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who formed the democratic party and when was it founded | History of the United States Democratic Party - wikipedia
The Democratic Party of the United States is the oldest voter - based political party in the world, tracing its heritage back to the anti-Federalists of the 1790s. During the "Second Party System '' from 1832 to the mid-1850s, under Presidents Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk, the Democrats usually bested the opposition Whig Party by narrow margins. Both parties worked hard to build grassroots organizations and maximize the turnout of voters, which often reached 80 percent or 90 percent. Both parties used patronage extensively to finance their operations, which included emerging big city political machines as well as national networks of newspapers. The Democratic Party was a proponent for slave - owners across the country, urban workers and caucasian immigrants. It was especially attractive to Irish immigrants who increasingly controlled the party machinery in the cities. The party was much less attractive to businessmen, African American Evangelical Protestants and social reformers. The party advocated westward expansion, Manifest Destiny, greater equality among all white men and opposition to the national banks. In 1860, the Civil War began between the mostly - Republican North against the mostly - Democratic, slave - holding South.
From 1860 to 1932 in the era of the Civil War to the Great Depression, the opposing Republican Party, organized in the mid-1850s from the ruins of the Whig Party and some other smaller splinter groups, was dominant in presidential politics. The Democrats elected only two presidents to four terms of office for 72 years: Grover Cleveland (in 1884 and 1892) and Woodrow Wilson (in 1912 and 1916). Over the same period, the Democrats proved more competitive with the Republicans in Congressional politics, enjoying House of Representatives majorities (as in the 65th Congress) in 15 of the 36 Congresses elected, although only in five of these did they form the majority in the United States Senate. The party was split between the "Bourbon Democrats '', representing Eastern business interests; and the agrarian elements comprising poor farmers in the South and West. The agrarian element, marching behind the slogan of "free silver '' (i.e. in favor of inflation), captured the party in 1896 and nominated the "Great Commoner '' William Jennings Bryan in 1896, 1900 and 1908, though he lost every time. Both Bryan and Wilson were leaders of the "Progressive Movement '' (1890s -- 1920s).
Starting with 32nd President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932 during the Great Depression, the party dominated the "Fifth Party System '', with its liberal / progressive policies and programs with the "New Deal '' coalition to combat the emergency bank closings and the continuing financial depression since the famous Wall Street Crash of 1929 and later going into the crises leading up to the Second World War of 1939 / 1941 to 1945. The Democrats and the Democratic Party finally lost the White House and control of the executive branch of government only after Roosevelt 's death in April 1945 near the end of the War and after the continuing post-war administration of Roosevelt 's third Vice President of the United States Harry S Truman, former Senator from Missouri (for 1945 to 1953, elections of 1944 and the "stunner '' of 1948). A new Republican Party President was only elected later in the following decade of the early 1950s with the losses by two - time nominee, the Governor of Illinois Adlai Stevenson (grandson of the former Vice President with the same name of the 1890s) to the very popular war hero and commanding general in World War II, General Dwight D. Eisenhower (in 1952 and 1956).
With two brief interruptions since the Great Depression and World War II eras, the Democrats with unusually large majorities for over four decades, controlled the lower house of the United States Congress in the House of Representatives from 1930 until 1994 and the U.S. Senate for most of that same period, electing the Speaker of the House and the Representatives ' majority leaders / committee chairs along with the upper house of the Senate 's majority leaders and committee chairmen. Important Democratic progressive / liberal leaders included Presidents: 33rd -- Harry S Truman of Missouri (1945 -- 1953) and 36th -- Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas (1963 -- 1969), as well as the earlier Kennedy brothers of 35th President John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts (1961 -- 1963), Senators Robert F. Kennedy of New York and Senator Edward M. ("Teddy '') Kennedy of Massachusetts who carried the flag for modern American political liberalism. Since the presidential election of 1976, Democrats have won five out of the last ten presidential elections, winning in the presidential elections of 1976 (with 39th President Jimmy Carter of Georgia, 1977 -- 1981), 1992 and 1996 (with 42nd President Bill Clinton of Arkansas, 1993 -- 2001) and 2008 and 2012 (with 44th President Barack Obama of Illinois, 2009 -- 2017).
Social scientists Theodore Caplow et al. argue that "the Democratic party, nationally, moved from left - center toward the center in the 1940s and 1950s, then moved further toward the right - center in the 1970s and 1980s ''.
The modern Democratic Party emerged in the 1830s from former factions of the Democratic - Republican Party, which had largely collapsed by 1824. It was built by Martin Van Buren who assembled a cadre of politicians in every state behind war hero Andrew Jackson of Tennessee.
The spirit of Jacksonian democracy animated the party from the early 1830s to the 1850s, shaping the Second Party System, with the Whig Party the main opposition. After the disappearance of the Federalists after 1815 and the Era of Good Feelings (1816 -- 1824), there was a hiatus of weakly organized personal factions until about 1828 -- 1832, when the modern Democratic Party emerged along with its rival the Whigs. The new Democratic Party became a coalition of farmers, city - dwelling laborers and Irish Catholics.
Behind the party platforms, acceptance speeches of candidates, editorials, pamphlets and stump speeches, there was a widespread consensus of political values among Democrats. As Norton explains:
The Democrats represented a wide range of views but shared a fundamental commitment to the Jeffersonian concept of an agrarian society. They viewed the central government as the enemy of individual liberty. The 1824 "corrupt bargain '' had strengthened their suspicion of Washington politics... Jacksonians feared the concentration of economic and political power. They believed that government intervention in the economy benefited special - interest groups and created corporate monopolies that favored the rich. They sought to restore the independence of the individual -- the artisan and the ordinary farmer -- by ending federal support of banks and corporations and restricting the use of paper currency, which they distrusted. Their definition of the proper role of government tended to be negative, and Jackson 's political power was largely expressed in negative acts. He exercised the veto more than all previous presidents combined. Jackson and his supporters also opposed reform as a movement. Reformers eager to turn their programs into legislation called for a more active government. But Democrats tended to oppose programs like educational reform mid the establishment of a public education system. They believed, for instance, that public schools restricted individual liberty by interfering with parental responsibility and undermined freedom of religion by replacing church schools. Nor did Jackson share reformers ' humanitarian concerns. He had no sympathy for American Indians, initiating the removal of the Cherokees along the Trail of Tears.
The Party was weakest in New England, but strong everywhere else and won most national elections thanks to strength in New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia (by far the most populous states at the time) and the American frontier. Democrats opposed elites and aristocrats, the Bank of the United States and the whiggish modernizing programs that would build up industry at the expense of the yeoman or independent small farmer.
Historian Frank Towers has specified an important ideological divide:
Democrats stood for the ' sovereignty of the people ' as expressed in popular demonstrations, constitutional conventions, and majority rule as a general principle of governing, whereas Whigs advocated the rule of law, written and unchanging constitutions, and protections for minority interests against majority tyranny.
From 1828 to 1848, banking and tariffs were the central domestic policy issues. Democrats strongly favored -- and Whigs opposed -- expansion to new farm lands, as typified by their expulsion of eastern American Indians and acquisition of vast amounts of new land in the West after 1846. The party favored the war with Mexico and opposed anti-immigrant nativism. Both Democrats and Whigs were divided on the issue of slavery. In the 1830s, the Locofocos in New York City were radically democratic, anti-monopoly and were proponents of hard money and free trade. Their chief spokesman was William Leggett. At this time, labor unions were few and some were loosely affiliated with the party.
Foreign policy was a major issue in the 1840s, as war threatened with Mexico over Texas and with Britain over Oregon. Democrats strongly supported Manifest Destiny and most Whigs strongly opposed it. The 1844 election was a showdown, with the Democrat James K. Polk narrowly defeating Whig Henry Clay on the Texas issue.
John Mack Faragher 's analysis of the political polarization between the parties is:
Most Democrats were wholehearted supporters of expansion, whereas many Whigs (especially in the North) were opposed. Whigs welcomed most of the changes wrought by industrialization but advocated strong government policies that would guide growth and development within the country 's existing boundaries; they feared (correctly) that expansion raised a contentious issue the extension of slavery to the territories. On the other hand, many Democrats feared industrialization the Whigs welcomed... For many Democrats, the answer to the nation 's social ills was to continue to follow Thomas Jefferson 's vision of establishing agriculture in the new territories in order to counterbalance industrialization.
The Democratic National Committee (DNC) was created in 1848 at the convention that nominated General Lewis Cass, who lost to General Zachary Taylor of the Whigs. A major cause of the defeat was that the new Free Soil Party, which opposed slavery expansion, split the Democratic Party, particularly in New York, where the electoral votes went to Taylor. Democrats in Congress passed the Compromise of 1850 designed to put the slavery issue to rest while resolves issued involving territories gained following the War with Mexico. However, in state after state the Democrats gained small but permanent advantages over the Whig Party, which finally collapsed in 1852, fatally weakened by division on slavery and nativism. The fragmented opposition could not stop the election of Democrats Franklin Pierce in 1852 and James Buchanan in 1856.
During 1858 -- 1860, Senator Stephen A. Douglas confronted President Buchanan in a furious battle for control of the party. Douglas finally won, but his nomination signaled defeat for the Southern wing of the party and it walked out of the 1860 convention and nominated its own presidential ticket.
Yonatan Eyal (2007) argues that the 1840s and 1850s were the heyday of a new faction of young Democrats called "Young America ''. Led by Stephen A. Douglas, James K. Polk, Franklin Pierce and New York financier August Belmont, this faction explains, broke with the agrarian and strict constructionist orthodoxies of the past and embraced commerce, technology, regulation, reform and internationalism. The movement attracted a circle of outstanding writers, including William Cullen Bryant, George Bancroft, Herman Melville and Nathaniel Hawthorne. They sought independence from European standards of high culture and wanted to demonstrate the excellence and exceptionalism of America 's own literary tradition.
In economic policy, Young America saw the necessity of a modern infrastructure with railroads, canals, telegraphs, turnpikes and harbors. They endorsed the "market revolution '' and promoted capitalism. They called for Congressional land grants to the states, which allowed Democrats to claim that internal improvements were locally rather than federally sponsored. Young America claimed that modernization would perpetuate the agrarian vision of Jeffersonian democracy by allowing yeomen farmers to sell their products and therefore to prosper. They tied internal improvements to free trade, while accepted moderate tariffs as a necessary source of government revenue. They supported the Independent Treasury (the Jacksonian alternative to the Second Bank of the United States) not as a scheme to quash the special privilege of the Whiggish monied elite, but as a device to spread prosperity to all Americans.
Sectional confrontations escalated during the 1850s, the Democratic Party split between North and South grew deeper. The conflict was papered over at the 1852 and 1856 conventions by selecting men who had little involvement in sectionalism, but they made matters worse. Historian Roy F. Nichols explains why Franklin Pierce was not up to the challenges a Democratic president had to face:
In 1854, over vehement opposition, the main Democratic leader in the Senate, Stephen Douglas of Illinois, pushed through the Kansas -- Nebraska Act. It established that settlers in Kansas Territory could vote to decide to allow or not allow slavery. Thousands of men moved in from North and South with the goal of voting slavery down or up and their violence shook the nation. A major re-alignment took place among voters and politicians, with new issues, new parties and new leaders. The Whig Party dissolved entirely.
The crisis for the Democratic Party came in the late 1850s, as Northern Democrats increasingly rejected national policies demanded by the Southern Democrats. The demands were to support slavery outside the South. Southerners insisted that full equality for their region required the government to acknowledge the legitimacy of slavery outside the South. The Southern demands included a fugitive slave law to recapture runaway slaves; opening Kansas to slavery; forcing a pro-slavery constitution on Kansas; acquire Cuba (where slavery already existed); accepting the Dred Scott decision of the Supreme Court; and adopting a federal slave code to protect slavery in the territories. President Buchanan went along with these demands, but Douglas refused and proved a much better politician than Buchanan, though the bitter battle lasted for years and permanently alienated the Northern and Southern wings.
When the new Republican Party formed in 1854 on the basis of refusing to tolerate the expansion of slavery into the territories, many northern Democrats (especially Free Soilers from 1848) joined it. The Republicans in 1854 now had a majority in most, but not all of the Northern states and it had practically no support South of the Mason -- Dixon line. The formation of the new short - lived Know - Nothing Party allowed the Democrats to win the presidential election of 1856. Buchanan, a Northern "Doughface '' (his base of support was in the pro-slavery South), split the party on the issue of slavery in Kansas when he attempted to pass a federal slave code as demanded by the South. Most Democrats in the North rallied to Senator Douglas, who preached "Popular Sovereignty '' and believed that a Federal slave code would be undemocratic.
The Democratic Party was unable to compete with the Republican Party, which controlled nearly all northern states by 1860, bringing a solid majority in the Electoral College. The Republicans claimed that the Northern Democrats, including Doughfaces such as Pierce and Buchanan, as well as advocates of popular sovereignty such as Stephen A. Douglas and Lewis Cass, were all accomplices to Slave Power. The Republicans argued that slaveholders (all of them Democrats) had seized control of the federal government and were blocking the progress of liberty.
In 1860, the Democrats were unable to stop the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln, even as they feared his election would lead to civil war. The Democrats split over the choice of a successor to President Buchanan along Northern and Southern lines: factions of the party provided two separate candidacies for President in the election of 1860, in which the Republican Party gained ascendancy.
Some Southern Democratic delegates followed the lead of the Fire - Eaters by walking out of the Democratic National Convention at Charleston 's Institute Hall in April 1860 and were later joined by those who, once again led by the Fire - Eaters, left the Baltimore Convention the following June when the convention rejected a resolution supporting extending slavery into territories whose voters did not want it. The Southern Democrats nominated the pro-slavery incumbent Vice President, John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, for President and General Joseph Lane, former governor of Oregon, for Vice President.
The Northern Democrats proceeded to nominate Douglas of Illinois for President and former Governor of Georgia Herschel Vespasian Johnson for Vice President, while some southern Democrats joined the Constitutional Union Party, backing its nominees (who had both been prominent Whig leaders), former Senator John Bell of Tennessee for President and the politician Edward Everett of Massachusetts for Vice President. This fracturing of the Democrats left them powerless. Republican Abraham Lincoln was elected the 16th President of the United States. Douglas campaigned across the country calling for unity and came in second in the popular vote, but carried only Missouri and New Jersey. Breckinridge carried 11 slave states, coming in second in the Electoral vote, but third in the popular vote.
During the Civil War, Northern Democrats divided into two factions: the War Democrats, who supported the military policies of President Lincoln; and the Copperheads, who strongly opposed them. No party politics were allowed in the Confederacy, whose political leadership, mindful of the welter prevalent in antebellum American politics and with a pressing need for unity, largely viewed political parties as inimical to good governance and as being especially unwise in wartime. Consequently, the Democratic Party halted all operations during the life of the Confederacy (1861 -- 1865).
Partisanship flourished in the North and strengthened the Lincoln Administration as Republicans automatically rallied behind it. After the attack on Fort Sumter, Douglas rallied Northern Democrats behind the Union, but when Douglas died the party lacked an outstanding figure in the North and by 1862 an anti-war peace element was gaining strength. The most intense anti-war elements were the Copperheads. The Democratic Party did well in the 1862 congressional elections, but in 1864 it nominated General George McClellan (a War Democrat) on a peace platform and lost badly because many War Democrats bolted to National Union candidate Abraham Lincoln. Many former Democrats became Republicans, especially soldiers such as generals Ulysses S. Grant and John A. Logan.
In the 1866 elections, the Radical Republicans won two - thirds majorities in Congress and took control of national affairs. The large Republican majorities made Congressional Democrats helpless, though they unanimously opposed the Radicals ' Reconstruction policies. Realizing that the old issues were holding it back, the Democrats tried a "New Departure '' that downplayed the War and stressed such issues as corruption and white supremacy.
Regardless, war hero Ulysses S. Grant led the Republicans to landslides in 1868 and 1872.
The Democrats lost consecutive presidential elections from 1860 through 1880 (1876 was in dispute) and did not win the presidency until 1884. The party was weakened by its record of opposition to the war, but nevertheless benefited from White Southerners ' resentment of Reconstruction and consequent hostility to the Republican Party. The nationwide depression of 1873 allowed the Democrats to retake control of the House in the 1874 Democratic landslide.
The Redeemers gave the Democrats control of every Southern state (by the Compromise of 1877), but the disenfranchisement of blacks took place (1880 -- 1900). From 1880 to 1960, the "Solid South '' voted Democratic in presidential elections (except 1928). After 1900, a victory in a Democratic primary was "tantamount to election '' because the Republican Party was so weak in the South.
Although Republicans continued to control the White House until 1884, the Democrats remained competitive (especially in the mid-Atlantic and lower Midwest) and controlled the House of Representatives for most of that period. In the election of 1884, Grover Cleveland, the reforming Democratic Governor of New York, won the Presidency, a feat he repeated in 1892, having lost in the election of 1888.
Cleveland was the leader of the Bourbon Democrats. They represented business interests, supported banking and railroad goals, promoted laissez - faire capitalism, opposed imperialism and U.S. overseas expansion, opposed the annexation of Hawaii, fought for the gold standard and opposed Bimetallism. They strongly supported reform movements such as Civil Service Reform and opposed corruption of city bosses, leading the fight against the Tweed Ring.
The leading Bourbons included Samuel J. Tilden, David Bennett Hill and William C. Whitney of New York, Arthur Pue Gorman of Maryland, Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware, Henry M. Mathews and William L. Wilson of West Virginia, John Griffin Carlisle of Kentucky, William F. Vilas of Wisconsin, J. Sterling Morton of Nebraska, John M. Palmer of Illinois, Horace Boies of Iowa, Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar of Mississippi and railroad builder James J. Hill of Minnesota. A prominent intellectual was Woodrow Wilson.
The Bourbons were in power when the Panic of 1893 hit and they took the blame. A fierce struggle inside the party ensued, with catastrophic losses for both the Bourbon and agrarian factions in 1894, leading to the showdown in 1896. Just before the 1894 election, President Cleveland was warned by an advisor:
The warning was appropriate, for the Republicans won their biggest landslide in decades, taking full control of the House, while the Populists lost most of their support. However, Cleveland 's factional enemies gained control of the Democratic Party in state after state, including full control in Illinois and Michigan and made major gains in Ohio, Indiana, Iowa and other states. Wisconsin and Massachusetts were two of the few states that remained under the control of Cleveland 's allies. The opposition Democrats were close to controlling two thirds of the vote at the 1896 national convention, which they needed to nominate their own candidate. However, they were not united and had no national leader, as Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld had been born in Germany and was ineligible to be nominated for president.
Religious divisions were sharply drawn. Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Scandinavian Lutherans and other pietists in the North were closely linked to the Republican Party. In sharp contrast, liturgical groups, especially the Catholics, Episcopalians and German Lutherans, looked to the Democratic Party for protection from pietistic moralism, especially prohibition. Both parties cut across the class structure, with the Democrats gaining more support from the lower classes and Republicans more support from the upper classes.
Cultural issues, especially prohibition and foreign language schools, became matters of contention because of the sharp religious divisions in the electorate. In the North, about 50 percent of voters were pietistic Protestants (Methodists, Scandinavian Lutherans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists and Disciples of Christ) who believed the government should be used to reduce social sins, such as drinking.
Liturgical churches (Roman Catholics, German Lutherans and Episcopalians) comprised over a quarter of the vote and wanted the government to stay out of the morality business. Prohibition debates and referendums heated up politics in most states over a period of decade, as national prohibition was finally passed in 1918 (repealed in 1932), serving as a major issue between the wet Democrats and the dry Republicans.
Grover Cleveland led the party faction of conservative, pro-business Bourbon Democrats, but as the depression of 1893 deepened his enemies multiplied. At the 1896 convention, the silverite - agrarian faction repudiated the President and nominated the crusading orator William Jennings Bryan on a platform of free coinage of silver. The idea was that minting silver coins would flood the economy with cash and end the depression. Cleveland supporters formed the National Democratic Party (Gold Democrats), which attracted politicians and intellectuals (including Woodrow Wilson and Frederick Jackson Turner) who refused to vote Republican.
Bryan, an overnight sensation because of his "Cross of Gold '' speech, waged a new - style crusade against the supporters of the gold standard. Criss - crossing the Midwest and East by special train -- he was the first candidate since 1860 to go on the road -- he gave over 500 speeches to audiences in the millions. In St. Louis he gave 36 speeches to workingmen 's audiences across the city, all in one day. Most Democratic newspapers were hostile toward Bryan, but he seized control of the media by making the news every day as he hurled thunderbolts against Eastern monied interests.
The rural folk in the South and Midwest were ecstatic, showing an enthusiasm never before seen, but ethnic Democrats (especially Germans and Irish) were alarmed and frightened by Bryan. The middle classes, businessmen, newspaper editors, factory workers, railroad workers and prosperous farmers generally rejected Bryan 's crusade. Republican William McKinley promised a return to prosperity based on the gold standard, support for industry, railroads and banks and pluralism that would enable every group to move ahead.
Although Bryan lost the election in a landslide, he did win the hearts and minds of a majority of Democrats, as shown by his renomination in 1900 and 1908. As late as 1924, the Democrats put his brother Charles W. Bryan on their national ticket. The victory of the Republican Party in the election of 1896 marked the start of the "Progressive Era '', which lasted from 1896 to 1932, in which the Republican Party usually was dominant.
The 1896 election marked a political realignment in which the Republican Party controlled the presidency for 28 of 36 years. The Republicans dominated most of the Northeast and Midwest and half the West. Bryan, with a base in the South and Plains states, was strong enough to get the nomination in 1900 (losing to William McKinley) and 1908 (losing to William Howard Taft). Theodore Roosevelt dominated the first decade of the century and to the annoyance of Democrats "stole '' the trust issue by crusading against trusts.
Anti-Bryan conservatives controlled the convention in 1904, but faced a Theodore Roosevelt landslide. Bryan dropped his free silver and anti-imperialism rhetoric and supported mainstream progressive issues, such as the income tax, anti-trust and direct election of Senators.
Taking advantage of a deep split in the Republican Party, the Democrats took control of the House in 1910 and elected the intellectual reformer Woodrow Wilson in 1912 and 1916. Wilson successfully led Congress to a series of progressive laws, including a reduced tariff, stronger antitrust laws, new programs for farmers, hours - and - pay benefits for railroad workers and the outlawing of child labor (which was reversed by the Supreme Court).
Wilson tolerated the segregation of the federal Civil Service by Southern cabinet members. Furthermore, bipartisan constitutional amendments for prohibition and women 's suffrage were passed in his second term. In effect, Wilson laid to rest the issues of tariffs, money and antitrust that had dominated politics for 40 years.
Wilson oversaw the U.S. role in World War I and helped write the Versailles Treaty, which included the League of Nations. However, in 1919 Wilson 's political skills faltered and suddenly everything turned sour. The Senate rejected Versailles and the League, a nationwide wave of violent, unsuccessful strikes and race riots caused unrest and Wilson 's health collapsed.
The Democrats lost by a huge landslide in 1920, doing especially poorly in the cities, where the German - Americans deserted the ticket; and the Irish Catholics, who dominated the party apparatus, sat on their hands.
Although they recovered considerable ground in the Congressional elections of 1922, the entire decade saw the Democrats as a helpless minority in Congress and as a weak force in most Northern states.
At the 1924 Democratic National Convention, a resolution denouncing the Ku Klux Klan was introduced by forces allied with Al Smith and Oscar W. Underwood in order to embarrass the front - runner, William Gibbs McAdoo. After much debate, the resolution failed by a single vote. The KKK faded away soon after, but the deep split in the party over cultural issues, especially prohibition, facilitated Republican landslides in 1920, 1924 and 1928. However, Al Smith did build a strong Catholic base in the big cities in 1928 and Franklin D. Roosevelt 's election as Governor of New York that year brought a new leader to center stage.
The stock market crash of 1929 and the ensuing Great Depression set the stage for a more progressive government and Franklin D. Roosevelt won a landslide victory in the election of 1932, campaigning on a platform of "Relief, Recovery, and Reform '', that is relief of unemployment and rural distress, recovery of the economy back to normal and long - term structural reforms to prevent a repetition of the Depression. This came to be termed "The New Deal '' after a phrase in Roosevelt 's acceptance speech.
The Democrats also swept to large majorities in both houses of Congress and among state governors. Roosevelt altered the nature of the party, away from laissez - faire capitalism and towards an ideology of economic regulation and insurance against hardship. Two old words took on new meanings: "liberal '' now meant a supporter of the New Deal while "conservative '' meant an opponent.
Conservative Democrats were outraged and led by Al Smith they formed the American Liberty League in 1934 and counterattacked. They failed and either retired from politics or joined the Republican Party. A few of them, such as Dean Acheson, found their way back to the Democratic Party.
The 1933 programs, called "the First New Deal '' by historians, represented a broad consensus. Roosevelt tried to reach out to business and labor, farmers and consumers, cities and countryside. However, by 1934 he was moving toward a more confrontational policy. After making gains in state governorships and in Congress, in 1934 Roosevelt embarked on an ambitious legislative program that came to be called "The Second New Deal ''. It was characterized by building up labor unions, nationalizing welfare by the WPA, setting up Social Security, imposing more regulations on business (especially transportation and communications) and raising taxes on business profits.
Roosevelt 's New Deal programs focused on job creation through public works projects as well as on social welfare programs such as Social Security. It also included sweeping reforms to the banking system, work regulation, transportation, communications and stock markets, as well as attempts to regulate prices. His policies soon paid off by uniting a diverse coalition of Democratic voters called the New Deal coalition, which included labor unions, southerners, minorities (most significantly, Catholics and Jews) and liberals. This united voter base allowed Democrats to be elected to Congress and the presidency for much of the next 30 years.
After a triumphant re-election in 1936, he announced plans to enlarge the Supreme Court, which tended to oppose his New Deal, by five new members. A firestorm of opposition erupted, led by his own Vice President John Nance Garner. Roosevelt was defeated by an alliance of Republicans and conservative Democrats, who formed a conservative coalition that managed to block nearly all liberal legislation (only a minimum wage law got through). Annoyed by the conservative wing of his own party, Roosevelt made an attempt to rid himself of it and in 1938 he actively campaigned against five incumbent conservative Democratic senators, though all five senators won re-election.
Under Roosevelt, the Democratic Party became identified more closely with modern liberalism, which included the promotion of social welfare, labor unions, civil rights and the regulation of business. The opponents, who stressed long - term growth and support for entrepreneurship and low taxes, now started calling themselves "conservatives ''.
Harry Truman took over after Roosevelt 's death in 1945 and the rifts inside the party that Roosevelt had papered over began to emerge. Major components included the big city machines, the Southern state and local parties, the far - left and the "Liberal coalition '' or "Liberal - Labor coalition '' comprising the AFL, CIO and ideological groups such as the NAACP (representing Blacks), the American Jewish Congress (AJC) and the Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) (representing liberal intellectuals). By 1948, the unions had expelled nearly all the far - left and communist elements.
On the right, the Republicans blasted Truman 's domestic policies. "Had Enough? '' was the winning slogan as Republicans recaptured Congress in 1946 for the first time since 1928.
Many party leaders were ready to dump Truman in 1948, but after General Dwight D. Eisenhower rejected their invitation they lacked an alternative. Truman counterattacked, pushing J. Strom Thurmond and his Dixiecrats out, as well as taking advantage of the splits inside the Republican Party and was thus reelected in a stunning surprise. However, all of Truman 's Fair Deal proposals, such as universal health care, were defeated by the Southern Democrats in Congress. His seizure of the steel industry was reversed by the Supreme Court.
On the far - left, former Vice President Henry A. Wallace denounced Truman as a war - monger for his anti-Soviet programs, the Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan and NATO. Wallace quit the party and ran for President as an independent in 1948. He called for détente with the Soviet Union, but much of his campaign was controlled by communists who had been expelled from the main unions. Wallace fared poorly and helped turn the anti-communist vote toward Truman.
By cooperating with internationalist Republicans, Truman succeeded in defeating isolationists on the right and supporters of softer lines on the Soviet Union on the left to establish a Cold War program that lasted until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. Wallace supporters and other Democrats who were farther left were pushed out of the party and the CIO in 1946 -- 1948 by young anti-communists like Hubert Humphrey, Walter Reuther and Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. Hollywood emerged in the 1940s as an important new base in the party and was led by movie - star politicians such as Ronald Reagan, who strongly supported Roosevelt and Truman at this time.
In foreign policy, Europe was safe, but troubles mounted in Asia as China fell to the communists in 1949. Truman entered the Korean War without formal Congressional approval. When the war turned to a stalemate and he fired General Douglas MacArthur in 1951, Republicans blasted his policies in Asia. A series of petty scandals among friends and buddies of Truman further tarnished his image, allowing the Republicans in 1952 to crusade against "Korea, Communism and Corruption ''. Truman dropped out of the Presidential race early in 1952, leaving no obvious successor. The convention nominated Adlai Stevenson in 1952 and 1956, only to see him overwhelmed by two Eisenhower landslides.
In Congress, the powerful duo of House Speaker Sam Rayburn and Senate Majority leader Lyndon B. Johnson held the party together, often by compromising with Eisenhower. In 1958, the party made dramatic gains in the midterms and seemed to have a permanent lock on Congress, thanks largely to organized labor. Indeed, Democrats had majorities in the House every election from 1930 to 1992 (except 1946 and 1952).
Most Southern Congressmen were conservative Democrats and they usually worked with conservative Republicans. The result was a conservative coalition that blocked practically all liberal domestic legislation from 1937 to the 1970s, except for a brief spell 1964 -- 1965, when Johnson neutralized its power. The counterbalance to the conservative coalition was the Democratic Study Group, which led the charge to liberalize the institutions of Congress and eventually pass a great deal of the Kennedy -- Johnson program.
The election of John F. Kennedy in 1960 over then - Vice President Richard Nixon re-energized the party. His youth, vigor and intelligence caught the popular imagination. New programs like the Peace Corps harnessed idealism. In terms of legislation, Kennedy was stalemated by the conservative coalition.
Though Kennedy 's term in office lasted only about a thousand days, he tried to hold back communist gains after the failed Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba and the construction of the Berlin Wall and sent 16,000 soldiers to Vietnam to advise the hard - pressed South Vietnamese army. He challenged America in the Space Race to land an American man on the moon by 1969. After the Cuban Missile Crisis he moved to de-escalate tensions with the Soviet Union.
Kennedy also pushed for civil rights and racial integration, one example being Kennedy assigning federal marshals to protect the Freedom Riders in the South. His election did mark the coming of age of the Catholic component of the New Deal Coalition. After 1964, middle class Catholics started voting Republican in the same proportion as their Protestant neighbors. Except for the Chicago of Richard J. Daley, the last of the Democratic machines faded away. President Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963 in Dallas, Texas.
Then - Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as the new President. Johnson, heir to the New Deal ideals, broke the conservative coalition in Congress and passed a remarkable number of laws, known as the Great Society. Johnson succeeded in passing major civil rights laws that restarted racial integration in the South. At the same time, Johnson escalated the Vietnam War, leading to an inner conflict inside the Democratic Party that shattered the party in the elections of 1968.
The Democratic Party platform of the 1960s was largely formed by the ideals of President Johnson 's "Great Society '' The New Deal coalition began to fracture as more Democratic leaders voiced support for civil rights, upsetting the party 's traditional base of Southern Democrats and Catholics in Northern cities. After Harry Truman 's platform gave strong support to civil rights and anti-segregation laws during the 1948 Democratic National Convention, many Southern Democratic delegates decided to split from the party and formed the "Dixiecrats '', led by South Carolina governor Strom Thurmond (who as Senator would later join the Republican Party). However, few other Democrats left the party.
On the other hand, African Americans, who had traditionally given strong support to the Republican Party since its inception as the "anti-slavery party '', continued to shift to the Democratic Party, largely due to the economic opportunities offered by the New Deal relief programs, patronage offers and the advocacy of and support for civil rights by such prominent Democrats as former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt. Although Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower carried half the South in 1952 and 1956 and Senator Barry Goldwater also carried five Southern states in 1964, Democrat Jimmy Carter carried all of the South except Virginia and there was no long - term realignment until Ronald Reagan 's sweeping victories in the South in 1980 and 1984.
The party 's dramatic reversal on civil rights issues culminated when Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson signed into law the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act was passed in both House and Senate by a Republican majority. Many of the Democrats, mostly Southern Democrats opposed the act. Meanwhile, the Republicans led again by Richard Nixon were beginning to implement their new economic polices which aimed to resist federal encroachment on the states, while appealing to conservative and moderate in the rapidly growing cities and suburbs of the South.
The year 1968 marked a major crisis for the party. In January, even though it was a military defeat for the Viet Cong, the Tet Offensive began to turn American public opinion against the Vietnam War. Senator Eugene McCarthy rallied intellectuals and anti-war students on college campuses and came within a few percentage points of defeating Johnson in the New Hampshire primary: Johnson was permanently weakened. Four days later, Senator Robert Kennedy, brother of the late President, entered the race.
Johnson stunned the nation on March 31 when he withdrew from the race and four weeks later his Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey, entered the race, though he did not run in any primary. Kennedy and McCarthy traded primary victories while Humphrey gathered the support of labor unions and the big - city bosses. Kennedy won the critical California primary on June 4, but he was assassinated that night. Even as Kennedy won California, Humphrey had already amassed 1,000 of the 1,312 delegate votes needed for the nomination, while Kennedy had about 700).
During the 1968 Democratic National Convention, while police and the National Guard violently confronted anti-war protesters on the streets and parks of Chicago, the Democrats nominated Humphrey. Meanwhile, Alabama 's Democratic governor George C. Wallace launched a third - party campaign and at one point was running second to the Republican candidate Richard Nixon. Nixon barely won, with the Democrats retaining control of Congress. The party was now so deeply split that it would not again win a majority of the popular vote for president until 1976, when Jimmy Carter won the popular vote in 1976 with 50.1 %.
The degree to which the Southern Democrats had abandoned the party became evident in the 1968 presidential election when the electoral votes of every former Confederate state except Texas went to either Republican Richard Nixon or independent Wallace. Humphrey 's electoral votes came mainly from the Northern states, marking a dramatic reversal from the 1948 election 20 years earlier, when the losing Republican electoral votes were concentrated in the same states.
Following the 1968 debacle, the McGovern - Fraser Commission proposed and the party adopted far - reaching changes in how national convention delegates were selected. More power over the presidential nominee selection accrued to the rank and file and presidential primaries became significantly more important. In 1972, the Democrats nominated Senator George McGovern (SD) as the presidential candidate on a platform which advocated, among other things, immediate U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam (with his anti-war slogan "Come Home, America! '') and a guaranteed minimum income for all Americans. McGovern 's forces at the national convention ousted Mayor Richard J. Daley and the entire Chicago delegation, replacing them with insurgents led by Jesse Jackson. After it became known that McGovern 's running mate Thomas Eagleton had received electric shock therapy, McGovern said he supported Eagleton "1000 % '', but he was soon forced to drop him and find a new running mate.
Numerous top names turned him down, but McGovern finally selected Sargent Shriver, a Kennedy in - law who was close to Mayor Daley. On July 14, 1972, McGovern appointed his campaign manager, Jean Westwood, as the first woman chair of the Democratic National Committee. McGovern was defeated in a landslide by incumbent Richard Nixon, winning only Massachusetts and Washington, D.C.
The sordid Watergate scandal soon destroyed the Nixon Presidency, giving the Democrats a flicker of hope. With Gerald Ford 's pardon of Nixon soon after his resignation in 1974, the Democrats used the "corruption '' issue to make major gains in the off - year elections. In 1976, mistrust of the administration, complicated by a combination of economic recession and inflation, sometimes called "stagflation '', led to Ford 's defeat by Jimmy Carter, a former Governor of Georgia. Carter won as a little - known outsider by promising honesty in Washington, a message that played well to voters as he swept the South and won narrowly.
Carter had served as a naval officer, a farmer, a state senator and a one - term governor. His only experience with federal politics was when he chaired the Democratic National Committee 's congressional and gubernatorial elections in 1974. Some of Carter 's major accomplishments consisted of the creation of a national energy policy and the consolidation of governmental agencies, resulting in two new cabinet departments, the United States Department of Energy and the United States Department of Education. Carter also successfully deregulated the trucking, airline, rail, finance, communications and oil industries (thus backtracking on the New Deal approach to regulation of the economy), bolstered the social security system and appointed record numbers of women and minorities to significant government and judicial posts. He also enacted strong legislation on environmental protection through the expansion of the National Park Service in Alaska, creating 103 million acres (417,000 km2) of park land.
In foreign affairs, Carter 's accomplishments consisted of the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the establishment of full diplomatic relations with the People 's Republic of China and the negotiation of the SALT II Treaty. In addition, he championed human rights throughout the world and used human rights as the center of his administration 's foreign policy.
Even with all of these successes, Carter failed to implement a national health plan or to reform the tax system as he had promised in his campaign and inflation was also on the rise. Abroad, the Iranians held 52 Americans hostage for 444 days and Carter 's diplomatic and military rescue attempts failed. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan later that year further disenchanted some Americans with Carter. In 1980, Carter defeated Senator Ted Kennedy to gain renomination, but lost to Ronald Reagan in November. The Democrats lost 12 Senate seats and for the first time since 1954 the Republicans controlled the Senate, though the House remained in Democratic hands. After his defeat, Carter negotiated the release of every American hostage held in Iran and they were lifted out of Iran minutes after Reagan was inaugurated, ending a 444 - day crisis.
Democrats who supported many conservative policies were instrumental in the election of Republican President Ronald Reagan in 1980. The "Reagan Democrats '' were Democrats before the Reagan years and afterward, but they voted for Ronald Reagan in 1980 and 1984 and for George H.W. Bush in 1988, producing their landslide victories. Reagan Democrats were mostly white ethnics in the Northeast and Midwest who were attracted to Reagan 's social conservatism on issues such as abortion and to his strong foreign policy. They did not continue to vote Republican in 1992 or 1996, so the term fell into disuse except as a reference to the 1980s. The term is not used to describe White Southerners who became permanent Republicans in presidential elections.
Stan Greenberg, a Democratic pollster, analyzed white ethnic voters -- largely unionized auto workers -- in suburban Macomb County, Michigan, just north of Detroit. The county voted 63 percent for Kennedy in 1960 and 66 percent for Reagan in 1984. He concluded that Reagan Democrats no longer saw Democrats as champions of their middle class aspirations, but instead saw it as a party working primarily for the benefit of others, especially African Americans, advocacy groups of the political left and the very poor.
The failure to hold the Reagan Democrats and the white South led to the final collapse of the New Deal coalition. In 1984, Reagan carried 49 states against former Vice President and Minnesota Senator Walter Mondale, a New Deal stalwart.
In response to these landslide defeats, the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC) was created in 1985. It worked to move the party rightwards to the ideological center in order to recover some of the fundraising that had been lost to the Republicans due to corporate donors supporting Reagan. The goal was to retain left - of - center voters as well as moderates and conservatives on social issues to become a catch all party with widespread appeal to most opponents of the Republicans. Despite this, Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis, running not as a New Dealer but as an efficiency expert in public administration, lost by a landslide in 1988 to Vice President George H.W. Bush.
For nearly a century after Reconstruction, the white South identified with the Democratic Party. The Democrats ' lock on power was so strong the region was called the Solid South, although the Republicans controlled parts of the Appalachian mountains and they competed for statewide office in the border states. Before 1948, Southern Democrats believed that their party, with its respect for states ' rights and appreciation of traditional southern values, was the defender of the Southern way of life. Southern Democrats warned against aggressive designs on the part of Northern liberals and Republicans and civil rights activists whom they denounced as "outside agitators ''.
The adoption of the strong civil rights plank by the 1948 convention and the integration of the armed forces by President Harry S. Truman 's Executive Order 9981, which provided for equal treatment and opportunity for African - American servicemen, drove a wedge between the Northern and Southern branches of the party. The party was sharply divided in the following election, as Southern Democrats Strom Thurmond ran as "States ' Rights Democratic Party ''.
With the presidency of John F. Kennedy the Democratic Party began to embrace the Civil Rights Movement and its lock on the South was irretrievably broken. Upon signing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson prophesied: "We have lost the South for a generation ''.
Modernization had brought factories, national businesses and larger, more cosmopolitan cities such as Atlanta, Dallas, Charlotte and Houston to the South, as well as millions of migrants from the North and more opportunities for higher education. Meanwhile, the cotton and tobacco economy of the traditional rural South faded away, as former farmers commuted to factory jobs. As the South became more like the rest of the nation, it could not stand apart in terms of racial segregation.
Integration and the Civil Rights Movement caused enormous controversy in the white South, with many attacking it as a violation of states ' rights. When segregation was outlawed by court order and by the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1965, a die - hard element resisted integration, led by Democratic governors Orval Faubus of Arkansas, Lester Maddox of Georgia and especially George Wallace of Alabama. These populist governors appealed to a less - educated, blue - collar electorate that on economic grounds favored the Democratic Party and opposed desegregation. After 1965, most Southerners accepted integration (with the exception of public schools).
Believing themselves betrayed by the Democratic Party, traditional White Southerners joined the new middle - class and the Northern transplants in moving toward the Republican Party. Meanwhile, newly enfranchised black voters began supporting Democratic candidates at the 80 - 90 - percent levels, producing Democratic leaders such as Julian Bond and John Lewis of Georgia and Barbara Jordan of Texas. Just as Martin Luther King had promised, integration had brought about a new day in Southern politics. The Republican Party 's Southern strategy further alienated black voters from the party.
In addition to its white middle - class base, Republicans attracted strong majorities among evangelical Christians, who prior to the 1980s were largely apolitical. Exit polls in the 2004 presidential election showed that George W. Bush led John Kerry by 70 -- 30 % among White Southerners, who comprised 71 % of the voters. Kerry had a 90 -- 9 lead among the 18 % of Southern voters who were black. One - third of the Southern voters said they were white Evangelicals and they voted for Bush by 80 -- 20.
The Democrats included a strong element that came of age in opposition to the Vietnam War and remained hostile toward American military interventions. On August 1, 1990, Iraq, led by Saddam Hussein, invaded Kuwait. President Bush formed an international coalition and secured United Nations approval to expel Iraq. Congress on January 12, 1991 authorized by a narrow margin the use of military force against Iraq, with Republicans in favor and Democrats opposed. The vote in the House was 250 -- 183 and in the Senate 52 - 47. In the Senate, 42 Republicans and 10 Democrats voted yes to war, while 45 Democrats and two Republicans voted no. In the House, 164 Republicans and 86 Democrats voted yes and 179 Democrats, three Republicans and one Independent voted no. The Gulf War, a military operation known as "Desert Storm '', was short and successful, but Hussein was allowed to remain in power. The Arab countries (and Japan) repaid all the American military costs.
In the 1990s, the Democratic Party revived itself, in part by moving to the right on economic policy. In 1992, for the first time in 12 years the United States had a Democrat in the White House. During President Bill Clinton 's term, the Congress balanced the federal budget for the first time since the Kennedy Presidency and presided over a robust American economy that saw incomes grow across the board. In 1994, the economy had the lowest combination of unemployment and inflation in 25 years. President Clinton also signed into law several gun control bills, including the Brady Bill, which imposed a five - day waiting period on handgun purchases; and he also signed into legislation a ban on many types of semi-automatic firearms (which expired in 2004). His Family and Medical Leave Act, covering some 40 million Americans, offered workers up to 12 weeks of unpaid, job - guaranteed leave for childbirth or a personal or family illness. He deployed the U.S. military to Haiti to reinstate deposed president Jean - Bertrand Aristide, took a strong hand in Palestinian - Israeli peace negotiations, brokered a historic cease - fire in Northern Ireland and negotiated the Dayton accords. In 1996, Clinton became the first Democratic President to be re-elected since Franklin D. Roosevelt.
However, the Democrats lost their majority in both Houses of Congress in 1994. Clinton vetoed two Republican - backed welfare reform bills before signing the third, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996. The tort reform Private Securities Litigation Reform Act passed over his veto. Labor unions, which had been steadily losing membership since the 1960s, found they had also lost political clout inside the Democratic Party and Clinton enacted the North American Free Trade Agreement with Canada and Mexico over unions ' strong objections. In 1998, the Republican - led House of Representatives impeached Clinton on two charges, though he was subsequently acquitted by the United States Senate in 1999. Under Clinton 's leadership, the United States participated in NATO 's Operation Allied Force against Yugoslavia that year.
In the 1990s the Clinton Administration continued the free market, or neoliberal, reforms which began under the Reagan Administration. However, economist Sebastian Mallaby argues that the party increasingly adopted pro-business, pro free market principles after 1976:
Historian Walter Scheidel also posits that both parties shifted to free markets in the 1970s:
As the DLC attempted to move the Democratic agenda to the right (to a more centrist position), prominent Democrats from both the centrist and conservative factions (such as Terry McAuliffe) assumed leadership of the party and its direction. Some liberals and progressives felt alienated by the Democratic Party, which they felt had become unconcerned with the interests of the common people and left - wing issues in general. Some Democrats challenged the validity of such critiques, citing the Democratic role in pushing for progressive reforms.
During the 2000 presidential election, the Democrats chose Vice President Al Gore to be the party 's candidate for the Presidency. Gore ran against George W. Bush, the Republican candidate and son of former President George H.W. Bush. The issues Gore championed include debt reduction, tax cuts, foreign policy, public education, global warming, judicial appointments and affirmative action. Nevertheless, Gore 's affiliation with Clinton and the DLC caused critics to assert that Bush and Gore were too similar, especially on free trade, reductions in social welfare and the death penalty. Green Party presidential candidate Ralph Nader in particular was very vocal in his criticisms.
Gore won a popular plurality of over 540,000 votes over Bush, but lost in the Electoral College by four votes. Many Democrats blamed Nader 's third - party spoiler role for Gore 's defeat. They pointed to the states of New Hampshire (4 electoral votes) and Florida (25 electoral votes), where Nader 's total votes exceeded Bush 's margin of victory. In Florida, Nader received 97,000 votes and Bush defeated Gore by a mere 537. Controversy plagued the election and Gore largely dropped from politics for years, though by 2005 he was making speeches critical of Bush 's foreign policy.
Despite Gore 's close defeat, the Democrats gained five seats in the Senate (including the election of Hillary Clinton in New York) to turn a 55 -- 45 Republican edge into a 50 -- 50 split (with a Republican Vice President breaking a tie). However, when Republican Senator Jim Jeffords of Vermont decided in 2001 to become an independent and vote with the Democratic Caucus, the majority status shifted along with the seat, including control of the floor (by the Majority Leader) and control of all committee chairmanships. However, the Republicans regained their Senate majority with gains in 2002 and 2004, leaving the Democrats with only 44 seats, the fewest since the 1920s.
In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the nation 's focus was changed to issues of national security. All but one Democrat (Representative Barbara Lee) voted with their Republican counterparts to authorize President Bush 's 2001 invasion of Afghanistan. House leader Richard Gephardt and Senate leader Thomas Daschle pushed Democrats to vote for the USA PATRIOT Act and the invasion of Iraq. The Democrats were split over entering Iraq in 2003 and increasingly expressed concerns about both the justification and progress of the War on Terrorism, as well as the domestic effects, including threats to civil rights and civil liberties, from the Patriot act. Senator Russ Feingold was the only Senator to vote against the act.
In the wake of the financial fraud scandal of the Enron Corporation and other corporations, Congressional Democrats pushed for a legal overhaul of business accounting with the intention of preventing further accounting fraud. This led to the bipartisan Sarbanes - Oxley Act in 2002. With job losses and bankruptcies across regions and industries increasing in 2001 and 2002, the Democrats generally campaigned on the issue of economic recovery. That did not work for them in 2002, as the Democrats lost a few seats in the U.S. House of Representatives.
They lost three seats in the Senate (Georgia as Max Cleland was unseated, Minnesota as Paul Wellstone died and his succeeding Democratic candidate lost the election and Missouri as Jean Carnahan was unseated) in the Senate. While Democrats gained governorships in New Mexico (where Bill Richardson was elected), Arizona (Janet Napolitano), Michigan (Jennifer Granholm) and Wyoming (Dave Freudenthal). Other Democrats lost governorships in South Carolina (Jim Hodges), Alabama (Don Siegelman) and -- for the first time in more than a century -- Georgia (Roy Barnes).
The election led to another round of soul searching about the party 's narrowing base. Democrats had further losses 2003, when a voter recall unseated the unpopular Democratic governor of California Gray Davis and replaced him with Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger. By the end of 2003, the four most populous states had Republican governors: California, Texas, New York and Florida.
The 2004 campaign started as early as December 2002, when Gore announced he would not run again in the 2004 election. Howard Dean, former Governor of Vermont, an opponent of the war and a critic of the Democratic establishment, was the front - runner leading into the Democratic primaries. Dean had immense grassroots support, especially from the left - wing of the party. Massachusetts Senator John Kerry, a more centrist figure with heavy support from the Democratic Leadership Council, was nominated because he was seen as more "electable '' than Dean.
As layoffs of American workers occurred in various industries due to outsourcing, some Democrats (including Dean and senatorial candidate Erskine Bowles of North Carolina) began to refine their positions on free trade and some even questioned their past support for it. By 2004, the failure of George W. Bush 's administration to find weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, mounting combat casualties and fatalities in the ongoing Iraq War, as well as the lack of any end point for the War on Terror were frequently debated issues in the election. That year, Democrats generally campaigned on surmounting the jobless recovery, solving the Iraq crisis and fighting terrorism more efficiently.
In the end, Kerry lost both the popular vote (by 3 million out of over 120 million votes cast) and the Electoral College. Republicans also gained four seats in the Senate (leaving the Democrats with only 44 seats, their fewest since the 1920s) and three seats in the House of Representatives. Also for the first time since 1952, the Democratic leader of the Senate lost re-election. In the end, there were 3,660 Democratic state legislators across the nation to the Republicans ' 3,557. Democrats gained governorships in Louisiana, New Hampshire and Montana. However, they lost the governorship of Missouri and a legislative majority in Georgia -- which had long been a Democratic stronghold. Senate pickups for the Democrats included Ken Salazar in Colorado and 2004 Democratic National Convention keynote speaker Barack Obama in Illinois.
There were many reasons for the defeat and after the election most analysts concluded that Kerry was a poor campaigner. A group of Vietnam veterans opposed to Kerry called the Swift Boat Veterans for Truth undercut Kerry 's use of his military past as a campaign strategy. Kerry was unable to reconcile his initial support of the Iraq War with his opposition to the war in 2004 or manage the deep split in the Democratic Party between those who favored and opposed the war.
Republicans ran thousands of television commercials to argue that Kerry had flip - flopped on Iraq. When Kerry 's home state of Massachusetts legalized same - sex marriage, the issue split liberal and conservative Democrats and independents (Kerry publicly stated throughout his campaign that he opposed same - sex marriage, but favored civil unions). Republicans exploited the same - sex marriage issue by promoting ballot initiatives in 11 states that brought conservatives to the polls in large numbers: all 11 initiatives passed.
Flaws in vote - counting systems may also have played a role in Kerry 's defeat (see 2004 United States election voting controversies). Senator Barbara Boxer of California and several Democratic U.S. Representatives (including John Conyers of Michigan) raised the issue of voting irregularities in Ohio when the 109th Congress first convened, but they were defeated 267 -- 31 by the House and 74 - 1 by the Senate. Other factors included a healthy job market, a rising stock market, strong home sales and low unemployment.
After the 2004 election, prominent Democrats began to rethink the party 's direction and a variety of strategies for moving forward were voiced. Some Democrats proposed moving towards the right to regain seats in the House and Senate and possibly win the Presidency in the election of 2008, while others demanded that the party move more to the left and become a stronger opposition party. One topic of discussion was the party 's policies surrounding reproductive rights.
Rethinking the party 's position on gun control became a matter of discussion, brought up by Howard Dean, Bill Richardson, Brian Schweitzer and other Democrats who had won governorships in states where Second Amendment rights were important to many voters. In What 's the Matter with Kansas?, commentator Thomas Frank wrote that the Democrats needed to return to campaigning on economic populism.
These debates were reflected in the 2005 campaign for Chairman of the Democratic National Committee, which Howard Dean won over the objections of many party insiders. Dean sought to move the Democratic strategy away from the establishment and bolster support for the party 's state organizations, even in red states (the fifty - state strategy).
When the 109th Congress convened, Harry Reid, the new Senate Minority Leader, tried to convince the Democratic Senators to vote more as a bloc on important issues and he forced the Republicans to abandon their push for privatization of Social Security. In 2005, the Democrats retained their governorships in Virginia and New Jersey, electing Tim Kaine and Jon Corzine, respectively. However, the party lost the mayoral race in New York City, a Democratic stronghold, for the fourth straight time.
With scandals involving lobbyist Jack Abramoff as well as Duke Cunningham, Tom DeLay, Mark Foley and Bob Taft, the Democrats used the slogan "Culture of corruption '' against the Republicans during the 2006 campaign. Negative public opinion on the Iraq War, widespread dissatisfaction over the ballooning federal deficit and the inept handling of the Hurricane Katrina disaster dragged down President Bush 's job approval ratings.
As a result of the 2006 midterm elections, the Democratic Party became the majority party in the House of Representatives and its caucus in the United States Senate constituted a majority when the 110th Congress convened in 2007. The Democrats had spent twelve successive years as the minority party in the House before the 2006 mid-term elections. The Democrats also went from controlling a minority of governorships to a majority. The number of seats held by party members likewise increased in various state legislatures, giving the Democrats control of a plurality of them nationwide. No Democratic incumbent was defeated and no Democratic - held open seat was lost in either the U.S. Senate, U.S. House, or with regards to any governorship.
The Democratic Party 's electoral success has been attributed by some to running conservative - leaning Democrats against at - risk Republican incumbents, while others claim that running more populists and progressive candidates has been the source of success. Exit polling suggested that corruption was a key issue for many voters.
In the 2006 Democratic caucus leadership elections, Democrats chose Representative Steny Hoyer of Maryland for House Majority Leader and nominated Representative Nancy Pelosi of California for speaker. Senate Democrats chose Harry Reid of Nevada for United States Senate Majority Leader. Pelosi was elected as the first female House speaker at the commencement of the 110th Congress. The House soon passed the measures that comprised the Democrats ' 100 - Hour Plan.
The 2008 Democratic presidential primaries left two candidates in close competition: Illinois Senator Barack Obama and New York Senator Hillary Clinton. Both had won more support within a major American political party than any previous African American or female candidate. Before official ratification at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, Obama emerged as the party 's presumptive nominee. With President George W. Bush of the Republican Party ineligible for a third term and the Vice President Dick Cheney not pursuing his party 's nomination, Senator John McCain of Arizona more quickly emerged as the GOP nominee.
Throughout most of the 2008 general election, polls showed a close race between Obama and John McCain. However, Obama maintained a small but widening lead over McCain in the wake of the liquidity crisis of September 2008.
On November 4, Obama defeated McCain by a significant margin in the Electoral College and the party also made further gains in the Senate and House, adding to its 2006 gains.
On January 20, 2009, Obama was inaugurated as the 44th president of the United States in a ceremony attended by nearly 2 million people, the largest congregation of spectators ever to witness the inauguration of a new President. That same day in Washington, D.C., Republican House of Representative leaders met in an "invitation only '' meeting for four hours to discuss the future of the Republican Party under the Obama administration. During the meeting, they agreed to bring Congress to a standstill regardless of how much it would hurt the American economy by pledging to obstruct and block President Obama on all legislation.
One of the first acts by the Obama administration after assuming control was an order signed by Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel that suspended all pending federal regulations proposed by outgoing President George W. Bush so that they could be reviewed. This was comparable to prior moves by the Bush administration upon assuming control from Bill Clinton, who in his final 20 days in office issued 12 executive orders. In his first week, Obama also established a policy of producing a weekly Saturday morning video address available on Whitehouse.gov and YouTube, much like those released during his transition period. The policy is likened to Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's fireside chats and George W. Bush 's weekly radio addresses.
President Obama signed into law the following significant legislation during his first 100 days in the White House: Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, Children 's Health Insurance Reauthorization Act of 2009 and the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. Also during his first 100 days, the Obama administration reversed the following significant George W. Bush administration policies: supporting the UN declaration on sexual orientation and gender identity, relaxing enforcement of cannabis laws and lifting the 71⁄2 - year ban on federal funding for embryonic stem cell research. Obama also issued Executive Order 13492, ordering the closure of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, although it has remained open throughout his presidency. He also lifted some travel and money restrictions to the island, ended the Mexico City Policy and signed an order requiring the Army Field Manual to be used as guide for terror interrogations, which banned torture and other coercive techniques, such as waterboarding.
Obama also announced stricter guidelines regarding lobbyists in an effort to raise the ethical standards of the White House. The new policy bans aides from attempting to influence the administration for at least two years if they leave his staff. It also bans aides on staff from working on matters they have previously lobbied on, or to approach agencies that they targeted while on staff. Their ban also included a gift - giving ban. However, one day later he nominated William J. Lynn III, a lobbyist for defence contractor Raytheon, for the position of Deputy Secretary of Defense. Obama later nominated William Corr, an anti-tobacco lobbyist, for Deputy Secretary of Health and Human Services.
During the beginning of Obama Presidency emerged the Tea Party movement, a conservative movement that began to heavily influence the Republican Party within the United States, shifting the GOP further right - wing and partisan in their ideology. On February 18, 2009, Obama announced that the U.S. military presence in Afghanistan would be bolstered by 17,000 new troops by summer. The announcement followed the recommendation of several experts including Defense Secretary Robert Gates that additional troops be deployed to the strife - torn South Asian country. On February 27, 2009, Obama addressed Marines at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina and outlined an exit strategy for the Iraq War. Obama promised to withdraw all combat troops from Iraq by August 31, 2010 and a "transitional force '' of up to 50,000 counterterrorism, advisory, training and support personnel by the end of 2011.
Obama signed two presidential memorandum concerning energy independence, ordering the Department of Transportation to establish higher fuel efficiency standards before 2011 models are released and allowing states to raise their emissions standards above the national standard. Due to the economic crisis, the President enacted a pay freeze for senior White House staff making more than $100,000 per year. The action affected approximately 120 staffers and added up to about a $443,000 savings for the United States government. On March 10, 2009, in a meeting with the New Democrat Coalition, Obama told them that he was a "New Democrat '', "pro-growth Democrat '', "supports free and fair trade '' and "very concerned about a return to protectionism ''.
On May 26, 2009, President Obama nominated Sonia Sotomayor for Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Sotomayor was confirmed by the Senate becoming the highest ranking government official of Puerto Rican heritage ever. On July 1, 2009, President Obama signed into law the Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act of 2010. On July 7, 2009, Al Franken was sworn into the Senate, thus Senate Democrats obtained the 60 vote threshold to overcome the Senate filibuster.
On October 28, 2009, Obama signed the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010, which included in it the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, which expanded federal hate crime laws to include sexual orientation, gender identity and disability. On January 21, 2010, the Supreme Court ruled in a 5 -- 4 decision in the case of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission that the First Amendment prohibited the government from restricting independent political expenditures by a nonprofit corporation. On February 4, 2010, Republican Scott Brown of Massachusetts was sworn into the Senate, thus ending Senate Democrats 60 vote threshold to overcome a filibuster.
On March 23, 2010, President Obama signed into law his signature legislation of his presidency, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, together with the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, which represents the most significant regulatory overhaul of the U.S. healthcare system since the passage of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965. On May 10, 2010, President Obama nominated Elena Kagan for Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. On July 21, 2010, President Obama signed into law the Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act and Elena Kagan was confirmed by the Senate on August 5, 2010 by a 63 -- 37 vote. Kagan was sworn in by Chief Justice John Roberts on August 7, 2010.
On 19 August 2010, the 4th Stryker Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division was the last American combat brigade to withdraw from Iraq. In a speech at the Oval Office on 31 August 2010, Obama declared: "(T) he American combat mission in Iraq has ended. Operation Iraqi Freedom is over, and the Iraqi people now have lead responsibility for the security of their country ''. About 50,000 American troops remained in the country in an advisory capacity as part of "Operation New Dawn '', which ran until the end of 2011. New Dawn was the final designated U.S. campaign of the war. The U.S. military continued to train and advise the Iraqi Forces, as well as participate in combat alongside them.
On November 2, 2010 during the 2010 midterm elections, the Democratic Party had a net loss of six seats in the Senate and 63 seats in the House. Control of the House of Representatives switched from the Democratic Party to the Republican Party. The Democrats lost a net of six state governorships and a net 680 seats in state legislatures. The Democrats lost control of seven state Senate legislatures and 13 state Houses. This was the worst performance of the Democratic Party in a national election since the 1946 elections. The Blue Dog Coalition numbers in the House were reduced from 54 members in 2008 to 26 members in 2011 and were half of the Democratic defeats during the election. This was the first United States national election in which Super PACs were used by Democrats and Republicans. Many commentators contribute the electoral success of the Republican Party in 2010 to the conservative Super PACs ' campaign spending, Tea Party movement, backlash against President Obama, failure to mobilize the Obama coalition to get out and vote and the failure of President Obama to enact many of his progressive and liberal campaign promises.
On December 1, 2010, Obama announced at the U.S. Military Academy in West Point that the U.S. would send 30,000 more troops. Anti-war organizations in the U.S. responded quickly and cities throughout the U.S. saw protests on 2 December. Many protesters compared the decision to deploy more troops in Afghanistan to the expansion of the Vietnam War under the Johnson administration.
During the lameduck session of the 111th United States Congress, President Obama signed into law the following significant legislation: Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010, Do n't Ask, Do n't Tell Repeal Act of 2010, James Zadroga 9 / 11 Health and Compensation Act of 2010, Shark Conservation Act of 2010 and the FDA Food Safety Modernization Act of 2010. On December 18, 2010, the Arab Spring began. On 22 December 2010, the U.S. Senate gave its advice and consent to ratification of New START by a vote of 71 to 26 on the resolution of ratification. The 111th United States Congress has been considered one of the most productive Congresses in history in terms of legislation passed since the 89th Congress, during Lyndon Johnson 's Great Society.
On February 23, 2011, United States Attorney General Eric Holder announced the United States federal government would no longer defend the Defense of Marriage Act within federal courts. In response to the First Libyan Civil War, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton joined with U.N. Ambassador Susan Rice and Office of Multilateral and Human Rights Director Samantha Power led the hawkish diplomatic team within the Obama administration that helped convince President Obama in favor airstrikes against Libyan government. On March 19, 2011, the United States began military intervention in Libya.
United States domestic reaction to the 2011 military intervention in Libya were mixed in the Democratic Party. Opponents to the 2011 military intervention in Libya within the Democratic Party include Rep. Dennis Kucinich, Sen. Jim Webb, Rep. Raul Grijalva, Rep. Mike Honda, Rep. Lynn Woolsey and Rep. Barbara Lee. The Congressional Progressive Caucus (CPC), an organization of progressive Democrats, said that the United States should conclude its campaign against Libyan air defenses as soon as possible. Support for the 2011 military intervention in Libya within the Democratic Party include President Bill Clinton, Sen. Carl Levin, Sen. Dick Durbin, Sen. Jack Reed, Sen. John Kerry, Minority Leader of the House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi, Legal Adviser of the Department of State Harold Hongju Koh and Ed Schultz.
On April 5, 2011, Vice President Joe Biden announced that Debbie Wasserman Schultz was President Obama 's choice to succeed Tim Kaine as the 52nd Chair of the Democratic National Committee. On May 26, 2011, President Obama signed the PATRIOT Sunsets Extension Act of 2011, which was strongly criticized by some in the Democratic Party as violation of civil liberties and a continuation of the George W. Bush administration. House Democrats largely opposed the PATRIOT Sunsets Extension Act of 2011, while Senate Democrats were slightly in favor of it.
On October 21, 2011, President Obama signed into law three of the following United States free trade agreements: Free trade agreement between the United States of America and the Republic of Korea, Panama -- United States Trade Promotion Agreement and the United States -- Colombia Free Trade Agreement. In the House of Representatives, Democratic Representatives largely opposed these agreements, while Senate Democrats were split on the agreements. This was a continuation of President Bill Clinton 's policy of support for free trade agreements.
When asked by David Gregory about his views on same - sex marriage on Meet the Press on May 5, 2012, Biden stated he supported same - sex marriage. On May 9, 2012, a day after North Carolina voters approved Amendment 1, President Obama became the first sitting United States President to come out in favor of same - sex marriage.
The 2012 Democratic Party platform for Obama 's reelection ran over 26,000 words and included his position on numerous national issues. On security issues, it pledges "unshakable commitment to Israel 's security '', says the party will try to prevent Iran from acquiring a nuclear weapon. It calls for a strong military, but argues that in the current fiscal environment, tough budgetary decisions must include defense spending. On controversial social issues it supports abortion rights, same - sex marriage and says the party is "strongly committed to enacting comprehensive immigration reform ''. On the economic side the platform calls for extending the tax cuts for families earning under $250,000 and promises not to raise their taxes. It praises the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ("Obamacare '', but does not use that term). It "adamantly oppose any efforts to privatize Medicare ''. On the rules of politics it attacks the recent Supreme Court decision Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission that allows much greater political spending. It demands "immediate action to curb the influence of lobbyists and special interests on our political institutions ''.
Intense budget negotiations in the divided 112th Congress, wherein Democrats resolved to fight Republican demands for decreased spending and no tax hikes, threatened to shut down the government in April 2011 and later spurred fears that the United States would default on its debt. Continuing tight budgets were felt at the state level, where public - sector unions, a key Democratic constituency, battled Republican efforts to limit their collective bargaining powers in order to save money and reduce union power. This led to sustained protests by public - sector employees and walkouts by sympathetic Democratic legislators in states like Wisconsin and Ohio. The 2011 "Occupy movement ''. a campaign on the left for more accountable economic leadership, failed to have the impact on Democratic Party leadership and policy that the Tea Party movement had on the Republicans. ts leadership proved ineffective and the Occupy movement fizzled out. However, echoes could be found in the presidential nomination campaign of Senator Bernie Sanders in 2015 -- 2016.
Conservatives criticized the president for "passive '' responses to crises such as the 2009 Iranian protests and the 2011 Egyptian revolution. Additionally, liberal and Democratic activists objected to Obama 's decisions to send reinforcements to Afghanistan, resume military trials of terror suspects at Guantanamo Bay and to help enforce a no - fly zone over Libya during that country 's civil war. However, the demands of anti-war advocates were heeded when Obama followed through on a campaign promise to withdraw combat troops from Iraq.
The 2012 election was characterized by very high spending, especially on negative television ads in about ten critical states. Despite a weak economic recovery and high unemployment, the Obama campaign successfully mobilized its coalition of youth, blacks, Hispanics and women. The campaign carried all the same states as in 2008 except two, Indiana and North Carolina. The election continued the pattern whereby Democrats won more votes in all presidential elections after 1988, except for 2004. Obama and the Democrats lost control of the Senate in the 2014 midterm elections, losing nine seats in that body and 13 in the GOP House.
National polling from 2013 to the summer of 2015 showed Hillary Clinton with an overwhelming commanding lead over all of her potential primary opponents. Her main challenger was independent Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders, whose rallies grew larger and larger as he attracted overwhelming majorities among Democrats under age 40. The sharp divide between the two candidates was the establishment versus the political outsider, with Clinton being the establishment candidate and Sanders the outsider. Clinton received the endorsements from an overwhelming majority of office holders. Clinton 's core base voters during the primary was women, African Americans, Latino Americans, LGBTs, moderates and older voters, while Sanders ' core base included younger voters under age 40, men and progressives.
The ideological differences between the two candidates represented the ideological divide within the Democratic Party as a whole. Clinton, who cast herself as a moderate and a progressive, is ideologically more of a centrist representing the Bill Clinton and Barack Obama Third Way New Democrat wing of the Democratic Party. Bernie Sanders, who remained an independent in the Senate throughout the primaries (despite running for President as a Democrat), is a self described democratic socialist and is ideologically more of a progressive representing the Elizabeth Warren populist wing of the Democratic Party.
During the primaries, Sanders attacked Clinton for her ties to Wall Street and her previous support of the Defense of Marriage Act, the Trans - Pacific Partnership, the North American Free Trade Agreement, the Keystone Pipeline, the 2011 military intervention in Libya and the Iraq War, while Clinton attacked Sanders for voting against the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act, the Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000, the Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms Act and the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007. Clinton generally moved to the left and adopted variations of some of Sanders ' themes, such as trade and college tuition. Although she was favored in the polls, she lost the general election to Trump in November despite winning the popular vote.
On January 12, 2017, the National Democratic Redistricting Committee, a 527 organization that focuses on redistricting reform and is affiliated with the Democratic Party. The chair, president and vice president of the umbrella organization is the 82th Attorney General Eric Holder, Elizabeth Pearson and Alixandria "Ali '' Lapp respectively. President Obama has said he would be involved with the committee.
At the inauguration of Donald Trump, 67 Democratic members of the United States House of Representatives boycotted the inauguration. This was the largest boycott by members of the United States Congress since the second inauguration of Richard Nixon, where it was estimated that between 80 and 200 Democratic members of United States Congress boycotted.
On January 23, 2017, Justice Democrats, political action committee, was created by Cenk Uygur of The Young Turks, Kyle Kulinski of Secular Talk, Saikat Chakrabarti and Zack Exley (both former leadership from the former 2016 Bernie Sanders presidential campaign). The organization, formed as a result of the 2016 United States presidential election, has a stated goal of reforming the Democratic Party by running "a unified campaign to replace every corporate - backed member of Congress and rebuild the (Democratic) party from scratch '' starting in the 2018 Congressional midterms.
On January 17, 2017, Third Way, a public policy think tank, launched New Blue, a $20 million campaign to study Democratic short comings in the 2016 elections and offer a new economic agenda to help Democrats reconnect with the voters who have abandoned the party. The money will be spent to conduct extensive research, reporting and polling in Rust Belt states that once formed a Blue Wall, but which voted for President Donald Trump in 2016. Many progressives have criticized this as a desperate measure for the so - called establishment wing of the party to retain leadership.
The 2017 Democratic National Committee chairmanship election was characterized primarily as being between the two candidates for the chairmanship, United States Representative for Minnesota 's 5th congressional district Keith Ellison and 26th United States Secretary of Labor Tom Perez. On February 25, 2017, Perez won the Democratic National Committee chairmanship and named Keith Ellison as Deputy Chair of the Democratic National Committee, a newly created position. The Obama administration pushed for Tom Perez to run against Keith Ellison and President Obama personally called DNC members to vote for Perez.
US politics:
Campaign text books The national committees of major parties published a "campaign textbook '' every presidential election from about 1856 to about 1932. They were designed for speakers and contain statistics, speeches, summaries of legislation, and documents, with plenty of argumentation. Only large academic libraries have them, but some are online:
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what are the different areas of paris called | Arrondissements of Paris - wikipedia
The city of Paris is divided into twenty arrondissements municipaux, administrative districts, more simply referred to as arrondissements (pronounced (aʁɔ̃dismɑ̃) in French). These are not to be confused with departmental arrondissements, which subdivide the 101 French départements. The word "arrondissement '', when applied to Paris, refers almost always to the municipal arrondissements listed below. The number of the arrondissement is indicated by the last two digits in most Parisian postal codes (75001 up to 75020).
The twenty arrondissements are arranged in the form of a clockwise spiral (often likened to a snail shell), starting from the middle of the city, with the first on the Right Bank (north bank) of the Seine. Lyon and Marseille have, more recently, also been subdivided into arrondissements.
In French, notably on street signs, the number is often given in Roman numerals. For example, the Eiffel Tower belongs to the VIIe arrondissement while Gare de l'Est is in the Xe arrondissement. In daily speech, people use only the ordinal number corresponding to the arrondissement, e.g. "Elle habite dans le sixième '', "She lives in the 6th (arrondissement) ''.
Notes: 1. With the Bois de Vincennes 2. Without the Bois de Vincennes 3. With the Bois de Boulogne 4. Without the Bois de Boulogne 5. 2005 is the year of the most recent official estimate; population of these arrondissements may still be growing
Each arrondissement is subdivided administratively into four quartiers. Paris thus has eighty quartiers administratifs, each containing a police station. For a table giving the names of the eighty quartiers, see Quarters of Paris.
On 11 October 1795, Paris was divided into twelve arrondissements. They were numbered from west to east, with the numbers 1 - 9 situated on the Right Bank of the Seine and the numbers 10 - 12 on the Left Bank. Each arrondissement was subdivided into four quartiers, which corresponded to the 48 original districts created in 1790.
Emperor Napoleon III and the Prefect of the Seine Baron Haussmann developed a plan to incorporate several of the surrounding communes into the Paris jurisdiction in the late 1850s. Parliament passed the necessary legislation in 1859, and the expansion took effect when the law was promulgated on 3 November 1859 (though city taxes were not extended to the new neighborhoods until 1 July 1860). The previous twelve arrondissements were reorganized from twelve arrondissements into twenty. When Haussmann released his plan for the new boundaries and numbering system, residents of Passy objected because it placed them in the new thirteenth arrondissement, and at the time the expression "they were married in the thirteenth '' was "a jocular way of referring to non-marital cohabitation ''. The mayor of Passy, Possoz, devised the idea of a numbering the arrondissements in a spiral pattern beginning with the first centered on the imperial palaces, which put Passy in the sixteenth.
In historical records, when it is important to distinguish between two systems, the original arrondissements are indicated by adding the term ancienne ("former '' or "old ''), for example, 2ème ancienne or 7ème anc.
Both a city and a département (French national administrative subdivision), Paris has since 1982 and the PLM law (Paris Lyon Marseille law) both a city council and 20 arrondissement councils. The PLM law also set limits to the prerogatives of the mayor of Paris, who has to deal with the powers granted to the prefect of police on security issues. The 20 arrondissement councils (conseils d'arrondissement) are similar in operation to the municipal council (conseil municipal) but with very few powers. Its members are elected at municipal elections in the same way as in municipalities with more than 3,500 inhabitants. The arrondissement council is made up of 2 / 3 arrondissement councilors and 1 / 3 of city councilors, elected in the arrondissement but who also sit on the Paris city council. At its first meeting after the elections, each arrondissement council elects its mayor.
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when did north korea sign the nuclear non proliferation treaty | Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of nuclear weapons - Wikipedia
The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT, is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament.
Opened for signature in 1968, the treaty entered into force in 1970. As required by the text, after twenty - five years, NPT Parties met in May 1995 and agreed to extend the treaty indefinitely. More countries have adhered to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement, a testament to the treaty 's significance. As of August 2016, 191 states have adhered to the treaty, though North Korea, which acceded in 1985 but never came into compliance, announced its withdrawal from the NPT in 2003, following detonation of nuclear devices in violation of core obligations. Four UN member states have never accepted the NPT, three of which are thought to possess nuclear weapons: India, Israel, and Pakistan. In addition, South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined.
The treaty defines nuclear - weapon states as those that have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before 1 January 1967; these are the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China. Four other states are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, and North Korea have openly tested and declared that they possess nuclear weapons, while Israel is deliberately ambiguous regarding its nuclear weapons status.
The NPT is often seen to be based on a central bargain:
the NPT non-nuclear - weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear - weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals.
The treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences of the Parties to the Treaty of Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Even though the treaty was originally conceived with a limited duration of 25 years, the signing parties decided, by consensus, to unconditionally extend the treaty indefinitely during the Review Conference in New York City on 11 May 1995, culminating successful U.S. government efforts led by Ambassador Thomas Graham Jr.
At the time the NPT was proposed, there were predictions of 25 -- 30 nuclear weapon states within 20 years. Instead, over forty years later, five states are not parties to the NPT, and they include the only four additional states believed to possess nuclear weapons. Several additional measures have been adopted to strengthen the NPT and the broader nuclear nonproliferation regime and make it difficult for states to acquire the capability to produce nuclear weapons, including the export controls of the Nuclear Suppliers Group and the enhanced verification measures of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Additional Protocol.
Critics argue that the NPT can not stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons or the motivation to acquire them. They express disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 22,000 warheads in their combined stockpile and have shown a reluctance to disarm further. Several high - ranking officials within the United Nations have said that they can do little to stop states using nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons.
The NPT consists of a preamble and eleven articles. Although the concept of "pillars '' is not expressed anywhere in the NPT, the treaty is nevertheless sometimes interpreted as a three - pillar system, with an implicit balance among them:
These pillars are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. An effective nonproliferation regime whose members comply with their obligations provides an essential foundation for progress on disarmament and makes possible greater cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. With the right to access the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology comes the responsibility of nonproliferation. Progress on disarmament reinforces efforts to strengthen the nonproliferation regime and to enforce compliance with obligations, thereby also facilitating peaceful nuclear cooperation. The "pillars '' concept has been questioned by some who believe that the NPT is, as its name suggests, principally about nonproliferation, and who worry that "three pillars '' language misleadingly implies that the three elements have equivalent importance.
Under Article I of the NPT, nuclear - weapon states pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices to any recipient or in any way assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear - weapon state in the manufacture or acquisition of a nuclear weapon. Under Article II of the NPT, non-nuclear - weapon states pledge not to acquire or exercise control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not to seek or receive assistance in the manufacture of such devices. Under Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear - weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes.
Five states are recognized by NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968). These five nations are also the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.
These five NWS agree not to transfer "nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices '' and "not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce '' a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to "receive '', "manufacture '', or "acquire '' nuclear weapons or to "seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons '' (Article II). NNWS parties also agree to accept safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices (Article III).
The five NWS parties have made undertakings not to use their nuclear weapons against a non-NWS party except in response to a nuclear attack, or a conventional attack in alliance with a Nuclear Weapons State. However, these undertakings have not been incorporated formally into the treaty, and the exact details have varied over time. The U.S. also had nuclear warheads targeted at North Korea, a non-NWS, from 1959 until 1991. The previous United Kingdom Secretary of State for Defence, Geoff Hoon, has also explicitly invoked the possibility of the use of the country 's nuclear weapons in response to a non-conventional attack by "rogue states ''. In January 2006, President Jacques Chirac of France indicated that an incident of state - sponsored terrorism on France could trigger a small - scale nuclear retaliation aimed at destroying the "rogue state 's '' power centers.
Under Article VI of the NPT, all Parties undertake to pursue good - faith negotiations on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race, to nuclear disarmament, and to general and complete disarmament.
Article VI of the NPT represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear - weapon states. The NPT 's preamble contains language affirming the desire of treaty signatories to ease international tension and strengthen international trust so as to create someday the conditions for a halt to the production of nuclear weapons, and treaty on general and complete disarmament that liquidates, in particular, nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles from national arsenals.
The wording of the NPT 's Article VI arguably imposes only a vague obligation on all NPT signatories to move in the general direction of nuclear and total disarmament, saying, "Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament. '' Under this interpretation, Article VI does not strictly require all signatories to actually conclude a disarmament treaty. Rather, it only requires them "to negotiate in good faith. ''
On the other hand, some governments, especially non-nuclear - weapon states belonging to the Non-Aligned Movement, have interpreted Article VI 's language as being anything but vague. In their view, Article VI constitutes a formal and specific obligation on the NPT - recognized nuclear - weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, and argue that these states have failed to meet their obligation. The International Court of Justice (ICJ), in its advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, issued 8 July 1996, unanimously interprets the text of Article VI as implying that
"There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control. ''
The ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties (not just the nuclear weapon states) and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament.
Critics of the NPT - recognized nuclear - weapon states (the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT - recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in the post -- Cold War era, has angered some non-nuclear - weapon NPT signatories of the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear - weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals.
Other observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament. No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers -- which has led to the elimination of thousands of weapons and delivery systems -- could eventually make the possession of nuclear weapons more attractive by increasing the perceived strategic value of a small arsenal. As one U.S. official and NPT expert warned in 2007, "logic suggests that as the number of nuclear weapons decreases, the ' marginal utility ' of a nuclear weapon as an instrument of military power increases. At the extreme, which it is precisely disarmament 's hope to create, the strategic utility of even one or two nuclear weapons would be huge. ''
NPT Article IV acknowledges the right of all Parties to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and to benefit from international cooperation in this area, in conformity with their nonproliferation obligations. Article IV also encourages such cooperation.
The third pillar allows for and agrees upon the transfer of nuclear technology and materials to NPT signatory countries for the development of civilian nuclear energy programs in those countries, as long as they can demonstrate that their nuclear programs are not being used for the development of nuclear weapons.
Since very few of the states with nuclear energy programs are willing to abandon the use of nuclear energy, the third pillar of the NPT under Article IV provides other states with the possibility to do the same, but under conditions intended to make it difficult to develop nuclear weapons.
The treaty recognizes the inalienable right of sovereign states to use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, but restricts this right for NPT parties to be exercised "in conformity with Articles I and II '' (the basic nonproliferation obligations that constitute the "first pillar '' of the treaty). As the commercially popular light water reactor nuclear power station uses enriched uranium fuel, it follows that states must be able either to enrich uranium or purchase it on an international market. Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, has called the spread of enrichment and reprocessing capabilities the "Achilles ' heel '' of the nuclear nonproliferation regime. As of 2007 13 states have an enrichment capability.
Because the availability of fissile material has long been considered the principal obstacle to, and "pacing element '' for, a country 's nuclear weapons development effort, it was declared a major emphasis of U.S. policy in 2004 to prevent the further spread of uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing (a.k.a. "ENR '') technology. Countries possessing ENR capabilities, it is feared, have what is in effect the option of using this capability to produce fissile material for weapons use on demand, thus giving them what has been termed a "virtual '' nuclear weapons program. The degree to which NPT members have a "right '' to ENR technology notwithstanding its potentially grave proliferation implications, therefore, is at the cutting edge of policy and legal debates surrounding the meaning of Article IV and its relation to Articles I, II, and III of the treaty.
Countries that have signed the treaty as Non-Nuclear Weapons States and maintained that status have an unbroken record of not building nuclear weapons. However, Iraq was cited by the IAEA with punitive sanctions enacted against it by the UN Security Council for violating its NPT safeguards obligations; North Korea never came into compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement and was cited repeatedly for these violations, and later withdrew from the NPT and tested multiple nuclear devices; Iran was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards obligations in an unusual non-consensus decision because it "failed in a number of instances over an extended period of time '' to report aspects of its enrichment program; and Libya pursued a clandestine nuclear weapons program before abandoning it in December 2003.
In 1991, Romania reported previously undeclared nuclear activities by the former regime and the IAEA reported this non-compliance to the Security Council for information only. In some regions, the fact that all neighbors are verifiably free of nuclear weapons reduces any pressure individual states might feel to build those weapons themselves, even if neighbors are known to have peaceful nuclear energy programs that might otherwise be suspicious. In this, the treaty works as designed.
In 2004, Mohamed ElBaradei said that by some estimates thirty - five to forty states could have the knowledge to develop nuclear weapons.
Article I: Each nuclear - weapons state (NWS) undertakes not to transfer, to any recipient, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices.
Article II: Each non-NWS party undertakes not to receive, from any source, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices; not to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices; and not to receive any assistance in their manufacture.
Article III: Each non-NWS party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the IAEA for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear material in all of the state 's peaceful nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices.
Article IV: 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all the Parties to the Treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination and in conformity with Articles I and II of this Treaty.
2. All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do so shall also co-operate in contributing alone or together with other States or international organizations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear - weapon States Party to the Treaty, with due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world.
Article VI: Each party "undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a Treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control ''.
Article IX: "For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear - weapon State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967. ''
Article X: Establishes the right to withdraw from the Treaty giving 3 months ' notice. It also establishes the duration of the Treaty (25 years before 1995 Extension Initiative).
The impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that the cold war deterrent relationship between just the United States and Soviet Union was fragile. Having more nuclear - weapon states would reduce security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accidents, unauthorized use of weapons, or from escalation in tensions, nuclear conflict. Moreover, the use of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, it has been apparent that the development of nuclear capabilities by States could enable them to divert technology and materials for weapons purposes. Thus, the problem of preventing such diversions became a central issue in discussions on peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
Initial efforts, which began in 1946, to create an international system enabling all States to have access to nuclear technology under appropriate safeguards, were terminated in 1949 without the achievement of this objective, due to serious political differences between the major Powers. By then, both the United States and the former Soviet Union had tested nuclear weapons, and were beginning to build their stockpiles.
In December 1953, US President Dwight D. Eisenhower in his "Atoms for Peace '' proposal, presented to the eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly, urged that an international organization be established to disseminate peaceful nuclear technology, while guarding against development of weapons capabilities in additional countries. His proposal resulted in 1957 in the establishment of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which was charged with the dual responsibility of promotion and control of nuclear technology. IAEA technical activities began in 1958. An interim safeguards system for small nuclear reactors, put in place in 1961, was replaced in 1964 by a system covering larger installations and, over the following years, was expanded to include additional nuclear facilities. In recent years, efforts to strengthen the effectiveness and improve the efficiency of the IAEA safeguards system culminated in the approval of the Model Additional Protocol by the IAEA Board of Governors in May 1997.
Within the framework of the United Nations, the principle of nuclear non-proliferation was addressed in negotiations as early as 1957. The NPT process was launched by Frank Aiken, Irish Minister for External Affairs, in 1958. The NPT gained significant momentum in the early 1960s. The structure of a treaty to uphold nuclear non-proliferation as a norm of international behaviour had become clear by the mid-1960s, and by 1968 final agreement had been reached on a Treaty that would prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons, enable cooperation for the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament. It was opened for signature in 1968, with Finland the first State to sign. Accession became nearly universal after the end of the Cold War and of South African apartheid. In 1992, China and France acceded to the NPT, the last of the five nuclear powers recognized by the treaty to do so.
The Treaty provided, in article X, for a conference to be convened 25 years after its entry into force to decided whether the Treaty should continue in force indefinitely, or be extended for an additional fixed period of periods. Accordingly, at the NPT Review and Extension Conference in May 1995, States parties to the Treaty agreed - without a vote - on the Treaty 's indefinited extension, and decided that review conferences should continue to be held every five years. After Brazil acceded to the NPT in 1998, the only remaining non-nuclear - weapons state which had not signed was Cuba, which joined NPT (and the Treaty of Tlatelolco NWFZ) in 2002.
Several NPT signatories have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programs. South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons program, but has since renounced it and signed the treaty in 1991 after destroying its small nuclear arsenal; after this, the remaining African countries signed the treaty. The former Soviet Republics where nuclear weapons had been based, namely Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, transferred those weapons to Russia and joined NPT by 1994 following the signature of the Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances.
Successor states from the breakups of Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia also joined the treaty soon after their independence. Montenegro and East Timor were the last countries to sign the treaty on their independence in 2006 and 2003; the only other country to sign in the 21st century was Cuba in 2002. The three Micronesian countries in Compact of Free Association with the USA joined NPT in 1995, along with Vanuatu.
Major South American countries Argentina, Chile, and Brazil joined in 1995 and 1998. Arabian Peninsula countries included Saudi Arabia and Bahrain in 1988, Qatar and Kuwait in 1989, UAE in 1995, and Oman in 1997. The tiny European states of Monaco and Andorra joined in 1995 - 6. Also signing in the 1990s were Myanmar in 1992 and Guyana in 1993.
At the time the treaty was being negotiated, NATO had in place secret nuclear weapons sharing agreements whereby the United States provided nuclear weapons to be deployed by, and stored in, other NATO states. Some argue this is an act of proliferation violating Articles I and II of the treaty. A counter-argument is that the U.S. controlled the weapons in storage within the NATO states, and that no transfer of the weapons or control over them was intended "unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the treaty would no longer be controlling '', so there is no breach of the NPT. These agreements were disclosed to a few of the states, including the Soviet Union, negotiating the treaty, but most of the states that signed the NPT in 1968 would not have known about these agreements and interpretations at that time.
