting debut after a successful stage career, got the prime role of Mary Poppins soon after she was passed over by Jack L. Warner and replaced with Audrey Hepburn for the role of Eliza Doolittle in his screen adaptation of My Fair Lady, even though Andrews had originated the role on Broadway. When Disney first approached Andrews about taking on the role, Andrews was three months pregnant and therefore was not sure she should take it. Disney assured her that the crew would be fine with waiting to begin filming until after she had given birth so that she could play the part. Julie Andrews also provided the voice in two other sections of the film: during "A Spoonful of Sugar, '' she provided the whistling harmony for the robin, and she was also one of the Pearly singers during "Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious. '' David Tomlinson, besides playing Mr. Banks, provided the voice of Mary 's talking umbrella and numerous other voice - over parts (including that of Admiral Boom 's first mate). During the "Jolly Holiday '' sequence, the three singing Cockney geese were all voiced by Marni Nixon, a regular aural substitute for actresses with substandard singing voices. Nixon would later provide the singing voice for Hepburn in My Fair Lady and play one of Andrews ' fellow nuns in The Sound of Music. Andrews later beat Hepburn for the Best Actress Award at the Golden Globes for their respective roles. Andrews would also win the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role. Hepburn did not receive a nomination. Richard Sherman, one of the songwriters, also voiced a penguin as well as one of the Pearlies. Robert Sherman dubbed the speaking voice for Jane Darwell because Darwell 's voice was too weak to be heard in the soundtrack. Sherman 's voice is heard saying the only line: "Feed the Birds, Tuppence a bag. ''
Disney cast Dick Van Dyke in the key supporting role of Bert after seeing his work on The Dick Van Dyke Show. After winning the role of Bert, Van Dyke lobbied to also play the senior Mr. Dawes, but Disney originally felt he was too young for the part. Van Dyke eventually won Disney over after a screen test. Although he is fondly remembered for this film, Van Dyke 's attempt at a Cockney accent is regarded as one of the worst film accents in history, cited as an example by actors since as something that they wish to avoid. In a 2003 poll by Empire magazine of the worst film accents of all time, he came second. Van Dyke claims that his accent coach was the Irish J. Pat O'Malley, who "did n't do an accent any better than I did ''.
Filming took place between May and September 1963, with post-production and animation taking another 11 months.
The film changed the book 's storyline in a number of places. For example, Mary, when approaching the house, controlled the wind rather than the other way around. As another example, the father, rather than the mother, interviewed Mary for the nanny position. A number of other changes were necessary to condense the story into feature length. In the film, there are only two Banks children, Jane and Michael. The satirical and mysterious aspects of the original book gave way to a cheerful and "Disney - fied '' tone. Mary Poppins ' character as portrayed by Andrews in the film is somewhat less vain and more sympathetic towards the children compared to the rather cold and intimidating nanny of the original book. Bert, as played by Van Dyke, was a composite of several characters from Travers ' stories. Travers demanded that any suggestions of romance between Mary and Bert be eliminated, so lyrics were written for "Jolly Holiday '' that clearly indicated that their friendship was purely platonic; some subtle hints of romance, however, did remain in the finished film.
Buena Vista Records released the original motion picture soundtrack on LP and reel - to - reel tape. Due to time constraints, some songs were edited (such as "Step in Time '' and "Jolly Holiday '', "A Spoonful of Sugar ''), while songs also featured introductory passages ("Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious '') or completed endings ("Sister Suffragette '', "Fidelity Fiduciary Bank '', "A Man Has Dreams ''). Written by Richard and Robert Sherman, the songs were inspired by Edwardian British music hall music. The score won two Grammy Awards and two Academy Awards.
Walt Disney Records re-issued the soundtrack in 1997, including a 16 - minute track of unreleased songs and demo versions. In 2004, as part of the 40th Anniversary (also called Special Edition), a 28 - track disc (as part of a two - disc set) was released. In 2014 (the 50th anniversary of the film 's release), the soundtrack was released in a 3 - CD edition as part of the Walt Disney Records The Legacy Collection series; this edition includes demos of many "lost '' tracks.
All tracks are written by Richard M. Sherman and Robert B. Sherman.
A number of other songs were written for the film by the Sherman Brothers and either rejected or cut for time. Richard Sherman, on the 2004 DVD release, indicated that more than 30 songs were written at various stages of the film 's development. No cast recordings of any of these songs have been released to the public, only demos or later performances done by the songwriters -- with the exception of the rooftop reprise of "Chim Chim Cher - ee '' and the "smoke staircase yodel '' mentioned below.
The Compass Sequence, a precursor to "Jolly Holiday '', was to be a multiple - song sequence. A number of possible musical components have been identified:
Mary Poppins premiered on August 27, 1964, at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles. Travers was not extended an invitation to the event, but managed to obtain one from a Disney executive. It was at the after - party that Richard Sherman recalled her walking up to Disney and loudly announcing that the animated sequence had to go. Disney responded, "Pamela, the ship has sailed, '' and walked away.
Mary Poppins was first released in late 1980 on VHS, Betamax, CED and LaserDisc. On October 28, 1994, August 26, 1997, and March 31, 1998, it was re-released three times as part of the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection. In 1998, this film became Disney 's first DVD. On July 4, 2000, it was released on VHS and DVD as part of the Gold Classic Collection. On December 14, 2004, it had a 2 - Disc DVD release in a Digitally Restored 40th Anniversary Edition as well as its final issue in the VHS Format. The film 's audio track featured an "Enhanced Home Theater Mix '' consisting of replaced sound effects (to make the soundtrack more "modern '') and improved fidelity and mixing and some enhanced music (this version was also shown on 2006 -- 2012 ABC Family airings of the movie.) On January 27, 2009, the film was released on DVD again as a 45th anniversary edition, with more language tracks and special features (though the film 's "Enhanced Home Theater Mix '' was not included.) Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on Blu - ray as the 50th Anniversary Edition on December 10, 2013.
The film received universal acclaim from film critics. Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 100 % of critics gave the film a "fresh '' rating, based on 44 reviews with an average score of 8.3 / 10. The site 's consensus refers to it as "A lavish modern fairy tale celebrated for its amazing special effects, catchy songs, and Julie Andrews 's legendary performance in the title role. ''
Variety praised the film 's musical sequences and the performances of Julie Andrews and Dick Van Dyke, in particular. Time lauded the film, stating, "The sets are luxuriant, the songs lilting, the scenario witty but impeccably sentimental, and the supporting cast only a pinfeather short of perfection. ''
Critic Drew Casper summarized the impact of Mary Poppins in 2011:
Disney was the leader, his musical fantasies mixing animation and truly marvelous f / x with real - life action for children and the child in the adult. Mary Poppins (1964) was his plum... the story was elemental, even trite. But utmost sophistication (the chimney pot sequence crisply cut by Oscared "Cotton '' Warburton) and high - level invention (a tea party on the ceiling, a staircase of black smoke to the city 's top) characterized its handling.
The film earned $31 million in North American rentals during its initial run. The film was re-released theatrically in 1973, in honor of Walt Disney Productions ' 50th anniversary, and earned an estimated additional $9 million in North American rentals. It was released once more in 1980 and grossed $14 million. It returned a total lifetime rental of $45 million to Disney from a gross of over $102 million from its North American theatrical releases.
The film was the twentienth most popular sound film of the twentieth century in the UK with admissions of 14 million.
The film was very profitable for Disney. Made on an estimated budget of $4.4 -- 6 million, it was reported by Cobbett Steinberg to be the most profitable film of 1965, earning a net profit of $28.5 million. Walt Disney used his huge profits from the film to purchase land in central Florida and finance the construction of Walt Disney World.
Mary Poppins is widely considered to be one of the greatest films of all time and Walt Disney 's "crowning achievement ''. It was the only film of Disney 's to garner a "Best Picture '' nomination at the Oscars in his lifetime.