As of 2005, it is estimated that the United States still provides about 180 tactical B61 nuclear bombs for use by Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Turkey under these NATO agreements. Many states, and the Non-Aligned Movement, now argue this violates Articles I and II of the treaty, and are applying diplomatic pressure to terminate these agreements. They point out that the pilots and other staff of the "non-nuclear '' NATO states practice handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and non-U.S. warplanes have been adapted to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs which must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its "nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political ''.
U.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons -- not least by persuading the then West Germany not to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with the Warsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self - defense. (Until that point of all - out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S. hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route. (West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.)
Four states -- India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan -- have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon programs, and Israel has a long - standing policy of deliberate ambiguity with regards to its nuclear program (see List of states with nuclear weapons).
India has detonated nuclear devices, first in 1974 and again in 1998. India is estimated to have enough fissile material for more than 150 warheads. India was among the few countries to have a no first use policy, a pledge not to use nuclear weapons unless first attacked by an adversary using nuclear weapons, however India 's former NSA Shivshankar Menon signaled a significant shift from "no first use '' to "no first use against non-nuclear weapon states '' in a speech on the occasion of Golden Jubilee celebrations of the National Defence College in New Delhi on 21 October 2010, a doctrine Menon said reflected India 's "strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence ''.
India argues that the NPT creates a club of "nuclear haves '' and a larger group of "nuclear have - nots '' by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid. India 's then External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee said during a visit to Tokyo in 2007: "If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment. '' Although there have been unofficial discussions on creating a South Asian nuclear weapons free zone, including India and Pakistan, this is considered to be highly unlikely for the foreseeable future.
In early March 2006, India and the United States finalized an agreement, in the face of criticism in both countries, to restart cooperation on civilian nuclear technology. Under the deal India has committed to classify 14 of its 22 nuclear power plants as being for civilian use and to place them under IAEA safeguards. Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the IAEA, welcomed the deal by calling India "an important partner in the non-proliferation regime. ''
In December 2006, United States Congress approved the United States - India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act, endorsing a deal that was forged during Prime Minister Singh 's visit to the United States in July 2005 and cemented during President Bush 's visit to India earlier in 2006. The legislation allows for the transfer of civilian nuclear material to India. Despite its status outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, nuclear cooperation with India was permitted on the basis of its clean non-proliferation record, and India 's need for energy fueled by its rapid industrialization and a billion - plus population.
On 1 August 2008, the IAEA approved the India Safeguards Agreement and on 6 September 2008, India was granted the waiver at the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) meeting held in Vienna, Austria. The consensus was arrived after overcoming misgivings expressed by Austria, Ireland and New Zealand and is an unprecedented step in giving exemption to a country, which has not signed the NPT and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). While India could commence nuclear trade with other willing countries. The U.S. Congress approved this agreement and President Bush signed it on 8 October 2008.
When China announced expanded nuclear cooperation with Pakistan in 2010, proponents of arms control denounced both the deals, claiming that they weakened the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT.
As of January 2011, Australia, a top three producer and home to worlds largest known reserves, had continued its refusal to export Uranium to India despite diplomatic pressure from India. In November 2011 the Australian Prime Minister announced a desire to allow exports to India, a policy change which was authorized by her party 's national conference in December. On 4 December 2011, Prime Minister Julia Gillard overturned Australia 's long - standing ban on exporting uranium to India. She further said "We should take a decision in the national interest, a decision about strengthening our strategic partnership with India in this the Asian century, '' and said that any agreement to sell uranium to India would include strict safeguards to ensure it would only be used for civilian purposes, and not end up in nuclear weapons. On Sep 5, 2014; Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott sealed a civil nuclear deal to sell uranium to India. "We signed a nuclear cooperation agreement because Australia trusts India to do the right thing in this area, as it has been doing in other areas, '' Abbott told reporters after he and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi signed a pact to sell uranium for peaceful power generation.
In May 1998, following India 's nuclear tests earlier that month, Pakistan conducted two sets of nuclear tests, the Chagai - I and Chagai - II. Although there is little confirmed information in public, as of 2015, Pakistan was estimated to have as many as 120 warheads. According to analyses of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and the Stimson Center, Pakistan has enough fissile material for 350 warheads.
Pakistani officials argue that the NPT is discriminatory. When asked at a briefing in 2015 whether Islamabad would sign the NPT if Washington requested it, Foreign Secretary Aizaz Ahmad Chaudhry was quoted as responding "It is a discriminatory treaty. Pakistan has the right to defend itself, so Pakistan will not sign the NPT. Why should we? '' Until 2010, Pakistan had always maintained the position that it would sign the NPT if India did so. In 2010, Pakistan abandoned this historic position and stated that it would join the NPT only as a recognized nuclear - weapon state.
The NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Pakistan, with very narrow exceptions, since it does not have full - scope IAEA safeguards (i.e. safeguards on all its nuclear activities). Pakistan has sought to reach an agreement similar to that with India, but these efforts have been rebuffed by the United States and other NSG members, on the grounds that Pakistan 's track record as a nuclear proliferator makes it impossible for it to have any sort of nuclear deal in the near future.
By 2010, China reportedly signed a civil nuclear agreement with Pakistan, using the justification that the deal was "peaceful. '' The British government criticized this, on the grounds that ' the time is not yet right for a civil nuclear deal with Pakistan '. China did not seek formal approval from the nuclear suppliers group, and claimed instead that its cooperation with Pakistan was "grandfathered '' when China joined the NSG, a claim that was disputed by other NSG members. Pakistan applied for membership on May 19, 2016, supported by Turkey and China. However, many NSG members opposed Pakistan 's membership bid due to its track record, including the illicit procurement network of Pakistani scientist A.Q. Khan, which aided the nuclear programs of Iran, Libya and North Korea. Pakistani officials reiterated the request in August 2016.
Israel has a long - standing policy of deliberate ambiguity with regards to its nuclear program (see List of countries with nuclear weapons). Israel has been developing nuclear technology at its Dimona site in the Negev since 1958, and some nonproliferation analysts estimate that Israel may have stockpiled between 100 and 200 warheads using reprocessed plutonium. The position on the NPT is explained in terms of "Israeli exceptionality '', a term coined by Professor Gerald M. Steinberg, in reference to the perception that the country 's small size, overall vulnerability, as well as the history of deep hostility and large - scale attacks by neighboring states, require a deterrent capability.
The Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny possession of nuclear weapons, although this is now regarded as an open secret after Israeli low level nuclear technician Mordechai Vanunu -- subsequently arrested and sentenced for treason by Israel -- published evidence about the program to the British Sunday Times in 1986.
On 18 September 2009 the General Conference of the International Atomic Energy Agency called on Israel to open its nuclear facilities to IAEA inspection and adhere to the non-proliferation treaty as part of a resolution on "Israeli nuclear capabilities, '' which passed by a narrow margin of 49 -- 45 with 16 abstentions. The chief Israeli delegate stated that "Israel will not co-operate in any matter with this resolution. '' However, similar resolutions were defeated in 2010, 2013 and 2014. As with Pakistan, the NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Israel.
North Korea ratified the treaty on 12 December 1985, but gave notice of withdrawal from the treaty on 10 January 2003 following U.S. allegations that it had started an illegal enriched uranium weapons program, and the U.S. subsequently stopping fuel oil shipments under the Agreed Framework which had resolved plutonium weapons issues in 1994. The withdrawal became effective 10 April 2003 making North Korea the first state ever to withdraw from the treaty. North Korea had once before announced withdrawal, on 12 March 1993, but suspended that notice before it came into effect.
On 10 February 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six - party talks hosted by China to find a diplomatic solution to the issue. "We had already taken the resolute action of pulling out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and have manufactured nuclear arms for self - defence to cope with the Bush administration 's evermore undisguised policy to isolate and stifle the DPRK (Democratic People 's Republic of Korea), '' a North Korean Foreign Ministry statement said regarding the issue. Six - party talks resumed in July 2005.
On 19 September 2005, North Korea announced that it would agree to a preliminary accord. Under the accord, North Korea would scrap all of its existing nuclear weapons and nuclear production facilities, rejoin the NPT, and readmit IAEA inspectors. The difficult issue of the supply of light water reactors to replace North Korea 's indigenous nuclear power plant program, as per the 1994 Agreed Framework, was left to be resolved in future discussions. On the next day North Korea reiterated its known view that until it is supplied with a light water reactor it will not dismantle its nuclear arsenal or rejoin the NPT.
On 2 October 2006, the North Korean foreign minister announced that his country was planning to conduct a nuclear test "in the future '', although it did not state when. On Monday, 9 October 2006 at 01: 35: 28 (UTC) the United States Geological Survey detected a magnitude 4.3 seismic event 70 km (43 mi) north of Kimchaek, North Korea indicating a nuclear test. The North Korean government announced shortly afterward that they had completed a successful underground test of a nuclear fission device.
In 2007, reports from Washington suggested that the 2002 CIA reports stating that North Korea was developing an enriched uranium weapons program, which led to North Korea leaving the NPT, had overstated or misread the intelligence. On the other hand, even apart from these press allegations -- which some critics worry could have been planted in order to justify the United States giving up trying to verify the dismantlement of Pyongyang 's uranium program in the face of North Korean intransigence -- there remains some information in the public record indicating the existence of a uranium effort. Quite apart from the fact that North Korean First Vice Minister Kang Sok Ju at one point admitted the existence of a uranium enrichment program, Pakistan 's then - President Musharraf revealed that the A.Q. Khan proliferation network had provided North Korea with a number of gas centrifuges designed for uranium enrichment. Additionally, press reports have cited U.S. officials to the effect that evidence obtained in dismantling Libya 's WMD programs points toward North Korea as the source for Libya 's uranium hexafluoride (UF) -- which, if true, would mean that North Korea has a uranium conversion facility for producing feedstock for centrifuge enrichment.
Iran is a party to the NPT but was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement, and the status of its nuclear program remains in dispute. In November 2003 IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei reported that Iran had repeatedly and over an extended period failed to meet its safeguards obligations, including by failing to declare its uranium enrichment program. After about two years of EU3 - led diplomatic efforts and Iran temporarily suspending its enrichment program, the IAEA Board of Governors, acting under Article XII. C of the IAEA Statute, found in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions that these failures constituted non-compliance with the IAEA safeguards agreement. This was reported to the UN Security Council in 2006, after which the Security Council passed a resolution demanding that Iran suspend its enrichment. Instead, Iran resumed its enrichment program.
The IAEA has been able to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran, and is continuing its work on verifying the absence of undeclared activities. In February 2008, the IAEA also reported that it was working to address "alleged studies '' of weaponization, based on documents provided by certain Member States, which those states claimed originated from Iran. Iran rejected the allegations as "baseless '' and the documents as "fabrications. '' In June 2009, the IAEA reported that Iran had not "cooperated with the Agency in connection with the remaining issues... which need to be clarified to exclude the possibility of military dimensions to Iran 's nuclear program. ''
The United States concluded that Iran violated its Article III NPT safeguards obligations, and further argued based on circumstantial evidence that Iran 's enrichment program was for weapons purposes and therefore violated Iran 's Article II nonproliferation obligations. The November 2007 US National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) later concluded that Iran had halted an active nuclear weapons program in the fall of 2003 and that it had remained halted as of mid-2007. The NIE 's "Key Judgments, '' however, also made clear that what Iran had actually stopped in 2003 was only "nuclear weapon design and weaponization work and covert uranium conversion - related and uranium enrichment - related work '' - namely, those aspects of Iran 's nuclear weapons effort that had not by that point already been leaked to the press and become the subject of IAEA investigations.
Since Iran 's uranium enrichment program at Natanz -- and its continuing work on a heavy water reactor at Arak that would be ideal for plutonium production -- began secretly years before in conjunction with the very weaponization work the NIE discussed and for the purpose of developing nuclear weapons, many observers find Iran 's continued development of fissile material production capabilities distinctly worrying. Particularly because fissile material availability has long been understood to be the principal obstacle to nuclear weapons development and the primary "pacing element '' for a weapons program, the fact that Iran has reportedly suspended weaponization work may not mean very much. As U.S. Director of National Intelligence Mike McConnell has put it, the aspects of its work that Iran allegedly suspended were thus "probably the least significant part of the program. ''
Iran states it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT, and further says that it "has constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency ''. Iran also states that its enrichment program is part of its civilian nuclear energy program, which is allowed under Article IV of the NPT. The Non-Aligned Movement has welcomed the continuing cooperation of Iran with the IAEA and reaffirmed Iran 's right to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. UN Secretary General Ban Ki - moon has welcomed the continued dialogue between Iran and the IAEA, and has called for a peaceful resolution to the issue.
In April 2010, during the signing of the U.S. - Russia New START Treaty, President Obama said that the United States, Russia, and other nations are demanding that Iran face consequences for failing to fulfill their obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, and that "we will not tolerate actions that flout the NPT, risk an arms race in a vital region, and threaten the credibility of the international community and our collective security. ''
South Africa is the only country that developed nuclear weapons by itself and later dismantled them -- unlike the former Soviet states Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, which inherited nuclear weapons from the former USSR and also acceded to the NPT as non-nuclear weapon states.
During the days of apartheid, the South African government developed a deep fear of both a black uprising and the threat of communism. This led to the development of a secret nuclear weapons program as an ultimate deterrent. South Africa has a large supply of uranium, which is mined in the country 's gold mines. The government built a nuclear research facility at Pelindaba near Pretoria where uranium was enriched to fuel grade for the Koeberg Nuclear Power Station as well as weapon grade for bomb production.
In 1991, after international pressure and when a change of government was imminent, South African Ambassador to the United States Harry Schwarz signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 1993, the then president Frederik Willem de Klerk openly admitted that the country had developed a limited nuclear weapon capability. These weapons were subsequently dismantled before South Africa acceded to the NPT and opened itself up to IAEA inspection. In 1994, the IAEA completed its work and declared that the country had fully dismantled its nuclear weapons program.
Libya had signed and ratified the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and was subject to IAEA nuclear safeguards inspections, but undertook a secret nuclear weapons development program in violation of its NPT obligations, using material and technology provided by the A.Q. Khan proliferation network -- including actual nuclear weapons designs allegedly originating in China. Libya began secret negotiations with the United States and the United Kingdom in March 2003 over potentially eliminating its WMD programs. In October 2003, Libya was embarrassed by the interdiction of a shipment of Pakistani - designed centrifuge parts sent from Malaysia, also as part of A.Q. Khan 's proliferation ring.
In December 2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to eliminate all its WMD programs, and permitted U.S. and British teams (as well as IAEA inspectors) into the country to assist this process and verify its completion. The nuclear weapons designs, gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment, and other equipment -- including prototypes for improved SCUD ballistic missiles -- were removed from Libya by the United States. (Libyan chemical weapons stocks and chemical bombs were also destroyed on site with international verification, with Libya joining the Chemical Weapons Convention.) Libya 's non-compliance with its IAEA safeguards was reported to the U.N. Security Council, but with no action taken, as Libya 's return to compliance with safeguards and Article II of the NPT was welcomed.
In 2011 the Libyan government was overthrown in the Libyan Civil War with the assistance of a military intervention by NATO forces acting under the auspices of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973. It was speculated in the media (especially in the Middle Eastern media) that NATO 's intervention in Libya shortly after the nation agreed to nuclear and chemical weapons disarmament would make other countries such as North Korea more reluctant to give up nuclear programs due to the risk of being weakened as a result.
Syria is a signatory to the NPT and has a limited civil nuclear program. Before the advent of the Syrian Civil War it was known to operate only one small Chinese - built research reactor, SRR - 1. Despite being a proponent of a Weapons of Mass Destruction Free Zone in the Middle East the country was accused of pursuing a military nuclear program with a reported nuclear facility in a desert Syrian region of Deir ez - Zor. The reactor 's components had likely been designed and manufactured in North Korea, with the reactor 's striking similarity in shape and size to the North Korean Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. That information alarmed Israeli military and intelligence to such a degree that the idea of a targeted airstrike was conceived. It resulted in Operation Orchard, that took place on September 6, 2007 and saw as many as eight Israeli aircraft taking part. Israeli government is said to have bounced the idea of the operation off the US Bush administration, although the latter disagreed to participate. The nuclear reactor was destroyed in the attack, which also killed about ten North Korean workers. The attack did n't cause an international outcry or any serious Syrian retaliatory moves as both parties tried to keep it secret: Israel did n't want publicity as regards its breach of international law while Syria was n't willing to acknowledge its clandestine nuclear program.
Article X allows a state to leave the treaty if "extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country '', giving three months ' (ninety days ') notice. The state is required to give reasons for leaving the NPT in this notice.
NATO states argue that when there is a state of "general war '' the treaty no longer applies, effectively allowing the states involved to leave the treaty with no notice. This is a necessary argument to support the NATO nuclear weapons sharing policy, but a troubling one for the logic of the treaty. NATO 's argument is based on the phrase "the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war '' in the treaty preamble, inserted at the behest of U.S. diplomats, arguing that the treaty would at that point have failed to fulfill its function of prohibiting a general war and thus no longer be binding. Many states do not accept this argument. See United States -- NATO nuclear weapons sharing above.
North Korea has also caused an uproar by its use of this provision of the treaty. Article X. 1 only requires a state to give three months ' notice in total, and does not provide for other states to question a state 's interpretation of "supreme interests of its country ''. In 1993, North Korea gave notice to withdraw from the NPT. However, after 89 days, North Korea reached agreement with the United States to freeze its nuclear program under the Agreed Framework and "suspended '' its withdrawal notice. In October 2002, the United States accused North Korea of violating the Agreed Framework by pursuing a secret uranium enrichment program, and suspended shipments of heavy fuel oil under that agreement. In response, North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors, disabled IAEA equipment, and, on 10 January 2003, announced that it was ending the suspension of its previous NPT withdrawal notification. North Korea said that only one more day 's notice was sufficient for withdrawal from the NPT, as it had given 89 days before.
The IAEA Board of Governors rejected this interpretation. Most countries held that a new three - months withdrawal notice was required, and some questioned whether North Korea 's notification met the "extraordinary events '' and "supreme interests '' requirements of the treaty. The Joint Statement of 19 September 2005 at the end of the Fourth Round of the Six - Party Talks called for North Korea to "return '' to the NPT, implicitly acknowledging that it had withdrawn.
The main outcome of the 2000 Conference was the adoption by consensus of a comprehensive Final Document, which included among other things "practical steps for the systematic and progressive efforts '' to implement the disarmament provisions of the NPT, commonly referred to as the Thirteen Steps.
On 18 July 2005, US President George W. Bush met Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and declared that he would work to change US law and international rules to permit trade in US civilian nuclear technology with India. Some, such as British columnist George Monbiot, argue that the U.S. - India nuclear deal, in combination with US attempts to deny Iran (an NPT signatory) civilian nuclear fuel - making technology, may destroy the NPT regime, while others contend that such a move will likely bring India, an NPT non-signatory, under closer international scrutiny.
In the first half of 2010, it was strongly believed that China had signed a civilian nuclear deal with Pakistan claiming that the deal was "peaceful ''.
Arms control advocates criticised the reported China - Pakistan deal as they did in case of U.S. - India deal claiming that both the deals violate the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT. Some reports asserted that the deal was a strategic move by China to balance US influence in South - Asia.
According to a report published by U.S. Department of Defense in 2001, China had provided Pakistan with nuclear materials and has given critical technological assistance in the construction of Pakistan 's nuclear weapons development facilities, in violation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, of which China even then was a signatory.
At the Seventh Review Conference in May 2005, there were stark differences between the United States, which wanted the conference to focus on non-proliferation, especially on its allegations against Iran, and most other countries, who emphasized the lack of serious nuclear disarmament by the nuclear powers. The non-aligned countries reiterated their position emphasizing the need for nuclear disarmament.
The 2010 Review Conference was held in May 2010 in New York City, and adopted a final document that included a summary by the Review Conference President, Ambassador Libran Capactulan of the Philippines, and an Action Plan that was adopted by consensus. The 2010 conference was generally considered a success because it reached consensus where the previous Review Conference in 2005 ended in disarray, a fact that many attributed to the U.S. President Barack Obama 's commitment to nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament. Some have warned that this success raised unrealistically high expectations that could lead to failure at the next Review Conference in 2015.
The "Global Summit on Nuclear Security '' took place 12 -- 13 April 2010. The summit was proposed by President Obama in Prague and was intended to strengthen the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in conjunction with the Proliferation Security Initiative and the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism. Forty seven states and three international organizations took part in the summit, which issued a communiqué and a work plan. For further information see 2010 Nuclear Security Summit.
In a major policy speech at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin on 19 June 2013, United States President Barack Obama outlined plans to further reduce the number of warheads in the U.S. nuclear arsenal. According to Foreign Policy, Obama proposed a "one - third reduction in strategic nuclear warheads - on top of the cuts already required by the New START treaty - bringing the number of deployed warheads to about 1,000. '' Obama is seeking to "negotiate these reductions with Russia to continue to move beyond Cold War nuclear postures, '' according to briefing documents provided to Foreign Policy. In the same speech, Obama emphasized his administration 's efforts to isolate any nuclear weapons capabilities emanating from Iran and North Korea. He also called for a renewed bipartisan effort in the United States Congress to ratify the Comprehensive Nuclear - Test - Ban Treaty and called on countries to negotiate a new treaty to end the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons.
On 24 April 2014, it was announced that the nation of the Marshall Islands has brought suit in The Hague against the United States, the former Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel seeking to have the disarmament provisions of the NNPT enforced.
The 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) was held at the United Nations in New York from 27 April to 22 May 2015 and presided over by Ambassador Taous Feroukhi of Algeria. The Treaty, particularly article VIII, paragraph 3, envisages a review of the operation of the Treaty every five years, a provision which was reaffirmed by the States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference and the 2000 NPT Review Conference. At the 2015 NPT Review Conference, States parties examined the implementation of the Treaty 's provisions since 2010. Despite intensive consultations, the Conference was not able to reach agreement on the substantive part of the draft Final Document.
Over the years the NPT has come to be seen by many Third World states as "a conspiracy of the nuclear ' haves ' to keep the nuclear ' have - nots ' in their place ''. This argument has roots in Article VI of the treaty which "obligates the nuclear weapons states to liquidate their nuclear stockpiles and pursue complete disarmament. The non-nuclear states see no signs of this happening ''. Some argue that the NWS have not fully complied with their disarmament obligations under Article VI of the NPT. Some countries such as India have criticized the NPT, because it "discriminated against states not possessing nuclear weapons on January 1, 1967, '' while Iran and numerous Arab states have criticized Israel for not signing the NPT. There has been disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 22,000 warheads among them and have shown a reluctance to disarm further.
As noted above, the International Court of Justice, in its advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, stated that "there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control. Such an obligation requires that states actively pursue measures to reduce the numbers of nuclear weapons and the importance of their role in military force structures. Some critics of the nuclear - weapons states contend that they have failed to comply with Article VI by failing to make disarmament the driving force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons.
The United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that since the end of the Cold War it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons and eliminated over 80 % of its deployed strategic warheads and 90 % of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons. U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear warheads. When current accelerated dismantlement efforts ordered by President George W. Bush have been completed, the U.S. arsenal will be less than a quarter of its size at the end of the Cold War, and smaller than it has been at any point since the Eisenhower administration, well before the drafting of the NPT.
The United States has also purchased many thousands of weapons ' worth of uranium formerly in Soviet nuclear weapons for conversion into reactor fuel. As a consequence of this latter effort, it has been estimated that the equivalent of one lightbulb in every ten in the United States is powered by nuclear fuel removed from warheads previously targeted at the United States and its allies during the Cold War.
The U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation agreed that nonproliferation and disarmament are linked, noting that they can be mutually reinforcing but also that growing proliferation risks create an environment that makes disarmament more difficult. The United Kingdom, France and Russia likewise defend their nuclear disarmament records, and the five NPT NWS issued a joint statement in 2008 reaffirming their Article VI disarmament commitments.
According to Thomas Reed and Danny Stillman, the "NPT has one giant loophole '': Article IV gives each non-nuclear weapon state the ' inalienable right ' to pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power. A "number of high - ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can do little to stop states using nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons ''. A 2009 United Nations report said that:
The revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear weapons.
According to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not authorized to do so under the NPT, have not paid a significant price for their pursuit of weapons capabilities. Also, the NPT has been explicitly weakened by a number of bilateral deals made by NPT signatories, notably the United States.
Based on concerns over the slow pace of nuclear disarmament and the continued reliance on nuclear weapons in military and security concepts, doctrines and policies, the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons was adopted in July 2017 and will be opened for signature 20 September 2017. Upon entry into force, it will prohibit each state party from the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons, as well as assistance to those activities. It reaffirms in its preamble the vital role of the full and effective implementation of the NPT.
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where was the movie the sons of katie elder filmed at | The Sons of Katie Elder - wikipedia
The Sons of Katie Elder is a 1965 Technicolor Western Panavision film directed by Henry Hathaway and starring John Wayne and Dean Martin. It was filmed principally in Mexico.
The four adult sons of Katie Elder -- John (John Wayne), who is a famous (or infamous) professional gunman; Tom (Dean Martin), a professional gambler; Bud (Michael Anderson, Jr.), the youngest brother, still in school; and Matt (Earl Holliman), an unsuccessful hardware dealer -- reunite in their hometown of Clearwater, Texas (approximately 2 hours east of Dallas in northeast Texas), in 1898 for their mother 's funeral, sharing regret that none of them has lived up to her high expectations of them.
The townspeople and new deputy sheriff are unfriendly, to the two eldest John and Tom in particular. Katie Elder however was extremely well liked by everyone in the community, who were all aware of her honesty, her poverty and her undying love for the sons who neglected her. The brothers want to do something for Katie 's sake, and their plan is to send youngest son Bud to college, raising money through a sale of another man 's herd of horses, even though Bud wants to emulate his eldest brother.
Morgan Hastings (James Gregory), a gunsmith and rising entrepreneur, claims ownership of the Elders ' rich ranch and house / outbuildings for his Hastings Gun Manufactory, saying he won it from their father in a game of cards; Bass Elder afterwards was shot in the back at night, and the killer is still unknown. Hastings hides a hostile attitude towards the brothers and brings in a hired gun, Curley (George Kennedy). Noting Hasting 's suspicious attitude, the Elders begin to suspect foul play upon their return. Hastings claims Bass lost the ranch in a game of Blackjack, so John, in a ruse, states their father would n't have been caught dead playing Blackjack poker.
When Hastings learns about the brothers ' investigations, he kills the well loved sheriff (Paul Fix) and frames the Elder brothers for the murder. Then, not content with seeing them go to prison, Hastings arranges an ambush while the Elders are being moved chained in a wagon to a nearby different county jail for safety at a wood timbered bridge over a stream in which Matt is killed and Bud seriously injured. Deputy Sheriff Ben Latta (Jeremy Slate) is not part of the conspiracy, but is shot and killed by Hastings when he decides to aid the Elders after seeing he had been fooled. The surviving Elders escape after the bridge is blown and the ambushers flee. Going back to town to get medical help for Bud, John and Tom barricade themselves in Hastings gun smithy foundry shop. Tom manages to sneak around back alleys to kidnap Hasting 's weak - willed naive son Dave (Dennis Hopper), although he is seriously injured in the process. Hastings shoots his own boy in an attempt to prevent him from testifying. In the presence of John Elder and the local judge, a wounded Dave manages to relate the tale of his father 's crimes before he dies. John takes up arms now vindicated in righteous fury and kills Hastings hiding in his gunsmith shop by shooting up a cask of gunpowder inside his own gun store exploding the building into a fireball.
William H. Wright picked up a copy of Life of the Marlows by Glenn Shirley in a Los Angeles, California, bookstore in around 1953. Thinking that it would make the basis of a good Western, he paid members of the Marlow family $1,000 (about $9146.77 when adjusted for inflation several decades later) each for the rights to make it into a screenplay. But when the movie was made 12 years later, the film 's plot had been drastically changed.
Talbot Jennings was credited for the script.
Paramount purchased the story by William Wright and Talbot Jennings in 1955. The story concerned five brothers and centered around a cattle drive from Texas to Colorado. Sam Briskin was assigned as producer. Frank Burt was to write the script, John Sturges was going to direct and Alan Ladd was to star, making a return to Paramount after several years ' absence - he still owed Paramount one film left.
Noel Langley signed to write a version of the script, and filming was to start in April 1956. However, in July 1956 it was announced that Ladd had bought himself out of his Paramount commitment by paying $135,000, and he would no longer make the film. (Henry Hathaway put this figure at $250,000.)
Film rights were picked up by Hal Wallis, who had a deal with Paramount. In 1959 it was announced that Dean Martin would star. John Sturges was still attached as director. Eventually in 1964 John Wayne was signed to star, with Henry Hathaway to direct.
Filming was due to begin in September 1964, but had to be delayed until January 1965, after Wayne was diagnosed with lung cancer. Following Wayne 's surgery to remove a cancerous lung and two ribs, the star insisted on doing his own stunts, and nearly contracted pneumonia after being dragged into a river.
Outdoor locations were filmed in Durango, in northern Mexico, and the opening credits scene as a locomotive travels a narrow stream canyon valley on the famed Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad (now a scenic tourist train) near Royal Gorge, Colorado, United States.
Former Disney young star Tommy Kirk was signed for the film, presumably in the role of Bud Elder, but his arrest for being at a party where marijuana was used led to his being fired from the production.
The name "Kate Elder '' was one of several names used by Mary Katherine Horony Cummings, better known as "Big Nose Kate '', a western icon and sometime companion of dentist / gambler / gunfighter Doc Holliday.
John Wayne and Dean Martin had also starred in Howard Hawks 's Rio Bravo six years earlier, one of Martin 's earliest dramatic roles after splitting with his longtime comedic partner Jerry Lewis.
Four years later, Henry Hathaway also directed John Wayne in his first Academy Award - winning role of Indian Territory U.S. Marshal Rooster Cogburn in the original screen version of True Grit (1969). In addition to Wayne, actors Strother Martin, Dennis Hopper, and Jeremy Slate were all cast in that film as well.
Johnny Cash sang a song in 1965 also called "The Sons of Katie Elder '', written by Elmer Bernstein and Ernie Sheldon. The film 's background instrumental theme music was also composed by Elmer Bernstein.
The 2005 film Four Brothers was loosely based on The Sons of Katie Elder.
The Malayalam film Big B (2007) is a remake of Four Brothers.
The film was roughly based on the 1888 true story of the five Marlow Brothers (George H., Boone, Alfred, Lewellyn, and Charles) of Graham, Texas, in Young County, and Marlow, Oklahoma (then Indian Territory).
The city of Marlow, Oklahoma, is named after the Marlow family, including their parents, Dr. Wilburn Williamson Marlow, Sr., and Martha Jane (née Keaton) Marlow. Dr. Marlow was the town 's first physician and a prominent citizen. Marlow had previously been a Chisholm Trail rest spot near Wild Horse Creek. There the Marlows built a dugout home called "Marlow Camp '' in 1880. Ten years later, the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad came through and built a station on the location, naming it Marlow.
Dr. Wilburn and Martha Marlow had four children in addition to the five brothers: Wilburn Williamson "Willie '' Marlow, Jr. (died in Leadville, Colorado, in 1879, where he had been taken to convalesce after contracting malaria in Mexico), Charlotte Murphy, Elizabeth "Eliza '' Gilmore, and Nancy Jane "Nannie '' Murphy. Dr. Marlow died April 12, 1885.
Three of the brothers (Boone, Alfred, and Lewellyn) ended up being killed, although in the film, the brother that had done the real killings (basis for the Dean Martin role) was not with the other four when they were first arrested.
Boone had earlier killed James Holstein (or Holdson or Holston) in 1882, a man allegedly hired to "intimidate settlers '', after an inebriated Holdson began shooting at him on the Gilmore farm near Vernon, Texas, just across the Red River from the Indian Territory (his sister Elizabeth had married into the Gilmore family and the couple had set up a place there). This killing seemed to be justified in self - defense, but would be brought up later by John and William Murphy, deputy marshal Edward W. "Ed '' Johnson, and Sam Criswell, who were having a personal feud with Boone, and would be witnesses against the brothers.
Boone, Alfred (aka Alf), Lewellyn (aka Epp, Ep, Ellie), and Charles were arrested near the Anadarko Agency headquarters (what became Anadarko, Oklahoma), for stealing 19 horses in the area around Fort Sill. George went to the homestead in Marlow and took the women by wagon to Graham where he was then also arrested. Martha Jane bailed them out and they went to their place in Young County, a log and clapboard building on the farm of O.G. Denson, fifteen miles southeast of Graham.
Popular sheriff Marion DeKalb Wallace and his deputy Thomas B. "Tom '' Collier went out to the Denson farm, December 17, 1888. Before they left Graham they had been drinking and were intoxicated. The Marlows (Charles and his wife, Alfred 's wife, Martha, Lewellyn, and Boone Marlow) were sitting down to noon dinner. Boone saw Collier through the window and invited him in for dinner, to which Collier replied, "I 'm not hungry. '' An altercation broke out between Collier and Boone, and without showing their warrant, Collier fired at Boone. As Wallace heard the commotion he came around from the other side of the house and came up behind Collier. Boone, aiming at Collier, shot sheriff Wallace by mistake. As Collier and Charles attended to Wallace, Boone left the area. The other four brothers went into town and turned themselves in.
A mob then tried to avenge the sheriff and attacked the jail, January 17, 1889, but the brothers were able to fight off the mob.
On January 19, 1889 (after dark), the deputy then decided to move the four brothers to Weatherford, Texas, chained together along with two other prisoners (William D. Burkhart and Louis Clift). But the two wagons and one buggy were ambushed along the way at Dry Creek (about two miles from Graham). The deputies guarding the brothers ran away, in league with the ambush party.
The brothers managed to get some weapons, get to cover, and hold off the attack, but Alfred and Lewellyn were killed. Also killed were three of the mob that attacked the Marlows: Frank Harmison, Sam Criswell, and Bruce Wheeler. George and Charles were both wounded (Charles severely so) but escaped, using Burkhart as a hostage and being aided by Clift, and went to their mother 's house on the Denson farm. (About halfway there, they stopped in Finis at a farm house and asked to stay the night, but were refused. George spotted an ax and borrowed it to separate the men from their shackles. As soon Burkhart was free, he ran off). Also wounded were Johnson, Logan, and Clinton "Clint '' Rutherford. The Marlows stayed at their mother 's home until lawmen came from outside Young County, and then gave themselves up. Deputy U.S. Marshal W.F. Morton of Dallas finally arrived, took them into custody, and transported them, first toward Weatherford and then, fearing another ambush, to Dallas.
Boone had gone to stay with his girlfriend and her family, the Harbolts, in the vicinity of Marlow, but the girlfriend 's brother, William "G.E. '' Harbolt, put some poison in the food that his sister took to Boone. William Harbolt had obtained the poison from a Dr. Carter. Harbolt, along with bounty hunters Jim "Martin '' Beavers and John E. Derrickson (aka Direkson), shot his dead body for the $1,700 reward offered for his capture ($200 by the State of Texas and $1,500 by Young County), dead or alive. An autopsy by Doctor R.N. Price determined that he was already dead when he had been shot, and that he had died of arsenic poisoning. The three men were arrested but released on bail. Harbolt was later shot in the Chickasaw Nation of the Indian Territory and Beavers and Derrickson each received 15 - year sentences.
The five Marlow brothers had been falsely accused of stealing horses, and after the shootout that left three dead, George and Charles were finally acquitted in a Dallas trial. The two brothers then moved to Colorado and became deputies.
As deputy marshal Ed Johnson was lying wounded at his home, he gave a newspaper interview to the Graham Leader. In the interview, he said that deputy sheriff Eugene Logan had been one of the guards taking the prisoners to Weatherford, and had been wounded in doing so. In fact, Logan had not been one of the guards but one of the men in the ambush party. The insistence that something be done in the edition of January 24 of the Graham Leader, and this slip up by Johnson, started an investigation into the affair by the U.S. marshal for the Northern District of Texas in Dallas, William Lewis Cabell. In addition, the U.S. attorney sent an investigator to Young County.
Collier, deputy Johnson, David "Dink '' Allen, attorney Robert "Bob '' Holman, Jack Wilkins, W.R. Benedict, county attorney Phlete A. Martin, deputy tax collector John Levell, constable Marion A. Wallace (the dead sheriff 's nephew), Wil Hollis, William Bee Williams, Richard "Dick '' Cook, deputy sheriff Eugene Logan, constable Sam Waggoner, Clint Rutherford, and Verna Wilkerson were all charged with conspiring to falsify a case against the Marlow brothers, conspiring to kill the Marlow brothers in an ambush, and murdering Alfred and Lewellyn Marlow while they were in the protective custody of a United States Marshal. However, only Cook, Hollis, Levell, Logan, Rutherford, Waggoner, Wallace, Wilkerson, and Williams, went to trial.
John William "Bee '' Williams and Thomas B. Collier (typhoid fever) died while in jail in mid-January 1891.
George and Charles were summoned to testify and asked for and received protective custody from U.S. Marshal George A. Knight of Dallas. Additionally, Knight made George a "Special Deputy '', while Charles was made an "attached witness ''. Phlete A. Martin and John Frank Spears (Spears was in jail with the Marlows at the time of the mob attack) both turned state 's evidence and testified against the conspirators.
Clinton Rutherford was found not guilty on November 22, 1890, and the court removed Rutherford from the indictment, but bound over Eugene Logan and Verna Wilkerson. Logan, Waggoner, and Wallace were found guilty of conspiracy and not guilty of murder on April 17, 1891, and each sentenced to a $5,000 fine and ten years imprisonment. The other defendants (Cook, Levell, Hollis, and Wilkerson) were found not guilty.
The case involving Eugene Logan, William Williams, Verna Wilkerson, and Clinton Rutherford (United States v. Eugene Logan et al.) was separated from the other defendants, and went all the way to the United States Supreme Court. (See Logan v. United States, 144 U.S. 263 (1892), filed March 16, 1891.)
The city of Graham had wanted to keep a federal court in their town, but after this incident the federal government denied that request.
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who wrote the poem o captain my captain | O Captain! My Captain! - Wikipedia
"O Captain! My Captain! '' is an extended metaphor poem written in 1865 by Walt Whitman, about the death of American president Abraham Lincoln. The poem was first published in the pamphlet Sequel to Drum - Taps which assembled 18 poems regarding the American Civil War, including another Lincoln elegy, "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom 'd ''. It was included in Whitman 's comprehensive collection Leaves of Grass beginning with its fourth edition published in 1867. The poem emphasizes or shows grief and sorrow.
O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done; The ship has weather 'd every rack, the prize we sought is won; The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring:
O Captain! My Captain! rise up and hear the bells; Rise up -- for you the flag is flung -- for you the bugle trills; For you bouquets and ribbon 'd wreaths -- for you the shores a-crowding; For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning;
My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still; My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will; The ship is anchor 'd safe and sound, its voyage closed and done; From fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won;
Walt Whitman composed the poem "O Captain! My Captain! '' after Abraham Lincoln 's assassination in 1865. The poem is classified as an elegy or mourning poem, and was written to honor Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States. Walt Whitman was born in 1819 and died in 1892, and the American Civil War was the central event of his life. Whitman was a staunch Unionist during the Civil War. He was initially indifferent to Lincoln, but as the war pressed on, Whitman came to love the president, though the two men never met.
The fallen captain in the poem refers to Abraham Lincoln, captain of the ship that is the United States of America. The first line establishes the poem 's mood, one of relief that the Civil War has ended, "our fearful trip is done. '' The next line references the ship, America, and how it has "weathered every rack '', meaning America has braved the tough storm of the Civil War, and "the prize we sought '', the preservation of the Union, "is won ''. The following line expresses a mood of jubilation of the Union winning the war as it says "the people all exulting; '' however, the next line swiftly shifts the mood when it talks of the grimness of the ship, and the darker side of the war. Many lost their lives in the American Civil War, and although the prize that was sought was won, the hearts still ache amidst the exultation of the people. The repetition of heart in line five calls attention to the poet 's vast grief and heartache because the Captain has bled and lies still, cold, and dead (lines six through eight). This is no doubt referencing the assassination of Abraham Lincoln and Whitman 's sorrow for the death of his idol.
In the second stanza the speaker again calls out to the captain to "rise up and hear the bells, '' to join in the celebration of the end of the war. The next three lines tell the captain to "rise up '' and join in on the revelries because it is for him. He is the reason for their merriment: "for you the flag is flung -- for you the bugle trills; for you bouquets and ribbon 'd wreaths -- for you the shores a-crowding; for you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning ''. Everyone is celebrating what Lincoln accomplished; the abolition of slavery and the unification of the people after a fearful war. Again the poet calls to the Captain as if he had never fallen. The poet does not wish to acknowledge the death of his beloved Captain, and he even asks if it is some dream (line 15) that the Captain has fallen "cold and dead ''.
The third stanza begins in a somber mood as the poet has finally accepted that the Captain is dead and gone. Here there is vivid and darker imagery such as "his lips are pale and still '' and the reader can picture the dead Captain lying there still and motionless with "no pulse nor will ''. In line 17, the poet calls out "My Captain, '' and in line 18, the poet refers to the Captain as "My father ''. This is referring to Lincoln as the father of the United States. Lines 19 and 20 are concluding statements that summarize the entire poem. The United States is "anchor 'd safe and sound ''. It is safe now from war with "its voyage closed and done, from fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won ''. In line 21, the examples of apostrophe, ordering "shores to exult, '' and "bells to ring '' are again referring to how the nation is celebrating while "I with mournful tread, Walk the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead ''.
Throughout the paper there is a distinct rhyme scheme, which is unusual for Whitman. The rhyme scheme in "O Captain! My Captain! '' is AABCDEFE, GGHIJEKE, and LLMNOEPE for each stanza respectively. Two examples of alliteration are in line 10 "flag is flung '', as well as in line 19 "safe and sound ''. Repetition occurs many times in this poem, for example "O Captain! My Captain '', and "fallen cold and dead ''.
"O Captain! My Captain! '' became one of Whitman 's most famous poems, one that he would read at the end of his famous lecture about the Lincoln assassination. Whitman became so identified with the poem that late in life he remarked, "Damn My Captain... I 'm almost sorry I ever wrote the poem. ''
Walter Huston recited the poem, with special musical underscoring by Victor Young, on a 1947 Decca Records album titled Our Common Heritage. The recording was rebroadcast as part of a 1954 Memorial Day edition of the WNBC poetry radio program Anthology.
A musical version of the poem appears on Carolyn Hester 's 1965 live album At Town Hall.
In 1996, Israeli songwriter Naomi Shemer translated the poem to Hebrew and wrote music for it. This was done in addition to several prior translations in order to mark the anniversary of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin 's assassination which took place one year earlier, in 1995. The song is since commonly performed or played in Yitzhak Rabin memorial day services all around Israel.
"Passage '', a Z. Randall Stroope composition for SATB choir, has a similar message to "O Captain! My Captain! '' and actually quotes one section: "Captain my captain, rise up and hear the bells. Rise up, for you the flag is flung! For you bouquets and ribbon 'd wreaths ''.
After actor Robin Williams ' death in August 2014, fans of his work used social media to pay tribute to him with photo and video reenactments of the Dead Poets Society "O Captain! My Captain! '' scene.
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why do they call it the smoky mountains | Great Smoky Mountains - wikipedia
The Great Smoky Mountains are a mountain range rising along the Tennessee -- North Carolina border in the southeastern United States. They are a subrange of the Appalachian Mountains, and form part of the Blue Ridge Physiographic Province. The range is sometimes called the Smoky Mountains and the name is commonly shortened to the Smokies. The Great Smokies are best known as the home of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, which protects most of the range. The park was established in 1934, and, with over 9 million visits per year, it is the most - visited national park in the United States.
The Great Smokies are part of an International Biosphere Reserve. The range is home to an estimated 187,000 acres (76,000 ha) of old growth forest, constituting the largest such stand east of the Mississippi River. The cove hardwood forests in the range 's lower elevations are among the most diverse ecosystems in North America, and the Southern Appalachian spruce - fir forest that coats the range 's upper elevations is the largest of its kind. The Great Smokies are also home to the densest black bear population in the Eastern United States and the most diverse salamander population outside of the tropics.
Along with the Biosphere reserve, the Great Smokies have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The U.S. National Park Service preserves and maintains 78 structures within the national park that were once part of the numerous small Appalachian communities scattered throughout the range 's river valleys and coves. The park contains five historic districts and nine individual listings on the National Register of Historic Places.
The name "Smoky '' comes from the natural fog that often hangs over the range and presents as large smoke plumes from a distance. This fog is caused by the vegetation exhaling volatile organic compounds, chemicals that have a high vapor pressure and easily form vapors at normal temperature and pressure.
As a result of the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires, the Great Smoky Mountains have received international media coverage.
The Great Smoky Mountains stretch from the Pigeon River in the northeast to the Little Tennessee River to the southwest. The northwestern half of the range gives way to a series of elongate ridges known as the "Foothills, '' the outermost of which include Chilhowee Mountain and English Mountain. The range is roughly bounded on the south by the Tuckasegee River and to the southeast by Soco Creek and Jonathan Creek. The Great Smokies comprise parts of Blount County, Sevier County, and Cocke County in Tennessee and Swain County and Haywood County in North Carolina.
The sources of several rivers are located in the Smokies, including the Little Pigeon River, the Oconaluftee River, and Little River. Streams in the Smokies are part of the Tennessee River watershed and are thus entirely west of the Eastern Continental Divide. The largest stream wholly within the park is Abrams Creek, which rises in Cades Cove and empties into the Chilhowee Lake impoundment of the Little Tennessee River near Chilhowee Dam.
Other major streams include Hazel Creek and Eagle Creek in the southwest, Raven Fork near Oconaluftee, Cosby Creek near Cosby, and Roaring Fork near Gatlinburg. The Little Tennessee River passes through five impoundments along the range 's southwestern boundary, namely Tellico Lake, Chilhowee Lake, Calderwood Lake, Cheoah Lake, and Fontana Lake.
The highest point in the Smokies is Clingmans Dome, which rises to an elevation of 6,643 feet (2,025 m). The mountain is the highest in Tennessee and the third highest in the Appalachian range. Clingmans Dome also has the range 's highest topographical prominence at 4,503 feet (1,373 m). Mount Le Conte is the tallest (i.e., from immediate base to summit) mountain in the range, rising 5,301 feet (1,616 m) from its base in Gatlinburg to its 6,593 - foot (2,010 m) summit.
The Smokies rise prominently above the surrounding low terrain. For example, Mount Le Conte (6,593 feet or 2,010 m) rises more than a mile (1.6 km) above its base. Because of their prominence, the Smokies receive heavy annual amounts of precipitation. Annual precipitation amounts range from 50 to 80 inches (130 -- 200 cm), and snowfall in the winter can be heavy, especially on the higher slopes. For comparison, the surrounding terrain has annual precipitation of around 40 to 50 inches (100 -- 130 cm).
Flooding often occurs after heavy rain. In 2004, the remnants of Hurricane Frances caused major flooding, landslides, and high winds, which was soon followed by Hurricane Ivan, making the situation worse. Other post-hurricanes, including Hurricane Hugo in 1989, have caused similar damage in the Smokies.
Most of the rocks in the Great Smoky Mountains consist of Late Precambrian rocks that are part of a formation known as the Ocoee Supergroup. The Ocoee Supergroup consists primarily of slightly metamorphosed sandstones, phyllites, schists, and slate. Early Precambrian rocks, which include the oldest rocks in the Smokies, comprise the dominant rock type in the Raven Fork Valley (near Oconaluftee) and upper Tuckasegee River between Cherokee and Bryson City. They consist primarily of metamorphic gneiss, granite, and schist. Cambrian sedimentary rocks are found among the outer reaches of the Foothills to the northwest and in limestone coves such as Cades Cove.
The Precambrian gneiss and schists -- the oldest rocks in the Smokies -- formed over a billion years ago from the accumulation of marine sediments and igneous rock in a primordial ocean. In the Late Precambrian period, this ocean expanded, and the more recent Ocoee Supergroup rocks formed from accumulations of the eroding land mass onto the ocean 's continental shelf.
By the end of the Paleozoic era, the ancient ocean had deposited a thick layer of marine sediments which left behind sedimentary rocks such as limestone. During the Ordovician period, the North American and African plates collided, destroying the ancient ocean and initiating the Alleghenian orogeny -- the mountain - building epoch that created the Appalachian range. The Mesozoic era saw the rapid erosion of the softer sedimentary rocks from the new mountains, re-exposing the older Ocoee Supergroup formations.
Around 20,000 years ago, subarctic glaciers advanced southward across North America, and although they never reached the Smokies, the advancing glaciers led to colder mean annual temperatures and an increase in precipitation throughout the range. Trees were unable to survive at the higher elevations, and were replaced by tundra vegetation. Spruce - fir forests occupied the valleys and slopes below approximately 4,950 feet (1,510 m). The persistent freezing and thawing during this period created the large blockfields that are often found at the base of large mountain slopes.
Between 16,500 and 12,500 years ago, the glaciers to the north retreated and mean annual temperatures rose. The tundra vegetation disappeared, and the spruce - fir forests retreated to the highest elevations. Hardwood trees moved into the region from the coastal plains, replacing the spruce - fir forests in the lower elevations. The temperatures continued warming until around 6,000 years ago, when they began to gradually grow cooler.
Heavy logging in the late 19th century and early 20th century devastated much of the forests of the Smokies, but the National Park Service estimates 187,000 acres (760 km) of old growth forest remains, comprising the largest old growth stand in the Eastern United States. Most of the forest is a mature second - growth hardwood forest. The range 's 1,600 species of flowering plants include over 100 species of native trees and 100 species of native shrubs. The Great Smokies are also home to over 450 species of non-vascular plants, and 2,000 species of fungi.
The forests of the Smokies are typically divided into three zones:
Appalachian balds -- patches of land where trees are unexpectedly absent or sparse -- are interspersed through the mid-to - upper elevations in the range. Balds include grassy balds, which are highland meadows covered primarily by thick grasses, and heath balds, which are dense thickets of rhododendron and mountain laurel typically occurring on narrow ridges. Mixed oak - pine forests are found on dry ridges, especially on the south - facing North Carolina side of the range. Stands dominated by the Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) are occasionally found along streams and broad slopes above 3,500 feet (1,100 m).
Cove hardwood forests, which are native to Southern Appalachia, are among the most diverse forest types in North America. The cove hardwood forests of the Smokies are mostly second - growth, although some 72,000 acres (290 km) are still old - growth. The Albright Grove along the Maddron Bald Trail (between Gatlinburg and Cosby) is an accessible old - growth forest with some of the oldest and tallest trees in the entire range.
Over 130 species of trees are found among the canopies of the cove hardwood forests in the Smokies. The dominant species include yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), basswood (Tilia americana), yellow buckeye (Aesculus flava), tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera; commonly called "tulip poplar ''), silverbells (Halesia carolina), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), cucumber magnolia (Magnolia acuminata), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana) and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). The American chestnut (Castanea dentata), which was arguably the most beloved tree of the range 's pre-park inhabitants, was killed off by the introduced Chestnut blight in the 1920s.
The understories of the cove hardwood forest contain dozens of species of shrubs and vines. Dominant species in the Smokies include the Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), Catawba rhododendron (Rhododendron catawbiense), mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), and smooth hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescens).
The mean annual temperatures in the higher elevations in the Smokies are cool enough to support forest types more commonly found in the northern United States. The northern hardwood forests of the Smokies constitute the highest broad - leaved forest in the eastern United States. About 28,600 acres (116 km) of the northern hardwood forest are old - growth.
In the Smokies, the northern hardwood canopies are dominated by yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) and American beech (Fagus grandifolia). White basswood (Tilia heterophylla), mountain maple (Acer spicatum) and striped maple (Acer pensylvanicum), and yellow buckeye (Aesculus flava) are also present. The northern hardwood understory is home to diverse species such as coneflower, skunk goldenrod, Rugels ragwort, bloodroot, hydrangea, and several species of grasses and ferns.
One unique community in the northern hardwoods of the Smokies is the beech gap, or beech orchard. Beech gaps consist of high mountain gaps that have been monopolized by beech trees. The beech trees are often twisted and contorted by the high winds that occur in these gaps. Why other tree types such as the red spruce fail to encroach into the beech gaps is unknown.
The spruce - fir forest -- also called the "boreal '' or "Canadian '' forest -- is a relict of the Ice Ages, when mean annual temperatures in the Smokies were too cold to support a hardwood forest. While the rise in temperatures between 12,500 and 6,000 years ago allowed the hardwoods to return, the spruce - fir forest has managed to survive on the harsh mountain tops, typically above 5,500 feet (1,700 m). About 10,600 acres (43 km) of the spruce - fir forest are old - growth.
The spruce - fir forest consists primarily of two conifer species -- red spruce (Picea rubens) and Fraser fir (Abies fraseri). The Fraser Firs, which are native to Southern Appalachia, once dominated elevations above 6,200 feet (1,900 m) in the Great Smokies. Most of these firs were killed, however, by an infestation of the balsam wooly adelgid, which arrived in the Smokies in the early 1960s. Thus, red spruce is now the dominant species in the range 's spruce - fir forest. Large stands of dead Fraser Firs remain atop Clingmans Dome and on the northwestern slopes of Old Black. While much of the red spruce stands in the Smokies were logged during World War I, the tree is still common throughout the range above 5,500 feet (1,700 m). Some of the red spruce trees in the Smokies are believed to be 300 years old, and the tallest rise to over 100 feet (30 m).
The main difference between the spruce - fir forests of Southern Appalachia and the spruce - fir forests in northern latitudes is the dense broad - leaved understory of the former. The spruce - fir understories of the Smokies are home to catawba rhododendron, mountain ash, pin cherry, thornless blackberry, and hobblebush. The herbaceous and litter layers of the spruce - fir forests are poorly lit year - round, and are thus dominated by shade - tolerant plants such as ferns, namely mountain wood fern and northern lady fern, and over 280 species of mosses.
Many wildflowers grow in mountains and valleys of the Great Smokies, including bee balm, Solomon 's seal, Dutchman 's breeches, various trilliums, the Dragon 's Advocate and even hardy orchids. There are two native species of rhododendron in the area. The Catawba rhododendron has purple flowers in May and June, while the rosebay rhododendron has longer leaves and blooms white or a light pink in June and July.
The orange - to sometimes red - flowered and deciduous flame azalea closely follows along with the Catawbas. The closely related mountain laurel blooms in between the two, and all of the blooms progress from lower to higher elevations. The reverse is true in autumn, when nearly bare mountaintops covered in rime ice (frozen fog) can be separated from green valleys by very bright and varied leaf colors. The rhododendrons are broadleafs, whose leaves droop in order to shed wet and heavy snows that come through the region during winter.
The Great Smoky Mountains are home to 66 species of mammals, over 240 species of birds, 43 species of amphibians, 60 species of fish, and 40 species of reptiles. The range has the densest black bear population east of the Mississippi River. The black bear has come to symbolize wildlife in the Smokies, and the animal frequently appears on the covers of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park 's literature. Most of the range 's adult eastern black bears weigh between 100 pounds (45 kg) and 300 pounds (140 kg), although some grow to more than 500 pounds (230 kg).
Other mammals in the Great Smokies include the white - tailed deer, the population of which drastically expanded with the creation of the national park. The bobcat is the range 's only remaining wild cat species, although sightings of mountain lions -- which once thrived in the area -- are still occasionally reported. The coyote is not believed to be native to the range, but has moved into the area in recent years and is treated as a native species. Two species of fox -- the red fox and the gray fox -- are found in the Smokies, with red foxes being documented at all elevations.
European Boar, introduced as game animals in the early 20th century, thrive in Southern Appalachia but are considered a nuisance due to their tendency to root up and destroy plants. The boars are seen as taking food resources away from bears as well, and the park service has sponsored a program that pays individuals to hunt and kill boars and leave their bodies in locations frequented by bears.
The Smokies are home to over two dozen species of rodents, including the endangered northern flying squirrel, and 10 species of bats, including the endangered Indiana bat. The National Park Service has successfully reintroduced river otters and elk into the Great Smokies. An attempt to reintroduce the red wolf in the early 1990s ultimately failed. These wolves were removed from the park and relocated to the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge in North Carolina.
The Smokies are home to a diverse bird population due to the presence of multiple forest types. Species that thrive in southern hardwood forests, such as the red - eyed vireo, wood thrush, wild turkey, northern parula, ruby - throated hummingbird, and tufted titmouse, are found throughout the range 's lower elevations and cove hardwood forests. Species more typical of cooler climates, such as the raven, winter wren, black - capped chickadee, yellow - bellied sapsucker, dark - eyed junco, and Blackburnian, chestnut - sided, and Canada warblers, are found in the range 's spruce - fir and northern hardwood zones.
Ovenbirds, whip - poor - wills, and downy woodpeckers live in the drier pine - oak forests and heath balds. Bald eagles and golden eagles have been spotted at all elevations in the park. Peregrine falcon sightings are also not uncommon, and a peregrine falcon eyrie is known to have existed near Alum Cave Bluffs throughout the 1930s. Red - tailed hawks, the most common hawk species, have been sighted at all elevations in the range. Owl species residing in the Smokies include the barred owl, eastern screech - owl, and northern saw - whet owl.
Timber rattlesnakes -- one of two venomous snake species in the Smokies -- are found at all elevations in the range. The other venomous snake, the copperhead, is typically found at lower elevations. Other reptiles include the eastern box turtle, the eastern fence lizard, the black rat snake, and the northern water snake.
The Great Smokies are home to one of the world 's most diverse salamander populations. Five of the world 's nine families of salamanders are found in the range, consisting of up to thirty - one species. A type of Jordan 's salamander known as the redcheek salamander is found only in the Smokies. The imitator salamander is found only in the Smokies and the nearby Plott Balsams and Great Balsam Mountains.
Two other species -- the southern gray - cheeked salamander and the Southern Appalachian salamander -- occur only in the general region. Other species include the shovelnose, blackbelly salamander, eastern red - spotted newt, and spotted dusky salamander. The legendary hellbender inhabits the range 's swifter streams. Other amphibians include the American toad and the American bullfrog, wood frog, upland chorus frog, northern green frog, and spring peeper.
Fish inhabiting the streams of the Smokies include trout, lamprey, darter, shiner, bass, and sucker. The brook trout is the only trout species native to the range, although northwestern rainbow trout and European brown trout were introduced in the first half of the 20th century. The larger rainbow and brown trout outcompete the native brook trout for food and habitat at lower elevations. As such, most of the brook trout found in the park today are in streams above 3,000 feet in elevation. Trout in the Smokies are generally smaller than other members of their species in different locales. Protected fish species in the range include the smoky and yellowfin madtom, the spotfin chub, and the duskytail darter.
The lightning - bug firefly Photinus carolinus, whose synchronized flashing light displays occur in mid-June, is native to the Smoky Mountains with a population epicenter near Elkmont, Tennessee.
Air pollution is contributing to increased Red Spruce tree mortality at higher elevations and oak decline at lower elevations, while invasive hemlock woolly adelgids attack Hemlocks and balsam woolly adelgids attack Fraser Firs. Pseudoscymnus tsugae, a type of beetle in the ladybug family, Coccinellidae, has been introduced in an attempt to control the pests.
Visibility now is dramatically reduced by smog from both the Southeastern United States and the Midwest, and smog forecasts are prepared daily by the Environmental Protection Agency for both nearby Knoxville, Tennessee and Asheville, North Carolina.
Environmental threats are the concern of many non-profit environmental stewardship groups, especially The Friends of the Smokies. Formed in 1993, the friends group assists the National Park Service in its mission to preserve and protect the Great Smoky Mountains National Park by raising funds and public awareness, and providing volunteers for needed projects.
Native Americans have likely been hunting in the Great Smoky Mountains for 14,000 years. Numerous Archaic period (c. 8000 -- 1000 B.C.) artifacts have been found within the national park 's boundaries, including projectile points uncovered along likely animal migration paths. Woodland period (c. 1000 B.C. - 1000 A.D.) sites found within the park contained 2000 + - year - old ceramics and evidence of primitive agriculture.
The increasing reliance upon agriculture during the Mississippian period (c. 900 -- 1600 A.D.) lured Native Americans away from the game - rich forests of the Smokies and into the fertile river valleys on the outer fringe of the range. Substantial Mississippian - period villages were uncovered at Citico and Toqua (named after the Cherokee villages that later thrived at these sites) along the Little Tennessee River in the 1960s. Fortified Mississippian - period villages have been excavated at the McMahan Indian Mounds in Sevierville and more recently in Townsend.
Most of these villages were part of a minor chiefdom centered on a large village known as Chiaha, which was located on an island now submerged by Douglas Lake. The 1540 expedition of Hernando de Soto and the 1567 expedition of Juan Pardo passed through the French Broad River valley north of the Smokies, both spending a considerable amount of time at Chiaha. The Pardo expedition followed a trail across the flanks of Chilhowee Mountain to the Mississippian - period villages at Chilhowee and Citico (Pardo 's notary called them by their Muskogean names, "Chalahume '' and "Satapo '').
By the time the first English explorers arrived in Southern Appalachia in the late 17th century, the Cherokee controlled much of the region, and the Great Smoky Mountains lay at the center of their territory. One Cherokee legend tells of a magical lake hidden deep within the range, but inaccessible to humans. Another tells of a captured Shawnee medicine man named Aganunitsi who, in exchange for his freedom, travels to the remote sections of the range in search of the Uktena. The Cherokee called Gregory Bald Tsitsuyi, or "rabbit place, '' and believed the mountain to be the domain of the Great Rabbit. Other Cherokee place names in the Smokies included Duniskwalgunyi, or "forked antlers '', which referred to the Chimney Tops, and kuwahi, or "mulberry place '', which referred to Clingmans Dome.
Most Cherokee settlements were located in the river valleys on the outer fringe of the Great Smokies range. The Smokies, along with the Unicois, provided the main bulwark dividing the Overhill Cherokee villages in modern Tennessee from the Cherokee Middle towns in modern North Carolina. The Overhill town of Chilhowee was situated at the confluence of Abrams Creek and the Little Tennessee, and the Overhill town of Tallassee was located just a few miles upstream near modern Calderwood (both village sites are now under Chilhowee Lake). A string of Overhill villages, including Chota and Tanasi, dotted the Little Tennessee valley north of Chilhowee.
The Cherokee Middle towns included the village of Kittowa (which the Cherokee believed to be their oldest village) along the Tuckasegee River near Bryson City. The village of Oconaluftee, which was situated along the Oconaluftee River near the modern Oconaluftee Visitor Center, was the only known permanent Cherokee village located within the national park 's boundaries. Sporadic or seasonal settlements were located in Cades Cove and the Hazel Creek valley.
European explorers and settlers began arriving in Western North Carolina and East Tennessee in the mid-18th century. The influx of settlers at the end of the French and Indian War brought conflict with the Cherokee, who still held legal title to much of the land. When the Cherokee aligned themselves with the British at the outbreak of the American Revolution in 1776, American forces launched an invasion of Cherokee territory.
The Middle towns, including Kittuwa, were burned by General Griffith Rutherford, and several of the Overhill towns were burned by John Sevier. By 1805, the Cherokee had ceded control of the Great Smokies to the U.S. government. Although much of the tribe was forced west along the Trail of Tears in 1838, a few -- largely through the efforts of William Holland Thomas -- managed to retain their land on the Qualla Boundary and today comprise the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians.
In the 1780s, several frontier outposts had been established along the outskirts of the Smokies, namely Whitson 's Fort in what is now Cosby and Wear 's Fort in what is now Pigeon Forge. Permanent settlers began arriving in these areas in the 1790s. In 1801, the Whaley brothers, William and John, moved from North Carolina to become the first settlers in what is now the Greenbrier section of the park.
In 1802, Edgefield, South Carolina resident William Ogle (1751 -- 1803) arrived in White Oak Flats where he cut and prepared logs for cabin construction. Although Ogle died shortly after returning to Edgefield, his wife, Martha Jane Huskey, eventually returned with her family and several other families to White Oak Flats, becoming the first permanent settlers in what would eventually become Gatlinburg. Their children and grandchildren spread out southward into the Sugarlands and Roaring Fork areas.
Cades Cove was settled largely by families who had purchased lots from land speculator William "Fighting Billy '' Tipton. The first of these settlers, John and Lucretia Oliver, arrived in 1818. Two Cades Cove settlers, Moses and Patience Proctor, crossed over to the North Carolina side of the Smokies in 1836 to become the first Euro - American settlers in the Hazel Creek area. The Cataloochee area was first settled by the Caldwell family, who migrated to the valley in 1834.
Like most of Southern Appalachia, the early 19th - century economy of the Smokies relied on subsistence agriculture. The average farm consisted of roughly 50 acres (0.20 km), part of which was cultivated and part of which was woodland. Early settlers lived in 16 feet (4.9 m) x 20 feet (6.1 m) log cabins, although these were replaced by more elaborate log houses and eventually, as lumber became available, by modern frame houses. Most farms included at least one barn, a springhouse (used for refrigeration), a smokehouse (used for curing meat), a chicken coop (protected chickens from predators), and a corn crib (kept corn dry and protected it from rodents). Some of the more industrious farmers operated gristmills, general stores, and sorghum presses. Religion was a central theme in the lives of the early residents of the Smokies, and community life was typically centered on churches. Christian Protestantism -- especially Primitive Baptists, Missionary Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians; dominated the religious culture of the region.
While both Tennessee and North Carolina joined the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, Union sentiment in the Great Smoky Mountains was much stronger relative to other regions in these two states. Generally, the communities on the Tennessee side of the Smokies supported the Union, while communities on the North Carolina side supported the Confederates. On the Tennessee side, 74 % of Cocke Countians, 80 % of Blount Countians, and 96 % of Sevier Countians voted against secession. In the North Carolina Smokies -- Cherokee, Haywood, Jackson, and Macon counties -- about 46 % of the population favored secession.
While no major engagements took place in the Smokies, minor skirmishes were fairly common. Cherokee chief William Holland Thomas formed a Confederate legion made up mostly of Cherokee soldiers. Thomas ' Legion crossed the Smokies in 1862 and occupied Gatlinburg for several months to protect salt peter mines atop Mount Le Conte. Residents of predominantly Union Cades Cove and predominantly Confederate Hazel Creek routinely crossed the mountains to steal one another 's livestock. Residents of Cosby and Cataloochee did likewise. One notable Civil War incident in the Smokies was the murder of long - time Cades Cove resident Russell Gregory (for whom Gregory Bald is named), which was carried out by bushwhackers in 1864 shortly after Gregory had led an ambush that routed a band of Confederates seeking to wreak havoc in the cove. Another incident was George Kirk 's raid on Cataloochee, in which Kirk killed or wounded 15 Union soldiers recovering at a makeshift hospital.
While selective logging occurred in the Great Smoky Mountains throughout the 19th century, the general inaccessibility of the range 's forests prevented major logging operations, and lumber firms relied on the lowland forests in the northeastern United States and the Mississippi Delta in the southeast. As timber resources in these regions became exhausted, and as the demand for lumber skyrocketed after the Civil War, entrepreneurs began looking for ways to reach the virgin forests of Southern Appalachia. The first logging operations in the Smokies, which began in the 1880s, used splash dams or booms to float logs down rivers to lumber mills in nearby cities. Notable splash dam and boom operations included the English Lumber Company on Little River, the Taylor and Crate operations along Hazel Creek, and the ambitious operations of Alexander Arthur on the Pigeon River. All three of these operations failed within their first few years, however, after their dams and boom systems were destroyed by floods.
Innovations in logging railroads and band saw technology in the late 19th century made large - scale logging possible in the mountainous areas of Southern Appalachia. The largest logging operation in the Smokies was the Little River Lumber Company, which logged the Little River watershed between 1901 and 1939. The company also established company towns at Townsend (named for the company 's chief owner and manager, Wilson B. Townsend), Elkmont, and Tremont.
The second - largest operation was the Ritter Lumber Company, which logged the Hazel Creek watershed between 1907 and 1928. Ruins of Ritter 's lumbering operations are still visible along the Hazel Creek Trail. Other lumbering operations included Three M Lumber and Champion Fibre, both of which logged the Oconaluftee watershed. By the time all operations ceased in the 1930s, logging firms had removed two - thirds of the virgin forests of the Smokies.
Wilson B. Townsend, the head of Little River Lumber, began advertising Elkmont as a tourist destination in 1909. Within a few years, the Wonderland Hotel and the Appalachian Club had been established to cater to elite Knoxvillians seeking summer mountain getaways. In the early 1920s, several Appalachian Club members, among them Knoxville businessman Colonel David Chapman, began seriously considering a movement to establish a national park in the Great Smokies. As head of the Great Smoky Mountains Park Commission, Chapman was largely responsible for raising funds for land purchases and coordinating park efforts between local, state, and federal entities.
The creation of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park proved much more complex than the creation of its predecessors, such as Yellowstone and Yosemite, which were already federally owned. Along with convincing logging firms to sell lucrative lumber rights, the Park Commission had to negotiate the purchase of thousands of small farms and remove entire communities. The commission also had to deal with the Tennessee and North Carolina legislatures, which at times were opposed to spending taxpayer money on park efforts. In spite of these difficulties, the Park Commission had completed most major land purchases by 1932. The national park officially opened in 1934, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt presiding over the opening ceremony at Newfound Gap.
The culture of the area is that of Southern Appalachia, and previously the Cherokee people. Tourism is key to the area 's economy, particularly in cities like Pigeon Forge and Gatlinburg in Tennessee, and Cherokee, North Carolina. In 2006, the Great Smoky Mountains Heritage Center opened in Townsend, Tennessee, with the mission of preserving various aspects of the region 's culture.
Rafting, either leisurely river tubing or in full whitewater, is common all summer. Downhill skiing is also done in winter, though for a short season, at places like Cataloochee and Ober Gatlinburg.
Country music singer Dolly Parton was born and raised on a small farm in the Smokies. She writes many songs concerning her Tennessee upbringing, and starred in the 1986 film, A Smoky Mountain Christmas.
On September 17, 2010, the documentary reality television series Man, Woman, Wild featured an episode about survival in the Smoky Mountains.
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the part of the brain mainly responsible for language is the | Language processing in the brain - Wikipedia
Language processing refers to the way humans use words to communicate ideas and feelings, and how such communications are processed and understood. Language processing is considered to be an uniquely human ability that is not produced with the same grammatical understanding or systematicity in even human 's closest primate relatives.
Throughout the 20th century the dominant model for language processing in the brain was the Geschwind - Lichteim - Wernicke model, which is based primarily on the analysis of brain damaged patients. However, due to improvements in intra-cortical electrophysiological recordings of monkey and human brains, as well non-invasive techniques such as fMRI, PET, MEG and EEG, a dual auditory pathway has been revealed. In accordance with this model, there are two pathways that connect the auditory cortex to the frontal lobe, each pathway accounting for different linguistic roles. The auditory ventral stream connects the auditory cortex with the middle temporal gyrus and temporal pole, which in turn connects with the inferior frontal gyrus. This pathway is responsible for sound recognition, and is accordingly known as the auditory ' what ' pathway. The auditory dorsal stream connects the auditory cortex with the parietal lobe, which in turn connects with inferior frontal gyrus. In both humans and non-human primates, the auditory dorsal stream is responsible for sound localization, and is accordingly known as the auditory ' where ' pathway. In humans, this pathway (especially in the left hemisphere) is also responsible for speech production, speech repetition, lip - reading, and phonological working memory and long - term memory. In accordance with the ' from where to what ' model of language evolution. the reason the ADS is characterized with such a broad range of functions is that each indicates a different stage in language evolution.
Throughout the 20th century, our knowledge of language processing in the brain was dominated by the Wernicke - Lichtheim - Geschwind model. This model is primarily based on research conducted on brain - damaged individuals who were reported to possess a variety of language related disorders. In accordance with this model, words are perceived via a specialized word reception center (Wernicke 's area) that is located in the left temporoparietal junction. This region then projects to a word production center (Broca 's area) that is located in the left inferior frontal gyrus. Because almost all language input was thought to funnel via Wernicke 's area and all language output to funnel via Broca 's area, it became extremely difficult to identify the basic properties of each region. This lack of clear definition for the contribution of Wernicke 's and Broca 's regions to human language rendered it extremely difficult to identify their homologues in other primates. With the advent of the MRI and its application for lesion mappings, however, it was shown that this model is based on incorrect correlations between symptoms and lesions. The refutation of such an influential and dominant model opened the door to new models of language processing in the brain.
In the last two decades, significant advances occurred in our understanding of the neural processing of sounds in primates. Initially by recording of neural activity in the auditory cortices of monkeys and later elaborated via histological staining and fMRI scanning studies, 3 auditory fields were identified in the primary auditory cortex, and 9 associative auditory fields were shown to surround them (Figure 1 top left). Anatomical tracing and lesion studies further indicated of a separation between the anterior and posterior auditory fields, with the anterior primary auditory fields (areas R - RT) projecting to the anterior associative auditory fields (areas AL - RTL), and the posterior primary auditory field (area A1) projecting to the posterior associative auditory fields (areas CL - CM). Recently, evidence accumulated that indicates homology between the human and monkey auditory fields. In humans, histological staining studies revealed two separate auditory fields in the primary auditory region of Heschl 's gyrus, and by mapping the tonotopic organization of the human primary auditory fields with high resolution fMRI and comparing it to the tonotopic organization of the monkey primary auditory fields, homology was established between the human anterior primary auditory field and monkey area R (denoted in humans as area hR) and the human posterior primary auditory field and the monkey area A1 (denoted in humans as area hA1). Intra-cortical recordings from the human auditory cortex further demonstrated similar patterns of connectivity to the auditory cortex of the monkey. Recording from the surface of the auditory cortex (supra - temporal plane) reported that the anterior Heschl 's gyrus (area hR) projects primarily to the middle - anterior superior temporal gyrus (mSTG - aSTG) and the posterior Heschl 's gyrus (area hA1) projects primarily to the posterior superior temporal gyrus (pSTG) and the planum temporale (area PT; Figure 1 top right). Consistent with connections from area hR to the aSTG and hA1 to the pSTG is an fMRI study of a patient with impaired sound recognition (auditory agnosia), who was shown with reduced bilateral activation in areas hR and aSTG but with spared activation in the mSTG - pSTG. This connectivity pattern is also corroborated by a study that recorded activation from the lateral surface of the auditory cortex and reported of simultaneous non-overlapping activation clusters in the pSTG and mSTG - aSTG while listening to sounds.
Downstream to the auditory cortex, anatomical tracing studies in monkeys delineated projections from the anterior associative auditory fields (areas AL - RTL) to ventral prefrontal and premotor cortices in the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and amygdala. Cortical recording and functional imaging studies in macaque monkeys further elaborated on this processing stream by showing that acoustic information flows from the anterior auditory cortex to the temporal pole (TP) and then to the IFG. This pathway is commonly referred to as the auditory ventral stream (AVS; Figure 1, bottom left - red arrows). In contrast to the anterior auditory fields, tracing studies reported that the posterior auditory fields (areas CL - CM) project primarily to dorsolateral prefrontal and premotor cortices (although some projections do terminate in the IFG. Cortical recordings and anatomical tracing studies in monkeys further provided evidence that this processing stream flows from the posterior auditory fields to the frontal lobe via a relay station in the intra-parietal sulcus (IPS). This pathway is commonly referred to as the auditory dorsal stream (ADS; Figure 1, bottom left - blue arrows). Comparing the white matter pathways involved in communication in humans and monkeys with diffusion tensor imaging techniques indicates of similar connections of the AVS and ADS in the two species (Monkey, Human). In humans, the pSTG was shown to project to the parietal lobe (sylvian parietal - temporal junction - inferior parietal lobule; Spt - IPL), and from there to dorsolateral prefrontal and premotor cortices (Figure 1, bottom right - blue arrows), and the aSTG was shown to project to the anterior temporal lobe (middle temporal gyrus - temporal pole; MTG - TP) and from there to the IFG (Figure 1 bottom right - red arrows).
Accumulative converging evidence indicates that the AVS is involved in recognizing auditory objects. At the level of the primary auditory cortex, recordings from monkeys showed higher percentage of neurons selective for learned melodic sequences in area R than area A1, and a study in humans demonstrated more selectivity for heard syllables in the anterior Heschl 's gyrus (area hR) than posterior Heshcl 's gyrus (area hA1). In downstream associative auditory fields, studies from both monkeys and humans reported that the border between the anterior and posterior auditory fields (Figure 1 - area PC in the monkey and mSTG in the human) processes pitch attributes that are necessary for the recognition of auditory objects. The anterior auditory fields of monkeys were also demonstrated with selectivity for con - specific vocalizations with intra-cortical recordings. and functional imaging One fMRI monkey study further demonstrated a role of the aSTG in the recognition of individual voices. The role of the human mSTG - aSTG in sound recognition was demonstrated via functional imaging studies that correlated activity in this region with isolation of auditory objects from background noise, and with the recognition of spoken words, voices, melodies, environmental sounds, and non-speech communicative sounds. A Meta - analysis of fMRI studies further demonstrated functional dissociation between the left mSTG and aSTG, with the former processing short speech units (phonemes) and the latter processing longer units (e.g., words, environmental sounds). A study that recorded neural activity directly from the left pSTG and aSTG reported that the aSTG, but not pSTG, was more active when the patient listened to speech in her native language than unfamiliar foreign language. Consistently, electro stimulation to the aSTG of this patient resulted in impaired speech perception (see also for similar results). Intra-cortical recordings from the right and left aSTG further demonstrated that speech is processed laterally to music. An fMRI study of a patient with impaired sound recognition (auditory agnosia) due to brainstem damage was also shown with reduced activation in areas hR and aSTG of both hemispheres when hearing spoken words and environmental sounds. Recordings from the anterior auditory cortex of monkeys while maintaining learned sounds in working memory, and the debilitating effect of induced lesions to this region on working memory recall, further implicate the AVS in maintaining the perceived auditory objects in working memory. In humans, area mSTG - aSTG was also reported active during rehearsal of heard syllables with MEG. and fMRI The latter study further demonstrated that working memory in the AVS is for the acoustic properties of spoken words and that it is independent to working memory in the ADS, which mediates inner speech. Working memory studies in monkeys also suggest that in monkeys, in contrast to humans, the AVS is the dominant working memory store.
In humans, downstream to the aSTG, the MTG and TP are thought to constitute the semantic lexicon, which is a long - term memory repository of audio - visual representations that are interconnected on the basis of semantic relationships. (See also the reviews by discussing this topic). The primary evidence for this role of the MTG - TP is that patients with damage to this region (e.g., patients with semantic dementia or herpes simplex virus encephalitis) are reported with an impaired ability to describe visual and auditory objects and a tendency to commit semantic errors when naming objects (i.e., semantic paraphasia). Semantic paraphasias were also expressed by aphasic patients with left MTG - TP damage and were shown to occur in non-aphasic patients after electro - stimulation to this region. or the underlying white matter pathway Two meta - analyses of the fMRI literature also reported that the anterior MTG and TP were consistently active during semantic analysis of speech and text; and an intra-cortical recording study correlated neural discharge in the MTG with the comprehension of intelligible sentences.
In addition to extracting meaning from sounds, the MTG - TP region of the AVS appears to have a role in sentence comprehension, possibly by merging concepts together (e.g., merging the concept ' blue ' and ' shirt to create the concept of a ' blue shirt '). The role of the MTG in extracting meaning from sentences has been demonstrated in functional imaging studies reporting stronger activation in the anterior MTG when proper sentences are contrasted with lists of words, sentences in a foreign or nonsense language, scrambled sentences, sentences with semantic or syntactic violations and sentence - like sequences of environmental sounds. One fMRI study in which participants were instructed to read a story further correlated activity in the anterior MTG with the amount of semantic and syntactic content each sentence contained. An EEG study that contrasted cortical activity while reading sentences with and without syntactic violations in healthy participants and patients with MTG - TP damage, concluded that the MTG - TP in both hemispheres participate in the automatic (rule based) stage of syntactic analysis (ELAN component), and that the left MTG - TP is also involved in a later controlled stage of syntax analysis (P600 component). Patients with damage to the MTG - TP region have also been reported with impaired sentence comprehension. See review for more information on this topic.
In contradiction to the Wernicke - Lichtheim - Geschwind model that implicates sound recognition to occur solely in the left hemisphere, studies that examined the properties of the right or left hemisphere in isolation via unilateral hemispheric anesthesia (i.e., the WADA procedure) or intra-cortical recordings from each hemisphere provided evidence that sound recognition is processed bilaterally. Moreover, a study that instructed patients with disconnected hemispheres (i.e., split - brain patients) to match spoken words to written words presented to the right or left hemifields, reported vocabulary in the right hemisphere that almost matches in size with the left hemisphere (The right hemisphere vocabulary was equivalent to the vocabulary of a healthy 11 - years old child). This bilateral recognition of sounds is also consistent with the finding that unilateral lesion to the auditory cortex rarely results in deficit to auditory comprehension (i.e., auditory agnosia), whereas a second lesion to the remaining hemisphere (which could occur years later) does. Finally, as mentioned earlier, an fMRI scan of an auditory agnosia patient demonstrated bilateral reduced activation in the anterior auditory cortices, and bilateral electro - stimulation to these regions in both hemispheres resulted with impaired speech recognition.
The most established role of the ADS is with audiospatial processing. This is evidenced via studies that recorded neural activity from the auditory cortex of monkeys, and correlated the strongest selectivity to changes in sound location with the posterior auditory fields (areas CM - CL), intermediate selectivity with primary area A1, and very weak selectivity with the anterior auditory fields. In humans, behavioral studies of brain damaged patients and EEG recordings from healthy participants demonstrated that sound localization is processed independently of sound recognition, and thus is likely independent of processing in the AVS. Consistently, a working memory study reported two independent working memory storage spaces, one for acoustic properties and one for locations. Functional imaging studies that contrasted sound discrimination and sound localization reported a correlation between sound discrimination and activation in the mSTG - aSTG, and correlation between sound localization and activation in the pSTG and PT, with some studies further reporting of activation in the Spt - IPL region and frontal lobe. Some fMRI studies also reported that the activation in the pSTG and Spt - IPL regions increased when individuals perceived sounds in motion. EEG studies using source - localization also identified the pSTG - Spt region of the ADS as the sound localization processing center A combined fMRI and MEG study corroborated the role of the ADS with audiospatial processing by demonstrating that changes in sound location resulted in activation spreading from Heschl 's gyrus posteriorly along the pSTG and terminating in the IPL. In another MEG study, the IPL and frontal lobe were shown active during maintenance of sound locations in working memory.
In addition to localizing sounds, the ADS appears also to encode the sound location in memory, and to use this information for guiding eye movements. Evidence for the role of the ADS in encoding sounds into working memory is provided via studies that trained monkeys in a delayed matching to sample task, and reported of activation in areas CM - CL and IPS during the delay phase. Influence of this spatial information on eye movements occurs via projections of the ADS into the frontal eye field (FEF; a premotor area that is responsible for guiding eye movements) located in the frontal lobe. This is demonstrated with anatomical tracing studies that reported of connections between areas CM - CL - IPS and the FEF, and electro - physiological recordings that reported neural activity in both the IPS and the FEF prior to conducting saccadic eye - movements toward auditory targets.
A surprising function of the ADS is with the discrimination and possible identification of sounds, which is commonly ascribed with the anterior STG and STS of the AVS. However, electrophysiological recordings from the posterior auditory cortex (areas CM - CL), and IPS of monkeys, as well a PET monkey study reported of neurons that are selective to monkey vocalizations. One of these studies also reported of neurons in areas CM - CL that are characterized with dual selectivity for both a vocalization and a sound location. A monkey study that recorded electrophysiological activity from neurons in the posterior insula also reported of neurons that discriminate monkey calls based on the identity of the speaker. Similarly, human fMRI studies that instructed participants to discriminate voices reported an activation cluster in the pSTG. A study that recorded activity from the auditory cortex of an epileptic patient further reported that the pSTG, but not aSTG, was selective for the presence of a new speaker. A study that scanned fetuses in their third trimester of pregnancy with fMRI further reported of activation in area Spt when the hearing of voices was contrasted to pure tones. The researchers also reported that a sub-region of area Spt was more selective to their mother 's voice than unfamiliar female voices. This study thus suggests that the ADS is capable of identifying voices in addition to discriminating them.
The manner in which sound recognition in the pSTG - PT - Spt regions of the ADS differs from sound recognition in the anterior STG and STS of the AVS was shown via electro - stimulation of an epileptic patient. This study reported that electro - stimulation of the aSTG resulted in changes in the perceived pitch of voices (including the patient 's own voice), whereas electro - stimulation of the pSTG resulted in reports that her voice was "drifting away. '' This report indicates a role for the pSTG in the integration of sound location with an individual voice. Consistent with this role of the ADS is a study that reported patients, with AVS damage but spared ADS (surgical removal of the anterior STG / MTG), were no longer capable of isolating environmental sounds in the contralesional space, whereas their ability of isolating and discriminating human voices remained intact. Supporting a role for the pSTG - PT - Spt of the ADS with integrating auditory objects with sound locations are also studies that demonstrate a role for this region in the isolation of specific sounds. For example, two functional imaging studies correlated circumscribed pSTG - PT activation with the spreading of sounds into an increasing number of locations. Accordingly, an fMRI study correlated the perception of acoustic cues that are necessary for separating musical sounds (pitch chroma) with pSTG - PT activation.
Although sound perception is primarily ascribed with the AVS, the ADS appears associated with several aspects of speech perception. For instance, in a meta - analysis of fMRI studies in which the auditory perception of phonemes was contrasted with closely matching sounds, and the studies were rated for the required level of attention, the authors concluded that attention to phonemes correlates with strong activation in the pSTG - pSTS region. An intra-cortical recording study in which participants were instructed to identify syllables also correlated the hearing of each syllable with its own activation pattern in the pSTG. Consistent with the role of the ADS in discriminating phonemes, studies have ascribed the integration of phonemes and their corresponding lip movements (i.e., visemes) to the pSTS of the ADS. For example, an fMRI study has correlated activation in the pSTS with the McGurk illusion (in which hearing the syllable "ba '' while seeing the viseme "ga '' results in the perception of the syllable "da ''). Another study has found that using magnetic stimulation to interfere with processing in this area further disrupts the McGurk illusion. The association of the pSTS with the audio - visual integration of speech has also been demonstrated in a study that presented participants with pictures of faces and spoken words of varying quality. The study reported that the pSTS selects for the combined increase of the clarity of faces and spoken words. Corroborating evidence has been provided by an fMRI study that contrasted the perception of audio - visual speech with audio - visual non-speech (pictures and sounds of tools). This study reported the detection of speech - selective compartments in the pSTS. In addition, an fMRI study that contrasted congruent audio - visual speech with incongruent speech (pictures of still faces) reported pSTS activation. For a review presenting additional converging evidence regarding the role of the pSTS and ADS in phoneme - viseme integration see.
Studies of present - day humans have demonstrated a role for the ADS in speech production, particularly in the vocal expression of the names of objects. For instance, in a series of studies in which sub-cortical fibers were directly stimulated, interference in the left pSTG and IPL resulted in errors during object - naming tasks, and interference in the left IFG resulted in speech arrest. Magnetic interference in the pSTG and IFG of healthy participants also produced speech errors and speech arrest, respectively (Stewart et al., 2001; Acheson et al., 2011). One study has also reported that electrical stimulation of the left IPL caused patients to believe that they had spoken when they had not and that IFG stimulation caused patients to unconsciously move their lips. The contribution of the ADS to the process of articulating the names of objects could to be dependent on the reception of afferents from the semantic lexicon of the AVS, as an intra-cortical recording study reported of activation in the posterior MTG prior to activation in the Spt - IPL region when patients named objects in pictures. Intra-cortical electrical stimulation studies also reported that electrical interference to the posterior MTG was correlated with impaired object naming.