The film also inspired the eighth - season episode of The Simpsons entitled "Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala (Annoyed Grunt) cious '', featuring a parody of Mary called "Shary Bobbins '' who helps out the Simpson family after Marge loses her hair due to stress, and spoofs of the songs "The Perfect Nanny '', "A Spoonful of Sugar '', "Feed The Birds '' and "The Life I Lead ''.
Never at ease with the handling of her property by Disney or the way she felt she had been treated, Travers would never again agree to another Poppins / Disney adaptation. So fervent was Travers ' dislike of the Disney adaptation and of the way she felt she had been treated during the production, that when producer Cameron Mackintosh approached her about the stage musical in the 1990s, she acquiesced on the condition that he used only English - born writers and no one from the film production were to be directly involved with creating the stage musical.
On September 14, 2015, it was reported that a new film was in development by Walt Disney Pictures. The film will take place 20 years after the first, featuring a standalone narrative based on the remaining seven books in the series. Rob Marshall has been hired to direct, while John DeLuca and Marc Platt will serve as producers.
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who won the gold medal in ice dance | Torvill and Dean - wikipedia
Torvill and Dean (Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean) are British ice dancers and former British, European, Olympic and World champions. At the Sarajevo 1984 Winter Olympics the pair won gold and became the highest scoring figure skaters of all time (for a single programme) receiving twelve perfect 6.0 s and six 5.9 s which included artistic impression scores of 6.0 from every judge, after skating to Maurice Ravel 's Boléro. Their performance was watched by a British television audience of more than 24 million people. The pair turned professional following the 1984 World Championships, regaining amateur status briefly ten years later in 1994 to compete in the Olympics once again. The pair retired from competitive skating for good in 1998 when they toured one last time with their own show, Ice Adventures, before rejoining Stars on Ice for one more season. Their final routine was performed to Paul Simon 's "Still Crazy After All These Years '', a routine they had devised a few years earlier for competition. Although remaining close friends, the pair did not skate together again until they were enticed out of retirement to take part in ITV 's Dancing on Ice.
Both are from Nottingham, England, where the local National Ice Centre is accessed through a public area known as Bolero Square, in honour of the pair 's Olympic achievements. There is also a housing estate in the Wollaton area of the city with a street named ' Torvill Drive ' and another named ' Dean Close ' which is located just off Torvill Drive, with many of the surrounding roads named after coaches and dances associated with the pair. In a UK poll conducted by Channel 4 in 2002, the British public voted Torvill and Dean 's historic gold - medal - winning performance at the 1984 Winter Olympics as Number 8 in the list of the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments.
Around 1975, Jayne Torvill was a former British Junior Pairs champion, and Christopher Dean and his partner had won a British Junior Ice Dance competition. Nottingham coach Janet Sawbridge put them together, and shortly afterwards, they started their ice dancing history. They took their first trophy in 1976. They changed coaches to Betty Callaway in 1979. After a 5th - place finish at their first Olympic Games, in Lake Placid in the 1980 Winter Olympics, and 4th place in the Worlds that year, they never took lower than first place in any competition they entered except the 1994 Winter Olympics.
Singer - actor Michael Crawford was the fourth member of the team, along with their trainer. He became a mentor to them around 1981, and went on to help them create their 1983 and 1984 Olympic routines, and "taught them how to act ''. Crawford said of them, "I found them to be delightful young people, the kind you want to help if you can. '' (The Times November 1982). He was present with their trainer at the ringside, when the team won their perfect Olympics score with their Boléro routine. (Source: Torvill and Dean 's 1996 autobiography partially cited at)
Although Torvill and Dean had been able to leave their jobs as an insurance book clerk and policeman, respectively -- thanks to grants from the City of Nottingham -- they were not allowed to earn any money from skating as long as they wished to remain eligible for the Olympics. Turning professional in 1984, they took advantage not only of the financial but of the artistic possibilities of their new status. They worked with Australian dance choreographer Graeme Murphy at first, and they were able to create not only routines for themselves but entire ice shows with a thematic coherence, which toured Australia, the U.S., and Europe. Their projects included a filmed fairy tale "Fire and Ice. '' In general, Dean would imagine the sequence he wanted to perform, and Torvill would work with him to refine it technically. They choreographed, as a team, for other ice dancers and skaters, particularly the Canadian brother -- sister team Isabelle and Paul Duchesnay, who skated for France at the Albertville 1992 Winter Olympics, taking the silver medal with their West Side Story routine.
After ten years as professionals, Torvill and Dean decided to return to the amateur arena for the 1994 Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway (along with other great skaters of the 1980s, such as Brian Boitano and Katarina Witt, following a change in eligibility rules). The couple moved to Hamar, Norway, in 1993 in order to practise at the Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre which hosted the figure skating events. Their free dance was designed to re-establish some of the ideas about ice dance which they themselves had been instrumental in dismantling; "Let 's Face The Music and Dance '' had no swooning lovers, theatrical accessories, or strong ideological message; instead, the emphasis was upon pure, light - hearted dance in the Astaire and Rogers tradition. The routine did have one move, an assisted lift, which pushed the envelope of the rules, though they had danced the routine at the European Championships with no indication from the judges of any problems. According to their joint autobiography, Facing the Music, the lift was technically legal because the rule prohibited lifts "above the shoulders, '' and the lift they used was not above the shoulders. The judges placed Torvill and Dean third, giving the second to perennial silver medalists Usova and Zhulin, and the gold medal to Grishuk and Platov, who continued to win gold through the next four years.
After the disappointing finish at Lillehammer, Torvill and Dean "retired from competitive skating '' on 2 March 1994. Instead, they continued with their planned and very successful "Face the Music '' tour, to be followed by numerous other projects: Dean choreographed a suite of dances to the songs of Paul Simon for the English National Ballet, professional competitions, touring with Stars on Ice, and collaborating with cellist Yo - Yo Ma and director Patricia Rozema on the video Inspired by Bach: Six Gestures. In late 1998, they produced an ice show at Wembley Stadium in London, "Ice Adventures, '' which included a "flying '' ice ballet and other wonders. In the meantime, they were still choreographing, notably for the dynamic French Ice Dance team, Anissina and Peizerat, who won first place in the World Championships in 2000.
In 1998, the pair officially retired, each continuing to coach and choreograph separately. Since 2006, they have acted as coaches, choreographers and performers in ITV 's Dancing on Ice and its Australian version Torvill and Dean 's Dancing on Ice. The ITV show returned for a fifth series in January 2010. After the 2007 and 2008 UK series of Dancing on Ice, Torvill and Dean took the show on the road for a British tour; a similar tour, the "25th Anniversary '' (of their Sarajevo Olympic success) took place in 2009.
In 2014, Torvill and Dean returned to Sarajevo to dance the Bolero one more time, celebrating the 30 year anniversary of their Olympics performance. Invited by the mayor of Sarajevo ahead of the Youth Olympic Games in 2017, the event helped raise funds for a permanent ice rink and reminded the world of their efforts to bring back the Olympics to Sarajevo. 2015 saw Torvill and Dean make their pantomime début at the Manchester Opera House, performing in "Cinderella ''.
After winning the 1981 World Figure Skating Championships (which brought the distinction of MBEs), and with three more years before the Olympics, they began to plan routines which used a single piece of music and had some narrative or thematic element. At that time, Ice Dance "long '' routines typically used several pieces of music, often with different rhythms to show off the command of different steps (thus their Free Dance in 1981 used "Fame '', "Caravan '', "Red Sails in the Sunset '', and "Sing, Sing, Sing ''); the Original Set Pattern dance used only one piece of music, but the entire routine had to be performed three times in sequence, exactly the same way. In 1982, they presented a long programme to the overture from the musical Mack and Mabel, which evoked the emotions of a sweet but stormy romance; at the World Championships in 1983, they enacted a visit to the circus with music from Barnum, a performance which brought them the honour of receiving the world 's first perfect score, with help from the stage show 's star, Michael Crawford; in 1984, at the Olympics, they stunned the world with Boléro, and also with their dramatic Paso Doble (Capriccio Espagnol) short routine, in which Torvill was the bullfighter 's cape. They had learned to choose and edit music carefully and design routines that were appealing both technically and imaginatively, and their completeness of presentation included thematically appropriate costumes.
In 1989, during the duo 's visit to Australia, they recorded an album Here We Stand, produced by Kevin Stanton with arrangements by Warwick Bone and Derek Williams, and recorded while Christopher Dean was laid up in Sydney, recuperating from a torn ligament. Sales of the album were poor, and this may have been due to the fact that the album featured the dancers singing the material ghosted by backing vocalists, instead of the music they danced to, however it survives on iTunes.
Torvill and Dean 's 1984 Olympic free dance was skated to Maurice Ravel 's Boléro. Ravel 's original Boléro composition is over 17 minutes long. Olympics rules state that the free dance must be four minutes long (plus or minus ten seconds). Torvill and Dean went to a music arranger to condense Boléro down to a "skateable '' version. However, they were told that the minimum time that Boléro could be condensed down to was 4 minutes 28 seconds, 18 seconds in excess of the Olympics rules. Torvill and Dean reviewed the Olympic rule book and found that it stated that actual timing of a skating routine began when the skaters started skating. Therefore, they could use Boléro if they did not place their skates ' blades to ice for the first 18 seconds. They timed the performance so that when Torvill first placed a blade on the ice, they would have the maximum skating time remaining.
Designed in Autumn 1984 for the World Professional Championships held in December 1984 (source Facing the Music: 1995: 148).
The piece was choreographed jointly between Jayne and Chris together with Graeme Murphy, Artistic Director with the Sydney Dance Company at the time. The costumes consisted of both Jayne and Chris wearing billowing orange / red trousers with brief top pieces adorned with India jewels. The piece consists of a tremendous amount of drawn - out lifts, twisting, intertwining, and even sitting and rolling on the ice to create a balletic piece which they describe at evoking Indian sculptures.
The piece was first performed at the 1984 Royal Variety Show in London, before going on to win with straight 10s at the 1984 World Professional Championships. An extended Company version of the dance was devised for the 1985 / 1986 World Tour. It is also known to have been performed again for the one - off televised production with the Russian All Stars at the Luzhniki rink in Moscow in 1987.
The piece contains a unique move of immense technical balance, design, and strength, whereby Dean lifts Torvill feet - first, allowing her to take hold of his lower calf. He then lifts his one leg back with Torvill held horizontal across his body as he completes the lift gliding forward on one leg. The obvious difficulty and stunning symmetry of the lift made it quite a show stopper, and they can be seen to repeat the lift during the 1993 Skates of Gold Exhibition in Boston USA when they take to the ice with their peers from their amateur period: Marina Klimova & Sergei Ponomarenko, and Natalia Bestemianova and Andrei Bukin. Dean and Torvill showed that the years have done nothing to detract from their skill, strength and balance when they incorporated the same lift into a re-worked version of Bolero for the 2007 series of Dancing on Ice.
Encounter runs at over six minutes and was for Torvill and Dean their most enduring professional performance, winning them the World Professional Championships in 1984 and known to be used as performance piece until 1987. They resurrected the piece in 1994 to win at the World Team Championships. It is last known to have been performed at Wembley for the Face the Music World Tour filmed in June 1995.
The theme of the piece involves two people who walk past each other in the street, notice each other, do a double take, and instantly fall in love. What follows is a brief encounter of two people very much in love but destined to be apart. The costumes were minimalist and unobtrusive, in keeping with the understatedness of the piece, consisting in the 1980s of a small sleek light grey - blue dress for Torvill cut like a mini-skirt and a silver - grey outfit for Dean. When Encounter was performed in the 1990s, Torvill wore a dress designed to look identical to the original, while Dean now wore shirt and trousers to match the colour of Torvill 's outfit exactly.
A ten - minute group number, with Torvill and Dean taking part in the Heaven section, dressing in cream - white outfits.
This dance was devised as part of their first World Tour, and formed their number in the Planet Suite, with various members of the Company performing the other planet pieces and the whole company performing Jupiter.
The premise of Venus is that Jayne is the Goddess of Love looking after the world (source Facing the Music: 1995: 167). The world is actually physically represented in the piece by large globe lit up inside and suspended by a wire (controlled by a boom operator) orbiting Torvill and Dean throughout the dance. The opening of the number was most unusual, consisting of an immensely tall Jayne skating on in a large voluminous cloak and sending the globe / sphere into orbit. Chris was in fact concealed within the cloak, lifting Jayne throughout the opening sequence, to then be revealed as the dance begins. The dance is extremely graceful, with many unusual lifts and intricate moves. The costumes were white, with Jayne wearing a white headscarf adorned with a gold coronet.
The dance was used as the artistic piece for the 1985 World Championships which they won for the second year in a row.
The spectacular finale piece for Torvill and Dean 's first World Tour involving Torvill and Dean spinning like heavenly bodies with half a dozen fliers around them in orbit on wires. At the end, all the lights would go off except for ultraviolet, leaving them apparently spinning in space (source Facing the Music: 1995: 167).
Another dance devised as part of their first World Tour, and also used to win as the technical piece in the 1985 World Professional Championships.
This dance was Torvill and Dean 's first real venture into humour. Later notable comic dances would be Hatrick, Low Commotion, and Trunk Tango, but this remains arguably the most slapstick. Dean 's costume is Spanish in appearance, reflecting the Spanish music, consisting of an open - neck white shirt with a loose black tie, black trousers, and a large purple sash around his waist. Jayne is in a black 1920s ' outfit, complete with arm - length gloves and basin hat.
This dance was designed specifically for the 1986 Sports Aid Gala, the proceeds of which went to causes in need in Africa. It is not clear whether it was ever performed again thereafter, but the photo caption on page 76 of Fire on Ice (Wilson: 1994) suggests that it was then incorporated into the World Tour, at least for its next visit to Wembley.
The lyrics are in fact those of a very simple old folk song depicting a Shepherd and Shepherdess calling to each other across mountain pastures. The booklet with the CD "A La Francaise '' gives the following translation of the song:
"Shepherd, across the water, you are scarcely having a good time,
Sing bailero, lero, lero. Scarcely, and you? Sing bailero, lero. Shepherd, how do I get over there, there 's a big stream, sing bailero, lero. Wait, I 'll came and get you,
The dance begins and ends most unusually with the dancers lying entwined together asleep on the ice. The opening depicting daybreak and the end nightfall. In the reverse of Bolero, it is Dean who steps onto the ice first and brings Jayne to her feet. The dance is highly balletic, with operatic movements incorporated. At one point in the dance Torvill and Dean encircle each other catching hold of each other 's ice skate in constant succession creating a very beautiful, intricate and highly technical fluid movement. The costumes are very simple, with Torvill in white and Dean in a loose fitting armless shirt piece and brown trousers with white leg ties.
Torvill and Dean devised Fire and Ice in Australia with Graeme Murphy, sold it to LWT (London Weekend Television -- part of ITV). It was written by Tom Gutteridge and Carl Davis and rehearsed and filmed in Germany ready for its UK television premier in Christmas 1986.
Fire and Ice is a full length company piece creating narrative ballet on ice. Set between the Planet of Fire and the Planet of Ice, it tells of a love story between a Prince of Fire and a Princess of Ice. It is a full set piece with visual designs and effects depicting different locations on the two planets and telling the story. The piece opens with Dean performing actually ballet within the catacombs of the Plant of Fire, while seeing Torvill in the blue flames of their altar. Upon diving in, he finds himself upon her planet. He meets her and, after taking some time to adapt to her planet, they fall in love. She gets called away to a Royal Ceremony but she rejoins him later. The following morning they are discovered and a violent attack is carried out on the Fire Prince by her own people. She pleads with her father to have mercy on him but he banishes her from his sight and the Fire Prince is left trapped in a prison of ice. Later the Ice Princess sneaks back to him and melts the ice with all her strength, leaving her close to death. The Fire Prince revives her and they are together once more. Meanwhile, the Prince 's own people have witnessed his fate in the flames and have arrived on the Planet of Ice. A war breaks out which ends in the death of both the Prince 's and Princess 's fathers. Devastated and alone, they find each other once more and grieve. As time heals their wounds and their love endures, a distant archway appears towering over the icy mountains. We watch them make their journey towards the arch and finally enter and make their break for freedom and a new life together.