The involvement of the ADS in both speech perception and production has been further illuminated in several pioneering functional imaging studies that contrasted speech perception with overt or covert speech production. These studies demonstrated that the pSTS is active only during the perception of speech, whereas area Spt is active during both the perception and production of speech. The authors concluded that the pSTS projects to area Spt, which converts the auditory input into articulatory movements. Similar results have been obtained in a study in which participants ' temporal and parietal lobes were electrically stimulated. This study reported that electrically stimulating the pSTG region interferes with sentence comprehension and that stimulation of the IPL interferes with the ability to vocalize the names of objects. The authors also reported that stimulation in area Spt and the inferior IPL induced interference during both object - naming and speech - comprehension tasks. The role of the ADS in speech repetition is also congruent with the results of the other functional imaging studies that have localized activation during speech repetition tasks to ADS regions. An intra-cortical recording study that recorded activity throughout most of the temporal, parietal and frontal lobes also reported activation in the pSTG, Spt, IPL and IFG when speech repetition is contrasted with speech perception. Neuropsychological studies have also found that individuals with speech repetition deficits but preserved auditory comprehension (i.e., conduction aphasia) suffer from circumscribed damage to the Spt - IPL area. or damage to the projections that emanate from this area and target the frontal lobe Studies have also reported a transient speech repetition deficit in patients after direct intra-cortical electrical stimulation to this same region. Insight into the purpose of speech repetition in the ADS is provided by longitudinal studies of children that correlated the learning of foreign vocabulary with the ability to repeat nonsense words.
In addition to repeating and producing speech, the ADS appears to have a role in monitoring the quality of the speech output. Neuroanatomical evidence suggests that the ADS is equipped with descending connections from the IFG to the pSTG that relay information about motor activity (i.e., corollary discharges) in the vocal apparatus (mouth, tongue, vocal folds). This feedback marks the sound perceived during speech production as self - produced and can be used to adjust the vocal apparatus to increase the similarity between the perceived and emitted calls. Evidence for descending connections from the IFG to the pSTG has been offered by a study that electrically stimulated the IFG during surgical operations and reported the spread of activation to the pSTG - pSTS - Spt region. A study that compared the ability of aphasic patients with frontal, parietal or temporal lobe damage to quickly and repeatedly articulate a string of syllables reported that damage to the frontal lobe interfered with the articulation of both identical syllabic strings ("Bababa '') and non-identical syllabic strings ("Badaga ''), whereas patients with temporal or parietal lobe damage only exhibited impairment when articulating non-identical syllabic strings. Because the patients with temporal and parietal lobe damage were capable of repeating the syllabic string in the first task, their speech perception and production appears to be relatively preserved, and their deficit in the second task is therefore due to impaired monitoring. Demonstrating the role of the descending ADS connections in monitoring emitted calls, an fMRI study instructed participants to speak under normal conditions or when hearing a modified version of their own voice (delayed first formant) and reported that hearing a distorted version of one 's own voice results in increased activation in the pSTG. Further demonstrating that the ADS facilitates motor feedback during mimicry is an intra-cortical recording study that contrasted speech perception and repetition. The authors reported that, in addition to activation in the IPL and IFG, speech repetition is characterized by stronger activation in the pSTG than during speech perception. For additional converging evidence regarding the role of the ADS in the relay of feedback motor connections from the vocal apparatus, see
Several studies demonstrated a role for the ADS in the perception and production of intonations. For instance, an fMRI study that instructed participants to rehearse speech, reported that perception of prosodic speech, when contrasted with flattened speech, results in a stronger activation of the PT - pSTG of both hemispheres. In congruence, an fMRI study that compared the perception of hummed speech to natural speech did n't identify any brain area that is specific to humming, and thus concluded that humming is processed in the speech network. fMRI studies that instructed participants to analyze the rhythm of speech also reported of ADS activation (Spt, IPL, IFG). An fMRI study that compared speech perception and production to the perception and production of humming noises, reported in both conditions that the overlaping activation area for perception and production (i.e., the area responsible for sensory - motor conversion) was located in area Spt of the ADS. Supporting evidence for the role of the ADS in the production of prosody are also studies. reporting that patients diagnosed with apraxia of speech are additionally diagnosed with expressive dysprosody.
A growing body of evidence indicates that humans, in addition to having a long - term store for word meanings located in the MTG - TP of the AVS (i.e., the semantic lexicon), also have a long - term store for the names of objects located in the Spt - IPL region of the ADS (i.e., the phonological lexicon). For example, a study examining patients with damage to the AVS (MTG damage) or damage to the ADS (IPL damage) reported that MTG damage results in individuals incorrectly identifying objects (e.g., calling a "goat '' a "sheep, '' an example of semantic paraphasia). Conversely, IPL damage results in individuals correctly identifying the object but incorrectly pronouncing its name (e.g., saying "gof '' instead of "goat, '' an example of phonemic paraphasia). Semantic paraphasia errors have also been reported in patients receiving intra-cortical electrical stimulation of the AVS (MTG), and phonemic paraphasia errors have been reported in patients whose ADS (pSTG, Spt, and IPL) received intra-cortical electrical stimulation. Further supporting the role of the ADS in object naming is an MEG study that localized activity in the IPL during the learning and during the recall of object names. A study that induced magnetic interference in participants ' IPL while they answered questions about an object reported that the participants were capable of answering questions regarding the object 's characteristics or perceptual attributes but were impaired when asked whether the word contained two or three syllables. An MEG study has also correlated recovery from anomia (a disorder characterized by an impaired ability to name objects) with changes in IPL activation. Further supporting the role of the IPL in encoding the sounds of words are studies reporting that, compared to monolinguals, bilinguals have greater cortical density in the IPL but not the MTG. Because evidence shows that, in bilinguals, different phonological representations of the same word share the same semantic representation, this increase in density in the IPL verifies the existence of the phonological lexicon: the semantic lexicon of bilinguals is expected to be similar in size to the semantic lexicon of monolinguals, whereas their phonological lexicon should be twice the size. Consistent with this finding, cortical density in the IPL of monolinguals also correlates with vocabulary size. Notably, the functional dissociation of the AVS and ADS in object - naming tasks is supported by cumulative evidence from reading research showing that semantic errors are correlated with MTG impairment and phonemic errors with IPL impairment. Based on these associations, the semantic analysis of text has been linked to the inferior - temporal gyrus and MTG, and the phonological analysis of text has been linked to the pSTG - Spt - IPL
Working memory is often treated as the temporary activation of the representations stored in long - term memory that are used for speech (phonological representations). This sharing of resources between working memory and speech is evident by the finding that speaking during rehearsal results in a significant reduction in the number of items that can be recalled from working memory (articulatory suppression). The involvement of the phonological lexicon in working memory is also evidenced by the tendency of individuals to make more errors when recalling words from a recently learned list of phonologically similar words than from a list of phonologically dissimilar words (the phonological similarity effect). Studies have also found that speech errors committed during reading are remarkably similar to speech errors made during the recall of recently learned, phonologically similar words from working memory. Patients with IPL damage have also been observed to exhibit both speech production errors and impaired working memory Finally, the view that verbal working memory is the result of temporarily activating phonological representations in the ADS is compatible with recent models describing working memory as the combination of maintaining representations in the mechanism of attention in parallel to temporarily activating representations in long - term memory. It has been argued that the role of the ADS in the rehearsal of lists of words is the reason this pathway is active during sentence comprehension For a review of the role of the ADS in working memory, see.
It is presently unknown why so many functions are ascribed to the human ADS. An attempt to unify these functions under a single framework was conducted in the ' From where to what ' model of language evolution. In accordance with this model, each function of the ADS indicates of a different intermediate phase in the evolution of language. The roles of sound localization and integration of sound location with voices and auditory objects is interpreted as evidence that the origin of speech is the exchange of contact calls (calls used to report location in cases of separation) between mothers and offspring. The role of the ADS in the perception and production of intonations is interpreted as evidence that speech began by modifying the contact calls with intonations, possibly for distinguishing alarm contact calls from safe contact calls. The role of the ADS in encoding the names of objects (phonological long - term memory) is interpreted as evidence of gradual transition from modifying calls with intonations to complete vocal control. The role of the ADS in the integration of lip movements with phonemes and in speech repetition is interpreted as evidence that spoken words were learned by infants mimicking their parents ' vocalizations, initiailly by imitating their lip movements. The role of the ADS in phonological working memory is interpreted as evidence that the words learned through mimicry remained active in the ADS even when not spoken. This resulted with individuals capable of rehearsing a list of vocalizations, which enabled the production of words with several syllables. Further developments in the ADS enabled the rehearsal of lists of words, which provided the infra - structure for communicating with sentences.
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the contest among businesses to win customers is called | Competition (Economics) - wikipedia
In economics, "competition '' is the rivalry among sellers trying to achieve such goals as increasing profits, market share, and sales volume by varying the elements of the marketing mix: price, product, promotion and place. Merriam - Webster defines competition in business as "the effort of two or more parties acting independently to secure the business of a third party by offering the most favorable terms ''. In his 1776 The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith described it as the exercise of allocating productive resources to their most highly valued uses and encouraging efficiency, an explanation that quickly found support among liberal economists opposing the monopolistic practices of mercantilism, the dominant economic philosophy of the time. Smith and other classical economists before Cournot were referring to price and non-price rivalry among producers to sell their goods on best terms by bidding of buyers, not necessarily to a large number of sellers nor to a market in final equilibrium.
Later microeconomic theory distinguished between perfect competition and imperfect competition, concluding that perfect competition is Pareto efficient while imperfect competition is not. Competition, according to the theory, causes commercial firms to develop new products, services and technologies, which would give consumers greater selection and better products. The greater selection typically causes lower prices for the products, compared to what the price would be if there was no competition (monopoly) or little competition (oligopoly).
Competition is generally accepted as a necessary condition for the coordination of disparate individuals interests via the market process.
Competition is seen as a state which produces gains for the whole economy, through promoting consumer sovereignty.
Competition is widespread throughout the market process. It is a condition where "buyers tend to compete with other buyers, and sellers tend to compete with other sellers. '' In offering goods for exchange, buyers competitively bid to purchase specific quantities of specific goods which are available, or might be available if sellers were to choose to offer such goods. Similarly, sellers bid against other sellers in offering goods on the market, competing for the attention and exchange resources of buyers. Competition results from scarcity -- there is never enough to satisfy all conceivable human wants -- and occurs "when people strive to meet the criteria that are being used to determine who gets what. ''
The competitive process in a market economy exerts a sort of pressure that tends to move resources to where they are most needed, and to where they can be used most efficiently for the economy as a whole. For the competitive process to work however, it is "important that prices accurately signal costs and benefits. '' Where externalities occur, or monopolistic or oligopolistic conditions persist, or for the provision of certain goods such as public goods, the pressure of the competitive process is reduced.
Competition may also lead to wasted (duplicated) effort and to increased costs (and prices) in some circumstances. In a small number of goods and services, the cost structure means that competition may be inefficient. These situations are known as natural monopoly and are usually publicly provided or tightly regulated.
Competition does not necessarily have to be between companies. For example, business writers sometimes refer to "internal competition ''. This is competition within companies. The idea was first introduced by Alfred Sloan at General Motors in the 1920s. Sloan deliberately created areas of overlap between divisions of the company so that each division would be competing with the other divisions. For example, the Chevy division would compete with the Pontiac division for some market segments. Also, in 1931, Procter & Gamble initiated a deliberate system of internal brand versus brand rivalry. The company was organized around different brands, with each brand allocated resources, including a dedicated group of employees willing to champion the brand. Each brand manager was given responsibility for the success or failure of the brand and was compensated accordingly. This form of competition thus pitted a brand against another brand. Finally, most businesses also encourage competition between individual employees. An example of this is a contest between sales representatives. The sales representative with the highest sales (or the best improvement in sales) over a period of time would gain benefits from the employer.
It should also be noted that business and economic competition in most countries is often limited or restricted. Competition often is subject to legal restrictions. For example, competition may be legally prohibited as in the case with a government monopoly or a government - granted monopoly. Tariffs or other protectionist measures may also be instituted by government in order to prevent or reduce competition. Depending on the respective economic policy, the pure competition is to a greater or lesser extent regulated by competition policy and competition law. Competition between countries is quite subtle to detect, but is quite evident in the World economy, where countries the US, Japan, the constituents of the European Union, China and the Asian Tigers each try to outdo the other in the quest for economic supremacy in the global market, harkening to the concept of Kiasuism. Such competition is evident by the policies undertaken by these countries to educate the future workforce. For example, East Asian economies like Singapore, Japan, and South Korea tend to emphasize education by allocating a large portion of the budget to this sector, and by implementing programmes such as gifted, which some detractors criticize as indicative of elitism.
Within competitive markets, markets are often defined by their sub-sectors, such as the "short - term '' or "long - term '' market, the "seasonal '' or "summer '' market, or the "broad '' or "remainder '' market. For example, in otherwise competitive market economies, where a large majority of the commercial exchanges are competitively determined by long term contracts and therefore long term market clearing prices, a "remainder market '' is one where prices are determined by the small part of the market that deals with the availability of whatever is not cleared via long term transactions. For example, in the sugar industry, about 94 % to 95 % of the market clearing price is determined by long term supply and purchase contracts. The balance of the market, and world sugar prices, are determined by the ad hoc demand for the 5 % to 6 % that is not sold via long - term contracts; prices in the "remainder market '' fluctuate more widely and are determined by short term supply and demand conditions; quoted prices can be significantly higher or lower than the long - term market clearing price. Similarly, in the US real estate housing market, appraisal prices can be determined by both short term or long term characteristics depending on short - term supply and demand factors; this can result in large price variations for a property at one location.
A practice is anti-competitive if it is deemed to unfairly distort free and effective competition in the marketplace. Examples include cartelization (collusion among companies producing the same product or services to fix the price of goods or services intended to mutual higher profit), predatory, and abuse.
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kant religion within the limits of reason alone | Religion within the Bounds of bare Reason - wikipedia
Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason (German: Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft) is a 1793 book by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Although its purpose and original intent has become a matter of some dispute, the book 's immense and lasting influence on the history of theology and the philosophy of religion is indisputable. It consists of four parts, called "Pieces '' (Stücke), originally written as a series of four journal articles. He strongly criticises ritual, superstition and a church hierarchy in this work.
The First Piece originally appeared as a Berlinische Monatsschrift article (April 1792). Kant 's attempt to publish the Second Piece in the same journal met with opposition from the king 's censor. Kant then arranged to have all four pieces published as a book, routing it through the philosophy department at University of Jena to avoid the need for theological censorship. Kant was reprimanded for this action of insubordination. When he nevertheless published a second edition in 1794, the censor was so irate that he arranged for a royal order that required Kant never to publish or even speak publicly about religion.
The book 's title is based on a metaphor Kant introduces in the Prefaces and uses throughout the book, whereby rational religion is depicted as a naked ("bare '') body while historical religions are regarded as "clothing '' that are not appropriate "vehicles '' for conveying religious truths to the populace. The earliest translation treats this metaphor too literally: using "naked '' ignores the fact that Kant 's "bloßen '' can also mean "mere ''. The most recent translation solves this problem by using the English "bare '', which also has both meanings.
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a citizen of india can be deprived from his citizenship by | Loss of citizenship - wikipedia
Loss of citizenship, also referred to as loss of nationality, is the event of ceasing to be a citizen of a country under the nationality law of that country. It is a blanket term covering both involuntary loss of citizenship such as through denaturalization, as well as voluntary renunciation of citizenship.
There are generally two categories of grounds for loss of citizenship. "Involuntary loss '' may occur either due to automatic lapse of citizenship from the citizen for failure to take some action to retain citizenship, or due to active withdrawal of citizenship by the country. "Voluntary loss '', often called "relinquishment '' or "renunciation '', is in contrast initiated by the citizen. It is not always easy to make a clean distinction between the two categories: loss of citizenship due to an initial cause undertaken voluntarily (for example, voluntarily serving in a foreign military or voluntarily naturalising as a citizen of a foreign country) could be seen either as "voluntary loss '' or "involuntary loss ''.
The European Union Democracy Observatory, in a study of the nationality laws of thirty - three European countries, found nine broadly - defined cases in which a citizen of a country may lose his or her citizenship:
Involuntary loss of citizenship does not necessarily mean automatic and immediate loss. Even if a country 's laws state that under certain circumstances citizenship is automatically removed, until officials of the government or embassy are informed, that country 's government will probably still retain that person 's name in its citizenship records.
Various international treaties limit the cases in which loss of nationality may occur. In most cases this limits the government 's power to deprive the individual of citizenship, but this also may limit the individual 's ability to voluntarily make themselves stateless. Article 7 of the Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness provides that "(l) aws for the renunciation of a nationality shall be conditional upon a person 's acquisition or possession of another nationality ''. However, this is not considered a peremptory norm which binds non-signatories to the Convention.
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when did soul sister by train come out | Hey, Soul Sister - wikipedia
"Hey, Soul Sister '' is a song by the US rock band Train. It was written by lead singer Patrick Monahan, Amund Bjørklund, and Espen Lind. It was released as the lead single from the band 's fifth studio album, Save Me, San Francisco (2009).
The song reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and is Train 's highest - charting song to date. As of September 21, 2012, it had sold over 6 million digital copies in the US. It was the top - selling song on the iTunes Store in 2010, and the second overall best - selling song in the US in 2010. It is also the band 's most commercially successful single to date, reaching number one in 16 countries. The single received a 6x platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on September 21, 2012, signifying sales of over 6 million copies. The live iTunes version of "Hey, Soul Sister '' garnered a Grammy Award for Train at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards. The song was not eligible for any Grammy Award in the General Field.
After collaborating with the Norwegian production duo Espionage (Espen Lind and Amund Bjørklund) in the writing and recording of the track "Brick by Brick '', Train 's lead singer Pat Monahan decided to record another track with the duo.
"Hey, Soul Sister '' is a mid-tempo pop song. Written in the key of E major, the beat is set in common time and moves at 97 bpm. The song is characterized by a signature pattern played on a ukulele, that follows a basic E -- B -- C # m -- A progression in the verse, tag and bridge, switching to an A -- B -- E -- B progression in the chorus. The song 's chord structure is arranged in an ABABABA form. It rhymes "sister '' with "Mr. Mister. ''
Lyrically, Stafford admitted the inspiration for the song came about while Monahan was imagining what Burning Man must be like, and started penning lyrics inspired by the imagery he saw:
Monahan has since confirmed this in several radio interviews.
The video was filmed in front of Chango Coffee at the corner of Morton Ave and Echo Park Ave in Echo Park, Los Angeles, California, The video intercuts images of Train singing with a woman walking around her apartment and a man (actor Andrew Craghan) painting the words to the song on the landscape. Eventually the two meet each other in the street in front of the band.
Train performed the song on the show Red Eye w / Greg Gutfeld on Fox News which aired during the early morning broadcast on April 20, 2010. They have also performed the song on numerous talk shows, including The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Live with Regis and Kelly, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, Lopez Tonight, and The Howard Stern Show. They also performed the song before the 2010 Major League Baseball Home Run Derby on ESPN. Samsung Electronics in North America used the song in advertising some of its products, including its 3D TVs and silent washers. Train performed the song at Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 2011.
It has also been played in several TV shows as CSI: NY in the episode "Second Chances '', Hellcats in its first episode and Medium, in chapter 6x03 "Pain killer ''. It has also been played in the Canadian TV show Being Erica, in chapter 3x11. "Hey, Soul Sister '' can also be heard on "Ko'olauloa '', the sixth episode of Hawaii Five - 0, where it was sung and played live by a little boy.
The song was performed on ABC 's Dancing with the Stars on May 4, 2010 and on America 's Got Talent on July 21, 2010. A cover of the song was also performed by "Munch 's Make Believe Band, '' the animatronic show located at Chuck E. Cheese 's restaurants. The Dixie Chicks covered this song while on their 2010 tour with The Eagles.
In Fox 's TV musical - comedy series Glee the song has been covered in the ninth episode of season two, "Special Education '' (aired November 30, 2010) by actor Darren Criss (as his character Blaine Anderson) singing the solo in a performance with the fictional show choir Dalton Academy Warblers (voiced by all - male a cappella group Beelzebubs).
"Hey, Soul Sister '' was also covered by 2010 X Factor Australia winner Altiyan Childs for his self - titled debut album. The song was also performed by Street Corner Symphony on the second season of the television show The Sing - Off during episode 2 - "Songs From The Past 5 Years ''. The dance troupe from Strictly Come Dancing performed a quickstep to the song in 2010.
In the 2011 movie Friends with Benefits the song was featured twice; once as part of a love film joke, and the other at the end of the film itself.
In 2012, Train performed "Hey, Soul Sister '' and "Drive By '' in the 18th episode of season four of the American teen drama TV series 90210 at a fictional musical festival.
Movistar (the mobile phone operator owned by the Spanish Telefónica) uses the song for their ad campaigns on TV and radio. They use the original version as well as a cover version.
Tombola Bingo use the instrumental for the song in their TV adverts.
"Hey, Soul Sister '' debuted at # 98 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ended October 17, 2009, becoming their first charting single in five years. On the week of January 30, 2010, in its 16th week on the Hot 100 chart, "Hey, Soul Sister '' leaped to # 7 from # 23 on an 81 % digital single sales increase from the previous week, thus becoming Train 's second career Top Ten hit on the chart. It reached # 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the week of April 10, 2010, and it is their highest on the chart to date, even surpassing their 2001 hit, Drops of Jupiter, which peaked at # 5. The song climbed to # 1 on the Hot Digital Songs chart for the week of April 10, 2010, and stayed in the top spot for three weeks. As of the January 20, 2011 issue of Billboard, "Hey, Soul Sister '' had spent 22 weeks at number one on the Adult Contemporary chart.
The single sold 687,000 copies in 2009 which made it that year 's # 131 song. It went on to sell 3,319,000 more units in the first half of 2010 and 42 weeks after its release still stood at number 16 on the Hot 100 chart. By the end of December 2010, it had sold 4,310,000 digital copies, becoming the second biggest selling digital song of that year. By the end of January 2011, it had sold over 5 million digital copies. As of January 2014, the song had sold 6,417,000 digital units in the United States, one of the biggest - selling digital singles by a rock band since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking download sales in 2003.
BNA Records, a country music label owned by Sony Music, released the song to the country music format in June 2010. It debuted at # 60 on the Hot Country Songs charts for the week ended July 10, 2010.
In addition to revitalizing Train 's career in their native country, "Hey, Soul Sister '' has also become a big international hit; it was # 1 on the official Dutch and Australian singles charts for 7 weeks and 4 weeks, respectively, and also became their first Irish number one single. The single charted at # 2 in New Zealand (their highest in the country to date), and reached # 3 on both the Canadian and Belgian singles charts.
On April 24, 2010, "Hey, Soul Sister '' debuted on the UK Singles Chart at # 64, marking the band 's first appearance on the chart since "She 's On Fire '' reached a peak of # 49 in 2001. On May 2, 2010, the single climbed into the UK Top 40 at # 36 and has since reached a peak of # 18. It has been in the official charts for 79 weeks. In Canada the song became the sixth - best - selling of 2010 with 244,000 copies.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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the largest state in india in terms of area is | List of states and union territories of India by area - Wikipedia
The following is a list of states and territories of The Republic of India by area according to the census of 2011. India consists of 29 states and seven union territories.
Source: Area of states
The area figures of states and union territories do not add up to area of India because:
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wb yeats a prayer for my daughter poem | A Prayer for My daughter - wikipedia
"A Prayer for my Daughter '' is a poem by William Butler Yeats written in 1919 and published in 1921 as part of Yeats ' collection Michael Robartes and the Dancer. It is written to Anne, his daughter with Georgie Hyde Lees, whom Yeats married after his last marriage proposal to Maud Gonne was rejected in 1916. Yeats wrote the poem while staying in a tower at Thoor Ballylee during the Anglo - Irish War, two days after Anne 's birth on February 26, 1919. The poem reflects Yeats 's complicated views on Irish Nationalism, sexuality, and is considered an important work of Modernist poetry.
The poem begins by describing "storm '' which is a "howling '', and his newborn daughter, sleeping "half hid '' in her cradle, and protected somewhat from the storm. The storm, which can in part be read as symbolizing the Irish War of Independence, overshadows the birth of Yeats ' daughter and creates the political frame that sets the text into historical context. In stanza two, the setting for the poem is revealed as being "the tower '', a setting for many of Yeats 's poems, including the book of poems entitled The Tower (1928). This is Thoor Ballylee, an ancient Norman tower in Galway, which Yeats had bought in 1917 and where he intended making a home.
Conflicts between Ireland and the United Kingdom were common subjects of Yeats ' poetry, including his notable poems about the Dublin Lockout ("September 1913 '') and the Easter Rising ("Easter 1916 ''). David Holdeman suggests that this poem "carries over from ' The Second Coming ' '' in the tone it uses to describe the political situation facing Ireland at the end of World War One and with the formation of the Irish Republican Army.
The poem contains ten stanzas of eight lines each: two rhymed couplets followed by a quatrain of enclosed rhyme. Many of the rhyme pairs use slant rhyme. The stanza may be seen as a variation on ottava rima, an eight - lined stanza used in other Yeats poems, such as Among School Children and Sailing to Byzantium.
Metrical analysis of the poem, according to Robert Einarsson, proves difficult because he believes Yeats adheres to "rhythmical motifs '' rather than traditional use of syllables in his meter. In stanza two, Einarsson points out instances where the meter of the poem contains examples of amphibrachic, pyrrhicretic, and spondaic feet. He argues that the complexity of Yeats 's verse follows patterns of its "metremes '', or rhymical motifs, rather than common metrical devices.
The poem also may be read to consist of straightforward iambic verse that relies on common metrical devices such as elision, acephalous lines, promotion, and metrical inversion. Lines 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8 of each stanza are iambic pentameter; lines 4, 6, and 7 are iambic tetrameter. For instance, using traditional principles of scansion, stanza two may be scanned as shown below, where syllables in all caps represent metrical beats, lower - case syllables represent metrical off - beats, the vertical bar represents the termination of a metrical foot, and apostrophes represent elisions. The number of metrical feet per line is marked in parentheses at the end of each line:
I'ave WALKED and PRAYED for THIS young CHILD an HOUR (5) and HEARD the SEA - wind SCREAM upON the TOWER, (5) and UND - er th'ARCH - es OF the BRIDGE, and SCREAM (5) in th'ELMS aBOVE the FLOOD - ed STREAM; (4) imAG - ' ning IN exCIT - ed REV - erIE (5) THAT the FUT - ure YEARS had COME, (4) DANC - ing TO a FRENZ - ied DRUM, (4) OUT of the MURD - ' rous INN - ocence OF the SEA. (5)
As the poem reflects Yeats 's expectations for his young daughter, feminist critiques of the poem have questioned the poet 's general approach to women through the text 's portrayal of women in society. In Yeats 's Ghosts, Brenda Maddox suggests that the poem is "designed deliberately to offend women '' and labels it as "offensive ''. Maddox argues that Yeats, in the poem, condemns his daughter to adhere to 19th - century ideals of womanhood, as he focuses on her need for a husband and a "Big House '' with a private income.
Joyce Carol Oates suggests that Yeats used the poem to deprive his daughter of sensuality as he envisions a "crushingly conventional '' view of womanhood, wishing her to become a "flourishing hidden tree '' instead of allowing her the freedoms given to male children. This was after Yeats was rejected in marriage by Maud Gonne. In Oates ' opinion, Yeats wishes his daughter to become like a "vegetable: immobile, unthinking, and placid. ''
Majorie Elizabeth Howes, in Yeats 's Nations, suggests that the crisis facing the Anglo - Irish community in "A Prayer for My Daughter '' is that of female sexual choice. But, she also argues that to read the poem without the political context surrounding the Irish Revolution robs the text of a deeper meaning that goes beyond the relationship between Yeats and the female sex.
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who was the first person shot in the boston massacre | Crispus Attucks - wikipedia
Crispus Attucks (c. 1723 -- March 5, 1770) was an American stevedore of African and Native American descent, widely regarded as the first person killed in the Boston massacre and thus the first American killed in the American Revolution.
Historians disagree on whether Crispus Attucks was a free man or an escaped slave, but most agree that he was of Wampanoag and African descent. Two major sources of eyewitness testimony about the Boston Massacre, both published in 1770, did not refer to Attucks as "black '' nor as a "Negro ''; it appeared that Bostonians of European descent viewed him as being of mixed ethnicity. According to a contemporary account in the Pennsylvania Gazette (Philadelphia), he was a "Mulattoe man, named Crispus Attucks, who was born in Framingham, but lately belonged to New - Providence, and was here in order to go for North Carolina... '' Because of his mixed heritage, his story is also significant for Native Americans.
Despite the lack of clarity over whether he was a slave, Attucks became an icon of the anti-slavery movement in the mid-19th century. In the 1850s, as the abolitionist movement gained momentum in Boston, supporters lauded Attucks as having played a heroic role in the history of the United States.
Attucks was born in Framingham, Massachusetts. Town histories of Framingham written in 1847 and 1887 describe him as a slave of Deacon William Brown, though it is unclear whether Brown was his original owner. In 1750 Brown advertised for the return of a runaway slave named Crispas. In the advertisement, Brown describes Attucks and his clothing when he was last seen. He also said that a reward of 10 pounds would be given to whoever found and returned Attucks to him. Attucks 's status at the time of the massacre as a free person or a runaway slave has been a matter of debate for historians. Attucks did become a sailor and whaler at some point and he spent much of his life at sea or working around the docks along the Atlantic seaboard. In an 1874 article in The American Historical Record, Jebe B. Fisher recounts a passage in the memoirs of Boston Tea Party participant George R.T. Hewees, which stated that at the time of the massacre Attucks "was a Nantucket Indian, belonging on board a whale ship of Mr. Folgers, then in the harbor, and he remembers a distinct war whoop which he yelled... the mob whistling, sreaming, and rending like an Indian yell. '' Many historians believe Attucks went by the alias Michael Johnson in order to avoid being caught after his escape from slavery. He may only have been temporarily in Boston in early 1770, having recently returned from a voyage to the Bahamas. He was due to leave shortly afterwards on a ship for North Carolina.
Though he is commonly described as an African American in popular culture, two major sources of eyewitness testimony about the Massacre, both published in 1770, did not refer to Attucks as "black '' nor as a "Negro, '' but rather as a mulatto and an Indian. In an account from the Pennsylvania Gazette (Philadelphia), a man who may have been Attucks was referred to as a "Mulattoe man, named Crispas, who was born in Framingham, but lately belonged to New - Providence, and was here in order to go for North Carolina... '' However, during Attucks 's time mulatto was often used to describe skin tone rather than ethnicity, and sometimes referred to full - blooded Native Americans. In Potter 's American Monthly, the interchangeability of the two terms is demonstrated by court transcripts from the Attucks trial: "Question: Did you see a mulatto among the persons who surrounded the soldiers? Answer: I did not observe... Question: Did they seem to be sailors or townsmen? Answer: They were dressed some of them in the habits of sailors. Question: Did you know the Indian who was killed? Answer: No. Question: Did you see any of them press on the soldiers with a cordwood stick? Answer: No. '' Historians differ in opinion on Attucks 's heritage: some assert his family had intermarried with African slaves, while others maintain he had no African heritage. It is widely acknowledged that Attucks had considerable Native American heritage.
Biographer Mitch Kachun, as well as multiple 19th century Framingham town histories, have drawn a connection between Attucks and John Attuck of Framingham, a Narragansett man who was hanged in Framingham in 1676 during King Philip 's War. The word for "deer '' in the Narragansett language is "Attuck. '' Kachun also noted a possible connection to a probable Natick woman and possible Attucks mother or relative named Nanny Peterattucks, who is described as a ' negro woman ' in the 1747 estate inventory of Framingham slaveholder Joseph Buckminster and, along with Jacob Peterattucks, as ' probable descendant of John Attuck, the Indian ' in an 1847 history of Framingham. Other sources refer to their surname as Peter Attucks. In a 1747 history of the Hoosac Valley, a British colonial soldier named Moses Peter Attucks, living in nearby Leicester, is described as ' negro slave of John White; elsewhere he is listed as Moses Attucks Jacob Peterattucks and Nanny Peterattucks are recorded as slaves with Joseph Buckminster in 1730, and in 1740 Jacob with Thomas Buckminster, who was appointed by Framingham in 1739 to lead a commission for preservation of deer in the area. Historian William C. Nell reported an 1860 letter from a Natick resident, also printed in an 1860 edition of The Liberator newspaper that read, "several persons are now living in Natick who remember the Attucks family, viz., Cris, who was killed March 5th; Sam, whose name was abbreviated into Sam Attucks, or Smattox; Sal, also known as Slattox; and Peter, called Pea Tattox... my mother, still living, aged 89, remembers Sal in particular, who used to be called the gourd - shell squaw, from the fact that she used to carry her rum in a gourd shell... the whole family are said to be the children of Jacob Peter Attucks... it has been conjectured that they are of Indian blood, but all who knew the descendants describe them as negroes. '' The letter continues, "his sister (Sal) used to say that if they had not killed Cris, Cris would have killed them. ''
Prince Yonger has been posited as the father of Attucks. However, Yonger did not arrive in Massachusetts until the mid-1720s, after Attucks was born, and did not marry Nanny Peterattucks until 1737, after which point they had children, who are noted in multiple histories but among whom Crispus is not mentioned: "a son, who died young, and Phebe, who never married. '' Neither Phebe nor the son are recorded with the Attucks or Peterattucks surname.
In the fall of 1768, British soldiers were sent to Boston in an attempt to control growing colonial unrest, which had led to a spate of attacks on local officials following the introduction of the Stamp Act and the subsequent Townshend Acts. Radical Whigs had coordinated waterfront mobs against the authorities. The presence of troops, instead of reducing tensions, served to further inflame them.
After dusk on March 5, 1770, a crowd of colonists confronted a sentry who had chastised a boy for complaining that an officer did not pay a barber bill. Both townspeople and a company of British soldiers of the 29th Regiment of Foot gathered. The colonists threw snowballs and debris at the soldiers. A group of men including Attucks approached the Old State House armed with clubs. A soldier was struck with a piece of wood, an act some witnesses claimed was done by Attucks. Other witnesses stated that Attucks was "leaning upon a stick '' when the soldiers opened fire.
Five colonists were killed and six were wounded. Attucks took two ricocheted bullets in the chest and was believed to be the first to die. County coroners Robert Pierpoint and Thomas Crafts Jr. conducted an autopsy on Attucks. Attucks ' body was carried to Faneuil Hall, where it lay in state until Thursday, March 8, when he and the other victims were buried together in the same grave site in Boston 's Granary Burying Ground. He had lived for approximately 47 years.
John Adams successfully defended most of the accused British soldiers against a charge of murder. Two were found guilty of manslaughter. Faced with the prospect of hanging, the soldiers pleaded benefit of clergy, and were instead branded on their thumbs. In his arguments, Adams called the crowd "a motley rabble of saucy boys, negros and molattoes, Irish teagues and outlandish Jack Tarrs. '' In particular, he charged Attucks with having "undertaken to be the hero of the night, '' and with having precipitated a conflict by his "mad behavior. ''
Two years later United States Founding Father Samuel Adams, a cousin of John Adams, named the event the "Boston Massacre, '' and helped ensure it would not be forgotten. Boston artist Henry Pelham (half - brother of the celebrated portrait painter John Singleton Copley) created an image of the event. Paul Revere made a copy from which prints were made and distributed. Some copies of the print show a dark - skinned man with chest wounds, presumably representing Crispus Attucks. Other copies of the print show no difference in the skin tones of the victims.
The five who were killed were buried as heroes in the Granary Burying Ground, which also contains the graves of Samuel Adams, John Hancock, and other notable figures. Custom of the period discouraged the burial of black people and white people together, with "black burials relegated to the rear or far side of the cemetery. Such a practice was not completely unknown, however. Prince Hall, for example, was interred in Copp 's Hill Burying Ground in the North End of Boston 39.
And to honor Crispus Attucks who was the leader and voice that day: The first to defy, and the first to die, with Maverick, Carr, and Gray. Call it riot or revolution, or mob or crowd as you may, such deaths have been seeds of nations, such lives shall be honored for aye...
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the tide is high but i'm holding on i'm going to be your number one | The Tide Is High - wikipedia
"The Tide Is High '' is a 1966 song written by John Holt, originally produced by Duke Reid and performed by the Jamaican group The Paragons, with Holt as lead singer. The song gained international attention in 1980, when a version by the American band Blondie became a US / UK number one hit. The British girl group Atomic Kitten also had a number one hit with their version of the song in 2002, while Canadian rapper Kardinal Offishall had a minor hit with his interpretation in 2008.
"The Tide Is High '' was written by John Holt and originally recorded by the Paragons (the rocksteady vocal trio of which he was a member), and accompanied by Tommy McCook and the Suspersonic Band. It was produced by Duke Reid and released as a 7 - inch single on Reid 's Treasure Isle and Trojan labels and as the B - side of the single "Only a Smile ''.
The song features the violin of "White Rum '' Raymond, and was popular in Jamaica as well as West Indians and skinheads in the UK when a deejay version by U-Roy was released in 1971. Both tracks from the single were included on the 1970 collection On the Beach.
The song was released as a single in 1978 by Gregory Isaacs; this version was produced by Tony "Prince Tony '' Robinson. It was released on Isaacs ' own African Museum label, and on the Front Line label in Jamaica as a 12 - inch discomix featuring a new deejay version by U-Roy. It was also issued on the State Line label in the US.
"The Tide Is High '' was covered by the American new wave band Blondie in 1980, in a reggae style that included horns and strings. It was released as the lead single from the band 's fifth studio album, Autoamerican (1980), giving Blondie their third number one smash on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and their fifth in the UK (where it became Blondie 's last British number one for 18 years, until "Maria '' in February 1999). The track also reached number one in Canada and New Zealand, and was a Top 5 hit on many European charts as well as in countries including Australia and South Africa. The B - side was "Suzie & Jeffrey '', which appeared as a bonus track on the original 1980 cassette edition of the Autoamerican album, and was also included on EMI - Capitol 's re-issue of Autoamerican in 2001.
Official remixes of the Blondie version have been issued twice; first by Coldcut in 1988 on the Blondie / Debbie Harry remix compilation Once More into the Bleach, and the second time in 1995 by Pete Arden and Vinny Vero on the album Remixed Remade Remodeled: The Remix Project (UK edition: Beautiful: The Remix Album).
Blondie re-recorded the song for the 2014 compilation album Greatest Hits Deluxe Redux. The compilation was part of a 2 - disc set called Blondie 4 (0) Ever, which included their tenth studio album Ghosts of Download, and marked the 40th anniversary of the band 's formation.
A music video was produced, directed by Hart Perry. It depicts the band waiting out on the street for singer Debbie Harry, who appears to be trapped in a flooding apartment. All the while she is being monitored from outer space by what appears to be a Darth Vader - like alien being. She soon reunites with the band on the street and they drive to a rocket launch and fly into space. They then crash into the spaceship or space station. Harry confronts the alien being and begins dancing with him.
(*) indicates the list is unordered.
7 ''
US 7 '' (Chrysalis Classics Re-Issue)
US 7 '' (promo only)
US 7 '' (Collectables Record Corp. COL 6115)
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In 1996, Papa Dee covered the song on his album The Journey. It was released only as a CD single and the bonus track is a mix of "Funky Raggamuffin '' / "Let the Music Play ''.
CD Single
In 2002, "The Tide Is High '' was covered by English girl group Atomic Kitten, and was released as the second single from their second studio album, Feels So Good (2002). Their version of the song also added a new bridge, hence the subtitle "Get the Feeling ''. The full song was played on Radio Disney from 2002 -- 2004, during the opening credits of The Lizzie McGuire Movie, and was also used for a TV commercial featuring Japanese beer company Asahi Breweries. This was the group 's third and final UK number one single. This version of "The Tide Is High '' was selected by The Daily Telegraph writer David Cheal as one of his "Top five awful cover versions '' in 2002, describing it as "a ghastly, sickly confection that has none of the wistfulness or soulfulness of either Blondie 's version or the Paragons ' original ''.
The group performed the track for the first time ever with the original line - up for their 2012 reformation on The Big Reunion, with Kerry Katona performing Jenny Frost 's vocals.
Atomic Kitten also recorded a Spanish version of the single, titled "Ser tu pasión ''. It was released in Colombia, Mexico and Spain, but failed to chart. However, the song promoted Atomic Kitten 's second studio album Feels So Good in Mexico, and as a result, the album peaked at number 69 on the charts there; it was also included on the Spanish version of Atomic Kitten 's Greatest Hits album.
The music video is Atomic Kitten 's most famous due to band member Natasha Hamilton being heavily pregnant at the time. The video begins with the group walking up to the screen. A flashing rainbow can be seen in the background. Whenever the chorus of the song is heard, a dance accompanies it. Hamilton, Liz McClarnon and Jenny Frost do a simplistic dance that they would also perform during live shows. Four men are seen dancing alongside the women with slightly different moves. A sign that reads "Atomic '' can be seen flashing throughout the video (and on clips on the "behind the scenes '' version showing one girl dancing and three girls dancing). Each group member has a different set for their solo. McClarnon is next to a silver tree, with a purple background and a repeating pattern of the same tree that she is dancing beside. Frost is next to a car while Hamilton is seen in a pink - coloured room with "number 1 '' signs. At the song 's bridge, the three women are seen dancing near fluorescent purple lights.
UK CD1 (Green)
UK CD2 (Red)
UK Cassette
Atomic Kitten 's version of the song proved successful on the charts, selling over 1.5 million copies worldwide. It spent three weeks at number one in the United Kingdom (selling 145,000 copies in the first week; it was eventually certified Gold and has sold over 410,000 copies), and is the group 's third and final UK number one. The track also topped the charts in Ireland and New Zealand, and was a Top 5 hit in many other countries, including Australia, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and Turkey amongst others.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
"Numba 1 (Tide Is High) '' is a 2008 version of the song, performed by Canadian rapper Kardinal Offishall (featuring Keri Hilson). Produced by Supa Dups, the song -- a percussive, dancehall - infused hip hop update -- was released in September 2008 as the fourth single from Offishall 's fourth album Not 4 Sale. It was released on iTunes on 14 October 2008. In March 2010, the single was certified Gold by the CRIA.
Aside from the version featuring Keri Hilson, there are three other versions of "Numba 1 (Tide Is High) '': one version featured Nicole Scherzinger; another featured Rihanna; a third had both Scherzinger and Rihanna, and a further version (as a mash - up interpretation) had Scherzinger, Rihanna and Hilson together.
The music video premiered on 24 October 2008 at Yahoo! Music. It was directed by Gil Green, with Akon making a cameo appearance. The song "Nina '' is featured at the end of the video.
12 '' single
7 '' single
Rihanna and Nicole Scherzinger versions
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who made call of duty world at war 2 | Call of Duty: WWII - wikipedia
Call of Duty: WWII is a first - person shooter video game developed by Sledgehammer Games and published by Activision. It is the fourteenth main installment in the Call of Duty series and was released worldwide on November 3, 2017 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. It is the first title in the series to be set primarily during World War II since Call of Duty: World at War in 2008. The game is set in the European theatre, and is centered around a squad in the 1st Infantry Division, following their battles on the Western Front, and set mainly in the historical events of Operation Overlord; the multiplayer expands to different fronts not seen in the campaign.
Upon release, the game received generally positive reviews from critics, with many appreciating the return to the franchise 's World War II roots. Praise was given towards its story, the combat support of squad members and return of the health bar in single - player, visuals, Zombies mode, and multiplayer. However, it was criticized for the single - player 's lack of innovation and similarity to past games set in the same era.
Similar to its predecessors, Call of Duty: WWII is a first - person shooter game but it removes the advanced system of movement present in the two previous Call of Duty titles, which included double jumping and wall running. Instead, it features a return of traditional movement to the series, taking it back to a "boots on the ground '' gameplay style. The game does not feature an unlimited sprint mechanic, seen in the previous two titles. Instead of a "slide '' movement mechanic, which allowed players to slide quickly on the ground, WWII features a "hit - the - deck '' mechanic that allows the player to leap forward and throw themselves on the ground in order to get to cover quickly, similarly to a previous mechanic known as "dolphin dive '' in Treyarch 's Call of Duty: Black Ops and Call of Duty: Black Ops II.
WWII is the first title since the original game and Call of Duty 2: Big Red One not to feature health regeneration in the campaign. Instead, players must find health packs scattered throughout levels, or rely on their medic squadmate to provide health packs. Other members of the player 's squad can provide ammunition, grenades, call in mortar strikes, or spot enemies and reveal their position in form of silhouettes. In certain sections of the game, enemy soldiers in the campaign can be captured, and wounded allies can be dragged to cover. In some parts of the campaign, players are able to control vehicles.
The multiplayer mode for Call of Duty: WWII was revealed on E3 2017, which took place from June 13 -- 15. Sledgehammer Games announced features such as the new headquarters social space, divisions, war mode and the return to "boots - on - the - ground '' gameplay. Players who pre-order the game were invited to a closed beta, which was released initially for the PlayStation 4, but later was released on other platforms.
In online multiplayer matches, players are randomly assigned either to Allies or Axis side. On Allies side, players can play as soldiers in American, British, Soviet, French Resistance armies. On the Axis side, players play as the Wehrmacht, rather than Waffen - SS in an effort to avoid ' glorifying ' Nazi extremists. When explaining this decision, Glen Schofield, co-founder and co-studio head at Sledgehammer, said "The big distinction that Germans still make today is that between the German military and the Nazis. We made sure we made that distinction in the game, that the Germans were doing their duty ''.
Instead of the usual create - a-class system, WWII features Divisions. Players can choose one out of five divisions, each with their own different basic combat training, division training and weapon skills. This also eliminates perks, as players need to progress through ranks in divisions in order to use additional skills. The divisions featured in the game are:
WWII also features Headquarters mode, which acts as a social space in the game. The hub is set on the Omaha Beach in Normandy, three days after the invasion when Allies retake the beach and turn it into a base. 48 players can be in the Headquarters at a time, and take part in various activities. For example, players can watch other players open loot boxes while in the Headquarters. There is a firing range in the hub, where all players can practise their shooting skills with all weapons, as well as a field where they can test scorestreaks. There are also areas where players can engage in "1v1 '' fights, as other players watch the duels.
The end - game "killcam '' highlight shown at the end of multiplayer matches has been changed to "Bronze Star '', which show kills "deemed most impressive '' (counted by most points gained in a row), similar to Overwatch. The exception to this is the Search & Destroy game mode, which does not use Bronze Star killcam. Search & Destroy uses a final killcam, showing the last kill in the round.
A new game mode, War, is introduced as a "narrative - driven '' multiplayer game mode, developed in partnership with Raven Software. In War, two teams of 6 players perform objectives as either the Allied or Axis faction, inspired by some of the iconic World War II battles, such as storming Normandy on D - Day as the Allied, or defending the Normandy bunker as the Axis in the map Operation Neptune. In addition to War, popular game modes such as Team Deathmatch, Domination and Hardpoint return, as well as Gridiron, a "boots on the ground '' variation of Uplink, which was originally introduced by Sledgehammer Games in Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare.
WWII includes a zombies cooperative game mode, similar to previous entries by Treyarch and Infinity Ward, with its own original storyline set in alternate history and separate from the campaign. The game mode, dubbed Nazi Zombies in reference to its first iteration in Treyarch 's Call of Duty: World at War, is also set in the events of World War II, as the Third Reich makes a desperate attempt to turn the tide of the war by creating an undead army in the final stages of the war. While the mode is based on science - fiction and is a fictional take on the war, Sledgehammer Games co-founder Michael Condrey said that the story of the mode is based on some "real events ''. He also revealed that the experience is similar to Dead Space, a third person shooter horror video game directed by both Condrey and Schofield during their work time at EA Redwood Shores.
In regards to gameplay, Nazi Zombies retains the wave - based survival formula that have been used in all previous Zombies entries, with brand new additions. A class system is introduced, where players can opt for one of four combat roles: Offense, Control, Medic and Support, which provide different in - game abilities. Class loadouts are also included, with equippable Raven Mods, which are perks similar to the multiplayer mode. Sledgehammer Games also attempted to rationalize some of the popular mechanics, such as weapon wallbuys and currencies, with realistic explanation that fit within the lore of the game mode. Nazi Zombies includes a hint system, where portions of the main story quest are given directional hints for players to find and progress. In regards to the story quest, Sledgehammer 's creative director Cameron Dayton reveals that there is a "casual path '' for new and casual players where they can progress with the story, while a "hardcore '' path, which is considered the official canon, exists with hidden objectives, and expands more on the story beyond what the casual path contains.
On June 6, 1944, U.S. Army Private First Class Ronald "Red '' Daniels (Brett Zimmerman) of the 1st Infantry Division takes part in the Normandy landings with his platoon, consisting of Private First Class Robert Zussman (Jonathan Tucker), Private Drew Stiles (Kevin Coubal), Technician Fifth Grade Frank Aiello (Jeff Schine), Technical Sergeant William Pierson (Josh Duhamel) and First Lieutenant Joseph Turner (Jeffrey Pierce). Zussman is stabbed by a German soldier, resulting in his hospitalization for several weeks.
Zussman returns to duty in time for Operation Cobra, where American forces successfully push to reclaim the town of Marigny. The platoon is ordered by Colonel Davis (Matt Riedy) to conduct an operation with British Special Operations Executive officers Major Arthur Crowley (David Alpay) and Vivian (Helen Sadler) to intercept a German armored train carrying V2 - rockets. Daniels and Zussman successfully derail the train before being escorted back to their squad by French Resistance leader Rousseau (Bella Dayne).
A week later, Rousseau and Crowley infiltrate a German garrison in Paris to retrieve explosives in preparation for the platoon 's assault upon it. Midway through, Rousseau kills SS - und Polizeiführer Heinrich (J. Paul Boehmer) in retaliation for his murder of her family. The platoon then liberates Paris.
Two months later, the platoon enters Aachen, and is saved from a German attack by support from tank commander Staff Sergeant Augustine Pérez (Christian Lanz). They are then ordered to take over a German - occupied hotel. They discover civilians inside the hotel, and Turner orders their evacuation, to Pierson 's dismay. A young girl named Anna (Lilith Max) goes missing, and Daniels rescues her. German soldiers open fire on a truck carrying the civilians, killing Anna 's older sister. Pierson sends the truck away without protection, creating a rift with Turner.
At the Battle of Hürtgen Forest, the platoon is ordered to take Hill 493. Turner splits the platoon into two groups; Pierson and Zussman are tasked with advancing towards the hill, while Turner and Daniels cover them until they can meet at the bottom. Turner 's squad soon receives a transmission revealing that Pierson ordered an attack on the hill against Turner 's orders, forcing Turner to join in. The platoon destroys artillery positions, but the Germans counterattack with a Tiger II tank. Daniels is knocked out trying to disable the tank, which is destroyed by Pérez. Turner is fatally wounded rescuing Daniels, and orders Daniels to abandon him while he covers the platoon 's escape. Pierson becomes head of the platoon and makes Daniels his second - in - command, promoting him to Corporal.
At the height of the Battle of the Bulge, the platoon is surrounded by Germans. Daniels meets an African - American technician, Howard (Russell Richardson), who helps the platoon contact air support. The platoon captures several German soldiers, and discovers that the Germans plan to destroy a bridge at Remagen, the last bridge over the Rhine. After destroying the explosives in transit, Pierson orders the platoon to attack a nearby air base to destroy the remaining explosives. The attack fails, resulting in Daniels and Zussman being surrounded by enemy troops. Daniels is saved by Howard, while Zussman is captured and taken to a German prisoner of war camp, Stalag IX - B. Daniels disobeys Pierson and attempts to pursue the German truck carrying Zussman, but ends up injuring himself in the process and letting the truck escape. He is then hospitalized, with Pierson denying him from the platoon. In Stalag IX - B, Zussman is interrogated on his Jewish heritage by SS officer Metz (George Regout), then is beaten and sent to a concentration camp.
After recovering for eight weeks, Daniels learns from Davis about the events that changed Pierson in the Battle of Kasserine Pass: instead of recklessly leading his men to their deaths, like everyone thought, he risked his and his men 's lives in vain to save part of his platoon that was trapped. Daniels later confronts Pierson in his tent and tears up his honorable discharge papers in order to rejoin the platoon. They successfully capture the last bridge over the Rhine. The platoon heads into Germany, liberating concentration camps in search of Zussman, eventually reaching the Berga concentration camp, which they find abandoned; the camp 's survivors were sent on a death march. Daniels finds and saves Zussman by killing Metz before he can execute him.
At the end of the war, Daniels parts ways with his platoon and returns to Texas, reuniting with his wife and newborn son. He visits the grave of his older brother, Paul (Chris Browning), who died while fighting a wolf when Red failed to shoot it in time. He places his Bronze Star medal on the grave, saying that his brother deserves it for teaching him how to fight for himself and for his brothers.
Austrian engineer Marie Fischer (Katheryn Winnick) is sent on a mission to her hometown village of Mittelburg, Bavaria by her commanding officer, Major Rideau (Darin De Paul), to retrieve lost artifacts stolen by the Nazis for experimentation, as well as rescue her brother, Klaus, who provided the information. Klaus has been unwillingly working with their lead scientist Peter Straub (Udo Kier) and weapons expert Colonel Heinz Richter (Tomm Voss) on a project to exploit a new energy dubbed "Geistkraft '' (literally translates as: ' Spiritforce ') to assist the Nazi party 's war efforts. Marie is accompanied by Scottish ex-art thief Drostan Hynd (David Tennant), Art Historian turned French Resistance fighter Olivia Durant (Élodie Yung) and United States Army captain Jefferson Potts (Ving Rhames), all of whom have significant knowledge on the stolen arts and relics. However, on their train ride to Mittelburg, the group is attacked by an unidentified colossal being. Marie is stranded from the others, and finds herself taking temporary refuge at a small house nearby, where she holds out against hordes of dead German soldiers reanimated by Geistkraft, until she is able to make her way to the village.
After reuniting with the other three, Marie and the group proceed further down into the village 's hidden bunker, where Straub has set up his laboratory. There, they fend off against Straub 's undead horde, as well as Richter, whose obsession on weaponization of Geistkraft puts him at odds with Straub. Eventually, the group recovers the artifact, the hilt of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa 's sword. They then encounter the creature from earlier, a humanoid - shaped amalgam of numerous body parts sewn and stitched together, dubbed the Panzermörder, with Klaus fused into the creature 's chest. Using special magnetized batteries, the group manages to stun the Panzermörder and attach the batteries onto it, causing it to be attracted to Richter 's zeppelin flying above the village. The zeppelin explodes, killing the Panzermörder and freeing Klaus from its body. The hilt 's power somehow revives Klaus, causing him to be possessed by an unknown force. Klaus staggers into the village, telling Marie and the group to continue fighting, and that the Emperor must not return, before activating a fire trap, seemingly killing himself.
Days later, the crew receives intel of Straub 's sighting at the islands of Heligoland, where he has been storing numerous of his zombies. They travel to the island in pursuit of Straub, as well as the next piece of Barbarossa 's sword. The crew comes into struggle with the Nazi forces protecting the island as well as Straub 's latest undead creations, as he prepares for an assault on Britain. While on the island, Drostan shares with the group details of his employment by Heinrich Himmler to search for an artifact on this island, and how he narrowly escaped death at the Nazis ' hands while also recovering several ancient scrolls. Upon solving several riddles, they find a ritual chamber dedicated to the goddess Nerthus, where they acquire the pommel of the sword. The crew then calls in an airstrike to destroy the facility on the island; they stow away on one of Straub 's zeppelins, as he and his forces return to Berlin in response to Adolf Hitler 's call for rescue.
Call of Duty: World War II is the second game in the Call of Duty franchise developed by Sledgehammer Games, and the third to benefit under publisher Activision 's three - year development cycle (the first being Sledgehammer 's Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare) in order for a longer development time for each game. A modern Call of Duty title set in World War II was alluded to in a 2014 Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare launch interview with Michael Condrey, co-founder of Sledgehammer Games. In the interview by Metro, the interviewer asked him what the possibilities of where the next Call of Duty could go in terms of setting. Condrey responded, "Well, no. It 's curious. I can only answer from my own personal tastes, this is my own personal opinion. But some of my favorite pieces of entertainment are set in World War II. Band of Brothers, I 'm a massive fan of Band of Brothers. '' Condrey then dived further into the subject, "And that 's a great hero 's war, kind of the last that was recognized as a noble cause in a war. So yeah, I think a next generation game with the latest production values and robustness in a World War II setting like Band of Brothers would be amazing. Now, how would it play and how would the multiplayer work after the new movement set in Advanced Warfare? That 's a tougher question than I 've had to tackle yet... ''.
Sledgehammer Games was hesitant to reveal all the authentic settings from World War II that developers have put into the game 's storyline. Activision initially refused to deny claims that Nazi extermination camps would be featured in the game. Adam Rosenberg of Mashable wrote that video games set during World War II tended to be "Holocaust deniers '' in the sense that they avoided broaching the subject for business reasons, but that this could be the very first Call of Duty World War II based game where the Holocaust would be depicted. Senior creative director Bret Robbins said in an interview "Some very, very dark things happened during this conflict and it felt wrong for us to ignore that. '' He further stated "We absolutely show atrocities. It 's an unfortunate part of the history, but you ca n't tell an authentic, truthful story without going there. So we went there. '' Robbins argued that audiences can now handle games with more maturity and nuance, "People are ready for it. They want it '', he said. When asked directly over Twitter as to whether or not the story campaign would allow gamers the opportunity to play as soldiers from the Axis powers such as Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, Sledgehammer Games confirmed that the campaign gameplay would be limited to allied forces. More specifically, Sledgehammer co-founder Michael Condrey confirmed that the game will focus exclusively on the Allied powers.
The Windows version of the game was developed in a collaboration with Raven Software. In regards to it, Raven 's CTO Dwight Luetscher stated that they were trying to focus on the Windows platform, as well as the community, by responding to their needs for it to excel. The Windows version features several notable changes, including removal of controller aim assist and addition of sensitivity slider for aim - down - sights mechanic.
All pre-orders excluding the PC version included access to the private beta, which was made available first on the PlayStation 4 from August 25 -- 28, followed by a second week for both PlayStation 4 and Xbox One from September 1 -- 4. The PC beta was announced as an open beta, and ran from September 29 -- October 2 on Steam. Players who participated in the beta received the Beta Combat Pack for the full game, which contains a special in - game helmet, emblem and calling card. The game is available in three editions: Base Edition, Digital Deluxe Edition and the Pro Edition. The Pro Edition was sold exclusively at GameStop, with pre-orders of the game at GameStop also included a limited edition hat.
The game was released worldwide on November 3, 2017, for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One.
Upon the game 's release, online servers were down for most of the day, inhibiting players from playing online multiplayer, as well as some not being able to access the campaign and Nazi Zombies. Activision acknowledged the problem and announced they were working to resolve it.
On December 19, 2017, Activision released a preview trailer for the first downloadable content pack, The Resistance, containing 3 new multiplayer maps: Anthropoid, Valkyrie, Occupation (the latter of which is a remake of Resistance from Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3), 1 new War map: Operation Intercept, and 1 new Nazi Zombies map, The Darkest Shore. The map pack is expected to be released January 30, 2018, first on PlayStation 4, 30 days before the release on Xbox One and Steam.
Call of Duty: WWII received "generally favorable '' reviews from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic.
Miguel Concepcion of GameSpot awarded the game a 9 / 10, writing that the campaign was "moving '' and "salutes the brotherhood that grows and strengthens on the battlefield '', while praising the game 's "excellent visuals and sound design ''. Daniel Tack from Game Informer gave the game a 8.75 / 10, stating that he felt the campaign was the only drawback overall; despite capturing a "signature explosive feel through various adrenaline - fueled moments '', he thought progression felt tedious as a result of "standard gunplay and endless killing fields ''. He praised the multiplayer as the "shining star of the three modes '', especially enjoying the game 's new War mode in terms of its variety, and highlighted the return to the traditional gameplay and range of customization options.
In his 8.5 / 10 review for EGMNow, Nick Plasses wrote that the campaign 's protagonists were "well characterized and (...) the cause for the game 's most impactful conflicts ''. He praised the lack of regenerating health which gave the game "new levels of strategy and exploration, ultimately adding more entertainment than frustration '', and that the reliance on fellow soldiers "necessitates more strategic positioning and resource management ''. IGN 's Miranda Sanchez awarded the game 8 / 10, saying the campaign was a "more human perspective than we 've seen in recent years '', with interesting and diverse characters. However, she criticized its conflicting tone, as well as several repetitive and frustrating missions. She wrote that the Zombies was the standout mode in the game, which helped strike "a rewarding balance for the diehard zombies fans (...) and those that just want to jump in and have a good time '', although criticized that the experience suffered when playing with other people.
Destructoid 's Chris Moyse praised the game as a "satisfying experience '' and the campaign as "one of the series ' best in some time '', but felt that "it also makes little effort to overhaul the brand as a whole, playing it incredibly safe when the opportunity for reinvention was right there for the taking. '' Polygon 's Russ Frushtick generally praised the multiplayer, calling it "strong and enjoyable '', but criticized the campaign, writing that "just about every mission feels like déjà vu, as if I 'd played it before in another game '' and that "Changing the time period so dramatically only helps to highlight how little has changed since the franchise 's total re-imagining with Call of Duty 4. '' Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb was more critical of the game as a whole, stating that "despite all of Activision 's big talk about "boots on the ground '' action and how this was going to be some big deal, the setting change did n't bring any new and exciting inspiration with it. This feels like the most wheel - spinning, by - the - numbers Call of Duty they 've made thus far. ''
Eurogamer ranked the game 38th on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017 '', while EGMNow ranked it 20th in their list of the 25 Best Games of 2017. The game was nominated for "Best Shooter '', "Best Graphics '', "Best Multiplayer '' and "Best Spectator Game '' in IGN 's Best of 2017 Awards.
The game earned over $500 million within its first three days of release. On December 20, 2017, it was confirmed that the game had generated over $1 billion in revenue, making it the highest - grossing console game of the year in North America. As of January 1st, 2018, Call of Duty: WWII reached 20.7 million players over all platforms, 12.1 million players on PlayStation 4, 7.8 million players on Xbox One, and 825,000 players on Steam.
The PlayStation 4 version sold 168,234 copies within its first week on sale in Japan, making it the best - selling game of the week.
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when were passports required to enter the us | United States passport - wikipedia
United States passports are passports issued to citizens and nationals of the United States of America. They are issued exclusively by the U.S. Department of State. Besides passports (in booklet form), limited use passport cards are issued by the same organization subject to the same requirements. It is unlawful for U.S. citizens and nationals to enter or exit the United States without a valid U.S. passport or Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative - compliant passport - replacement document, though there are many exceptions, waivers are generally granted for U.S. citizens returning without a passport, and the exit requirement is not enforced.
U.S. passport booklets are valid for travel by Americans to certain countries and / or for certain purposes though it may require a visa and the U.S. itself restricts its nationals from traveling to or engaging in commercial transactions in certain countries. They conform with recommended standards (i.e., size, composition, layout, technology) of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). There are five types of passport booklets; as well, the Department of State has issued only biometric passports as standard since August 2007, though non-biometric passports remained valid until their expiration dates. United States passports are property of the United States and must be returned to the US Government upon demand.
By law, a valid unexpired U.S. passport (or passport card) is conclusive (and not just prima facie) proof of U.S. citizenship, and has the same force and effect as proof of United States citizenship as certificates of naturalization or of citizenship, if issued to a U.S. citizen for the full period allowed by law. U.S. law does not prohibit U.S. citizens from holding passports of other countries, though they are required to use their U.S. passport to enter and leave the U.S.
American consular officials issued passports to some citizens of some of the thirteen states during the War for Independence (1775 -- 1783). Passports were sheets of paper printed on one side, included a description of the bearer, and were valid for three to six months. The minister to France, Benjamin Franklin, based the design of passports issued by his mission on that of the French passport.
From 1776 to 1783, no state government had a passport requirement. The Articles of Confederation government (1783 -- 1789) did not have a passport requirement.
The Department of Foreign Affairs of the war period also issued passports, and the department, carried over by the Articles of Confederation government (1783 -- 1789), continued to issue passports. In July 1789, the Department of Foreign Affairs was carried over by the government established under the Constitution. In September of that year, the name of the department was changed to Department of State. The department handled foreign relations and issued passports, and, until the mid-19th century had various domestic duties.
For decades thereafter, passports were issued not only by the Department of State but also by states and cities, and by notaries public. For example, an internal passport dated 1815 was presented to Massachusetts citizen George Barker to allow him to travel as a free black man to visit relatives in Southern slave states. Passports issued by American authorities other than the Department of State breached propriety and caused confusion abroad. Some European countries refused to recognize passports not issued by the Department of State, unless United States consular officials endorsed them. The problems led the Congress in 1856 to give to the Department of State the sole authority to issue passports.
From 1789 through late 1941, the constitutionally established government required passports of citizens only during two periods: during the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865), as well as during and shortly after World War I (1914 -- 1918). The passport requirement of the Civil War era lacked statutory authority. During World War I (1914 -- 1918), European countries instituted passport requirements. The Travel Control Act of May 22, 1918, permitted the president, when the United States was at war, to proclaim a passport requirement, and President Wilson issued such a proclamation on August 18, 1918. World War I ended on November 11, 1918, but the passport requirement lingered until March 3, 1921, the last day of the Wilson administration.
In Europe, general peace between the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) and the beginning of World War I (1914), and development of rail roads, gave rise to international travel by large numbers of people. Countries such as Czarist Russia and the Ottoman Empire maintained passport requirements. After World War I, many European countries retained their passport requirements. Foreign passport requirements undercut the absence of a passport requirement for Americans exiting the country, under United States law, between 1921 and 1941.
The contemporary period of required passports for Americans under United States law began on November 29, 1941. A 1978 amendment to the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 made it unlawful to enter or depart the United States without an issued passport even in peacetime.
Even when passports were not usually required, Americans requested U.S. passports. Records of the Department of State show that 130,360 passports were issued between 1810 and 1873, and that 369,844 passports were issued between 1877 and 1909. Some of those passports were family passports or group passports. A passport application could cover, variously, a wife, a child, or children, one or more servants, or a woman traveling under the protection of a man. The passport would be issued to the man. Similarly, a passport application could cover a child traveling with his or her mother. The passport would be issued to the mother. The number of Americans who traveled without passports is unknown.
The League of Nations held a conference in 1920 concerning passports and through - train travel, and conferences in 1926 and 1927 concerning passports. The 1920 conference put forward guidelines on the layout and features of passports, which the 1926 and 1927 conferences followed up. Those guidelines were steps in the shaping of contemporary passports. One of the guidelines was about 32 - page passport booklets, such as the U.S. type III mentioned in this section, below. Another guideline was about languages in passports. See Languages, below. A conference on travel and tourism held by the United Nations in 1963 did not result in standardised passports. Passport standardization was accomplished in 1980 under the auspices of the International Civil Aviation Organization.
The design and contents of U.S. passports changed over the years. Prior to World War I the passport was typically a large (11 x 17 inch) diploma, with a large engraved seal of the Department of State at the top, repeated in red wax at the bottom, the bearer 's description and signature on the left, and his name on the right above space for data such as "accompanied by his wife, '' all in ornate script. In 1926, the Department of State introduced the type III passport. This had a stiff red cover, with a window cutout through which the passport number was visible. That style of passport contained 32 pages. American passports had green covers from 1941 until 1976, when the cover was changed to blue, as part of the U.S. bicentennial celebration. Green covers were again issued from April 1993, until March 1994, and included a special one - page tribute to Benjamin Franklin in commemoration of the 200th anniversary of the United States Consular Service. Currently blue passports, with the pages showing historical and natural scenes of the U.S., are issued. Initially a U.S. passport was issued for two years, although by the 1950s on application by the holder a passport could be stamped so that this time was extended without reissue. In the succeeding decades the initial lengths for adult applicants were extended to three, five, and eventually to ten years, the current standard. At this time stamping for a further extension is not allowed.
In 1981, the United States became the first country to introduce machine - readable passports. In 2000, the Department of State started to issue passports with digital photos, and as of 2010, all previous series have expired. In 2006, the Department of State began to issue biometric passports to diplomats and other officials. Later in 2006, biometric passports were issued to the public. Since August 2007, the department has issued only biometric passports, which include RFID chips.
In 2019, the United States Department of State is expected to begin issuing diplomatic and official versions of a next generation of the US biometric passport. The passport will have an embedded data chip on the information page protected by a polycarbonate coating; this will help prevent the book from getting wet and bending, and -- should a passport be stolen -- the chip will keep thieves from stealing personal information and falsifying an identity. The passport number will also be laser cut as tapered, perforated holes through pages -- just one of several components of the "Next Generation '' passport, including artwork upgrade, new security features such as a watermark, "tactile features, '' and more "optically variable '' inks. In other words: Some designs on pages will be raised, and ink -- depending on the viewing angle -- will appear to be different colors.
Authority for issuing passports is conferred on the Secretary of State by the Passport Act of 1926, subject to such rules as the President of the United States may prescribe. The Department of State has issued regulations governing such passports, and its internal policy concerning issuance of passports, passport waivers, and travel letters is contained in the Foreign Affairs Manual.
The responsibility for passport issuance lies with Passport Services, which is within the Department of State, and a unit of the Bureau of Consular Affairs. They operate 26 regional passport agencies in the United States to serve the general public. Additionally, Passport Services opened regional agencies in Atlanta, El Paso, Texas, and San Diego in 2011. Passport applications at most of these locations require that citizens provide proof of travel within 14 days of the application date, or who need to obtain foreign visas before traveling.
There are about 9,000 passport acceptance facilities in the United States, designated by Passport Services, at which routine passport applications may be filed. These facilities include United States courts, state courts, post offices, public libraries, county offices, and city offices. In fiscal year 2015, the Department of State issued 15,556,216 (includes 1,647,413 passport cards) and there were 125,907,176 valid U.S. passports in circulation. The passport possession rate of the U.S. was approximately 39 % of the population in 2015.
It is unlawful to enter or exit the United States without a valid passport or Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative - compliant passport - replacement document, or without an exception or waiver.
The use of passports may be restricted for foreign policy reasons. In September 1939, in order to preserve the United States ' neutrality in relation to the breakout of World War II, then Secretary of State Cordell Hull issued regulations declaring that outstanding passports, together with passports issued thereafter, could not be used for travel to Europe without specific validation by the Department of State, and such validation could not last more than six months. Similar restrictions can still be invoked upon notice given in the Federal Register, and such notice was issued in 2017, so that passports were "declared invalid for travel to, in, or through the DPRK unless specially validated for such travel. ''
As confirmed in Haig v. Agee, the administration may deny or revoke passports for foreign policy or national security reasons at any time, as well as for other reasons as prescribed by regulations. A notable example of enforcement of this was the 1948 denial of a passport to U.S. Representative Leo Isacson, who sought to go to Paris to attend a conference as an observer for the American Council for a Democratic Greece, a Communist front organization, because of the group 's role in opposing the Greek government in the Greek Civil War. Denial or revocation of a passport does not prevent the use of outstanding valid passports. The physical revocation of a passport is often difficult, and an apparently valid passport can be used for travel until officially taken by an arresting officer or by a court.
It should be noted that the lack of a valid passport (for whatever reason, including revocation) does not render the U.S. citizen either unable to leave the United States, or inadmissible into the United States. The United States is a signatory of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which guarantees residents of its signatories wide - ranging rights to enter or depart their own countries. In Nguyen v. INS, the Supreme Court stated that U.S. citizens are entitled "... to the absolute right to enter its borders. '' Lower federal courts went as far as to declare that "... the Government can not say to its citizen, standing beyond its border, that his reentry into the land of his allegiance is a criminal offense; and this we conclude is a sound principle whether or not the citizen has a passport, and however wrongful may have been his conduct in effecting his departure. '' Therefore, even in the absence of a valid passport, U.S. citizens are not denied entry into the United States, though these travelers may be delayed while the CBP attempts to verify their identity and citizenship status. The U.S. does not exercise passport control on exit from the country, so the individual attempting to depart from the U.S. only needs to have valid documents granting him / her right to entry into the country of destination.
Travel of U.S. citizens and nationals around the United States and across its international borders is generally controlled by means other than passports, such as the No Fly List.
United States passports are issuable only to persons who owe permanent allegiance to the United States -- i.e., citizens and non-citizen nationals of the United States.
Under the 14th amendment to the US Constitution, "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States... '' Under this provision, "United States '' means the 50 states and the District of Columbia only.
By acts of Congress, every person born in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands is a United States citizen by birth. Also, every person born in the former Panama Canal Zone whose father or mother (or both) was a citizen is a United States citizen by birth.
Other acts of Congress provide for acquisition of citizenship by persons born abroad.
Every citizen is a national of the United States, but not every national is a citizen. There is a small class of American Samoans, born in American Samoa, including Swains Island, who are nationals but not citizens of the United States, This is because people born in American Samoa are not automatically granted US citizenship by birth. See Passport message, below.
United States law permits dual nationality. Consequently, it is permissible to have and use a foreign passport. However, U.S. citizens are required to use a U.S. passport when leaving or entering the United States. This requirement extends to a U.S. citizen who is a dual national.
Separate passports are issued to U.S. citizens on official business, and to diplomats, a process followed by all countries. The United Nations laissez - passer is a similar document issued by that international organization.
Few requests for certificates of non-citizenship nationality are made to the Department of State, which are issuable by the department. Production of a limited number of certificates would be costly, which if produced certificates would have to meet stringent security standards. Due to this, the Department of State chooses not to issue certificates of non-citizen nationality; instead, passports are issued to non-citizen nationals. The issued passport certifies the status of a non-citizen national. The certification is in the form of "U.S. National '' instead of "USA '' on the front of the passport card, or an endorsement in the passport book: "The bearer is a United States national and not a United States citizen. ''
An application is required for the issuance of a passport. If a fugitive being extradited to the United States refuses to sign a passport application, the consular officer can sign it "without recourse. ''
An application for a United States passport made abroad is forwarded by a U.S. embassy or consulate to Passport Services for processing in the United States. The resulting passport is sent to the embassy or consulate for issuance to the applicant. An emergency passport is issuable by the embassy or consulate. Regular issuance takes approximately 4 -- 6 weeks. As per Haig v. Agee, the Presidential administration may deny or revoke passports for foreign policy or national security reasons at any time.
Places where a U.S. passport may be applied for include post offices and libraries.
DS11 Standard
All applicants using a form DS - 11 must appear in person, and pay and additional $35 execution fee, in addition to the cost of their passport book and / or card. In addition, the first time an applicant applies for a passport following or during gender reassignment must also use a Form DS - 11.
DS82 Renewal
The applicant 's most recent U.S. passport:
The advantage of the DS - 82 passport renewal form is a traveller can mail in the form on their own, and they also do not have to pay the $35 processing fee associated with a DS - 11 passport application.
DS64 Lost
Lost or stolen passport requires DS64 in addition to DS11 only if the lost passport is valid due to the second passport rule:
More than one valid United States passport of the same type may not be held, except if authorized by the Department of State.
It is routine for the Department of State to authorize a holder of a regular passport to hold, in addition, a diplomatic passport or an official passport or a no - fee passport.
One circumstance which may call for issuance of a second passport of a particular type is a prolonged visa - processing delay. Another is safety or security, such as travel between Israel and a country which refuses to grant entry to a person with a passport which indicates travel to Israel. The period of validity of a second passport issued under either circumstance is generally 4 years from the date of issue.
Those who need a second identification document in addition to the U.S. passport may hold a U.S. passport card. This passport card is used by U.S. citizens living abroad when they need to renew their regular passport book, renew their residency permit or apply for a visa - in other words, when they can not show their regular passport yet are required by local law to carry valid identification.
Passport photo requirements are very specific. Official U.S. state department photographic guidelines are available online.
Fees for applying vary based on whether or not an applicant is applying for a new passport or they are renewing an expiring passport. Fees also vary depending on whether an applicant is under the age of 16.
First - time adult applicants are charged $110 per passport book and $30 per passport card. Additionally, a $35 execution fee is charged per transaction, but only for first applications and not for renewals. This means that if a person were to apply for the passport book and card simultaneously on the same application, he or she would pay only one execution fee.
All minor applicants are considered first - time applicants until they reach age 16. Minor applicants pay an $80 application fee for the passport book and a $15 application fee for the passport card. The same $35 execution fee is charged per application.
Adults wishing to renew their passports may do so up to five years after expiration at a cost of $110 for the passport book and $30 for the passport card. Passports for minors under age 16 can not be renewed.
If a person is already in possession of a passport book and would like a passport card additionally (or vice versa), they may submit their currently valid passport book or card as evidence of citizenship and apply for a renewal to avoid paying a $35 execution fee. However, if the passport book or card holder is unable or unwilling to relinquish their currently valid passport for the duration of the processing, they may submit other primary evidence of citizenship, such as a U.S. birth certificate or naturalization certificate, and apply as a first time applicant, paying the execution fee and submitting a written explanation as to why they are applying in this manner.
On the front cover, a representation of the Coat of arms of the United States is at the center. "PASSPORT '' (in all capital letters) appears above the representation of the Great Seal, and "United States of America '' (in Garamond italic) appears below.
An Official passport has "OFFICIAL '' (in all capital letters) above "PASSPORT ''. The capital letters of "OFFICIAL '' are somewhat smaller than the capital letters of "PASSPORT ''.
A Diplomatic passport has "DIPLOMATIC '' (in all capital letters) above "PASSPORT ''. The capital letters of "DIPLOMATIC '' are somewhat smaller than the capital letters of "PASSPORT ''.
A Travel Document, in both forms (Refugee Travel Document and Permit to Re-Enter), features the seal of the Department of Homeland Security instead of the Great Seal of the United States. Above the seal the words "TRAVEL DOCUMENT '' appears in all capital letters. Below the seal is the legend "Issued by U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services '' in upper and lower case.
In 2007, the passport was redesigned, after previous redesign in 1993. There are 13 quotes in the 28 - page version of the passport and patriotic - themed images on the background of the pages.
A biometric passport has the e-passport symbol at the bottom. There are 32 pages in a biometric passport. Frequent travelers may request 52 - page passports for no additional cost. Extra visa pages could previously be added to a passport, but, as of January 1, 2016, the service was discontinued entirely for security reasons.
Each passport has a data page and a signature page.
A data page has a visual zone and a machine - readable zone. The visual zone has a digitized photograph of the passport holder, data about the passport, and data about the passport holder:
The machine - readable zone is present at the bottom of the page and contains P < USA (SURNAME) < < (GIVEN NAME (S)) < < < < < < < < < < in the first line and (PASSPORT NO. + 1 DIGIT) USA (DATE OF BIRTH + 1 DIGIT + SEX + DATE OF EXPIRATION + 10 DIGITS) < (6 DIGITS) in the second line. Both lines contain 44 characters in a fixed - width all - caps font, with the top line ending with enough left angle brackets to fill the 44 character limit.
A signature page has a line for the signature of a passport holder. A passport is not valid until it is signed by the passport holder. If a holder is unable to sign his passport, it is to be signed by a person who has legal authority to sign on the holder 's behalf.
Place of birth was first added to U.S. passports in 1917. The standards for the names of places of birth that appear in passports are listed in volume 8 of the Foreign Affairs Manual, published by the Department of State. A request to list no place of birth in a passport is never accepted.
For birthplaces within the United States and its territories, it contains the name of the state or territory followed by "U.S.A. '', except for the U.S. Virgin Islands and American Samoa. For persons born in the District of Columbia, passports indicate "Washington, D.C., U.S.A. '' as the place of birth.
For places of birth located outside the United States, only the country or dependent territory is mentioned. The name of the country is the current name of the country that is presently in control of the territory the place of birth and thus changes upon a change of a country name. For example, people born before 1991 in the former Soviet Union (including the Baltic states, whose annexation by the Soviet Union was never recognized by the U.S.) would have the post-Soviet country name listed as the place of birth. Another example is that for birth in the former Panama Canal Zone, "Panama '' is listed as the place of birth. A citizen born outside the United States may be able to have his city or town of birth entered in his passport, if he or she objects to the standard country name. However, if a foreign country denies a visa or entry due to the place - of - birth designation, the Department of State will issue a replacement passport at normal fees, and will not facilitate entry into the foreign country.
Provisions exist to deal with the complexities of the Greater China Region. Per the One - China policy, the United States recognizes the People 's Republic of China as the sole legal government of China, and acknowledges the Chinese position that Taiwan is a part of China, while considering the status of Taiwan to be undetermined. However, people born in Taiwan can choose to have either "Taiwan '', "China '', or their city of birth listed as place of birth. People born in Hong Kong or Macau would have their place of birth as "Hong Kong SAR '' or "Macau SAR, '' but the option of listing the city of birth only (e.g. "Hong Kong '' or "Macau '' without "SAR '') is not available. As Tibet is recognized as part of China, the place of birth for people born in Tibet is written as "China '', with the option of listing only the city of birth.
Special provisions are in place for people born in Israel and Israeli - occupied territories. For birth in places other than Jerusalem (using its 1948 municipal borders) and the Golan Heights, "Israel '', "West Bank '', or "Gaza Strip '' is used. If born before 1948, "Palestine '' may be used. For birth in the Golan Heights, "Syria '' is used regardless of date of birth. Due to the legal uncertainty of the status of Jerusalem, for birth in Jerusalem within its 1948 municipal borders, "Jerusalem '' is used regardless of date of birth. In 2002, Congress passed legislation that said that American citizens born in Jerusalem may list "Israel '' as their country of birth, although Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama have not allowed it. A federal appeals court declared the 2002 law invalid on July 23, 2013, and the Supreme Court upheld that decision on June 8, 2015. In all cases, the city or town of birth may be used in place of the standard designations.
For birth aboard aircraft and ships, if the birth occurs in an area where no country has sovereignty (i.e. over international waters), the place of birth is listed as "in the air '' or "at sea '' where appropriate.
Passports of many countries contain a message, nominally from the official who is in charge of passport issuance (e.g., secretary of state, minister of foreign affairs), addressed to authorities of other countries. The message identifies the bearer as a citizen of the issuing country, requests that he or she be allowed to enter and pass through the other country, and requests further that, when necessary, he or she be given help consistent with international norms. In American passports, the message is in English, French, and Spanish. The message reads:
In English:
in French:
and in Spanish:
The term "citizen / national '' and its equivalent terms ("citoyen ou ressortissant ''; "ciudadano o nacional '') are used in the message as some people born in American Samoa, including Swains Island, are nationals but not citizens of the United States.
The masculine inflections of "Le Secrétaire d'État '' and "El Secretario de Estado '' are used in all passports, regardless of the sex of the Secretary of State at the time of issue.
In November 2017, pursuant to the International Megan 's Law, the U.S. Department of State announced that passports of US citizens previously convicted of sex crimes against minors would be endorsed with the message, "The bearer was convicted of a sex offense against a minor, and is a covered sex offender pursuant to (U.S. law). ''
At a League of Nations conference in 1920 about passports and through - train travel, a recommendation was that passports be written in French (historically, the language of diplomacy) and one other language.
English, the de facto national language of the United States, has always been used in U.S. passports. At some point subsequent to 1920, English and French were used in passports. Spanish was added during the second Clinton administration, in recognition of Spanish - speaking Puerto Rico.
The field names on the data page, the passport message, the warning on the second page that the bearer is responsible for obtaining visas, and the designations of the amendments - and - endorsements pages, are printed in English, French, and Spanish.
The legal driving force of biometric passports is the Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act of 2002, which states that smart - card Identity cards may be used in lieu of visas. That law also provides that foreigners who travel to the U.S., and want to enter the U.S. visa - free under the Visa Waiver Program, must bear machine - readable passports that comply with international standards. If a foreign passport was issued on or after October 26, 2006, that passport must be a biometric passport.
The electronic chip in the back cover of a U.S. passport stores an image of the photograph of the passport holder, passport data, and personal data of the passport holder; and has capacity to store additional data. The capacity of the Radio - frequency identification (RFID) chip is 64 kilobytes, which is large enough to store additional biometric identifiers in the future, such as fingerprints and iris scans.
Data in a passport chip is scannable by electronic readers, a capability which is intended to speed up immigration processing. A passport does not have to be plugged into a reader in order for the data to be read. Like toll - road chips, data in passport chips can be read when passport chips are proximate to readers. The passport cover contains a radio - frequency shield, so the cover must be opened for the data to be read.
According to the Department of State, the Basic Access Control (BAC) security protocol prevents access to that data unless the printed information within the passport is also known or can be guessed.
According to privacy advocates, the BAC and the shielded cover are ineffective when a passport is open, and a passport may have to be opened for inspection in a public place such as a hotel, a bank, or an Internet cafe. An open passport is subject to unwelcome reading of chip data, such as by a government agent who is tracking a passport holder 's movements or by a criminal who is intending identity theft.
Visa requirements for the United States citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of United States. According to the 2018 Visa Restrictions Index, holders of a United States passport can visit 174 countries and territories visa - free or with visa on arrival. The United States passport is currently ranked 4th alongside Austria, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and the UK.
These are the numbers of visits by U.S. nationals to various countries in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):
5,900 2,000 2,700 1,200
Cover of a non-biometric passport issued prior to August 2007
Cover of one of the first blue passports (the color was introduced for the Bicentennial in 1976)
Cover of a passport (1930)
B) The Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey are not part of the European Union, but Manxmen and Channel Islanders are citizens of the European Union; the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey, and Manxmen and Channel Islanders themselves (unless they qualify and apply for recognition of a change in status), are however excluded from the benefits of the Four Freedoms of the European Union.
C) The Government of the United Kingdom also issue passports to British nationals who are not British citizens with the right of abode in the United Kingdom and who are also not otherwise citizens of the European Union.
Non-EU country that has open border with Schengen Area.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Turkey has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Kazakhstan has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.
Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and Western Asia. Egypt has a small part of its territory in Western Asia called Sinai Peninsula.
Partially recognized.
Not recognized by any other state.
Special administrative regions of China
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who has the most goals between messi and ronaldo | Messi -- Ronaldo rivalry - wikipedia
Argentine professional footballer
Films
Portuguese professional footballer
Namesakes
Films
The Messi -- Ronaldo rivalry is a football rivalry between fans of Argentinian forward Lionel Messi and Portuguese forward Cristiano Ronaldo and supposedly between the athletes themselves. Having won a combined ten Ballon d'Or / FIFA Ballon d'Or awards (5 each), both are widely regarded not only as the two best players of their generation, but also regarded by many as the greatest of all time. Both players have regularly broken the 50 goal barrier in a single season and have scored over 600 goals each in their careers for club and country. Sports journalists and pundits regularly argue the individual merits of both players in an attempt to establish who they believe is the best player in modern football. It has been compared to past global sports rivalries such as the Muhammad Ali -- Joe Frazier rivalry in boxing, the Björn Borg -- John McEnroe rivalry in tennis and the Ayrton Senna -- Alain Prost rivalry in Formula One motor racing.
Some commentators choose to analyse the differing physiques and playing styles of the two while part of the debate revolves around the contrasting personalities of the two players: Ronaldo is sometimes described as someone of temperamental character while Messi is portrayed with reserved character. It could be the case that this is why Messi is considered trustworthier and more likable by the public, even though Ronaldo improved his reputation since 2013.