Released all over the world on video and DVD, the production is unique in Torvill and Dean 's repertoire -- their feature film. The piece contains many dances between the two of them, some of them comic (including one where Dean is actually wearing ordinary shoes on the ice as he is learning to adapt), some of them romantic and passionate, and some of them highly dramatic, including dancing separately with the company dancers representing the people from their respective planets. For the most part, Dean wears a costume almost identical in design to his Song of India costume, only this time, rather than being red and orange, this one is red and burgundy, representing his fiery origins. Torvill wears an Ice Queen costume complete with crown, silver hair, and silver blue dress cut like icicles at the bottom.
This medley of Irving Berlin numbers danced in tribute to Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers was devised for the brief tour Torvill and Dean did with the Ice Capades in 1987, but continued as the final number throughout their long Russian All Stars Tour into 1990. For costumes Chris wore full white tie, waistcoat, and tails, while Jayne wore a flowing near full - length blue dress complete with blue feather boa. Although neatly choreographed with spectacular music and lighting effects, it was arguably not as evocative of Fred and Ginger or as technically accomplished as the amazing "Puttin ' On the Ritz '' routines that they performed at the Skate Canada Amateur exhibition in 1982. One impressive component however was the incorporation of tap steps on ice during the middle of the routine. During the All Stars Tour (and possibly the Ice Capades as well) they kept to a similar theme for the final bow, skating on with the company to I Got Rhythm.
Little is known about this piece and it has never been released commercially and possibly never recorded. It was created as one of their pieces for the 1987 Ice Capades Tour. In their autobiography, Dean states that he passed on the dance for Isabelle and Paul Duchesnay to perform in 1988, and that the dance was about the relationship between a boy and a girl, with the boy breaking in upon the woman 's dreams
Excerpt taken from: Torvill and Dean: Romancing the Ice -- Ice Cycles 1988
Both Dean and Torvill seem eager for responses to their new routines in the show and gratified with the verdict that everything is just great, with special accolades going to "Eleanor Rigby ''. It was their newest routine and it 's a very interesting version of the song, undertaken with Paul McCartney, having little relation to the earlier Beatles recording. The version used was from the soundtrack of McCartney 's film Give My Regards to Broad Street. Dean and Torvill hated the movie but really liked that version of the song.
Paganini is a full Company Ballet choreographed by Tatiana Tarasova, with Torvill and Dean, together with lead dancer Yuri Ovchinikov as the leads. The performance consists of many highly balletic dances between Torvill and Dean and a few solo performances with the other company members present on the ice. The piece does evoke traditional Russian ballet and both Torvill and Dean perform extremely well throughout with many beautiful and unique moves. The costumes are simple -- Chris in a flamboyant white shirt piece and Jayne all in white, very similar to, if not the same as, as her costume in Shepherd 's Song. Originally filmed and performed for the one - off televised production with the Russian All Stars at the Luzhniki rink in Moscow in 1987, it is not clear whether it became a permanent part of the Russian All Stars Tour, but it seems likely that it was performed in at least the first five months of the Tour. It is not clear whether another company performance they were working on under Chris 's choreography at the time, La Ronde, was ever completed or performed. It would appear that it was probably disbanded and replaced with Akhnaton.
Excerpt taken from Torvill and Dean 's autobiography:
Tatiana wanted to do a story of Paganini, portraying two sides to his character. Niccolo Paganini was many things: the greatest violin virtuoso of the last century, a composer, the megastar of his day, and romantic adventurer devoured by melancholy. He had seemed to Tatiana to be a perfect hero for Russian -- a soul in conflict with himself. Yuri Ovchinikov would be dancing Paganini 's crazy persona, Chris dancing the creative one, with Jayne as the great man 's muse. Neither of us took to the number, but restrained ourselves for the sake of a peaceful life.
Performed to South American music, this routine was always very dimly lit for performance, giving the impression of two people on the run, traveling at night and contending with the elements. Chris wears grey - brown trousers and shirt, with Jayne in a simple one - colour burnt red dress. The symmetry in this dance is stunning, particularly the spinning moves created specifically to demonstrate the despair of the dancers / characters. They performed this throughout the Russian All Stars Tour and at various exhibitions including the 1990 Sports Aid Gala and recreated it in 1994 for the American Artistry on Ice documentary.
Excerpt taken from Torvill and Dean 's autobiography (Facing the Music: 1995: 201):
One thing that required our attention was Chris 's response to some Andean music, which reminded him of the terrible things -- particularly the officially sanctioned kidnappings -- that had been happening in Chile and Argentina in recent years. The subject was very much in the air after the Falklands War, and more recently the Costa Gavras movie, Missing. Chris saw in his mind those who had vanished, the fathers, mothers, husbands, wives, lovers, friends and children, and devised a series of movements linking two people who could be seen as friends or brother and sister, confronting authority, cowering before it, searching for lost loved ones, and ending where they started, in limbo.
Akhnaton is another company performance devised for the Russian All Stars Tour that was never commercially released on film, and no known copies exist. The costumes were of traditional Egyptian royalty design. The piece received good reviews including repeated praise in the New York Times, and they refer to the piece regularly in their autobiography.
Excerpt taken from Torvill and Dean 's autobiography:
Chris had been interested for a while in ancient Middle Eastern history, and on a trip to London immersed himself in the Egyptian room of the British Museum. He liked the feel of the mythology, Isis and Osiris, Pharaoh as god, the idea of dying as rebirth into the real world, the richness of the funerary ornamentation, all that gold lapis lazuli, the stylised poses in the paintings, the hieroglyphics, and in particular the love story of Akhnaton and his queen Nefertiti. Then by chance we came across the CD of a new opera by Philip Glass, called, of all things Akhnaton. This is not exactly top ten material -- minimalist style, vastly long phrases of repeated notes, but in mood just what Chris was looking for. All we needed was to reduce a three - hour epic to 30 minutes. To do that demanded total immersion in the story and imagery. It was an odd thing to do, which involved some long negotiations on our behalf with Philip Glass himself.
The dance opened with a strong image to seize and hold the audience. A huge pyramid of silk, 25 - foot square at its base, was being admired by modern tourists. Suddenly, a line attached to the top whipped the pyramid up and away, revealing the world of ordinary Egyptians in the 14th century BC, all in skirts and sandal - like skates. Chris as the Pharaoh made his entry carried on a throne, which led into a love sequence with Jayne as Nefertiti, then a rebellion by the people and a royal death, leaving Jayne / Nefertiti in mourning.
Widely available on the Russian All Stars video realised in 1990, the group number involved the whole company dressed up as a pack of cards -- representing different suits, numbers, and court characters. It is a very lighthearted piece with little substance and was clearly provided as accessible comic relief from the other more demanding group pieces. Jayne and Chris come on at the end with the spades. Each dancer carries a large representing card, Jayne 's is the Queen of Spades and Chris 's is the King. Jayne skates mainly with the female skaters in a group with Chris joining them, defending them from the comic advances of the Joker in the pack. Chris wears black trousers, white shirt and waistcoat, with a sparkly red bowtie and jacket with gold lapels. Jayne has a very short flashy red dress with a spade in the middle.
Presumably designed at the beginning of the All Stars Tour, though possibly not until later in the run, this is something of a forgotten masterpiece, even though it has always been available on the Russian All Stars video. Both are dressed in shiny white outfits with blue and mauve embroidery. The ice is lit a wintry blue and the movements take full advantage of the images of Husky - drawn sleighs, winter pageants, and snow - covered landscapes that the music evokes so successfully. The dance is immensely fast and yet graceful at the same time. It actually begins in a static lift already posed as the lights go up, and it contains many large lifts from then on. Jayne leaps effortlessly onto Chris 's shoulders on a number of occasions and, in one move, even leaps all the way round him, going above his head, with seemingly very little assistance (they later incorporated this move into Mack and Mabel for their Face the Music Tour in the mid ' 90s). It contains many symmetrical dance steps and large sweeping arm gestures, with a succession of impressive lifts and a series of symmetrical jumps and leaps carried out in perfect unison with each other, giving the impression of animals running through the forest. Unique to this dance is a series of two symmetrical steps where they literally leap high into the air together but leaning forward with their inside leg bent as they plunge back to the ground, putting their outside leg straight out behind them. The move actually makes them look like two stags leaping and bounding and thrusting their antlers forward. The piece ends with Jayne throwing herself onto Chris, who bends with Jayne balanced on his knees and allows himself to fall flat on to his back, ending with Jayne suspended in the air held up by Chris, forming a dramatic and very beautiful final tableau as Chris continues to glide across the ice on his back. Hi grace
Devised initially as one of the new extra pieces for the second leg of the Russian All Stars Tour, this piece went on to be performed for competition to win the World Professional Championships in 1990, and they were still performing a section of it by their 1992 Ukrainian Tour. In the 1992 "Simply the Best '' documentary, Chris states "in Echoes of Ireland we visited the country to get an idea of the people and their music before we choreographed this piece for the ice ''. The finished piece is actually an ensemble of three quite separate routines, which they later performed in different orders or simply on their own. The first is a tradition lighthearted Irish jig with some very clever footwork. The second is a more sombre dance done to older tradition Irish Folk music. The third piece is a more modern piece, a very beautiful new age number done to a song sung by an Irish female artist. This final dance includes an unusual lift where Jayne jumps up and sits high upon one of Chris 's shoulders facing the opposite way from him. The costumes consist of brown trousers, cream shirt, yellow neckerchief, and green - check waistcoat for Chris, and an off - orange dress with embroidered collar and sleeves and white apron for Jayne.
Performed during the latter half of the All Stars Tour and also used to win the 1990 World Professional Championships, this piece is very different from any other they performed. It was highly technical, physically demanding with a lot of high and drawn - out lifts, and visually very impressive. True to the style of the music, Revolution is extremely fast - paced and performed with an aggression that neither had displayed before. The movements express violence, dissent, anguish, and entrapment. The costumes were very sophisticated in style: Chris wore back trousers, white open - necked shirt, and a smart black and purple waistcoat, while Jayne wore black trousers and a voluminous white silk blouse. What was particularly unusual about Jayne 's costume was that she actually wore black skates to blend right in with her trousers. While Chris always wore skates the dominant colour of his costume, even when in trousers Jayne rarely did, consistently skating in white skates in nearly all routines.
Excerpt taken from Torvill and Dean 's autobiography (Facing the Music: 1995: 227 -- 228):
Revolution was most ambitious. Its inspiration was a Montréal dance group we had seen in Sydney with the odd name of La La La Human Steps, whose rapid, machine - gun, staccato movements were unlike anything we had seen before. Chris thought the technique might be adapted for the ice, if we replaced the dancers ' lifts and throws with quick - fire upper - body movements. It was long, fast and very testing, not only of our abilities as dancers, but also as actors, in particular Jayne, who had to go completely against character, with vicious movements and displays of anger. That was new, not only for her: nobody to our knowledge had done anything like this on ice before.
In the 1991 Blade Runners documentary Jayne says:
"I did n't like Revolution at first because I 'm not an aggressive person, so it was good that he pushed it because it brought out another side of me -- another character that I could portray ''. Chris then goes on to explain the theme of the piece, and explains how it leads into imagine and why the perform the two pieces together: "the idea is of it 's a young couple that have been married for a few years and it 's not that fairytale life of happiness. Which happens to a lot of people -- that something goes wrong and tension builds and anger grows within that. And I wanted to put that onto the ice -- this raw aggression -- and overstate it -- so that, for people sitting right the way back, it becomes literal though body. But it follows on in a sort of resolve -- not necessarily a happy ending -- it then goes into Imagine. Maybe there is something else, maybe there is a compromise or at least an understanding of their situation. They may not get back together or it may not be resolved but they 've analysed that they have a problem and maybe there is something to work towards and achieve a happier solution ''.
Music: Arvo Part Known performance period 1989 -- 1990 Versions available on video / DVD or internet: none known
Little is known of this piece other than it is a modern piece by composer Arvo Part (source: Facing the Music: 1995: 227). It has never been commercially available and no footage has come to light on the internet. It was the third routine designed in 1989 for the second leg of the Russian All Stars Tour.
When Torvill and Dean decided to compete professionally again in 1990, they used three pieces already designed for both the Ice Capades and the Russian All Stars, but Oscar Tango was the one new piece specifically designed as the technical routine for the World Professional Championships, which they went on to win. The piece is entirely unique in that the first minute and a half is skated in total silence, with the music only beginning after this time. In that time Jayne and Chris stamp out a series of extremely precise, sharp, and fast tango steps entirely separately from each other, but in complete unison and perfect split - second timing. In the "Story So Far... '' video released in 1996, Chris explains that "the movements in the silence represent the typical tango, but as the music begins we wanted to express the inner feelings of these two dancers ''. However, it could also be interpreted that they are dancing with other partners during the silence (both hold a stance as if miming holding an invisible partner) for whom they feel no connection, only to lose all rigidity when they find each other, instead experiencing total connection, fluidity of movement, and emotion through dancing with each other. The costumes were a patterned blend of sky, royal, and navy blues starting light at the top and getting gradually darker. A lot of new moves were created for this piece, many of which they would call upon again throughout the routines they devised from 1994 -- 1998. This included a whole series of moves that were lifted direct from Oscar Tango and placed within the Olympic version of ' Lets Face the Music ', moves that were to be repeated in ' In My Life ', and a highly strenuous move whereby Chris lifts Jayne upside down and she puts her legs vertically in the air high above his head before swinging them back down to lie vertically across Chris balancing on his bent knees. This move was used again in ' In Trutina ' during their 1995 -- 96 World Tour and again for ' Bridge Over Troubled Water ' also devised in 1995. They created the move once more in 2006, this time incorporating it into their shortened and redesigned version of Bolero.
In 1990, the BBC programme Omnibus approached Torvill and Dean to do a programme on their choreography. The documentary focused on how their choreography had advanced during their professional years, away from the rigid rules of amateur competition, focusing on the comic performance of Hat Trick, the political expression of Missing, the technical accomplishment of Oscar Tango, and the stylistic performance of Revolution / Imagine. The documentary also scored a first by persuading Chris and Jayne to produce an entirely new dance especially for it. The piece was named Iceworks for the documentary but later named Tilt when performed at events. As a televisual piece Iceworks was able to have dry ice effects, an artistic backdrop, and highly evocative lighting effects. The up - and - coming Jazz composer Andy Sheppard was asked to compose an entirely new piece of music specifically for the routine, and Chris worked closely with him on the composition process. The music was derived initially by blending saxophone with the sound of Chris and Jayne 's blades gliding across the ice; thereafter a beat kicks in together with a slightly ethereal simple tune. The costumes consisted of matching (though not identical) all - in - one tight - fitting pieces consisting of a mix of pastel colours: yellow, pink, mauve, and blue.
Designing this dance was fraught with difficulty for both Chris and Jayne:
"I could n't relate to the stark, modern music that had been commissioned by the Omnibus people. To be frank, I could n't understand Chris 's ideas for the music, could n't understand what he was trying to get me to do '' (source: Facing the Music: 1995: 227 -- 228). They were working to a tight deadline for the programme but in the end the pressure became too much and the programme was delayed with the BBC 's agreement. Jayne took a two - week break with her just - married husband Phil Christensen before returning to start work with Chris on Oscar Tango. Iceworks was later completed for transmission as part of Omnibus in 1991, and achieved the highest viewing figures ever for the programme.