At club level, Messi and Ronaldo represented rivals FC Barcelona and Real Madrid C.F., the two players facing each other at least twice every season in the world 's most popular regular - season club game, El Clásico (among the most viewed annual sporting events), until Ronaldo 's transfer to Italian club Juventus F.C. in 2018. Off the field, they are the face of two rival sportswear manufacturers, Messi of Adidas and Ronaldo of Nike, which are also the kit suppliers of their national teams and the opposite for their clubs. The two highest paid players in football, Messi and Ronaldo are among the world 's best paid sports ' stars in combined income from salaries, bonuses and off - field earnings. In 2018, Messi edged Ronaldo on Forbes list of the best - paid athletes, earning $111 million, with Ronaldo next at $108 million. They have the two biggest social media followings in the world among sportspeople with a combined 211 million Facebook fans in 2016, Ronaldo having 122 million and Messi 89 million. Combining Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter, Ronaldo has 321 million followers and Messi 181 million, though Messi does not have a Twitter account.
-- Messi addresses his perceived rivalry with Ronaldo
-- Ronaldo talks about Messi in an interview with Fox Sports Argentina
In 2007, Ronaldo and Messi finished as runners - up to A.C. Milan 's Kaká in both the Ballon d'Or, an award rewarded to the player voted as the best in the world by an international panel of sports journalists; and the FIFA World Player of the Year, an award voted for by coaches and captains of international teams. In an interview that year, Messi was quoted as saying "Cristiano Ronaldo is an extraordinary player and it would be brilliant to be in the same team as him ''.
They first played in a game together when Manchester United were drawn to play Barcelona in the 2007 -- 08 UEFA Champions League semi-finals and were immediately pitted as major rivals. Ronaldo missed a penalty in the first leg, but United eventually advanced to the final via a Paul Scholes goal. At the end of the year, Ronaldo was awarded the Ballon d'Or and vowed that he would win the award again.
The 2009 UEFA Champions League Final was contested between Manchester United and Barcelona on 27 May 2009 at Stadio Olimpico in Rome, Italy. The match, described as a "dream clash '', was again hyped as the latest battle between the two, this time to settle who was the best player in the world; Ronaldo claimed he was the better of the two while Messi 's club - mate Xavi sided with him. United manager Alex Ferguson was more diplomatic, praising both players as being amongst the world 's elite talents. Messi, playing in a central role he was unaccustomed to so he would avoid a direct battle with United left - back Patrice Evra, scored Barcelona 's second in a 2 -- 0 victory with a header in the 70th minute. Meanwhile, Ronaldo was subdued for much of the game despite some early chances to score and his frustration eventually showed when he was booked for a rash tackle on Carles Puyol.
In a 2015 interview, Ronaldo commented on the rivalry by saying that "I think we push each other sometimes in the competition, this is why the competition is so high '' while Ronaldo 's manager during his time at Manchester United Alex Ferguson opined that "I do n't think the rivalry against each other bothers them. I think they have their own personal pride in terms of wanting to be the best ''. Messi has denied any rivalry, saying that it was "only the media, the press, who wants us to be at loggerheads but I 've never fought with Cristiano ''.
However, it is widely argued and documented that there 's an atmosphere of tension between the duo, with Guillem Balagué claiming in Messi that Ronaldo refers to the Argentine counterpart as "motherfucker '' behind his back, and Luca Caioli saying in his book, Ronaldo: The Obsession for Perfection, that according to his sources, Ronaldo heats up when watching Messi play. In response to claims that he and Messi do not get on well on a personal level, Ronaldo commented: "We do n't have a relationship outside the world of football, just as we do n't with a lot of other players '', before adding that in years to come he hopes they can laugh about it together, stating: "We have to look on this rivalry with a positive spirit, because it 's a good thing ''. On 13 November 2014, Ronaldo also threatened to take legal action over the remarks made by Balagué.
Throughout the existence of the rivalry, the pair have dominated awards ceremonies and broken a multitude of goalscoring records for both club and country, feats which have been described as "incredible '', "ridiculous '' and "remarkable ''. The rivalry itself has been described as one about records and reputation of the players, rather than one based in loathing.
Ronaldo is the UEFA Champions League all - time top goalscorer while Messi is second. The two had broken each other 's record over the course of 2015 after Messi surpassed the previous record holder Raúl in November 2014. Ronaldo opened a gap in the 2015 -- 16 season when he became the first player to score double figures in the group stage of the Champions League, setting the record at 11 goals. They are the first two players to score 100 goals in UEFA Champions League history.
In recent years, it has been said that the rivalry between Real Madrid and Barcelona has been "encapsulated '' by the individual rivalry between Ronaldo and Messi, with neither player ever participating in a goalless El Clásico.
Last updated 6 May 2018
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what happened to bud on my three sons | My Three Sons - wikipedia
My Three Sons is an American sitcom. The series ran from 1960 to 1965 on ABC, and moved to CBS until its end on April 13, 1972. My Three Sons chronicles the life of widower and aeronautical engineer Steven Douglas (Fred MacMurray) as he raises his three sons.
The series originally featured William Frawley as the boys ' live - in maternal grandfather, William Michael Francis "Bub '' O'Casey. William Demarest, playing Bub 's brother, "Charley '', replaced Frawley in 1965 due to Frawley 's illness. In September 1965, eldest son Mike married, and his character was written out of the show. To keep the emphasis on "three sons '', a new son named Ernie was adopted. In the program 's final years, Steven Douglas remarried and adopted his new wife 's young daughter Dorothy ("Dodie '').
The series was a cornerstone of the ABC and CBS lineups in the 1960s. With 380 episodes produced, it is second only to The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet (14 seasons, 1952 - 1966, 434 episodes) and tied with It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia (12 seasons) as television 's longest - running live - action sitcom. Disney producer Bill Walsh often mused on whether the concept of the show was inspired by the movie The Shaggy Dog, as in his view they shared "the same dog, the same kids, and Fred MacMurray ''.
The show began on ABC in black - and - white. The first season, consisting of 36 episodes, was directed in its entirety by Peter Tewksbury, who produced and occasionally scripted the programs.
These early episodes held to no specific generic type, so that any episode from one week to the next might be either comedic or dramatic. Tewksbury 's episodes are also unusual for their use of cross-talk (a way of having the voices of off - screen characters heard in the background of the soundtrack, just under the voices of the main characters). Using this clever directorial twist, Tewksbury realistically portrayed the chaotic, fast - paced, and ever - changing sequence of events; coordinate and conflicting, that was the daily routine of living in the Douglas household.
An example of Tewksbury 's use of cross-talk is the fourth episode, "Countdown '', written by David Duncan, which chronicles the Douglas family 's attempts to wake up, prepare for the day, have breakfast, and get out of the house by a common, agreed - upon time, all carefully synchronized to a televised rocket launch countdown -- to comical and often ironic effect. Tewksbury returned to directing feature films after concluding the season because the producers could not handle his perfectionist attitude, which was costing thousands of dollars in lost time and reshoots.
During the 1964 fall season, William Frawley, who played Bub, was declared too ill to work by Desilu Studios, as the company was informed that insuring the actor would be too costly. Frawley continued in the role until a suitable replacement could be found at midseason. He was replaced by William Demarest, who had played his hard - nosed brother (great) Uncle Charley part way through the 1964 - 1965 season (the last on ABC). According to the storyline, Bub returns to Ireland to help his Auntie Kate celebrate her 104th birthday. Soon after, brother Charley visits and stays on. Charley, a cello - playing merchant sailor, was a soft - hearted curmudgeon, who proved to be a responsible caregiver. Frawley left the series before the end of the 1964 - 1965 season.
Peter Tewksbury directed the first season. The succeeding director, Richard Whorf, took over the reins for one season and was in turn followed by former actor - turned - director Gene Reynolds from 1962 to 1964. James V. Kern, an experienced Hollywood television director who had previously helmed the "Hollywood '' and "Europe '' episodes of I Love Lucy, continued in this role for two years until his untimely death in late 1966, aged 57. Director James Sheldon was also contracted to finish episodes that had been partly completed by Kern to complete that season. Fred De Cordova was the show 's longest and most consistent director of the series (108 episodes) until he left in 1971 to produce The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. Earl Bellamy rounded out the series as director of the show 's final year.
My Three Sons moved to the CBS television network for the 1965 - 1966 season after ABC declined to commit to underwriting the expense of producing the program in color. Along with the change in networks and the transition to color, Tim Considine (who had earlier worked with Fred MacMurray on The Shaggy Dog), playing eldest son Mike, had chosen not to renew his contract due to a clash with executive producer Don Fedderson over Considine 's wish to direct but not co-star in the series. (Considine did, however, direct one of the last black - and - white episodes for ABC.) According to Considine (Pat Sajak Show, August 1989), he also was devoted to automobile racing, which his contract forbade. His character was written out, along with Meredith MacRae, who had played his fiancee Sally, in a wedding episode that was the premiere of the 1965 -- 1966 season on CBS. After this episode, which was the program 's first in color, Mike is mentioned briefly in only four succeeding episodes (including one in which Ernie becomes adopted), and is never seen again, even at Robbie and Steve 's weddings. In the episode "Steve and the Huntress '' (first aired January 27, 1966), Mike is specifically mentioned as teaching at a college. MacRae joined Petticoat Junction the following year, the last of three actresses to play Billie Jo Bradley.
To keep the show 's title plausible, the show 's head writer, George Tibbles, fashioned a three - part story arc in which an orphaned friend of youngest brother Richard (Chip, played by Stanley Livingston), Ernie Thompson (played by his real - life brother, Barry Livingston), awaits adoption when his current foster parents are transferred to the Orient. Steve offers to adopt Ernie, but faces antagonism from Uncle Charley, who finds Ernie a bit grating, and forecasts major headaches over both the boy and his dog. It also transpires that a law requires a woman to live in the home of an adoptive family. A likable female social worker supervises the case, and the Douglases speculate that Steve might marry the woman, to make the adoption possible, but they both agree this is not reason enough for them to be married. The family also does not need to hire a housekeeper, since Uncle Charley already has things running smoothly. The family soon appears before a judge who researches the law, and determines that its intent is to ensure a full - time caregiver is in the household. With Charley meeting that role, and having had a change of heart about Ernie, Charley assents to a legal fiction declaring him "housemother '' to the Douglas family.
While the three sons were always central to the storyline, several major changes took place by the late 1960s. In the spring of 1967, the ratings for the series began to sag and My Three Sons finished its seventh season in 31st place in the Nielsen ratings. It was decided that the 1967 - 1968 season would bring the program not only a new time slot, but also new storylines to spice up the ratings. In the fall of 1967, CBS moved My Three Sons to Saturday night at 8: 30 pm. In the season - premiere episode, "Moving Day '', the Douglas family and Uncle Charley relocate from the fictional town of Bryant Park in the Midwest to Los Angeles. Robbie (Don Grady) marries his classmate / girlfriend, Katie Miller (Tina Cole). Tina Cole, in fact, had appeared in different roles on three previous episodes of My Three Sons: "House For Sale '' from the fourth season (February 13, 1964), "The Coffee House Set '' from the fifth season (November 19, 1964), and "Robbie and the Little Stranger '' from the sixth season (February 17, 1966). At the end of the 1967 - 1968 season, the ratings had improved from the previous year with the series placing at 24th in the Nielsens. The following season, the newlyweds discover that Katie is pregnant, and she gives birth to triplets named Robert, Steven, and Charles. Although originally played by sets of uncredited twins, these babies were played uncredited by Guy, Gunnar, and Garth Swanson. The most familiar triplets in the show 's last two seasons are played by Michael, Daniel, and Joseph Todd.
The following year in the tenth season, 1969 - 1970, Steve remarries, taking widowed teacher Barbara Harper (Beverly Garland) as his wife; she brings with her a 5 - year - old daughter, Dorothy "Dodie '' (Dawn Lyn), so Steven now had a stepdaughter whom he also subsequently adopts. Also, the last year - and - a-half of the series feature fewer appearances of both Don Grady and Stanley Livingston. Grady 's character was written out of the show at the end of the 11th season, which allowed for his wife Katie and their triplet sons to remain within the Douglas household the following season (as a structural engineer Robbie was working on a bridge construction in Peru). Chip and his teen wife Polly (Ronne Troup) (who eloped after Polly 's disciplinarian father refused to sanction the marriage) move into their own apartment.
At the end of the 1970 - 1971 season (the show 's 11th year), My Three Sons was still garnering healthy ratings. By the spring of 1971, it had finished in 19th place. A 1971 television pilot with Don Grady and Tina Cole called Three of a Kind, then retitled Robbie -- about Robbie, Katie, and the triplets moving to San Francisco -- was filmed but not picked up as a series.
The final episode of the 1970 - 1971 season, "After the Honeymoon '', actually set up the premise for this pilot. The guest stars were Richard X. Slattery and Pat Carroll, who were featured as the landlords of the apartment block into which Robbie and Katie move. However, Don Grady had informed the producers of his intention to leave the series and pursue a new full - time career as a composer, which he ultimately did.
For the series ' 12th season, CBS moved My Three Sons to Monday nights at 10: 00 pm. In addition to the time changes for the 12th season, a new four - part story arc is introduced with MacMurray in a second role, that of his cousin, the Laird (Lord) Fergus McBain Douglas of Sithian Bridge. The voice of English actor Alan Caillou is awkwardly dubbed over MacMurray 's. The plot centers around Lord Douglas 's arrival in Los Angeles from the family 's native Scotland, in search of a first lady to marry and return with him to Scotland.
He finds Terri Dowling (Anne Francis), a waitress at the Blue Berry Bowling Alley. While initially reluctant to give up her life in America and return to Scotland as royalty, she finally accepts. This storyline is a continuation of a plot idea that originally began in the fourth season, when the Douglases visit Scotland on the pretense of having been told they had inherited a castle in the highlands.
With a later time slot, the show finished the season outside the top 30. To save the series, CBS moved it in midseason back to Thursday nights at 8: 30 pm, its old time slot. Nevertheless, My Three Sons ended its primetime run in the spring of 1972 after 12 years on the air. CBS also aired daytime reruns starting in September 1971 (only the CBS color shows), for about one season.
The series ' cast had several music connections. MacMurray began his career as a saxophone player during the 1930s, and sometimes played it on the series, as well as clarinet. Actress Tina Cole (Katie) was born into the King Family, a popular 1950s -- 1960s group. Ronne Troup (Polly) was the step - daughter of singer Julie London and daughter of musician / composer Bobby Troup (who wrote the song Route 66 and also starred in the TV program Emergency! along with wife London), and Dawn Lyn is the younger sister of 1970s pop idol Leif Garrett. Don Grady (Robbie) composed and produced music, having created successful Las Vegas venues for Phantom of the Opera star Michael Crawford and pop star David Cassidy.
Grady also played drums in the ' 60s pop group Yellow Balloon. Musical arranger Frank De Vol, who did the toe - tapping theme, scored over thirty motion pictures and arranged for such vocalists as Sarah Vaughan, Jack Jones, Nat King Cole, Ella Fitzgerald, Tony Bennett, Vic Damone, Dinah Shore, Doris Day, and Jaye P. Morgan.
My Three Sons had 36 episodes each in the first two seasons. The series had more than thirty episodes in each of the first eight seasons; the episode output then decreased by two episodes until the eleventh season, which had twenty - four episodes, along with the twelfth season. The first five seasons were filmed in black & white, then after the move to CBS, it was filmed in color for the remainder of its run.
The series was initially filmed at Desilu Studios in Hollywood, but at the start of the 1967 -- 68 season, the cast and crew began filming the series at the CBS Studio Center in Studio City, California. The reasons behind this move concerned the sale of actress - comedian Lucille Ball ' s studios to the Gulf + Western conglomerate, which owned Paramount Pictures, so Don Fedderson Productions, who produced My Three Sons (along with Family Affair starring Brian Keith), had to quickly make other arrangements for filming. The move also necessitated moves in the show 's storyline as well, hence the family 's move from the fictitious town of Bryant Park (in the Midwestern United States) to North Hollywood, California, although the town is never officially mentioned, simply just the city of Los Angeles.
Fred MacMurray was the only actor to appear in every episode of the series. Reportedly, MacMurray 's contract stipulated that he work only 65 days per year. His scenes for each season were produced in two blocks of filming. He would report to the Desilu - Gower lot in late May and work 35 days (five days per week, weekends off), then take off for 10 weeks. He would then return to complete his remaining 30 days of shooting and was finished altogether around Thanksgiving. MacMurray 's ten - week hiatus in the middle of each season 's production schedule freed up the actor to follow other pursuits, while the filming of scenes with the other cast members continued. In short, all episodes were filmed out of sequence. Evidence of this is very apparent in several episodes, where plotlines had MacMurray 's character on a business trip (e.g. "Small Adventure '') or spending much of his time at the office (e.g. "Soap Box Derby ''). This allowed him to seemingly take part in the entire episode with limited or no interaction with the other regulars during filming. This sometimes produced noticeable continuity problems onscreen, especially as the boys grew and changed styles.
Although Don Fedderson gets the credit, My Three Sons was created by George Tibbles and produced by Don Fedderson Productions throughout the show 's run, with MCA Television co-distributing the series during its 1960 -- 65 ABC airing. When the series moved to CBS in 1965, the latter network assumed full production responsibilities (in association with Fedderson Productions) until the end of the series in 1972. CBS now holds the series ' copyright. CBS Television Distribution presently owns distribution rights to the entire series (including the more widely seen and aforementioned 1965 -- 72 CBS episodes). The show did not get syndicated until September 1976 (although CBS did air reruns of the show in its daytime lineup from December 1971 until the fall of 1972), and even then, only the CBS color episodes aired, while the black and white ABC episodes did not air on broadcast TV at all.
Nick at Nite aired My Three Sons from November 3, 1985 to October 28, 1991 with episodes from Seasons 1 - 5, the second half of season 11, and season 12. The Family Channel also aired only the black and white episodes from September 7, 1992 to July 30, 1993. The Seasons 1 - 3 episodes had the original Chevrolet closing credits. The Seasons 6 -- 10 (and the first half of season 11) episodes were later aired on TV Land in the late 1990s. Odyssey ran all of the color episodes in the early 2000s. They also briefly aired the black and white episodes. In 2000, TV Land briefly aired the black & white episodes again, using the same syndication episode rights that were on Nick at Nite during the 1980s. In 2006 the Retro Television Network broadcast the show, airing only the color episodes.
Since fall 2004, only Seasons 6 - 10 are being distributed for syndication in the US - Domestic market, though very few stations air the show anymore.
In 2009, FamilyNet began airing the program as a lead - in for its Happy Days and Family Ties program block, which ended in February 2010. From 2012 - 14, and also from October 2015 - February 2016, MeTV aired the Season 6 - 10 episodes in heavy rotation, and most closing credits included the original sponsor tags, such as those for Kellogg 's. In 2016, Decades began airing the CBS (color) episodes in its "binge '' blocks on some week - ends.
MeTV began airing the black and white episodes on May 29, 2017.
MacMurray and most of the cast took part in Thanksgiving Reunion with The Partridge Family & My Three Sons, which aired on ABC on November 25, 1977. The retrospective special looked back at the history of My Three Sons and The Partridge Family (other than featuring single parents with a large family, the two series had no narrative, or even a studio link). The special was notable for featuring footage from early black and white episodes of My Three Sons that, at this point in time, were not in syndication. While most of the collected casts gathered in a studio to reminisce, Demarest appeared in a brief pre-taped segment.
CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released the first two seasons of My Three Sons on DVD in Region 1. It is unknown if the remaining seasons will be released.
In most episodes, the soundtrack was edited to remove the background musical score, which were originally stock music from the Capitol Records library; the licensing agreement with Capitol only covered broadcast rights, not home video rights, and clearing the music for home video release with the individual composers who worked on the Capitol recordings was deemed cost - prohibitive. The Capitol scores were replaced instead with more modern, synthesized music. The original theme tune by Frank DeVol has been left unaltered; his musical scores in later seasons of the show, written specifically for the series, would less - likely be affected by licensing problems if the later seasons were released on DVD.
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where do veiled chameleons live in the wild | Veiled chameleon - wikipedia
The veiled chameleon (Chamaeleo calyptratus) is a species of chameleon native to the Arabian Peninsula in Yemen and Saudi Arabia. Other common names include cone - head chameleon and Yemen chameleon.
The male is 43 to 61 cm (17 to 24 in) long from the snout to the tip of the tail. The female is shorter, no more than about 35 cm (14 in), but it has a thicker body. Both sexes have a casque on the head which grows larger as the chameleon matures, reaching about 5 cm (2.0 in) in the largest adults. Newly hatched young are pastel green in color and develop stripes as they grow. Adult females are green with white, orange, yellow, or tan mottling. Adult males are brighter with more defined bands of yellow or blue and some mottling.
Coloration can be affected by several factors, including social status. In experimental conditions, young veiled chameleons reared in isolation are darker and duller in color than those raised with other individuals. Females change color across their reproductive cycles. Chameleons also tend to change to a much darker color when stressed.
This chameleon lives in a number of habitat types in its native range, including plateaus, mountains, and valleys. Like other chameleons, it is arboreal, living in trees and other large plants. It prefers warmer temperatures, generally between 24 to 35 ° C (75 to 95 ° F).
The veiled chameleon is an omnivore. It favors insects, and it also eats plant matter, especially as a source of water.
The life span is about 5 years for females, and up to 8 years for males. They reach sexual maturity at four to five months. They breed more than once a year. The female lays large clutches of up to 85 eggs and buries them in sand. The eggs are white with a tough skin. The embryos experience a diapause, a length of time when they are dormant in the egg before they begin developing. Increasing temperatures in the substrate initiate development.
Males display for females during courtship, performing behaviors such as "head rolls '' and "chin rubs ''. Females change color when they are receptive to breeding, and males are more likely to court them during this time.
The veiled chameleon is the most common Chamaeleo species in the pet trade. It is easy to breed and prolific in its egg production. It tolerates a range of conditions and survives well in captivity.
This chameleon is an introduced species in Hawaii, where it is invasive in the local ecosystem. There is a breeding population established on Maui. It can also be found in the wild in Florida, where escaped pets have established populations.
The veiled chameleon is the logo of the SUSE Linux operating system.
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what are some natural resources in north korea | Mining in North Korea - wikipedia
Mining in North Korea is important to the country 's economy. North Korea is naturally abundant in metals such as magnesite, zinc, tungsten, and iron; with magnesite resources of 6 billion tonnes (second largest in the world), particularly in the Hamgyeong - do and Jagang - do provinces. However, often these can not be mined due to the acute shortage of electricity in the country, as well as the lack of proper tools to mine these materials and an antiquated industrial base. Coal, iron ore, limestone, and magnesite deposits are larger than other mineral commodities. Mining joint ventures with other countries include China, Canada, Egypt, and South Korea.
North Korea has reserves of more than 200 mineral types distributed over 80 % of its territory with ten reserves recording large deposits of magnetite, tungsten ore, graphite, gold ore, and molybdenum. Among the largest resources with more than 2 million tons of estimated reserve are: Zinc which tops the list with 21 million tons of estimated resource; followed by non-metallic resource of 21 million tons of limestone and magnesite 6 million tons; and other mineral sources such as iron 5 million tons, anthracite 5 million tons, copper 3 million tons, barite 2 million tons, gold and graphite also 2 million tons each.
The Mineral Industry in the country is structured under three broad sectors namely, coal mining, ferrous and nonferrous metals mining, and processing sector and industrial minerals mining and processing sector. All these sectors are owned by the central government and it is also reported that the mineral industry supports the country 's military budget.
North Korea is thought to have tremendous potential metal resources (and particularly rare - earth metals), which have been valued in excess of US $6 trillion by the South Korean national mining company. There is much investment from Chinese mining companies, with an estimated $500 million investment in the last 11 years. 41 % of all Chinese companies trading in North Korea are involved in mining.
The Korea General Zinc Industry Group is a North Korean mining and industrial group headquartered in Pyongyang. The organization produces zinc, lead, base bullion, lead concentrates, zinc concentrates, cadmium, arsenic, zinc residues and copper concentrate for export and domestic use.
The Geomdeok Mine, located in Geumgol - dong, Dancheon - si, Hamgyeongnam - do, has been in operation since 1932 and is the largest zinc mine in East Asia. It has seven mine blocks extracted through 10 mines. It has annual capacity to handle 10 million tons of zinc ore. Conventional flotation methods are adopted to extract lead and zinc concentrates. Other products from the mine are sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and galena.
In gold alone the nation is estimated to hold around 2,000 metric tonnes of reserves, which at a gold value of $1,200 / ounce, would give a total worth of $84.6 billion. Other available resources include iron, with 5 billion tonnes of 50 % iron - content ore in reserve, nickel, with 36,000 tonnes of the pure metal, and zinc metal, with around 21,100,000 tonnes.
The Daebong Mine, located on the border of Gapsan and Woonheung in Yanggang Province, produced more than 150 kilograms (kg) (4,823 troy ounces) of gold annually. Further improvements are proposed in this mine with Chinese investment under a package of offer of mineral rights in exchange for capital investment in the mine.
The Sangnong Mine, in the Dancheon district of Hamgyeongnam - do has been in operation since 1956 and is an underground mine. The mine also extracts pyrite, chalcopyrite, magnesite, native gold, and native silver. In 2008, the annual production was reported as 290,000 tons of concentrate at a grade of 30g / t. To process the low - grade concentrate of the Sangnong Mine, the Dongdae Custom Mill Plant (located in Dancheon city) has been established. This plant has processed twenty million tons of tailings and the waste piled up in the yard of the plant has still a gold pf grade of 1.44 g / t.
The Holdong Mine in the Holdong labor district in Yeonsan - gun, Hwanghaebuk - doce has been in operation since 1893. Gold and other ores are found in a strike of 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) strip. The plant has capacity for annual handling of 2 tonnes of gold, 2.5 tonnes of silver, and 80,000 tonnes of copper concentrate. In 1991, the mine recorded a production of 0.85 tonnes of gold, 1.674 tonnes of silver, and 893 tonnes of copper concentrate.
The DPRK is estimated to hold a total amount of 2.1 million metric tonnes of copper metal. The Korea Mining Development Trading Corporation (KOMID) was involved in a joint - development project with a Chinese firm in the development of a copper mine in Hyesan. However, KOMID was blacklisted by the United Nations in 2009 subsequent to North Korea 's April 5 rocket launch. This resulted in a halting of facility construction at Hyesan. The Hyesan copper mine, located Yanggang Province would be operated by the Hyesan - China Joint Venture Mineral Co.
The Hyesan Mine, located in Masan - dong, Hyesan - si, and Ryanggang - do, has been in operation since 1970 and is the largest copper mine in the country. It was flooded and hence closed from 1994 to 2009 and has been partially reopened, after bailing out water, since 2010. Other products from the mine are chalcocite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite. The plant has a capacity to handle 1,200,000 tons of copper ore annually. According to a 1993 report, the mine produced about 90,000 tons of concentrate of 16 % grade of copper.
Musan Mine, located at Musan - gun, in the Changryeol labor districts and Hamgyeongbuk - do, is being operated by Mitsubishi Mining Company of Japan since 1935. The ore is found a strike stip of 1200 m and is operated through nine blocks and extraction is by open pit method. Its iron ore handling capacity is 10 million tons per year. The annual production is reported to be 2 million tons of iron concentrate of 65 % grade. After processing at the Gimchaek Steel Mill, iron is exported to China.
The Oryong Mine, located in Ryongcheon - ri, Hyeryeong City, in Hamgyeongbuk - do, has been in operation since 2007. Iron ore is embedded in granite formations as magnetite, hematite, and ilmenite in the Musan group and Liwon - am group of rocks, and the ore extracted in directly transported to China without milling. The ore exported in 2007 was of the order of 3,000 tons.
Jeongchon Mine is a graphite mine located in Jeongchon - gun, Hamgyeongnam - do and the ore is found in strike length of 700m. Mining operation was started here in 2006. It is an inter-Korean project with South Korea getting a share of 50 % of the extracted graphite.
Magnesite in the Tanchon area, a very large resource, has been under extraction since 1980 from the Taehung Youth Hero Mine and the Yongyang Mine, and the former mine is reported to be operating to its full capacity.
Daeheung Mine, located in Daeheung - dong, Dancheon - si, and Hamgyeongnamdo comprising four mine blocks has been in operation since 1982. It is reported to be the largest magnesite mine in the world. Magnesite ore is found in a strike of 1600 m and has been extracted since 1982. Both open pit and underground mining are done in these mine blocks and there is a total capacity to extract magnesite ore of 600,000 tons per year. In 2006 the production reported was 230,000 tons of magnesite of grade of up to 46.5 percent of MgO.
In 2005, it was reported that Kimduk Combined Mining Enterprise was the country 's largest nonferrous metal mine.
In addition to its metal resources, North Korea is also abundant in coal and limestone (with 100 billion metric tonnes), valued at some US $9.7 trillion. In particular the purest form of coal, anthracite, is especially abundant, with reserves of over 4.5 billion tonnes, which at $143 / tonne would be worth $644.8 billion.
Jikdong coal mine is an anthracite coal mine located in Jikdong, Suncheon - si, Pyongannam - do where an underground mining operation started in 1997. It has capacity to handle 1 million tons of coal per year. The coal is transported by trucks directly to run the Dongpyeongyang Thermal power plant.
Gogeonwon Mine is also an anthracite coal mine located in the Gogeonwon labor district, Kyeongwongun, Hamgyeongbuk - do and has been in operation as an underground mine since 1920. It has a capacity of 1 million tons per year and the coal mined is sent by trucks to run the Cheongjin Thermal Power Plant and the Seongjin Steel Company.
In 2013, North Korea surpassed Vietnam to become the global top exporter of anthracite, generating $1.4 billion in revenue for the DPRK (10 % of the country 's GDP). Another estimate puts the nation 's 2015 coal exports at 19.7 million tonnes, worth $1.1 billion. The regime relies on these profits to procure much of what it needs the most.
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so you think you can dance melanie moore statue | Melanie Moore - Wikipedia
Melanie Moore (born September 17, 1991) is an American actress and professional dancer best known as the winner of the eighth season of the U.S. reality television competition So You Think You Can Dance. According to the results announced on the broadcast, Moore won "overwhelmingly '', garnering 47 % of the vote in a four - way final tally.
Moore was educated in Marietta, Georgia, where she attended Lassiter High School and was crowned homecoming queen. At the time of the competition, she was a 19 - year - old college freshman attending Fordham University at Lincoln Center in New York City. Moore trained and competed for twelve years in Marietta at Rhythm Dance Center. Moore won the National JUMP Senior Female VIP.
Moore appeared on the Oxygen TV show, "All the Right Moves, '' as a member of the Shaping Sound Dance Company. She also appeared on the fourth season of Glee, as a dance pupil enrolled at NYADA.
Melanie originated the role of Peter Pan in Finding Neverland on Broadway at the Lunt - Fontanne Theater. In 2015, she was nominated for the Fred and Adele Astaire "Best Female Dancer '' Award for her work in the role. She played the role of Chava in the 2015 Broadway revival of Fiddler on the Roof until the show closed on December 31, 2016. She can currently be seen in the 2017 Broadway revival of Hello Dolly! as Ermengarde.
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as early as 115 000 years ago humans began to migrate from africa to which of the following regions | Neanderthal - wikipedia
Homo mousteriensis Palaeoanthropus neanderthalensis
Neanderthals (UK: / niˈændərˌtɑːl /, also US: / neɪ -, - ˈɑːn -, - ˌtɔːl, - ˌθɔːl /), more rarely known as Neandertals, were archaic humans that became extinct about 40,000 years ago. They seem to have appeared in Europe and later expanded into Southwest, Central, and Northern Asia. There, they left hundreds of stone tool assemblages. Almost all of those younger than 160,000 years are of the so - called Mousterian techno - complex, which is characterised by tools made out of stone flakes.
Neanderthals are considered either a distinct species, Homo neanderthalensis, or more rarely a subspecies of Homo sapiens (H. s. neanderthalensis). Modern humans and Neanderthals share 99.7 % of their DNA and are hence much more closely related than to their closest non-human relative, the chimpanzee (98.8 %). Compared to modern humans, Neanderthals were stockier, with shorter legs and a bigger body. In conformance with Bergmann 's rule, this likely was a Darwinian adaptation to preserve heat in cold climates. Male and female Neanderthals had cranial capacities averaging 1,600 cm (98 cu in) and 1,300 cm (79 cu in) respectively, extending to 1,736 cm (105.9 cu in) in the male Amud 1. This is notably larger than the 1,250 to 1,400 cm (76 to 85 cu in) typical of modern humans. Males stood 164 to 168 cm (65 to 66 in) and females 152 to 156 cm (60 to 61 in) tall.
The Neanderthal genome project revealed in 2010 that, through interbreeding, Neanderthals contributed to the DNA of modern humans, likely between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago. Today, this is apparent in the genome of most people living outside sub-Saharan Africa, as well as in some sub-Saharan Africans. Subsequent studies suggested there may have been three episodes of interbreeding. The first would have occurred soon after non-African modern humans left Africa. The second would have occurred after the ancestral Melanesians had branched off -- these people seem to have thereafter bred with Denisovans. The third would have involved Neanderthals and the ancestors of East Asians only.
Neanderthals are named after one of the first sites where their fossils were discovered in the 19th century, about 12 km (7 mi) east of Düsseldorf, Germany, in the Feldhofer Cave, located in the Düssel River 's Neander valley. Thal is an older spelling of the German word Tal (with the same pronunciation), which means "valley '' (cognate with English dale).
Neanderthal 1 was known as the "Neanderthal cranium '' or "Neanderthal skull '' in anthropological literature, and the individual reconstructed on the basis of the skull was occasionally called "the Neanderthal man ''. The binomial name Homo neanderthalensis -- extending the name "Neanderthal man '' from the individual type specimen to the entire group -- was first proposed by the Anglo - Irish geologist William King in 1864, although that same year King changed his mind and thought that the Neanderthal fossil was distinct enough from humans to warrant a separate genus. Nevertheless, King 's name had priority over the proposal put forward in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, Homo stupidus. The practice of referring to "the Neanderthals '' and "a Neanderthal '' emerged in the popular literature of the 1920s.
The German pronunciation of Neandertaler is (neˈandɐˌthaːlɐ) in the International Phonetic Alphabet. In British English, "Neanderthal '' is pronounced with the / t / as in German, but different vowels (IPA: / niːˈændərtɑːl /). In layman 's American English, "Neanderthal '' is pronounced with a / θ / (the voiceless th as in thin) and / ɔ / instead of the longer British / aː / (IPA: / niːˈændərθɔːl /), although scientists typically use the / t / as in German.
Scientists still dispute whether Neanderthals should be classified as a distinct species -- Homo neanderthalensis -- or as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, placing Neanderthals as a subspecies of H. sapiens. DNA researcher Svante Pääbo referred to the ongoing "taxonomic wars '' over whether Neanderthals were a separate species or subspecies as the type of debate that can not be resolved, "since there is no definition of species perfectly describing the case. ''
During the early 20th century the prevailing view was heavily influenced by Arthur Keith and Marcellin Boule, who wrote the first scientific description of a nearly complete Neanderthal skeleton. Senior members of their respective national paleontological institutes and among the most eminent paleoanthropologists of their time, both men argued that the primitive traits of this skeleton meant it could not be a direct ancestor of Homo sapiens. This idea was reflected in Boule (1912) 's reconstruction of the Chapelle - aux - Saints 1 Neanderthal, now believed inaccurate, in which the skeleton was mounted in a crooked pose with bowed legs.
During the 1930s scholars Ernst Mayr, George Gaylord Simpson and Theodosius Dobzhansky reinterpreted the existing fossil record and came to different conclusions. Neanderthal man was classified as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis -- an early subspecies contrasted with what was now called Homo sapiens sapiens. The unbroken succession of fossil sites of both groups in Europe was considered evidence of a slow, gradual evolutionary transition from Neanderthals to modern humans. Contextual interpretations of similar excavation sites in Asia lead to the hypothesis of multiregional origin of modern man in the 1980s.
Both Neanderthals and living humans are thought to have evolved from Homo erectus. In the earliest known migration wave into Eurasia dated to 1.81 million years ago (Ma), Homo erectus left Africa most probably via the Levant and reached Georgia (fossils of Dmanisi). Hominins had reached China by 1.7 Ma and Iberia (Spain) by 1.4 Ma. The discoverers of fragmented bones in Spain (Iberia) dated to 1.2 million years, assigned to a new species Homo antecessor, argue these are the remains of the ancestors of Neanderthals and of the older species Homo heidelbergensis, an interpretation rejected by most anthropologists.
A large number of molecular clock genetic studies place the divergence time of the Neanderthal and modern human lineages between 800,000 and 400,000 years ago. For this reason, most scholars believe Neanderthals descend, via Homo heidelbergensis, from another Homo erectus migration out of Africa that would have occurred in this time frame. Parts of the Homo erectus population that stayed in Africa would have evolved, perhaps through the intermediate Homo rhodesiensis, into early anatomically modern humans by 200,000 years ago or earlier.
Neanderthal traits are present in Homo heidelbergensis specimens beginning between 600,000 and 350,000 years ago. As of 1998, there is a fossil gap in Europe between 300 and 243 ka (MIS 8); no hominin has ever been dated to this period. Conventionally, therefore, European hominins younger than 243,000 years old are called Neanderthals.
The quality of the fossil record greatly increases from 130,000 years ago onwards. Specimens younger than this date make up the bulk of known Neanderthal skeletons and were the first whose anatomy was comprehensively studied. They are known as typical or Classic Neanderthals. In morphological studies, the latter term may also be used in a narrower sense for Neanderthals younger than 71,000 years old (MIS 4 and 3).
Neanderthal fossils were first discovered in 1829 in the Engis caves (the partial skull dubbed Engis 2), in what is now Belgium by Philippe - Charles Schmerling and the Gibraltar 1 skull in 1848 in the Forbes ' Quarry, Gibraltar, both prior to the type specimen discovery in a limestone quarry in the Neandertal in Germany in August 1856, three years before Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species was published.
The type specimen, dubbed Neanderthal 1, consisted of a skull cap, two femora, three bones of the right arm, two of the left arm, parts of the left ilium, fragments of a scapula, and ribs. The workers who recovered the objects originally thought them to be the remains of a cave bear. However, they eventually gave the material to amateur naturalist Johann Carl Fuhlrott, who turned the fossils over to anatomist Hermann Schaaffhausen.
To date, the bones of over 400 Neanderthals have been found.
Early Neanderthals, living before the Eemian interglacial (130 ka), are poorly known and come mostly from European sites. From 130 ka onwards, the quality of the fossil record increases dramatically. From then on, Neanderthal remains are found in Western, Central, Eastern, and Mediterranean Europe, as well as Southwest, Central, and Northern Asia up to the Altai Mountains in Siberia. No Neanderthal has ever been found outside Western Eurasia, namely neither to the south of Jerusalem (Shuqba), nor further east than Kazakhstan (Denisova, Russia), nor to the north of Wales (Bontnewydd), although it is difficult to assess the limits of their northern range because glacial advances destroy most human remains, the Bontnewydd tooth being exceptional. Middle Palaeolithic artifacts have been found up to 60 ° N on the Russian plains.
There likely never were more than 70,000 Neanderthals at any given time.
Neanderthal anatomy differed from modern humans in that they had a more robust build and distinctive morphological features, especially on the cranium, which gradually accumulated more derived aspects as it was described by Marcellin Boule, particularly in certain isolated geographic regions. These include shorter limb proportions, a wider, barrel - shaped rib cage, a reduced chin, and a large nose, being at the modern human higher end in both width and length, and started somewhat higher on the face than in modern humans. Evidence suggests they were much stronger than modern humans, with particularly strong arms and hands, while they were comparable in height; based on 45 long bones from at most 14 males and 7 females, Neanderthal males averaged 164 to 168 cm (65 to 66 in) and females 152 to 156 cm (60 to 61 in) tall. Samples of 26 specimens in 2010 found an average weight of 77.6 kg (171 lb) for males and 66.4 kg (146 lb) for females. A 2007 genetic study suggested some Neanderthals may have had red hair and blond hair, along with a light skin tone.
Gregory Cochran and Henry Harpending, in the book The 10,000 Year Explosion, investigated whether it is accurate to depict Neanderthals as having hair patterns similar to anatomically modern humans. They concluded that, "We do n't yet know for sure, but it seems likely that, as part of their adaptation to cold, Neanderthals were furry. Chimpanzees have ridges on their finger bones that stem from the way that they clutch their mothers ' fur as infants. Modern humans do n't have these ridges, but Neanderthals do. ''
In The Spread of Modern Humans in Europe (2002) John F Hoffecker, writes "Neanderthal sites show no evidence of tools for making tailored clothing. There are only hide scrapers, which might have been used to make blankets or ponchos. This is in contrast to Upper Paleolithic (modern human) sites, which have an abundance of eyed bone needles and bone awls. Moreover, microwear analysis of Neanderthal hide scrapers shows that they were used only for the initial phases of hide preparation, and not for the more advanced phases of clothing production.
A 2013 study of Neanderthal skulls suggests that their eyesight may have been better than that of modern humans, owing to larger eye sockets and larger areas of the brain devoted to vision.
Neanderthals are known for their large cranial capacity, which at 1,600 cm (98 cu in) is larger on average than that of modern humans. One study has found that Neanderthal brains were more asymmetric than other hominid brains. In 2008, a group of scientists produced a study using three - dimensional computer - assisted reconstructions of Neanderthal infants based on fossils found in Russia and Syria. It indicated that Neanderthal and modern human brains were the same size at birth, but that by adulthood, the Neanderthal brain was larger than the modern human brain. They had almost the same degree of encephalization (i.e. brain to body size ratio) as modern humans.
The Neanderthal skeleton suggests they consumed 100 to 350 kcal (420 to 1,460 kJ) more per day than male modern humans of 68.5 kg (151 lb) and females of 59.2 kg (131 lb).
Neanderthals made stone tools, used fire, and were hunters. The consensus on their behaviour ends there.
It had actually long been debated whether Neanderthals were hunters or scavengers. The discovery of the pre-Neanderthal Schöningen wooden spears in Germany helped settle the debate in favour of hunting. Most available evidence suggests they were apex predators, and fed on red deer, reindeer, ibex, wild boar, aurochs and on occasion mammoth, straight - tusked elephant and rhinoceros. They also appear to have occasionally used vegetables as fall - back food, which was revealed in the 2000s and 2010s by isotope analysis of their teeth and the study of their coprolites (fossilized feces). Dental analysis of specimens from Spy, Belgium and El Sidrón, Spain in 2017 argued these Neanderthals had a wide - ranging diet, and that those "from El Sidrón showed no evidence of meat eating '' at all and seemed to have lived on "a mixture of forest moss, pine nuts and a mushroom known as split gill ''.
The size and distribution of Neanderthal sites, along with genetic evidence, suggests Neanderthals lived in much smaller and more sparsely distributed groups than anatomically - modern Homo sapiens. The bones of twelve Neanderthals were discovered at El Sidrón cave in northwestern Spain. They are believed to have been a group killed and butchered about 50,000 years ago. Analysis of the mtDNA showed that the three adult males belonged to the same maternal lineage, while the three adult females belonged to different ones. This suggests a social structure where males remained in the same social group and females "married '' out.
The bones of the El Sidrón group show signs of defleshing, suggesting that they were victims of cannibalism. The St. Césaire 1 skeleton discovered in 1979 at La Roche à Pierrot, France, showed a healed fracture on top of the skull apparently caused by a deep blade wound, suggesting interpersonal violence.
Claims that Neanderthals deliberately buried their dead, and if they did, whether such burials had any symbolic meaning, are heavily contested. The debate on deliberate Neanderthal burials has been active since the 1908 discovery of the well - preserved Chapelle - aux - Saints 1 skeleton in a small hole in a cave in southwestern France. In this controversy 's most recent installment, a team of French researchers reinvestigated the Chapelle - aux - Saints cave and in January 2014 reasserted the century - old claim that the 1908 Neanderthal specimen had been deliberately buried, and this has in turn been heavily criticised.
Upon Higham et al. 's (2010) publication of new radiocarbon dates shedding doubt on the association of Châtelperronian beads with Neanderthals, Paul Mellars wrote that "the single most impressive and hitherto widely cited pillar of evidence for the presence of complex ' symbolic ' behavior among the late Neanderthal populations in Europe has now effectively collapsed ''. This conclusion, however, is controversial, and others such as Jean - Jacques Hublin and colleagues have re-dated material associated with the Châtelperronian artefacts and used proteomic evidence to restate the challenged association with Neanderthals.
There exists a very large number of other claims of Neanderthal art, adornment, and structures. These are often taken by the media as showing Neanderthals were capable of symbolic thought, or were "mental equals '' to anatomically modern humans. As evidence of symbolism, none of them are widely accepted, although the same is true for Middle Palaeolithic anatomically modern humans. Among many others:
All of these claimed manifestations of symbolic thought are one - offs and have not been found at more than one location.
Early investigations concentrated on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which, owing to strictly matrilineal inheritance and subsequent vulnerability to genetic drift, is of limited value in evaluating the possibility of interbreeding of Neanderthals with Cro - Magnon people.
In 1997, geneticists were able to extract a short sequence of DNA from Neanderthal bones. The extraction of mtDNA from a second specimen was reported in 2000, and showed no sign of modern human descent from Neanderthals.
In July 2006, the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and 454 Life Sciences announced that they would sequence the Neanderthal genome over the next two years. This genome was expected to be roughly the size of the human genome, three - billion base pairs, and share most of its genes. It was hoped the comparison would expand understanding of Neanderthals, as well as the evolution of humans and human brains.
Svante Pääbo has tested more than 70 Neanderthal specimens. The Neanderthal genome is almost the same size as the human genome and is identical to ours to a level of 99.7 % by comparing the accurate order of the nitrogenous bases in the double nucleotide chain. From mtDNA analysis estimates, the two shared a common ancestor about 500,000 years ago. An article appearing in the journal Nature has calculated they diverged about 516,000 years ago, whereas fossil records show a time of about 400,000 years ago. A 2007 study pushes the point of divergence back to around 800,000 years ago.
Edward Rubin of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory states recent genome testing of Neanderthals suggests human and Neanderthal DNA are some 99.5 % to nearly 99.9 % identical.
Geneticists first sequenced the entire genome of a Neanderthal in 2013 by extracting it from the phalanx bone of a 50,000 - year - old Siberian Neanderthal.
On November 16, 2006, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory issued a press release suggesting Neanderthals and ancient humans probably did not interbreed. Edward M. Rubin, director of the U.S. Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the Joint Genome Institute (JGI), sequenced a fraction (0.00002) of genomic nuclear DNA (nDNA) from a 38,000 - year - old Vindia Neanderthal femur. They calculated the common ancestor to be about 353,000 years ago, and a complete separation of the ancestors of the groups about 188,000 years ago.
Their results show the genomes of modern humans and Neanderthals are at least 99.5 % identical, but despite this genetic similarity, and despite the two groups having coexisted in the same geographic region for thousands of years, Rubin and his team did not find any evidence of any significant interbreeding between the two. Rubin said, "While unable to definitively conclude that interbreeding between the two species of humans did not occur, analysis of the nuclear DNA from the Neanderthal suggests the low likelihood of it having occurred at any appreciable level. ''
In 2008 Richard E. Green et al. from Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, published the full sequence of Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and suggested "Neanderthals had a long - term effective population size smaller than that of modern humans. '' In the same publication, it was disclosed by Svante Pääbo that in the previous work at the Max Planck Institute, "Contamination was indeed an issue, '' and they eventually realized that 11 % of their sample was modern human DNA. Since then, more of the preparation work has been done in clean areas and 4 - base pair ' tags ' have been added to the DNA as soon as it is extracted so the Neanderthal DNA can be identified.
With 3 billion nucleotides sequenced, analysis of about 1⁄3 showed no sign of admixture between modern humans and Neanderthals, according to Pääbo. This concurred with the work of Noonan from two years earlier. The variant of microcephalin common outside Africa, which was suggested to be of Neanderthal origin and responsible for rapid brain growth in humans, was not found in Neanderthals. Nor was the MAPT variant, a very old variant found primarily in Europeans.
However, an analysis of a first draft of the Neanderthal genome by the same team released in May 2010 indicates interbreeding may have occurred. "Those of us who live outside Africa carry a little Neanderthal DNA in us, '' said Pääbo, who led the study. "The proportion of Neanderthal - inherited genetic material is about 1 to 4 percent (later refined to 1.5 to 2.1 percent). It is a small but very real proportion of ancestry in non-Africans today, '' says Dr. David Reich of Harvard Medical School, who worked on the study. This research compared the genome of the Neanderthals to five modern humans from China, France, sub-Saharan Africa, and Papua New Guinea.
This indicates a gene flow from Neanderthals to modern humans, i.e., interbreeding between the two populations. Since the three non-African genomes show a similar proportion of Neanderthal sequences, the interbreeding must have occurred early in the migration of modern humans out of Africa, perhaps in the Middle East. No evidence for gene flow in the direction from modern humans to Neanderthals was found. Gene flow from modern humans to Neanderthals would not be expected if contact occurred between a small colonizing population of modern humans and a much larger resident population of Neanderthals. A very limited amount of interbreeding could explain the findings, if it occurred early enough in the colonization process.
It is suggested that 20 percent of Neanderthal DNA survived in modern humans, notably expressed in the skin, hair, and diseases of modern people. Modern human genes involved in making keratin -- the protein found in skin, hair, and nails -- have specially high levels of Neanderthal DNA. For example, around 66 % of East Asians contain the Neanderthal skin gene, while 70 % of Europeans contain the Neanderthal gene which affects skin colour. POU2F3 is found in around 66 percent of East Asians, while the Neanderthal version of BNC2, which affects skin color, among other traits, is found in 70 percent of Europeans. Neanderthal are the variants in genes that affect the risk of several diseases, including lupus, biliary cirrhosis, Crohn 's disease, and type 2 diabetes. 8 % of Neanderthal DNA comes from an unknown group of archaic humans, tantalizing hints of unknown groups from Asia and Africa that left genes in Denisovans and modern humans, respectively. The genetic variant of the MC1R gene linked to red hair in Neanderthals has not been found in modern humans, hence red hair may be an example of convergent evolution.
While interbreeding is viewed as the most parsimonious interpretation of the genetic discoveries, the authors point out they can not conclusively rule out an alternative scenario, in which the source population of non-African modern humans was already more closely related to Neanderthals than other Africans were, because of ancient genetic divisions within Africa. Other studies carried out since the sequencing of the Neanderthal genome have cast doubt on the level of admixture between Neanderthals and modern humans, or even as to whether the groups interbred at all. One study has asserted that the presence of Neanderthal or other archaic human genetic markers can be attributed to shared ancestral traits between the lineages originating from a 500,000 - year - old common ancestor.
Among the genes shown to differ between present - day humans and Neanderthals were RPTN, SPAG17, CAN15, TTF1, FOXP2 and PCD16.
Specifically, a visualization map of the reference modern - human containing the genome regions with high degree of similarity or with novelty according to a Neanderthal of 50k has been built by Pratas et al.
More recent research suggests that Neanderthal -- Homo sapiens sapiens interbreeding appears to have occurred asymmetrically among the ancestors of modern - day humans, and that this is a possible rationale for differing frequencies of Neanderthal - specific DNA in the genomes of modern humans. In 2015, researchers Benjamin Vernot and Joshua Akey at the University of Washington conclude in a paper in the American Journal of Human Genetics that the relatively greater quantity of Neanderthal - specific DNA in the genomes of individuals of East Asian descent (than those of European descent) can not be explained by differences in selection. They further suggest that "two additional demographic models, involving either a second pulse of Neandertal gene flow into the ancestors of East Asians or a dilution of Neandertal lineages in Europeans by admixture with an unknown ancestral population '' are parsimonious with their data. Similar conclusions were reached in a paper published in the same publication by researchers Bernard Kim and Kirk Lohmueller at UCLA: "Using simulations of a broad range of models of selection and demography, we have shown that this hypothesis (that the greater proportion of Neandertal ancestry in East Asians than in Europeans is due to the fact that purifying selection is less effective at removing weakly deleterious Neandertal alleles from East Asian populations) can not account for the higher proportion of Neandertal ancestry in East Asians than in Europeans. Instead, more complex demographic scenarios, most likely involving multiple pulses of Neandertal admixture, are required to explain the data. ''
In a subsequent interview, Dr. Lohmueller did note that these findings go against the commonly - held perception that Neanderthals were mostly localized to modern - day Europe and western Asia: "It 's very hard to put these findings into spatial context. The key idea is that there would have to have been some additional interbreeding events involving East Asians, but not Europeans. These interbreeding events could have been directly between Neanderthals and East Asians, maybe in some other indirect way. '' Vernot also noted that "(H) umans have been constantly migrating throughout their history -- this makes it hard to say exactly where interactions with Neanderthals occurred. It 's possible, for example, that all of the interbreeding with Neanderthals occurred in the Middle East, before the ancestors of modern non-Africans spread out across Eurasia. In the model from the paper, the ancestors of all non-Africans interbred with Neanderthals, and then split up into multiple groups that would later become Europeans, East Asians. Shortly after they split up, the ancestors of East Asians interbred with Neanderthals just a little bit more. ''
But John D. Hawks, Professor of Anthropology at the University of Wisconsin writes "that in comparison of East Asian samples (Japanese, Han Chinese in Beijing, and Han Chinese originating in South China) and European samples (Tuscans, British, Finn and CEU samples, along with a handful of Spanish), Europeans average a bit more Neanderthal than Asians. The within - population differences between individuals are large, and constitute noise as far as our comparisons between populations are concerned. At present, we can take as a hypothesis that Europeans have more Neandertal ancestry than Asians. If this is true, we can further guess that Europeans may have mixed with Neanderthals as they moved into Europe, constituting a second process of population mixture beyond that shared by European and Asian ancestors ''.
Studies published in March 2016 suggest that modern humans bred with hominins, including Neanderthals, on multiple occasions. Another study in April 2016 found differences between modern human and Neanderthal Y chromosomes that, they postulated, could cause female Homo sapiens sapiens to miscarry male babies that had Neanderthal fathers. This could explain why no modern man had to date been found with a Neanderthal Y chromosome. Melanesians and Australoid populations show evidence of only one interbreeding event, possibly about 100,000 years ago, occurring in the Middle East, Europeans show a second event, which may also be of Middle Eastern origin, occurring possibly 50,000 years ago, while East Asians show an additional third interbreeding event possibly 30,000 years ago occurring in Siberia. Evidence that Neanderthal genomic material is often found amongst genes of the immune system suggests that some of the interbreeding may have secured resistance to diseases that Neanderthal populations had bred resistance to.
In 2016 researchers reported that they had found Human DNA in the genome of a female Neanderthal from the Altai mountains region near the border between Mongolia and Russia. They calculated that the mating must have taken place about 100,000 years ago.
In April 2014, a first glimpse into the epigenetics of the Neanderthal was obtained with the publication of the full DNA methylation of the Neanderthal and the Denisovan. The reconstructed DNA methylation map allowed researchers to assess gene activity levels throughout the Neanderthal genome and compare them to modern humans. One of the major findings focused on the limb morphology of Neanderthals. Gokhman et al. found that changes in the activity levels of the HOX cluster of genes were behind many of the morphological differences between Neanderthals and modern humans, including shorter limbs, curved bones and more.
According to a 2014 study by Thomas Higham and colleagues of organic samples from European sites, Neanderthals died out in Europe between 41,000 and 39,000 years ago. New dating in Iberia, where Neanderthal dates as late as 28,000 years had been reported, suggests evidence of Neanderthal survival in the peninsula after 42,000 years ago is almost non-existent.
Anatomically modern humans arrived in Mediterranean Europe between 45,000 and 43,000 years ago, so the two different human populations shared Europe for several thousand years. The exact nature of biological and cultural interaction between Neanderthals and other human groups is contested.
Possible scenarios for the extinction of the Neanderthals are:
About 55,000 years ago, the climate began to fluctuate wildly from extreme cold conditions to mild cold and back in a matter of decades. Neanderthal bodies were well - suited for survival in a cold climate -- their stocky chests and limbs stored body heat better than the Cro - Magnons. Neanderthals died out in Europe between 41,000 and 39,000 years ago, apparently coinciding with the start of a very cold period. Raw material sourcing and the examination of faunal remains by Adler et al. (2006) in the southern Caucasus suggest that modern humans may have had a survival advantage during this period, being able to use social networks to acquire resources from a greater area. They found that in both the Late Middle Palaeolithic and Early Upper Palaeolithic more than 95 % of stone artifacts were drawn from local material, suggesting Neanderthals restricted themselves to more local sources.
In November 2011 tests conducted at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit in England on what were previously thought to be Neanderthal baby teeth, which had been unearthed in 1964 from the Grotta del Cavallo in Italy, were identified as the oldest modern human remains discovered anywhere in Europe, dating from between 43,000 and 45,000 years ago. Given that the 2014 study by Thomas Higham of Neanderthal bones and tools indicates that Neanderthals died out in Europe between 41,000 and 39,000 years ago, the two different human populations shared Europe for as long as 5,000 years. Nonetheless, the exact nature of biological and cultural interaction between Neanderthals and other human groups has been contested.
Modern humans co-existed with them in Europe starting around 45,000 years ago and perhaps even earlier. Neanderthals inhabited that continent long before the arrival of modern humans. These modern humans may have introduced a disease that contributed to the extinction of Neanderthals, and that may be added to other recent explanations for their extinction. When Neanderthal ancestors left Africa roughly 100,000 years earlier they adapted to the pathogens in their European environment, unlike modern humans who adapted to African pathogens. This transcontinental movement is known as the Out of Africa model. If contact between humans and Neanderthals occurred in Europe and Asia the first contact may have been devastating to the Neanderthal population, because they would have had little if any immunity to the African pathogens. More recent historical events in Eurasia and the Americas show a similar pattern, where the unintentional introduction of viral or bacterial pathogens to unprepared populations has led to mass mortality and local population extinction. The most well - known example of this is the arrival of Christopher Columbus to the New World, which brought and introduced foreign diseases when he and his crew arrived to a native population who had no immunity.
Anthropologist Pat Shipman, of Pennsylvania State University, suggested that domestication of the dog could have played a role in Neanderthals ' extinction.
An alternative to extinction is that Neanderthals were absorbed into the Cro - Magnon population by interbreeding. This would be counter to strict versions of the Recent African Origin, since it would imply that at least part of the genome of Europeans would descend from Neanderthals.
Hans Peder Steensby, while strongly emphasising that all modern humans are of mixed origins, proposed the interbreeding hypothesis in 1907, in the article Race studies in Denmark. He held that this would best fit current observations, and attacked the widespread idea that Neanderthals were ape - like or inferior.
The most vocal proponent of the hybridization hypothesis is Erik Trinkaus of Washington University. Trinkaus claims various fossils as products of hybridized populations, including the child of Lagar Velho, a skeleton found at Lagar Velho in Portugal. In a 2006 publication co-authored by Trinkaus, the fossils found in 1952 in the cave of Peștera Muierii, Romania, are likewise claimed as descendants of previously hybridized populations.
Genetic research has asserted that some admixture took place. The genomes of all non-Africans include portions that are of Neanderthal origin, due to interbreeding between Neanderthals and the ancestors of Eurasians in Northern Africa or the Middle East prior to their spread. Rather than absorption of the Neanderthal population, this gene flow appears to have been of limited duration and limited extent. An estimated 1.5 to 2.1 percent of the DNA in Europeans and Asians (French, Chinese and Papua probands) is non-modern, and shared with ancient Neanderthal DNA. This DNA is absent in Sub-Saharan Africans (Yoruba people and San probands). Ötzi the iceman, Europe 's oldest preserved mummy, was found to possess an even higher percentage of Neanderthal ancestry. The two percent of Neanderthal DNA that lives on in Europeans and Asians is not the same in all Europeans and Asians: In all, approximately 20 % of the Neanderthal genome appears to survive in the modern human gene pool.
2012 genetic studies seem to suggest that modern humans may have mated with "at least two groups '' of archaic humans: Neanderthals and Denisovans. Some researchers suggest admixture of 3.4 -- 7.9 % in modern humans of non-African ancestry, rejecting the hypothesis of ancestral population structure. Detractors have argued and continue to argue that the signal of Neanderthal interbreeding may be due to ancient African substructure, meaning that the similarity is only a remnant of a common ancestor of both Neanderthals and modern humans and not the result of interbreeding. John D. Hawks has argued that the genetic similarity to Neanderthals may indeed be the result of both structure and interbreeding, as opposed to just one or the other.
While some modern human nuclear DNA has been linked to the extinct Neanderthals, no mitochondrial DNA of Neanderthal origin has been detected, which in primates is always maternally transmitted. This observation has prompted the hypothesis that whereas female humans interbreeding with male Neanderthals were able to generate fertile offspring, the progeny of female Neanderthals who mated with male humans were either rare, absent or sterile. However, some researchers have argued that there is evidence of possible interbreeding between female Neanderthals and male modern humans.
Remains of more than 300 European Neanderthals have been found. For the most important, see List of human evolution fossils.
Remains of more than 70 Southwest Asian Neanderthals have been found. For a complete list see List of Southwest Asian Neanderthals.
This section describes bones with Neanderthal traits in chronological order.
Neanderthals have been portrayed in popular culture including appearances in literature, visual media and comedy. Early 20th century artistic interpretations often presented Neanderthals as beastly creatures, emphasizing hairiness and rough, dark complexion.
Journals
Bibliography
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who won the elimination chamber match at wwe | Elimination Chamber - wikipedia
The Elimination Chamber is a professional wrestling elimination - based match held in the WWE. The match was created by Triple H and was introduced by Eric Bischoff in November 2002. It features a large chain - linked circular steel structure, which encloses the ring. The chamber 's floor is platformed over the ringside area which elevates it to ring level. Within the chamber are four inner enclosures outside each ring corner. While similar in profile and nature to WWE 's original large scale steel - structured match, Hell in a Cell, the Elimination Chamber match is a multiple participant match, wherein two participants begin the match in the ring as the remaining four are held within each inner enclosure and are released into the match at five - minute intervals. The objective is to eliminate each opponent from the match via pinfall or submission. The winner is the last remaining participant after all others have been eliminated. As in the Hell in a Cell match, disqualifications do not apply. The original structure was 16 ft (4.9 m) high, 36 ft (11 m) in diameter, weighed over 10 short tons (9,100 kg), and comprised 2 mi (3.2 km) and 6 short tons (5,400 kg) of chain. There have been twenty - two Elimination Chamber matches in WWE since the concept 's inception in November 2002.
Before the introduction of the Elimination Chamber match, WWE only promoted two matches in a caged environment, the steel cage and Hell in a Cell matches. The steel cage was the first type of cage - based match in professional wrestling and consisted of four fenced walls of steel surrounding the ring apron, while the Hell in a Cell was a taller roofed version that surrounded the ring and ringside area on the ground rather than the apron. In 2002, WWE announced the creation of the Elimination Chamber, a match that combined elements of WWE 's Hell in a Cell matches, Royal Rumble match, Survivor Series matches, and World Championship Wrestling 's (WCW) WarGames matches, such as the countdown timer and time intervals from the Royal Rumble and War Games matches, the large enclosed cage format of both Hell in a Cell and War Games, and the elimination process from the Survivor Series contest.
In 2002, to exploit additional on - screen talent after buying World Championship Wrestling (WCW), WWE began a brand extension that divided the roster between the two brands of WWE, Raw and SmackDown!. Former WCW President and then Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff formally announced the creation of the chamber during the October 21 edition of Raw and scheduled the match to feature participants from the Raw brand roster at the 2002 Survivor Series. The match was exclusive to the Raw brand for the first four matches and at joint - branded pay - per - view events, but upon the creation of the ECW brand in 2006, the match was instead promoted for the newly created brand at the 2006 December to Dismember. Beginning in 2008, the match became exclusive to the No Way Out pay - per - view, and two Elimination Chamber matches were featured annually for two years among the three brands. In 2010, WWE replaced their No Way Out event with the self - titled WWE Elimination Chamber, a new pay - per - view event which continued the tradition of its predecessor. From 2008 - 2014, the match had been featured in February pay - per - view events only. An Elimination Chamber pay - per - view event took place on May 31, 2015, exclusively on the WWE Network. After the second brand extension in 2016, it was announced that the brands would return to having separate pay - per - views. In late 2016, it was announced that Elimination Chamber would return as a SmackDown - exclusive pay - per - view in February 2017, and it switched to being Raw - exclusive in February 2018.
Triple H suffered an injury during the 2002 Survivor Series match with swelling on the inside of his throat which put pressure on his esophagus and trachea. This was caused after Rob Van Dam performed the Five Star Frog Splash off the top of one of the chambers. Triple H also expressed concern that he might have broken his wrist and noted anything could have caused it. Sheamus reportedly suffered a concussion during the Raw Elimination Chamber match in 2010. In 2010, The Undertaker was involved in a pyrotechnics accident during his ring entrance. He was temporarily engulfed in flames on three occasions when the pyrotechnics were mistimed, and his jacket briefly caught on fire. He suffered first and second - degree burns to his neck and chest; according to a WWE spokesperson the injury "looked like a bad sunburn ''. He was only allowed to participate in the match after being cleared by a ringside doctor and was given bottles of water throughout the match to douse himself with to alleviate the discomfort.
The Elimination Chamber match is a variation of elimination - based matches which draws elements from steel cage and Hell in a Cell matches, in that the wrestling ring is surrounded by a large steel - fenced cage supported by girders. The Elimination Chamber was originally a circular - like chain - linked structure, but is now square (as of 2017), and encloses the ring. Its floor is platformed over the ringside area around the ring which elevates and levels it with the ring mat. Within the Elimination Chamber, facing the outside of each ring post behind each ring corner, are four enclosures referred to as inner chambers or pods. The match is contested by a number of participants, with two beginning the match in the ring, while the other four are held within each inner chamber; the 2018 event featured a seven - man chamber match in which three participants began. Every five minutes, one of the four participants within an inner chamber is released into the ongoing match. In matches involving two three - member tag teams, two participants are released into the match once every ten minutes. And in matches involving two, six to ten - member tag teams, the match begins with two participants from both teams and there are eight periods consisting of two participants being released into the match once every five minutes while a member from one of the teams (usually determined by a coin toss or "rock, paper, scissor '') enters the structure. Once every other three minutes rather than releasing the pods one - by - one and into a match. This continues until all four have been released, and so an Elimination Chamber match typically lasts over twenty or more minutes. The objective of the match is to eliminate each opponent from the match by scoring a pinfall or a submission. These can occur in the ring or on the chamber 's elevated floor, but starting with the 2012 event, all pinfalls and submissions must take place in the ring. Disqualifications and count - outs do not apply in the process of elimination. The winner of the match is the last remaining participant after all others have been eliminated (or after all members of the opposing tag team are eliminated in either the tag team matches or the twelve - on - twelve tornado tag team elimination matches).
According to a WWE Magazine article in 2009 by WWE 's production designer Jason Robinson, who co-designed the structure, several designs for the Elimination Chamber were considered. The structure was manufactured in Colorado Springs, Colorado and took six to eight weeks to make from design blueprints; it cost US $ 250,000 to construct.
The structure is made of black - painted steel with an outer structure of 16 frames, each weighing 300 pounds (140 kg). The chamber is 16 ft (4.9 m) high and 36 ft (11 m) in diameter, and weighs a total of 16 short tons (15,000 kg), 10 of which consists of steel. Each inner chamber consists of three large steel framed sheets of plexiglass, costing US $225 per sheet. The chains that surround the chamber stretch 2 mi (3.2 km) long and weigh 6 short tons (5,400 kg).
A 50 ft (15 m) flatbed truck is needed to transport the chamber. Assembly in the arena takes eight hours to complete, and eight motors are used to suspend the structure over the ring before each event. When not in use, the structure is stored at a dock in Newark, New Jersey. Unlike standard steel cage matches and Hell in a Cell matches, Elimination Chamber matches can not be held at several arenas due to the structure 's massive size and weight, similar to how WarGames matches could only be held at certain arenas. This would play a factor in WWE dropping the annual Elimination Chamber pay - per - view event.
In 2017, the Elimination Chamber pay - per - view returned (2017 's event was SmackDown - exclusive while 2018 's was Raw - exclusive). In addition, the chamber structure was redesigned, becoming square instead of circular. The pods were also changed from circular to square and feature sliding doors that referees slide open from outside the chamber. At the top of the chamber at its center, which is now 26 ft (7.9 m) tall, is a large cutout of the WWE logo. Also, the steel grates between the ring and the cage were replaced with padding. LED lights also line the corners of the structure. The redesign was for practical purposes due to certain venues only being able to house the previous structure.
The fifth match, held by the ECW brand at December to Dismember, was a slight variation called the "Extreme Elimination Chamber ''. In this variation, each chamber had one of four weapons for the competitors locked inside to hold on to. When each competitor 's chamber opened, their weapon entered the match with them. The four weapons used in the match were a crowbar, a table, a steel folding chair, and a barbed wire - wrapped baseball bat.
The 2015 Elimination Chamber event saw another slight variation of the match: the tag team chamber match. Both team members were inside of their respective pods, for a total of six tag teams in the match.
The 2018 Elimination Chamber featured the first seven - man chamber match. Due to the extra person, three competitors started the match instead of two. The 2018 event also featured the first women 's chamber match, but there were no variations in the rules.
Despite the structure, interference has become common inside the Elimination Chamber. At New Year 's Revolution 2005, Ric Flair distracted guest referee Shawn Michaels allowing Batista who had been eliminated to attack Randy Orton so Triple H could win the match. At No Way Out 2009, Edge attacked Kofi Kingston during his entrance and locked himself in one of the pods becoming a participant in the match for the World Heavyweight Championship after losing the WWE Championship earlier in the night. At Elimination Chamber 2010, Cody Rhodes passed Ted DiBiase Jr. a metal pipe which he used to eliminate Randy Orton in the match for the WWE Championship. Later in the night, Shawn Michaels broke into the Chamber match to cost The Undertaker his World Heavyweight Championship to Chris Jericho. At the 2013 Elimination Chamber event, Mark Henry took out the remaining participants in the Chamber match for a World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania 29 after being eliminated until SmackDown GM Booker T broke it up. At the 2014 Elimination Chamber for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship, The Wyatt Family interfered by attacking John Cena, which would lead to his eventual elimination. Kane would come out to help escort The Wyatt Family out of the Chamber match, but would then interfere costing Daniel Bryan the match to Randy Orton.
The Elimination Chamber debuted at WWE 's PPV event Survivor Series 2002 on November 17, 2002 at Madison Square Garden. Since the inaugural match, there have been 21 other matches (22 overall) as of Elimination Chamber 2018 on February 25, 2018. The Raw brand has been featured the most with ten matches, ECW has been featured in two matches, including its joint - branded match with SmackDown. The SmackDown brand has been featured in six matches including the joint - branded match with ECW. Elimination Chamber has featured more Elimination Chamber matches than any other pay - per - view, with thirteen matches being held. Triple H has the most number of victories with four. Chris Jericho holds the distinctions of being involved in the most number of Elimination Chamber matches to date (8) and eliminating the most wrestlers (10). Braun Strowman has the most eliminations in a single Elimination Chamber match (5). The majority of matches have been contested for a top - tier championship with the World Heavyweight Championship being contested for the most in seven matches, the WWE Championship being contested in six matches (once as the WWE World Heavyweight Championship) and the ECW World Championship, WWE Tag Team Championship and WWE Intercontinental Championship being contested in one match each. Five matches (two in 2008 and one in 2011, 2013 and 2018) awarded the winners with number - one contenderships for the WWE Championship, World Heavyweight Championship and WWE Universal Championship at that years WrestleMania. The Elimination Chamber match has been contested only in indoor arenas in the United States and once in Puerto Rico. From 2008 - 2014, the match had been featured in February pay - per - view events only. An Elimination Chamber pay - per - view event took place on May 31, 2015 exclusively on the WWE Network. The 2018 event featured the first seven - man Elimination Chamber match as well as the first Elimination Chamber match for women with the Raw Women 's Championship contested.
In July 2010, WWE released Satan 's Prison: The Anthology of the Elimination Chamber, a DVD featuring every Elimination Chamber match as of Elimination Chamber 2010. The European release of the DVD is titled Iron Will, primarily over the name change of the structure, match type, and pay - per - view in Germany to avoid a brand blunder with the "Elimination Chamber '' name, as it may create imagery of gas chambers during The Holocaust. (The Elimination Chamber pay - per - view, structure, and match are called "No Escape '' in Germany.)
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who were the actors in the movie the help | Star system (filmmaking) - wikipedia
The star system was the method of creating, promoting and exploiting stars in Hollywood films. Movie studios would select promising young actors and glamorise and create personas for them, often inventing new names and even new backgrounds. Examples of stars who went through the star system include Cary Grant (born Archie Leach), Joan Crawford (born Lucille Fay LeSueur), and Rock Hudson (born Roy Harold Scherer, Jr.).
The star system put an emphasis on the image rather than the acting, although discreet acting, voice, and dancing lessons were a common part of the regimen. Women were expected to behave like ladies, and were never to leave the house without makeup and stylish clothes. Men were expected to be seen in public as gentlemen. Morality clauses were a common part of actors ' studio contracts.
Just as studio executives, public relations staffs, and agents worked together with the actor to create a star persona, so they would work together to cover up incidents or lifestyles that would damage the star 's public image. It was common, for example, to arrange sham dates between single (male) stars and starlets to generate publicity. Tabloids and gossip columnists would be tipped off, and photographers would appear to capture the romantic moment. At the same time, a star 's drug use (such as Robert Mitchum 's arrest for marijuana possession), drinking problems, divorce, or adultery would be covered up with hush money for witnesses or promises of exclusive stories (or the withholding of future stories) to gossip columnists.
In the early years of the cinema (1890s -- 1900s), performers were not identified in films. There are two main reasons for this. First, from the perspective of actors who were trained in the theatre, they were embarrassed to be working in film and feared it would ruin their reputation. Silent film was thought of as mere pantomime and one of theatre actors ' main skills was their command of their voice. Theatre actors were also ashamed to be in films because early films were aimed for the uneducated working class. Film was seen as only a step above appearing in carnivals and freak shows. Second, from the perspective of early film producers, they feared that actors would gain more prestige and power and demand more money if they were named.
Thomas Edison and the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC) forced filmmakers to use their equipment and follow their rules, since they owned the patents of much of the motion picture equipment. The MPPC frowned on star promotion, although, according to research done by Janet Staiger, the MPPC did promote some stars around this time.
The main catalyst for change was the public 's desire to know the actors ' names. Film audiences repeatedly recognized certain performers in movies that they liked. Since they did not know the performers ' names they gave them nicknames (such as "the Biograph Girl '', Florence Lawrence, who was featured in Biograph movies). Audiences began to want movie stars.
Producer Carl Laemmle promoted the first movie star. He was independent of the MPPC and used star promotion to fight the MPPC 's control. Laemmle acquired Lawrence from Biograph. He spread a rumor that she had been killed in a streetcar accident. Then he combated this rumor by saying that she was doing fine and would be starring in an up - coming movie produced by his company, the Independent Moving Pictures Company (IMP).
The development of film fan magazines gave fans knowledge about the actors outside of their film roles. Motion Picture Story Magazine (1911 -- 1977) and Photoplay were initially focused on movies ' stories, but soon found that more copies could be sold if they emphasized the actors.
Also, precedents set by legitimate theater encouraged film to emulate the star system of the Broadway stage. Broadway stars in the late 19th century were treated much like film stars came to be treated by the middle of the 20th century. The main practitioner of the star system on Broadway was Charles Frohman, a man whom Zukor, Laemmle, Mayer, Fox and the Warner Brothers emulated and who later perished in the Lusitania sinking.
Moreover, the star system existed in forms of entertainment before the cinema and may be tracked back at least to P.T. Barnum in the mid 19th century, who developed a system of promotion for his "Museum of Freaks '' and later his Greatest Show on Earth circus. Barnum 's biggest stars were Jenny Lind, Tom Thumb and Jumbo.
From the 1930s to the 1960s, it was common practice for studios to arrange the contractual exchange of talent (directors, actors) for prestige pictures. Stars would sometimes pursue these swaps themselves. Stars were becoming selective. Although punished and frowned upon by studio heads, several strong - willed stars received studio censure and publicity for refusing certain parts, on the belief that they knew better than the studio heads about the parts that were right for them. In one instance, Jane Greer negotiated her contract out of Howard Hawks ' hands over the roles she felt were inappropriate for her. Olivia de Havilland and Bette Davis both sued their studios to be free of their gag orders (Davis lost, de Havilland won). After completing The Seven Year Itch, Marilyn Monroe walked out on 20th Century Fox and only returned when they acquiesced to her contract demands. The publicity accompanying these incidents fostered a growing suspicion among actors that a system more like being a free agent would be more personally beneficial to them than the suffocating star system. In 1959 Shirley MacLaine sued famed producer Hal Wallis over a contractual dispute, contributing further to the star system 's demise. By the 1960s the star system was in decline.
The conspiratorial aspect of the studio system manipulating images and reality eventually began to falter as the world and the news media began to accept the dismantling of social boundaries and the manufactured virtue and wholesomeness of stars began to be questioned; taboos began to fall. By the 60s and 70s a new, more natural style of acting ("the Stanislavski Method '') had emerged, been mythologized, and enshrined; and individuality had been transformed into a treasured personal quality. With competition from TV, and entire studios changing hands, the star system faltered and did not recover. The studio system could no longer resist the changes occurring in entertainment, culture, labor, and news, and by 1970 the star system had disappeared.
The phenomenon of stardom has remained essential to Hollywood because of its ability to lure spectators into the theater. Following the demise of the studio system in the 1950s and 60s, the star system became the most important stabilizing feature of the movie industry. This is because stars provide film makers with built in audiences who regularly watch films in which their favorite actors and actresses appear.
Contemporary Hollywood talent agencies must now be licensed under the California Labor Code, which defines an agent as any "person or corporation who engages in the occupation of procuring, offering, promising, or attempting to procure employment for artist or artists. '' Talent agencies such as William Morris Agency (WMA), International Creative Management (ICM), Creative Artists Agency (CAA), and many more started to arise in the mid-1970s. CAA represented the modern agency, with new ways of marketing talent by packaging actors, agencies are able to influence production schedules, budgeting of the film, and which talent will be playing each particular character. Packaging gained notoriety in the 1980s and 1990s with films such Ghost Busters, Tootsie, Stripes, and A League of Their Own. This practice continues to be prominent in films today such as Big Daddy, Happy Gilmore, Waterboy, and Billy Madison. The ease of selling a packaged group of actors to a particular film insures that certain fan groups will see that movie, reducing risk of failure and increasing profits.
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kiss anime no game no life episode 6 | Re: Zero − Starting Life in Another World - Wikipedia
Re: Zero − Starting Life in Another World (Japanese: Re: ゼロ から 始める 異 世界 生活, Hepburn: Ri: Zero kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu) is a Japanese light novel series written by Tappei Nagatsuki and illustrated by Shinichirou Otsuka. The story centers on Subaru Natsuki, a hikikomori who suddenly finds himself transported to another world on his way home from the convenience store. The series was initially serialized on the website Shōsetsuka ni Narō from 2012 onwards. Eleven volumes have been published by Media Factory since January 24, 2014, under their MF Bunko J imprint.
The series ' first three arcs have been adapted into separate manga series. The first, by Daichi Matsue, was published by Media Factory between June 2014 and March 2015. The second, by Makoto Fugetsu, has been published by Square Enix since October 2014. Matsue launched the third adaptation, also published by Media Factory, in May 2015. Additionally, Media Factory published an anthology manga in June 2016. An anime television series adaptation by White Fox began airing on April 4, 2016, with an hour - long special. In August 2016, game developer 5pb. announced plans for a visual novel based on the series.
The novels and all three manga adaptations are published in North America by Yen Press. The anime adaptation has been licensed by Anime Limited in the United Kingdom. The light novels have sold more than two million copies, while the anime series has sold more than 60,000 copies on home video. The light novels have been praised for its fresh take on the "another world '' concept, but have been criticized for awkward dialogue and redundancy. The anime series has been praised by critics for its "culturally complex world '' and for the actions of its characters. The series received awards at the 2015 -- 2016 Newtype Anime Awards, the 2017 Sugoi Japan Awards, and was nominated for Anime of the Year at The Anime Awards 2016.
Subaru Natsuki is a hikikomori who does nothing but play games. One night, after visiting a convenience store, he is suddenly summoned to another world. With no sign of who summoned him, he soon befriends a silver - haired half - elf girl who introduces herself as Satella, and her companion Puck. Satella mentions that her insignia was stolen by a thief named Felt. When he and Satella are mysteriously killed, Subaru awakens and discover that he has acquired the ability "Return by Death '', enabling him to reverse time by dying. He greets Satella again, only for her to be offended at being addressed by the name "Satella '', which in fact refers to the "Jealous Witch '', and is considered a taboo. With the help of Reinhard (a knight) in another timeline, Subaru saves "Satella 's '' life from the assassin Elsa; she reveals that her real name is Emilia, and as a token of gratitude, Felt returns the insignia to her.
While recovering at the margrave Roswaal 's mansion, the mage Beatrice drains Subaru 's mana. After waking up, he meets the twin maids Ram and Rem, as well as Roswaal, who hires him as a butler. Roswaal reveals that Emilia needed the insignia to qualify as a candidate in the upcoming royal election. After mysteriously dying again, Subaru decides to investigate the circumstances leading to his death, and tries to recreate these events. Following a series of traumatic deaths and revivals, he learns that a curse had been placed on him, then deduces it came from a village he had visited earlier, also resolving Rem 's intense hatred for witches. Eventually, the village is threatened by creatures known as mabeasts, so Subaru, Rem and Ram have to rescue the villagers.
Later, Emilia is summoned to the capital by two members of the Royal Guard, Wilhelm and Felix. There, Subaru and company meet the other royal candidates: Priscilla, Crusch, Anastasia and Felt; and their knights, Aldebaran, Julius, and Reinhard. Felt initially announces that she will not participate in the election, and Subaru declares himself to be Emilia 's knight. Following a public fight which leaves Subaru badly injured, he gets into a huge argument with Emilia, and she decides to cut ties with Subaru, leaving him behind.
After recovering, Subaru decides to train under Wilhelm, while Felix advises him to make up with Emilia. Rem then warns Subaru that something is occurring at the mansion, and against Crusch and Felix 's warning, Subaru decides to return to the mansion. There, he discovers many dead bodies, including that of Rem, much to his horror. After dying and respawning, he is ambushed by a wicked group known as the Witch 's Cult and meets the insane leader, Betelgeuse, who then tortures and kills Rem. Having later been killed by a monstrous Puck, Subaru respawns and curses Betelgeuse. Knowing that the mansion and village will be attacked, Subaru seeks help from the other royal candidates, but they all decline. While gathering an evacuation, he encounters a legendary mabeast called the White Whale. Rem sacrifices herself to allow Subaru to escape. After returning to the mansion, Subaru encounters Ram and Emilia, who have no recollection of Rem. Disturbed by the situation, Subaru reveals his "Return by Death '' ability to Emilia, only for her to die afterwards. Puck, enraged, transforms and kills Betelgeuse and his cult, then freezes Subaru to death as punishment for Emilia 's death. After respawning, Subaru, having fallen into utter despair, has a serious conversation with Rem, asking her to run away with him. Rem, however, strongly encourages Subaru not to give up and confesses her love for him, already knowing that his heart is for Emilia. With newfound resolve, Subaru then decides that he will start again from zero.
Subaru and Rem later battle against the White Whale, after successfully striking an alliance with Crusch 's and Anastasia 's camps. Following a long and hard fought battle, Wilhelm ultimately kills the White Whale, thus avenging the death of his wife. Eventually, with the help of his new allies, Subaru is finally able to defeat Betelgeuse and his cult, saving the lives of Emilia and the villagers. Having reconciled with Emilia, Subaru confesses his love for her, leading Emilia to tearfully thank Subaru for saving her.
The series ' editor at MF Bunko J, Ikemoto Masahito, first became aware of the web novel in April 2013, when it began to appear on his Twitter feed. He was immediately impressed by the series ' use of Return by Death, and how it was a "depressing, yet surprising, twist on the fantasy genre '', and began working with Nagatsuki to adapt the series into a light novel. Most light novels are around 250 pages in length, but Nagatsuki submitted a manuscript of more than 1,000 pages for the first novel, forcing Ikemoto to edit it heavily. While Nagatsuki wanted to engage in worldbuilding early on, Ikemoto felt that it was more necessary to make the readers feel engaged with the characters. He ended up rearranging the story so that parts focusing on the world and its lore were pushed back to the third arc of the series.
Prior to his involvement in Re: Zero, illustrator Shinichirou Otsuka worked on video games, which led him to draw the backgrounds first when illustrating the series. After reading the web novel, he submitted a number of character designs for the major characters to Ikemoto. Subaru 's initial design made him look like a delinquent, with Otsuka later describing it as "not the face of a boy in his teens '', leading Ikemoto to request that the character be "more friendly and less fierce '' so that the audience could empathize with him during emotional scenes. Originally, Emilia 's character design appeared extremely plain, so a number of features were added to make her more interesting. Ikemoto specified that she must fit the "archetypal heroine '' mold. Rem and Ram also underwent significant changes from the first draft: their original designs lacked the characteristic hair parts, and their maid uniforms were longer and more "traditional ''.
The possibility of an anime adaptation came up early in the development of the series; Sho Tanaka, a producer at Kadokawa, asked Ikemoto about properties which might lend themselves to being animated, and Ikemoto recommended that Tanaka read Nagatsuki 's web novels. Despite an initial miscommunication which led to Ikemoto believing that Tanaka was n't interested, talks of adapting the series began soon after the web novels began the transition to print.
As part of talks for the potential anime adaptation, Ikemoto and Tanaka spoke to Tsunaki Yoshikawa, an animation producer at studio White Fox, about the possibility of his studio animating the series. Hoping to adapt the series into an anime similar to Steins; Gate (which White Fox also produced), and having a positive impression of the studio as one that did faithful adaptations, Tanaka then formally approached them about producing the show. White Fox 's president contacted Yoshikawa for his opinion, and Yoshikawa recommended they accept, as long as the series "does n't violate any broadcasting regulations ''.
Production on the anime began sometime after the release of the fifth novel in October 2014. Masaharu Watanabe was chosen by Yoshikawa to direct the series because he had previously worked for the studio doing key animation, while Kyuta Sakai was picked to be the series ' character designer and animation director because Yoshikawa felt that she would be able to do justice to the novel 's art and also maintain the series animation quality over 25 episodes. Masahiro Yokotani was brought on board to compose the anime, his first time working on a "reborn in another world '' - type story. Yoshikawa warned him about the violence in the series, but he was still surprised by the violent and disturbing scenes in novels three and beyond, having only read the first novel when he agreed to work on the project; he delegated the writing of those episodes in the second cour to the other two scriptwriters. Yoshiko Nakamura joined the project sometime after Masahiro had completed the script for episode 3. When it proved unfeasible for Yokotani and Nakamura to write the scripts alone, the decision was made to bring another scriptwriter on board. Gaku Iwasa, the president of White Fox, asked them to hire someone "younger '', leading Yokotani to suggest Eiji Umehara. Nagatsuki had recently been playing Chaos; Child, which Umehara had written for, and he approved the choice, suggesting that they let Umehara write the "painful parts ''; Umehara was invited to join the project around the time that the scripts for episodes 8 and 9 were being written. Re: Zero was the first light novel adaptation that either of the screenwriters had worked on.
Original author Tappei Nagatsuki was very active in the production of the anime, attending script meetings, recording sessions, and dubbing. When the staff would encounter a problem with a scene, he would occasionally write lines for them to use as reference while writing the script. The series was not initially intended to have 25 episodes, but was extended to give more time to the battle with the White Whale (which was expanded from two to three episodes) and to the content of episode 18 (episodes 16 to 18 were originally supposed to be covered in two episodes). Watanabe 's main directive to the staff was to "capture the mood of the novel as much as possible ''; the scriptwriters had discussions about how to compress the dense source material without losing the central elements of the story, and Nakamura recalls working with composition notes that "went on for pages ''. While planning and scripting the anime, choosing a proper conclusion was one of the most difficult parts for the staff, and a significant amount of time was devoted to choosing what to cover in the final episode, which included material not yet covered in the light novel.
After joining the project, both Nakamura and Umehara had to adjust their views of the main character, and were forced to rewrite scenes where they had made Subaru appear "cool ''. At Watanabe 's direction, Nakamura was made to rewrite Subaru 's telling of The Red Ogre Who Cried in episode 6 multiple times. The staff also had difficulty deciding on a song to use for Subaru 's ringtone that plays during the closing scene of episode 19, considering songs like "Kanpaku Sengen '', "The Beard Song '', and "M '' by Princess Princess, before settling on "Yoake no Michi '' from Dog of Flanders.
While choosing a composer to produce the series ' music, director Watanabe wanted to choose someone who had "hit a nerve '' with him. A fan of drama series, Watanabe was struck by a piece of music in the medical drama Death 's Organ (ja), and found that the series ' composer, Suehiro Kenichirō, had also worked on a number of his favorite anime and drama series. After Suehiro was attached to the production, Watanabe gave him three major guidelines: use human voices during the Return by Death sequences; compose the music like he would for a drama or a movie to capture the emotional scenes; and "pull all the stops '' for the suspenseful scenes. Additionally, for the first cour, Watanabe asked for music with a "suspenseful '' vibe, while requesting music with a "romantic '' feel for the second cour. Both Watanabe and Suehiro are fans of Italian composer Ennio Morricone, and Suehiro tried to take inspiration from his works while composing the soundtrack. Watanabe also requested that there be songs that mimicked Hans Zimmer 's score from The Dark Knight. While Suehiro used music that was n't very "anime - ish '' during most of the series, he was asked to use more traditional anime music during the slice of life scenes. A number of times during the series, such as in episodes 7 and 15, Watanabe made it a point to use an entire song, something which is unusual in most anime.
The series makes limited use of its opening and ending themes, and Watanabe has said that he wished he could use them more frequently.
The Re: Zero web novel was initially serialized by Tappei Nagatsuki (writing under the username Nezumi - iro Neko (鼠 色 猫, "Mouse - Colored Cat '')) on the user - generated content site Shōsetsuka ni Narō from April 20, 2012 onwards. As of June 13, 2017, six novels and two side stories have been published, comprising a total of 442 chapters.
Following the web novel 's publication, Media Factory acquired the series for print publication. The first light novel volume, with illustrations by Shinichirou Otsuka, was published on January 24, 2014, under their MF Bunko J imprint. As of December 2016, eleven volumes have been published, as well as two side story volumes and two short story collections. Nagatsuki and Otsuka began publishing a series of short side - stories focusing on characters from the series in Monthly Comic Alive, starting with the character Elsa in August 2016. It was followed with one focused on Petra Leyte on November 26, 2016, and one featuring Ram and Rem on January 27, 2016. The light novels are published in English by Yen Press, who announced their acquisition of the license via Twitter on December 2, 2015. The publisher has also acquired the license to the Re: Zero EX side novels.
A manga adaptation by Daichi Matsue, titled Re: ZERO: - Starting Life in Another World - Chapter 1: A Day in the Capital (Re: ゼロ から 始める 異 世界 生活 第 一 章 王 都 の 一 日 編, Re: Zero Kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu Dai - Ichi - Shō: Ōto no Ichinichi - hen), began serialization in the August 2014 issue of Media Factory 's seinen manga magazine Monthly Comic Alive on June 27, 2014. The final volume was released on March 23, 2015. On December 2, 2015, Yen Press announced that they had licensed the series.
A second manga, titled Re: Zero - Starting Life in Another World -, Chapter 2: One Week at the Mansion (Re: ゼロ から 始める 異 世界 生活 第 二 章 屋敷 の 一 週間 編, Re: Zero Kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu Dai - Ni - Shō: Yashiki no Ishūkan - hen), with art by Makoto Fugetsu, began serialization in Square Enix 's seinen magazine Monthly Big Gangan on October 25, 2014. The final chapter was published on December 24, 2016, and an extra chapter was published on January 25, 2017. The second adaptation has also been licensed by Yen Press.
Daichi Matsue began serializing a third manga, Re: Zero - Starting Life in Another World -, Chapter 3: Truth of Zero (Re: ゼロ から 始める 異 世界 生活 第 三 章 Truth of Zero, Re: Zero Kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu Dai - San - Shō: Truth of Zero) in Comic Alive 's July 2015 issue on May 27, 2015. Yen will publish the third adaptation as well.
A manga anthology, titled Re: Zero - Starting Life in Another World - Official Anthology Comic (Re: ゼロ から 始める 異 世界 生活 公式 アンソロジー コミック, Re: Zero kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu Kōshiki Ansorojī Komikku), was published by Media Factory on June 23, 2016.
An Internet radio show to promote the series named "Re: Radio life in a different world from zero '' (Re: ゼロ から 始める 異 世界 ラジオ 生活) began broadcasting on March 27, 2016. The show is aired every Monday and is hosted by Rie Takahashi, the voice actress for Emilia. Guests that have appeared on the show include Yūsuke Kobayashi (Subaru Natsuki), Inori Minase (Rem), Yumi Uchiyama (Puck), Rie Murakawa (Ram), Satomi Arai (Beatrice), Chinatsu Akasaki (Felt), Kana Ueda (Anastasia Hoshin), and Yui Horie (Felix). As September 26, 2016, 27 episodes have been aired. The first radio CD, which contains episodes 1 -- 8 of the show, was released on June 27, 2016. The second, which contains episodes 9 -- 16 of the show, was released on September 28, 2016.
An anime television series adaptation was announced by Kadokawa in July 2015. The series is directed by Masaharu Watanabe and written by Masahiro Yokotani, with animation by the studio White Fox. Kyuta Sakai is serving as both character designer and as chief animation director. Music for the series is composed by Kenichiro Suehiro. Kentaro Minegishi is the series ' director of photography, and Yoshito Takamine serves as art director. Jin Aketagawa handled sound direction for the anime, and sound effects were produced by Yuji Furuya. Other staff members include Hitomi Sudo (editing), Yu Karube (3D director), Saaya Kinjō (art configuration), Izumi Sakamoto (color design), and Noritaka Suzuki and Gōichi Iwabatake (prop design).
The 25 - episode series premiered on April 4, 2016, with an extended 50 - minute first episode. It is being broadcast on TV Tokyo, TV Osaka, TV Aichi, and AT - X. The series is simulcast by Crunchyroll. Episode 18 ran 2 minutes longer than a typical anime episode, clocking at 25 minutes and 45 seconds. The final episode ran 4 minutes longer, clocking at 27 minutes and 15 seconds. An original video animation is currently in production.
The series has been licensed by Anime Limited in the United Kingdom.
A series of anime shorts featuring super deformed versions of the characters, titled Re: Zero ~ Starting Break Time From Zero ~ (Re: ゼロ から 始める 休憩 時間 (ブレイク タイム), Re: Zero kara Hajimeru Break Time), were produced by Studio Puyukai to accompany the series. The shorts ran for eleven episodes before being replaced by a new series of shorts, titled Re: PETIT ~ Starting Life in Another World from PETIT ~ (Re: プチ から 始める 異 世界 生活, Re: Puchi kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu), which began airing on June 24, 2016. The shorts are directed, written, and produced by Minoru Ashina, with character designs by Minoru Takehara, who also animated the series alongside Sumi Kimoto and Chisato Totsuka. Kenichiro Suehiro reprised his role as composer for the shorts, while Tomoji Furuya of Suwara Pro produced the sound effects. Jin Aketagawa directed the sound at production company Magic Capsule.
The shorts aired on AT - X after each episode of the regular series, starting on April 8, 2016. Crunchyroll acquired the streaming rights to both shorts.
The first opening theme song was "Redo '' by Konomi Suzuki, and the first ending theme was "Styx Helix '' by Myth & Roid, while for episode 7 the ending theme was "STRAIGHT BET '', also by Myth & Roid. The second opening theme song, titled "Paradisus - Paradoxum '', was performed by Myth & Roid, while the second ending theme, "Stay Alive '', was performed by Rie Takahashi. Myth & Roid also performed ending theme for episode 14 titled "theater D ''.
The series ' soundtrack was released on CD on October 26, 2016. The disk contains 21 tracks composed by Kenichiro Suehiro.
"Redo '', Suzuki 's 10th single, was released on CD on May 11, 2016. The single was also released as a limited edition with a DVD featuring a music video, a live concert video, and a "making of '' video. The songs were performed by Suzuki, with lyrics by Genki Mizuno and arrangement by Makoto Miyazaki.
The CD for "STYX HELIX '', the series ' first ending theme, was Myth & Roid 's 3rd single. Written, arranged, and performed by the group, it was released on May 25, 2016, and included both regular and instrumental versions of "STYX HELIX '' and "STRAIGHT BET ''.
"Stay Alive '', the second ending theme, was released as a single on August 24, 2016. The songs were performed by Takahashi (Emilia) and Minase (Rem). The songs were written and arranged by Heart 's Cry.
Myth & Roid released the second opening theme as a single on August 24, 2016. The CD included regular and instrumental versions of "Paradisus - Paradoxum '' and "theater D ''.
In August 2016, game developer 5pb. announced that they were developing a visual novel based on the series, titled Re: Zero - Starting Life in Another World - Death or Kiss (Re: ゼロ から 始める 異 世界 生活 - DEATH OR KISS -, Re: Zero kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu - Death or Kiss -). The game follows an original story that differs from the light novel and the anime, and allows the player to choose between routes featuring Emilia, Rem, Ram, Felt, Beatrice, Crusch, Priscilla, or Anastasia. A DLC will allow players who pre-ordered the game to replace the character 's costumes with swimsuits. The opening theme, "yell! magic starts with a kiss '' (yell! ~ くちびる から はじまる 魔法 ~, Yell! ~ Kuchibiru kara Hajimaru Mahō ~), was performed by Suzuki, who sung the anime 's first opening theme, while the ending theme, "Dai Dai Daisuki '' (ダイ ・ ダイ ・ ダイスキ), was performed by Minase and Murakawa.
In Japan, the game was originally scheduled to be released for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita on March 23, 2017, but was delayed to March 30, 2017, due to certain circumstances. The limited edition of the game came with a soundtrack CD and either a Ram (for the PS4 version) or Rem (for the PSVita version) SD figure.
Kadokawa published a 272 - page guide to the series ' first three arcs, titled Re: zeropedia, alongside the 10th volume of the novels on October 24, 2016. An official dōjinshi art book was published at Comiket, with art by Ponkan 8 (Shirobako and My Youth Romantic Comedy Is Wrong, As I Expected), Yuka Nakajima (Listen to Me, Girls. I Am Your Father!, Amagi Brilliant Park), and TakayaKi (Arifureta Shokugyou de Sekai Saikyou). A crossover with Natsume Akatsuki 's light novel series KonoSuba, titled Re: Starting Life Blessing This World was published on December 21, 2016. The book featured interviews between the author 's and illustrators of each series as well as the principle voice actor 's of their respective anime adaptations. A one - shot crossover manga by Daichi Matsuse and Masahito Watari (illustrator of the KonoSuba manga adaptation) was also included. A fanbook containing commentary on the episodes of the anime, as well as the collected Animate Times cast and staff interviews, was published on December 31, 2016.
According to Japanese light novel news website LN News, the series had 1 million copies in print as of June 2016, and over 2 million as of September 2016. The light novel series was the tenth best - selling light novel series in Japan between November 2015 and May 2016, selling 263,357 copies. During that period, the first and second volumes were the 35th and 48th best - selling light novel volumes, selling 49,194 and 41,617 copies, respectively. The series was the fourth best - selling series in 2016, selling 1,007,381 copies between November 2015 and November 2016. Its first three volumes were the 14th, 21st, and 30th best selling volumes of the year, selling 155,363, 127,970, and 110,574 copies, respectively. In 2017, the series was the third best - selling series, with 925,671 copies sold. Its 1st, 10th, 11th, and 12th volumes respectively ranking 19th (60,135 copies), 25th (56,001 copies), 7th (101,480 copies), and 12th (79,431 copies) in the period between November 2016 and May 2017.
The series was the 21st best selling anime series on home video during 2016, selling approximately 68,791 Blu - ray and DVD sets.
Theron Martin of Anime News Network reviewed the first book, praising it for being a somewhat fresher take on the "transported to another world '' concept, but leveled criticism at it for bumpy and awkwardly timed dialogue and a tendency for redundancy.
The series ranked number one in a poll of 820 people conducted by the Japanese website Anime! Anime! to determine the best show of spring 2016. Andy Hanley from UK Anime Network considered the anime adaptation as one of 2016 's best series.
The Managing Editor from Anime Now!, Richard Eisenbeis lists the anime as his top picks from 2016 for its "culturally complex '' world and characters that has "their own plans, faults, and motivations ''. He praised Subaru as the "most complex character of the year '' due to provoking the audience to "cheer him and despise him '' in a world that portrayed him as the "least special person in it ''.
The series took second place in the 2015 -- 2016 Newtype Anime Awards. Additionally, director Masaharu Watanabe took first place, as did Subaru, Rem, and Puck (in the best male, female, and mascot character categories, respectively). Masahiro Yokotani 's screenplay took second place, while the series ' character designs (by Shinichirou Otsuka and Kyuta Sakai) took third place. The series ' soundtrack and second opening theme both took fourth place in their categories. The light novels and the anime both took first place in their respective categories in the 2017 Sugoi Japan Awards.
In a survey of (primarily female) Otamart users, the series was ranked second on a list of the most successful anime / manga / light novel franchises of 2016. Re: Zero was nominated for "Anime of the Year '' in The Anime Awards 2016, and was also the service 's most - watched series of 2016, topping Yuri on Ice.
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what does the vietnamese last name tran mean | Vietnamese name - Wikipedia
Vietnamese personal names generally consist of three parts: one family name, one or more middle name (s), and one given name, used in that order. The "family name first '' order follows the system of Chinese names and is common throughout the Chinese cultural sphere. However, it is different from Chinese, Korean, and Japanese names in the usage of "middle names, '' as they are less common in China and Korea and do not exist in Japan. Persons can be referred to by the whole name, the given name or a hierarchic pronoun, which usually connotes a degree of family relationship or kinship, in normal usage.
Due to the frequency of the major family names such as Nguyễn, Trần, and Lê, persons are often referred to by their middle name along with their given name in Vietnamese media and youth culture.
The Vietnamese language is tonal, and so are Vietnamese names. Names with the same spelling (ignoring diacritics) but with different tones are different names, which can confuse non-Vietnamese people when the diacritics are dropped, as is commonly done outside Vietnam.
Anyone applying for Vietnamese nationality must adopt a Vietnamese name.
The family name, positioned first, is passed on by the father to his children. It is estimated that there are around one hundred family names in common use, although some are far more common than others. The name Nguyễn is estimated to be used by almost 40 % of the Vietnamese population. The top three names are so popular because people tended to take the family name of emperors, to show their loyalty. Over many generations, the family names became permanent.
The most common family names among the Vietnamese are the following (the Chinese characters following each name are Hán tự). Added together these 14 names account for 90 % of the people.
The following include some other, less common, surnames, in alphabetical order:
In Vietnamese cultural practice, women always keep their family names once they marry, just as in other East Asian cultures, including Chinese culture, to the north and northeast.
Most Vietnamese have one middle name, but it is quite possible to have two or more, or even no middle names at all.
In the past, the middle name was selected by parents from a fairly narrow range of options. Almost all women had Thị (氏) as their middle name, and many men had Văn (文). More recently, a broader range of names have been used, and people named Thị sometimes omit their middle name.
Thị is by far the most common female middle name. This word expresses possession; for example, "Trần Thị Mai Loan '' is a person who has the given name of "Mai Loan '' and the surname "Trần '', and the combination "Trần Thị '' means "A female person belonging to the Trần family ''. The combination is similar to Western surname formation like "Van '' in "Van Helsing '', "Mac '' in "MacCartney '' etc. Male middle names include Văn (文), Hữu (友), Đức (德), Thành (誠), Công (公), Quang (光) and many others.
The middle name can have three usages:
However, nowadays most middle names do not have those usages. They can either have a meaning or just be there to make the full names more euphonious.
In most cases, formally, the middle name is a part of the given name. For example, the name "Đinh Quang Dũng '' is separated into the surname "Đinh '' and the given name "Quang Dũng ''. In a normal name list, these two parts of the full name are put in two different columns. However, in daily conversation, the last word in a given name with a title before it is used to address a person, for example "Ông Dũng '', "Anh Dũng '', etc. where "Ông '' and "Anh '' are words to address the person which depend on age, social position, etc.
The given name is the primary form of address for Vietnamese. It is chosen by parents and usually has a literal meaning in the Vietnamese language. Names often represent beauty, such as bird or flower names, or attributes and characteristics that the parents want in their child, such as modesty (Khiêm, 謙).
Typically, Vietnamese will be addressed with their given name, even in formal situations, although an honorific equivalent to "Mr. '', "Mrs. '', etc. will be added when necessary. This contrasts with the situation in many other cultures, where the family name is used in formal situations, and is a practice similar to Icelandic usage and, to some degree, to Polish practice. It is similar to the Latin - American and southern European custom of referring to some people as "Don '' along with their first name.
Addressing someone by his or her family name is rare though not unheard of. In the past, married women in the north were called by their (maiden) family name, with Thị (氏) as a suffix. In recent years, doctors are more likely than any other social group to be addressed by their family name, though this form of reference is more common in the north than in the south. Some extremely well - known people are sometimes referred to by their family names, such as Hồ Chí Minh (Bác Hồ -- "Uncle Hồ '') (however, his real surname is Nguyễn), Trịnh Công Sơn (nhạc Trịnh -- "Trịnh music ''), and Hồ Xuân Hương (nữ sĩ họ Hồ -- "the poetess with the family name Hồ ''). In the old days, people in Vietnam, particularly North Vietnam, addressed parents using the first child 's name; for example, Mr and Mrs Anh or Master Minh.
When being addressed within the family, children are sometimes referred to by their birth number, starting from one in the north but starting with two in the south. This practice is less common recently, especially in the north.
Some names may appear the same if simplified into a basic ASCII script, as for example on websites, but are different names:
Typically, as in the above examples, it is middle or the last personal given name which varies, as almost any Sino - Vietnamese character may be used. The number of family names is limited.
Further, some historical names may be written using different Chinese characters (Sino - Vietnamese), but are still written the same in the modern Vietnamese alphabet.
According to the Chicago Manual of Style, Vietnamese names are indexed according to the final given name and not according to the family name, with a cross-reference placed in regards to the family name. Ngo Dinh Diem would be listed as "Diem, Ngo Dinh '' and Vo Nguyen Giap would be listed as "Giap, Vo Nguyen ''.
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how many times has the chief justice of india performed the duties of the president | Mohammad Hidayatullah - Wikipedia
Mohammad Hidayatullah OBE pronunciation (help info) (17 December 1905 -- 18 September 1992) was the 11th Chief Justice of India serving from 25 February 1968 to 16 December 1970, and the sixth Vice President of India, serving from 31 August 1979 to 30 August 1984. He had also served as the Acting President of India from 20 July 1969 to 24 August 1969 and from 6 October 1982 to 31 October 1982. He is regarded as an eminent jurist, scholar, educationist, author and linguist. His brother, Mohammed Ikramullah, was a prominent Pakistani diplomat, whose wife, Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah, was a niece of Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, sometime Prime Minister of undivided Pakistan and herself a member of the first Pakistani Constituent assembly.
Hidayatullah was born in 1905 in the well - known family of Khan Bahadur Hafiz Mohammed Wilayatullah, an upper - class family. His grand father Munshi Kudartullah was advocate in Varanasi. His father was a poet of all - India repute who wrote poems in Urdu and probably it must have been from him that Justice Hidayatullah got his love for language and literature. Wilayatullah was Gold medallist of Aligarh Muslim University in 1897 besting famous mathematician Sir Ziauddin Ahmad, a favourite of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. He served till 1928 in ICS and from 1929 -- 33 as member of Central Legislative Assembly. Hidaytullah 's elder brothers Mohammed Ikramullah (ICS, later Foreign Secretary, Pakistan) and Ahmedullah (ICS, retired as Chairman, Tariff Board) were scholars as well as sportsmen. He on the other hand excelled in Urdu poetry.
After completing primary education at the Government High School of Raipur in 1922, Hidayatullah attended Morris College in Nagpur, where he was nominated as the Phillip 's Scholar in 1926. When he graduated in 1926, he was awarded the Malak Gold Medal. Following the trend of Indians studying British law abroad, Hidayatullah attended Trinity College at the University of Cambridge from 1927 to 1930 and obtained B.A. and M.A. Degrees from there. Here he secured the 2nd order of merit and was awarded a Gold Medal for his performance in 1930. He was called to the Bar from Lincoln 's Inn when he was just 25 years old. He was awarded LL. D. (Honoris Causa) from University of the Philippines and D. Litt. (Honoris Causa) from University of Bhopal (now Barkatullah University) and University of Kakatiya. While at Cambridge, Hidayatullah was elected and served as the President of the Indian Majlis in 1929. Also while here, he pursued English and Law Tripos from the renowned Lincoln 's Inn. In addition he secured a place of Barrister - at - Law in 1930.
After graduation, Hidayatullah returned to India and enrolled as an advocate of the High Court of Central Provinces and Berar at Nagpur on 19 July 1930. He also taught Jurisprudence and Mahomedan Law in the University College of Law at Nagpur and was also the Extension Lecturer in English literature. On 12 December 1942, he was appointed GovernmentPleader in the High Court at Nagpur. On 2 August 1943, he became the Advocate General of Central Provinces and Berar (now Madhya Pradesh) and continued to hold the said post till he was appointed as an Additional Judge of that High Court in 1946. He had the distinction of being the youngest Advocate General of an Indian state, Madhya Pradesh
On 24 June 1946, Hidayatullah was appointed as Additional Judge of that High Court of Central Provinces and Berar and on 13 September 1946 he was appointed as permanent judge of said High Court where he served until being elevated to Chief Justice of the Nagpur High Court in 1954 on 3 December 1954, being the youngest Chief Justice of a High Court. In November 1956, he was then appointed as the Chief Justice of Madhya Pradesh High Court. On 1 December 1958, he was elevated as a justice to the Supreme Court of India. In his time he was the youngest judge of the Supreme Court of India. After serving as a judge for nearly 10 years, he was appointed as the Chief Justice of India on 28 February 1968 -- becoming the first Muslim Chief Justice of India. He retired from this position on 16 December 1970.
During his term as the Chief Justice of India, the then - President of India, Zakir Husain died suddenly, in harness, on 3 May 1969. Then Vice-President of India Mr. V.V. Giri became the acting President. Later, Giri resigned from both offices as acting President and Vice-President to become a candidate in the 1969 Presidential Election. Hidayatullah then served as the President of India for a short period from 20 July to 24 August. The visit of President of the United States Richard Nixon to India made his Presidential term historic.
After his retirement, Hidayatullah was elected as the Vice-President of India by a consensus among different parties and occupied that high office with distinction from 1979 to August 1984. During his tenure as the Vice-President, he won the respect of all concerned for his impartiality and independence.
In 1982, when the then President Zail Singh went to the U.S. for medical treatment, Vice-President Hidayatullah officiated as President from 6 October 1982 to 31 October 1982. Thus, he officiated as acting President twice.
Having served at all of these positions made Hidayatullah unique among other members of Indian history. He became the only person to have served in all three offices of Chief Justice of India, President of India, and the Vice-President of India.
During his long tenure in the Supreme Court he was a party to a number of landmark judgments including the judgment in Golaknath v. State of Punjab which took the view that the Parliament had no power to cut down the Fundamental Rights by constitutional amendment. His judgment in the case of Ranjit D. Udeshi dealing with the law of obscenity, displayed a flair for literature which is not so common among our judges.
Before being elevated as a judge to High Court, Hidayatullah was involved in local and state affairs. The following are some of the committee positions he held:
Many of these positions, as well as those of High Court Justice were held prior to Indian Independence, they were all considered service to Great Britain, thus Hidayatullah was conferred the honour as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire by King George VI in the 1946 King 's Birthday Honours.
Having received an education at one of the premier legal institutions of the time, Hidayatullah was able to segue into an academic career not long after returning to India. In 1935, he took a teaching post at University College of Law, where he taught until 1943. Later he served as Dean of the Faculty of Law at Nagpur University from 1949 to 1953. In addition, he served as Faculty of Law at various other institutions throughout the 1950s: Sagar University, Court Vikram University, and the Aligarh Muslim University. He was Pro-Chancellor of the Delhi University from 1968 to 1970, Chancellor of the Jamia Millia Islamia from 1969 to 1985, Chancellor of the Delhi and Punjab Universities between 1979 and 1984 and Chancellor of the Hyderabad University from 1986 to 1990. He was the President of the Indian Law Institute from 1963 to 1970, President of the International Law Association (Indian Branch) from 1968 to 1970 and of the Indian Society of International Law in 1969 - 70.
He was, at one time, a Member of the Executive Council of the World Assembly of Judges and of the Managing Committee of the British Institute of International and Comparative Law. He was a Member of the International Council of Former Scouts and Guides, Brussels, and Chief Scout of the Boy Scouts Association of India. Post-retirement, Hidayatullah renewed his interest in Boy Scouts and served as Chief Scout of the All India Boy Scouts Association from 1982 to 1992. He held the posts of the President of Bombay Natural History Society and of the Patron of Schizophrenic Research Foundation of India and Commonwealth Society of India. He was also a Member of the World Association for Orphans and Abandoned Children and a Settlor of the Jawaharlal Nehru Cambridge University Trust. He also represented India in International Conferences held in different countries and cities, such as, Washington, London, Geneva, Sydney, the Hague, Tokyo, Stockholm, Belgrade, Cairo and Bangkok.
Hidayatullah was a scholar in Hindi, English, Urdu, Persian and French. He had working knowledge of some other Indian languages including Sanskrit and Bengali.
Hidayatullah was the president of Indian Law Institute, International Law Association (Indian Branch), Indian Society of International Law from 1968 to 1970. He also presided the Indian Red Cross Society in 1982. He was closely associated with Hunger Project of USA, World Association of Orphans and Abandoned Children (Geneva), and Independent Commission on International Humanitarian Issues (1982 -- 84).
The Hidayatullah National Law University at Naya Raipur is named after him.
Between 1970 and 1987, as many as 12 Indian Universities and the University of Philippines conferred upon him the honorary degreeof Doctorate of Law or Literature.
In his honor, the Hidayatullah National Law University was established in 2003, in his home town of Raipur, in the state of Chhattisgarh. University also organises Justice Hidayatullah Memorial National Moot Court Competition (HNMCC) in his memory.
In 1948, Hidayatullah married Pushpa Shah who was Hindu by religion. Their son Arshad Hidayatullah is a Senior Counsel at the Supreme Court of India.
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what is the name of suriname international airport | Johan Adolf Pengel International Airport - wikipedia
Johan Adolf Pengel International Airport (IATA: PBM, ICAO: SMJP), also known as Paramaribo - Zanderij International Airport, and locally referred to simply as JAP, is an airport located in the town of Zanderij and hub for airline carrier Surinam Airways, 45 kilometres (28 mi) south of Paramaribo. It is the larger of Suriname 's two international airports, the other being Zorg en Hoop with scheduled flights to Guyana, and is operated by Airport Management, Ltd. / NV Luchthavenbeheer.
Prior to World War II, Zandery Airport was a Pan American World Airways (PAA) stop. In 1928 Pan American World Airways started mail flights from Miami to Paramaribo, the capital of the then Dutch colony Suriname. Pan American World Airways used Sikorsky S - 38 amphibians. Rich and famous Americans, mostly aviators, visited Suriname. On 24 March 1934 female pilot Guggenheim and male pilot Russel Thaw had to make an emergency landing near the Nieuwe Haven, because they could not find Zanderij airfield. The Lockheed airplane was so severely damaged that it was shipped back to the USA. On 16 April 1934 female aviator Laura Ingalls landed in a single engine airplane, the Lockheed Air Express at Zanderij in the first solo flight around South America in a landplane. The KLM tri-motor Fokker F - XVIII, named the SNIP, made a trans - atlantic crossing from Amsterdam via Paramaribo to Curaçao, carrying mail. The trip of 12,200 km (more than 4,000 over water) landed 8 days after take - off from Schiphol, on 22 December 1934 at Hato Airport. Captain was J.J. Hongdong, co-pilot / navigator J.J. van Balkom, engineer L.D. Stolk, wireless operator S. v.d. Molen. The route was from Amsterdam via Marseille, Alicante, Casablanca, Cabo Verde, Paramaribo and Caracas. The SNIP landed at Zanderij Field on 20 December 1934 after a first trans - atlantic crossing of 3600 km, dubbed "the Christmas Mail - flight '', directly from Porto Praia. However, the Snip flight did not inaugurate a regular KLM trans - Atlantic service. In January 1937 William Henry Vanderbilt III landed in a baby Clipper Sikorsky S - 38 at Zanderij with wife and friends The Flying Hutchinsons. On 3 June 1937 aviation pioneer Amelia Earhart landed at Zanderij with a Lockheed Model 10 Electra at local time 2.38 P.M. The navigator was a retired PAA aviator Fred Noonan. This was on their second attempt of a "World Flight '' en route from Miami to Natal and then transatlantic to Dakar, Senegal. They stayed overnight at the Palace Hotel in Paramaribo and left Zanderij again on Friday 4 June 1937 for Fortaleza, Brazil. One month later they disappeared over the central Pacific Ocean near Howland Island. On 16 March 1938 two pilots Whitney and Harmon made an emergency landing with their Beechcraft on an airstrip near the Eerste Rijweg. They could not find Zanderij Airfield. In 1938 the KLM started a weekly service between Paramaribo and Willemstad (Curaçao) with a twin engined Lockheed L - 14 Super Electra able to carry 12 passengers and named MEEUW (PJ - AIM). Mail arrived much faster at Curaçao than with PAA, but the service was no commercial success. On 11 May 1939 The Flying Hutchinsons arrived at Zanderij in a twin engine Lockheed Electra, on their "family round - the - world global nations flight '' which was broadcast on a radio series sponsored by Pepsi Cola.
After the fall of the Netherlands to German forces in 1940, the United States obtained military basing rights to the airport from the Netherlands government - in - exile in London. Suriname was then the world 's principal source of bauxite (for aluminium production) and needed protection. The first American armed forces arrived at the airport on 30 November 1941 and expanded the facilities to be a transport base for sending Lend - Lease supplies to England via air routes across the South Atlantic Ocean. The runways were constructed by the US Corps of Engineers. They also built the road from Onverwacht to Zanderij which was completed in 1942.
With the United States entry into the war in December 1941, the importance of Zandery Field increased drastically, becoming a major transport base on the South Atlantic route of Air Transport Command ferrying supplies and personnel to Freetown Airport, Sierra Leone and onwards to the European and African theaters of the war. In addition, antisubmarine patrols were flown from the airfield over the southern Caribbean and South Atlantic coastlines.
Major United States Army Air Force (USAAF) units assigned to the airfield were:
Just before the Pearl Harbor Attack, on 3 December, the 99th Squadron was ordered to distant Zandery Field, Dutch Guiana (by way of Piarco Field, Trinidad) under an agreement with the Netherlands government - in - exile, by which the United States occupied the colony to protect bauxite mines. However, to the disappointment of the crews, the squadron had to leave its B - 17 behind. It was, however, reinforced with additional B - 18A Bolo 's, bringing squadron strength up to six aircraft. On 2 October 1942, a B - 18A, piloted by Captain Howard Burhanna Jr. of the 99th Bomb Squadron, depth charged and sank the German submarine U-512 north of Cayenne, French Guiana.
At Zandery, the unit shuttled from Zandery to Atkinson Field, British Guiana and, by January 1942, had eight Curtiss P - 40C Warhawks assigned. The P - 40s were, in actuality detached for airfield defense by the Trinidad Base Command, under which the 99th fell at the time.
The intensive flying of the first two months of the war soon took its toll, however, and by the end of February 1942, the Squadron was forced to report that it had but three B - 18A 's operational at Zandery and that "... none of them are airworthy at this time. '' Apparently the unit was quickly reinforced and by 1 March strength was back up to six aircraft, and seven combat crews, all of whom had more than 12 months experience.
Operations from Zandery Field consisted of coastal, convoy and anti-submarine patrols until 31 October 1942. Just prior to which time the 4th Antisubmarine Squadron was attached to the Squadron between 9 and 16 October. At this point Antisubmarine Command took over the mission of the 99th and the men and aircraft of the squadron were reassigned.
In the middle of World War II, on 2 November 1943, Her Royal Highness Princess Juliana visited Suriname from Canada. She landed at Zanderij with KLM airplane Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra PJ - AIM Meeuw as the first ever member of the Dutch Royal Family. After the landing of the Meeuw and escorting Dutch and US military planes, the Royal Princess was welcomed by governor Kielstra and inspected the guard of honour.
With the end of World War II Zandery Airfield was reduced in scope to a skeleton staff. It was closed as a military facility on 30 April 1946. And on 22 October 1947 the Zandery Air Force Base was turned over to Dutch authorities which returned it to a civil airport. At that time the value of the facility was estimated to be Sf. 400.000, -.
In March 1947 Alfredo de Los Rios landed with a 8 - F Luscombe plane at Zanderij. He had traveled from the aircraft factory Dallas, Texas in the U.S.A.. In June 1959 pilots and missionaries Robert Price and Eugene Friesen arrived at Zandery with a single engine plane. They performed many medical treatment work in the interior and the Sipaliwini savannah. On 3 March 1960 American president Dwight D. Eisenhower landed at Zanderij on board Air Force One operated by the U.S. Air Force with a Boeing 707 jetliner. He was accompanied by Secretary of State Christian Herter. They left Suriname the same day. On 14 April 1967 American president Lyndon B. Johnson arrived during a rainstorm at Zanderij on board Air Force One, a Boeing 707 jet. Security was tight around Zanderij Airport. An agreement was signed by the Dutch government and the USA to use Zanderij Airport for Military Airlift Command (MAC) usage. The USA paid US $22.000, - for 400 landings per year. The crews stayed overnight at the Torarica Hotel. The North American X-15 NASA rocket - powered aircraft was on exhibition at Zanderij Airport for an Airshow held from 8 -- 13 November 1963. On 7 April 1972, the first ever Boeing 747 wide body jetliner to land in South America, operated by KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, landed at Zanderij Airport, Suriname.
The airport has officially been named after the popular Surinamese politician and former Prime Minister of Suriname Johan Adolf Pengel, but is locally still common named Zanderij. This is parallel to the small village and savannah where it is situated. The airport now has one runway of approximately 3.5 km and sees an average of 100.000 passengers yearly, mainly on transatlantic flights between Paramaribo and Amsterdam from KLM and Surinam Airways and some regional flights to Belem, Georgetown, Cayenne, Miami and the Caribbean, also with Caribbean Airlines and Insel Air, besides Surinam Airways.
The state will invest an extra US $70 million in expanding and modernizing the J.A. Pengel airport. US $28.5 million has been invested so far in the airport 's modernization. For the time being, the arrival lounge, commercial center and parking lot have been handed over, while the runway has been repaved, the platform for planes has been renovated, the runway lights on the arrival side have been replaced and a backup system for electricity has been installed as well. This was all done prior to the August 30, 2013 UNASUR heads - of - state summit, hosted by Suriname. The project, which was prepared during the previous administration, is insufficient to actually turn the airport into an international hub. The departure and arrival lounges are currently apart from each other, but plans are to connect them in the future with airbridges. Lights were placed on the departure side of the runway, and the platform was expanded to accommodate more planes. The fire department barracks were moved to a more central location. Plans are to have the airbridges installed in the future, while the other matters were finished by 2017.
Media related to Johan Adolf Pengel International Airport at Wikimedia Commons
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where is voting first mentioned in the constitution | Voting rights in the United States - wikipedia
The issue of voting rights in the United States, specifically the enfranchisement and disenfranchisement of different groups, has been contested throughout United States history.
Eligibility to vote in the United States is established both through the federal constitution and by state law. Several constitutional amendments (the 15th, 19th, and 26th specifically) require that voting rights can not be abridged on account of race, color, previous condition of servitude, sex, or age for those above 18; the constitution as originally written did not establish any such rights during 1787 -- 1870. In the absence of a specific federal law or constitutional provision, each state is given considerable discretion to establish qualifications for suffrage and candidacy within its own respective jurisdiction; in addition, states and lower level jurisdictions establish election systems, such as at - large or single member district elections for county councils or school boards.
Beyond qualifications for suffrage, rules and regulations concerning voting (such as the poll tax) have been contested since the advent of Jim Crow laws and related provisions that indirectly disenfranchised racial minorities. Since the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the 24th Amendment to the Constitution, and related laws, voting rights have been legally considered an issue related to election systems. The Supreme Court ruled in 1964 that both houses of all state legislatures had to be based on election districts that were relatively equal in population size, under the "one man, one vote '' principle. In 1972, the Court ruled that state legislatures had to redistrict every ten years based on census results; at that point, many had not redistricted for decades, often leading to a rural bias.
In other cases, particularly for county or municipal elections, at - large voting has been repeatedly challenged when found to dilute the voting power of significant minorities in violation of the Voting Rights Act. In the early 20th century, numerous cities established small commission forms of government in the belief that "better government '' could result from the suppression of ward politics. Commissioners were elected by the majority of voters, excluding candidates who could not afford large campaigns or who appealed to a minority. Generally the solution to such violations has been to adopt single - member districts (SMDs) but alternative election systems, such as limited voting or cumulative voting, have also been used since the late 20th century to correct for dilution of voting power and enable minorities to elect candidates of their choice.
The United States Constitution did not originally define who was eligible to vote, allowing each state to determine who was eligible. In the early history of the U.S., most states allowed only white male adult property owners to vote. Freed slaves could vote in four states. Women were largely prohibited from voting, as were men without property. Women could vote in New Jersey until 1807 (provided they could meet the property requirement) and in some local jurisdictions in other northern states. Non-white Americans could also vote in these jurisdictions, provided they could meet the property requirement. By 1856, white men were allowed to vote in all states regardless of property ownership, although requirements for paying tax remained in five states. On the other hand, several states, including Pennsylvania and New Jersey stripped the free black males of the right to vote in the same period.
Four of the fifteen post-Civil War constitutional amendments were ratified to extend voting rights to different groups of citizens. These extensions state that voting rights can not be denied or abridged based on the following:
Following the Reconstruction Era until the culmination of the Civil Rights Movement, Jim Crow laws such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and religious tests were some of the state and local laws used in various parts of the United States to deny immigrants (including legal ones and newly naturalized citizens), non-white citizens, Native Americans, and any other locally "undesirable '' groups from exercising voting rights granted under the constitution. Because of such state and local discriminatory practices, over time, the federal role in elections has increased, through amendments to the Constitution and enacted legislation (e.g., the Voting Rights Act of 1965).
The "right to vote '' is not explicitly stated in the U.S. Constitution except in the above referenced amendments, and only in reference to the fact that the franchise can not be denied or abridged based solely on the aforementioned qualifications. In other words, the "right to vote '' is perhaps better understood, in layman 's terms, as only prohibiting certain forms of legal discrimination in establishing qualifications for suffrage. States may deny the "right to vote '' for other reasons. For example, many states require eligible citizens to register to vote a set number of days prior to the election in order to vote. More controversial restrictions include those laws that prohibit convicted felons from voting, even those who have served their sentences. Another example, seen in Bush v. Gore, are disputes as to what rules should apply in counting or recounting ballots.
A state may choose to fill an office by means other than an election. For example, upon death or resignation of a legislator, the state may allow the affiliated political party to choose a replacement to hold office until the next scheduled election. Such an appointment is often affirmed by the governor.
The Constitution, in Article VI, clause (paragraph) 3, states that "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States ''. However, as described in the sections below, voting rights reforms in the 19th and 20th centuries extended the franchise to non-whites, those who do not own property, women, and those 18 -- 21 years old.
Each extension of voting rights has been a product of, and also brought about, social change. Extension of voting rights happened through movements and a need for the US to adapt to its growing population.
From 1778 to 1871, the government tried to resolve its relationship with the various native tribes by negotiating treaties. These treaties formed agreements between two sovereign nations, stating that Native American people were citizens of their tribe, living within the boundaries of the United States. The treaties were negotiated by the executive branch and ratified by the U.S. Senate. It said that native tribes would give up their rights to hunt and live on huge parcels of land that they had inhabited in exchange for trade goods, yearly cash annuity payments, and assurances that no further demands would be made on them. Most often, part of the land would be "reserved '' exclusively for the tribe 's use.
Throughout the 1800s, many native tribes gradually lost claim to the lands they had inhabited for centuries through the federal government 's Indian Removal policy to relocate tribes from the Southeast and Northwest to west of the Mississippi River. European - American settlers continued to encroach on western lands. Only in 1879, in the Standing Bear trial, were American Indians recognized as persons in the eyes of the United States government. Judge Elmer Scipio Dundy of Nebraska declared that Indians were people within the meaning of the laws, and they had the rights associated with a writ of habeas corpus. However, Judge Dundy left unsettled the question as to whether Native Americans were guaranteed US citizenship.
Although Native Americans were born within the national boundaries of the United States, those on reservations were considered citizens of their own tribes, rather than of the United States. They were denied the right to vote because they were not considered citizens by law and were thus ineligible. Many Native Americans were told that they would become citizens if they gave up their tribal affiliations in 1887 under the Dawes Act, which allocated communal lands to individual households and was intended to aid in the assimilation of Native Americans into majority culture. This still did not guarantee their right to vote. In 1924 the remaining Native Americans, estimated at about one - third, became United States citizens. But, many western states continued to restrict Native American ability to vote through property requirements, economic pressures, hiding the polls, and condoning of physical violence against those who voted. Since the late 20th century, they have been protected under provisions of the Voting Rights Act as a racial minority, and in some areas, language minority, gaining election materials in their native languages.
In several British North American colonies, before and after the 1776 Declaration of Independence, Jews, Quakers and / or Catholics were excluded from the franchise and / or from running for elections.
The Delaware Constitution of 1776 stated that "Every person who shall be chosen a member of either house, or appointed to any office or place of trust, before taking his seat, or entering upon the execution of his office, shall (...) also make and subscribe the following declaration, to wit: I, A B. do profess faith in God the Father, and in Jesus Christ His only Son, and in the Holy Ghost, one God, blessed for evermore; and I do acknowledge the holy scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be given by divine inspiration. ''. This was repealed by Article I, Section II. of the 1792 Constitution: "No religious test shall be required as a qualification to any office, or public trust, under this State ''. The 1778 Constitution of the State of South Carolina stated, "No person shall be eligible to sit in the house of representatives unless he be of the Protestant religion '', the 1777 Constitution of the State of Georgia (art. VI) that "The representatives shall be chosen out of the residents in each county (...) and they shall be of the Protestant religion ''.
With the growth in the number of Baptists in Virginia before the Revolution, who challenged the established Anglican Church, the issues of religious freedom became important to rising leaders such as James Madison. As a young lawyer, he defended Baptist preachers who were not licensed by (and were opposed by) the established state Anglican Church. He carried developing ideas about religious freedom to be incorporated into the constitutional convention of the United States.
In 1787, Article One of the United States Constitution stated that "the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature ''. More significantly, Article Six disavowed the religious test requirements of several states, saying: "(N) o religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ''
But, in Maryland, Jewish Americans were excluded from State office until the law requiring candidates to affirm a belief in an afterlife was repealed in 1828.
At the time of ratification of the Constitution in the late 18th century, most states had property qualifications which restricted the franchise; the exact amount varied by state, but by some estimates, more than half of white men were disenfranchised. Several states granted suffrage to free men of color after the Revolution, including North Carolina. This fact was noted by Justice Benjamin Robbins Curtis ' dissent in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), as he emphasized that blacks had been considered citizens at the time the Constitution was ratified:
Of this there can be no doubt. At the time of the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, all free native - born inhabitants of the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and North Carolina, though descended from African slaves, were not only citizens of those States, but such of them as had the other necessary qualifications possessed the franchise of electors, on equal terms with other citizens.
When the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868 after the Civil War, it granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to its jurisdiction. In 1869, the Fifteenth Amendment prohibited the government from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen 's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude ''. The major effect of these amendments was to enfranchise African American men, the overwhelming majority of whom were freedmen in the South.
After the war, some southern states passed "Black Codes '', state laws to restrict the new freedoms of African Americans. They attempted to control their movement, assembly, working conditions and other civil rights. Some states also prohibited them from voting.
The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, one of three ratified after the American Civil War to grant freedmen full rights of citizenship, prevented any state from denying the right to vote to any citizen based on race. This was primarily related to protecting the franchise of freedmen, but it also applied to non-white minorities, such as Mexican Americans in Texas. The state governments under Reconstruction adopted new state constitutions or amendments designed to protect the ability of freedmen to vote. The white resistance to black suffrage after the war regularly erupted into violence as white groups tried to protect their power. Particularly in the South, in the aftermath of the Civil War whites made efforts to suppress freedmen 's voting. In the 1860s, secret vigilante groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) used violence and intimidation to keep freedmen in a controlled role and reestablish white supremacy. But, black freedmen registered and voted in high numbers, and many were elected to local offices through the 1880s.
In the mid-1870s, the insurgencies continued with a rise in more powerful white paramilitary groups, such as the White League, originating in Louisiana in 1874 after a disputed gubernatorial election; and the Red Shirts, originating in Mississippi in 1875 and developing numerous chapters in North and South Carolina; as well as other "White Line '' rifle clubs. They operated openly, were more organized than the KKK, and directed their efforts at political goals: to disrupt Republican organizing, turn Republicans out of office, and intimidate or kill blacks to suppress black voting. They worked as "the military arm of the Democratic Party ''. For instance, estimates were that 150 blacks were killed in North Carolina before the 1876 elections. Economic tactics such as eviction from rental housing or termination of employment were also used to suppress the black vote. White Democrats regained power in state legislatures across the South by the late 1870s, and the federal government withdrew its troops as a result of a national compromise related to the presidency, officially ending Reconstruction.
African Americans were a majority in three southern states following the Civil War, and represented over 40 % of the population in four other states. While they did not elect a majority of African Americans to office in any state legislature during Reconstruction, whites still feared and resented the political power exercised by freedmen. After ousting the Republicans, whites worked to restore white supremacy.
Although elections were often surrounded by violence, blacks continued to vote and gained many local offices in the late 19th century. In the late 19th century, a Populist - Republican coalition in several states gained governorships and some congressional seats in 1894. To prevent such a coalition from forming again and reduce election violence, the Democratic Party, dominant in all southern state legislatures, took action to disfranchise most blacks and many poor whites outright.
From 1890 to 1908, ten of the eleven former Confederate states completed political suppression and exclusion of these groups by ratifying new constitutions or amendments which incorporated provisions to make voter registration more difficult. These included such requirements as payment of poll taxes, complicated record keeping, complicated timing of registration and length of residency in relation to elections, with related record - keeping requirements; felony disenfranchisement focusing on crimes thought to be committed by African Americans, and a literacy test or comprehension test.
Prospective voters had to prove the ability to read and write the English language to white voter registrars, who in practice applied subjective requirements. Blacks were often denied the right to vote on this basis. Even well - educated blacks were often told they had "failed '' such a test, if in fact, it had been administered. On the other hand, illiterate whites were sometimes allowed to vote through a "grandfather clause, '' which waived literacy requirements if one 's grandfather had been a qualified voter before 1866, or had served as a soldier, or was from a foreign country. As most blacks had grandfathers who were slaves before 1866 and could not have fulfilled any of those conditions, they could not use the grandfather clause exemption. Selective enforcement of the poll tax was frequently also used to disqualify black and poor white voters. As a result of these measures, at the turn of the century voter rolls dropped markedly across the South. Most blacks and many poor whites were excluded from the political system for decades. Unable to vote, they were also excluded from juries or running for any office.
In Alabama, for example, its 1901 constitution restricted the franchise for poor whites as well as blacks. It contained requirements for payment of cumulative poll taxes, completion of literacy tests, and increased residency at state, county and precinct levels, effectively disenfranchised tens of thousands of poor whites as well as most blacks. Historian J. Morgan Kousser found, "They disfranchised these whites as willingly as they deprived blacks of the vote. '' By 1941, more whites than blacks in total had been disenfranchised.
Although African Americans quickly began legal challenges to such provisions in the 19th century, it was years before any were successful before the U.S. Supreme Court. Booker T. Washington, better known for his public stance of trying to work within societal constraints of the period at Tuskegee University, secretly helped fund and arrange representation for numerous legal challenges to disfranchisement. He called upon wealthy Northern allies and philanthropists to raise funds for the cause. The Supreme Court 's upholding of Mississippi 's new constitution, in Williams v. Mississippi (1898), encouraged other states to follow the Mississippi plan of disfranchisement. African Americans brought other legal challenges, as in Giles v. Harris (1903) and Giles v. Teasley (1904), but the Supreme Court upheld Alabama constitutional provisions. In 1915 Oklahoma was the last state to append a grandfather clause to its literacy requirement due to Supreme Court cases.
From early in the 20th century, the newly established National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) took the lead in organizing or supporting legal challenges to segregation and disfranchisement. Gradually they planned the strategy of which cases to take forward. In Guinn v. United States (1915), the first case in which the NAACP filed a brief, the Supreme Court struck down the grandfather clause in Oklahoma and Maryland. Other states in which it was used had to retract their legislation as well. The challenge was successful.
But, nearly as rapidly as the Supreme Court determined a specific provision was unconstitutional, state legislatures developed new statutes to continue disenfranchisement. For instance, in Smith v. Allwright (1944), the Supreme Court struck down the use of state - sanctioned all - white primaries by the Democratic Party in the South. States developed new restrictions on black voting; Alabama passed a law giving county registrars more authority as to which questions they asked applicants in comprehension or literacy tests. The NAACP continued with steady progress in legal challenges to disenfranchisement and segregation.
In 1957, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 to implement the Fifteenth Amendment. It established the United States Civil Rights Commission; among its duties is to investigate voter discrimination.
As late as 1962, programs such as Operation Eagle Eye in Arizona attempted to stymie minority voting through literacy tests. The 24th Amendment was ratified in 1964 to prohibit poll taxes as a condition of voter registration and voting in federal elections. Many states continued to use them in state elections as a means of reducing the number of voters.
The American Civil Rights Movement, through such events as the Selma to Montgomery marches and Freedom Summer in Mississippi, gained passage by the United States Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which authorized federal oversight of voter registration and election practices and other enforcement of voting rights. Congress passed the legislation because it found "case by case litigation was inadequate to combat widespread and persistent discrimination in voting ''. Activism by African Americans helped secure an expanded and protected franchise that has benefited all Americans, including racial and language minorities.
The bill provided for federal oversight, if necessary, to ensure just voter registration and election procedures. The rate of African - American registration and voting in Southern states climbed dramatically and quickly, but it has taken years of federal oversight to work out the processes and overcome local resistance. In addition, it was not until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6 - 3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes (for both state and federal elections) were officially declared unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This removed a burden on the poor.
Legal challenges have continued under the Voting Rights Act, primarily in areas of redistricting and election systems, for instance, challenging at - large election systems that effectively reduce the ability of minority groups to elect candidates of their choice. Such challenges have particularly occurred at the county and municipal level, including for school boards, where exclusion of minority groups and candidates at such levels has been persistent in some areas of the country. This reduces the ability of women and minorities to participate in the political system and gain entry - level experience.
A parallel, yet separate, movement was that for women 's suffrage. Leaders of the suffrage movement included Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Alice Paul. In some ways this, too, could be said to have grown out of the American Civil War, as women had been strong leaders of the abolition movement. Middle - and upper - class women generally became more politically active in the northern tier during and after the war.
In 1848, the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women 's rights convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. Of the 300 present, 68 women and 32 men signed the Declaration of Sentiments which defined the women 's rights movement. The first National Women 's Rights Convention took place in 1850 in Worcester, Massachusetts, attracting more than 1,000 participants. This national convention was held yearly through 1860.
When Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton formed the National Women Suffrage Association, their goal was to help women gain voting rights through reliance on the Constitution. Also, in 1869 Lucy Stone and Henry Blackwell formed the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). However, AWSA focused on gaining voting rights for women through the amendment process. Although these two organization were fighting for the same cause, it was not until 1890 that they merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). After the merger of the two organizations, the (NAWSA) waged a state - by - state campaign to obtain voting rights for women.
Wyoming was the first state in which women were able to vote, although it was a condition of the transition to statehood. Utah was the second territory to allow women to vote, but the federal Edmunds -- Tucker Act of 1887 repealed woman 's suffrage in Utah. Colorado was the first established state to allow women to vote on the same basis as men. Some other states also extended the franchise to women before the Constitution was amended to this purpose.
During the 1910s Alice Paul, assisted by Lucy Burns and many others, organized such events and organizations as the 1913 Women 's Suffrage Parade, the National Woman 's Party, and the Silent Sentinels. At the culmination of the suffragists ' requests and protests, ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote in time to participate in the Presidential election of 1920.
Another political movement that was largely driven by women in the same era was the anti-alcohol Temperance movement, which led to the Eighteenth Amendment and Prohibition.
Washington, D.C., was created from a portion of the states of Maryland and Virginia in 1801. The Virginia portion was retroceded (returned) to Virginia upon request of the residents, by an Act of Congress in 1846 to protect slavery, and restore state and federal voting rights in that portion of Virginia. When Maryland delegated a portion of its land to Congress so that it could be used as the Nation 's capital, Congress did not continue Maryland Voting Laws. It canceled all state and federal elections starting with 1802. Local elections limped on in some neighborhoods, until 1871, when local elections were also forbidden by the U.S. Congress. The U.S. Congress is the National Legislature. Under Article I, Section 8, Clause 17, Congress has the sole authority to exercise "Exclusive Legislature in all cases whatsoever '' over the nation 's capital and over federal military bases. Active disfranchisement is typically a States Rights Legislative issue, where the removal of voting rights is permitted. At the national level, the federal government typically ignored voting rights issues, or affirmed that they were extended.
Congress, when exercising "exclusive legislation '' over U.S. Military Bases in the United States, and Washington, D.C., viewed its power as strong enough to remove all voting rights. All state and federal elections were canceled by Congress in D.C. and all of Maryland 's voting Rights laws no longer applied to D.C. when Maryland gave up that land. Congress did not pass laws to establish local voting processes in the District of Columbia. This omission of law strategy to disfranchise is contained in the Congressional debates in Annals of Congress in 1800 and 1801.
In 1986, the US Congress voted to restore voting rights on U.S. Military bases for all state and federal elections.
D.C., citizens were granted the right to vote in Presidential elections in 1961, after the ratification of the twenty - third amendment. Amendment 23 is the only known limit to U.S. Congressional powers, forcing Congress to enforce Amendments 14, 15, 19, 24, and 26 for the first time in Presidential elections. The Maryland citizens and territory converted in Washington, D.C., in 1801 were represented in 1801 by U.S. Rep. John Chew Thomas from Maryland 's 2nd, and U.S. Rep. William Craik from Maryland 's 3rd Congressional Districts. These Maryland U.S. Congressional Districts were redrawn and removed from Washington, D.C.
No full Congressional elections have been held since in D.C., a gap continuing since 1801. Congress created a non-voting substitute for a U.S. Congressman, a Delegate, between 1871 -- 1875, but then abolished that post as well. Congress permitted restoration of local elections and home rule for the District on December 24, 1973. In 1971, Congress still opposed restoring the position of a full U.S. Congressman for Washington, D.C. That year it re-established the position of non-voting Delegate to the U.S. Congress.
A third voting rights movement was won in the 1960s to lower the voting age from twenty - one to eighteen. Activists noted that most of the young men who were being drafted to fight in the Vietnam War were too young to have any voice in the selection of the leaders who were sending them to fight. Some states had already lowered the voting age: notably Georgia, Kentucky, and Hawaii, had already permitted voting by persons younger than twenty - one.
The Twenty - sixth Amendment, ratified in 1971, prohibits federal and state laws which set a minimum voting age higher than 18 years. As of 2008, no state has opted for an earlier age, although some state governments have discussed it. California has, since the 1980s, allowed persons who are 17 to register to vote for an election where the election itself will occur on or after their 18th birthday, and several states including Indiana allow 17 - year - olds to vote in a primary election provided they will be 18 by the general election.
Prisoner voting rights are defined by individual states, and the laws are different from state to state. Some states allow only individuals on probation to vote. Others allow individuals on parole and probation. As of 2012, only three states, Florida, Kentucky and Virginia, continue to impose a lifelong denial of the right to vote to all citizens with a felony record, absent a restoration of rights granted by the Governor or state legislature. However, in Kentucky, a felon 's rights can be restored after the completion of a restoration process to regain civil rights.
In 2007, Florida legislature restored voting rights to convicted felons who had served their sentences. In March 2011, however, Governor Rick Scott reversed the 2007 reforms. He signed legislation that permanently disenfranchises citizens with past felony convictions.
In July 2005, Iowa Governor Tom Vilsack issued an executive order restoring the right to vote for all persons who have completed supervision. On October 31, 2005, Iowa 's Supreme Court upheld mass reenfranchisement of convicted felons. Nine other states disenfranchise felons for various lengths of time following the completion of their probation or parole.
Other than Maine and Vermont, all U.S. states prohibit felons from voting while they are in prison. In Puerto Rico, felons in prison are allowed to vote in elections.
Practices in the United States are in contrast to some European nations, such as Norway. Some nations allow prisoners to vote. Prisoners have been allowed to vote in Canada since 2002.
The United States has a higher proportion of its population in prison than any other Western nation, and more than Russia or China. The dramatic rise in the rate of incarceration in the United States, a 500 % increase from the 1970s to the 1990s, has vastly increased the number of people disenfranchised because of the felon provisions.
According to the Sentencing Project, as of 2010 an estimated 5.9 million Americans are denied the right to vote because of a felony conviction, a number equivalent to 2.5 % of the U.S. voting - age population and a sharp increase from the 1.2 million people affected by felony disenfranchisement in 1976. Given the prison populations, the effects have been most disadvantageous for minority and poor communities.
The Supreme Court of the United States struck down one - year residency requirements to vote in Dunn v. Blumstein 405 U.S. 330 (1972). The Court ruled that limits on voter registration of up to 30 to 50 days prior to an election were permissible for logistical reasons, but that residency requirements in excess of that violated the equal protection clause, as granted under the Fourteenth Amendment, according to strict scrutiny.
In the 1980s homelessness was recognized as an increasing national problem. By the early 21st century, there have been numerous court cases to help protect the voting rights of persons without a fixed address. Low income and homeless citizens face some obstacles in registering to vote. These obstacles include establishing residency, providing a mailing address, and showing proof of identification. A residency requirement varies from state to state. States can not require citizens to show residency of more than 30 days before Election Day. The states of Idaho, Maine, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Wyoming allow voters to register on Election Day. North Dakota does not require voters to register.
In the 21st century, homeless persons in all states have the right to register and vote if they satisfy other conditions. In most states, when registering to vote, homeless voters may designate any place of residence, including a street corner, a park, a shelter, or any other location where an individual stays at night. A citizen may only have one residency during registration, but they may switch their registration each time they change locations. Designating residency is needed to prove that the citizen lives within the district where he or she wishes to vote. Some states also require a mailing address in order to send out the voter ID card, which the individual must show on Election Day. Some states allow individuals to use PO Boxes as mailing addresses; other states allow the address to be that of a local shelter, advocacy organization, outreach center, or anywhere else that accepts mail on behalf of a person registering to vote. States such as Arizona and Nebraska allow homeless citizens to use county court houses or county clerks ' offices as mailing address.
States that do not require a mailing address include Alaska, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Montana, New Jersey, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.
All potential voters face new requirements since 2002, when President Bush signed the Help America Vote Act (HAVA). It requires voters to provide their driver 's license numbers, or the last four digits of their Social Security Number on their voter registration form. This has been enforced.
The National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) assists nonprofit organizations, in getting lower income and homeless citizens registered to vote. In 1992, the NCH created a campaign called "You do n't need a home to vote ''. This campaign provided useful resources and guidelines for nonprofit organizations to follow when assisting citizens to register. Nonprofits, like homeless shelters and food banks, set up a voter registration party to help homeless citizens to register. The nonprofit workers must remain nonpartisan when assisting in the registration process.
Voting rights of the American homeless is an issue that has been addressed in the courts since the 1980s. Each state is responsible for voting regulations in their area; however, many states throughout America have adopted similar laws regarding homeless citizen voting. Disenfranchising the homeless is considered a violation of their rights under the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause. Many arguments have been made against homeless people being able to vote. Their status of true citizenship has been called into question because of their lack of residency. However, the courts have ruled on more than one occasion in favor of the homeless voting.
One of the first court cases regarding homeless voting was Pitts v. Black in New York. The US district court ruled that disenfranchising homeless citizens is a direct violation of the Equal Protection clause found in the Fourteenth Amendment.
Two California court rulings, Collier v. Menzel, and Walters v. Weed, also addressed the residency question of homeless voters:
Several locales retained restrictions for specialized local elections, such as for school boards, special districts, or bond issues. Property restrictions, duration of residency restrictions, and, for school boards, restrictions of the franchise to voters with children, remained in force. In a series of rulings from 1969 to 1973, the Court ruled that the franchise could be restricted in some cases to those "primarily interested '' or "primarily affected '' by the outcome of a specialized election, but not in the case of school boards or bond issues, which affected taxation to be paid by all residents. In Ball v. James 451 U.S. 335 (1981), the Court further upheld a system of plural voting, by which votes for the board of directors of a water reclamation district were allocated on the basis of a person 's proportion of land owned in the district.
The Court has overseen operation of political party primaries to ensure open voting. While states were permitted to require voters to register for a political party 30 days before an election, or to require them to vote in only one party primary, the state could not prevent a voter from voting in a party primary if the voter has voted in another party 's primary in the last 23 months. The Court also ruled that a state may not mandate a "closed primary '' system and bar independents from voting in a party 's primary against the wishes of the party. (Tashijan v. Republican Party of Connecticut 479 U.S. 208 (1986))
The Office of Hawaiian Affairs of the state of Hawaii, created in 1978, limited voting eligibility and candidate eligibility to native Hawaiians on whose behalf it manages 1,800,000 acres (7,300 km) of ceded land. The Supreme Court of the United States struck down the franchise restriction under the Fifteenth Amendment in Rice v. Cayetano 528 U.S. 495 (2000), following by eliminating the candidate restriction in Arakaki v. State of Hawai'i a few months later.
Citizens of the nation 's capital, Washington, D.C., have not been apportioned a representative or US senator in Congress. This is because D.C. is a federal district and not a state and under the Constitution, only states are apportioned congresspersons.
District of Columbia citizens had voting rights removed in 1801 by Congress, when Maryland delegated that portion of its land to Congress. Congress incrementally removed effective local control or home rule by 1871. It restored some home rule in 1971, but maintained the authority to override any local laws. Washington, D.C., does not have full representation in the U.S. House or Senate. The Twenty - third Amendment, restoring U.S. Presidential Election after a 164 - year - gap, is the only known limit to Congressional "exclusive legislature '' from Article I - 8 - 17, forcing Congress to enforce for the first time Amendments 14, 15, 19, 24, and 26. Amendment 23 gave the District of Columbia three electors and hence the right to vote for President, but not full U.S. Congresspersons nor U.S. Senators. In 1978, Congress proposed a constitutional amendment that would have restored to the District a full seat for representation in the Congress as well. This amendment failed to receive ratification by sufficient number of states within the seven years required.
As of 2013, a bill is pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives '', and permit United States citizens residing in the capital to vote for a member to represent them in the House of Representatives. The District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Cong. was passed by the U.S. Senate on February 26, 2009, by a vote of 61 - 37.
On April 1, 1993, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States received a petition from Timothy Cooper on behalf of the Statehood Solidarity Committee (the "Petitioners '') against the government of the United States (the "State '' or "United States ''). The petition indicated that it was presented on behalf of the members of the Statehood Solidarity Committee and all other U.S. citizens resident in the District of Columbia. The petition alleged that the United States was responsible for violations of Articles II (right to equality before law) and XX (right to vote and to participate in government) of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man in connection with the inability of citizens of the District of Columbia to vote for and elect a representative to the U.S. Congress. On December 29, 2003, The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights having examined the information and arguments provided by the parties on the question of admissibility. Without prejudging the merits of the matter, the Commission decided to admit the present petition in respect of Articles II and XX of the American Declaration. In addition, the Commission concluded that the United States violates the Petitioners ' rights under Articles II and XX of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man by denying District of Columbia citizens an effective opportunity to participate in their federal legislature.
U.S. citizens residing overseas who would otherwise have the right to vote are guaranteed the right to vote in federal elections by the Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act (UOCAVA) of 1986. As a practical matter, individual states implement UOCAVA.
U.S. citizens who reside in Puerto Rico, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, or the United States Virgin Islands are not allowed to vote in U.S. national and presidential elections, as these U.S. territories belong to the United States but are not part of the United States. The U.S. Constitution requires a voter to be resident in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia to vote in federal elections. To say that the Constitution does not require extension of federal voting rights to U.S. territories residents does not, however, exclude the possibility that the Constitution may permit their enfranchisement under another source of law.
A citizen who has never resided in the United States can vote if a parent is eligible to vote in certain states. In some of these states the citizen can vote in local, state and federal elections, in others in federal elections only.
Puerto Rico is an insular area -- a United States territory that is neither a part of one of the fifty states nor a part of the District of Columbia, the nation 's federal district. Insular areas, such as Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam, are not allowed to choose electors in U.S. presidential elections or elect voting members to the U.S. Congress. This grows out of Article I and Article II of the United States Constitution, which specifically mandate that electors are to be chosen by "the People of the several States ''. In 1961, the 23rd amendment to the constitution extended the right to choose electors to the District of Columbia.
Any U.S. citizen who resides in Puerto Rico (whether a Puerto Rican or not) is effectively disenfranchised at the national level. Although the Republican Party and Democratic Party chapters in Puerto Rico have selected voting delegates to the national nominating conventions participating in U.S. presidential primaries or caucuses, U.S. citizens not residing in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia may not vote in federal elections.
Various scholars (including a prominent U.S. judge in the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit) conclude that the U.S. national - electoral process is not fully democratic due to U.S. government disenfranchisement of U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico.
As of 2010, under Igartúa v. United States, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is judicially considered not to be self - executing, and therefore requires further legislative action to put it into effect domestically. Judge Kermit Lipez wrote in a concurring opinion, however, that the en banc majority 's conclusion that the ICCPR is non-self - executing is ripe for reconsideration in a new en banc proceeding, and that if issues highlighted in a partial dissent by Judge Juan R. Torruella were to be decided in favor of the plaintiffs, United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico would have a viable claim to equal voting rights.
Congress has in fact acted in partial compliance with its obligations under the ICCPR when, in 1961, just a few years after the United Nations first ratified the ICCPR, it amended our fundamental charter to allow the United States citizens who reside in the District of Columbia to vote for the Executive offices. See U.S. Constitutional Amendment XXIII. 51. Indeed, a bill is now pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives '', and permit United States citizens residing in the capitol to vote for members of the House of Representatives. See District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Congress (passed by the Senate, February 26, 2009) (2009). 52 However, the United States has not taken similar "steps '' with regard to the five million United States citizens who reside in the other U.S. territories, of which close to four million are residents of Puerto Rico. This inaction is in clear violation of the United States ' obligations under the ICCPR ".
Federal legislation such as the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (NVRA, or "Motor - Voter Act '') and the Help America Vote Act of 2001 (HAVA) help to address some of the concerns of disabled and non-English speaking voters in the United States.
Some studies have shown that polling places are inaccessible to disabled voters. The Federal Election Commission reported that, in violation of state and federal laws, more than 20,000 polling places across the nation are inaccessible, depriving people with disabilities of their fundamental right to vote.
In 1999, the Attorney General of the State of New York ran a check of polling places around the state to see if they were accessible to voters with disabilities and found many problems. A study of three upstate counties of New York found fewer than 10 percent of polling places fully compliant with state and federal laws.
Many polling booths are set in church basements or in upstairs meeting halls where there are no ramps or elevators. This means problems not just for people who use wheelchairs, but for people using canes or walkers too. And in most states people who are blind do not have access to Braille ballot to vote; they have to bring someone along to vote for them. Studies have shown that people with disabilities are more interested in government and public affairs than most and are more eager to participate in the democratic process. Many election officials urge people with disabilities to vote absentee, however some disabled individuals see this as an inferior form of participation.
Voter turnout is lower among the disabled. In the 2012 United States presidential election 56.8 % of people with disabilities reported voting, compared to the 62.5 % of eligible citizens without disabilities.
Jurisprudence concerning candidacy rights and the rights of citizens to create a political party are less clear than voting rights. Different courts have reached different conclusions regarding what sort of restrictions, often in terms of ballot access, public debate inclusion, filing fees, and residency requirements, may be imposed.
In Williams v. Rhodes (1968), the United States Supreme Court struck down Ohio ballot access laws on First and Fourteenth Amendment grounds. However, it subsequently upheld such laws in several other cases. States can require an independent or minor party candidate to collect signatures as high as five percent of the total votes cast in a particular preceding election before the court will intervene.
The Supreme Court has also upheld a state ban on cross-party endorsements (also known as electoral fusion) and primary write - in votes.
More than 40 states or territories, including colonies before the Declaration of Independence, have at some time allowed noncitizens who satisfied residential requirements to vote in some or all elections. This in part reflected the strong continuing immigration to the United States. Some cities like Chicago, towns or villages (in Maryland) today allow noncitizen residents to vote in school or local elections. In 1875, the Supreme Court in Minor v. Happersett noted that "citizenship has not in all cases been made a condition precedent to the enjoyment of the right of suffrage. Thus, in Missouri, persons of foreign birth, who have declared their intention to become citizens of the United States, may under certain circumstances vote ''. Federal law prohibits noncitizens from voting in federal elections.
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what is the correct term for the impact that distance from the ocean can have on climate | Oceanic climate - wikipedia
An oceanic climate (also known as marine, west coast and maritime) is the Köppen classification of the climate typical of west coasts in higher middle latitudes of continents, and generally features cool summers (relative to their latitude) and cool but not cold winters, with a relatively narrow annual temperature range and few extremes of temperature, with the exception for transitional areas to continental, subarctic and highland climates. Oceanic climates are defined as having a monthly mean temperature below 22 ° C (72 ° F) in the warmest month, and above 0 ° C (32 ° F) in the coldest month.
It typically lacks a dry season, as precipitation is more evenly dispersed throughout the year. It is the predominant climate type across much of Western Europe, the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada, portions of central Mexico, southwestern South America, southeastern Australia including Tasmania, New Zealand as well as isolated locations elsewhere. Oceanic climates generally have cool summers and cool (but not cold) winters. They are characterised by a narrower annual range of temperatures than are encountered in other places at a comparable latitude, and generally do not have the extremely dry summers of Mediterranean climates or the hot summers of humid subtropical. Oceanic climates are most dominant in Europe, where they spread much farther inland than in other continents.
Oceanic climates can have much storm activity as they are located in the belt of the stormy westerlies. Many oceanic climates have frequent cloudy or overcast conditions due to the near constant storms and lows tracking over or near them. The annual range of temperatures is smaller than typical climates at these latitudes due to the constant stable marine air masses that pass through oceanic climates, which lack both very warm and very cool fronts.
Precipitation is both adequate and reliable throughout the year in oceanic climates. Extended months of rain and cloudy conditions are common in oceanic climates. Seattle is an example of this. Between October and May, Seattle experiences high rainfall and is mostly or partly cloudy six out of every seven days.
In most areas with an oceanic climate, precipitation comes in the form of rain for the majority of the year. However, some areas with this climate see some snowfall annually during winter. Outside of Australia and parts of New Zealand, most areas with an oceanic climate experience at least one snowstorm per year. In the poleward locations of the oceanic climate zone ("subpolar oceanic climates, '' described in greater detail below), snowfall is more frequent and commonplace.
Overall temperature characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature. In the Köppen climate classification, Oceanic climates have a mean temperature of 0 ° C (32 ° F) or higher in the coldest month, compared to continental climates where the coldest month has a mean temperature of below 0 ° C (32 ° F). Summers are cool, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below 22 ° C (72 ° F). Poleward of the latter is a zone of the aforementioned subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc), with long but relatively mild (for their latitude) winters and cool and short summers (average temperatures of at least 10 ° C (50 ° F) for one to three months). Examples of this climate include parts of coastal Iceland in the Northern Hemisphere and extreme southern Chile and Argentina in the Southern Hemisphere (examples include Ushuaia and Punta Arenas).
Oceanic climates are not necessarily always found in coastal locations on the aforementioned parallels; however, in most cases oceanic climates parallel higher middle latitude oceans. The polar jet stream, which moves in a west to east direction across the middle latitudes, advancing low pressure systems, storms, and fronts. In coastal areas of the higher middle latitudes (45 -- 60 ° latitude), the prevailing onshore flow creates the basic structure of most oceanic climates. Oceanic climates are a product and reflection of the ocean adjacent to them. In the fall, winter, and early spring, when the polar jet stream is most active, the frequent passing of marine weather systems creates the frequent fog, cloudy skies, and light drizzle often associated with oceanic climates. In summer, high pressure often pushes the prevailing westerlies north of many oceanic climates, often creating a drier summer climate (for example in the Pacific Northwest of the United States and Canada).
The North Atlantic Gulf Stream, a tropical oceanic current that passes north of the Caribbean and up the East Coast of the United States to North Carolina, then heads east - northeast to the Azores, is thought to greatly modify the climate of Northwest Europe. As a result of the Gulf Stream, west - coast areas located in high latitudes like Ireland, the UK, and Norway have much milder winters (for their latitude) than would otherwise be the case. The lowland attributes of western Europe also help drive marine air masses into continental areas, enabling cities such as Dresden, Prague, and Vienna to have maritime climates in spite of being located well inland from the ocean.
Oceanic climates in Europe occur mostly in Northwest Europe, from Ireland and Great Britain eastward to central Europe. Most of France (away from the Mediterranean), Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Norway, the north coast of Spain (Basque Country, north of Navarre, Galicia Asturias and Cantabria), the western Azores off the coast of Portugal, the south of Kosovo and southern portions of Sweden, also have oceanic climates. Examples of oceanic climates are found in Glasgow, London, Bergen, Dublin, Berlin, Bilbao, Donostia - San Sebastian, Biarritz, Bayonne, Zürich, Copenhagen and Paris. With decreasing distance to the Mediterranean Sea, the oceanic climate of Northwest Europe gradually changes to the subtropical dry - summer or Mediterranean climate of southern Europe. The line between Oceanic and Continental climate in Europe runs in a generally north to south direction. For example, western Germany is more impacted by milder Atlantic air masses than is eastern Germany. Thus, winters across Europe become colder to the east, and (in some locations) summers become hotter. The line between oceanic Europe and Mediterranean Europe normally runs west to east and is related to changes in precipitation patterns and differences to seasonal temperatures.
The oceanic climate exists in an arc spreading across the north - western coast of North America from the Alaskan panhandle to northern California, in general the coastal areas of the Pacific Northwest. It includes the western parts of Washington and Oregon, the Alaskan panhandle, western portions of British Columbia, and north - western California. In addition, some east coast areas such as some higher elevations along the southern Appalachian Mountains as well as Block Island, Cape Cod, Martha 's Vineyard, and Nantucket have a similar climate. The oceanic climate is found in isolated pockets in eastern Mexico and South America. It exists in southeast - central and southwest Argentina, southern Chile.
All mid-latitude oceanic climates are classified as humid. However, some rainshadow climates feature thermal régimes similar to those of oceanic climates but with steppe - like (BSk) or even desert - like (BWk) scarcity of precipitation. Despite the oceanic - like thermal regimes, these areas are generally classified as steppe or desert climates. These arid versions of oceanic climates are found in eastern Washington and Oregon to the east of the Cascade Range in the United States, in the Okanagan Valley in British Columbia in Canada, Patagonia in southern Argentina, and the Atacama Desert in northern Chile.
The only noteworthy area of Maritime Climate at or near sea - level within Africa is in South Africa from Mossel Bay on the Western Cape coast to Plettenberg Bay, with additional pockets of this climate inland of the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu - Natal coast. It is usually warm most of the year with no pronounced rainy season, but slightly more rain in autumn and spring. The Tristan da Cunha archipelago in the South Atlantic also has an oceanic climate.
The only significant areas where this climate is found at or near sea level in Asia is on the Black Sea coast in northern Turkey, in small pockets along or near the Caspian Sea in Azerbaijan and in small pockets along or near the Tsugaru Strait in northern Japan.
The oceanic climate is prevalent in the more southerly locations of Oceania. A mild maritime climate is in existence in New Zealand. It occurs in a few areas of Australia, namely in the southeast, although average high temperatures during summers there tend to be higher and the summers drier than is typical of subtropical highland climates, with summer maxima sometimes exceeding 40 ° C (104 ° F), southeastern New South Wales (starting from the Illawarra region) and the southern parts of Victoria, the island of Tasmania, also exhibit a mild maritime climate. It can also be found along the western areas of the south coast of Western Australia, parts with steppe - like (BSk) or even desert - like (BWk) scarcity of precipitation.
The French overseas territories of Île Amsterdam and Île Saint - Paul are located in the subtropics and have an oceanic climate.
The subtropical highland variety of the oceanic climate exists in elevated portions of the world that are within either the tropics or subtropics, though it is typically found in mountainous locations in some tropical countries. Despite the latitude, the higher altitudes of these regions mean that the climate tends to share characteristics with oceanic climates, though it also tends to experience noticeably drier weather during the lower - sun "winter '' season. In locations outside the tropics, other than the drying trend in the winter, subtropical highland climates tend to be essentially identical to an oceanic climate, with mild summers and noticeably cooler winters, plus, in some instances, some snowfall. In the tropics, a subtropical highland climate tends to feature spring - like weather year - round. Temperatures there remain relatively constant throughout the year and snowfall is seldom seen.
Areas with this climate feature monthly averages below 22 ° C (72 ° F) but above − 3 ° C (27 ° F) (or 0 ° C (32 ° F) using American standards). At least one month 's average temperature is below 18 ° C (64 ° F). Without the elevation, many of these regions would likely feature either tropical or humid subtropical climates. These regions usually carry a Cwb or Cfb designation, though very small areas in Yunnan, Sichuan and parts of Argentina and Bolivia have summers sufficiently short to be Cwc with fewer than four months over 10 ° C (50 ° F). Copacabana, Bolivia, is one the few confirmed towns that features this rare variation of the subtropical highland climate.
This type of climate exists in parts of east, south and southeastern Africa, interior southern Africa and elevated portions of eastern Africa as far north as Mozambique and of western Africa up to the southwestern Angola highlands also share this climate type... The exposed areas of High Atlas, some mountainous areas across southern Europe, sections of mountainous North (including higher elevations of the Southern Appalachians), Central and South America and in the highest parts of the states of Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná and São Paulo, in Brazil, some mountainous areas across Southeast Asia, and parts of the Himalayas.
Areas with subpolar oceanic climates feature an oceanic climate but are usually located closer to polar regions. As a result of their location, these regions tend to be on the cool end of oceanic climates. Snowfall tends to be more common here than in other oceanic climates. Subpolar oceanic climates are less prone to temperature extremes than subarctic climates or continental climates, featuring milder winters than these climates. Subpolar oceanic climates feature only one to three months of average monthly temperatures that are at least 10 ° C (50 ° F). As with oceanic climates, none of its average monthly temperatures fall below - 3.0 ° C (26.6 ° F) or 0 ° C depending on the isotherm used. Typically, these areas in the warmest month experience daytime maximum temperatures below 17 ° C (63 ° F), while the coldest month features highs near or slightly above freezing and lows just below freezing. It typically carries a Cfc designation.
This variant of an oceanic climate is found in parts of coastal Iceland, the Faroe Islands, small sections of the Scottish Highlands, the Scottish archipelago of Shetland, northwestern coastal areas of Norway such as Lofoten and reaching to 70 ° N on some islands, uplands near the coast of southwestern Norway, the Aleutian Islands of Alaska and northern parts of the Alaskan Panhandle, the far south of Chile and Argentina, and a few highland areas of Tasmania, and the Australian and Southern Alps. This type of climate is even found in the very remote parts of the Papuan Highlands in Indonesia. The classification used for this regime is Cfc. In the most marine of those areas affected by this regime, temperatures above 20 ° C (68 ° F) are extreme weather events, even in the midst of summer. Temperatures above 30 ° C (86 ° F) have been recorded on rare occasions in some areas of this climate, and in winter temperatures down to − 20 ° C (− 4 ° F) have seldom been recorded in some areas.
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the passage of the kansas-nebraska act led directly to the establishment of which political party | Kansas -- Nebraska Act - wikipedia
The Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854 (10 Stat. 277) created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska and was drafted by Democratic Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois and President Franklin Pierce. The initial purpose of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act was to open up thousands of new farms and make feasible a Midwestern Transcontinental Railroad. The popular sovereignty clause of the law led pro - and anti-slavery elements to flood into Kansas with the goal of voting slavery up or down, resulting in Bleeding Kansas.
The availability of tens of millions of acres of excellent farmland in the area made it necessary to create a territorial infrastructure to allow settlement. Railroad interests were especially eager to start operations since they needed farmers as customers. Four previous attempts to pass legislation had failed. The solution was a bill proposed in January 1854 by Douglas: the Democratic Party leader in the US Senate, the chairman of the Committee on Territories, an avid promoter of railroads, an aspirant to the presidency, and a fervent believer in popular sovereignty: the policy of letting the voters, almost exclusively white males, of a territory decide whether or not slavery should exist in it.
Since the 1840s, the topic of a transcontinental railroad had been discussed. While there were debates over the specifics, especially the route to be taken, there was a public consensus that such a railroad should be built by private interests, financed by public land grants. In 1845, Douglas, serving in his first term in the US House of Representatives, had submitted an unsuccessful plan to organize the Nebraska Territory formally, as the first step in building a railroad with its eastern terminus in Chicago. Railroad proposals were debated in all subsequent sessions of Congress with cities such as Chicago, St. Louis, Quincy, Memphis, and New Orleans competing to be the jumping - off point for the construction.
Several proposals in late 1852 and early 1853 had strong support, but they failed because of disputes over whether the railroad would follow a northern or a southern route. In early 1853, the House of Representatives passed a bill 107 to 49 to organize the Nebraska Territory in the land west of Iowa and Missouri. In March, the bill moved to the Senate Committee on Territories, which was headed by Douglas. Missouri Senator David Atchison announced that he would support the Nebraska proposal only if slavery was allowed. While the bill was silent on this issue, slavery would have been prohibited, under the Missouri Compromise. Other Southern senators were as inflexible as Atchison. By a vote of 23 to 17, the Senate voted to table the motion, with every senator from the states south of Missouri voting to table.
During the Senate adjournment, the issues of the railroad and the repeal of the Missouri Compromise became entangled in Missouri politics, as Atchison campaigned for re-election against the forces of Thomas Hart Benton. Atchison was maneuvered into choosing between antagonizing the state 's railroad interests or its slaveholders. Finally, Atchison took the position that he would rather see Nebraska "sink in hell '' before he would allow it to be overrun by free soilers.
Representatives then generally found lodging in boarding houses when they were in the nation 's capital to perform their legislative duties. Atchison shared lodgings in an F Street house, shared by the leading Southerners in Congress. Atchison himself was the Senate 's president pro tempore. His housemates included Robert T. Hunter (from Virginia, chairman of the Finance Committee), James Mason (from Virginia, chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee) and Andrew P. Butler (from South Carolina, chairman of the Judiciary Committee). When Congress reconvened on December 5, 1853, the group, termed the F Street Mess, along with Virginian William O. Goode, formed the nucleus that would insist on slaveholder equality in Nebraska. Douglas was aware of the group 's opinions and power and knew that he needed to address its concerns.
Iowa Senator Augustus C. Dodge immediately reintroduced the same legislation to organize Nebraska that had stalled in the previous session; it was referred to Douglas 's committee on December 14. Douglas, hoping to achieve the support of the Southerners, publicly announced that the same principle that had been established in the Compromise of 1850 should apply in Nebraska.
In the Compromise of 1850, Utah and New Mexico Territories had been organized without any restrictions on slavery, and many supporters of Douglas argued that the compromise had already superseded the Missouri Compromise. The two territories, however, unlike Nebraska, had not been part of the Louisiana Purchase and had never been subject to the Missouri Compromise.
The bill was reported to the main body of the Senate on January 4, 1854. It had been modified by Douglas, who had also authored the New Mexico Territory and Utah Territory Acts, to mirror the language from the Compromise of 1850. In the bill, a vast new Nebraska Territory was created to extend from Kansas north all the way to the 49th parallel, the US -- Canada border. A large portion of Nebraska Territory would soon be split off into Dakota Territory (1861), and smaller portions transferred to Colorado Territory (1861) and Idaho Territory (1863) before the balance of the land became the State of Nebraska in 1867.
Furthermore, any decisions on slavery in the new lands were to be made "when admitted as a state or states, the said territory, or any portion of the same, shall be received into the Union, with or without slavery, as their constitution may prescribe at the time of their admission. '' In a report accompanying the bill, Douglas 's committee wrote that the Utah and New Mexico Acts
... were intended to have a far more comprehensive and enduring effect than the mere adjustment of the difficulties arising out of the recent acquisition of Mexican territory. They were designed to establish certain great principles, which would not only furnish adequate remedies for existing evils, but, in all time to come, avoid the perils of a similar agitation, by withdrawing the question of slavery from the halls of Congress and the political arena, and committing it to the arbitrament of those who were immediately interested in, and alone responsible for its consequences.
The report compared the situation in New Mexico and Utah with the situation in Nebraska. In the first instance, many had argued that slavery had previously been prohibited under Mexican law, just as it was prohibited in Nebraska under the Missouri Compromise. Just as the creation of New Mexico and Utah territories had not ruled on the validity of Mexican law on the acquired territory, the Nebraska bill was neither "affirming or repealing... the Missouri act. '' In other words, popular sovereignty was being established by ignoring, rather than addressing, the problem presented by the Missouri Compromise.
Douglas 's attempt to finesse his way around the Missouri Compromise did not work. Kentucky Whig Archibald Dixon believed that unless the Missouri Compromise was explicitly repealed, slaveholders would be reluctant to move to the new territory until slavery was actually approved by the settlers, who would most likely oppose slavery. On January 16 Dixon surprised Douglas by introducing an amendment that would repeal the section of the Missouri Compromise that prohibited slavery north of the 36 ° 30 ' parallel. Douglas met privately with Dixon and in the end, despite his misgivings on Northern reaction, agreed to accept Dixon 's arguments.
From a political standpoint, the Whig Party had been in decline in the South because of the effectiveness with which it had been hammered by the Democratic Party over slavery. The Southern Whigs hoped that by seizing the initiative on this issue, they would be identified as strong defenders of slavery. Many Northern Whigs broke with them in the Act. The party eventually died by the division over the issue.
A similar amendment was offered in the House by Philip Phillips of Alabama. With the encouragement of the "F Street Mess '', Douglas met with them and Phillips to ensure that the momentum for passing the bill remained with the Democratic Party. They arranged to meet with President Franklin Pierce to ensure that the issue would be declared a test of party loyalty within the Democratic Party.