This was the opening number of the 1992 Best of Torvill and Dean Tour that they performed with a Ukrainian ice dancing company. Only a small clip of it is known to be available on the internet, so not an awful lot is known about the dance except that it is a group number with Torvill and Dean performing with the whole company. Their costumes in this piece are possibly their most unusual of any of their performances. Jayne wears a white fur hat and a blue velvet dress with white fur finish and ornate and decorative gold ties and buttons pattern in the middle. Chris similarly wears a blue velvet top piece with the same gold effect, white trousers with a single blue stripe on each leg, and a velvet blue jacket with fur finish slung over his shoulder throughout the routine. The final section of this show had a weather theme, and the final bow call was done to Over the Rainbow which has the whole company skate on, with Torvill and Dean arriving last to take their bow last with the whole company.
A love - on - the - rocks number, with similarities in theme to Revolution, but this piece is more suggestive of heartbreak and rejection, possibly that of a couple going through divorce or the discovery of an affair or some other deception. Chris wears the same pale grey - blue outfit that he wears for the later performances of Encounter, while Jayne wears a stunning silky grey - silver dress that swirls out at the bottom and genuinely does conjure an image of storm clouds. It is a very fluid piece with a lot of swinging motions.
Another unique piece where Chris and Jayne really experiment with a new type of music and a very different type of footwork. The routine is very fast and demanding, including a section where they skate backwards away from each other and back in a series of three, each time bringing their inside blades within inches of each other, relying on absolutely perfect judgement. Many of Torvill and Dean 's routines involve the display of one particular move three times in a row and this routine plays a joke on this concept when Chris flips Jayne over 360 twice in a row, with Jayne flipping Chris the third time and then flexing her muscles at the audience. They perform the routine in Texas - style barn dance costumes, both in straw hat and blue denim dungarees, Jayne with a red and white check lumberjack shirt, pigtails, and freckles, and Chris wearing a neckerchief. In the 1992 Simply the Best documentary Jayne explains that the characters are based loosely on those in The Tales of Tom Sawyer. The dance is extremely fast, but then when the music peters out at the end, the dancers seem to lose interest or even remember what they were doing and they just stroll off the ice. There was a company piece called Hoedown which either preceded or followed this routine, but it is not clear whether or not Torvill and Dean were actually in the group number.
This was the last new routine that they choreographed before they began work on their Olympic routines. The costumes are extremely colourful and deliberately clashing. Torvill wears pink leggings, red shirt, and orange waistcoat, and Dean wears blue trousers, purple, pink, and blue shirt, and garish blue waistcoat. The music is a series of drumbeats / percussion to which they skate in a long series of intricate steps at speed across the ice. This includes a lot of fast backwards sections, separate jumps, twists, and turns in complete unison. The piece was designed for their stint as guest artists on the Tom Collins Tour of World Figure Skating Champions.
Torvill and Dean have performed several times during each TV series.
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where was the opening scene of national lampoon's christmas vacation filmed | National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation - wikipedia
National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation is a 1989 American Christmas comedy film directed by Jeremiah S. Chechik. It is the third installment in National Lampoon 's Vacation film series, and was written by John Hughes, based on his short story in National Lampoon magazine, "Christmas ' 59 ''. The film stars Chevy Chase, Beverly D'Angelo and Randy Quaid, with Juliette Lewis and Johnny Galecki as the Griswold children Audrey and Rusty, respectively.
Since its release in 1989, Christmas Vacation has often been labeled as a modern Christmas classic. It is also the only sequel in the Vacation series to have spawned its own direct sequel: a 2003 made - for - TV release entitled National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation 2: Cousin Eddie 's Island Adventure.
The film has achieved six home video releases: VHS and Laserdisc in early 1990, a bare bones DVD in 1997, and a "Special Edition '' DVD in 2003. A Blu - ray edition was first released in 2006. In 2009, the film was released as an "Ultimate Collector 's Edition. '' At the same time of this release, it was also released on a simple Blu - ray / DVD combo. A steelbook Blu - ray was released in 2015.
With Christmas only a few weeks away, Chicago resident Clark Griswold decides it is time to get a Christmas tree. He gathers his wife Ellen, daughter Audrey, and son Rusty and drives out to the country where he picks out a huge tree. Realizing too late that they did n't bring any tools to cut the tree down, they are forced to uproot it instead, before driving home with the tree strapped to the roof of their car.
Soon after, both Clark 's and Ellen 's parents arrive to spend Christmas, but their bickering quickly begins to annoy the family. Clark, however, maintains a positive attitude, determined to have a "fun old - fashioned family Christmas. '' He covers the house 's entire exterior with 25,000 twinkle lights, which fail to work at first, as he has accidentally wired them through his garage 's light switch. When they finally come on, they temporarily cause a citywide power shortage and create chaos for Clark 's snobby neighbors, Todd and Margo. While standing on the front lawn admiring the lights, Clark is shocked to see Ellen 's cousin Catherine and her husband Eddie, as they arrive unannounced with their children, Rocky and Ruby Sue, and their Rottweiler dog, Snot. Eddie later admits that they are living in the RV they drove, as he is broke and has been forced to sell his home. Clark offers to buy gifts for Eddie 's kids so they can still enjoy Christmas.
Clark begins to wonder why his boss has not given him his yearly bonus, which he desperately needs to replace an advance payment he has made to install a swimming pool. After a disastrous Christmas Eve dinner, he finally receives an envelope from a company messenger, who had overlooked it the day before. Instead of the presumed bonus, the envelope contains a free year 's membership for the Jelly of the Month Club. This prompts Clark to snap and go into a tirade about Frank, and out of anger, requests that he be delivered to the house so Clark can insult him to his face.
Eddie takes the request literally, drives to Frank 's mansion, and kidnaps him. Clark confronts him about the cancellation of the employees ' Christmas bonuses. Meanwhile, Frank 's wife, Helen, calls the police, and a SWAT team storms the Griswold house and holds everyone at gunpoint. Frank decides not to press charges and explains the situation to his wife and the authorities, who scold him for his decision to scrap the bonuses, and decides to reinstate them (with Clark getting an add - on of 20 % of his salary).
The family head outside, with Rocky and Ruby Sue believing they see Santa Claus in the distance. Clark tells them it 's actually the Christmas Star and that he finally realizes what the holiday means to him. Uncle Lewis says the light is coming from the sewage treatment plant; reminding Clark that Eddie had been dumping his sewage into a storm drain. Before Clark can stop him, Uncle Lewis tosses a lit match, triggering an explosion. Aunt Bethany starts singing "The Star - Spangled Banner '' and the whole family and the SWAT team join in, gazing at Clark 's Santa Claus and reindeer set burning and flying into the distance. The entire family and the SWAT team members then celebrate inside the house, while Clark and Ellen happily share a Christmas kiss.
National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation originated from a short story by writer John Hughes called "Christmas ' 59, '' which was published in the December 1980 issue of National Lampoon magazine. "The studio came to me and begged for another one, and I only agreed because I had a good story to base it on, '' said Hughes. "But those movies have become little more than Chevy Chase vehicles. '' Director Chris Columbus initially was to direct the film, but due to a personality clash between him and Chevy Chase, Columbus left the film and was replaced by Chechik. Hughes eventually gave Columbus the script to Home Alone..
Principal photography began on March 27, 1989 in Summit County, Colorado, with footage shot in Silverthorne, Breckenridge, and Frisco. From there the production moved to Warner Bros. Studio Facilities in Burbank, California, where the set of the Griswold family 's house is located.
The musical score for National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation was composed by Angelo Badalamenti. It is the only installment of the Vacation film series not to include Lindsey Buckingham 's "Holiday Road ''. In its place is a song entitled "Christmas Vacation '' that was written for the movie by the husband - wife songwriting team of Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil and performed by Mavis Staples of The Staple Singers fame. The song was covered in 2007 by High School Musical star Monique Coleman for the 2007 Christmas album Disney Channel Holiday.