Pierce had barely mentioned Nebraska in his State of the Union message the previous month and was not enthusiastic about the implications of repealing the Missouri Compromise. Close advisors Senator Lewis Cass, a proponent of popular sovereignty as far back as 1848 as an alternative to the Wilmot Proviso, and Secretary of State William L. Marcy both told Pierce that repeal would create serious political problems. The full cabinet met and only Secretary of War Jefferson Davis and Secretary of Navy James C. Dobbin supported repeal. Instead the president and cabinet submitted to Douglas an alternative plan that would have sought out a judicial ruling on the constitutionality of the Missouri Compromise. Both Pierce and Attorney General Caleb Cushing believed that the Supreme Court would find it unconstitutional.
Douglas 's committee met later that night. Douglas was agreeable to the proposal, but the Atchison group was not. Determined to offer the repeal to Congress on January 23 but reluctant to act without Pierce 's commitment, Douglas arranged through Davis to meet with Pierce on January 22 even though it was a Sunday, when Pierce generally refrained from conducting any business. Douglas was accompanied at the meeting by Atchison, Hunter, Phillips, and John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky.
Douglas and Atchison first met alone with Pierce before the whole group convened. Pierce was persuaded to support repeal, and at Douglas ' insistence, Pierce provided a written draft, asserting that the Missouri Compromise had been made inoperative by the principles of the Compromise of 1850. Pierce later informed his cabinet, which concurred in the change of direction. The Washington Union, the communications organ for the administration, wrote on January 24 that support for the bill would be "a test of Democratic orthodoxy. ''
On January 23, a revised bill was introduced in the Senate that repealed the Missouri Compromise and divided the territory into two territories: Kansas and Nebraska. The division was the result of concerns expressed by settlers already in Nebraska as well as the senators from Iowa, who were concerned with the location of the territory 's seat of government if such a large territory were created. Existing language to affirm the application of all other laws of the United States in the new territory was supplemented by the language agreed on with Pierce: "except the eighth section of the act preparatory to the admission of Missouri into the Union, approved March 6, 1820, which was superseded by the legislation of 1850, commonly called the compromise measures, and is declared inoperative. '' Identical legislation was soon introduced in the House.
Historian Allan Nevins wrote that "two interconnected battles began to rage, one in Congress and one in the country at large: each fought with a pertinacity, bitterness, and rancor unknown even in Wilmot Proviso days. '' In Congress, the freesoilers were at a distinct disadvantage. The Democrats held large majorities in each house, and Douglas, "a ferocious fighter, the fiercest, most ruthless, and most unscrupulous that Congress had perhaps ever known '' led a tightly disciplined party. It was in the nation at large that the opponents of Nebraska hoped to achieve a moral victory. The New York Times, which had earlier supported Pierce, predicted that this would be the final straw for Northern supporters of the slavery forces and would "create a deep - seated, intense, and ineradicable hatred of the institution which will crush its political power, at all hazards, and at any cost. ''
The day after the bill was reintroduced, two Ohioans, Representative Joshua Giddings and Senator Salmon P. Chase, published a free - soil response, "Appeal of the Independent Democrats in Congress to the People of the United States: ''
We arraign this bill as a gross violation of a sacred pledge; as a criminal betrayal of precious rights; as part and parcel of an atrocious plot to exclude from a vast unoccupied region immigrants from the Old World and free laborers from our own States, and convert it into a dreary region of despotism, inhabited by masters and slaves.
Douglas took the appeal personally and responded in Congress, when the debate was opened on January 30 before a full House and packed gallery. Douglas biographer Robert W. Johanssen described part of the speech:
Douglas charged the authors of the "Appeal '', whom he referred to throughout as the "Abolitionist confederates '', with having perpetrated a "base falsehood '' in their protest. He expressed his own sense of betrayal, recalling that Chase, "with a smiling face and the appearance of friendship '', had appealed for a postponement of debate on the ground that he had not yet familiarized himself with the bill. "Little did I suppose at the time that I granted that act of courtesy, '' Douglas remarked, that Chase and his compatriots had published a document "in which they arraigned me as having been guilty of a criminal betrayal of my trust, '' of bad faith, and of plotting against the cause of free government. While other Senators were attending divine worship, they had been "assembled in a secret conclave '', devoting the Sabbath to their own conspiratorial and deceitful purposes.
The debate would continue for four months, as many Anti-Nebraska political rallies were held across the north. Douglas remained the main advocate for the bill while Chase, William Seward, of New York, and Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, led the opposition. The New - York Tribune wrote on March 2:
The debate in the Senate concluded on March 4, 1854, when Douglas, beginning near midnight on March 3, made a five - and - a-half - hour speech. The final vote in favor of passage was 37 to 14. Free - state senators voted 14 to 12 in favor, and slave - state senators supported the bill 23 to 2.
On March 21, 1854, as a delaying tactic in the House of Representatives, the legislation was referred by a vote of 110 to 95 to the Committee of the Whole, where it was the last item on the calendar. Realizing from the vote to stall that the act faced an uphill struggle, the Pierce administration made it clear to all Democrats that passage of the bill was essential to the party and would dictate how federal patronage would be handled. Davis and Cushing, from Massachusetts, along with Douglas, spearheaded the partisan efforts. By the end of April, Douglas believed that there were enough votes to pass the bill. The House leadership then began a series of roll call votes in which legislation ahead of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act was called to the floor and tabled without debate.
Thomas Hart Benton was among those speaking forcefully against the measure. On April 25, in a House speech that biographer William Nisbet Chambers called "long, passionate, historical, (and) polemical, '' Benton attacked the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, which he "had stood upon... above thirty years, and intended to stand upon it to the end -- solitary and alone, if need be; but preferring company. '' The speech was distributed afterwards as a pamphlet when opposition to the act moved outside the walls of Congress.
It was not until May 8 that the debate began in the House. The debate was even more intense than in the Senate. While it seemed to be a foregone conclusion that the bill would pass, the opponents went all out to fight it. Historian Michael Morrison wrote:
A filibuster led by Lewis D. Campbell, an Ohio free - soiler, nearly provoked the House into a war of more than words. Campbell, joined by other antislavery northerners, exchanged insults and invectives with southerners, neither side giving quarter. Weapons were brandished on the floor of the House. Finally, bumptiousness gave way to violence. Henry A. Edmundson, a Virginia Democrat, well oiled and well armed, had to be restrained from making a violent attack on Campbell. Only after the sergeant at arms arrested him, debate was cut off, and the House adjourned did the melee subside.
The floor debate was handled by Alexander Stephens, of Georgia, who insisted that the Missouri Compromise had never been a true compromise but had been imposed on the South. He argued that the issue was whether republican principles, "that the citizens of every distinct community or State should have the right to govern themselves in their domestic matters as they please, '' would be honored.
The final vote in favor of the bill was 113 to 100. Northern Democrats supported the bill 44 to 42, but all 45 northern Whigs opposed it. Southern Democrats voted in favor by 57 to 2, and southern Whigs supported it by 12 to 7. Pierce signed the bill into law on May 30.
The immediate responses to the passing of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act fell into two classes. The less common response was held by Douglas 's supporters, who believed that the bill would withdraw "the question of slavery from the halls of Congress and the political arena, committing it to the arbitration of those who were immediately interested in, and alone responsible for, its consequences. '' In other words, they believed that the Act would leave decisions about slavery in the hands of the people, rather than under the carefully - balanced jurisdiction of the Federal government. The far more common response was one of outrage, interpreting Douglas 's actions as part of "an atrocious plot. '' Especially in the eyes of northerners, the Kansas -- Nebraska Act was aggression and an attack on the power and beliefs of free states. The response led to calls for public action against the South, as seen in broadsides that advertised gatherings in northern states to discuss publicly what to do about the presumption of the Act.
Bleeding Kansas, Bloody Kansas or the Border War was a series of violent political confrontations in the United States between 1854 and 1861 involving anti-slavery "Free - Staters '' and pro-slavery "Border Ruffian '', or "southern '' elements in Kansas. At the heart of the conflict was the question of whether Kansas would allow or outlaw slavery, and thus enter the Union as a slave state or a free state.
Pro-slavery settlers came to Kansas mainly from neighboring Missouri. Their influence in territorial elections was often bolstered by resident Missourians who crossed into Kansas solely for the purpose of voting in such ballots. They formed groups such as the Blue Lodges and were dubbed border ruffians, a term coined by opponent and abolitionist Horace Greeley. Abolitionist settlers, known as "Jayhawkers, '' moved from the East expressly to make Kansas a free state. A clash between the opposing sides was inevitable.
Successive territorial governors, usually sympathetic to slavery, attempted to maintain the peace. The territorial capital of Lecompton, the target of much agitation, became such a hostile environment for Free - Staters that they set up their own, unofficial legislature, at Topeka.
John Brown and his sons gained notoriety in the fight against slavery by murdering five pro-slavery farmers with a broadsword in the Pottawatomie massacre. Brown also helped defend a few dozen Free - State supporters from several hundred angry pro-slavery supporters at Osawatomie.
Hostilities between the factions reached a state of low - intensity civil war, which was damaging to Pierce. The new Republican Party sought to capitalize on the scandal of Bleeding Kansas. Routine ballot - rigging and intimidation, practiced by both pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers, failed to deter the immigration of anti-slavery settlers, who eventually became the majority of the population.
Prior to the organization of the Kansas -- Nebraska territory in 1854, the Kansas and Nebraska Territories were consolidated as part of the Indian Territory. Throughout the 1830s, large - scale relocations of Native American tribes to the Indian Territory took place, with many Southeastern nations removed to present - day Oklahoma, a process ordered by the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and known as the Trail of Tears, and many Midwestern nations removed by way of treaty to present - day Kansas. Among the latter were the Shawnee, Delaware, Kickapoo, Kaskaskia and Peoria, Ioway, and Miami. The passing of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act came into direct conflict with the relocations. White American settlers from both the free - soil North and pro-slavery South flooded the Northern Indian Territory, hoping to influence the vote on slavery that would come following the admittance of Kansas and, to a lesser extent, Nebraska to the United States.
In order to avoid and / or alleviate the reservation - settlement problem, further treaty negotiations were attempted with the tribes of Kansas and Nebraska. In 1854 alone, the U.S. agreed to acquire lands in Kansas or Nebraska from several tribes including the Kickapoo, Delaware, Omaha, Shawnee, Otoe and Missouri, Miami, and Kaskaskia and Peoria. In exchange for their land cessions, the tribes largely received small reservations in the Indian Territory of Oklahoma or Kansas in some cases.
For the nations that remained in Kansas beyond 1854, the Kansas -- Nebraska Act introduced a host of other problems. In 1855, white "squatters '' built the city of Leavenworth on the Delaware reservation without the consent of either the Delaware or the US government. When Commissioner of Indian Affairs George Manypenny ordered for military support in removing the squatters, both the military and the squatters refused to comply, undermining both Federal authority and the treaties in place with the Delaware. In addition to the violations of treaty agreements, other promises made were not being kept. Construction and infrastructure improvement projects dedicated in nearly every treaty, for example, took a great deal longer than expected. Beyond that, however, the most damaging violation by White American settlers was the mistreatment of Native Americans and their properties. Personal maltreatment, stolen property, and deforestation have all been cited. Furthermore, the squatters ' premature and illegal settlement of the Kansas Territory jeopardized the value of the land and, with it, the future of the Indian tribes living on them. Because treaties were land cessions and purchases, the value of the land handed over to the Federal government was critical to the payment received by a given Native nation. Deforestation, destruction of property, and other general injuries to the land lowered the value of the territories that were ceded by the Kansas Territory tribes.
Manypenny 's 1856 "Report on Indian Affairs '' explained the devastating effect of diseases White settlers brought to Kansas on Indian populations. Without providing statistics, Indian Affairs Superintendent to the area Colonel Alfred Cumming reported at least more deaths than births in most tribes in the area. While noting intemperance, or alcoholism, as a leading cause of death, Cumming specifically cited cholera, smallpox, and measles, none of which the Native Americans were able to treat. The disastrous epidemics exemplified the Osage people, who lost an estimated 1300 lives to scurvy, measles, smallpox, and scrofula between 1852 and 1856, contributing, in part, to the massive decline in population, from 8000 in 1850 to just 3500 in 1860. The Osage had already encountered epidemics associated with relocation and white settlement. The initial removal acts in the 1830s brought both White American settlers and foreign Native American tribes to the Great Plains and into contact with the Osage people. Between 1829 and 1843, influenza, cholera, and smallpox killed an estimated 1242 Osage Indians, resulting in a population recession of roughly 20 percent between 1830 and 1850.
Though their role has been largely minimized or excluded in many historical accounts, Native Americans were also subjected to a great deal of violence during Bleeding Kansas. It has been argued that the widespread absence of Indian involvement in Bleeding Kansas and the settlement of Kansas as a whole from historical texts are caused by racism, an insistence that Native Americans are "half - civilized '' and have "done nothing for the world, '' Furthermore, it has also been argued that the dismissal of Native Americans, as civilized societies, removed White settlers from responsibility for their transgressions against Indian tribes in Kansas throughout Bleeding Kansas.
The Kansas -- Nebraska Act divided the nation and pointed it toward civil war. The Act itself virtually nullified the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The turmoil over the act split both the Democratic and Whig parties and gave rise to the Republican Party, which split the United States into two major political camps, the Republican North and the Democratic South.
Senator Stephen A. Douglas and former Illinois Representative Abraham Lincoln aired their disagreement over the Kansas -- Nebraska Act in seven public speeches during September and October 1854. Lincoln gave his most comprehensive argument against slavery and the provisions of the act in Peoria, Illinois, on October 16, the Peoria Speech. He and Douglas both spoke to the large audience, Douglas first and Lincoln in response, two hours later. Lincoln 's three - hour speech presented thorough moral, legal, and economic arguments against slavery and raised Lincoln 's political profile for the first time. The speeches set the stage for the Lincoln - Douglas debates four years later, when Lincoln was running for Douglas 's Senate seat.
A new anti-slavery state constitution, known as the Wyandotte Constitution, was eventually drawn up. On January 29, 1861, five weeks before Lincoln 's inauguration, Kansas was admitted to the Union as a free state. On March 1, 1867, Nebraska was admitted to the Union. By then, the 1861 -- 1865 Civil War had been fought, and slavery itself had been outlawed throughout the United States by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution.
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what is the os of samsung smart tv | List of Smart TV platforms and middleware software - wikipedia
The following list encompasses notable smart TV platforms and application software that are used as software framework and middleware platforms used by more than just one manufacturer.
For TV sets and companion boxes vendors, available under OEM license.
Available to third parties, under OEM license.
Asus
B&O
Bouygues Telecom (Bbox Miami)
CCC Mobile (Air Stick)
Free / Iliad (Freebox Mini 4K)
LeEco (Super4 X Series)
NVIDIA (Shield TV Console)
Philips
RCA
SDMC Tech (DV8219, DV8035)
Sharp
Sony
ChannelMaster
Hyundai
Xiaomi (Mi Box)
Westinghouse, Element
Hisense
LG
Logitech
Netgear
SFR
Sony
TCL
Vizio
Pace
Sagemcom
Smit
Thomson
Sony
Sky Italia (Italy)
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why do i have to move all the time | Restless legs syndrome - wikipedia
Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is a disorder that causes a strong urge to move one 's legs. There is often an unpleasant feeling in the legs that improves somewhat with moving them. Occasionally the arms may also be affected. The feelings generally happen when at rest and therefore can make it hard to sleep. Due to the disturbance in sleep, people with RLS may have daytime sleepiness, low energy, irritability, and a depressed mood. Additionally, many have limb twitching during sleep.
Risk factors for RLS include low iron levels, kidney failure, Parkinson 's disease, diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis, and pregnancy. A number of medications may also trigger the disorder including antidepressants, antipsychotics, antihistamines, and calcium channel blockers. There are two main types. One is early onset RLS which starts before age 45, runs in families and worsens over time. The other is late onset RLS which begins after age 45, starts suddenly, and does not worsen. Diagnosis is generally based on a person 's symptoms after ruling out other potential causes.
Restless leg syndrome may resolve if the underlying problem is addressed. Otherwise treatment includes lifestyle changes and medication. Lifestyle changes that may help include stopping alcohol and tobacco use, and sleep hygiene. Medications used include levodopa or a dopamine agonist such as pramipexole. RLS affects an estimated 2.5 -- 15 % of the American population. Females are more commonly affected than males and it becomes more common with age.
RLS sensations range from pain or an aching in the muscles, to "an itch you ca n't scratch '', a "buzzing sensation '', an unpleasant "tickle that wo n't stop '', a "crawling '' feeling, or limbs jerking while awake. The sensations typically begin or intensify during quiet wakefulness, such as when relaxing, reading, studying, or trying to sleep.
It is a "spectrum '' disease with some people experiencing only a minor annoyance and others having major disruption of sleep and impairments in quality of life.
The sensations -- and the need to move -- may return immediately after ceasing movement or at a later time. RLS may start at any age, including childhood, and is a progressive disease for some, while the symptoms may remit in others. In a survey among members of the Restless Legs Syndrome Foundation, it was found that up to 45 % of patients had their first symptoms before the age of 20 years.
Individuals with RLS have higher rates of depression and anxiety disorders.
RLS is categorized as either primary or secondary.
RLS is often due to iron deficiency (low total body iron status) and this accounts for 20 % of cases. A study published in 2007 noted that RLS features were observed in 34 % of people having iron deficiency as against 6 % of controls.
Other associated conditions include varicose vein or venous reflux, folate deficiency, magnesium deficiency, fibromyalgia, sleep apnea, uremia, diabetes, thyroid disease, peripheral neuropathy, Parkinson 's disease, POTS, and certain autoimmune diseases such as Sjögren 's syndrome, celiac disease, and rheumatoid arthritis. RLS can also worsen in pregnancy. In a 2007 study, RLS was detected in 36 % of people attending a phlebology (vein disease) clinic, compared to 18 % in a control group.
An association has been observed between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and RLS or periodic limb movement disorder. Both conditions appear to have links to dysfunctions related to the neurotransmitter dopamine, and common medications for both conditions among other systems, affect dopamine levels in the brain. A 2005 study suggested that up to 44 % of people with ADHD had comorbid (i.e. coexisting) RLS, and up to 26 % of people with RLS had confirmed ADHD or symptoms of the condition.
Certain medications may cause or worsen RLS, or cause it secondarily, including:
Both primary and secondary RLS can be worsened by surgery of any kind; however, back surgery or injury can be associated with causing RLS.
The cause vs. effect of certain conditions and behaviors observed in some patients (ex. excess weight, lack of exercise, depression or other mental illnesses) is not well established. Loss of sleep due to RLS could cause the conditions, or medication used to treat a condition could cause RLS.
More than 60 % of cases of RLS are familial and are inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion with variable penetrance.
Research and brain autopsies have implicated both dopaminergic system and iron insufficiency in the substantia nigra. Iron is well understood to be an essential co-factor for the formation of L - dopa, the precursor of dopamine.
Six genetic loci found by linkage are known and listed below. Other than the first one, all of the linkage loci were discovered using an autosomal dominant model of inheritance.
Three genes, MEIS1, BTBD9 and MAP2K5, were found to be associated to RLS. Their role in RLS pathogenesis is still unclear. More recently, a fourth gene, PTPRD was found to be associated to RLS
There is also some evidence that periodic limb movements in sleep (PLMS) are associated with BTBD9 on chromosome 6p21. 2, MEIS1, MAP2K5 / SKOR1, and PTPRD. The presence of a positive family history suggests that there may be a genetic involvement in the etiology of RLS.
Most research on the disease mechanism of restless legs syndrome has focused on the dopamine and iron system. These hypotheses are based on the observation that iron and levodopa, a prodrug of dopamine that can cross the blood -- brain barrier and is metabolized in the brain into dopamine (as well as other mono - amine neurotransmitters of the catecholamine class) can be used to treat RLS, levodopa being a medicine for treating hypodopaminergic (low dopamine) conditions such as Parkinson 's disease, and also on findings from functional brain imaging (such as positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging), autopsy series and animal experiments. Differences in dopamine - and iron - related markers have also been demonstrated in the cerebrospinal fluid of individuals with RLS. A connection between these two systems is demonstrated by the finding of low iron levels in the substantia nigra of RLS patients, although other areas may also be involved.
There are no specific tests for RLS, but non-specific laboratory tests are used to rule out other causes such as vitamin deficiencies. According to the National Institutes of Health 's National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, four symptoms are used to confirm the diagnosis:
In 2003, a US National Institutes of Health (NIH) panel modified their criteria to include the following:
Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms include: akathisia and nocturnal leg cramps.
Peripheral artery disease and arthritis can also cause leg pain but this usually gets worse with movement.
Other than preventing the underlying causes, generally no method of preventing RLS has been established or studied. If RLS is due to specific treatable causes (specific medications or treatable conditions), then treatment of those causes may also remove or reduce RLS. Otherwise, medical responses focus on treating the condition, either symptomatically or by targeting lifestyle changes and bodily processes capable of modifying its expression or severity.
Treatment of restless legs syndrome involves identifying the cause of symptoms when possible. The treatment process is designed to reduce symptoms, including decreasing the number of nights with RLS symptoms, the severity of RLS symptoms and nighttime awakenings. Improving the quality of life is another goal in treatment. This means improving overall quality of life, decreasing daytime sleepiness, and improving the quality of sleep. Pharmacologic treatment involves dopamine agonists or gabapentin enacarbil as first line drugs for daily restless legs syndrome, and opioids for treatment of resistant cases. RLS drug therapy is not curative and has side effects such as nausea, dizziness, hallucinations, orthostatic hypotension, or daytime sleep attacks. An algorithm created by Mayo Clinic researchers provides guidance to the treating physician and patient, including non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatments.
Treatment of RLS should not be considered until possible medical causes are ruled out, especially venous disorders. Secondary RLS may be cured if precipitating medical conditions (anemia, venous disorder) are managed effectively. Secondary conditions causing RLS include iron deficiency, varicose veins, and thyroid problems.
Stretching the leg muscles can bring temporary relief. Walking and moving the legs, as the name "restless legs '' implies, brings temporary relief. In fact, those with RLS often have an almost uncontrollable need to walk and therefore relieve the symptoms while they are moving. Unfortunately, the symptoms usually return immediately after the moving and walking ceases. A vibratory counter-stimulation device has been found to help some people with primary RLS to improve their sleep.
Non-drug treatments include leg massages, hot baths, heating pads or ice packs applied to the legs, good sleep habits and a vibratory pad at night.
According to some guidelines, all people with RLS should have their serum ferritin level tested. The ferritin level, a measure of the body 's iron stores, should be at least 50 μg / L (or ng / mL, an equivalent unit) for those with RLS. Oral iron supplements can increase ferritin levels. For some people, increasing ferritin will eliminate or reduce RLS symptoms; a ferritin level of 50 μg / L is not sufficient for some and increasing the level to 80 μg / L may further reduce symptoms. However, at least 40 % of people will not notice any improvement. It is not advised to take oral iron supplements without first having ferritin levels tested, as many people with RLS do not have low ferritin and taking iron when it is not called for is unlikely to offer any therapeutic benefit whilst still able to cause adverse events. All parenteral iron treatments require diagnosis with laboratory tests to avoid iron overload.
For those whose RLS disrupts or prevents sleep or regular daily activities, medication may be useful. Evidence supports the use of dopamine agonists including: pramipexole, ropinirole, rotigotine, and cabergoline. They reduce symptoms, improve sleep quality and quality of life. Levodopa is also effective. One review found pramipexole to be better than ropinirole.
There are, however, issues with the use of dopamine agonists including augmentation. This is a medical condition where the drug itself causes symptoms to increase in severity and / or occur earlier in the day. Dopamine agonists may also cause rebound when symptoms increase as the drug wears off. In many cases, the longer dopamine agonists have been used the higher the risk of augmentation and rebound as well as the severity of the symptoms. Also, a recent study indicated that dopamine agonists used in restless leg syndrome can lead to an increase in compulsive gambling.
Benzodiazepines, such as diazepam or clonazepam, are not generally recommended, and their effectiveness is unknown. They however are sometimes still used as a second line, as add on agents. Quinine is not recommended due to its risk of serious side effects involving the blood.
RLS symptoms may gradually worsen with age, though more slowly for those with the idiopathic form of RLS than for patients who also have associated medical condition. Nevertheless, current therapies can control the disorder, minimizing symptoms and increasing periods of restful sleep. In addition, some patients have remissions, periods in which symptoms decrease or disappear for days, weeks, or months, although symptoms usually eventually reappear. Being diagnosed with RLS does not indicate or foreshadow another neurological disease.
RLS affects an estimated 2.5 -- 15 % of the American population. A minority (around 2.7 % of the population) experience daily or severe symptoms. RLS is twice as common in women as in men, and Caucasians are more prone to RLS than people of African descent. RLS occurs in 3 % of individuals from the Mediterranean or Middle Eastern region, and in 1 -- 5 % of those from the Far East, indicating that different genetic or environmental factors, including diet, may play a role in the prevalence of this syndrome.
With age, RLS becomes more common, and RLS diagnosed at an older age runs a more severe course.
RLS is even more common in individuals with iron deficiency, pregnancy, or end - stage kidney disease. Poor general health is also linked.
Neurologic conditions linked to RLS include Parkinson 's disease, spinal cerebellar atrophy, spinal stenosis, lumbosacral radiculopathy and Charcot -- Marie -- Tooth disease type 2. Approximately 80 -- 90 % of people with RLS also have periodic limb movement disorder (PLMD), which causes slow "jerks '' or flexions of the affected body part. These occur during sleep (PLMS = periodic limb movement while sleeping) or while awake (PLMW -- periodic limb movement while waking).
The National Sleep Foundation 's 1998 Sleep in America poll showed that up to 25 percent of pregnant women developed RLS during the third trimester.
The first known medical description of RLS was by Sir Thomas Willis in 1672. Willis emphasized the sleep disruption and limb movements experienced by people with RLS. Initially published in Latin (De Anima Brutorum, 1672) but later translated to English (The London Practice of Physick, 1685), Willis wrote:
The term "fidgets in the legs '' has also been used as early as the early nineteenth century.
Subsequently, other descriptions of RLS were published, including those by Francois Boissier de Sauvages (1763), Magnus Huss (1849), Theodur Wittmaack (1861), George Miller Beard (1880), Georges Gilles de la Tourette (1898), Hermann Oppenheim (1923) and Frederick Gerard Allison (1943). However, it was not until almost three centuries after Willis, in 1945, that Karl - Axel Ekbom (1907 -- 1977) provided a detailed and comprehensive report of this condition in his doctoral thesis, Restless legs: clinical study of hitherto overlooked disease. Ekbom coined the term "restless legs '' and continued work on this disorder throughout his career. He described the essential diagnostic symptoms, differential diagnosis from other conditions, prevalence, relation to anemia, and common occurrence during pregnancy.
Ekbom 's work was largely ignored until it was rediscovered by Arthur S. Walters and Wayne A. Hening in the 1980s. Subsequent landmark publications include 1995 and 2003 papers, which revised and updated the diagnostic criteria. Journal of Parkinsonism and RLS is the first peer - reviewed, online, open access journal dedicated to publishing research about Parkinson 's disease and was founded by a Canadian neurologist Dr. Abdul Qayyum Rana.
For decades the most widely used name for the disease was restless legs syndrome, and it is still the most commonly used. In 2013 the Restless Legs Syndrome Foundation renamed itself the Willis - Ekbom Disease Foundation, and it encourages the use of the name Willis - Ekbom disease; its reasons are quoted as follows:
The name Willis - Ekbom disease:
A point of confusion is that RLS and delusional parasitosis are entirely different conditions that have both been called "Ekbom syndrome '', as both syndromes were described by the same person, Karl - Axel Ekbom. Today, calling WED / RLS "Ekbom syndrome '' is outdated usage, as the unambiguous names (WED or RLS) are preferred for clarity.
Some doctors express the view that the incidence of restless leg syndrome is exaggerated by manufacturers of drugs used to treat it. Others believe it is an underrecognized and undertreated disorder. Further, GlaxoSmithKline ran advertisements that, while not promoting off - license use of their drug (ropinirole) for treatment of RLS, did link to the Ekbom Support Group website. That website contained statements advocating the use of ropinirole to treat RLS. The ABPI ruled against GSK in this case.
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when did the last episode of the originals air | List of the Originals episodes - wikipedia
The Originals is an American supernatural drama television series created by Julie Plec for The CW. A spin - off of The Vampire Diaries, the series makes use of certain characters and story elements from the series of books of the same name. The first season premiered with a special preview on October 3, 2013, following the season premiere of its parent series, before premiering in its regular time slot on October 8, 2013.
The show is set in New Orleans which the Mikaelson family and original vampires helped to build. In the first season, the focus was primarily on Klaus (Joseph Morgan), Elijah (Daniel Gillies), and Rebekah (Claire Holt) who found out in the backdoor pilot, aired on April 25, 2013, how Hayley Marshall (Phoebe Tonkin) was pregnant with Klaus ' child, and has now given birth to a werewolf / witch hybrid named Hope (Summer Fontana) Having fled the city many years ago, they return to find Marcel (Charles Michael Davis) (Klaus ' honorary son) leading the city. The family decide to take back the city. The show also revolves around the relationship between them and other supernatural beings, including witches. In the second season, Kol (played by both Nathaniel Buzolic and Daniel Sharman) and Finn (played by both Yusuf Gatewood and Casper Zafer) come back.
On May 10, 2017, The CW renewed the show for a fifth and final season. As of June 23, 2017, 79 episodes of The Originals have aired, concluding the fourth season.
"No. overall '' and "No. in season '' for the pilot dictate the airing and location of the episode within the parent series.
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who swears in the chief justice in kenya | Chief Justice of Kenya - wikipedia
The Chief Justice of Kenya is the head of the Judiciary of Kenya and President of the Supreme Court of Kenya and is an office established under Article 161 of the Kenyan Constitution. He or she is assisted by the Deputy Chief Justice who is also the Deputy President of the Supreme Court.
The current Chief Justice is David Maraga.
Before the enactment of the Constitution of Kenya 2010, the President appointed the Chief Justice without any interview process or parliamentary approval. The Chief Justice did not enjoy security of tenure, and could be dismissed at the pleasure of the President.
Under the new Constitution, the Chief Justice is formally appointed by the President but is selected by the Judicial Service Commission following a competitive process involving a vacancy announcement, shortlisting of applicants and interviews. In order to be appointed as the Chief Justice, a person must have at least fifteen years experience as a legal practitioner. At the end of the interviews, the Judicial Service Commission selects one individual whose name is forwarded to Parliament for vetting and approval. If Parliament gives the candidate the green light, he is then formally appointed by the President.
In order to give the President more leeway in appointing the Chief Justice, the ruling Jubilee Coalition pushed through an amendment which required the Judicial Service Commission to provide three qualified individuals from which the President would appoint one as the Chief Justice. However, the constitutional court declared the amendment unconstitutional, and the President will only receive one name from the Judicial Service Commission.
Like all Judges, the Chief Justice serves until he reaches 70 years, with an option for early retirement one he reaches 65. No matter his age, an individual may not serve for more than ten years as Chief Justice. As such, an individual who serves for ten years as Chief Justice must retire from the office of the Chief Justice even if he is not yet 70, but may opt to stay on the Supreme Court as an Associate Justice until he reaches 70.
The Chief Justice may be removed from office if a Tribunal appointed to inquire into his conduct finds that he should not remain in office.
In the event of a vacancy in the office of the Chief Justice, the Deputy Chief Justice performs the role in an acting capacity until a new Chief Justice is named. Where the Deputy Chief Justice position is also vacant, the senior-most Associate Justice of the Supreme Court will act as the President of the Supreme Court until a Chief Justice is named. An example of this occurred in 2016, when the senior Associate Justice Mohamed Ibrahim acted as the President of the Supreme Court following the early retirement of Chief Justice Willy Mutunga who turned 69 in June 2016, and the retirement of Deputy Chief Justice Kalpana Rawal who turned 70 in January 2016.
The Chief Justice performs a wide range of judicial, administrative and ceremonial duties provided for under the Constitution and various statutes.
As the President and head of the Supreme Court of Kenya, he sits on the bench of the court and gives directions on which Associate Justices are to preside over cases. As the Chairperson of the Judicial Service Commission, he has a lead role in setting policies for the administration of justice and the running of the judicial arm. He also takes part in the selection and recruitment of Judges and Magistrates who are appointed by the Judicial Service Commission which he chairs.
He is also the administrative head of the Judiciary, although the Chief Registrar of the Judiciary is responsible for oversight over administrative matters.
The Chief Justice also presides over the swearing - in of the President, the Deputy President and many other government officials. He also ceremoniously administers the oath that newly qualified lawyers take as they are admitted to the Roll of Advocates.
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when does season 2 of luke cage start on netflix | Luke Cage (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of the American web television series Luke Cage, which is based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name, sees Cage become a hero and celebrity in Harlem after clearing his name, only to face a new threat. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films and other television series of the franchise. The season was produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios, with Cheo Hodari Coker serving as showrunner.
Mike Colter stars as Cage, alongside returning principal cast members Simone Missick, Theo Rossi, and Alfre Woodard. They are joined by Gabrielle Dennis and Mustafa Shakir, with Jessica Henwick, Finn Jones, and Stephen Rider reprising their roles from other Marvel / Netflix series; Rosario Dawson also returns in a guest role. The season was ordered in December 2016, and filmed in New York City from June to November 2017. Coker again emphasized music in the season: Adrian Younge and Ali Shaheed Muhammad returned to compose the original score, using blues and reggae to represent the conflict between the Stokes family and Shakir 's Bushmaster; the season again features performances from various artists; and each episode is named after a Pete Rock & CL Smooth song. Reg E. Cathey has a recurring role as Cage 's father in one of his last performances, and the season is dedicated to his memory.
The season premiered on June 21, 2018, before all 13 episodes were released on Netflix on June 22. It was widely praised as better than the first season, particularly for its narrative and cast -- Woodard 's performance especially -- though there was again some criticism for its pacing.
Luke Cage, the bulletproof defender of Harlem, has become a celebrity. His friend D.W. Griffith attempts to earn him some money through merchandise and an app that tracks Cage 's whereabouts. He spends his nights trying to stop a group from distributing drugs under his name. Following the secret battle at Midland Circle, Misty Knight is recovering from the loss of her arm and does not intend to return to police work, until she discovers that up to 30 of the criminals she previously sent to prison have now been released due to her late corrupt partner Rafael Scarfe. One of these criminals is Dontrell "Cockroach '' Hamilton, who is looking to buy Mariah Dillard 's criminal empire alongside drug smuggler Arturo "El Rey '' Gomez III and Jamaican gang leader Nigel Garrison. Griffith helps Cage identify El Rey as the "Luke Cage '' drug cartel leader and turns him over to Knight 's captain Tom Ridenhour, while Garrison is murdered by John "Bushmaster '' McIver, who survives several gun shots and has arrived from Jamaica planning to take Harlem from Dillard.
Bushmaster visits holistic doctor Tilda Johnson to get ingredients for augmenting the plant nightshade, which he uses to heal his wounds and increase his strength. Johnson is Dillard 's daughter, and is also visited by her mother who wants to publicly reunite with Johnson, after years apart, to improve her image. Dillard wants to transition to a legitimate business woman, which is why she is selling her gun business. She organizes for El Rey to be released on bail and sends her lover Hernan "Shades '' Alvarez to complete the sale with him. When El Rey refuses, and disrespects Dillard, Shades kills him. Knight is now on "light duty '' and unable to pursue leads, but directs Cage to Cockroach. Cage believes he is indestructible, but Cockroach is able to injure him with the force of a close - range, high - power gun. This bothers Cage 's girlfriend, former nurse Claire Temple, who is struggling with her inability to help Cage as well as his reluctance to mend his relationship with his estranged father James Lucas. Johnson agrees to give her mother another chance.
When Cage is tipped off that Cockroach is beating his partner and son, he goes to their apartment and severely beats Cockroach himself. A horrified Temple calls Knight, who lets Cage leave the scene before her rival detective Nandi Tyler, as well as Tyler 's partner Mark Bailey, arrive. Knight is later reprimanded for this, but Ridenhour explains that he can not suspend Knight due to her high status within the department as a disabled hero. Knight later practices fighting with one arm, and lets out some frustration, with Colleen Wing (who Knight had been defending when she lost her arm). With El Rey dead and Cockroach in the hospital, Shades turns to Garrison; he finds Bushmaster instead, who is more than willing to pay Dillard the money. Cage later arrives looking for Garrison, and fights several gang members who are armed with different weapons. Bushmaster secretly films this and trains in front of the footage. After meeting with Lucas, Temple confronts Cage about his anger, and he lashes out. She asks him to leave, and he runs into Bushmaster.
Bushmaster knocks Cage unconscious, and footage of their fight spreads across the internet. Seeing this and recognizing Bushmaster, Johnson begins investigating the ingredients she sold him. When he wakes up, Cage decides to further investigate the Jamaicans and returns to the site of his fight with the gang members along with Knight. They discover Garrison 's body, and Knight is able to talk to the owner of the building who grew up with Bushmaster and explains that he intends to right the perceived wrongs committed against his parents. From evidence at the building, Cage visits Johnson and she gives him medicine to help with his concussion. Bushmaster visits Dillard, and reveals that his ancestors were once in business with hers. Shades follows him back to a restaurant run by his acquaintances, while Shades ' friend Darius "Comanche '' Jones -- who has been clashing with Dillard -- secretly reports to Ridenhour. Cage 's friend Bobby Fish leaves to serve as an organ donor for his sick daughter, and Cage is served by a process server.
Cockroach sues Cage for attacking him, and Cage agrees to pay him $100,000 rather than risk going to court. Broker Raymond "Piranha '' Jones invests the money from Dillard 's sale to Bushmaster in the plastics company of Mike Higgins, who Dillard blackmails into agreeing to a corporate merger that increases the profits of her new shares considerably. Higgins subsequently disappears, while Dillard uses her new "legitimate '' fortune to open a Family First center in Harlem. She reveals all of this to Johnson, hoping that they can run the center together. Piranha throws a party to celebrate their successful venture, and hires Cage -- who is looking for a way to pay Cockroach -- to appear at the party. Cage ultimately saves Piranha when some of Bushmaster 's men attempt to kidnap him. Knight is gifted a robotic arm by Wing and her billionaire boyfriend Danny Rand. She considers framing Cockroach before finding his body. At the opening of her center, Dillard discovers the severed heads of Cockroach, Higgins, and Shades ' employee Ray Ray.
The paralysis wears off in time for Cage to swim to the surface, and he returns to the church to find Piranha missing. Ridenhour attempts to convince Knight to return to work, and tells her about having an informant working for Dillard. She instead works with Cage to find Piranha. Dillard realizes that Ridenhour has an informant herself, and questions the loyalty of her men. Meanwhile, Bushmaster captures Piranha, uses him to take all of Dillard 's money and assets, and then kills him. Cage and Knight find the body. Ridenhour meets with Comanche, who is panicking about potentially being caught, but Shades follows Comanche to this meeting. Comanche kills Ridenhour, and then Shades shoots Comanche and makes it look like Ridenhour did it. Dillard rushes to go into hiding with Johnson, but is caught by Bushmaster who leaves them in a burning house as revenge for the Stokes family burning his mother alive. Bushmaster then claims the Stokes family 's nightclub Harlem 's Paradise as his while Cage saves Dillard and Johnson.
At the request of Temple, Rand -- who defends the rest of Manhattan as the Immortal Iron Fist -- meets up with Cage and insists on helping him find Bushmaster. Realizing that he would need to be healed following his escape from the police, they begin searching for Johnson but do not find her at her shop or at Harlem 's Paradise. Working with a tip from Turk Barrett, they investigate an abandoned warehouse where the Jamaicans are attempting to grow more nightshade, but it requires the conditions of Jamaica. Cage and Rand fight their way through the men there, and destroy the lab when they do not find Johnson or Bushmaster. Knight and Ridley discover Tyler 's betrayal and arrest her. Because Piranha was tortured before giving Dillard 's money and assets to Bushmaster, these are legally returned to her and she reclaims Harlem 's Paradise. Embracing her Stokes heritage, she has everyone at the Jamaican restaurant murdered, and then burns Anansi alive to send a message to Bushmaster. Shades is unsettled by her new behavior.
Dillard takes the lead of a coalition of gang leaders from throughout New York, promising to take out Bushmaster, who is angered by the use of his name on the new heroin supply. He attacks the refinery where the drugs are being produced, shutting it down with Cage 's help. Bushmaster flees when Cage refuses to let him destroy evidence of the drugs. Cage then visits Dillard, and tells her that he will no longer protect her. Dillard announces a free concert at Harlem 's Paradise to ensure that there will be enough people around that Cage will show up to protect them from Bushmaster anyway. Johnson offers to help Bushmaster kill Dillard, showing him a secret entrance to the club and giving him extra nightshade as a final boost of strength. Shades confesses all he knows to the police, but they need proof that Dillard owns the gun used to kill Anansi. He goes to the club during the concert, and is with Dillard when Bushmaster attacks. Cage and Knight are able to stop Bushmaster, but he gets away when Cage refuses to kill him. Dillard is arrested.
With Dillard in prison, the other gang leaders go to war in the streets of Harlem. Shades suggests to Cage that he replace Dillard to prevent a new crime boss taking over. Cage threatens Italian boss Rosalie Carbone, ensuring she stays out of Harlem. In prison, Dillard makes moves to gain power and orders the murders of all of her former contacts and employees. Johnson helps Bushmaster begin to recover from his nightshade use, and he chooses to return to Jamaica. He tells her that Dillard must still burn. Johnson decides to visit Dillard, who tells her that Harlem 's Paradise is her birthright. Johnson then gives Dillard a slow - acting poison, and she eventually dies while Cage is visiting. Johnson has her mother cremated. With Dillard dead, Shades ' deal no longer holds and he is arrested. When Dillard 's will is read, it has been changed so the club now goes to Cage. This angers Johnson, and concerns Knight who worries that Cage will become a criminal like Dillard. Cage still accepts the club, and establishes himself as the new "sheriff '' of Harlem.
In January 2015, Netflix CCO Ted Sarandos stated the series was "eligible to go into multiple seasons for sure '' and Netflix would look at "how well (they) are addressing both the Marvel fanbase but also the broader fanbase '' in terms of determining if additional seasons would be appropriate. In July 2015, Sarandos said some of the Defenders series would "selectively have multiple seasons as they come out of the gate. '' Regarding a second season, showrunner Cheo Hodari Coker stated he had "a few ideas '', including possibly exploring the "Hero for Hire '' aspect of Luke Cage, though noted he was not taking "any of this for granted '' in terms of feeling a second season renewal from Netflix was guaranteed. Actor Mike Colter also felt "Heroes for Hire '' could be explored in future seasons, as well as further exploring Cage 's lifestyle change regarding his relationship with Jessica Jones and introducing the couple 's daughter. In December 2016, Netflix renewed the series for a second season, of 13 episodes.
Coker compared the season to A Tribe Called Quest 's second album The Low End Theory saying, their first album People 's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm "was great, but then Low End Theory was the record that everyone says... when they think of A Tribe Called Quest taking it to the next level. That 's my hope for season 2, is that we have some of the similar sounds, but we go in a deeper direction. '' Coker also noted that music would continue to be an important element for the season and that Harlem would still be "at the heart and its center '' for the series.
In July 2017, Colter said the writing for the season was different from the first, because "we know the show now. We know the world that we 're in and we know sort of what works and what does n't work and we 're just gon na double down on that stuff, so look forward to a very exciting and very relevant and pop culture - heavy show. '' He added that after the first season and the crossover miniseries The Defenders, Cage would have "a whole new outlook on life '' and would not be dealing with the judicial system anymore. Coker explained that the storyline for the season did not come from any particular iteration of the comics, and instead was based on the characters that appear: "who is Luke Cage and getting much deeper into that, but also finding out different things about Mariah Dillard, also finding out things about Misty Knight, '' including getting her mechanical arm "and what that entails from an emotional standpoint. '' In particular, the new villains introduced for the season and their abilities impacted the story in terms of "what that represents against Luke ''. Each episode of the season is named after a Pete Rock & CL Smooth song, just as Coker named each episode of the first season after a Gang Starr song.
Colter returns to star as Cage, along with Simone Missick as Misty Knight, Rosario Dawson as Claire Temple, Alfre Woodard as Mariah Dillard, and Theo Rossi as Hernan "Shades '' Alvarez. In July 2017, Marvel announced the casting of Mustafa Shakir as John McIver, and Gabrielle Dennis as Tilda Johnson.
Thomas Q. Jones reprises his role as Comanche in the season, along with Danny Johnson as Benjamin Donovan, and Justin Swain as Mark Bailey. In October 2017, it was revealed that Finn Jones would be reprising his role as Danny Rand / Iron Fist in the season. Colter explained that there had been interest from fans to see more of the previously established relationship between Cage and Jessica Jones, but for this season they "went out on a limb '' and decided to give to the fans of the "Heroes for Hire '' instead by having Cage and Rand team up for part of the season. He added that Finn Jones "will bring some fresh blood in the new season ''. Jessica Henwick also reprises her Iron Fist role, appearing as Colleen Wing. Following the death of Reg E. Cathey in February 2018, Marvel revealed that his final performance was as Luke Cage 's father James Lucas in this season. The character appeared briefly in the first season portrayed by an unnamed actor.
In March 2018, Annabella Sciorra was announced to have been cast in the "key role '' of Rosalie Carbone. The next month, Antonique Smith joined the cast as Detective Nandi Tyler, a longtime rival of Misty Knight. Additionally, Elden Henson reprises his role as Foggy Nelson from previous Marvel / Netflix series.
The season also features cameo appearances by ESPN personalities Michael Smith, Jemele Hill, and Stephen A. Smith, and New York Jets head coach Todd Bowles, doubling as the head coach of the fictional Harlem Jets. As Coker is a sports fan, he decided to include the ESPN personalities and was partially motivated to reach out to Michael Smith and Hill out of "professional admiration ''. Coker noted the additional difficulty in getting the duo to appear because of Marvel 's confidentiality requirements, meaning they could not see the scripts beforehand. Dialogue was written for the personalities, though each improvised some of it to make it sound like their own voice. Before reaching out to Bowles, Coker was going to ask David Shaw, head coach of the Stanford University Cardinal football team, since Shaw and Coker were college roommates, but the timing did not work out, as Shaw was recruiting students on the other side of the country. Coker then approached former Jets head coach Herm Edwards, since Edwards had one of Coker 's "favorite coach meltdowns of all time '', but Edwards also could not coordinate an appearance, resulting Coker approaching Bowles.
Writer, author, and educator Jelani Cobb also cameos in the season, appearing as himself on a talk show speaking to Luke Cage 's ability to fix Harlem. Cobb, who has "an ambivalent relationship '' to the character of Luke Cage, "went back and forth '' on whether he would appear in the season. He noted, "I really like the show and thought it 'd be a fun thing to do, but I also think that sometimes it 's important for journalists to keep a separate line from what they 're actually doing versus the imaginary stuff that they 're doing, especially in the era of fake news. '' Cobb discussed the potential appearances with "some of the people I respect in the field '' for their opinion, and after gaining their approval, agreed to appear.
Principal photography began by June 10, 2017, under the series ' working title Tiara. Production wrapped that November.
-- Showrunner Cheo Hodari Coker on his use of music in Luke Cage
In July 2017, Colter said that the second season would have "another feel to it '' in terms of the music, praising the season 's musical guests and explaining that he and Coker had chosen a "certain type '' of music for the season after listening to it at a birthday party and agreeing that there had "not been one bad song '' played. Coker later explained that the season would explore the roots of hip - hop with blues and reggae, after the first season introduced hip - hop to the MCU. He added that the season would explore "the entire diaspora of black music '' along with different cultures. Adrian Younge and Ali Shaheed Muhammad again composed the score for the season, working out of Younge 's studio Linear Labs. Their music for the season included a "50 - minute epic '' for one of the episodes. Coker described the pair as being as "important to the success of the show as anyone in the cast, anyone directing, anyone writing, producing, period. ''
Coker wanted to have live musical performances in the season again after the first, and hoped that some musicians who had turned him down for the first season would be happy to join the second after getting to see the series. He noted that the idea of performing in the series was not a "home run in terms of the music community '' during the first season, and he had to call in a lot of favors from his time as a music journalist to get the performers who did appear. For the second season, he was able to show footage of the first season performances as well as point out where musicians who performed on the show received "immediate streaming bumps '' from fans discovering them through the series. With Coker subsequently having his "choice of acts '', the season includes live performance from Faith Evans, returning from the first season, along with Joi & D - Nice, Gary Clark Jr., Esperanza Spalding, Christone "Kingfish '' Ingram, Ghostface Killah, Stephen Marley, Jadakiss, KRS - One, and Rakim. The latter wrote an original song for the series, which he performs in the season finale. The season also includes music from Nina Simone and Mobb Deep.
Following the death of Captain Ridenhour, high - ranking detective Brigid O'Reilly is mentioned as having recently moved to New Orleans, in reference to that character 's role in the series Cloak & Dagger.
The second season of Luke Cage was released on June 22, 2018, on the streaming service Netflix worldwide, in Ultra HD 4K and high dynamic range.
An advanced screening of the season was hosted by Spotify, Netflix, and the Kennedy Center on June 19, followed by an after - party featuring musical performances by KRS - One, Younge and Muhammad, and surprise guests. The season had its red carpet premiere in New York City on June 21, 2018.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 84 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.33 / 10 based on 49 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Marvel 's Luke Cage surpasses the successes of its debut season with a satisfyingly complex narrative and a solid ensemble cast led by Alfre Woodard 's standout performance as the archvillainess Black Mariah. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 64 out of 100 based on 13 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Awarding the "excellent '' season four stars out of five, Olly Richards of Empire said, "Most of Marvel 's superhero series suffer a mid-season sag, without enough plot to fill their episode quota. This season never succumbs to that because it 's not rooted in plot but character. There are episodes where little happens in terms of event, but characters deepen and crack, becoming less who they want to be and more who they have to be, even Luke. Luke Cage could now remove any superhero elements almost entirely and still function as a series. '' David Betancourt of The Washington Post felt the season was "spectacular, full of unforgettable performances, and has not one but two top - notch villains ''. Though he felt the season started slow, the later episodes are "where the magic happens ''. Alison Keene at Collder felt the "last few episodes are fantastic -- it just takes a lot to get there. '' Keene also felt "There are plenty of things this season does well, really well, but there is so much filler and narrative dragging of feet in between that it 's hard to recommend it outright, '' awarding the season three stars out of four.
CNN 's Brian Lowry was more critical of the season, feeling the season was "weaker '' than the first, noting it was "not bad, overall, but still experiencing the equivalent of a sophomore slump. '' Similar to Lowry, Alan Sepinwall at Rolling Stone gave the season two stars out of four, noting the 13 - episode season had "only three or four episodes ' worth of story at best ''.
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when was the term happy holidays first used | Christmas and holiday season - wikipedia
The Christmas season, also called the festive season, or the holiday season (mainly in the U.S. and Canada; often simply called the holidays),, is an annually recurring period recognized in many Western and Western - influenced countries that is generally considered to run from late November to early January. It is defined as incorporating at least Christmas, and usually New Year, and sometimes various other holidays and festivals. It also is associated with a period of shopping which comprises a peak season for the retail sector (the "Christmas (or holiday) shopping season ''), and a period of sales at the end of the season (the "January sales ''). Christmas window displays and Christmas tree lighting ceremonies when trees decorated with ornaments and light bulbs are illuminated, are traditions in many areas.
In the denominations of Western Christianity, the term "Christmas season '' is considered synonymous with Christmastide, a term associated with Yuletide, which runs from December 25 (Christmas Day) to January 5 (Epiphany Eve), popularly known as the 12 Days of Christmas. However, as the economic impact involving the anticipatory lead - up to Christmas Day grew in America and Europe into the 19th and 20th centuries, the term "Christmas season '' began to become synonymous instead with the traditional Christian Advent season, the period observed in Western Christianity from the fourth Sunday before Christmas Day until Christmas Day itself. The term "Advent calendar '' survives in secular Western parlance as a term referring to a countdown to Christmas Day from the beginning of December.
Beginning in the mid-20th century, as the Christian - associated Christmas holiday became increasingly secularized and central to American economics and culture while religio - multicultural sensitivity rose, generic references to the season that omitted the word "Christmas '' became more common in the corporate and public sphere of the United States, which has caused a semantics controversy that continues to the present. By the late 20th century, the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah and the new African American cultural holiday of Kwanzaa began to be considered in the U.S. as being part of the "holiday season '', a term that as of 2013 has become equally or more prevalent than "Christmas season '' in U.S. sources to refer to the end - of - the - year festive period. "Holiday season '' has also spread in varying degrees to Canada; however, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, the phrase "holiday season '' is not widely understood to be synonymous with the Christmas -- New Year period, and is often instead associated with summer holidays.
Saturnalia was an ancient Roman festival in honor of the deity Saturn, held on December 17 of the Julian calendar and later expanded with festivities through December 23. The holiday was celebrated with a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturn, in the Roman Forum, and a public banquet, followed by private gift - giving, continual partying, and a carnival atmosphere that overturned Roman social norms: gambling was permitted, and masters provided table service for their slaves. The poet Catullus called it "the best of days. ''
The earliest source stating December 25 as the date of birth of Jesus was Hippolytus of Rome (170 -- 236), written very early in the 3rd century, based on the assumption that the conception of Jesus took place at the Spring equinox which he placed on March 25, and then added nine months. There is historical evidence that by the middle of the 4th century the Christian churches of the East celebrated the birth and Baptism of Jesus on the same day, on January 6 while those in the West celebrated a Nativity feast on December 25 (perhaps influenced by the Winter solstice); and that by the last quarter of the 4th century, the calendars of both churches included both feasts. The earliest suggestions of a fast of Baptism of Jesus on January 6 during the 2nd century comes from Clement of Alexandria, but there is no further mention of such a feast until 361 when Emperor Julian attended a feast on January 6 in the year 361.
In the Christian tradition the Christmas season is a period beginning on Christmas Day (December 25). In some churches (e.g. the Anglican Communion) the season continues until the day before the Epiphany, which is celebrated either on January 6 or on the Sunday between January 2 and 8. In other churches (e.g. the Roman Catholic Church) it continues until the feast of the Baptism of the Lord, which falls on the Sunday following the Epiphany, or on the Monday following the Epiphany if the Epiphany is moved to January 7 or 8. If the Epiphany is kept on January 6, the Church of England 's use of the term Christmas season corresponds to the Twelve Days of Christmas, and ends on Twelfth Night.
This short Christmas season is preceded by Advent, which begins on the fourth Sunday before Christmas Day: the majority of the secularized Christmas and holiday season falls during Advent. The Anglican Communion and some Protestant churches follow the Christmas season with an Epiphany season which lasts until Shrove Tuesday which is also known as Mardi Gras or ' Fat Tuesday '. Other European cultures have their own carnival festivities between new year and Lent.
According to Yanovski et al., in the United States the holiday season "is generally considered to begin with the day after Thanksgiving and end after New Year 's Day ''. According to Axelrad, the season in the United States encompasses at least Christmas and New Year 's Day, and also includes Saint Nicholas Day. The U.S. Fire Administration defines the "Winter Holiday Season '' as the period from December 1 to January 7. According to Chen et al., in China the Christmas and holiday season "is generally considered to begin with the winter solstice and end after the Lantern Festival ''. Some stores and shopping malls advertise their Christmas merchandise beginning after Halloween or even in late October, alongside Halloween items. In the UK and Ireland, Christmas food generally appears on supermarket shelves as early as September or even August, while the Christmas shopping season itself starts from mid November when the high street Christmas lights are switched on.
The precise definition of feasts and festival days that are encompassed by the Christmas and holiday season has become controversial in the United States over recent decades. While in other countries the only holidays included in the "season '' are Christmas Eve, Christmas Day, St. Stephen 's Day / Boxing Day, New Year 's Eve, New Year 's Day and Epiphany, in recent times, this definition in the U.S. has begun to expand to include Yule, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa, Thanksgiving, Black Friday and Cyber Monday. The expansion of the holiday season in the U.S. to encompass Thanksgiving is believed to have begun in the 1920s, when major department stores Macy 's and Gimbels launched dueling Thanksgiving Day parades to promote Christmas sales. Due to the phenomenon of Christmas creep and the informal inclusion of Thanksgiving, the Christmas and holiday season has begun to extend earlier into the year, overlapping Veterans / Remembrance / Armistice Day, Halloween and Guy Fawkes Night.
The exchange of gifts is central to the Christmas and holiday season, and the season thus also incorporates a "holiday shopping season ''. This comprises a peak time for the retail sector at the start of the holiday season (the "Christmas shopping season '') and a period of sales at the end of the season, the "January sales ''.
Although once dedicated mostly to white sales and clearance sales, the January sales now comprise both winter close - out sales and sales comprising the redemption of gift cards given as presents. Young - Bean Song, director of analytics at the Atlas Institute in Seattle, states that it is a "myth that the holiday shopping season starts with Thanksgiving and ends with Christmas. January is a key part of the holiday season. '' stating that for the U.S. e-commerce sector January sales volumes matched December sales volumes in the 2004 / 2005 Christmas and holiday season.
Many people find this time particularly stressful. As a remedy, and as a return to what they perceive as the root of Christmas, some practice alternative giving.
In the United States, the holiday season is a particularly important time for retail shopping, with shoppers spending more than $600 billion during the 2013 holiday season, averaging about $767 per person. During the 2014 holiday shopping season, retail sales in the United States increased to a total of over $616 billion, and in 2015, retail sales in the United States increased to a total of over $630 billion, up from 2014 's $616 billion. The average US holiday shopper spent on average $805. More than half of it was spent on family shopping.
It is traditionally considered to commence on the day after American Thanksgiving, a Friday colloquially known as either Black Friday or Green Friday. This is widely reputed to be the busiest shopping day of the entire calendar year. However, in 2004 the VISA credit card organization reported that over the previous several years VISA credit card spending had in fact been 8 to 19 percent higher on the last Saturday before Christmas Day (i.e., Super Saturday) than on Black Friday. A survey conducted in 2005 by GfK NOP discovered that "Americans are n't as drawn to Black Friday as many retailers may think '', with only 17 % of those polled saying that they will begin holiday shopping immediately after Thanksgiving, 13 % saying that they plan to finish their shopping before November 24 and 10 % waiting until the very last day before performing their holiday gift shopping.
According to a survey by the Canadian Toy Association, peak sales in the toy industry occur in the Christmas and holiday season, but this peak has been occurring later and later in the season every year.
In 2005, the kick - off to the Christmas and holiday season for online shopping, the first Monday after US Thanksgiving, was named Cyber Monday. Although it was a peak, that was not the busiest on - line shopping day of that year. The busiest on - line shopping days were December 12 and 13, almost two weeks later; the second Monday in December has since become known as Green Monday. Another notable day is Free Shipping Day, a promotional day that serves as the last day in which a person can order a good online and have it arrive via standard shipping (the price of which the sender pays) prior to Christmas Eve; this day is usually on or near December 16. Four of the largest 11 on - line shopping days in 2005 were December 11 to 16, with an increase of 12 % over 2004 figures. In 2011, Cyber Monday was slightly busier than Green Monday and Free Shipping Day, although all three days registered sales of over US $1 billion, and all three days registered gains ranging from 14 % to 22 % over the previous year. Analysts had predicted the peak on December 12, noting that Mondays are the most popular days for on - line shopping during the holiday shopping season, in contrast to the middle of the week during the rest of the year. They attribute this to people "shopping in stores and malls on the weekends, and (...) extending that shopping experience when they get into work on Monday '' by "looking for deals, (...) comparison shopping and (...) finding items that were out of stock in the stores ''.
In 2006, the average US household was expected to spend about $1,700 on Christmas and holiday spendings. Retail strategists such as ICSC Research observed in 2005 that 15 % of holiday expenditures were in the form of gift certificates, a percentage that was rising. So they recommended that retailers manage their inventories for the entire holiday shopping season, with a leaner inventory at the start and new winter merchandise for the January sales.
Michael P. Niemira, chief economist and director of research for the Shopping Center Council, states that he expects gift certificate usage to be between US $30 billion and US $40 billion in the 2006 / 2007 holiday shopping season. On the basis of the growing popularity of gift certificates, he states that "To get a true picture of holiday sales, one may consider measuring October, November, December and January sales combined as opposed to just November and December sales. '', because with "a hefty amount of that spending not hitting the books until January, extending the length of the season makes sense ''.
According to the Deloitte 2007 Holiday Survey, for the fourth straight year, gift cards are expected to be the top gift purchase in 2007, with more than two - thirds (69 percent) of consumers surveyed planning to buy them, compared with 66 percent in 2006. In addition, holiday shoppers are planning to buy even more cards this year: an average of 5.5 cards, compared with the 4.6 cards they planned to buy last year. One in six consumers (16 percent) plan to buy 10 or more cards, compared with 11 percent last year. Consumers are also spending more in total on gift cards and more per card: $36.25 per card on average compared with $30.22 last year. Gift cards continue to grow in acceptance: Almost four in 10 consumers surveyed (39 percent) would rather get a gift card than merchandise, an increase from last year 's 35 percent. Also, resistance to giving gift cards continues to decline: 19 percent say they do n't like to give gift cards because they 're too impersonal (down from 22 percent last year). Consumers said that the cards are popular gifts for adults, teens and children alike, and almost half (46 percent) intend to buy them for immediate family; however, they are hesitant to buy them for spouses or significant others, with only 14 percent saying they plan to buy them for those recipients.
Some stores in Canada hold Boxing Week sales (before the end of the year) for income tax purposes.
What has become known as "Christmas creep '' refers to a merchandising phenomenon in which merchants and retailers exploit the commercialized status of Christmas by moving up the start of the holiday shopping season. The term was first used in the mid-1980s, and is associated with a desire of merchants to take advantage of particularly heavy Christmas - related shopping well before Black Friday in the United States and before Halloween in Canada.
The term is not used in the UK and Ireland, where retailers call Christmas the "golden quarter '', that is, the three months of October through December is the quarter of the year in which the retail industry hopes to make the most profit. It can apply for other holidays as well, notably Valentine 's Day, Easter and Mother 's Day.
In the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, the Christmas shopping season starts from mid-November, around the time when high street Christmas lights are turned on. In the UK in 2010, up to £ 8 billion was expected to be spent online at Christmas, approximately a quarter of total retail festive sales. Retailers in the UK call Christmas the "golden quarter '', that is, the three months of October to December is the quarter of the year in which the retail industry hopes to make the most money. In Ireland, around early December or late November each year, The Late Late Toy Show is broadcast on Irish television, which features all the popular toys throughout the year being demonstrated and showcased before the holiday season and shopping sprees commence.
The Netherlands and Belgium have a double holiday. The first one, the arrival of the Bishop Saint Nicholas and Black Peter, starts about mid November, with presents being given on December 5 or 6. This is a separate holiday from Christmas, Bishop Saint Nick (Sinterklaas) and Santa Claus (Kerstman) being different people. Netherlands and Belgium often do not start the Christmas season until December 6 or 7, i.e. after Sinterklaas has finished.
In France, the January sales are restricted by legislation to no more than four weeks in Paris, and no more than six weeks for the rest of the country, usually beginning on the first Wednesday in January, and are one of only two periods of the year when retailers are permitted to hold sales.
In Italy, the January sales begin on the first weekend in January, and last for at least six weeks.
In Croatia and Bosnia (predominantly Sarajevo) the sales periods are regulated by the Consumer Protection Act. The January sales period starts on December 27 and can last up to 60 days.
In Germany, the Winterschlussverkauf (winter sale before the season ends) was one of two official sales periods (the other being the Sommerschlussverkauf, the summer sales). It begins on the last Monday in January and lasts for 12 days, selling left - over goods from the holiday shopping season, as well as the winter collections. However, unofficially, goods are sold at reduced prices by many stores throughout the whole of January. By the time the sales officially begin the only goods left on sale are low - quality ones, often specially manufactured for the sales. Since a legislative reform to the corresponding law in 2004, season sales are now allowed over the whole year and are no longer restricted to season - related goods. However, voluntary sales still called "Winterschlussverkauf '' take place further on in most stores at the same time every year.
In Sweden, where the week of the first Advent Sunday marks the official start of the Christmas and holiday season, continuing with Saint Lucy 's Day on December 13, followed up by Christmas before the Mellandagsrea (between days sell off) traditionally begins on December 27 (nowadays often December 26 or even December 25) and lasts during the rest of the Christmas holiday. It is similar to Black Friday, but lasts longer. They last 34 -- 35 days. Black Friday itself has also gained publicity in Sweden since the early - 2010s. The Swedish Christmas and holiday season continues over Epiphany, and finally ends on St. Knut 's Day when the children have a Knut 's party.
In Bosnia (Republika Srpska), Montenegro and Serbia, holiday sales starts in the middle of December and last for at least one month.
Hong Kong, China has a lot of seasonal activities and traditions to offer around Christmas time. December 25 and 26 are Public Holidays that makes most shops open for shopping. Locals and tourists love to watch the 30 - meter Swarovski Christmas tree in the Central as well as the Christmas light displays on buildings on Victoria Harbour. A huge party in Hong Kong called Winterfest is celebrated every year which involves malls, shops, theme parks and other attractions.
The Philippines has the longest Christmas season, reportedly. As early as September up until January 9, which is the feast of the Black Nazarene (the season ends on the Feast of the Lord 's Baptism on the 2nd Sunday of January or the Monday after Epiphany if the 2nd Sunday is marked as such), Carolers can be typically heard going door to door serenading fellow Filipinos in exchange of money. All over the entire country, parols (star shaped lanterns) are hung everywhere and lights are lit. Simbang Gabi or dawn masses start December 16 and run for nine days up until Christmas Eve.
South Korea 's population are 30 % Christian and Christmas is a Public Holiday. According to the Washington Post, "Koreans prefer cash Christmas gifts over more creative presents. ''
Singapore widely celebrates Christmas which is a Public Holiday in this country. For six weeks, mid-November to early January, the 2.2 - kilometre (1.4 mi) stretch of Orchard Road glitters with lights from decorated trees and building facades of malls and hotels.
A selection of goodwill greetings are often used around the world to address strangers, family, colleagues or friends during the season. Some greetings are more prevalent than others, depending on culture and location. Traditionally, the predominant greetings of the season have been "Merry Christmas '', "Happy Christmas '', and "Happy New Year ''. In the mid-to - late 20th century in the United States, more generic greetings such as "Happy Holidays '' and "Season 's Greetings '' began to rise in cultural prominence, and this would later spread to other Western countries including Canada, Australia and to a lesser extent some European countries. A 2012 poll by Rasmussen Reports indicated that 68 % of Americans prefer the use of "Merry Christmas '', while 23 % preferred "Happy Holidays ''. A similarly - timed Canadian poll conducted by Ipsos - Reid indicated that 72 % of Canadians preferred "Merry Christmas ''.
The greetings and farewells "Merry Christmas '' and "Happy Christmas '' are traditionally used in English - speaking countries, starting a few weeks before Christmas (December 25) each year.
Variations are:
These greetings and their equivalents in other languages are popular not only in countries with large Christian populations but also in the largely non-Christian nations of China and Japan, where Christmas is celebrated primarily due to cultural influences of predominantly Christian countries. They have somewhat decreased in popularity in the United States and Canada in recent decades, but polls in 2005 indicated that they remained more popular than "Happy Holidays '' or other alternatives.
"Merry, '' derived from the Old English myrige, originally meant merely "pleasant, agreeable '' rather than joyous or jolly (as in the phrase "merry month of May ''). Christmas has been celebrated since the 4th century AD, the first known usage of any Christmas greeting dates was in 1534. "Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year '' (thus incorporating two greetings) was in an informal letter written by an English admiral in 1699. The same phrase is contained in the title of the English carol "We Wish You a Merry Christmas, '' and also appears in the first commercial Christmas card, produced by Henry Cole in England in 1843.
Also in 1843, Charles Dickens ' A Christmas Carol was published, during the mid Victorian revival of the holiday. The word Merry was then beginning to take on its current meaning of "jovial, cheerful, jolly and outgoing ''. "Merry Christmas '' in this new context figured prominently in A Christmas Carol. The cynical Ebenezer Scrooge rudely deflects the friendly greeting: "If I could work my will... every idiot who goes about with ' Merry Christmas ' on his lips should be boiled with his own pudding. '' After the visit from the Ghosts of Christmas effects his transformation, Scrooge exclaims; "I am as merry as a school - boy. A merry Christmas to everybody! '' and heartily exchanges the wish to all he meets. The instant popularity of A Christmas Carol, the Victorian era Christmas traditions it typifies, and the term 's new meaning appearing in the book popularized the phrase "Merry Christmas ''.
The alternative "Happy Christmas '' gained usage in the late 19th century, and in the UK and Ireland is a common spoken greeting, along with "Merry Christmas ''. One reason may be the Victorian middle class influence in attempting to separate wholesome celebration of the Christmas season from public insobriety and associated asocial behaviour, at a time when merry also meant "intoxicated '' -- Queen Elizabeth II is said to prefer "Happy Christmas '' for this reason. In her annual Christmas messages to the Commonwealth, Queen Elizabeth has used "happy Christmas '' far more often than "merry Christmas ''.
In the American poet Clement Moore 's "A Visit from St. Nicholas '' (1823), the final line, originally written as "Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good night '', has been changed in many later editions to "Merry Christmas to all '', perhaps indicating the relative popularity of the phrases in the US.
In the United States, "Happy Holidays '' (along with the similarly generalized "Season 's Greetings '') has become a common holiday greeting in the public sphere of department stores, public schools and greeting cards. Its use is generally confined to the period between United States Thanksgiving and New Year 's Day. The phrase "Happy Holidays '' has been used as a Christmas greeting in the United States for more than 100 years.
The increasing usage of "Happy Holidays '' has been the subject of some controversy in the United States. Advocates claim that "Happy Holidays '' is an inclusive greeting that is not intended as an attack on Christianity or other religions, but is rather a response to what they say is the reality of a growing non-Christian population.
Critics of "Happy Holidays '' generally claim it is a secular neologism. The greeting may be deemed materialistic, consumerist, atheistic, indifferentist, agnostic, politically correct and / or anti-Christianity. Critics of the phrase have associated it with a larger cultural clash termed the "War on Christmas ''.
"Season 's Greetings '' is a greeting more commonly used as a motto on winter season greeting cards, and in commercial advertisements, than as a spoken phrase. In addition to "Merry Christmas '', Victorian Christmas cards bore a variety of salutations, including "Compliments of the Season '' and "Christmas Greetings. '' By the late 19th century, "With the Season 's Greetings '' or simply "The Season 's Greetings '' began appearing. By the 1920s it had been shortened to "Season 's Greetings '', and has been a greeting card fixture ever since. Several White House Christmas cards, including U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower 's 1955 card, have featured the phrase.
Various studies have been performed on the effects of the Christmas and holiday season, which encompasses several feast days, on health. They have concluded that the health changes that occur during the Christmas and holiday season are not reversed during the rest of the year and have a long - term cumulative effect over a person 's life, and that the risks of several medical problems increase during the Christmas and holiday season.
Yanovski et al. investigated the assertion that the average American gains weight over the season. They found that average weight gain over the Christmas and holiday season is around 0.48 kilograms (1.1 lb). They also found that this weight gain is not reversed over the rest of the year, and concluded that this "probably contributes to the increase in body weight that frequently occurs during adulthood '' (cf Lent).
Chan et al. investigated the increases in A1C and fasting plasma glucose in type 2 diabetic patients, to see whether these increases were steady throughout the year or varied seasonally. They concluded that the winter holidays did influence the glycemic control of the patients, with the largest increases being during that period, increases that "might not be reversed during the summer and autumn months ''.
The Christmas and holiday season, according to a survey by the ADA, is the second most popular reason, after birthdays, for sharing food in the workplace. The British Columbia Safety Council states that if proper food safety procedures are not followed, food set out for sharing in the workplace can serve as a breeding ground for bacteria, and recommends that perishable foods (for which it gives pizza, cold cuts, dips, salads, and sandwiches as examples) should not sit out for more than 2 hours.
A survey conducted in 2005 found shopping caused headaches in nearly a quarter of people and sleeplessness in 11 percent.
Phillips et al. investigated whether some or all of the spike in cardiac mortality that occurs during December and January could be ascribed to the Christmas / New Year 's holidays rather than to climatic factors. They concluded that the Christmas and holiday season is "a risk factor for cardiac and noncardiac mortality '', stating that there are "multiple explanations for this association, including the possibility that holiday - induced delays in seeking treatment play a role in producing the twin holiday spikes ''.
The Asthma Society of Canada states that the Christmas and holiday season increases exposure to irritants because people spend 90 % of their time indoors, and that seasonal decorations in the home introduce additional, further, irritants beyond the ones that exist all year around. It recommends that asthmatics avoid scented candles, for example, recommending either that candles not be lit or that soy or beeswax candles be employed.
According to the Stanford Recycling Center Americans throw away 25 % more trash during the Christmas and holiday season than at other times of the year.
Because of the cold weather in the Northern Hemisphere, the Christmas and holiday season (as well as the second half of winter) is a time of increased use of fuel for domestic heating. This has prompted concerns in the United Kingdom about the possibility of a shortage in the domestic gas supply. However, in the event of an exceptionally long cold season, it is industrial users, signed on to interruptible supply contracts, who would find themselves without gas supply.
The U.S. Fire Administration states that the Christmas and holiday season is "a time of elevated risk for winter heating fires '' and that the fact that many people celebrate the different holidays during the Christmas and holiday season by decorating their homes with seasonal garlands, electric lights, candles, and banners, has the potential to change the profile of fire incidence and cause. The Government of Alberta Ministry of Municipal Affairs states that candle - related fires rise by 140 % during the Christmas and holiday season, with most fires involving human error and most deaths and injuries resulting from the failure to extinguish candles before going to bed. It states that consumers do n't expect candle holders to tip over or to catch fire, assuming that they are safe, but that in fact candle holders can do this.
Because of increased alcohol consumption at festivities and poorer road conditions during the winter months, alcohol - related road traffic accidents increase over the Christmas and holiday season.
In the United States, the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States has had significant legal impact upon the activities of governments and of state - funded public schools during and relating to the Christmas and holiday season, and has been the source of controversy.
Public schools are subject to what the Anti-Defamation League terms the "December Dilemma '', namely the task of "acknowledging the various religious and secular holiday traditions celebrated during that time of year '' whilst restricting observances of the various religious festivals to what is constitutionally permissible. The ADL and many school district authorities have published guidelines for schools and for teachers. For example: The directive on maintaining religious neutrality in public schools over the Christmas and holiday season, given to public school administrators in the District of Columbia by the Superintendent, contains several points on what may and may not be taught in the D.C. school district, the themes of parties and concerts, the uses of religious symbols, the locations of school events and classes and prayer.
In 2002, for the Christmas and holiday season, Moscow mayor Yuriy Luzhkov ordered all stores, restaurants, cafés and markets to display seasonal decorations and lights in their windows and interiors from December 1 onwards. Banks, post offices and public institutions were to do the same from December 15, with violators liable for fines of up to 200 rubles. Every business was ordered to have illuminated windows during the hours of 16: 30 until 01: 00. This caused a mixed reaction, with people objecting to being forced to put up decorations.
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who has been in the nfl the longest | List of NFL players by games played - wikipedia
Regular season only: (includes AAFC and AFL games)
If more than one position is listed for a player, the BOLD listing is his primary position. This list is sorted by 1) games played, 2) first year played, 3) last year played and 4) surname.
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what was one result of the navigation act | Espionage Act of 1917 - wikipedia
Progressive Era
Repression and persecution
Civil Rights / anti-War movements
The Espionage Act of 1917 is a United States federal law passed on June 15, 1917, shortly after the U.S. entry into World War I. It has been amended numerous times over the years. It was originally found in Title 50 of the U.S. Code (War) but is now found under Title 18, Crime. Specifically, it is 18 U.S.C. ch. 37 (18 U.S.C. § 792 et seq.)
It was intended to prohibit interference with military operations or recruitment, to prevent insubordination in the military, and to prevent the support of United States enemies during wartime. In 1919, the Supreme Court of the United States unanimously ruled through Schenck v. United States that the act did not violate the freedom of speech of those convicted under its provisions. The constitutionality of the law, its relationship to free speech, and the meaning of its language have been contested in court ever since.
Among those charged with offences under the Act are German - American socialist congressman and newspaper editor Victor L. Berger, labor leader and four time Socialist Party of America candidate, Eugene V. Debs, anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman, former Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society president Joseph Franklin Rutherford, communists Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, Pentagon Papers whistleblower Daniel Ellsberg, Cablegate whistleblower Chelsea Manning, and National Security Agency (NSA) contractor and whistleblower Edward Snowden. Rutherford 's conviction was overturned on appeal. Although the most controversial sections of the Act, a set of amendments commonly called the Sedition Act of 1918, were repealed on March 3, 1921, the original Espionage Act was left intact.
The Espionage Act of 1917 was passed, along with the Trading with the Enemy Act, just after the United States entered World War I in April 1917. It was based on the Defense Secrets Act of 1911, especially the notions of obtaining or delivering information relating to "national defense '' to a person who was not "entitled to have it '', itself based on an earlier British Official Secrets Act. The Espionage Act law imposed much stiffer penalties than the 1911 law, including the death penalty.
President Woodrow Wilson, in his December 7, 1915 State of the Union address, asked Congress for the legislation:
There are citizens of the United States, I blush to admit, born under other flags but welcomed under our generous naturalization laws to the full freedom and opportunity of America, who have poured the poison of disloyalty into the very arteries of our national life; who have sought to bring the authority and good name of our Government into contempt, to destroy our industries wherever they thought it effective for their vindictive purposes to strike at them, and to debase our politics to the uses of foreign intrigue...
I urge you to enact such laws at the earliest possible moment and feel that in doing so I am urging you to do nothing less than save the honor and self - respect of the nation. Such creatures of passion, disloyalty, and anarchy must be crushed out. They are not many, but they are infinitely malignant, and the hand of our power should close over them at once. They have formed plots to destroy property, they have entered into conspiracies against the neutrality of the Government, they have sought to pry into every confidential transaction of the Government in order to serve interests alien to our own. It is possible to deal with these things very effectually. I need not suggest the terms in which they may be dealt with.
Congress moved slowly. Even after the U.S. broke diplomatic relations with Germany, when the Senate passed a version on February 20, 1917, the House did not vote before the then - current session of Congress ended. After the declaration of war in April 1917, both houses debated versions of the Wilson administration 's drafts that included press censorship. That provision aroused opposition, with critics charging it established a system of "prior restraint '' and delegated unlimited power to the president. After weeks of intermittent debate, the Senate removed the censorship provision by a one - vote margin, voting 39 to 38. Wilson still insisted it was needed: "Authority to exercise censorship over the press... is absolutely necessary to the public safety '', but signed the Act without the censorship provisions on June 15, 1917, after Congress passed the act on the same day.
Attorney General Thomas Watt Gregory supported passage of the act, but viewed it as a compromise. The President 's Congressional rivals were proposing to remove responsibility for monitoring pro-German activity, whether espionage or some form of disloyalty, from the Department of Justice to the War Department and creating a form of courts - martial of doubtful constitutionality. The resulting Act was far more aggressive and restrictive than they wanted, but it silenced citizens opposed to the war. Officials in the Justice Department who had little enthusiasm for the law nevertheless hoped that even without generating many prosecutions it would help quiet public calls for more government action against those thought to be insufficiently patriotic. Wilson was denied language in the Act authorizing power to the executive branch for press censorship, but Congress did include a provision to block distribution of print materials through the Post Office.
It made it a crime:
The Act also gave the Postmaster General authority to impound or to refuse to mail publications that he determined to be in violation of its prohibitions.
The Act also forbids the transfer of any naval vessel equipped for combat to any nation engaged in a conflict in which the United States is neutral. Seemingly uncontroversial when the Act was passed, this later became a legal stumbling block for the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt, when he sought to provide military aid to Great Britain before the United States entered World War II.
The law was extended on May 16, 1918, by the Sedition Act of 1918, actually a set of amendments to the Espionage Act, which prohibited many forms of speech, including "any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the form of government of the United States... or the flag of the United States, or the uniform of the Army or Navy ''.
Because the Sedition Act was an informal name, court cases were brought under the name of the Espionage Act, whether the charges were based on the provisions of the Espionage Act or the provisions of the amendments known informally as the Sedition Act.
On March 3, 1921, the Sedition Act amendments were repealed, but many provisions of the Espionage Act remain, codified under U.S.C. Title 18, Part 1, Chapter 37.
In 1933, after signals intelligence expert Herbert Yardley published a popular book about breaking Japanese codes, the Act was amended to prohibit the disclosure of foreign code or anything sent in code. The Act was amended in 1940 to increase the penalties it imposed, and again in 1970.
In the late 1940s, the U.S. Code was re-organized and much of Title 50 (War) was moved to Title 18 (Crime). The McCarran Internal Security Act added 18 U.S.C. § 793 (e) in 1950 and 18 U.S.C. § 798 was added the same year.
In 1961, Congressman Richard Poff succeeded after several attempts in removing language that restricted the Act 's application to territory "within the jurisdiction of the United States, on the high seas, and within the United States '' 18 U.S.C. § 791. He said the need for the Act to apply everywhere was prompted by Irvin C. Scarbeck, a State Department official who was charged with yielding to blackmail threats in Poland.
In 1989, Congressman James Traficant tried to amend 18 U.S.C. § 794 to broaden the application of the death penalty. Senator Arlen Specter proposed a comparable expansion of the use of the death penalty the same year. In 1994, Robert K. Dornan proposed the death penalty for the disclosure of a U.S. agent 's identity.
Much of the Act 's enforcement was left to the discretion of local United States Attorneys, so enforcement varied widely. For example, Socialist Kate Richards O'Hare gave the same speech in several states, but was convicted and sentenced to a prison term of five years for delivering her speech in North Dakota. Most enforcement activity occurred in the Western states where the Industrial Workers of the World was active. Finally Gregory, a few weeks before the end of the war, instructed the U.S. Attorneys not to act without his approval.
A year after the Act 's passage, Eugene V. Debs, Socialist Party presidential candidate in 1904, 1908, and 1912 was arrested and sentenced to 10 years in prison for making a speech that "obstructed recruiting ''. He ran for president again in 1920 from prison. President Warren G. Harding commuted his sentence in December 1921 when he had served nearly five years.
In United States v. Motion Picture Film (1917), a federal court upheld the government 's seizure of a film called The Spirit of ' 76 on the grounds that its depiction of cruelty on the part of British soldiers during the American Revolution would undermine support for America 's wartime ally. The producer, Robert Goldstein, a Jew of German origins, was prosecuted under Title XI of the Act, and received a ten - year sentence plus a fine of $5000. The sentence was commuted on appeal to three years.
Postmaster General Albert S. Burleson and those in his department played critical roles in the enforcement of the Act. He held his position because he was a Democratic party loyalist and close to both the President and the Attorney General. At a time when the Department of Justice numbered its investigators in the dozens, the Post Office had a nationwide network in place. The day after the Act became law, Burleson sent a secret memo to all postmasters ordering them to keep "close watch on... matter which is calculated to interfere with the success of... the government in conducting the war ''. Postmasters in Savannah, Georgia, and Tampa, Florida, refused to mail the Jeffersonian, the mouthpiece of Tom Watson, a southern populist, an opponent of the draft, the war, and minority groups. When Watson sought an injunction against the postmaster, the federal judge who heard the case called his publication "poison '' and denied his request. Government censors objected to the headline "Civil Liberty Dead ''. In New York City, the postmaster refused to mail The Masses, a socialist monthly, citing the publication 's "general tenor ''. The Masses was more successful in the courts, where Judge Learned Hand found the Act was applied so vaguely as to threaten "the tradition of English - speaking freedom ''. The editors were then prosecuted for obstructing the draft and the publication folded when denied access to the mails again. Eventually, Burleson 's energetic enforcement overreached when he targeted supporters of the administration. The President warned him to exercise "the utmost caution '' and the dispute proved the end of their political friendship.
In May 1918, sedition charges were laid under the Espionage Act against Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society president "Judge '' Joseph Rutherford and seven other Watch Tower directors and officers over statements made in the society 's book, The Finished Mystery, published a year earlier. The book had claimed that patriotism was a delusion and murder, so the officers were charged with attempting to cause insubordination, disloyalty, refusal of duty in the armed forces and obstructing the recruitment and enlistment service of the U.S. while it was at war. The book had been banned in Canada since February 1918 for what a Winnipeg newspaper described as "seditious and antiwar statements '' and described by Attorney General Gregory as dangerous propaganda. On June 21 seven of the directors, including Rutherford, were sentenced to the maximum 20 years ' imprisonment for each of four charges, to be served concurrently. They served nine months in the Atlanta Penitentiary before being released on bail at the order of Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis. In April 1919 an appeal court ruled they had not had the "intemperate and impartial trial of which they were entitled '' and reversed their conviction. In May 1920 the government announced that all charges had been dropped.
During the Red Scare of 1918 -- 19, in response to the 1919 anarchist bombings aimed at prominent government officials and businessmen, U.S. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, supported by J. Edgar Hoover, then head of the Justice Department 's Enemy Aliens Registration Section, used the Sedition Act of 1918, which extended the Espionage Act to cover a broader range of offenses, to deport several hundred foreign - born in the U.S., including Emma Goldman, to the Soviet Union on a ship the press called the "Soviet Ark ''.
Many of the jailed challenged their convictions based on the U.S. constitutional right to the freedom of speech. The Supreme Court disagreed. The Espionage Act limits on free speech were ruled constitutional in the U.S. Supreme Court case Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 in 1919. Schenck, an anti-war Socialist, had been convicted of violating the Act when he sent anti-draft pamphlets to men eligible for the draft. Although Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes joined the Court majority in upholding Schenck 's conviction in 1919, he also introduced the theory that punishment in such cases is limited to political expression that constitutes a "clear and present danger '' to the government action at issue. Holmes ' opinion is also the origin of the notion that speech equivalent to "falsely shouting fire in a crowded theater '' is not protected by the First Amendment.
Justice Holmes began to doubt his decision due to criticism received from free speech advocates. He also met the Harvard Law professor Zechariah Chafee and discussed his criticism of Schenck.
Later in 1919, in Abrams v. United States, the Supreme Court upheld the conviction of a man who distributed circulars in opposition to American intervention in Russia following the Russian Revolution. The concept of bad tendency was used to justify the restriction of speech. The defendant was deported. Justices Holmes and Brandeis, however, dissented, with Holmes arguing that "nobody can suppose that the surreptitious publishing of a silly leaflet by an unknown man, without more, would present any immediate danger that its opinions would hinder the success of the government arms or have any appreciable tendency to do so. ''
In March 1919, President Wilson, at the suggestion of Attorney General Thomas Watt Gregory, pardoned or commuted the sentences of some 200 prisoners convicted under the Espionage Act or the Sedition Act. By early 1921, the Red Scare had faded, Palmer left government, and the Espionage Act fell into relative disuse.
Prosecutions under the Act were far less numerous during World War II than they had been during World War I. Associate Justice Frank Murphy noted in 1944 in Hartzel v. United States that "For the first time during the course of the present war, we are confronted with a prosecution under the Espionage Act of 1917. '' Hartzel, a World War I veteran, had distributed anti-war pamphlets to associations and business groups. The court 's majority found that his materials, though comprising "vicious and unreasoning attacks on one of our military allies, flagrant appeals to false and sinister racial theories, and gross libels of the President '', did not urge mutiny or any of the other specific actions detailed in the Act, and that he had targeted molders of public opinion, not members of the armed forces or potential military recruits. The court overturned his conviction in a 5 -- 4 decision. The four dissenting justices declined to "intrude on the historic function of the jury '' and would have upheld the conviction. In Gorin v. United States (early 1941), the Supreme Court ruled on many constitutional questions surrounding the act.