Despite several popular songs being present in the film, no official soundtrack album was released. In 1999, a bootleg copy containing music featured in the film along with select cuts of dialogue dubbed as the "10th Anniversary Limited Edition '' began to appear on Internet auction sites with the claim that Warner Bros. and RedDotNet had pressed 20,000 CDs for Six Flags Magic Mountain employees to sell to customers entering the park. However, while the discs were individually numbered out of 20,000, only 7,000 were sold as a part of an on demand production printed at gift shop kiosks within the park. Forums on movie music sites such as SoundtrackCollector later declared the disc to be a bootleg due to its inaccuracies. For instance, the cut "Christmas Vacation Medley '' (claiming to be the work of composer Angelo Badalamenti) is really a track called "Christmas at Carnegie Hall '' from Home Alone 2: Lost in New York by composer John Williams and does not actually contain any of Badalamenti 's Christmas Vacation score.
The movie debuted at # 2 at the box - office while grossing $11,750,203 during the opening weekend, behind Back to the Future Part II. The movie eventually topped the box - office charts in its third week of release and remained # 1 the following weekend. It went on to gross a total of $71,319,546 in the United States while showing in movie theaters.
At the time of the film 's release, the film received mixed to positive reviews; however, over time, many have cited it as a Christmas classic. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 64 % of 36 film critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 6.2 out of 10. The site 's consensus reads, "While Christmas Vacation may not be the most disciplined comedy, it 's got enough laughs and good cheer to make for a solid seasonal treat. ''
Entertainment magazine Variety responded positively to the film stating, "Solid family fare with plenty of yocks, National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation is Chevy Chase and brood doing what they do best. Despite the title, which links it to previous pics in the rambling Vacation series, this third entry is firmly rooted at the Griswold family homestead, where Clark Griswold (Chase) is engaged in a typical over-reaching attempt to give his family a perfect, old - fashioned Christmas. '' Rita Kempley of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review explaining that "it will prove pater - familiar to fans of the 1983 original and the European Vacation sequel. Only it 's a bit more whimsical. ''
Janet Maslin of The New York Times gave the film a mediocre review explaining that the "third look at the quintessentially middle - American Griswold family, led by Clark and the very patient Ellen is only a weary shadow of the original National Lampoon 's Vacation. '' Maslin went on to say that "the best thing the new film does is to bring back Cousin Eddie, the wily, scene - stealing slob whose disgusting habits are a source of considerable amusement. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film two out of four stars saying, "The movie is curious in how close it comes to delivering on its material: Sequence after sequence seems to contain all the necessary material, to be well on the way toward a payoff, and then it somehow does n't work. ''
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who is the nba's all-time playoff leader in total games played | List of National Basketball Association career playoff scoring leaders - wikipedia
This article provides two lists:
This article provides a list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff points scored.
This is a progressive list of scoring leaders showing how the record increased through the years.
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what channel is fox sports southwest on comcast | Fox Sports Southwest - Wikipedia
Fox Sports Southwest is an American regional sports network that is owned by Fox Cable Networks, a unit of the Fox Entertainment Group division of 21st Century Fox, and operates as an affiliate of Fox Sports Networks. The channel broadcasts regional coverage of professional, collegiate and high school sports events throughout the South Central United States. The network is headquartered in the Dallas - Fort Worth suburb of Irving, Texas, with master control hubbed at Fox Sports Networks ' operations center in Houston, which houses master control operations for its regional networks in the central United States.
Fox Sports Southwest is available on cable providers throughout much of Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, eastern New Mexico and Arkansas; it is also available nationwide on satellite via DirecTV and Dish Network.
Fox Sports Southwest originally launched on January 4, 1983 as Home Sports Entertainment (HSE), a unit of Warner - Amex Cable. As one of the first regional sports networks in North America, it served as the cable television home of professional and collegiate sports teams throughout Texas and surrounding states. In 1988, HSE became an affiliate of Prime Sports Networks.
Like many Prime Sports - affiliated networks, it shared channel space with other networks on several cable providers in its service area (most often resulting in its programming being restricted to nighttime periods) until the early 1990s, when cable systems began upgrading their headend infrastructures to increase channel capacity, reassigning most of the cable channels that shared time with HSE to other channel slots once these upgrades were complete. In 1994, Liberty Media acquired HSE, converting it into an owned - and - operated affiliate of Prime Sports and changing its name to Prime Sports Southwest.
In 1996, News Corporation, which formed its own sports division for the Fox network two years earlier, acquired a 50 % interest in the Prime Network from Liberty Media; the network was officially rebranded as Fox Sports Southwest on November 1 of that year, as part of a relaunch of the Prime Network affiliates as the cornerstones of the new Fox Sports Net. The channel was then rebranded as Fox Sports Net Southwest in late 1999, as part of a collective brand modification of the FSN networks under the "Fox Sports Net '' banner.
In 2004, the channel shortened its name to FSN Southwest, through the networks ' de-emphasis of the brand, before reverting to the Fox Sports Southwest moniker in 2008. In July 2013, News Corporation spun off the Fox Sports Networks and most of its other U.S. entertainment properties into 21st Century Fox.
On December 14, 2017, The Walt Disney Company announced plans to acquire all 22 regional Fox Sports networks from 21st Century Fox, including Fox Sports Southwest. Once the deal is approved, the networks will be rebranded under ESPN. Fox Sports Southwest would also become a corporate sibling to the Longhorn Network, which is co-owned by ESPN.
Fox Sports Southwest holds the exclusive regional cable television rights to the Dallas Mavericks and San Antonio Spurs of the NBA; the San Antonio Stars of the WNBA; the Dallas Stars of the NHL; and the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball. In addition, the channel also provides regional coverage of collegiate sporting events from the Big 12 Conference and Conference USA, as well as the cable rights to the University Interscholastic League, carrying its Class 6A high school state championship games for football, boys ' and girls ' basketball, baseball and softball, and the 2A - 5A high school football championships.
Fox Sports Southwest has the second - largest market area and total viewer reach of any network in the FSN group (behind Fox Sports South). Its expansive footprint extends from eastern New Mexico to Panama City, Florida. The network is divided into five broadcasting zones, each representing the five largest television markets in its designated broadcast region:
The separation of broadcast zones for the channel is mostly due to the defined broadcast territories set by the National Basketball Association for four of the region 's five NBA franchises -- the Dallas Mavericks, Oklahoma City Thunder, San Antonio Spurs and New Orleans Pelicans (the Houston Rockets are carried on AT&T SportsNet Southwest). In the event of a scheduling conflict between either of the teams (such as Mavericks / Thunder, Mavericks / Spurs, Thunder / Spurs, and sometimes Mavericks / Spurs / Thunder), the games will be shown on their own subfeeds (Thunder on Fox Sports Oklahoma, Spurs or Mavericks on Fox Sports Southwest). In certain circumstances, games involving the Dallas Stars (the only National Hockey League team based in Texas) air on Fox Sports Southwest beyond the Dallas - Fort Worth designated market area, including the Houston market, which no longer receives any NBA broadcasts over Fox Sports Southwest. This is also true with the San Antonio Stars, the only WNBA team in Texas, many of whose games are shown beyond the San Antonio designated market area.
Programming seen in each broadcasting zone is common in most areas, and includes a mix of programs supplied by Fox Sports Networks and some original programming exclusive to Fox Sports Southwest (such as High School Spotlight, '' High School Scoreboard Live '' and the Dallas Morning News - co-produced SportsdayOnAir). Other than Fox Sports New Orleans and Fox Sports Oklahoma, which are both treated by Fox Sports Networks as separate channels from Fox Sports Southwest, each feed disambiguated in some electronic program guides and online television listings services as "Fox Sports Dallas '', "Fox Sports Houston '' and "Fox Sports San Antonio ''.
Fox Sports Southwest HD is a high definition simulcast feed of Fox Sports Southwest, which broadcasts in the 720p format. The channel does not provide a 24 - hour simulcast, however it broadcasts various Mavericks, Rangers, Spurs and Stars games, as well as several NCAA football and basketball games shown nationally on FSN and other programming distributed nationally by Fox Sports Networks in high definition.