The Act was used in 1942 to deny a mailing permit to Charles Coughlin 's weekly Social Justice, effectively ending its distribution to subscribers. It was part of Attorney General Francis Biddle 's attempt to close down what he called "vermin publications ''.
The same year, a front page story by Stanley Johnston in the Chicago Tribune in June headlined "Navy Had Word of Jap Plan to Strike at Sea '' implied that the Americans had broken the Japanese codes before the Battle of Midway. The story led the Japanese to change codebooks and callsign systems. The newspaper was brought before a grand jury, but proceedings were halted because of government reluctance to present a jury with highly secret information necessary to prosecute the publishers as well as concern that a trial would attract more attention to the case.
In 1945, six associates of Amerasia magazine, a journal of Far Eastern affairs, came under suspicion after publishing articles that bore similarity to Office of Strategic Services reports. The government proposed using the Espionage Act against them but later softened its approach, changing the charges to Embezzlement of Government Property (now 18 U.S.C. § 641). A grand jury cleared three of the associates, two associates paid small fines, and charges against the sixth man were dropped. Senator Joseph McCarthy believed the failure to aggressively prosecute the defendants was a communist conspiracy and according to Kleht and Radosh, the case helped build his notoriety.
Navy employee Hafis Salich sold Soviet agent Mihail Gorin information regarding Japanese activities in the late 1930s. Gorin v. United States was cited in many later espionage cases for its discussion of the charge of "vagueness '' argument made against the terminology used in certain portions of the law, such as what constitutes "national defense '' information.
Later in the 1940s, several incidents prompted the government to increase its investigations into Soviet espionage. These included the Venona project decryptions, the Elizabeth Bentley case, the atomic spies cases, the First Lightning Soviet nuclear test, and others. Many suspects were surveilled, but never prosecuted and the investigations dropped, as can be seen in the FBI Silvermaster Files. However, there were also many successful prosecutions and convictions under the Act.
In August 1950, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were indicted under Title 50, sections 32a and 34, in connection with giving nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union. Anatoli Yakovlev was indicted as well. In 1951, Morton Sobell and David Greenglass were indicted. After a controversial trial in 1951, the Rosenbergs were sentenced to death. The sentence was carried out in 1953. In the late 1950s, several members of the Soble spy ring, including Robert Soblen, and Jack and Myra Soble, were prosecuted for espionage. In the mid-1960s, the act was used against James Mintkenbaugh and Robert Lee Johnson, who sold information to the Soviets while working for the U.S. Army in Berlin.
In 1948, some portions of the United States Code were reorganized. Much of Title 50 (War and National Defense) was moved to Title 18 (Crimes and Criminal Procedure). Thus Title 50 Chapter 4, Espionage, (Sections 31 -- 39), became Title 18, 794 and following. As a result, certain older cases, such as the Rosenberg case, are now listed under Title 50, while newer cases are often listed under Title 18.
In 1950, during the McCarthy Period, Congress passed the McCarran Internal Security Act over President Harry S. Truman 's veto. It modified a large body of law, including espionage law. One addition was 793 (e), which had almost exactly the same language as 793 (d). According to Edgar and Schmidt, the added section potentially removes the "intent '' to harm or aid requirement and may make "mere retention '' of information a crime no matter what the intent, covering even former government officials writing their memoirs. They also describe McCarran saying that this portion was intended directly to respond to the case of Alger Hiss and the "Pumpkin Papers ''.
Court decisions of this era changed the standard for enforcing some provisions of the Espionage Act. Though not a case involving charges under the Act, Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969) changed the "clear and present danger '' test derived from Schenck to the "imminent lawless action '' test, a considerably stricter test of the inflammatory nature of speech.
In June 1971, Daniel Ellsberg and Anthony Russo were charged with a felony under the Espionage Act of 1917, because they lacked legal authority to publish classified documents that came to be known as the Pentagon Papers. The Supreme Court in New York Times Co. v. United States found that the government had not made a successful case for prior restraint of Free Speech, but a majority of the justices ruled that the government could still prosecute the Times and the Post for violating the Espionage Act in publishing the documents. Ellsberg and Russo were not acquitted of violating the Espionage Act, but were freed due to a mistrial based on irregularities in the government 's case.
The divided Supreme Court had denied the government 's request to restrain the press. In their opinions the justices expressed varying degrees of support for the First Amendment claims of the press against the government 's "heavy burden of proof '' in establishing that the publisher "has reason to believe '' the material published "could be used to the injury of the United States or to the advantage of any foreign nation ''.
The case prompted Harold Edgar and Benno C. Schmidt Jr. to write an article on espionage law in the 1973 Columbia Law Review. Their article was entitled "The Espionage Statutes and Publication of Defense Information ''. Essentially they found the law to be poorly written and vague, with parts of it probably unconstitutional. Their article became widely cited in books and in future court arguments on Espionage cases.
United States v. Dedeyan in 1978 was the first prosecution under 793 (f) (2) (Dedeyan ' failed to report ' that information had been disclosed). The courts relied on Gorin v. United States (1941) for precedent. The ruling touched on several constitutional questions including vagueness of the law and whether the information was "related to national defense ''. The defendant received a 3 - year sentence.
In 1979 -- 80, Truong Dinh Hung (aka David Truong) and Ronald Louis Humphrey were convicted under 793 (a), (c), and (e) as well as several other laws. The ruling discussed several constitutional questions regarding espionage law, "vagueness '', the difference between classified information and "national defense information '', wiretapping and the Fourth Amendment. It also commented on the notion of bad faith (scienter) being a requirement for conviction even under 793 (e); an "honest mistake '' was said not to be a violation.
Alfred Zehe, a scientist from East Germany, was arrested in Boston in 1983 after being caught in a government - run sting operation in which he had reviewed classified U.S. government documents in Mexico and East Germany. His attorneys contended without success that the indictment was invalid, arguing that the Espionage Act does not cover the activities of a foreign citizen outside the United States. Zehe then pleaded guilty and was sentenced to 8 years in prison. He was released in June 1985 as part of an exchange of four East Europeans held by the U.S. for 25 people held in Poland and East Germany, none of them American.
One of Zehe 's defense attorneys claimed his client was prosecuted as part of "the perpetuation of the ' national - security state ' by over-classifying documents that there is no reason to keep secret, other than devotion to the cult of secrecy for its own sake ''.
The media dubbed 1985 "Year of the Spy ''. U.S. Navy civilian Jonathan Pollard was charged with 18 U.S.C. § 794 (c), for selling classified information to Israel. His 1986 plea bargain did not get him out of a life sentence, after a ' victim impact statement ' including a statement by Caspar Weinberger. Larry Wu - Tai Chin, at CIA, was charged with 18 U.S.C. § 794 (c) for selling info to China. Ronald Pelton was dinged for 18 U.S.C. § 794 (a), 794 (c), & 798 (a), for selling out to the Soviets, and ruining Operation Ivy Bells. Edward Lee Howard was an ex-Peace Corps and ex-CIA agent charged with 17 U.S.C. § 794 (c) for allegedly dealing with the Soviets. The FBI 's website says the 1980s was the "decade of the spy '', with dozens of arrests.
Seymour Hersh wrote an article entitled "The Traitor '' arguing against Pollard 's release.
Samuel Loring Morison was a government security analyst who worked on the side for Jane 's, a British military and defense publisher. He was arrested on October 1, 1984, though investigators never demonstrated any intent to provide information to a hostile intelligence service. Morison told investigators that he sent classified satellite photographs to Jane 's because the "public should be aware of what was going on on the other side '', meaning that the Soviets ' new nuclear - powered aircraft carrier would transform the USSR 's military capabilities. He said that "if the American people knew what the Soviets were doing, they would increase the defense budget. '' British intelligence sources thought his motives were patriotic, but American prosecutors emphasized Morison 's personal economic gain and complaints about his government job.
The prosecution of Morison was used as part of a wider campaign against leaks of information as a "test case '' for applying the Act to cover the disclosure of information to the press. A March 1984 government report had noted that "the unauthorized publication of classified information is a routine daily occurrence in the U.S. '' but that the applicability of the Espionage Act to such disclosures "is not entirely clear ''. Time said that the administration, if it failed to convict Morison, would seek additional legislation and described the ongoing conflict: "The Government does need to protect military secrets, the public does need information to judge defense policies, and the line between the two is surpassingly difficult to draw. ''
On October 17, 1985, Morison was convicted in Federal Court on two counts of espionage and two counts of theft of government property. He was sentenced to two years in prison on December 4, 1985. The Supreme Court declined to hear his appeal in 1988. Morison became "the only (American) government official ever convicted for giving classified information to the press '' up to that time. Following Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan 's 1998 appeal for a pardon for Morison, President Bill Clinton pardoned him on January 20, 2001, the last day of his presidency, despite the CIA 's opposition to the pardon.
The successful prosecution of Morison was used to warn against the publication of leaked information. In May 1986, CIA Director William J. Casey, without citing specific violations of law, threatened to prosecute five news organizations -- The Washington Post, The Washington Times, The New York Times, Time and Newsweek.
Christopher John Boyce of TRW, and his accomplice Andrew Daulton Lee, sold out to the Soviets and went to prison in the 1970s. (Their activities were the subject of the movie The Falcon & The Snowman.)
In the 1980s, several members of the Walker spy ring were prosecuted and convicted of espionage for the Soviets.
In 1980, David Henry Barnett was the first active CIA officer to be convicted under the act.
In 1994, CIA officer Aldrich Ames was convicted under 18 U.S.C. § 794 (c) of spying for the Soviets; Ames had revealed the identities of several U.S. sources in the USSR to the KGB, who were then executed.
FBI agent Earl Edwin Pitts was arrested in 1996 under 18 U.S.C. § 794 (a) and 18 U.S.C. § 794 (c) of spying for the Soviet Union and later for the Russian Federation.
In 1997, senior CIA officer Harold James Nicholson was convicted of espionage for the Russians.
In 1998, NSA contractor David Sheldon Boone was charged with having handed over a 600 - page technical manual to the Soviets c. 1988 - 1991 (18 U.S.C. § 794 (a)).
In 2000, FBI agent Robert Hanssen was convicted under the Act of spying for the Soviets in the 1980s and Russia in the 1990s.
In the 1990s, Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan deplored the "culture of secrecy '' made possible by the Espionage Act, noting the tendency of bureaucracies to enlarge their powers by increasing the scope of what is held "secret ''.
In the late 1990s, Wen Ho Lee of Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) was indicted under the Act. He and other national security professionals later said he was a "scapegoat '' in the government 's quest to determine if information about the W88 nuclear warhead had been transferred to China. Lee had made backup copies at LANL of his nuclear weapons simulations code to protect it in case of a system crash. The code was marked PARD, sensitive but not classified. As part of a plea bargain, he pleaded guilty to one count under the Espionage Act. The judge apologized to him for having believed the government. Lee later won more than a million dollars in a lawsuit against the government and several newspapers for their mistreatment of him.
In 2001, retired Army Reserve Colonel George Trofimoff, the most senior U.S. military officer to be indicted under the Act, was convicted of conducting espionage for the Soviets in the 1970s -- 1990s.
Kenneth Wayne Ford Jr. was indicted under 18 U.S.C. § 793 (e) for allegedly having a box of documents in his house after he left NSA employment around 2004. He was sentenced to six years in prison in 2006.
In 2005, Pentagon Iran expert Lawrence Franklin, along with AIPAC lobbyists Rosen and Weissman were indicted under the Act. Franklin pleaded guilty to conspiracy to disclose national defense information to the lobbyists and an Israeli government official. Franklin was sentenced to more than 12 years in prison, but the sentence was later reduced to 10 months of home confinement.
Under the Obama administration, seven Espionage Act prosecutions have been related not to traditional espionage but to either withholding information or communicating with members of the media. Out of a total eleven prosecutions under the Espionage Act against government officials accused of providing classified information to the media, seven have occurred since Obama took office. "Leaks related to national security can put people at risk, '' the President said at a news conference in 2013. "They can put men and women in uniform that I 've sent into the battlefield at risk. I do n't think the American people would expect me, as commander in chief, not to be concerned about information that might compromise their missions or might get them killed. ''
Jeffrey Alexander Sterling, a former CIA agent was indicted under the Act in January 2011 for alleged unauthorized disclosure of national defense information to James Risen, a reporter for The New York Times, in 2003 regarding his book State of War. The indictment described his motive as revenge for the CIA 's refusal to allow him to publish his memoirs and its refusal to settle his racial discrimination lawsuit against the Agency. Others have described him as telling Risen about a backfired CIA plot against Iran in the 1990s.
In April 2010, Thomas Andrews Drake, an official with the NSA, was indicted under 18 U.S.C. § 793 (e) for alleged willful retention of national defense information. The case arose from investigations into his communications with Siobhan Gorman of The Baltimore Sun and Diane Roark of the House Intelligence Committee as part of his attempt to blow the whistle on several issues, including the NSA 's Trailblazer project. Considering the prosecution of Drake, investigative journalist Jane Mayer wrote that "Because reporters often retain unauthorized defense documents, Drake 's conviction would establish a legal precedent making it possible to prosecute journalists as spies. ''
In May 2010, Shamai K. Leibowitz, a translator for the FBI, admitted sharing information with a blogger and pleaded guilty under 18 U.S.C. § 798 (a) (3) to one count of disclosure of classified information. As part of a plea bargain, he was sentenced to 20 months in prison.
In August 2010, Stephen Jin - Woo Kim, a contractor for the State Department and a specialist in nuclear proliferation, was indicted under 18 U.S.C. § 793 (d) for alleged disclosure in June 2009 of national defense information to reporter James Rosen of Fox News Channel, related to North Korea 's plans to test a nuclear weapon.
In 2010, Chelsea (formerly Bradley) Manning, the United States Army Private First Class accused of the largest leak of state secrets in U.S. history, was charged under Article 134 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice, which incorporates parts of the Espionage Act 18 U.S.C. § 793 (e). At the time, critics worried that the broad language of the Act could make news organizations, and anyone who reported, printed or disseminated information from WikiLeaks, subject to prosecution, although former prosecutors pushed back, citing Supreme Court precedent expanding First Amendment protections. On July 30, 2013, following a judge - only trial by court - martial lasting eight weeks, Army judge Colonel Denise Lind convicted Manning on six counts of violating the Espionage Act, among other infractions.
In January 2012, John Kiriakou, former CIA officer and later Democratic staffer on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, was charged under the Act with leaking information to journalists about the identity of undercover agents, including one who was allegedly involved in waterboarding interrogations of al - Qaeda logistics chief Abu Zubaydah. Kiriakou is alleged to have also disclosed an investigative technique used to capture Zubaydah in Pakistan in 2002.
In June 2013, Edward Snowden was charged under the Espionage Act after releasing documents exposing the NSA 's PRISM Surveillance Program. Specifically, he was charged with "unauthorized communication of national defense information '' and "willful communication of classified intelligence with an unauthorized person ''.
In June 2017, Reality Leigh Winner was arrested and charged with "willful retention and transmission of national defense information, '' a felony under the Espionage Act. Her arrest was announced on June 5 after The Intercept published an article describing Russian attempts to interfere with the 2016 presidential election, based on classified National Security Agency (NSA) documents leaked to them anonymously. On June 8, 2017, she pleaded not guilty and was denied bail.
Numerous people have criticized the use of the Espionage Act against national security leakers. A 2015 study by the PEN American Center found that almost all of the non-government representatives they interviewed, including activists, lawyers, journalists and whistleblowers, "thought the Espionage Act had been used inappropriately in leak cases that have a public interest component. '' PEN wrote, "experts described it as ' too blunt an instrument, ' ' aggressive, broad and suppressive, ' a ' tool of intimidation, ' ' chilling of free speech, ' and a ' poor vehicle for prosecuting leakers and whistleblowers. ' ''
Pentagon Papers whistleblower Daniel Ellsberg said, "the current state of whistleblowing prosecutions under the Espionage Act makes a truly fair trial wholly unavailable to an American who has exposed classified wrongdoing, '' and that "legal scholars have strongly argued that the US Supreme Court -- which has never yet addressed the constitutionality of applying the Espionage Act to leaks to the American public -- should find the use of it overbroad and unconstitutional in the absence of a public interest defense. '' Professor at American University Washington College of Law and national security law expert Stephen Vladeck has said that the law "lacks the hallmarks of a carefully and precisely defined statutory restriction on speech. '' Trevor Timm, executive director of the Freedom of the Press Foundation, said, "basically any information the whistleblower or source would want to bring up at trial to show that they are not guilty of violating the Espionage Act the jury would never hear. It 's almost a certainty that because the law is so broadly written that they would be convicted no matter what. '' Attorney and former whistleblower Jesselyn Radack notes that the law was enacted "35 years before the word ' classification ' entered the government 's lexicon '' and believes that "under the Espionage Act, no prosecution of a non-spy can be fair or just. '' She added that mounting a legal defense to the Espionage Act is estimated to "cost $1 million to $3 million. ''
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who plays lily on once upon a time | Lily (Once Upon a Time) - wikipedia
"Lily '' is the nineteenth episode of the fourth season of the American fantasy drama series Once Upon a Time, which aired on April 26, 2015.
When Emma Swan discovers that a former friend from her past, Lily, is Maleficent 's long lost daughter, she embarks on a quest to find her and bring her back to Storybrooke in order to reunite her with Maleficent, and Regina teams up with her in an effort to warn Robin Hood about Zelena, but the two are about to face what awaits them outside Storybrooke. Inside Storybrooke, Gold finds himself dealing with Belle, and back in Emma 's past, her friendship with Lily after she is placed in a foster home could threaten their future.
Emma Swan 's Volkswagen is shown driving out of Storybrooke through the forest.
In the Enchanted Forest, the Apprentice starts consulting with the Sorcerer, who demands that the Author (Isaac) can never be allowed to change fate again, after he manipulated the apprentice into sending Maleficent 's daughter, Lily, to the real world after transferring Emma 's potential for darkness to the child.
In 1999 Mankato, Minnesota, the teenage Emma is grabbing a sleeping bag from the garage for a camping trip, when she finds her friend Lily hiding, saying that she 's in big trouble. Lily then invokes the "friends forever '' clause to get Emma 's help. Before she can decline or accept, Emma 's adopted father appears and invites Lily to stay for dinner, but when Emma 's father brings up the subject of how they met, Lily lies by saying that they knew each other through foster care. Emma pulls Lily aside afterwards and tells her she does n't want to lie to her new family, only to see a news report on television about authorities searching for shoplifters, and Lily is among the suspects identified.
The news has now made Emma furious and now wants Lily to leave immediately, but Lily says that she just ca n't help it because she always does "bad '' things; she then begs Emma for help with just one more thing, which is to retrieve a special necklace. Later that night, Emma follows through with getting the necklace, but Lily pulls a fast one on Emma by stealing money from Emma 's parents and runs away. When Emma returned home, Emma 's parents surprised her, having called her social worker, and discovering that Lily is a known criminal. The parents are now upset with Emma for not telling them and allowing such a person into their home; the actions would result in Emma being kicked out of the house. Later that night, Lily catches up with a now furious Emma at a bus stop, and claims that no matter what she does, everything goes wrong and adding that her "whole life is darkness, '' but when Emma is around it gets brighter. Lily then begs Emma to stay in her life, but a bitter Emma leaves, saying she is better off alone.
Lily 's future would later come to light as Lily unknowingly sits next to the Apprentice on the bus after she boards, where he starts to tell Lily that he knows everything about her and can explain why her life is so miserable. He believes he owes the truth to her.
It has been several days since Cruella 's death as Isaac and Gold mourn her passing, but Gold is quick to point out that the time has come to start moving on to their next plot. Meanwhile, at the diner, Emma wonders how they will stop Gold now that her heart is starting to change, when all of a sudden Maleficent shows up and says that she is offering her help, now that they all have a common enemy in Gold. Maleficent tells Emma about her daughter, who is alive and named Lily, which prompts Emma to race off towards the library after she hears the name.
Emma immediately does some research and uncovers the truth that the woman, Lilith Page, is not only Maleficent 's daughter, but was once the childhood friend of Emma, who also discovers that fate has controlled her life down to the finest detail, which includes influencing the one friend she ever had. Regina then suggests that it is time to turn the tables on fate, and proposes that the two travel to New York together, giving them the opportunity to help each other, with Regina hoping to warn Robin Hood about Zelena, while Emma hopes to find and reunite with Lily in order to redeem her parents. As they prepare to leave Storybrooke, Emma and Regina say their goodbyes to everyone, though Emma is still mad at Mary Margaret and David for lying to her.
With Emma and Regina out of town, Gold finds the opportunity to find Belle 's heart, as it can not leave town. He finds Will after finishing his date with Belle, and tells him that Regina took her heart and then threatens Will by demanding that he help him steal it back from Regina 's office. Meanwhile, Mary Margaret and David visit Maleficent and ask for her forgiveness, but she responds to the couple that the real person they need to seek forgiveness from is Lily, since Maleficent has made it clear that she will never forgive them. Hours later, Gold puts his next plan into motion as he seeks out Maleficent in pursuit of Belle 's heart, but Maleficent has decided not to be part of his plot upon visiting the Mayor 's office as Regina has placed a protection spell so he ca n't enter the office, but Gold used the distraction to allow Will to sneak in through the window and retrieve Belle 's heart. After Gold leaves, Maleficent immediately texts Regina.
As Will brings Belle 's heart back to her, he finally gets her attention as Gold enters the room to explain that he must stop hurting her as his heart has grown blacker and learns that he will die faster if he does not stop. Gold then restores the heart back into Belle, and as he leaves, essentially gives Will his blessing with Belle. As Gold walked out of the store, Will grabs Belle 's hand but she takes it away while staring at door, seemingly showing signs that she wanted to go after him.
As Emma and Regina arrive in Lowell, Massachusetts, the two visit an apartment that was the most recent address that Lily once lived at, but the landlord who heard them knock on her door says she died in a car crash and adds insult to their injury by claiming that no one really misses her. Sensing that he is lying, Emma starts to snap and prepares to attack him, but Regina barely holds her back from doing so. Hours later, Emma and Regina are back on the road, when they spot a wolf in the middle of the road and just like Emma 's first arrival in Storybrooke is run off the highway and it blows a tire. Emma is now convinced that this is happening all over again, only to have Regina telling Emma that she 's putting too much faith in fate. Moments later, Emma and Regina stop to get a meal at diner nearby, and in a surprise shocking twist Emma quickly identifies a waitress named "Starla '' as her long lost friend, Lily.
Emma and Lily begin to confront each other outside of the diner. Lily is stunned that Emma would track her down based on the birthmark on her wrist as proof, even as Emma tries to explain that there 's a higher force at power here that has kept them in each other 's lives and forced Lily 's many bad decisions. Lily then tells Emma that she does not believe her and refuses her offer to help. She also tells Emma that she is married and has a daughter, only to walk over to the young girl who just got off a school bus and asks her to pretend to be her daughter in exchange for a free week of burgers. This leads Emma to be suspicious of Lily and follow her to her home, where they find a wall filled with newspaper clippings and clues about Storybrooke; it turns out that Lily knows everything about its existence, and is plotting revenge on the people responsible. The two then hear a car burning rubber (Emma 's VW) and leaving the place. They believe Lily is ready to carry out her plot as the Snow Queen 's scroll is inside, so Emma finds a monkey wrench, then smashes the window of another vehicle and the ladies race off after Lily until they catch up with her and corner her. When Lily threatens Emma by vowing to kill Mary Margaret and David, she and Emma start fighting (eventually causing an electrical strike that takes out the headlights on Emma 's car) until Emma ultimately starts pointing a gun at Lily, who dares her to shoot, since all she ever does is ruin things anyway and adds that decisions are inherently part of her. Realizing that killing Lily would become a major line that would draw Emma into darkness, Regina tells her to lower the gun and Emma does just that.
With the hatchet now buried, Lily joins Emma and Regina and they race their way towards New York City to warn Robin Hood, as Regina has now learned that the leverage she has over Gold, Belle 's heart, has been restored back in Belle by Gold, putting Robin in more danger. As they reach the apartment, Regina tells Robin the truth about Zelena pretending to be Marian but Robin does n't believe her, until "Marian '' shows up and eventually reveals to everyone by transforming herself back to Zelena, shocking Robin, who suddenly shocks Regina, Emma and Lily with another surprise: Zelena is now pregnant with his child.
The episode increased from the previous two episodes, as it posted a 1.7 / 5 among 18 - 49s with 5.21 million viewers tuning in, retaining its lead among scripted programs in the 8 p.m. timeslot but was tied in terms of rating numbers with Secrets & Lies, which followed this show in the 9 p.m. slot.
The episode was met with mixed to positive reviews.
Hilary Busis of Entertainment Weekly noted "It 's a good thing "Lily '' ended with something of a bombshell -- because otherwise, tonight 's highly anticipated installment felt like a bit of an anticlimax. For any other show, an episode that has a plot you can easily explain in a sentence (Emma and Regina leave Storybrooke to track down Maleficent 's daughter; they do) would n't necessarily be cause for concern. On Once, though -- which is at its best when it 's being crazy - go - nuts - bonkers -- these sorts of hours tend to land with a whimper rather than a bang. ''
Amy Ratcliffe of IGN said of the episode, "The search for Lily and the memories it brought to the surface did n't make for a stirring or emotional episode. Regina serving as Emma 's life coach kept the primary plot afloat, but overall, Emma is going dark side too quickly. The build should be more gradual. Also, Emma really needs to stop saying that she knows when people are lying. '' Ratcliffe gave the episode a 6.5 rating out of 10.
In a review from Rickey.org, Nick Roman cites ""Lily '' suggests nature and nurture go hand in hand, and the result is an engrossing episode. ''
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what was spain's position during world war 2 | Spain during World war II - wikipedia
The Spanish State under the dictatorship of General Franco did not officially join the Axis Powers during World War II. However Franco 's regime supplied material and military support to the Axis, in recognition of the heavy assistance it had received from Germany and Italy in the Spanish Civil War. Despite ideological sympathy and allowing volunteers to serve on the Eastern Front, Franco later stationed field armies in the Pyrenees to deter a German occupation of the Iberian Peninsula. The Spanish policy frustrated German proposals that would have encouraged Franco to take British - controlled Gibraltar. Franco considered joining the war and invading Gibraltar in 1940 after the Fall of France, but knew his armed forces would not be able to defend the Canary Islands and Spanish Morocco from a British attack.
During World War II, Spain was governed by a military dictatorship, but despite Franco 's own pro-Axis leanings and debt of gratitude to Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, the government was divided between Germanophiles and Anglophiles. When the war started, Juan Beigbeder Atienza, an Anglophile, was the Minister of Foreign Affairs. The rapid German advance in Europe convinced Franco to replace him with Ramón Serrano Súñer, Franco 's brother - in - law and a strong Germanophile (October 18, 1940). After the 1942 Allied victories in Eastern Europe and north Africa, Franco changed tack again, appointing Francisco Gómez - Jordana Sousa, sympathetic to the British, as minister. Another influential anglophile was the Duke of Alba, Spain 's ambassador in London.
The main part of Spain 's involvement in the war was through volunteers. They fought for both sides, largely reflecting the allegiances of the civil war.
Although Spanish caudillo Francisco Franco did not bring Spain into World War II on the side of the Axis, he permitted volunteers to join the German Army (Heer) on the clear and guaranteed condition they would fight against Bolshevism (Soviet Communism) on the Eastern Front, and not against the Western Allies or any Western European occupied populations. In this manner, he could keep Spain at peace with the Western Allies, while repaying German support during the Spanish Civil War and providing an outlet for the strong anti-Communist sentiments of many Spanish nationalists. Spanish foreign minister Ramón Serrano Súñer suggested raising a volunteer corps, and at the commencement of Operation Barbarossa, Franco sent an official offer of help to Berlin.
Hitler approved the use of Spanish volunteers on June 24, 1941. Volunteers flocked to recruiting offices in all the metropolitan areas of Spain. Cadets from the officer training school in Zaragoza volunteered in particularly large numbers. Initially, the Spanish government was prepared to send about 4,000 men, but soon realized that there were more than enough volunteers to fill an entire division: -- the Blue Division or División Azul under Agustín Muñoz Grandes -- including an air force squadron -- the Blue Squadron, 18,104 men in all, with 2,612 officers and 15,492 soldiers.
The Blue Division was trained in Germany before serving in the Siege of Leningrad, and notably at the Battle of Krasny Bor, where General Infantes ' 6,000 Spanish soldiers threw back some 30,000 Soviet troops. The American ambassador called it a dubious distinction, since no other free country was attacking the allies. In October 1943, under severe diplomatic pressure, the Blue Division was ordered home leaving a token force until March 1944. In all, about 45,000 Spanish served on the Eastern Front, mostly committed volunteers, and around 4,500 died. Joseph Stalin 's desire to retaliate against Franco by making an Allied invasion of Spain the first order of business at the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, was not supported by Harry S. Truman and Winston Churchill. War weary and unwilling to continue the conflict, Truman and Churchill persuaded Stalin to instead settle for a full trade embargo against Spain.
372 members of the Blue Division, the Blue Legion, or volunteers of the Spanische - Freiwilligen Kompanie der SS 101 were taken prisoner by the victorious Red Army; 286 of these men were kept in captivity until April 2, 1954, when they returned to Spain aboard the ship Semiramis, supplied by the International Red Cross.
After their defeat in the Spanish Civil War, numbers of Republican veterans and civilians went into exile in France; the French Republic interned them in refugee camps, such as Camp Gurs in southern France. To improve their conditions, many joined the French Foreign Legion at the start of World War II, making up a sizeable proportion of it. Around sixty thousand joined the French Resistance, mostly as guerrillas, with some also continuing the fight against Francisco Franco. Several thousand more joined the Free French Forces and fought against the Axis Powers. Some sources have claimed that as many as 2,000 served in General Leclerc 's Second French Division, many of them from the former Durruti Column.
The 9th Armoured Company comprised almost entirely battle - hardened Spanish veterans; it became the first Allied military unit to enter Paris upon its liberation in August, 1944, where it met up with a large number of Spanish Maquis fighting alongside French resistance fighters. Furthermore, 1,000 Spanish Republicans served in the 13th Half - brigade of the French Foreign Legion.
In Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union received former Communist Spanish leaders and child evacuees from Republican families. When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, many, such as communist General Enrique Líster, joined the Red Army. According to Beevor, 700 Spanish Republicans served in the Red Army and another 700 operated as partisans behind the German lines. Individual Spaniards, such as the double - agent Juan Pujol García (code name GARBO), also worked for the Allied cause.
From the very beginning of World War II, Spain favoured the Axis Powers. Apart from ideology, Spain had a debt to Germany of $212 million for supplies of matériel during the Civil War. Indeed, in June 1940, after the Fall of France, the Spanish Ambassador to Berlin had presented a memorandum in which Franco declared he was "ready under certain conditions to enter the war on the side of Germany and Italy ''. Franco had cautiously decided to enter the war on the Axis side in June 1940, and to prepare his people for war, an anti-British and anti-French campaign was launched in the Spanish media that demanded French Morocco, Cameroon and the return of Gibraltar. On 19 June 1940, Franco pressed along a message to Hitler saying he wanted to enter the war, but Hitler was annoyed at Franco 's demand for the French colony of Cameroon, which had been German before World War I, and which Hitler was planning on taking back.
At first Adolf Hitler did not encourage Franco 's offer, as he was convinced of eventual victory. In August 1940, when Hitler became serious about having Spain enter the war, a major problem that emerged was the German demand for air and naval bases in Spanish Morocco and the Canaries, which Franco was completely opposed to. After the victory over France, Hitler had revived Plan Z (shelved in September 1939) for having a huge fleet with the aim of fighting the United States, and he wanted bases in Morocco and the Canary islands for the planned showdown with America. The American historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote: "The fact that Germans were willing to forgo Spain 's participation in the war rather than abandon their plans for naval bases on and off the coast of Northwest Africa surely demonstrates the centrality of this latter issue to Hitler as he looked forward to naval war with the United States ''. In September, when the Royal Air Force had demonstrated its resilience in defeating the Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain, Hitler promised Franco help in return for its active intervention. This had become part of a strategy to forestall Allied intervention in north - west Africa. Hitler promised that "Germany would do everything in its power to help Spain '' and would recognise Spanish claims to French territory in Morocco, in exchange for a share of Moroccan raw materials. Franco responded warmly, but without any firm commitment. Falangist media agitated for irredentism, claiming for Spain the regions of Catalonia and the Basque Country which were under French administration.
Hitler and Franco met only once at Hendaye, France on 23 October 1940 to fix the details of an alliance. By this time, the advantages had become less clear for either side. Franco asked for too much from Hitler. In exchange for entering the war alongside the alliance of Germany and Italy, Franco, among many things, demanded heavy fortification of the Canary Islands as well as large quantities of grain, fuel, armed vehicles, military aircraft and other armaments. In response to Franco 's nearly impossible demands, Hitler threatened Franco with a possible annexation of Spanish territory by Vichy France. At the end of the day, no agreement was reached. A few days later in Germany, Hitler would famously tell Mussolini, "I prefer to have three or four of my own teeth pulled out than to speak to that man again! '' It is subject to historical debate whether Franco overplayed his hand by demanding too much from Hitler for Spanish entry into the war, or if he deliberately stymied the German dictator by setting the price for his alliance unrealistically high, knowing that Hitler would refuse his demands and thus save Spain from entering another devastating war.
Spain relied upon oil supplies from the United States, and the US had agreed to listen to British recommendations on this. As a result, the Spanish were told that supplies would be restricted, albeit with a ten - week reserve. Lacking a strong navy, any Spanish intervention would rely, inevitably, upon German ability to supply oil. Some of Germany 's own activity relied upon captured French oil reserves, so additional needs from Spain were unhelpful. From the German point of view, Vichy 's active reaction to British and Free French attacks (Destruction of the French Fleet at Mers - el - Kebir and Dakar) had been encouraging, so perhaps Spanish intervention was less vital. Also, in order to keep Vichy "on - side '', the proposed territorial changes in Morocco became a potential embarrassment and were diluted. As a consequence of this, neither side would make sufficient compromises and after nine hours, the talks failed.
In December 1940, Hitler contacted Franco again via a letter sent by the German ambassador to Spain and returned to the issue of Gibraltar. Hitler attempted to force Franco 's hand with a blunt request for the passage of several divisions of German troops through Spain to attack Gibraltar. Franco refused, citing the danger that the United Kingdom still presented to Spain and the Spanish colonies. In his return letter, Franco told Hitler that he wanted to wait until Britain "was on the point of collapse ''. In a second diplomatic letter, Hitler got tougher and offered grain and military supplies to Spain as an inducement. By this time, however, Italian troops were being routed by the British in Cyrenaica and Italian East Africa, and the Royal Navy had displayed its freedom of action in Italian waters and neutralised the Vichy French fleet at Mers - el - Kébir in French Algeria. The UK was clearly not finished. Franco responded "that the fact has left the circumstances of October far behind '' and "the Protocol then agreed must now be considered outmoded ''.
According to Franco 's own autobiography, he also met privately once with Italian leader Benito Mussolini in Bordighera, Italy on 12 February 1941 at Hitler 's request. Hitler hoped that Mussolini could persuade Franco to enter the war. However, Mussolini was not interested in Franco 's help due to the recent series of defeats his forces had suffered in North Africa and the Balkans.
Franco signed the Anti-Comintern Pact on 25 November 1941. In 1942, the planning of Operation Torch (American landings in North Africa) was considerably influenced by the apprehension that it might precipitate Spain to abandon neutrality and join the Axis, in which case the Straits of Gibraltar might be closed. In order to meet this contingency, it was decided by the Combined Chiefs of Staff to include a landing in Casablanca, in order to have an option of an overland route via Moroccan territory bypassing the Straits.
Despite being non-belligerent throughout the war, Franco 's regime of open support to the Axis Powers led to a period of postwar isolation for Spain as trade with most countries ceased. U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt, who had assured Franco that Spain would not suffer consequences from the United Nations (a wartime term for those nations allied against Germany), died in April 1945. Roosevelt 's successor, Harry S. Truman, as well as new Allied governments, were less friendly to Franco. A number of nations withdrew their ambassadors, and Spain was not admitted to the United Nations until 1955.
Although it sought to avoid entering the war, Spain did make plans for defence of the country. Initially, the mass of the Spanish army was stationed in southern Spain in case of an Allied attack from Gibraltar during 1940 and 1941. However, Franco ordered the divisions to gradually redeploy in the mountains along the French border in case of a possible German invasion of Spain as Axis interest in Gibraltar grew. By the time it became clear that the Allies were gaining the upper hand in the conflict, Franco had amassed all his troops on the French border and received personal assurances from the leaders of Allied countries that they did not wish to invade Spain.
Before Franco and Hitler 's October 1940 meeting in Hendaye, there had been Spanish - German planning for an attack, from Spain, upon the British territory of Gibraltar which was, and is, a British dependency and military base. At the time, Gibraltar was important for control of the western exit from the Mediterranean and the sea routes to the Suez Canal and Middle East, as well as Atlantic patrols.
The Germans also appreciated the strategic importance of north - west Africa for bases and as a route for any future American involvement. Therefore, the plans included the occupation of the region by substantial German forces, to forestall any future Allied invasion attempt.
The plan, Operation Felix, was in detailed form before the negotiations failed at Hendaye. By March 1941, military resources were being ear - marked for Barbarossa and the Soviet Union. Operation Felix - Heinrich was an amended form of Felix that would be invoked once certain objectives in Russia had been achieved. In the event, these conditions were not fulfilled and Franco still held back from entering the war.
After the war, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel said: "Instead of attacking Russia, we should have strangled the British Empire by closing the Mediterranean. The first step in the operation would have been the conquest of Gibraltar. That was another great opportunity we missed. '' If that had succeeded, Hermann Göring proposed that Germany would "... offer Britain the right to resume peaceful traffic through the Mediterranean if she came to terms with Germany and joined us in a war against Russia ''.
As the war progressed and the tide turned against the Axis, the Germans planned for the event of an Allied attack through Spain. There were three successive plans, progressively less aggressive as German capability waned:
This was planned in April 1941 as a reaction to a proposed British landing on the Iberian peninsula near Gibraltar. German troops would advance into Spain to support Franco and expel the British wherever they landed.
Ilona was a scaled down version of Isabella, subsequently renamed Gisella. Devised in May 1942, to be invoked whether or not Spain stayed neutral. Ten German divisions would advance to Barcelona and, if necessary, towards Salamanca to support the Spanish army in fighting another proposed Allied landing either from the Mediterranean or Atlantic coasts.
Devised in June 1943, Nurnberg was purely a defensive operation in the Pyrenees along both sides of the Spanish - French border in the event of Allied landings in the Iberian peninsula, which were to repel an Allied advance from Spain into France.
Spanish troops occupied the Tangier International Zone on June 14, 1940, the same day Paris fell to the Germans. Despite calls by the writer Rafael Sánchez Mazas and other Spanish nationalists to annex "Tánger español '', the Franco regime publicly considered the occupation a temporary wartime measure. A diplomatic dispute between Britain and Spain over the latter 's abolition of the city 's international institutions in November 1940 led to a further guarantee of British rights and a Spanish promise not to fortify the area. In May 1944, although it had served as a contact point between him and the later Axis Powers during the Spanish Civil War, Franco expelled all German diplomats from the Zone.
The territory was restored to its pre-war status on October 11, 1945. In July 1952 the protecting powers met at Rabat to discuss the Zone 's future, agreeing to abolish it. Tangier joined with the rest of Morocco following the restoration of full sovereignty in 1956.
According to a 2008 book, Winston Churchill authorised millions of dollars in bribes to Spanish generals in an effort to influence General Franco against entering the war on the side of Germany. In May 2013 files were released showing MI6 spent the present - day equivalent of more than $200 million bribing senior Spanish military officers, ship owners and other agents to keep Spain out of the war.
Despite lacking cash, oil and other supplies, Francoist Spain was able to supply some essential materials to Germany. There were a series of secret war - time trade agreements between the two countries. The principal resource was wolfram (or tungsten) ore from German - owned mines in Spain. Tungsten was essential to Germany for its advanced precision engineering and therefore for armament production. Despite Allied attempts to buy all available supplies, which rocketed in price, and diplomatic efforts to influence Spain, supplies to Germany continued until August 1944.
Payment for wolfram was effectively set against the Spanish debt to Germany. Other minerals included iron ore, zinc, lead and mercury. Spain also acted as a conduit for goods from South America, for example, industrial diamonds and platinum. After the war, evidence was found of significant gold transactions between Germany and Spain, ceasing only in May 1945. It was believed that these were derived from Nazi looting of occupied lands, but attempts by the Allies to obtain control of the gold and return it were largely frustrated.
As long as Spain permitted it, the Abwehr -- the German intelligence organisation -- was able to operate in Spain and Spanish Morocco, often with cooperation of the Nationalist government. Gibraltar 's installations were a prime target for sabotage, using sympathetic anti-British Spanish workers. One such attack occurred in June 1943, when a bomb caused a fire and explosions in the dockyard. The British were generally more successful after this and managed to use turned agents and sympathetic anti-Fascist Spaniards to uncover subsequent attacks. A total of 43 sabotage attempts were prevented in this way. In January 1944, two Spanish workers, convicted of attempted sabotage, were executed.
The Abwehr also maintained observation posts along both sides of the Straits of Gibraltar, reporting on shipping movements. A German agent in Cádiz was the target of a successful Allied disinformation operation, Operation Mincemeat, prior to the invasion of Sicily in 1943. In early 1944, the situation changed. The Allies were clearly gaining the advantage over Germany and one double agent had provided enough information for Britain to make a detailed protest to the Spanish government. As a result, the Spanish government declared its "strict neutrality ''. The Abwehr operation in southern Spain was consequently closed down. The rail station of Canfranc was the conduit for the smuggling of people and information from Vichy France to the British consulate in San Sebastián. The nearer border station of Irún could not be used as it bordered occupied France.
In the first years of the war, "Laws regulating their admittance were written and mostly ignored. '' They were mainly from Western Europe, fleeing deportation to concentration camps from occupied France, but also Jews from Eastern Europe, especially Hungary. Trudi Alexy refers to the "absurdity '' and "paradox of refugees fleeing the Nazis ' Final Solution to seek asylum in a country where no Jews had been allowed to live openly as Jews for over four centuries. ''
Throughout World War II, Spanish diplomats of the Franco government extended their protection to Eastern European Jews, especially in Hungary. Jews claiming Spanish ancestry were provided with Spanish documentation without being required to prove their case and either left for Spain or survived the war with the help of their new legal status in occupied countries.
Once the tide of war began to turn, and Count Francisco Gómez - Jordana Sousa succeeded Franco 's brother - in - law Serrano Súñer as Spain 's foreign minister, Spanish diplomacy became "more sympathetic to Jews '', although Franco himself "never said anything '' about this. Around that same time, a contingent of Spanish doctors travelling in Poland were fully informed of the Nazi extermination plans by Governor - General Hans Frank, who was under the misimpression that they would share his views about the matter; when they came home, they passed the story to Admiral Luís Carrero Blanco, who told Franco.
Diplomats discussed the possibility of Spain as a route to a containment camp for Jewish refugees near Casablanca but it came to naught due to lack of Free French and British support. Nonetheless, control of the Spanish border with France relaxed somewhat at this time, and thousands of Jews managed to cross into Spain (many by smugglers ' routes). Almost all of them survived the war. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee operated openly in Barcelona.
Shortly afterwards, Spain began giving citizenship to Sephardic Jews in Greece, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania; many Ashkenazic Jews also managed to be included, as did some non-Jews. The Spanish head of mission in Budapest, Ángel Sanz Briz, saved thousands of Ashkenazim in Hungary by granting them Spanish citizenship, placing them in safe houses and teaching them minimal Spanish so they could pretend to be Sephardim, at least to someone who did not know Spanish. The Spanish diplomatic corps was performing a balancing act: Alexy conjectures that the number of Jews they took in was limited by how much German hostility they were willing to engender.
Toward the war 's end, Sanz Briz had to flee Budapest, leaving these Jews open to arrest and deportation. An Italian diplomat, Giorgio Perlasca, who was himself living under Spanish protection, used forged documents to persuade the Hungarian authorities that he was the new Spanish Ambassador. As such, he continued Spanish protection of Hungarian Jews until the Red Army arrived.
Although Spain effectively undertook more to help Jews escape deportation to the concentration camps than most neutral countries did, there has been debate about Spain 's wartime attitude towards refugees. Franco 's regime, despite its aversion to Zionism and "Judeo '' - Freemasonry, does not appear to have shared the rabid anti-Semitic ideology promoted by the Nazis. About 25,000 to 35,000 refugees, mainly Jews, were allowed to transit through Spain to Portugal and beyond.
Some historians argue that these facts demonstrate a humane attitude by Franco 's regime, while others point out that the regime only permitted Jewish transit through Spain. After the war, Franco 's regime was quite hospitable to those who had been responsible for the deportation of the Jews, notably Louis Darquier de Pellepoix, Commissioner for Jewish Affairs (May 1942 -- February 1944) under the Vichy Régime in France.
José María Finat y Escrivá de Romaní, Franco 's chief of security, issued an official order dated May 13, 1941 to all provincial governors requesting a list of all Jews, both local and foreign, present in their districts. After the list of six thousand names was compiled, Romani was appointed Spain 's ambassador to Germany, enabling him to deliver it personally to Himmler. Following the defeat of Germany in 1945, the Spanish government attempted to destroy all evidence of cooperation with the Nazis, but this official order survived.
At the end of the war, Japan was compelled to pay high amounts of money or goods to several nations to cover damage or injury inflicted during the war. In the case of Spain, the reparations were due to the deaths of over a hundred Spanish citizens, including several Catholic missionaries, and great destruction of Spanish properties in the Philippines during the Japanese occupation. To that effect, in 1954 Japan concluded 54 bilateral agreements including one with Spain for $5.5 million, paid in 1957.
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who tells oedipus that he will kill his father and marry his mother | Oedipus - wikipedia
Oedipus (US: / ˈidɪpəs / or / ˈɛdɪpəs / or UK: / ˈiːdɪpəs /; Ancient Greek: Οἰδίπους Oidípous meaning "swollen foot '') was a mythical Greek king of Thebes. A tragic hero in Greek mythology, Oedipus accidentally fulfilled a prophecy that he would end up killing his father and marrying his mother, thereby bringing disaster to his city and family.
The story of Oedipus is the subject of Sophocles ' tragedy Oedipus Rex, which was followed by Oedipus at Colonus and then Antigone. Together, these plays make up Sophocles ' three Theban plays. Oedipus represents two enduring themes of Greek myth and drama: the flawed nature of humanity and an individual 's role in the course of destiny in a harsh universe.
In the most well - known version of the myth, Oedipus was born to King Laius and Queen Jocasta. Laius wished to thwart a prophecy, so he left Oedipus to die on a mountainside. However, the baby was found by shepherds and raised by King Polybus and Queen Merope as their own. Oedipus learned from the oracle at Delphi of the prophecy that he would end up killing his father and marrying his mother but, unaware of his true parentage, believed he was fated to murder Polybus and marry Merope, so left for Thebes. On his way he met an older man and quarrelled, and Oedipus killed the stranger. Continuing on to Thebes, he found that the king of the city (Laius) had been recently killed, and that the city was at the mercy of the Sphinx. Oedipus answered the monster 's riddle correctly, defeating it and winning the throne of the dead king -- and the hand in marriage of the king 's widow, and (unbeknownst to him) his mother Jocasta.
Years later, to end a plague on Thebes, Oedipus searched to find who had killed Laius, and discovered that he himself was responsible. Jocasta, upon realizing that she had married both her own son, and her husband 's murderer, hanged herself. Oedipus then seized two pins from her dress and blinded himself with them.
The legend of Oedipus has been retold in many versions, and was used by Sigmund Freud to name and give mythic precedent to the Oedipus complex.
Variations on the legend of Oedipus are mentioned in fragments by several ancient Greek poets including Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Aeschylus and Euripides. However, the most popular version of the legend comes from the set of Theban plays by Sophocles: Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone.
Oedipus was the son of Laius and Jocasta, king and queen of Thebes. Having been childless for some time, Laius consulted the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi. The Oracle prophesied that any son born to Laius would kill him. In an attempt to prevent this prophecy 's fulfillment, when Jocasta indeed bore a son, Laius had his ankles pierced and tethered together so that he could not crawl; Jocasta then gave the boy to a servant to abandon ("expose '') on the nearby mountain. However, rather than leave the child to die of exposure, as Laius intended, the servant passed the baby on to a shepherd from Corinth and who then gave the child to another shepherd.
The infant Oedipus eventually came to the house of Polybus, king of Corinth and his queen, Merope, who adopted him, as they were without children of their own. Little Oedipus / Oidipous was named after the swelling from the injuries to his feet and ankles ("swollen foot ''). The word "oedema '' (British English) or "edema '' (American English) is from this same Greek word for swelling: οἴδημα, or oedēma.
After many years, Oedipus was told by a drunk that he was a "bastard '', meaning at that time that he was not their biological son. Oedipus confronted his parents with the news, but they denied this. Oedipus went to the same oracle in Delphi that his birth parents had consulted. The oracle informed him he was destined to murder his father and marry his mother. In an attempt to avoid such a fate, he decided to not return home to Corinth, but to travel to Thebes, as it was near Delphi.
On the way, Oedipus came to Davlia, where three roads crossed each other. There he encountered a chariot driven by his birth - father, King Laius. They fought over who had the right to go first and Oedipus killed Laius when the charioteer tried to run him over. The only witness of the king 's death was a slave who fled from a caravan of slaves also traveling on the road at the time.
Continuing his journey to Thebes, Oedipus encountered a Sphinx, who would stop all travelers to Thebes and ask them a riddle. If the travelers were unable to answer her correctly, they would be killed and eaten; if they were successful, they would be free to continue on their journey. The riddle was: "What walks on four feet in the morning, two in the afternoon and three at night? ''. Oedipus answered: "Man: as an infant, he crawls on all fours; as an adult, he walks on two legs and; in old age, he uses a ' walking ' stick ''. Oedipus was the first to answer the riddle correctly and, having heard Oedipus ' answer, the Sphinx allowed him to carry on forward.
Queen Jocasta 's brother, Creon, had announced that any man who could rid the city of the Sphinx would be made king of Thebes, and given the recently widowed Queen Jocasta 's hand in marriage. This marriage of Oedipus to Jocasta fulfilled the rest of the prophecy. Oedipus and Jocasta had four children: two sons, Eteocles and Polynices (see Seven Against Thebes), and two daughters, Antigone and Ismene.
Many years after the marriage of Oedipus and Jocasta, a plague of infertility struck the city of Thebes, affecting crops, livestock and the people. Oedipus asserted that he would end the pestilence. He sent his uncle, Creon, to the Oracle at Delphi, seeking guidance. When Creon returned, Oedipus learned that the murderer of the former King Laius must be brought to justice, and Oedipus himself cursed the killer of his wife 's late husband, saying that he would be exiled. Creon also suggested that they try to find the blind prophet, Tiresias who was widely respected. Oedipus sent for Tiresias, who warned him not to seek Laius ' killer. In a heated exchange, Tiresias was provoked into exposing Oedipus himself as the killer, and the fact that Oedipus was living in shame because he did not know who his true parents were. Oedipus angrily blamed Creon for the false accusations, and the two argued. Jocasta entered and tried to calm Oedipus by telling him the story of her first - born son and his supposed death. Oedipus became nervous as he realized that he may have murdered Laius and so brought about the plague. Suddenly, a messenger arrived from Corinth with the news that King Polybus had died. Oedipus was relieved for the prophecy could no longer be fulfilled if Polybus, whom he considered his birth father, was now dead.
Still, he knew that his mother was still alive and refused to attend the funeral at Corinth. To ease the tension, the messenger then said that Oedipus was, in fact, adopted. Jocasta, finally realizing that he was her son, begged him to stop his search for Laius ' murderer. Oedipus misunderstood her motivation, thinking that she was ashamed of him because he might have been born of low birth. Jocasta in great distress went into the palace where she hanged herself. Oedipus sought verification of the messenger 's story from the very same herdsman who was supposed to have left Oedipus to die as a baby. From the herdsman, Oedipus learned that the infant raised as the adopted son of Polybus and Merope was the son of Laius and Jocasta. Thus, Oedipus finally realized that the man he had killed so many years before, at the place where the three roads met, was his own father, King Laius, and that he had married his mother, Jocasta.
Events after the revelation depend on the source. In Sophocles ' plays, Oedipus went in search of Jocasta and found she had killed herself. Using the pin from a brooch he took off Jocasta 's gown, Oedipus blinded himself and was then exiled. His daughter Antigone acted as his guide as he wandered through the country, finally dying at Colonus where they had been welcomed by King Theseus of Athens. However, in Euripides ' plays on the subject, Jocasta did not kill herself upon learning of Oedipus ' birth, and Oedipus was blinded by a servant of Laius. The blinding of Oedipus does not appear in sources earlier than Aeschylus. Some older sources of the myth, including Homer, state that Oedipus continued to rule Thebes after the revelations and after Jocasta 's death.
Oedipus ' two sons, Eteocles and Polynices, arranged to share the kingdom, each taking an alternating one - year reign. However, Eteocles refused to cede his throne after his year as king. Polynices brought in an army to oust Eteocles from his position and a battle ensued. At the end of the battle the brothers killed each other after which Jocasta 's brother, Creon, took the throne. He decided that Polynices was a "traitor, '' and should not be given burial rites. Defying this edict, Antigone attempted to bury her brother. In Sophocles ' Antigone, Creon had her buried in a rock cavern for defying him, whereupon she hanged herself. However, in Euripides ' lost version of the story, it appears that Antigone survives.
Most writing on Oedipus comes from the 5th century BC, though the stories deal mostly with Oedipus ' downfall. Various details appear on how Oedipus rose to power.
King Laius of Thebes hears of a prophecy that his infant son will one day kill him. He pierces Oedipus ' feet and leaves him out to die, but a herdsman finds him and carries him away. Years later, Oedipus, not knowing he was adopted, leaves home in fear of the same prophecy that he will kill his father and marry his mother. Laius journeys out to seek a solution to the Sphinx 's mysterious riddle. As prophesied, Oedipus and Laius cross paths, but they do not recognize each other. A fight ensues, and Oedipus kills Laius and most of his guards. Oedipus goes on to defeat the Sphinx by solving a riddle to become king. He marries the widow queen Jocasta, unaware that she is his mother. A plague falls on the people of Thebes. Upon discovering the truth, Oedipus blinds himself, and Jocasta hangs herself. After Oedipus is no longer king, Oedipus ' brother - sons kill each other.
Some differences with older stories emerge. The curse of the Oedipus ' sons is expanded backward to include Oedipus and his father, Laius. Oedipus now steps down from the throne instead of dying in battle. Additionally, rather than his children being by a second wife, Oedipus ' children are now by Jocasta.
In the Second Olympians Ode Pindar wrote: Laius ' tragic son, crossing his father 's path, killed him and fulfilled the oracle spoken of old at Pytho. And sharp - eyed Erinys saw and slew his warlike children at each other 's hands. Yet Thersandros survived fallen Polyneikes and won honor in youthful contests and the brunt of war, a scion of aid to the house of Adrastos...
In 467 BC the Athenian playwright, Aeschylus, is known to have presented an entire trilogy based upon the Oedipus myth, winning the first prize at the City Dionysia. The First play was Laius, the second was Oedipus, and the third was Seven against Thebes. Only the third play survives, in which Oedipus ' sons Eteocles and Polynices kill each other warring over the throne. Much like his Oresteia, this trilogy would have detailed the tribulations of a House over three successive generations. The satyr play that followed the trilogy was called The Sphinx.
As Sophocles ' Oedipus Rex begins, the people of Thebes are begging the king for help, begging him to discover the cause of the plague. Oedipus stands before them and swears to find the root of their suffering and to end it. Just then, Creon returns to Thebes from a visit to the oracle. Apollo has made it known that Thebes is harboring a terrible abomination and that the plague will only be lifted when the true murderer of old King Laius is discovered and punished for his crime. Oedipus swears to do this, not realizing of course that he himself is the abomination that he has sworn to exorcise. The stark truth emerges slowly over the course of the play, as Oedipus clashes with the blind seer Tiresias, who senses the truth. Oedipus remains in strict denial, though, becoming convinced that Tiresias is somehow plotting with Creon to usurp the throne.
Realization begins to slowly dawn in Scene II of the play when Jocasta mentions out of hand that Laius was slain at a place where three roads meet. This stirs something in Oedipus ' memory and he suddenly remembers the men that he fought and killed one day long ago at a place where three roads met. He realizes, horrified, that he might be the man he 's seeking. One household servant survived the attack and now lives out his old age in a frontier district of Thebes. Oedipus sends immediately for the man to either confirm or deny his guilt. At the very worst, though, he expects to find himself to be the unsuspecting murderer of a man unknown to him. The truth has not yet been made clear.
The moment of epiphany comes late in the play. At the beginning of Scene III, Oedipus is still waiting for the servant to be brought into the city, when a messenger arrives from Corinth to declare that King Polybus of Corinth is dead. Oedipus, when he hears this news, feels much relieved, because he believed that Polybus was the father whom the oracle had destined him to murder, and he momentarily believes himself to have escaped fate. He tells this all to the present company, including the messenger, but the messenger knows that it is not true. He is the man who found Oedipus as a baby in the pass of Cithaeron and gave him to King Polybus to raise. He reveals, furthermore that the servant who is being brought to the city as they speak is the very same man who took Oedipus up into the mountains as a baby. Jocasta realizes now all that has happened. She begs Oedipus not to pursue the matter further. He refuses, and she withdraws into the palace as the servant is arriving. The old man arrives, and it is clear at once that he knows everything. At the behest of Oedipus, he tells it all.
Overwhelmed with the knowledge of all his crimes, Oedipus rushes into the palace where he finds his mother - wife, dead by her own hand. Ripping a brooch from her dress, Oedipus blinds himself with it. Bleeding from the eyes, he begs his uncle and brother - in - law Creon, who has just arrived on the scene, to exile him forever from Thebes. Creon agrees to this request. Oedipus begs to hold his two daughters Antigone and Ismene with his hands one more time to have their eyes fill of tears and Creon out of pity sends the girls in to see Oedipus one more time.
In Sophocles ' Oedipus at Colonus, Oedipus becomes a wanderer, pursued by Creon and his men. He finally finds refuge at the holy wilderness right outside Athens, where it is said that Theseus took care of Oedipus and his daughter, Antigone. Creon eventually catches up to Oedipus. He asks Oedipus to come back from Colonus to bless his son, Eteocles. Angry that his son did not love him enough to take care of him, he curses both Eteocles and his brother, condemning them both to kill each other in battle. Oedipus dies a peaceful death; his grave is said to be sacred to the gods.
In Sophocles ' Antigone, when Oedipus stepped down as king of Thebes, he gave the kingdom to his two sons, Eteocles and Polynices, both of whom agreed to alternate the throne every year. However, they showed no concern for their father, who cursed them for their negligence. After the first year, Eteocles refused to step down and Polynices attacked Thebes with his supporters (as portrayed in the Seven Against Thebes by Aeschylus and the Phoenician Women by Euripides). The two brothers killed each other in battle. King Creon, who ascended to the throne of Thebes, decreed that Polynices was not to be buried. Antigone, Polynices ' sister, defied the order, but was caught. Creon decreed that she was to be put into a stone box in the ground, this in spite of her betrothal to his son Haemon. Antigone 's sister, Ismene, then declared she had aided Antigone and wanted the same fate, but Creon eventually declined executing her. The gods, through the blind prophet Tiresias, expressed their disapproval of Creon 's decision, which convinced him to rescind his order, and he went to bury Polynices himself. However, Antigone had already hanged herself in her tomb, rather than suffering the slow death of being buried alive. When Creon arrived at the tomb where she had been interred, his son Haemon attacked him upon seeing the body of his deceased fiancée, but failing to kill Creon he killed himself. When Creon 's wife, Eurydice, was informed of the death of Haemon, she too took her own life.
In the beginning of Euripides ' Phoenissae, Jocasta recalls the story of Oedipus. Generally, the play weaves together the plots of the Seven Against Thebes and Antigone. The play differs from the other tales in two major respects. First, it describes in detail why Laius and Oedipus had a feud: Laius ordered Oedipus out of the road so his chariot could pass, but proud Oedipus refused to move. Second, in the play Jocasta has not killed herself at the discovery of her incest -- otherwise she could not play the prologue, for fathomable reasons -- nor has Oedipus fled into exile, but they have stayed in Thebes only to delay their doom until the fatal duel of their sons / brothers / nephews Eteocles and Polynices: Jocasta commits suicide over the two men 's dead bodies, and Antigone follows Oedipus into exile.
In Chrysippus, Euripides develops backstory on the curse: Laius ' sin was to have kidnapped Chrysippus, Pelops ' son, in order to violate him, and this caused the gods ' revenge on all his family. Laius was the tutor of Chrysippus, and raping his student was a severe violation of his position as both guest and tutor in the house of the royal family hosting him at the time. Extant vases show a fury hovering over the lecherous Laius as he abducts the rape victim. Furies avenged violations of good order in households, as can be seen most clearly in such texts as The Libation Bearers by Aeschylus.
Euripides wrote also an Oedipus, of which only a few fragments survive. The first line of the prologue recalled Laius ' hubristic action of conceiving a son against Apollo 's command. At some point in the action of the play, a character engaged in a lengthy and detailed description of the Sphinx and her riddle -- preserved in five fragments from Oxyrhynchus, P. Oxy. 2459 (published by Eric Gardner Turner in 1962). The tragedy featured also many moral maxims on the theme of marriage, preserved in the Anthologion of Stobaeus. The most striking lines, however, state that in this play Oedipus was blinded by Laius ' attendants, and that this happened before his identity as Laius ' son had been discovered, therefore marking important differences with the Sophoclean treatment of the myth, which is now regarded as the ' standard ' version. Many attempts have been made to reconstruct the plot of the play, but none of them is more than hypothetical, because of the scanty remains that survive from its text and of the total absence of ancient descriptions or résumés -- though it has been suggested that a part of Hyginus ' narration of the Oedipus myth might in fact derive from Euripides ' play. Some echoes of the Euripidean Oedipus have been traced also in a scene of Seneca 's Oedipus (see below), in which Oedipus himself describes to Jocasta his adventure with the Sphinx.
At least three other 5th century BC authors who were younger than Sophocles wrote plays about Oedipus. These include Achaeus of Eretria, Nichomachus and the elder Xenocles.
The Bibliotheca, a Roman - era mythological handbook, includes a riddle for the Sphinx, borrowing the poetry of Hesiod:
What is that which has one voice and yet becomes four - footed and two - footed and three - footed?
Due to the popularity of Sophocles 's Antigone (c. 442 BC), the ending (lines 1005 -- 78) of Seven against Thebes was added some fifty years after Aeschylus ' death. Whereas the play (and the trilogy of which it is the last play) was meant to end with somber mourning for the dead brothers, the spurious ending features a herald announcing the prohibition against burying Polyneices, and Antigone 's declaration that she will defy that edict.
Oedipus was a figure who was also used in the Latin literature of ancient Rome. Julius Caesar wrote a play on Oedipus, but it has not survived into modern times. Ovid included Oedipus in Metamorphoses, but only as the person who defeated the Sphinx. He makes no mention of Oedipus ' troubled experiences with his father and mother. Seneca the Younger wrote his own play on the story of Oedipus in the first century AD. It differs in significant ways from the work of Sophocles.
Seneca 's play on the myth was intended to be recited at private gatherings and not actually performed. It has however been successfully staged since the Renaissance. It was adapted by John Dryden in his very successful heroic drama Oedipus, licensed in 1678. The 1718 Oedipus was also the first play written by Voltaire. A version of Oedipus by Frank McGuinness was performed at the National Theatre in late 2008, starring Ralph Fiennes and Claire Higgins.
In 1960, Immanuel Velikovsky (1895 -- 1979) published a book called Oedipus and Akhnaton which made a comparison between the stories of the legendary Greek figure, Oedipus, and the historic Egyptian King of Thebes, Akhnaton. The book is presented as a thesis that combines with Velikovsky 's series Ages in Chaos, concluding through his revision of Egyptian history that the Greeks who wrote the tragedy of Oedipus may have penned it in likeness of the life and story of Akhnaton, because in the revision Akhnaton would have lived much closer to the time when the legend first surfaced in Greece, providing an historical basis for the story. Each of the major characters in the Greek story are identified with the people involved in Akhnaton 's family and court, and some interesting parallels are drawn.
In the late 1960s Ola Rotimi published a novel and play, The Gods Are Not To Blame, which retell the Oedipus myth happening in the Yoruba kingdom.
It has been suggested by Robert Graves and others that in the earliest Ur - myth of the hero, he was called Oedipais: "child of the swollen sea. '' He was so named because of the method by which his birth parents tried to abandon him -- by placing him in a chest and tossing it into the ocean. The mythic topos of forsaking a child to the sea or a river is well attested, found (e.g.) in the myths of Perseus, Telephus, Dionysus, Romulus and Remus and Moses. Over the centuries, however, Oedipais seems to have been corrupted into the familiar Oedipus: "swollen foot. '' And it was this new name that might have inspired the addition of a bizarre element to the story of Oedipus ' abandonment on Mt. Cithaeron. Exposure on a mountain was in fact a common method of child abandonment in Ancient Greece. It can thus be argued that the ankle - binding was grafted onto the Oedipus myth to update its relevance.
Sigmund Freud used the name "the Oedipus complex '' to explain the origin of certain neuroses in childhood. It is defined as a male child 's unconscious desire for the exclusive love of his mother. This desire includes jealousy towards the father and the unconscious wish for that parent 's death, as well as the unconscious desire for sexual intercourse with the mother. Oedipus himself, as portrayed in the myth, did not suffer from this neurosis -- at least, not towards Jocasta, whom he only met as an adult (if anything, such feelings would have been directed at Merope -- but there is no hint of that). Freud reasoned that the ancient Greek audience, which heard the story told or saw the plays based on it, did know that Oedipus was actually killing his father and marrying his mother; the story being continually told and played therefore reflected a preoccupation with the theme.
The term oedipism is used in medicine for serious self - inflicted eye injury, an extremely rare form of severe self - harm.
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who discovered that all atoms of an element have the same number of protons | Atomic number - wikipedia
The atomic number or proton number (symbol Z) of a chemical element is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom. It is identical to the charge number of the nucleus. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. In an uncharged atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons.
The sum of the atomic number Z and the number of neutrons, N, gives the mass number A of an atom. Since protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass (and the mass of the electrons is negligible for many purposes) and the mass defect of nucleon binding is always small compared to the nucleon mass, the atomic mass of any atom, when expressed in unified atomic mass units (making a quantity called the "relative isotopic mass ''), is within 1 % of the whole number A.
Atoms with the same atomic number Z but different neutron numbers N, and hence different atomic masses, are known as isotopes. A little more than three - quarters of naturally occurring elements exist as a mixture of isotopes (see monoisotopic elements), and the average isotopic mass of an isotopic mixture for an element (called the relative atomic mass) in a defined environment on Earth, determines the element 's standard atomic weight. Historically, it was these atomic weights of elements (in comparison to hydrogen) that were the quantities measurable by chemists in the 19th century.
The conventional symbol Z comes from the German word Zahl meaning number, which, prior to the modern synthesis of ideas from chemistry and physics, merely denoted an element 's numerical place in the periodic table, whose order is approximately, but not completely, consistent with the order of the elements by atomic weights. Only after 1915, with the suggestion and evidence that this Z number was also the nuclear charge and a physical characteristic of atoms, did the word Atomzahl (and its English equivalent atomic number) come into common use in this context.
Loosely speaking, the existence or construction of a periodic table of elements creates an ordering of the elements, and so they can be numbered in order.
Dmitri Mendeleev claimed that he arranged his first periodic tables in order of atomic weight ("Atomgewicht ''). However, in consideration of the elements ' observed chemical properties, he changed the order slightly and placed tellurium (atomic weight 127.6) ahead of iodine (atomic weight 126.9). This placement is consistent with the modern practice of ordering the elements by proton number, Z, but that number was not known or suspected at the time.
A simple numbering based on periodic table position was never entirely satisfactory, however. Besides the case of iodine and tellurium, later several other pairs of elements (such as argon and potassium, cobalt and nickel) were known to have nearly identical or reversed atomic weights, thus requiring their placement in the periodic table to be determined by their chemical properties. However the gradual identification of more and more chemically similar lanthanide elements, whose atomic number was not obvious, led to inconsistency and uncertainty in the periodic numbering of elements at least from lutetium (element 71) onwards (hafnium was not known at this time).
In 1911, Ernest Rutherford gave a model of the atom in which a central core held most of the atom 's mass and a positive charge which, in units of the electron 's charge, was to be approximately equal to half of the atom 's atomic weight, expressed in numbers of hydrogen atoms. This central charge would thus be approximately half the atomic weight (though it was almost 25 % different from the atomic number of gold (Z = 79, A = 197), the single element from which Rutherford made his guess). Nevertheless, in spite of Rutherford 's estimation that gold had a central charge of about 100 (but was element Z = 79 on the periodic table), a month after Rutherford 's paper appeared, Antonius van den Broek first formally suggested that the central charge and number of electrons in an atom was exactly equal to its place in the periodic table (also known as element number, atomic number, and symbolized Z). This proved eventually to be the case.
The experimental position improved dramatically after research by Henry Moseley in 1913. Moseley, after discussions with Bohr who was at the same lab (and who had used Van den Broek 's hypothesis in his Bohr model of the atom), decided to test Van den Broek 's and Bohr 's hypothesis directly, by seeing if spectral lines emitted from excited atoms fitted the Bohr theory 's postulation that the frequency of the spectral lines be proportional to the square of Z.
To do this, Moseley measured the wavelengths of the innermost photon transitions (K and L lines) produced by the elements from aluminum (Z = 13) to gold (Z = 79) used as a series of movable anodic targets inside an x-ray tube. The square root of the frequency of these photons (x-rays) increased from one target to the next in an arithmetic progression. This led to the conclusion (Moseley 's law) that the atomic number does closely correspond (with an offset of one unit for K - lines, in Moseley 's work) to the calculated electric charge of the nucleus, i.e. the element number Z. Among other things, Moseley demonstrated that the lanthanide series (from lanthanum to lutetium inclusive) must have 15 members -- no fewer and no more -- which was far from obvious from the chemistry at that time.
After Moseley 's death in 1915, the atomic numbers of all known elements from hydrogen to uranium (Z = 92) were examined by his method. There were seven elements (with Z < 92) which were not found and therefore identified as still undiscovered, corresponding to atomic numbers 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, 87 and 91. From 1918 to 1947, all seven of these missing elements were discovered. By this time the first four transuranium elements had also been discovered, so that the periodic table was complete with no gaps as far as curium (Z = 96).
In 1915 the reason for nuclear charge being quantized in units of Z, which were now recognized to be the same as the element number, was not understood. An old idea called Prout 's hypothesis had postulated that the elements were all made of residues (or "protyles '') of the lightest element hydrogen, which in the Bohr - Rutherford model had a single electron and a nuclear charge of one. However, as early as 1907 Rutherford and Thomas Royds had shown that alpha particles, which had a charge of + 2, were the nuclei of helium atoms, which had a mass four times that of hydrogen, not two times. If Prout 's hypothesis were true, something had to be neutralizing some of the charge of the hydrogen nuclei present in the nuclei of heavier atoms.
In 1917 Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei from a nuclear reaction between alpha particles and nitrogen gas, and believed he had proven Prout 's law. He called the new heavy nuclear particles protons in 1920 (alternate names being proutons and protyles). It had been immediately apparent from the work of Moseley that the nuclei of heavy atoms have more than twice as much mass as would be expected from their being made of hydrogen nuclei, and thus there was required a hypothesis for the neutralization of the extra protons presumed present in all heavy nuclei. A helium nucleus was presumed to be composed of four protons plus two "nuclear electrons '' (electrons bound inside the nucleus) to cancel two of the charges. At the other end of the periodic table, a nucleus of gold with a mass 197 times that of hydrogen, was thought to contain 118 nuclear electrons in the nucleus to give it a residual charge of + 79, consistent with its atomic number.
All consideration of nuclear electrons ended with James Chadwick 's discovery of the neutron in 1932. An atom of gold now was seen as containing 118 neutrons rather than 118 nuclear electrons, and its positive charge now was realized to come entirely from a content of 79 protons. After 1932, therefore, an element 's atomic number Z was also realized to be identical to the proton number of its nuclei.
The conventional symbol Z possibly comes from the German word Atomzahl (atomic number). However, prior to 1915, the word Zahl (simply number) was used for an element 's assigned number in the periodic table.
Each element has a specific set of chemical properties as a consequence of the number of electrons present in the neutral atom, which is Z (the atomic number). The configuration of these electrons follows from the principles of quantum mechanics. The number of electrons in each element 's electron shells, particularly the outermost valence shell, is the primary factor in determining its chemical bonding behavior. Hence, it is the atomic number alone that determines the chemical properties of an element; and it is for this reason that an element can be defined as consisting of any mixture of atoms with a given atomic number.
The quest for new elements is usually described using atomic numbers. As of 2010, all elements with atomic numbers 1 to 118 have been observed. Synthesis of new elements is accomplished by bombarding target atoms of heavy elements with ions, such that the sum of the atomic numbers of the target and ion elements equals the atomic number of the element being created. In general, the half - life becomes shorter as atomic number increases, though an "island of stability '' may exist for undiscovered isotopes with certain numbers of protons and neutrons.
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are you a phi brother in the bond | Phi Delta Theta - wikipedia
Phi Delta Theta (ΦΔΘ), also known as Phi Delt, is an international social fraternity founded at Miami University in 1848 and headquartered in Oxford, Ohio. Phi Delta Theta, along with Beta Theta Pi and Sigma Chi form the Miami Triad. The fraternity has about 185 active chapters and colonies in over 43 U.S. states and five Canadian provinces and has initiated more than 251,000 men between 1848 and 2014. There are over 160,000 living alumni. Phi Delta Theta chartered house corporations own more than 135 houses valued at over $141 million as of summer 2015. There are nearly 100 recognized alumni clubs across the U.S. and Canada.
The fraternity was founded by six undergraduate students: Robert Morrison, John McMillan Wilson, Robert Thompson Drake, John Wolfe Lindley, Ardivan Walker Rodgers, and Andrew Watts Rogers, who are collectively known as The Immortal Six. Phi Delta Theta was created under three principal objectives: "the cultivation of friendship among its members, the acquirement individually of a high degree of mental culture, and the attainment personally of a high standard of morality ''. These cardinal principles are contained in The Bond of Phi Delta Theta, the document to which each member pledges on his initiation into the fraternity.
Among the best - known members of the fraternity are Benjamin Harrison, the 23rd President of the United States, Adlai Stevenson I, the 23rd Vice President of the United States, Baseball Hall of Fame member Lou Gehrig, actor Burt Reynolds, architect Frank Lloyd Wright, Neil Armstrong the first man to walk on the moon, R. Scott Morris the former CEO of the Boston Options Exchange, and John S. McCain Sr., U.S. Navy Admiral and grandfather of John McCain.
In 1839, Beta Theta Pi was founded at Miami University in Ohio. In protest against the president of the university, members of Beta Theta Pi and another fraternity, Alpha Delta Phi, blocked the entrances of the main educational and administrative building in what became known as the Great Snowball Rebellion of 1848.
After the president expelled most of the students involved in the uprising, Phi Delta Theta was formed by six men staying in a dormitory the day after Christmas. Robert Morrison, a senior, proposed to classmate John McMillan Wilson that they form a secret society together; the two subsequently invited juniors Robert Thompson Drake and John Wolfe Lindley and sophomores Ardivan Walker Rodgers and Andrew Watts Rogers to join them. These men are known today as "The Immortal Six. '' The first meeting was held in Wilson 's room at Old North Hall, now called Elliott Hall.
During the early meetings, the Founders wrote The Bond of Phi Delta Theta, which is the fundamental law of the fraternity. It has remained unchanged ever since, and it is believed to be the only document of any fraternity of such a nature. Morrison designed the shield form of the badge, with the eye as an emblem, while Wilson suggested the scroll with the Greek letters on it. The first branch of Phi Delta Theta was founded at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio in 1848. Fearing punishment from the university, the activities of the fraternity were sub rosa for its first three years of existence. Phi Delta Theta also took an unusual step, unique among all fraternities, of splitting into two chapters at both Miami and Centre College, so their meetings would be smaller and attract less attention. Eventually, as the organization attracted new individuals into their membership including prominent university officials, members began to openly wear their badges indicating their affiliation.
Phi Delta Theta held its first convention in 1851 in Cincinnati, Ohio when the organization had only four chapters. The event was attended by seven members. Despite the limited number, positive steps were taken for the establishment of new chapters by forming an expansion committee. It was also during the first convention where the chapter at Miami University was designated as the Grand Chapter whose duties were to oversee the overall fraternity operations. Subsequent conventions were held again in Cincinnati five years later; Bloomington, Indiana in 1858; and Danville, Kentucky in 1860. Another convention was held in 1864 in Bloomington during the American Civil War. The Civil War was difficult for all fraternities. Battles put fraternity brother against fraternity brother. Fifty Phis fought on the side of the Confederacy while 231 Phis fought for the Union Army.
It was not until the 1868 Indianapolis convention that the first steps in the creation of an overall administration took place. The convention was regarded as the first "National Convention '' as permanent convention rules were adopted during this time. Twelve years later, the most important of all Phi Delta Theta conventions took place. The Indianapolis Convention of 1880 established new ritual, insignia, and customs that are still used today. Moreover, the convention saw the creation of the General Council, the governing body of the fraternity, with Walter B. Palmer, Emory - Vanderbilt 1877, and George Banta, Franklin - Indiana 1876, becoming the president and historian, respectively. The convention also called for the organization of groups of chapters into provinces, which were to be headed by province presidents.
A housing movement began to form during this time. The movement arose out of necessity because it was pointed out that chapter meetings were being conducted in rented halls. Even though the housing movement had been gaining momentum, it was not until the 1892 convention that a resolution was passed that advocated that all chapters rent or own at least one house. In the last two decades of the 19th century, over 50 chapter houses were acquired.
For a brief period a resolution was set forth to allow chapters to initiate women. First proposed in 1869, this was considered a radical idea both from a fraternal standpoint and social one as well since women were not allowed to vote until 1920. Although it was met with strong opposition, the issue would not be settled for several years.
During the two decades from 1870 to 1890, the growth of the fraternity was rapid, due principally to the efforts of Palmer and Banta. The two were given the title "Second Founders '' for their work. In the 1870s alone, 34 new chapters were established, but this was also a period of uncertainty because of the anti-fraternity sentiment held by many faculty in schools where Phi Delta Theta had chapters. Several chapters became dormant because of this. The fraternity continued steady growth, and by 1889, there were 66 chapters in 27 states.
With constant expansion into the western United States, Phi Delta Theta became an international fraternity when the organization 's first chapter in Canada was installed at McGill University in Montreal, Quebec on April 5, 1902. By 1918, there were 78 chapters with a membership of 77,000.
At the outbreak of World War I, college administrators urged its undergraduate members to stay in school. However, many were eager to enlist. The first Phis to fight in the war were members of the chapters at the University of Toronto and McGill University, the fraternity 's only Canadian chapters during that period. By the time the United States entered the war in 1917, over 5000 Phis served in the conflict with 155 of them losing their lives. Because many of the undergraduate Phis put their studies on hold, many chapter houses either had limited occupants or none at all. To prevent losing houses pending the return of Phis from the war, many housing corporations consented to having the houses used as barracks or for YMCA programs.
During the 1920s and 1930s, expansion was carefully controlled. Focus was placed on re-activating chapters whose charters were revoked years earlier.
World War II exacted a heavy toll on the membership and operations of the fraternity. Many undergraduate members joined the military, and 13 chapters were closed. As active membership declined, most of the Phi Delt houses were used as women 's residence halls or became makeshift military quarters. The fraternity tried its best to maintain up - to - date records regarding the status of members engaged in combat. A newsletter, The Fighting Phi News, was sent to members whose contact information was known to the fraternity.
Over 14,000 Phis were known to have been in active service during the conflict. Of that number, over 800 were killed or missing in action, the largest loss of any fraternity during the war. An additional 8,000 veterans were initiated into the fraternity in the immediate subsequent years. Fifty Phi generals and admirals served in the United States and Canada during the conflict, the most for any fraternity. Prominent among them were General Edward P. King, leader of the U.S. and Filipino forces in Bataan, Philippines; Admiral Robert L. Ghormley, commander of the Guadalcanal campaign; and Admiral John S. McCain, Sr., commander of carrier task forces in the Pacific. Members of Phi Delta Theta also received every major military decoration in both the United States and British Commonwealth forces, including the Medal of Honor (MOH) awarded to Leon Vance of the Army Air Corps and the Victoria Cross (VC) to Robert Hampton Gray, a Canadian naval aviator. Vance 's MOH was the last to be awarded before the D - Day landings, and Gray was both the last military personnel to receive the VC in the war and the last Canadian to lose his life during the war.
Members of the fraternity also played a crucial role on the homefront. Among those were Elmer Davis, the head of the Office of War Information; Byron Price, the head of the Office of Censorship; and Ted Gamble, the National Director of the War Finance Division.
When World War II ended, the fraternity experienced a surge in membership as many veterans attended college under the GI Bill. On December 15, 1945, the groundbreaking of the present - day General Headquarters building took place. One of the features of the headquarters was a permanent war memorial honoring all Phis who lost their lives during WWII and previous wars.
After the end of World War II, the fraternity was confronted with the social changes sweeping college campuses in the United States. Like many fraternities, Phi Delta Theta had a restrictive clause barring membership to African - Americans, Asians, Jews, and Muslims. Specifically the term "white persons of full Aryan blood '' was the subject of strong opposition among many members in light of Nazi ideology in the recently fought war, although there had been dissenting voices regarding this long before the clause became controversial among its members. This clause was added to the Code of Phi Delta Theta in 1910. However, by the 1946 convention there was an open discussion regarding this topic. Impassioned sentiment from many alumni as well as undergraduates coupled with the changing demographic of the college scene caused Phi Delta Theta to re-examine its membership. Years of debate followed; however, by 1954, Phi Delta Theta eliminated the clause and became one of the first fraternities to eliminate any restriction based on race, color, or creed. Only a year earlier, Phi Delta Theta had suspended its chapters at Amherst and Williams College for pledging minorities.
The 1950s saw a period of rapid growth and an expansion of the internal operations of the fraternity. Twelve new schools were granted chapter status. An important change in leadership also occurred during this time. In 1955, Paul Beam, the executive vice president of the fraternity (the head of the fraternity 's daily operations) unexpectedly died. He had succeeded the position from Arthur R. Priest who had served 1923 -- 37. Beam guided the fraternity through eight conventions and through the trials of World War II. Bob Miller, who was Beam 's assistant, was eventually chosen to take over by the General Council and assumed the office almost immediately. He would go on to serve for 36 years, which is currently the longest term served in that office.
Two important programs were developed during this period that would profoundly affect the fraternity 's services. Before Beam died, he and several province presidents proposed a leadership convention for undergraduate members. These conventions would cover topics ranging from chapter organization to effective leadership. The first such convention was set up in 1956. At the time, it only involved 16 chapters. From 1956 until 1987, these sessions were held on a regional basis. The gatherings would form the basis of the Leadership College founded in 1987. 1958 was an important year for the fraternity because an educational foundation was created, the main purpose of which was to provide scholarships to deserving students.
During the turbulent 1960s, Phi Delta Theta along with other social fraternities dealt with strong anti-fraternity sentiment from people who saw the Greek lettered communities as old world established institutions. This sentiment was not without reason. Although Phi Delta Theta attempted to revise its restrictive membership codes in the wake of World War II, as late as 1961 the national office made headlines by rejecting the pledge of a Jewish student at Lake Forest College. Later that same year the University of Wisconsin banned Phi Delta Theta from campus for barring Jews, African - Americans, and other minorities from membership.
Despite an overall decline in fraternity membership during the late 1960s, Phi Delta Theta continued to expand through a carefully controlled process known as "colonization. '' In 1968, a historic initiation took place when Robert Wise, Academy Award winning director of The Sound of Music and West Side Story, was initiated in the Franklin College chapter. Wise had completed all membership requirements in 1932 but was forced to withdraw from college due to a lack of funds. Roger D. Branigin, the Governor of Indiana at the time and Phi Delt member, presided over the ceremonies. 1969 was an eventful year for the fraternity as Neil Armstrong, a graduate from the Purdue University chapter, became the first man to walk on the moon. During the moon landing, Armstrong carried with him a fraternity badge, which he subsequently donated to the General Headquarters of the fraternity. He also donated a small silk flag of the fraternity, which he carried with him on his Gemini flight in 1966.
As war raged in Vietnam, Phis again served in the armed forces. With the emergence of new technology, a significant percentage opted to become fighter pilots. The Vietnam War saw a small dip in the Fraternity 's membership; however, by 1972, the fraternity had 140 active chapters with over 128,000 initiates. An important change was made during the 1970s that gave more autonomy to chapters in terms of membership selection. An amendment was passed wherein the unanimous vote rule to allow a college man to become a pledge was changed to allow individual chapters to decide on their own which method best suited their respective chapters. In 1973, the fraternity celebrated its 125th anniversary. The special occasion was marked by the construction of the university gates at Miami University. To date, there are nine buildings on the campus that were either constructed by Phi Delta Theta or named after members.
The 1980s saw the fraternity deal with issues such as hazing, rising insurance costs, and maintenance of individual chapter operations. The unofficial theme of the 1980 convention was "Eliminate Hazing. '' The decade was marked by an increase of lawsuits dealing with hazing and alcohol abuse among many fraternities. To deal with this issue, Phi Delta Theta instituted a comprehensive insurance policy to protect its chapters. During the 1980s, an important aspect of the fraternity was created: Leadership consultants. The consultants, who are recent college graduates, travel to assigned provinces and assist various chapters in many aspects of fraternity life and chapter operations. They also report the status of each visited chapter to the general headquarters.
An important leadership change occurred in the beginning of the 1990s when Robert Biggs became the fourth executive vice president of the fraternity after Robert Miller stepped down. During the decade, Phi Delta Theta and many other fraternities experienced a decline in membership. The most important policy to be implemented by the fraternity during the decade was the decision made in 1997 to have all chapter facilities alcohol free by 2000. It was an initiative that was strongly pursued by the 1996 -- 98 General Council. The policy was in response to the growing insurance claims against the fraternity, 53 % of which were alcohol - related, and a return to the core values of the organization.
All powers of the fraternity, both legislative and supreme, rests within the General Convention. The convention is a biennial event attended by representatives of undergraduate chapters, alumni chapters, and the various foundations. The purpose of the convention is to discuss and vote on a wide range of issues affecting the fraternity. The convention is held in various cities across North America. It is also during the convention where the General Council is elected.
The General Council is the governing body of Phi Delta Theta. Its all - volunteer membership are elected every two years during the fraternity 's convention. Their chief responsibility is to act as the executive and administrative board of the fraternity. Their duties include the granting and suspending of charters.
The General Headquarters (GHQ) is responsible for the daily operations of the fraternity. Among its many duties, GHQ collects dues, distributes supplies, and tries to maintain up - to - date information about all its members. Unlike other entities within the fraternity, the staff of GHQ are paid for their services. While the main offices of GHQ are held by members of the fraternity, support staff need not be members. The head of GHQ is the executive vice president, who acts as the secretary to the General Council.
Phi Delta Theta and many other fraternities have an educational foundation fund. Part of the Phi Delta Theta foundation 's aim is to award scholarships to deserving undergraduate members and those pursuing advanced degrees in various graduate schools. Each year, it provides over $150,000 in scholarships. The foundation is also essential in supporting programs such as the Emerging Leaders Institute, the Leadership Consultant Program, and portions of the General Convention as well as The Scroll, the official magazine of the fraternity. The foundation, which was established in 1962 with only $4,708, has since grown to over $14 million.