Fox Sports Southwest Plus (also branded as "FOX Sports Southwest + '' or FS SOUTHWEST + ") is an alternate channel feed of Fox Sports Southwest used to broadcast select events from teams to which Fox Sports Southwest holds the broadcast rights within the designated market in the event that two or more games scheduled to be broadcast on the channel are held simultaneously, requiring the overflow feed to carry games that can not air on the main feed.
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who is the founder of law of attraction | Law of Attraction (New Thought) - wikipedia
In the New Thought philosophy, the Law of Attraction is the belief that by focusing on positive or negative thoughts, people can bring positive or negative experiences into their life. The belief is based on the idea that people and their thoughts are both made from "pure energy '', and that through the process of "like energy attracting like energy '' a person can improve their own health, wealth, and personal relationships.
The Law of Attraction is among the most popular of the "Universal Laws ''. Advocates of this mind - power paradigm generally combine cognitive reframing techniques with affirmations and creative visualization to replace limiting or self - destructive ("negative '') thoughts with more empowered, adaptive ("positive '') thoughts. A key component of the philosophy is that in order to effectively change one 's negative thinking patterns, one must also "feel '' (through creative visualization) that the desired changes have already occurred. This combination of positive thought and positive emotion is believed to allow one to "attract '' positive experiences and opportunities by achieving resonance with the proposed energetic "Law ''.
The Law of Attraction has no scientific basis and has been dubbed a pseudoscience. A number of researchers have criticized the misuse of scientific concepts by its proponents.
The New Thought movement (Law of Attraction Origins) grew out of the teachings of Phineas Quimby in the early 19th century. Early in his life, Quimby was diagnosed with tuberculosis. Unfortunately, medicinal treatment was n't working, so he began carriage riding through his hometown, Lebanon, New Hampshire. He then regained his health and recovered, an event that prompted his study of "mind over body ''. Although he never used the words ' Law of Attraction ', he explained this in a statement that captured the concept in the field of health:
the trouble is in the mind, for the body is only the house for the mind to dwell in, and we put a value on it according to its worth. Therefore if your mind has been deceived by some invisible enemy into a belief, you have put it into the form of a disease, with or without your knowledge. By my theory or truth, I come in contact with your enemy and restore you to your health and happiness. This I do partly mentally and partly by talking till I correct the wrong impressions and establish the Truth, and the Truth is the cure.
In 1877, the term ' Law of Attraction ' appeared in print for the first time in a book written by the Russian occultist Helena Blavatsky, in a context alluding to an attractive power existing between elements of spirit. (Her book Isis Unveiled discusses esoteric mysteries of ancient theosophy.)
But the one who really first articulated the Law as general principle was Prentice Mulford. Mulford, a pivotal figure in the development of New Thought thinking, discusses the Law of Attraction at length in, for example, his essay "The Law of Success '', published 1886 - 1887. In this, Mulford was followed by other New Thought authors, such as Henry Wood (starting with his God 's Image in Man, 1892), and Ralph Waldo Trine (starting with his first book, What All the World 's A-Seeking, 1896). For these authors, the Law of Attraction is concerned not only about health but every aspect of life.
The 20th century saw a surge in interest in the subject with many books being written about it, amongst which are two of the best - selling books of all time; Think and Grow Rich (1937) by Napoleon Hill and You Can Heal Your Life (1984) by Louise Hay.
Even if the New Age movement adopted many New Thought ideas, including that of the Law of Attraction, the Law of Attraction remains a new thought philosophical concept.
In 2006, the concept of the Law of Attraction gained a lot of renewed exposure with the release of the film The Secret (2006) which was then developed into a book of the same title in 2007. The movie and book gained widespread media coverage. Rhonda Byrne 's book also has influenced the creation of an untitled fiction film based on The Secret, starring Katie Holmes.
New Thought authors believe that the Law of Attraction is always in operation and that it brings to each person the conditions and experiences that they predominantly think about, or which they desire or expect.
Charles Haanel wrote in The Master Key System (1912):
The law of attraction will certainly and unerringly bring to you the conditions, environment, and experiences in life, corresponding with your habitual, characteristic, predominant mental attitude.
Ralph Trine wrote in In Tune With The Infinite (1897):
The law of attraction works universally on every plane of action, and we attract whatever we desire or expect. If we desire one thing and expect another, we become like houses divided against themselves, which are quickly brought to desolation. Determine resolutely to expect only what you desire, then you will attract only what you wish for.
Rhonda Byrne published in 2006 the film The Secret wherein she emphasized thinking about what each person wants to obtain, but also to infuse the thought with the maximum possible amount of emotion. She claims the combination of thought and feeling is what attracts the desire. The Secret says your subconscious mind can control everything that happens around you, including both positive experiences, like having someone call you from miles away, and negative experiences, like death. The Byrne underlines the power of the subconscious mind by asking the reader to take full control of these thoughts, in order to achieve things in life, with the mind, as much as with action. Another similar book is James Redfield 's The Celestine Prophecy, which says reality can be manifested by man. Man and the universe have a force of attraction between them similar to a magnetic attraction. The Power of Your Subconscious Mind by Joseph Murphy, says readers can achieve seemingly impossible goals by learning how to bring the mind itself under control. The Power by Rhonda Byrne, The Alchemist by Paulo Coelho, and The Power of Now by Eckhart Tolle are similar. While personal testimonies claim the secret and the law to have worked for them, a number of skeptics have criticized Rhonda Byrne 's film and book. One New York Times book review calls the secret pseudoscience and an "illusion of knowledge ''.
The New Thought concept of the Law of Attraction is rooted in ideas that come from various philosophical and religious traditions. In particular, it has been inspired by Hermeticism, New England transcendentalism, specific verses from the Bible, and Hinduism,
Hermeticism influenced the development of European thought in the Renaissance. Its ideas were transmitted partly through alchemy. In the 18th century, Franz Mesmer studied the works of alchemists such as Paracelsus and van Helmont. Van Helmont was a 17th - century Flemish physician who proclaimed the curative powers of the imagination. This lead Mesmer to develop his ideas about Animal magnetism which Phineas Quimby, the founder of New Thought, studied.
The Transcendentalist movement developed in the United States immediately before the emergence of New Thought and is thought to have had a great influence on it. George Ripley, an important figure in that movement, stated that its leading idea was "the supremacy of mind over matter ''.
New Thought authors often quote certain verses from the Bible in the context of the Law of Attraction. An example is Mark 11: 24: "Therefore I tell you, whatever you ask in prayer, believe that you have received it, and it will be yours. ''
In the late 19th century Swami Vivekananda traveled to the United States and gave lectures on Hinduism. These talks greatly influenced the New Thought movement and in particular, William Walker Atkinson who was one of New Thought 's pioneers.
Skeptical Inquirer magazine criticized the lack of falsifiability and testability of these claims. Critics have asserted that the evidence provided is usually anecdotal and that, because of the self - selecting nature of the positive reports, as well as the subjective nature of any results, these reports are susceptible to confirmation bias and selection bias. Physicist Ali Alousi, for instance, criticized it as unmeasurable and questioned the likelihood that thoughts can affect anything outside the head.
The Law of Attraction has been popularized in the early 21st century by books and films such as The Secret. This 2006 film and the subsequent book use interviews with New Thought authors and speakers to explain the principles of the proposed metaphysical law that one can attract anything that one thinks about consistently. Writing for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, Mary Carmichael and Ben Radford wrote that "neither the film nor the book has any basis in scientific reality '', and that its premise contains "an ugly flipside: if you have an accident or disease, it 's your fault ''.
Others have questioned the references to modern scientific theory, and have maintained, for example, that the Law of Attraction misrepresents the electrical activity of brainwaves. Victor Stenger and Leon Lederman are critical of attempts to use quantum mysticism to bridge any unexplained or seemingly implausible effects, believing these to be traits of modern pseudoscience.
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