In 2004, the fraternity began a member development program for undergraduates called The Accolade. It is designed to enhance a member 's collegiate and overall fraternity experience. Some of the program 's personal development activities include goal - setting, time management, and career development. Although the program is intended for new undergraduate members, it is available to all members, including senior members and alumni. Although Phi Delta Theta is no longer part of the North American Interfraternity Conference, the fraternity was recognized by the conference for "Best Use of a Foundation Grant '' for its support of The Accolade.
The Kleberg Emerging Leaders Institute (Kleberg) is an annual event held at the Fraternity 's headquarters during the summer where newly initiated undergraduates are given instruction in leadership classes, as well as participating in programs that help to improve their respective chapters. It is attended by selected undergraduates from every chapter. It is mainly geared toward newly initiated members. The Institute was established after the Leadership College was dissolved. The event was renamed in honor of Tio Kleberg, Texas Tech ' 69 after a one - million dollar donation in 2012.
For many years, Phi Delta Theta had no official philanthropy. The fraternity, however, was long associated with the Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Association (ALSA) because of Lou Gehrig, an alumnus who died of the disease. Amytrophic Lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a debilitating neuro - muscular disease and has since become known as Lou Gehrig 's disease. Although there had always existed a relationship between ALSA and Phi Delta Theta, it was not until November 2002 that the General Council made the partnership official. Undergraduate and alumni chapters from all across North America regularly organize events to raise money for research.
Phi Delta Theta, along with other Greek organizations, employ Leadership Consultants (LCs) to assist with undergraduate development. The LCs, formerly known as Traveling Secretaries and Chapter Consultants, help undergraduate chapters identify major problems and challenges. Then, along with chapter leaders, alumni advisors, and university officials, they develop plans and programs for solving them. LCs serve as liaison between the General Fraternity / GHQ and the chapters. The LCs also work to guide chapter members to realize leadership and achieve, more fully, the ideals, objectives, and values of the fraternity.
The Scroll of Phi Delta Theta is the official magazine for members of the fraternity. The award - winning magazine has been published continuously since 1875. It is the second oldest continuously published fraternity magazine behind the official magazine of Beta Theta Pi, which was first published three years before. Members receive lifetime subscriptions to The Scroll. The magazine covers topical issues relating to Phi Delta Theta and the wider fraternity world, news of prominent alumni, alumni club meeting reports, and undergraduate chapter reports. While its focus is Phi Delta Theta, readership is open to non-members. Since its inception, issues have been published 2 -- 4 times a year.
The Palladium was the private magazine specifically for members of Phi Delta Theta. Unlike The Scroll, the Palladium was intended to be read by Phis only. The magazine covered topics such as fraternity policy, reports, and minutes to any conventions. It was published only once a year and was a supplement to the winter edition of The Scroll. The first issue was printed in 1894 and the last issue was released in the mid-1960s.
The first three pledge manuals of the fraternity were written by Walter B. Palmer. The idea for the manual was conceived by J. Marshall Mayer (City College of New York, 1884), who at the time was the managing editor of the Scroll. The first pledge manual was printed in 1886 and contained only 56 pages. Since few copies were published and it is the first membership manual of any fraternity, it is regarded as one of the most rare and valuable books of its kind. The 4th -- 6th editions were authored by Arthur R. Priest. Much of the present - day material is derived from these editions.
Phi Delta Theta has played a major role in the fraternity movement. Chief among these was being a founding member of the North American Interfraternity Conference, which was established in 1910 (an organization that they subsequently left in 2002), and leading the initiative to ban alcohol from Phi Delt houses. Throughout their history, the fraternity became a pioneer in establishing traditions as well as having individual members shape the formation of similar women 's organizations. The fraternity has also been the first fraternity to establish itself on over 25 campuses.
The Kappa chapter of Delta Kappa Epsilon (DKE) was formed at Miami University after disagreement among Phi Delta Theta members over prohibiting alcohol. Several members left Phi Delta Theta and formed the Kappa chapter in 1852. In 1854, two years later, another disagreement in this group led to another break - away. A schism over who would become Poet for the Erodelphian Literary Society led to the founding of Sigma Chi in 1855.
Two chapters of W.W.W. Fraternity (also known as Rainbow Fraternity) refused to join with other chapters of their fraternity in merging with Delta Tau Delta in 1885. Instead, the University of Texas chapter merged with the Phi Delta chapter there, and the Southwestern University chapter became a new chapter of Phi Delta Theta.
Started as the Knights of Classic Lore, Tau Kappa Epsilon (TKE) attempted to become the re-activated Illinois Epsilon chapter of Phi Delta Theta at Illinois Wesleyan University. After several failed attempts from 1902 to 1907, the Tekes decided to discontinue attempting to become part of Phi Delta Theta, and instead go it on their own.
The dorm room in Old North Hall (now Elliott Hall) in which Phi Delta Theta was founded was later home to Phi Kappa Tau founders William H. Shideler and Clinton D. Boyd.
Charles Lamkin, a former international president of Phi Delta Theta, was instrumental in the formation of a new national fraternity called Theta Kappa Nu in 1924, and in recruiting some 30 local fraternities to become chapters of Theta Kappa Nu during its first two years. No mention was made in print of his work at the time (obviously a sensitive issue); but he was listed, along with the Four Founders of Theta Kappa Nu, as one of the first five to have a lifetime subscription to the fraternity 's magazine.. Having chartered 55 chapters, Theta Kappa Nu merged with Lambda Chi Alpha in 1939.
Phi Delta Theta has the distinction of having close connections with two sororities: Delta Gamma and Delta Zeta. George Banta Sr., a Phi Delt from Franklin - Indiana, was instrumental in expanding the Delta Gamma fraternity. For his efforts, he was the only man ever initiated into Delta Gamma. Banta would later perform initiation ceremonies for new members of the sorority, including Lillian Vawter, his fiancée. Guy Potter Benton, a graduate of the Phi Delt chapter at Ohio Wesleyan University, was president of Miami University in 1902 when he helped with the founding of Delta Zeta. Dr. Benton aided in the preparation of a ritual, badge, and colors. He was a great assistance to Delta Zeta and at one point chased down a man who stole the newly formed ritual of the sorority. For his work, Delta Zeta named him the Grand Patron of the sorority and is the only man to ever wear the Delta Zeta badge. To this day, an amiable friendship exists between Phi Delta Theta and these two sororities.
Phi Delta Theta instituted several policies and traditions that are not only still used by the fraternity today, but have also become standard among almost all fraternities, as well as sororities.
In 2002, Phi Delta Theta, along with Kappa Sigma and Phi Sigma Kappa left the North - American Interfraternity Conference due to ideological differences. Fraternity officials had been concerned of the direction of the conference for six years before leaving. Phi Delta Theta officials believed that the conference had been placing too much emphasis on individual undergraduates through specific programs such as leadership conferences rather than focusing on the fraternity movement as a whole. Phi Sigma Kappa has since re-joined the NIC.
In 1997, Phi Delta Theta spearheaded the initiative of having alcohol free housing within its chapters by the year 2000. The policy has since been adopted by other fraternities including Theta Chi and Phi Gamma Delta (FIJI), although Theta Chi has discontinued their Alcohol Free Housing Policy as of July 2010. However, unlike Phi Gamma Delta, Phi Delta Theta has no exemption policy allowing chapters that meet certain standards, such as a cumulative GPA higher than 3.0, to have alcohol in the chapter house.
When Phi Delta Theta announced the inception of an alcohol free housing policy, the announcement was met both by hope and skepticism. While some saw the banning of alcohol in housing facilities as a welcome return to the principles on which the fraternity was founded, others felt the drastic cultural shift would hurt social dynamics. The General Council and GHQ had expected resistance from both alumni and undergraduate members when it was first proposed. Among the most vocal chapters against the policy were the University of Virginia chapter, where a faction split off from Phi Delta Theta and chose to form a separate local fraternity known as the Phi Society, and the University of the South chapter, which formed the Phi Society of 1883 rather than adopt the policy. Phi Delta Theta returned to the University of Virginia one year later and formed a new chapter. Phi Delta Theta has not returned to the University of the South.
In 2005, the fraternity issued a progress report. Significant improvements have occurred in many areas of fraternity life and operations. Since the implementation of the alcohol free housing policy, the all undergraduate grade point average rose from 2.77 in 2000 to nearly 3.00 in 2005. The insurance premiums of individual members have also gone down as risk management violations have decreased. Perhaps the most telling area is in membership, where Phi Delta Theta showed an increase of new members. In 2004, Phi Delta Theta had 3,102 new members while other fraternities averaged 2,415. In 1990, chapters of Phi Delta Theta were 18 % larger than the typical fraternity chapter. In 2004, they were 30 % larger. Also, in 2004, Phi Delta Theta was one of only 13 national / international fraternities to show an increase in total undergraduates from the previous year with an increase of 4.2 %. The significance of this is highlighted by the fact that Phi Delta Theta had fewer chapters than other fraternities. Competitively, Phi Delta Theta has remained a constant among others. In terms of new members, it ranked ninth in 1990, eighth in 2000, and ninth in 2004. Many alumni members have credited the alcohol free housing policy in continuing this trend.
Events branch from community service orientation to philanthropy efforts.
In 2004, the Alpha Chapter at Miami University was kicked off campus for two years for hazing and misconduct.
In 2012, a pledge at Northwestern University was hospitalized with a busted nose fractured in four places as a result of being beaten by fraternity members.
In 2013, Emory University voted to ban the fraternity from the campus for four years due to repeated hazing violations and misconduct. Pledges were forced to participate in "fight club '', "successfully '' consume high amounts of alcohol to prove their masculinity, and sleep on the floor in the fraternity house 's basement in only their underwear.
In 2015, the chapter at Auburn University was suspended for multiple hazing and alcohol violations.
In 2016, the chapter at Middle Tennessee State University was placed on probation for hard drug usage and hazing violations.
In 2016, the chapter at the University of Chicago was sued by a former pledge that was hospitalized due to brutal hazing activity.
In 2016, the chapter at Baylor University was suspended after its president was charged with sexual assault and rape of a woman who was unconscious at a party the fraternity hosted. The fraternity was cited for providing alcohol to underage students.
In 2016, the chapter at Washington State University was suspended for drugging two women in an attempt to take sexual advantage of them, providing alcohol to minors, and hazing violations.
In 2017, the chapter at the University of Central Florida was suspended after a former pledge reported to university authorities that he was severely physically and mentally abused by fraternity members.
In 2017, the chapter at Louisiana State University was suspended, along with all Greek life at LSU (per university president), after a pledge was rushed to the hospital where he later succumbed to alcohol poisoning and died. Suspected hazing; alcohol abuse in addition to THC was found in his urine.
Membership to Phi Delta Theta is open to all qualified men without concern for race, religion, or ethnicity. Initial membership to the fraternity is contingent upon receiving an invitation to an interested individual by members of an active chapter. A pledge of Phi Delta Theta is called a Phikeia. The typical pledge period lasts a minimum of eight weeks, although occasionally it is shortened or lengthened to fit university requirements or by approval of the General Council. The pledge period is a time where the prospective member learns about the fraternity history, structure, traditions, organization as well as social etiquette. Phi Delta Theta has a strict policy against hazing and does not tolerate chapters who violate the policy. Once initiated, a brother is entitled to all rights and privileges of fraternity membership unless he formally resigns or is expelled.
Members of Phi Delta Theta have held numerous political positions in the United States, including the presidency, vice-presidency, and speakership of the House of Representatives. In Canada, fraternity members have served in many levels of government. Members have won major awards in science and entertainment, and have also gained prominence in areas such as architecture, medicine, and sports. Throughout the years, many prominent members have kept a vested interest in the events and operations of Phi Delta Theta. President Harrison, for example, participated in three Phi Delt banquets during his presidency while Medal of Honor recipient General Frederick Funston was the guest speaker at certain chapter installations.
The number of members who have either been involved in armed conflict or have achieved prominence in their respective professions have been documented throughout the years. As of November, 2014, the following statistics are the involvement of its members in various fields:
Since 1848, Phi Delta Theta has granted nearly 260 charters across the United States and Canada. Today, there are over 196 chapters and colonies. To be granted a charter, a colony must complete certain requirements set forth by the General Council. Chief among these are recruiting a certain number of members and achieving a respectable cumulative grade point average among its members. Phi Delta Theta also has the longest continuous chapter of any fraternity in the United States, that chapter being the Kentucky Alpha - Delta Chapter at Centre College, which was established in 1850 and is still active today. In 2011, Phi Delta Theta awarded the Outstanding Chapter House of the Year award to the California Delta chapter at the University of Southern California. The largest chapter of Phi Delta Theta is at the University of Florida with, on average, 150 active brothers and over 3300 initiated since the chapter was founded in 1925.
Currently, Phi Delta Theta has over 100 active alumni clubs. Although all the clubs are currently in North America, alumni clubs have been found all over the world throughout its history. At one point, there were over 165 alumni chapters, some as far away as China. The most Phis to ever assemble on foreign land for an alumni club meeting, before the fraternity became international in 1902, was in Manila, Philippines when 30 Phis gathered in 1899. The alumni club in the Philippines lasted for nearly 40 years.
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agents of shield character played by chloe bennet | Chloe Bennet - wikipedia
Chloe Bennet (born Chloe Wang; April 18, 1992) is an American actress and singer. She is known for her role as Daisy "Skye '' Johnson / Quake on the television series Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (2013 -- present).
Chloe Bennet was born Chloe Wang on April 18, 1992, in Chicago, Illinois. She is the daughter of Bennet Wang, an investment banker, and Stephanie Crane, an internist.
Bennet 's father is Han Chinese and her mother is Caucasian. She has six brothers: three biological, two foster and one adopted; two are African American and one is Mexican - Filipino. She attended St. Ignatius College Prep.
In 2007, at age 15, Bennet moved to China to pursue a singing career under her birthname, Chloe Wang (汪 可 盈). While in China, Bennet lived with her paternal grandmother in Beijing, and studied Mandarin. She released two singles, both in 2011: "Uh Oh '' and "Every Day in Between ''.
In 2010 she moved to Los Angeles, California. Her first on - screen appearance was as a host for the short - lived TeenNick summer dance series The Nightlife. She appeared in the 2011 music video for South Korean band BIGBANG 's "Tonight ''.
While pursuing an acting career in Hollywood, she changed her name to "Chloe Bennet '', after having trouble booking gigs with her last name. According to Bennet, using her father 's first name rather than his last name avoids difficulties being cast as an ethnic Asian American while respecting her father.
From 2012 to 2013, she had a recurring supporting role in the ABC drama series Nashville as Hailey. In December 2012, she was cast as a series regular on the ABC series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., which premiered on September 24, 2013, where she portrays the character Daisy "Skye '' Johnson / Quake.
In 2017 she was cast in a musical remake of the 1983 film Valley Girl as Karen, the "Queen Bee ''. The film was scheduled for release in June 2018, but has been postponed due to controversy around one of its cast members, Logan Paul.
Bennett is currently dating YouTuber Logan Paul. In 2018, she revealed that she has been struggling with anxiety and ADHD since childhood.
-- Bennet in a September 2017 interview for NPR
Bennet has described the American film and television industry as racist against Asians. In a 2016 interview, she noted, "Oh, the first audition I went on after I changed my name (from Wang to Bennet), I got booked. So that 's a pretty clear little snippet of how Hollywood works. ''
In September 2017, after actor Ed Skrein stepped down from his role as Major Ben Daimio in the then - in production film Hellboy following backlash over the fact that Skrein, a white man, was playing Daimio, a character who is Japanese - American in the Hellboy comics, Bennet wrote a since - deleted post on Instagram in which she applauded Skrein 's decision, and addressed her own experiences as an Asian actor in Hollywood, saying, "Changing my last name does n't change the fact that my BLOOD is half Chinese, that I lived in China, speak Mandarin or that I was culturally raised both American and Chinese. It means I had to pay my rent, and Hollywood is racist and would n't cast me with a last name that made them uncomfortable. ''
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which of the following is an example of an analog input device | Analog computer - wikipedia
An analog computer or analogue computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change. As an analog computer does not use discrete values, but rather continuous values, processes can not be reliably repeated with exact equivalence, as they can with Turing machines. Unlike digital signal processing, analog computers do not suffer from the quantization noise, but are limited by analog noise.
Analog computers were widely used in scientific and industrial applications where digital computers of the time lacked sufficient performance. Analog computers can have a very wide range of complexity. Slide rules and nomographs are the simplest, while naval gunfire control computers and large hybrid digital / analog computers were among the most complicated. Systems for process control and protective relays used analog computation to perform control and protective functions.
The advent of digital computing made simple analog computers obsolete as early as the 1950s and 1960s, although analog computers remained in use in some specific applications, like the flight computer in aircraft, and for teaching control systems in universities. More complex applications, such as synthetic aperture radar, remained the domain of analog computing well into the 1980s, since digital computers were insufficient for the task.
Setting up an analog computer required scale factors to be chosen, along with initial conditions -- that is, starting values. Another essential was creating the required network of interconnections between computing elements. Sometimes it was necessary to re-think the structure of the problem so that the computer would function satisfactorily. No variables could be allowed to exceed the computer 's limits, and differentiation was to be avoided, typically by rearranging the "network '' of interconnects, using integrators in a different sense.
Running an electronic analog computer, assuming a satisfactory setup, started with the computer held with some variables fixed at their initial values. Moving a switch released the holds and permitted the problem to run. In some instances, the computer could, after a certain running time interval, repeatedly return to the initial - conditions state to reset the problem, and run it again.
This is a list of examples of early computation devices which are considered to be precursors of the modern computers. Some of them may even have been dubbed as ' computers ' by the press, although they may fail to fit the modern definitions.
The south - pointing chariot, invented in ancient China during the first millennium BC, can be considered the earliest analog computer. It was a mechanical - geared wheeled vehicle used to discern the southern cardinal direction.
The Antikythera mechanism was an orrery and is claimed to be an early mechanical analog computer, according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.
Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayḥān al - Bīrūnī in the early 11th century. The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer and gear - wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan, Persia in 1235. Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe, an early fixed - wired knowledge processing machine with a gear train and gear - wheels, circa 1000 AD. The castle clock, a hydropowered mechanical astronomical clock invented by Al - Jazari in 1206, was the first programmable analog computer.
The sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.
The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage.
The slide rule was invented around 1620 -- 1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm. It is a hand - operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Aviation is one of the few fields where slide rules are still in widespread use, particularly for solving time -- distance problems in light aircraft.
The tide - predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.
The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, used wheel - and - disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876 Lord Kelvin had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball - and - disk integrators. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.
The Dumaresq was a mechanical calculating device invented around 1902 by Lieutenant John Dumaresq of the Royal Navy. It was an analog computer which related vital variables of the fire control problem to the movement of one 's own ship and that of a target ship. It was often used with other devices, such as a Vickers range clock to generate range and deflection data so the gun sights of the ship could be continuously set. A number of versions of the Dumaresq were produced of increasing complexity as development proceeded.
By 1912 Arthur Pollen had developed an electrically driven mechanical analog computer for fire - control systems, based on the differential analyser. It was used by the Imperial Russian Navy in World War I.
Starting in 1929, AC network analyzers were constructed to solve calculation problems related to electrical power systems that were too large to solve with numerical methods at the time. These were essentially scale models of the electrical properties of the full - size system. Since network analyzers could handle problems too large for analytic methods or hand computation, they were also used to solve problems in nuclear physics and in the design of structures. More than 50 large network analyzers were built by the end of the 1950s.
World War II era gun directors, gun data computers, and bomb sights used mechanical analog computers. In 1941 Helmut Hölzer built a fully electronic general - purpose analog computer at Peenemünde Army Research Center. Mechanical analog computers were very important in gun fire control in World War II, The Korean War and well past the Vietnam War; they were made in significant numbers.
The FERMIAC was an analog computer invented by physicist Enrico Fermi in 1947 to aid in his studies of neutron transport. Project Cyclone was an analog computer developed by Reeves in 1950 for the analysis and design of dynamic systems. Project Typhoon was an analog computer developed by RCA in 1952. It consisted of over 4000 electron tubes and used 100 dials and 6000 plug - in connectors to program. The MONIAC Computer was a hydraulic model of a national economy first unveiled in 1949.
Computer Engineering Associates was spun out of Caltech in 1950 to provide commercial services using the "Direct Analogy Electric Analog Computer '' ("the largest and most impressive general - purpose analyzer facility for the solution of field problems '') developed there by Gilbert D. McCann, Charles H. Wilts, and Bart Locanthi.
Educational analog computers illustrated the principles of analog calculation. The Heathkit EC - 1, a $199 educational analog computer, was made by the Heath Company, USA c. 1960. It was programmed using patch cords that connected nine operational amplifiers and other components. General Electric also marketed an "educational '' analog computer kit of a simple design in the early 1960s consisting of a two transistor tone generator and three potentiometers wired such that the frequency of the oscillator was nulled when the potentiometer dials were positioned by hand to satisfy an equation. The relative resistance of the potentiometer was then equivalent to the formula of the equation being solved. Multiplication or division could be performed depending on which dials were considered inputs and which was the output. Accuracy and resolution was limited and a simple slide rule was more accurate; however, the unit did demonstrate the basic principle.
In industrial process control, thousands of analog loop controllers were used to automatically regulate temperature, flow, pressure, or other process conditions. The technology of these controllers ranged from purely mechanical integrators, through vacuum - tube and solid - state devices, to emulation of analog controllers by microprocessors.
The similarity between linear mechanical components, such as springs and dashpots (viscous - fluid dampers), and electrical components, such as capacitors, inductors, and resistors is striking in terms of mathematics. They can be modeled using equations of the same form.
However, the difference between these systems is what makes analog computing useful. If one considers a simple mass -- spring system, constructing the physical system would require making or modifying the springs and masses. This would be followed by attaching them to each other and an appropriate anchor, collecting test equipment with the appropriate input range, and finally, taking measurements. In more complicated cases, such as suspensions for racing cars, experimental construction, modification, and testing is both complicated and expensive.
The electrical equivalent can be constructed with a few operational amplifiers (op amps) and some passive linear components; all measurements can be taken directly with an oscilloscope. In the circuit, the (simulated) ' stiffness of the spring ', for instance, can be changed by adjusting the parameters of a capacitor. The electrical system is an analogy to the physical system, hence the name, but it is less expensive to construct, generally safer, and typically much easier to modify.
As well, an electronic circuit can typically operate at higher frequencies than the system being simulated. This allows the simulation to run faster than real time (which could, in some instances, be hours, weeks, or longer). Experienced users of electronic analog computers said that they offered a comparatively intimate control and understanding of the problem, relative to digital simulations.
The drawback of the mechanical - electrical analogy is that electronics are limited by the range over which the variables may vary. This is called dynamic range. They are also limited by noise levels. Floating - point digital calculations have a comparatively huge dynamic range.
These electric circuits can also easily perform a wide variety of simulations. For example, voltage can simulate water pressure and electric current can simulate rate of flow in terms of cubic metres per second. An integrator can provide the total accumulated volume of liquid, using an input current proportional to the (possibly varying) flow rate.
Analog computers are especially well - suited to representing situations described by differential equations. Occasionally, they were used when a differential equation proved very difficult to solve by traditional means.
The accuracy of an analog computer is limited by its computing elements as well as quality of the internal power and electrical interconnections. The precision of the analog computer readout was limited chiefly by the precision of the readout equipment used, generally three or four significant figures. The precision of a digital computer is limited by the word size; arbitrary - precision arithmetic, while relatively slow, provides any practical degree of precision that might be needed.
Many small computers dedicated to specific computations are still part of industrial regulation equipment, but from the 1950s to the 1970s, general - purpose analog computers were the only systems fast enough for real time simulation of dynamic systems, especially in the aircraft, military and aerospace field.
In the 1960s, the major manufacturer was Electronic Associates of Princeton, New Jersey, with its 231R Analog Computer (vacuum tubes, 20 integrators) and subsequently its 8800 Analog Computer (solid state operational amplifiers, 64 integrators). Its challenger was Applied Dynamics of Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Although the basic technology for analog computers is usually operational amplifiers (also called "continuous current amplifiers '' because they have no low frequency limitation), in the 1960s an attempt was made in the French ANALAC computer to use an alternative technology: medium frequency carrier and non dissipative reversible circuits.
In the 1970s every big company and administration concerned with problems in dynamics had a big analog computing center, for example:
Analog computing devices are fast, digital computing devices are more versatile and accurate, so the idea is to combine the two processes for the best efficiency. An example of such hybrid elementary device is the hybrid multiplier where one input is an analog signal, the other input is a digital signal and the output is analog. It acts as an analog potentiometer upgradable digitally. This kind of hybrid technique is mainly used for fast dedicated real time computation when computing time is very critical as signal processing for radars and generally for controllers in embedded systems.
In the early 1970s analog computer manufacturers tried to tie together their analog computer with a digital computer to get the advantages of the two techniques. In such systems, the digital computer controlled the analog computer, providing initial set - up, initiating multiple analog runs, and automatically feeding and collecting data. The digital computer may also participate to the calculation itself using analog - to - digital and digital - to - analog converters.
The largest manufacturer of hybrid computers was Electronics Associates. Their hybrid computer model 8900 was made of a digital computer and one or more analog consoles. These systems were mainly dedicated to large projects such as the Apollo program and Space Shuttle at NASA, or Ariane in Europe, especially during the integration step where at the beginning everything is simulated, and progressively real components replace their simulated part.
Only one company was known as offering general commercial computing services on its hybrid computers, CISI of France, in the 1970s.
The best reference in this field is the 100,000 simulations runs for each certification of the automatic landing systems of Airbus and Concorde aircraft.
After 1980, purely digital computers progressed more and more rapidly and were fast enough to compete with analog computers. One key to the speed of analog computers was their fully parallel computation, but this was also a limitation. The more equations required for a problem, the more analog components were needed, even when the problem was n't time critical. "Programming '' a problem meant interconnecting the analog operators; even with a removable wiring panel this was not very versatile. Today there are no more big hybrid computers, but only hybrid components.
While a wide variety of mechanisms have been developed throughout history, some stand out because of their theoretical importance, or because they were manufactured in significant quantities.
Most practical mechanical analog computers of any significant complexity used rotating shafts to carry variables from one mechanism to another. Cables and pulleys were used in a Fourier synthesizer, a tide - predicting machine, which summed the individual harmonic components. Another category, not nearly as well known, used rotating shafts only for input and output, with precision racks and pinions. The racks were connected to linkages that performed the computation. At least one US Naval sonar fire control computer of the later 1950s, made by Librascope, was of this type, as was the principal computer in the Mk. 56 Gun Fire Control System.
Online, there is a remarkably clear illustrated reference (OP 1140) that describes the fire control computer mechanisms. For adding and subtracting, precision miter - gear differentials were in common use in some computers; the Ford Instrument Mark I Fire Control Computer contained about 160 of them.
Integration with respect to another variable was done by a rotating disc driven by one variable. Output came from a pickoff device (such as a wheel) positioned at a radius on the disc proportional to the second variable. (A carrier with a pair of steel balls supported by small rollers worked especially well. A roller, its axis parallel to the disc 's surface, provided the output. It was held against the pair of balls by a spring.)
Arbitrary functions of one variable were provided by cams, with gearing to convert follower movement to shaft rotation.
Functions of two variables were provided by three - dimensional cams. In one good design, one of the variables rotated the cam. A hemispherical follower moved its carrier on a pivot axis parallel to that of the cam 's rotating axis. Pivoting motion was the output. The second variable moved the follower along the axis of the cam. One practical application was ballistics in gunnery.
Coordinate conversion from polar to rectangular was done by a mechanical resolver (called a "component solver '' in US Navy fire control computers). Two discs on a common axis positioned a sliding block with pin (stubby shaft) on it. One disc was a face cam, and a follower on the block in the face cam 's groove set the radius. The other disc, closer to the pin, contained a straight slot in which the block moved. The input angle rotated the latter disc (the face cam disc, for an unchanging radius, rotated with the other (angle) disc; a differential and a few gears did this correction).
Referring to the mechanism 's frame, the location of the pin corresponded to the tip of the vector represented by the angle and magnitude inputs. Mounted on that pin was a square block.
Rectilinear - coordinate outputs (both sine and cosine, typically) came from two slotted plates, each slot fitting on the block just mentioned. The plates moved in straight lines, the movement of one plate at right angles to that of the other. The slots were at right angles to the direction of movement. Each plate, by itself, was like a Scotch yoke, known to steam engine enthusiasts.
During World War II, a similar mechanism converted rectilinear to polar coordinates, but it was not particularly successful and was eliminated in a significant redesign (USN, Mk. 1 to Mk. 1A).
Multiplication was done by mechanisms based on the geometry of similar right triangles. Using the trigonometric terms for a right triangle, specifically opposite, adjacent, and hypotenuse, the adjacent side was fixed by construction. One variable changed the magnitude of the opposite side. In many cases, this variable changed sign; the hypotenuse could coincide with the adjacent side (a zero input), or move beyond the adjacent side, representing a sign change.
Typically, a pinion - operated rack moving parallel to the (trig. - defined) opposite side would position a slide with a slot coincident with the hypotenuse. A pivot on the rack let the slide 's angle change freely. At the other end of the slide (the angle, in trig, terms), a block on a pin fixed to the frame defined the vertex between the hypotenuse and the adjacent side.
At any distance along the adjacent side, a line perpendicular to it intersects the hypotenuse at a particular point. The distance between that point and the adjacent side is some fraction that is the product of 1 the distance from the vertex, and 2 the magnitude of the opposite side.
The second input variable in this type of multiplier positions a slotted plate perpendicular to the adjacent side. That slot contains a block, and that block 's position in its slot is determined by another block right next to it. The latter slides along the hypotenuse, so the two blocks are positioned at a distance from the (trig.) adjacent side by an amount proportional to the product.
To provide the product as an output, a third element, another slotted plate, also moves parallel to the (trig.) opposite side of the theoretical triangle. As usual, the slot is perpendicular to the direction of movement. A block in its slot, pivoted to the hypotenuse block positions it.
A special type of integrator, used at a point where only moderate accuracy was needed, was based on a steel ball, instead of a disc. It had two inputs, one to rotate the ball, and the other to define the angle of the ball 's rotating axis. That axis was always in a plane that contained the axes of two movement - pickoff rollers, quite similar to the mechanism of a rolling - ball computer mouse (in this mechanism, the pickoff rollers were roughly the same diameter as the ball). The pickoff roller axes were at right angles.
A pair of rollers "above '' and "below '' the pickoff plane were mounted in rotating holders that were geared together. That gearing was driven by the angle input, and established the rotating axis of the ball. The other input rotated the "bottom '' roller to make the ball rotate.
Essentially, the whole mechanism, called a component integrator, was a variable - speed drive with one motion input and two outputs, as well as an angle input. The angle input varied the ratio (and direction) of coupling between the "motion '' input and the outputs according to the sine and cosine of the input angle.
Although they did not accomplish any computation, electromechanical position servos were essential in mechanical analog computers of the "rotating - shaft '' type for providing operating torque to the inputs of subsequent computing mechanisms, as well as driving output data - transmission devices such as large torque - transmitter synchros in naval computers.
Other non-computational mechanisms included internal odometer - style counters with interpolating drum dials for indicating internal variables, and mechanical multi-turn limit stops.
Considering that accurately controlled rotational speed in analog fire - control computers was a basic element of their accuracy, there was a motor with its average speed controlled by a balance wheel, hairspring, jeweled - bearing differential, a twin - lobe cam, and spring - loaded contacts (ship 's AC power frequency was not necessarily accurate, nor dependable enough, when these computers were designed).
Electronic analog computers typically have front panels with numerous jacks (single - contact sockets) that permit patch cords (flexible wires with plugs at both ends) to create the interconnections which define the problem setup. In addition, there are precision high - resolution potentiometers (variable resistors) for setting up (and, when needed, varying) scale factors. In addition, there is likely to be a zero - center analog pointer - type meter for modest - accuracy voltage measurement. Stable, accurate voltage sources provide known magnitudes.
Typical electronic analog computers contain anywhere from a few to a hundred or more operational amplifiers ("op amps ''), named because they perform mathematical operations. Op amps are a particular type of feedback amplifier with very high gain and stable input (low and stable offset). They are always used with precision feedback components that, in operation, all but cancel out the currents arriving from input components. The majority of op amps in a representative setup are summing amplifiers, which add and subtract analog voltages, providing the result at their output jacks. As well, op amps with capacitor feedback are usually included in a setup; they integrate the sum of their inputs with respect to time.
Integrating with respect to another variable is the nearly exclusive province of mechanical analog integrators; it is almost never done in electronic analog computers. However, given that a problem solution does not change with time, time can serve as one of the variables.
Other computing elements include analog multipliers, nonlinear function generators, and analog comparators.
Electrical elements such as inductors and capacitors used in electrical analog computers had to be carefully manufactured to reduce non-ideal effects. For example, in the construction of AC power network analyzers, one motive for using higher frequencies for the calculator (instead of the actual power frequency) was that higher - quality inductors could be more easily made. Many general - purpose analog computers avoided the use of inductors entirely, re-casting the problem in a form that could be solved using only resistive and capacitive elements, since high - quality capacitors are relatively easy to make.
The use of electrical properties in analog computers means that calculations are normally performed in real time (or faster), at a speed determined mostly by the frequency response of the operational amplifiers and other computing elements. In the history of electronic analog computers, there were some special high - speed types.
Nonlinear functions and calculations can be constructed to a limited precision (three or four digits) by designing function generators -- special circuits of various combinations of resistors and diodes to provide the nonlinearity. Typically, as the input voltage increases, progressively more diodes conduct.
When compensated for temperature, the forward voltage drop of a transistor 's base - emitter junction can provide a usably accurate logarithmic or exponential function. Op amps scale the output voltage so that it is usable with the rest of the computer.
Any physical process which models some computation can be interpreted as an analog computer. Some examples, invented for the purpose of illustrating the concept of analog computation, include using a bundle of spaghetti as a model of sorting numbers; a board, a set of nails, and a rubber band as a model of finding the convex hull of a set of points; and strings tied together as a model of finding the shortest path in a network. These are all described in Dewdney (1984).
Analog computers often have a complicated framework, but they have, at their core, a set of key components which perform the calculations, which the operator manipulates through the computer 's framework.
Key hydraulic components might include pipes, valves and containers.
Key mechanical components might include rotating shafts for carrying data within the computer, miter gear differentials, disc / ball / roller integrators, cams (2 - D and 3 - D), mechanical resolvers and multipliers, and torque servos.
Key electrical / electronic components might include:
The core mathematical operations used in an electric analog computer are:
In some analog computer designs, multiplication is much preferred to division. Division is carried out with a multiplier in the feedback path of an Operational Amplifier.
Differentiation with respect to time is not frequently used, and in practice is avoided by redefining the problem when possible. It corresponds in the frequency domain to a high - pass filter, which means that high - frequency noise is amplified; differentiation also risks instability.
In general, analog computers are limited by non-ideal effects. An analog signal is composed of four basic components: DC and AC magnitudes, frequency, and phase. The real limits of range on these characteristics limit analog computers. Some of these limits include the operational amplifier offset, finite gain, and frequency response, noise floor, non-linearities, temperature coefficient, and parasitic effects within semiconductor devices. For commercially available electronic components, ranges of these aspects of input and output signals are always figures of merit.
In 1950s to 1970s, digital computers based on first vacuum tubes, transistors, integrated circuits and then micro-processors became more economical and precise. This led digital computers to largely replace analog computers. Even so, some research in analog computation is still being done. A few universities still use analog computers to teach control system theory. The American company Comdyna manufactures small analog computers. At Indiana University Bloomington, Jonathan Mills has developed the Extended Analog Computer based on sampling voltages in a foam sheet. At the Harvard Robotics Laboratory, analog computation is a research topic. Lyric Semiconductor 's error correction circuits use analog probabilistic signals. Slide rules are still popular among aircraft personnel.
With the development of very - large - scale integration (VLSI) technology, Yannis Tsividis ' group at Columbia University has been revisiting analog / hybrid computers design in standard CMOS process. Two VLSI chips have been developed, an 80th - order analog computer (250 nm) by Glenn Cowan in 2005 and an 4th - order hybrid computer (65 nm) developed by Ning Guo in 2015, both targeting at energy - efficient ODE / PDE applications. Glenn 's chip contains 16 macros, in which there are 25 analog computing blocks, namely integrators, multipliers, fanouts, few nonlinear blocks. Ning 's chip contains one macro block, in which there are 26 computing blocks including integrators, multipliers, fanouts, ADCs, SRAMs and DACs. Arbitrary nonlinear function generation is made possible by the ADC + SRAM + DAC chain, where the SRAM block stores the nonlinear function data. The experiments from the related publications revealed that VLSI analog / hybrid computers demonstrated about 1 -- 2 orders magnitude of advantage in both solution time and energy while achieving accuracy within 5 %, which points to the promise of using analog / hybrid computing techniques in the area of energy - efficient approximate computing.
These are examples of analog computers that have been constructed or practically used:
Analog (audio) synthesizers can also be viewed as a form of analog computer, and their technology was originally based in part on electronic analog computer technology. The ARP 2600 's Ring Modulator was actually a moderate - accuracy analog multiplier.
The Simulation Council (or Simulations Council) was an association of analog computer users in USA. It is now known as The Society for Modeling and Simulation International. The Simulation Council newsletters from 1952 to 1963 are available online and show the concerns and technologies at the time, and the common use of analog computers for missilry.
Computer theorists often refer to idealized analog computers as real computers (because they operate on the set of real numbers). Digital computers, by contrast, must first quantize the signal into a finite number of values, and so can only work with the rational number set (or, with an approximation of irrational numbers).
These idealized analog computers may in theory solve problems that are intractable on digital computers; however as mentioned, in reality, analog computers are far from attaining this ideal, largely because of noise minimization problems. In theory, ambient noise is limited by quantum noise (caused by the quantum movements of ions). Ambient noise may be severely reduced -- but never to zero -- by using cryogenically cooled parametric amplifiers. Moreover, given unlimited time and memory, the (ideal) digital computer may also solve real number problems.
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in simple linear regression r2 is the | Coefficient of determination - wikipedia
In statistics, the coefficient of determination, denoted R or r and pronounced "R squared '', is the proportion of the variation in the dependent variable that is predictable from the independent variable (s).
It is a statistic used in the context of statistical models whose main purpose is either the prediction of future outcomes or the testing of hypotheses, on the basis of other related information. It provides a measure of how well observed outcomes are replicated by the model, based on the proportion of total variation of outcomes explained by the model.
There are several definitions of R that are only sometimes equivalent. One class of such cases includes that of simple linear regression where r is used instead of R. When an intercept is included, then r is simply the square of the sample correlation coefficient (i.e., r) between the observed outcomes and the observed predictor values. If additional regressors are included, R is the square of the coefficient of multiple correlation. In both such cases, the coefficient of determination ranges from 0 to 1.
Important cases where the computational definition of R can yield negative values, depending on the definition used, arise where the predictions that are being compared to the corresponding outcomes have not been derived from a model - fitting procedure using those data, and where linear regression is conducted without including an intercept. Additionally, negative values of R may occur when fitting non-linear functions to data. In cases where negative values arise, the mean of the data provides a better fit to the outcomes than do the fitted function values, according to this particular criterion.
A data set has n values marked y,..., y (collectively known as y or as a vector y = (y,..., y)), each associated with a predicted (or modeled) value f,..., f (known as f, or sometimes ŷ, as a vector f).
Define the residuals as e = y − f (forming a vector e).
If y _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ bar (y))) is the mean of the observed data:
then the variability of the data set can be measured using three sums of squares formulas:
The most general definition of the coefficient of determination is
In a general form, R can be seen to be related to the fraction of variance unexplained (FVU), since the second term compares the unexplained variance (variance of the model 's errors) with the total variance (of the data):
Suppose r = 0.7, meaning r = 0.49. This implies that 49 % of the variability between the two variables has been accounted for, and the remaining 51 % of the variability is still unaccounted for. In some cases the total sum of squares equals the sum of the two other sums of squares defined above,
See partitioning in the general OLS model for a derivation of this result for one case where the relation holds. When this relation does hold, the above definition of R is equivalent to
In this form R is expressed as the ratio of the explained variance (variance of the model 's predictions, which is SS / n) to the total variance (sample variance of the dependent variable, which is SS / n).
This partition of the sum of squares holds for instance when the model values ƒ have been obtained by linear regression. A milder sufficient condition reads as follows: The model has the form
where the q are arbitrary values that may or may not depend on i or on other free parameters (the common choice q = x is just one special case), and the coefficients α and β are obtained by minimizing the residual sum of squares.
This set of conditions is an important one and it has a number of implications for the properties of the fitted residuals and the modelled values. In particular, under these conditions:
In linear least squares regression with an estimated intercept term, R equals the square of the Pearson correlation coefficient between the observed y (\ displaystyle y) and modeled (predicted) f (\ displaystyle f) data values of the dependent variable.
In a univariate linear least squares regression, this is also equal to the squared Pearson correlation coefficient of the dependent y (\ displaystyle y) and explanatory x (\ displaystyle x) variables.
Under more general modeling conditions, where the predicted values might be generated from a model different from linear least squares regression, an R value can be calculated as the square of the correlation coefficient between the original y (\ displaystyle y) and modeled f (\ displaystyle f) data values. In this case, the value is not directly a measure of how good the modeled values are, but rather a measure of how good a predictor might be constructed from the modeled values (by creating a revised predictor of the form α + βƒ). According to Everitt (p. 78), this usage is specifically the definition of the term "coefficient of determination '': the square of the correlation between two (general) variables.
R is a statistic that will give some information about the goodness of fit of a model. In regression, the R coefficient of determination is a statistical measure of how well the regression line approximates the real data points. An R of 1 indicates that the regression line perfectly fits the data.
Values of R outside the range 0 to 1 can occur where it is used to measure the agreement between observed and modeled values and where the "modeled '' values are not obtained by linear regression and depending on which formulation of R is used. If the first formula above is used, values can be less than zero. If the second expression is used, values can be greater than one. Neither formula is defined for the case where y 1 =... = y n = y _̄ (\ displaystyle y_ (1) = \ ldots = y_ (n) = (\ bar (y))).
In all instances where R is used, the predictors are calculated by ordinary least - squares regression: that is, by minimizing SS. In this case R increases as we increase the number of variables in the model (R is monotone increasing with the number of variables included -- i.e., it will never decrease). This illustrates a drawback to one possible use of R, where one might keep adding variables (Kitchen sink regression) to increase the R value. For example, if one is trying to predict the sales of a model of car from the car 's gas mileage, price, and engine power, one can include such irrelevant factors as the first letter of the model 's name or the height of the lead engineer designing the car because the R will never decrease as variables are added and will probably experience an increase due to chance alone.
This leads to the alternative approach of looking at the adjusted R. The explanation of this statistic is almost the same as R but it penalizes the statistic as extra variables are included in the model. For cases other than fitting by ordinary least squares, the R statistic can be calculated as above and may still be a useful measure. If fitting is by weighted least squares or generalized least squares, alternative versions of R can be calculated appropriate to those statistical frameworks, while the "raw '' R may still be useful if it is more easily interpreted. Values for R can be calculated for any type of predictive model, which need not have a statistical basis.
Consider a linear model with more than a single explanatory variable, of the form
where, for the ith case, Y i (\ displaystyle (Y_ (i))) is the response variable, X i, 1,..., X i, p (\ displaystyle X_ (i, 1), \ dots, X_ (i, p)) are p regressors, and ε i (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon _ (i)) is a mean zero error term. The quantities β 0,..., β p (\ displaystyle \ beta _ (0), \ dots, \ beta _ (p)) are unknown coefficients, whose values are estimated by least squares. The coefficient of determination R is a measure of the global fit of the model. Specifically, R is an element of (0, 1) and represents the proportion of variability in Y that may be attributed to some linear combination of the regressors (explanatory variables) in X.
R is often interpreted as the proportion of response variation "explained '' by the regressors in the model. Thus, R = 1 indicates that the fitted model explains all variability in y (\ displaystyle y), while R = 0 indicates no ' linear ' relationship (for straight line regression, this means that the straight line model is a constant line (slope = 0, intercept = y _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ bar (y)))) between the response variable and regressors). An interior value such as R = 0.7 may be interpreted as follows: "Seventy percent of the variance in the response variable can be explained by the explanatory variables. The remaining thirty percent can be attributed to unknown, lurking variables or inherent variability. ''
A caution that applies to R, as to other statistical descriptions of correlation and association is that "correlation does not imply causation. '' In other words, while correlations may sometimes provide valuable clues in uncovering causal relationships among variables, a non-zero estimated correlation between two variables is not, on its own, evidence that changing the value of one variable would result in changes in the values of other variables. For example, the practice of carrying matches (or a lighter) is correlated with incidence of lung cancer, but carrying matches does not cause cancer (in the standard sense of "cause '').
In case of a single regressor, fitted by least squares, R is the square of the Pearson product - moment correlation coefficient relating the regressor and the response variable. More generally, R is the square of the correlation between the constructed predictor and the response variable. With more than one regressor, the R can be referred to as the coefficient of multiple determination.
In least squares regression, R is weakly increasing with increases in the number of regressors in the model. Because increases in the number of regressors increase the value of R, R alone can not be used as a meaningful comparison of models with very different numbers of independent variables. For a meaningful comparison between two models, an F - test can be performed on the residual sum of squares, similar to the F - tests in Granger causality, though this is not always appropriate. As a reminder of this, some authors denote R by R, where p is the number of columns in X (the number of explanators including the constant).
To demonstrate this property, first recall that the objective of least squares linear regression is:
The optimal value of the objective is weakly smaller as additional columns of X (\ displaystyle X) are added, by the fact that less constrained minimization leads to an optimal cost which is weakly smaller than more constrained minimization does. Given the previous conclusion and noting that S S t o t (\ displaystyle SS_ (tot)) depends only on y, the non-decreasing property of R follows directly from the definition above.
The intuitive reason that using an additional explanatory variable can not lower the R is this: Minimizing S S res (\ displaystyle SS_ (\ text (res))) is equivalent to maximizing R. When the extra variable is included, the data always have the option of giving it an estimated coefficient of zero, leaving the predicted values and the R unchanged. The only way that the optimization problem will give a non-zero coefficient is if doing so improves the R.
R does not indicate whether:
The use of an adjusted R (one common notation is R _̄ 2 (\ displaystyle (\ bar (R)) ^ (2)), pronounced "R bar squared ''; another is R adj 2 (\ displaystyle R_ (\ text (adj)) ^ (2))) is an attempt to take account of the phenomenon of the R automatically and spuriously increasing when extra explanatory variables are added to the model. It is a modification due to Henri Theil of R that adjusts for the number of explanatory terms in a model relative to the number of data points. The adjusted R can be negative, and its value will always be less than or equal to that of R. Unlike R, the adjusted R increases only when the increase in R (due to the inclusion of a new explanatory variable) is more than one would expect to see by chance. If a set of explanatory variables with a predetermined hierarchy of importance are introduced into a regression one at a time, with the adjusted R computed each time, the level at which adjusted R reaches a maximum, and decreases afterward, would be the regression with the ideal combination of having the best fit without excess / unnecessary terms. The adjusted R is defined as
where p is the total number of explanatory variables in the model (not including the constant term), and n is the sample size.
Adjusted R can also be written as
where df is the degrees of freedom n -- 1 of the estimate of the population variance of the dependent variable, and df is the degrees of freedom n -- p -- 1 of the estimate of the underlying population error variance.
The principle behind the adjusted R statistic can be seen by rewriting the ordinary R as
where VAR res = S S res / n (\ displaystyle (\ text (VAR)) _ (\ text (res)) = SS_ (\ text (res)) / n) and VAR tot = S S tot / n (\ displaystyle (\ text (VAR)) _ (\ text (tot)) = SS_ (\ text (tot)) / n) are the sample variances of the estimated residuals and the dependent variable respectively, which can be seen as biased estimates of the population variances of the errors and of the dependent variable. These estimates are replaced by statistically unbiased versions: VAR res = S S res / (n − p − 1) (\ displaystyle (\ text (VAR)) _ (\ text (res)) = SS_ (\ text (res)) / (n-p - 1)) and VAR tot = S S tot / (n − 1) (\ displaystyle (\ text (VAR)) _ (\ text (tot)) = SS_ (\ text (tot)) / (n - 1)).
Adjusted R does not have the same interpretation as R -- while R is a measure of fit, adjusted R is instead a comparative measure of suitability of alternative nested sets of explanators. As such, care must be taken in interpreting and reporting this statistic. Adjusted R is particularly useful in the feature selection stage of model building.
The coefficient of partial determination can be defined as the proportion of variation that can not be explained in a reduced model, but can be explained by the predictors specified in a full (er) model. This coefficient is used to provide insight into whether or not one or more additional predictors may be useful in a more fully specified regression model.
The calculation for the partial r is relatively straight forward after estimating two models and generating the ANOVA tables for them. The calculation for the partial r is:
S S E reduced − S S E full S S E reduced (\ displaystyle (\ frac (SSE_ (\ text (reduced)) - SSE_ (\ text (full))) (SSE_ (\ text (reduced)))))
which is analogous to the usual coefficient of determination
S S T − S S E S S T. (\ displaystyle (\ frac (SST - SSE) (SST)).)
In the case of logistic regression, usually fit by maximum likelihood, there are several choices of Pseudo-R.
One is the generalized R was originally proposed by Cox & Snell, and independently by Magee:
where L (0) is the likelihood of the model with only the intercept, L (θ ^) (\ displaystyle (L ((\ hat (\ theta))))) is the likelihood of the estimated model (i.e., the model with a given set of parameter estimates) and n is the sample size.
Nagelkerke noted that it had the following properties:
However, in the case of a logistic model, where L (θ ^) (\ displaystyle L ((\ hat (\ theta)))) can not be greater than 1, R is between 0 and R max 2 = 1 − (L (0)) 2 / n (\ displaystyle R_ (\ max) ^ (2) = 1 - (L (0)) ^ (2 / n)): thus, Nagelkerke suggested the possibility to define a scaled R as R2 / R.
Occasionally, the norm of residuals is used for indicating goodness of fit. This term is calculated as the square - root of the sum of squared residuals:
Both R and the norm of residuals have their relative merits. For least squares analysis R varies between 0 and 1, with larger numbers indicating better fits and 1 represents a perfect fit. Norm of residuals varies from 0 to infinity with smaller numbers indicating better fits and zero indicating a perfect fit. One advantage and disadvantage of R is the S S tot (\ displaystyle SS_ (\ text (tot))) term acts to normalize the value. If the y values are all multiplied by a constant, the norm of residuals will also change by that constant but R will stay the same. As a basic example, for the linear least squares fit to the set of data:
R = 0.998, and norm of residuals = 0.302. If all values of y are multiplied by 1000 (for example, in an SI prefix change), then R remains the same, but norm of residuals = 302.
Another way to examine goodness of fit would be to examine residuals as a function of x. Other single parameter indicators include the standard deviation of the residuals, or the RMSE of the residuals. These would have values of 0.151 and 0.174 respectively for the above example given that the fit was linear with an unforced intercept.
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where does catcher in the rye title come from | The Catcher in the Rye - wikipedia
The Catcher in the Rye is a story by J.D. Salinger, first published in serial form in 1945 - 6 and as a novel in 1951. A classic novel originally published for adults, it has since become popular with adolescent readers for its themes of teenage angst and alienation. It has been translated into almost all of the world 's major languages. Around 1 million copies are sold each year, with total sales of more than 65 million books. The novel 's protagonist Holden Caulfield has become an icon for teenage rebellion. The novel also deals with complex issues of innocence, identity, belonging, loss, and connection.
The novel was included on Time 's 2005 list of the 100 best English - language novels written since 1923, and it was named by Modern Library and its readers as one of the 100 best English - language novels of the 20th century. In 2003, it was listed at # 15 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read.
Holden Caulfield, a teenager, is living in an unspecified institution in Southern California near Hollywood in 1951. Caulfield intends to live with his brother D.B, an author and World War II veteran whom Holden resents for becoming a screenwriter, after his release in one month. As he waits, Holden recalls the events of the previous Christmas.
Holden begins his story at Pencey Preparatory Academy, an exclusive boarding school in Agerstown, Pennsylvania, on the Saturday afternoon of the traditional football game with a rival school. Holden has been expelled from Pencey due to poor work and is not to return after Christmas break, which begins the following Wednesday. He plans to return home on that day so that he will not be present when his parents receive notice of his expulsion. After forfeiting a fencing match in New York by forgetting the equipment aboard the subway, he is invited to the home of his history teacher, Mr. Spencer. Spencer is a well - meaning but long - winded old man. Spencer greets him and offers him advice, but embarrasses Holden by further criticizing Holden 's work in his subject in a rude manner.
Holden returns to his dorm wearing the new red hunting cap he bought in New York. His dorm neighbor Robert Ackley is one of the few students also missing the game. Ackley, unpopular among his peers, disturbs Holden with his impolite questioning and mannerisms. Holden, who feels sorry for Ackley, tolerates his presence. Later, Holden agrees to write an English composition for his roommate, Ward Stradlater, who is leaving for a date. However, Holden is distressed to learn that Stradlater 's date is an old friend, Jane Gallagher, whom Holden had romantic feelings for and feels protective of. That night, Holden decides to go to a Cary Grant comedy with his best friend Mal Brossard and Ackley. Since Ackley and Mal had already seen the film, they end up just playing pinball and returning to Pencey. When Stradlater returns hours later, he fails to appreciate the deeply personal composition Holden wrote for him about the baseball glove of Holden 's late brother Allie, and refuses to reveal whether he slept with Jane. Enraged, Holden punches him, and Stradlater easily wins the ensuing fight. When Holden continues insulting him after the fight, Stradlater knocks him unconscious and leaves him with a bloody nose. After leaving for Ackley 's room, Holden is disappointed when he treats him rudely. Fed up with the so - called "phonies '' at Pencey Prep, Holden impulsively decides to leave Pencey early, sells his typewriter to earn money, and catches a train to Penn Station in New York. Holden intends to stay away from his home in a hotel until Wednesday, when his parents would have received news of his expulsion. Aboard the train, Holden meets the mother of a wealthy, obnoxious Pencey student named Ernest Morrow, and lies to her about himself and her son.
In a taxicab, Holden inquires with the driver about whether the ducks in the Central Park lagoon migrate during winter, a subject he brings up often, but the man barely responds. Holden checks into the dilapidated Edmont Hotel. He spends an evening dancing with three tourist women from Seattle in the hotel lounge and enjoys dancing with one, though is disappointed that he is unable to hold a conversation with them. Following an unpromising visit to Ernie 's Nightclub in Greenwich Village, Holden becomes preoccupied with his internal angst and agrees to have a prostitute named Sunny visit his room. His attitude toward the girl changes the minute she enters the room; she seems about the same age as him. Holden becomes uncomfortable with the situation, and when he tells her all he wants to do is talk, she becomes annoyed and leaves. Even though he still paid her the right amount for her time, she returns with her pimp Maurice and demands more money. Holden insults Maurice, and after Sunny takes the money from Holden 's wallet, Maurice punches him in the stomach and leaves with Sunny. Afterwards, Holden imagines that he has been shot by Maurice, and pictures murdering him with an automatic weapon.
The next morning, Holden, becoming increasingly depressed and in need of personal connection, calls Sally Hayes, a familiar date. Although Holden claims that she is "the queen of all phonies '', they agree to meet that afternoon to attend a play at the Biltmore Theater. Holden shops for a special record, "Little Shirley Beans '', for his 10 - year - old sister Phoebe. He spots a small boy singing "If a body catch a body coming through the rye '', which lifts his mood. Although Holden 's date initially goes well, it soon sours after Sally introduces her friend George. After the play, Holden and Sally go ice skating at Rockefeller Center, where Holden suddenly begins ranting against society and frightens Sally. He impulsively invites Sally to run away with him that night to live in the wilderness of New England, but she is uninterested in his hastily conceived plan and declines. The conversation turns sour, and the two angrily part ways.
Holden decides to meet his old classmate, a Columbia student named Carl Luce, for drinks at the Wicker Bar in the Seton Hotel. During the meeting, Holden annoys Carl with his fixation on sex. After Luce leaves, Holden gets drunk, awkwardly flirts with several adults, and calls an icy Sally. Exhausted and out of money, Holden wanders over to Central Park to investigate the ducks, breaking Phoebe 's record on the way. Nostalgically recalling his experience in elementary school and the unchanging dioramas in the Museum of Natural History that he enjoyed visiting as a child, Holden heads home to see Phoebe. He sneaks into his parents ' apartment while they are out, and wakes up Phoebe -- the only person with whom he seems to be able to communicate his true feelings. Although Phoebe is happy to see Holden, she quickly deduces that he has been expelled, and chastises him for his aimlessness and his apparent dislikes towards everything. When asked if he cares about anything, Holden shares a selfless fantasy he has been thinking about (based on a mishearing of Robert Burns 's Comin ' Through the Rye): he pictures himself as the sole guardian of thousands of children playing in a huge rye field on the edge of a cliff. His job is to catch the children if, in their abandon, they come close to falling off the brink; to be, in effect, the "catcher in the rye ''. Because of this misinterpretation, Holden believes that to be the "catcher in the rye '' means to save children from losing their innocence.
When his mother returns home, Holden slips out and visits his former and much - admired English teacher, Mr. Antolini, who is now a New York University professor. Mr. Antolini expresses concern that Holden is headed for "a terrible fall '' and advises him to begin applying himself. Although Holden is exhausted, he is courteous and considers his advice. Mr. Antolini also provides Holden a place to sleep. Holden is upset when he wakes up in the night to find Mr. Antolini patting his head, which he interprets as a homosexual advance. Confused and uncertain, he leaves and spends the rest of the night in a waiting room at Grand Central Station, where he sinks further into despair and expresses regret over leaving Mr. Antolini. He spends most of Monday morning wandering Fifth Avenue.
Losing hope of finding belonging or companionship in the city, Holden impulsively decides that he will head out west and live a reclusive lifestyle as a gas station attendant. He decides to see Phoebe at lunchtime to explain his plan and say farewell. While visiting Phoebe 's school to give a forged excuse note, Holden becomes obsessed with graffiti containing the word "fuck '', and becomes distressed by the thought of children learning the word 's meaning. When he meets Phoebe at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, she arrives with a suitcase and asks to go with him, even though she was looking forward to acting as Benedict Arnold in a play that Friday. Holden refuses to let her come with him, which upsets Phoebe, so Holden decides not to leave after all. He tries to cheer her up by allowing her to skip school and taking her to the Central Park Zoo, but she remains angry with him. They eventually reach the zoo 's carousel, where Phoebe reconciles with Holden after he buys her a ticket. Holden is finally filled with happiness and joy at the sight of Phoebe riding in the rain.
In a short epilogue, Holden briefly alludes to encountering his parents that night and "getting sick '' (implying a tuberculosis diagnosis), mentioning that he will be attending another school in September. Holden says that he does n't want to tell anything more because, surprisingly, he has found himself missing his former classmates. He warns the reader that telling others about their own experiences will lead them to miss the people who shared them.
Various older stories by Salinger contain characters similar to those in The Catcher in the Rye. While at Columbia University, Salinger wrote a short story called "The Young Folks '' in Whit Burnett 's class; one character from this story has been described as a "thinly penciled prototype of Sally Hayes ''. In November 1941, he sold the story "Slight Rebellion off Madison '', which featured Holden Caulfield, to The New Yorker, but it was n't published until December 21, 1946 due to World War II. The story "I 'm Crazy '', which was published in the December 22, 1945, issue of Collier 's, contained material that was later used in The Catcher in the Rye. In 1946, The New Yorker accepted a 90 - page manuscript about Holden Caulfield for publication, but Salinger later withdrew it.
The Catcher in the Rye is narrated in a subjective style from the point of view of Holden Caulfield, following his exact thought processes. There is flow in the seemingly disjointed ideas and episodes; for example, as Holden sits in a chair in his dorm, minor events, such as picking up a book or looking at a table, unfold into discussions about experiences.
Critical reviews affirm that the novel accurately reflected the teenage colloquial speech of the time. Words and phrases that appear frequently include:
Bruce Brooks held that Holden 's attitude remains unchanged at story 's end, implying no maturation, thus differentiating the novel from young adult fiction. In contrast, Louis Menand thought that teachers assign the novel because of the optimistic ending, to teach adolescent readers that "alienation is just a phase. '' While Brooks maintained that Holden acts his age, Menand claimed that Holden thinks as an adult, given his ability to accurately perceive people and their motives. Others highlight the dilemma of Holden 's state, in between adolescence and adulthood. Holden is quick to become emotional. "I felt sorry as hell for... '' is a phrase he often uses. It is often said that Holden changes at the end, when he watches Phoebe on the carousel, and he talks about the golden ring and how it 's good for kids to try and grab it.
Peter Beidler, in his A Reader 's Companion to J.D. Salinger 's "The Catcher in the Rye '', identifies the movie that the prostitute "Sunny '' refers to. In chapter 13 she says that in the movie a boy falls off a boat. The movie is Captains Courageous (1937), starring Spencer Tracy. Sunny says that Holden looks like the boy who fell off the boat. Beidler shows (page 28) a still of the boy, played by child - actor Freddie Bartholomew.
Each Caulfield child has literary talent. D.B. writes screenplays in Hollywood; Holden also reveres D.B. for his writing skill (Holden 's own best subject), but he also despises Hollywood industry - based movies, considering them the ultimate in "phony '' as the writer has no space for his own imagination, and describes D.B. 's move to Hollywood to write for films as "prostituting himself ''; Allie wrote poetry on his baseball glove; and Phoebe is a diarist. This "catcher in the rye '' is an analogy for Holden, who admires in children attributes that he struggles to find in adults, like innocence, kindness, spontaneity, and generosity. Falling off the cliff could be a progression into the adult world that surrounds him and that he strongly criticizes. Later, Phoebe and Holden exchange roles as the "catcher '' and the "fallen ''; he gives her his hunting hat, the catcher 's symbol, and becomes the fallen as Phoebe becomes the catcher.
In their biography of Salinger, David Shields and Shane Salerno argue that: "The Catcher in the Rye can best be understood as a disguised war novel. '' Salinger witnessed the horrors of World War II, but rather than writing a combat novel, Salinger, according to Shields and Salerno, "took the trauma of war and embedded it within what looked to the naked eye like a coming - of - age novel. ''
The Catcher in the Rye has been listed as one of the best novels of the twentieth century. Shortly after its publication, writing for The New York Times, Nash K. Burger called it "an unusually brilliant novel, '' while James Stern wrote an admiring review of the book in a voice imitating Holden 's. George H.W. Bush called it a "marvelous book, '' listing it among the books that have inspired him. In June 2009, the BBC 's Finlo Rohrer wrote that, 58 years since publication, the book is still regarded "as the defining work on what it is like to be a teenager. Holden is at various times disaffected, disgruntled, alienated, isolated, directionless, and sarcastic. '' Adam Gopnik considers it one of the "three perfect books '' in American literature, along with Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Great Gatsby, and believes that "no book has ever captured a city better than Catcher in the Rye captured New York in the fifties. '' Jeff Pruchnic wrote an appraisal of The Catcher in the Rye after the death of J.D. Salinger. In this article, Pruchnic focuses on how the novel continues to be received incredibly well, even after it has aged many generations. Pruchnic describes Holden as a "teenage protagonist frozen midcentury but destined to be discovered by those of a similar age in every generation to come ''. Bill Gates said that The Catcher in the Rye is one of his favorite books ever.
However, not all reception has been positive; the book has had its share of critics. Rohrer writes, "Many of these readers are disappointed that the novel fails to meet the expectations generated by the mystique it is shrouded in. J.D. Salinger has done his part to enhance this mystique. That is to say, he has done nothing. '' Rohrer assessed the reasons behind both the popularity and criticism of the book, saying that it "captures existential teenage angst '' and has a "complex central character '' and "accessible conversational style ''; while at the same time some readers may dislike the "use of 1940s New York vernacular '' and other things.
In 1960, a teacher in Tulsa, Oklahoma was fired for assigning the novel in class; however, he was later reinstated. Between 1961 and 1982, The Catcher in the Rye was the most censored book in high schools and libraries in the United States. The book was banned in the Issaquah, Washington, high schools in 1978 as being part of an "overall communist plot ''. In 1981, it was both the most censored book and the second most taught book in public schools in the United States. According to the American Library Association, The Catcher in the Rye was the 10th most frequently challenged book from 1990 to 1999. It was one of the ten most challenged books of 2005, and although it had been off the list for three years, it reappeared in the list of most challenged books of 2009.
The challenges generally begin with Holden 's frequent use of vulgar language, with other reasons including sexual references, blasphemy, undermining of family values and moral codes, encouragement of rebellion, and promotion of drinking, smoking, lying, promiscuity, and sexual abuse. Often the challengers have been unfamiliar with the plot itself. Shelley Keller - Gage, a high school teacher who faced objections after assigning the novel in her class, noted that "the challengers are being just like Holden... They are trying to be catchers in the rye ''. A Streisand effect has been that this incident caused people to put themselves on the waiting list to borrow the novel, when there was no waiting list before.
Several shootings have been associated with Salinger 's novel, including Robert John Bardo 's murder of Rebecca Schaeffer and John Hinckley, Jr. 's assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan. Additionally, after fatally shooting John Lennon, Mark David Chapman was arrested with a copy of the book that he had purchased that same day, inside of which he had written: "To Holden Caulfield, From Holden Caulfield, This is my statement ''.
Early in his career, Salinger expressed a willingness to have his work adapted for the screen. In 1949, a critically panned film version of his short story "Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut '' was released; renamed My Foolish Heart, the film took great liberties with Salinger 's plot and is widely considered to be among the reasons that Salinger refused to allow any subsequent film adaptations of his work. The enduring popularity of The Catcher in the Rye, however, has resulted in repeated attempts to secure the novel 's screen rights.
When The Catcher in the Rye was first released, many offers were made to adapt it for the screen, including one from Samuel Goldwyn, producer of My Foolish Heart. In a letter written in the early 1950s, Salinger spoke of mounting a play in which he would play the role of Holden Caulfield opposite Margaret O'Brien, and, if he could n't play the part himself, to "forget about it. '' Almost 50 years later, the writer Joyce Maynard definitively concluded, "The only person who might ever have played Holden Caulfield would have been J.D. Salinger. ''
Salinger told Maynard in the 1970s that Jerry Lewis "tried for years to get his hands on the part of Holden, '' despite Lewis not having read the novel until he was in his thirties. Celebrities ranging from Marlon Brando and Jack Nicholson to Tobey Maguire and Leonardo DiCaprio have since tried to make a film adaptation. In an interview with Premiere, John Cusack commented that his one regret about turning 21 was that he had become too old to play Holden Caulfield. Writer - director Billy Wilder recounted his abortive attempts to snare the novel 's rights:
In 1961, Salinger denied Elia Kazan permission to direct a stage adaptation of Catcher for Broadway. More recently, Salinger 's agents received bids for the Catcher film rights from Harvey Weinstein and Steven Spielberg, neither of which was even passed on to Salinger for consideration.
In 2003, the BBC television program The Big Read featured The Catcher in the Rye, interspersing discussions of the novel with "a series of short films that featured an actor playing J.D. Salinger 's adolescent antihero, Holden Caulfield. '' The show defended its unlicensed adaptation of the novel by claiming to be a "literary review '', and no major charges were filed.
After Salinger 's death in 2010, Phyllis Westberg, who was Salinger 's agent at Harold Ober Associates, stated that nothing has changed in terms of licensing film, television, or stage rights of his works. A letter written by Salinger in 1957 revealed that he was open to an adaptation of The Catcher in the Rye released after his death. He wrote: "Firstly, it is possible that one day the rights will be sold. Since there 's an ever - looming possibility that I wo n't die rich, I toy very seriously with the idea of leaving the unsold rights to my wife and daughter as a kind of insurance policy. It pleasures me no end, though, I might quickly add, to know that I wo n't have to see the results of the transaction. '' Salinger also wrote that he believed his novel was not suitable for film treatment, and that translating Holden Caulfield 's first - person narrative into voice - over and dialogue would be contrived.
In 2009, a year before his death, Salinger successfully sued to stop the U.S. publication of a novel that presents Holden Caulfield as an old man. The novel 's author, Fredrik Colting, commented: "call me an ignorant Swede, but the last thing I thought possible in the U.S. was that you banned books ''. The issue is complicated by the nature of Colting 's book, 60 Years Later: Coming Through the Rye, which has been compared to fan fiction. Although commonly not authorized by writers, no legal action is usually taken against fan fiction, since it is rarely published commercially and thus involves no profit. Colting, however, has published his book commercially, therefore interfering with copyright law and is not protected.
The Catcher in the Rye has had significant cultural influence, and works inspired by the novel have been said to form their own genre. Sarah Graham assessed works influenced by The Catcher in the Rye to include the novels Less Than Zero by Bret Easton Ellis, The Perks of Being a Wallflower by Stephen Chbosky, A Complicated Kindness by Miriam Toews, The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath, Ordinary People by Judith Guest, and the film Igby Goes Down by Burr Steers.
Fantasy writer Harry Turtledove has written a pastiche - parody "Catcher in the Rhine '', based on his daughter 's mishearing of Salinger 's title. In this short story, an unnamed narrator, who is clearly meant to be Holden Caulfield but is unnamed to avoid copyright problems, goes on vacation to Germany and meets characters from the Niebelunglied. This was first published in The Chick is in the Mail, edited by Esther Friesner, Baen 2000 and reprinted in the omnibus Chicks Ahoy! (2010). It was reprinted in Atlantis and Other Places also in 2010.
In "Catcher In The Wry '' former major league baseball player, Bob Uecker, recounts anecdotes of his years behind the plate and on the road, recalling the antics of his famous teammates, including Hank Aaron, Bob Gibson, Richie Allen, and Warren Spahn.
The July 1985 issue of National Lampoon included a parody of the novel, ostensibly written by Holden Caulfield 's son, entitled ' The Son of the Catcher, who Lives in Rye '.
In December 1991, punk rock band Green Day released their second studio album (Kerplunk), containing the song Who Wrote Holden Caulfield. The song describes said character as crazy, frustrated, and lacking motivation.
"The Catcher in the Rye '' deeply influenced the biographical drama film, "The Rebel in the Rye '', which is about the writer of "The Catcher in the Rye '', J.D. Salinger. It is a visual about his life, before and after World War II, and gives more about the author 's life than the readers of "The Catcher in the Rye '' learned from the novel.
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who said mangal bhavan amangal hari in ramayana | Ramcharitmanas - Wikipedia
Ramcharitmanas (Devanāgarī: श्रीरामचरितमानस, IAST: ŚrīRāmacaritamānasa), is an epic poem in the language Awadhi, composed by the 16th - century Indian bhakti poet Goswami Tulsidas (c. 1532 -- 1623). Ramcharitmanas literally means "Lake of the deeds of Rama ''. Ramcharitmanas is considered as one of the greatest works of Hindi literature, Indian literature as well as of the world literature. The work has variously been acclaimed as "the living sum of Indian culture '', "the tallest tree in the magic garden of medieval Indian poetry '', "the greatest book of all devotional literature '' and "the best and most trustworthy guide to the popular living faith of the Indian people ''.
Divisions
Sama vedic
Yajur vedic
Atharva vedic
Vaishnava puranas
Shaiva puranas
Tulsidas (the Sanskrit name of Tulsidas can be transliterated in two ways. Using the IAST transliteration scheme, the name is written as Tulasīdāsa, as pronounced in Sanskrit. Using the Hunterian transliteration scheme, it is written as Tulsidas or Tulsīdās, as pronounced in Hindi). Tulsidas was a great scholar of Sanskrit. However, he wanted the story of Rama to be accessible to the general masses and not just the Sanskrit - speaking elite. In order to make the story of Rama as accessible to the layman as to the scholar, Tulsidas chose to write in Awadhi, a local dialect of Hindi which was in vogue as the language of general parlance in large parts of north India during the composition of the work. Tradition has it that Tulsidas had to face a lot of criticism from the sanskrit scholars of Varanasi for being a bhasha (vernacular) poet. However, Tulsidas remained steadfast in his resolve for simplifying the knowledge contained in the Vedas, the Upanishads and the Puranas to the common people. Subsequently, his work was accepted by all.
Ramcharitmanas, made available the story of Rama to the common man to sing, meditate and perform on. The writing of Ramcharitmanas also heralded many a cultural tradition, most significantly that of the tradition of Ramlila, the dramatic enactment of the text. Ramcharitmanas is considered by many as a work belonging to the Saguna school of the Bhakti movement in Hindi literature.
Tulsidas began writing the Ramcharitmanas in Ayodhya in Vikram Samvat 1631 (1574 CE). The exact date is stated within the poem as being the ninth day of the month of Chaitra, which is the birthday of Rama, Rama Navami. Ramcharitmanas was composed at Ayodhya, Varanasi & Chitrakoot. India was under the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar (1556 - 1605 CE) during this period. This also makes Tulsidas a contemporary of William Shakespeare.
The Ramcharitmanas is written in vernacular Awadhi language, The core of the work is considered by some to be a poetic retelling of the events of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana by Valmiki. The Valmiki Ramayana is centered on the narrative of Rama, the scion of the family tree of king Raghu of the Sun Dynasty. Rama was the crown prince of Ayodhya and is considered in Hindu tradition as the seventh Avatar of Vishnu. However, the Ramacharitmanas is by no means a word - to - word copy of the Valmiki Ramayana nor an abridged re-telling of the latter. Ramcaritmanas has elements from many other Ramayanas written earlier in Sanskrit and other Indian dialects as well as stories from Puranas. Tulsidas himself never writes Ramcharitmanas as being a retelling of Valmiki Ramayana. He calls the epic Ramcharitmanas as the story of Rama, that was stored in the mind (Mānasa) of Shiva before he narrated the same to His wife Parvati. Tulsidas claims to have received the story through his guru, Narharidas. Tulsidas was a naive (Acheta) child and the story was stored in his mind (Mānasa) for long before he wrote it down as Ramcharitmanas. Some understand this passage of the Ramcharitmanas to mean that Tulsidas at first could not grasp the story fully as he was a naïve young boy. His guru graciously repeated it again and again so that he could understand and remember it. Then he narrated the story and named it Ramcharitmanas as Shiva himself called it. The epic poem is, therefore, also referred to as Tulsikrit Ramayana (literally, The Ramayana composed by Tulsidas).
The Ramcharitmanas is a masterpiece of vernacular literature. Some believe it to represent a challenge to the dominance of high - class Brahmanical Sanskrit, echoing the revolt of Buddha against Brahmanical elitism. However, this interpretation appears faulty as Tulsidas himself was a brahmin and often talks very highly of the Brahmins in Ramcharitmanas and other books written by him. It was the attempt of Tulsidas to reconcile the different stories of Rama and to bring the story within the reach of the common man.
Ramcharitmanas consists of seven Kāndas (literally "books '' or "episodes '', cognate with cantos). Tulsidas compared the seven Kāndas of the epic to seven steps leading into the holy waters of Lake Manasarovar "which purifies the body and the soul at once ''.
The first two parts, Bāl Kāṇḍ (Childhood Episode) and Ayodhyā Kāṇḍ (Ayodhya Episode), make up more than half of the work. The other parts are Araṇya Kāṇḍ (Forest Episode), Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ (Kishkindha Episode), Sundar Kāṇḍ (Pleasant Episode), Laṅkā Kāṇḍ (Lanka Episode), and Uttar Kāṇḍ (Later Episode). The work is primarily composed in the Chaupai metre (four - line quatrains), separated by the Doha metre (two - line couplets), with occasional Soratha and various Chhand metres.
Every chapter of the Ramcharitmanas begins with an invocation or Mangalācharaņ. It is customary of the Indian tradition of writing that the author begins a new book with invocation to the Gods to ensure that the sankalpa is finished unhindered. The first three or four verses of each Kānd are typically in the form of invocations.
Bāl Kāṇḍ begins with a hymn honouring the goddess Saraswati and the god Ganesha, the deities related to knowledge, wisdom, speech and auspiciousness.
Ayodhyā Kāṇḍ begins with the famous verse dedicated to the god Shiva: May He in whose lap shines forth the Daughter of the mountain king, who carries the celestial stream on His head, on whose brow rests the crescent moon, whose throat holds poison and whose breast is support of a huge serpent, and who is adorned by the ashes on His body, may that chief of gods, the Lord of all, the Destroyer of the universe, the omnipresent Śhiva, the moon - like Śańkara, ever protect me. ''
Araṇya Kāṇḍ 's first verse again extols Shiva: I reverence Bhagavan Śańkara, the progeny of Brahmā, the very root of the tree of piety, the beloved, devotee of King Śri Rama, the full moon that brings joy to the ocean of wisdom, the sun that opens the lotus of dispassion, the wind that disperses the clouds of ignorance, who dispels the thick darkness of sin and eradicates the threefold agony and who wipes off all calumny and obloquy.
Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ commences with the following verse: Lovely as a jasmine and a blue lotus, of surpassing strength, repositories of wisdom, endowed with natural grace, excellent bowmen, hymned by the Vedas, and lovers of the cow and Brāhmaņas, who appeared in the form of mortal men through their own Māyā (deluding potency) as the two noble scions of Raghu, the armours of true dharma, friendly to all and journeying in quest for Sita, may they both grant us Devotion.
Sundar Kāṇḍ begins with a hymn in the praise of Rama: I adore the Lord of the universe bearing the name of Rama, the chief of the Raghu 's line and the crest - jewel of kings, the mine of compassion, the dispeller of all sins, appearing in human form through His Māyā (deluding potency), the greatest of all gods, knowable through Vedānta (the Upanishads), constantly worshipped by Brahmā (the Creator), Śhambhu (Śivā), and Śeşa (the serpent - god), the one who bestows of supreme peace in the form of final beatitude, placid, eternal, beyond the ordinary means of cognition, sinless and all - pervading.
Laṅkā Kāṇḍ begins with this hymn: I adore Śri Rama, the supreme Deity, the object of worship even by Śivā (the destroyer of Kāma, the God of Love), the Dispeller of the fear of rebirth, the lion to quell the mad elephant in the form of Death, the Master of Yogīs, attainable through immediate knowledge, the storehouse of good qualities, unconquerable, attributeless, immutable, beyond the realm of Māyā, the Lord of celestials, intent on killing the evil - doers, the only protector of the Brāhmaņas, beautiful as a cloud laden with moisture, who has lotus like eyes and appeared in the form of an earthly king.
Uttar Kāṇḍ begins with the following hymn: I unceasingly extol Śri Ramā, the praiseworthy lord of Jānakī (Sītā, Janakā 's daughter and the wife of Rama), the chief of Raghu 's line, possessed of a form greenish blue, the color of the neck of a peacock and adorned with an insignia of Brahmā pada, the lotus - foot, which testifies to His being the greatest of all gods - rich in splendour, clad in yellow robes, lotus - eyed, ever - propitious, holding a bow and arrow in His hands, riding an aerial car named Puşpakā, accompanied by a host of monkeys and waited upon by His own brother Lakşmaņa.
Tulsidas ends every chapter in a similar manner describing the ending in the Sanskrit language.
Every Kānd is formally concluded by Goswami Tulsidas. The following is an example of the ending of Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ:
Translation: "Thus ends the fourth descent into the Mānasa lake of Sri Rama 's exploits, that eradicates all the impurities of the kali age. '' All the other Kāndas are concluded in the same way where the word caturthah is substituted, according to the Kānd being concluded.
Ramcharitmanas is structured around three separate conversations. The conversations happen between Shiva and Parvati, Sages Bharadwaj and Yajnavalkya and finally Kakbhushundi and the king of birds, Garuda. Some scholars are of the opinion that there is also an underlying personal conversation between Tulsidas and Lord Rama all through the text of Ramcharitmanas.
The Child Episode
Tulsidas begins the story with an invocation to various deities, his guru, and saints who have preceded him and those who will succeed him in the future. Homage is paid to Valmiki for bringing the Ramayana to the devotees of Rama. Next are introduced and praised the various characters of the epic beginning with the birthplace of Rama, the holy city of Ayodhya. Praises are bestowed on Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya and Rama 's father, and his queens Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra. Tulsidas then praises King Janaka, the father - in - law of Rama), and his family. He goes on to praise the brothers of Rama - Bharata, Lakshman & Shatrughna and sings the glories of Hanuman, the constant companion to Rama, Sugriva, the monkey king and Jambavan, the leader of bears. Next, the characters of Sita and Rama are introduced.
The story of Ramcharitmanas is then underway. It begins with the meeting of two sages - Bharadwaj and Yajnavalkya. Bharadwaj asks Yajnavalkya to narrate in detail the story of Rama. Yajnavalkya begins with how Shiva came about retelling the story of Rama to his wife Parvati. (The great story of Sati 's self - immolation, the destruction of her father Daksha 's sacrifice, the rebirth of Sati as Parvati and her marriage to Shiva). Shiva explains five different reasons as to why Rama incarnated on earth in different ages Kalpa (aeon). Each of these stories is discussed in detail, with the primary message being that Rama incarnated on earth to protect the righteous who follow the path of Dharma. The story then moves to the birth of Ravana and his brothers. Post this point, the narration is done at different times by Shiva, Yajnavalkya, Kakbhushundi and Tulsidas.
The story now moves to the abode of Brahma where Brahma and the other Hindu Devas are found mulling on the ways to rid the earth of Ravana and his excesses. Unable to find a solution, they pray to Shiva and ask him for his guidance on where to find the supreme God who will come to their rescue. Shiva tells them that they do n't need to go anywhere to find the Supreme God for He resides in the hearts of his devotees. All the Devas then Pray to the supreme Brahman to rid the earth of the demons wreaking havoc on men as well as Devas. Brahman shows compassion to all and announces in an Akashvani that He will be born in the Sun Dynasty to save the Devas and His devotees from the demons.
The story then moves to Ayodhya. One fine day, Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya, realizes that he has become old and still issueless... He conveys his distress to sage Vasistha, the family guru, and seeks the way forward. Vasistha comforts Dasharatha and tells him that he will have four sons. Vasistha requests Shringi Rishi to perform the Putrakām yajna (vedic yajna for the birth of sons). Tulsidas states that the birth of Rama and his brothers took place on the ninth day of the Chaitra month. It was the fortnight of the moon, known as the shukla period.
The story then moves on and Rama and His brothers are now grown - up boys. The sage Vishvamitra arrives at Dashratha 's royal court where the King receives his eminent guest with great honour. Sage Vishvamitra lived in the forest and was performing great sacrifices. However, the demons Maricha and Subahu would always desecrate the ceremonial offerings. He knew that Rama had taken birth on earth to protect his devotees and so he decided to visit Dashratha to ask him a favour. The sage asks the king to let his sons accompany him to the forest. Reluctantly the king agrees. Rama knew before hand the intention of Vishvamitra in asking him to come along with him. He asures the sage that he would obey his commands. Lakshman kills Subahu and Rama kills Maricha, the dreaded demons.
The story then moves to the deliverance of Ahalya. Rama, Lakshman and Vishvamitra venture on a journey and reach the beautiful kingdom of the Videhas, Mithila. The king of Mithila, Janaka, welcomes the great sage and asks him who are the two boys accompanying him... Janaka is overcome by great emotion as he is able to sense the true nature of their mission... The brothers then set out to discover the beautiful city and visit Janaka 's garden. This is an important section of the manās as it portrays the first meeting of Rama and Sita...
In the meanwhile, King Janaka arranges a swayamvara ceremony for his daughter Sita. A swayamvara ceremony is a Vedic ritual in which a prospective bride selects her groom from among a group of suitors who attend the ceremony. Sita falls in love with Rama at first sight in Janaka 's garden and prays to Gauri that she may get Rama as her husband. King Janaka sends a messenger to invite Rama, Laksman and Sage Vishvamitra to attend the swayamvara. Janaka puts a condition to identify the right groom for Sita. The great bow of Shiva by the name of Pinaka was kept in the arena. Any suitor who would be able to string Pinaka would be married to Sita. Many princes try but fail to even nudge the mammoth bow. This causes great distress to Janaka who wonders aloud if the earth has become devoid of brave men. This statement of Janaka angers Lakshman who retorts that no one talks in this vein, when a gathering like this, has the presence of scions of the Sun Dynasty. Rama gently nudges him to keep calm as Vishwamitra asks him to break the bow and make Janaka happy once again... Rama steps in and effortlessly lifts and strings the divine bow. In a swift move, he breaks the bow. The breaking of Pinaka causes a great noise that disturbs the great sage Parashurama in his meditation and he storms into the swayamvara arena in great anger vowing to kill whoever had dared to break the bow of lord Shiva. Lakshman enters into an argument with Parashurama paying scant respect to the sage who was known for his bursts of anger and was known to slay whoever dared to oppose him. Ultimately, Rama brings him around. Parashurama comes to know the real nature of lord Rama as the ultimate Brahman, pays his respects and leaves for the forests for meditation. Sita places the wreath of victory around the neck of Rama in accordance with the rules of the swayamvara and is thus wedded to him.
However, Sita being his beloved daughter, Janaka desires to conduct a grand marriage of Sita and Rama in accordance with both Vedic and laukik (traditional) customs. Janaka dispatches messengers to Ayodhya to inform Dashratha and his family about the marriage of Rama and Sita and invites them for the formal consummation of marriage ceremony. Dashratha starts with a great marriage procession, consisting of Rama 's family, friends and well wishers in addition to Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma and all Devas who take up human form and depart for Mithila.
After a grand wedding, the kind of which had never been witnessed in the universe, Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya where there was a great celebration and much rejoicing.
The Ayodhya Episode
Ayodhya was described as being like a heaven on earth ever since Rama and Sita came back from Mithila. As King Dasaratha was getting old, he wanted to install his son Rama as Prince regent... He took a decision to start the ceremonies for his crowning, the next day itself. The Devas however became very concerned at the prospect of Rama remaining in Ayodhya, and not pursuing the wicked Ravana, and vanquishing him... something had to happen if Rama were to embark on his mission to rid the world of Ravana. They approached Goddess Saraswati for help.
King Dashratha has three wives. Queen Kaushalya is the principle queen and the mother of Rama. Queen Kaikeyi is the mother of Bharata and Queen Sumitra is the mother of Lakshman and Shatrughna. Saraswati decides to influence the mind of one of Queen Kaikeyi 's maid servants named Manthara. Manthara 's mind harbors evil intentions and she begins to talk to Queen Kaikeyi in harsh and conceited tones. She finds faults with Kaikeyi for being supportive of the king 's plan of installing Rama, as Prince Regent when her own mind tells her that Bharata would clearly be a greater king. At that time Bharata is in Kaikeya country visiting his uncle and so he is unaware of what is happening in Ayodhya. Slowly Queen Kaikeyi 's mind is poisoned. Manthara reminds Queen Kaikeyi of the two boons that the King had promised her. Kaikeyi enters the private room in the royal palace, where the King gives audience to his queens, and awaits Dashratha. Dashratha is greatly alarmed and concerned that Kaikeyi is sitting in the sulking chamber, while the entire population of Ayodhya is greatly happy and eagerly anticipating the coronation of Rama. Queen Kaikeyi speaks harshly to Dashratha, which surprises the king. She reminds him of the two boons he promised her and to his bewilderment, asks him to install her son Bharata as Prince Regent and send Rama into forest for 14 years. Queen Kaikeyi is unmoved by Dashratha 's lamentations and finally the king emotionally breaks down. The king 's assistant Sumantra sends for Rama with a request to meet his father.
Queen Kaikeyi speaks to Rama and explains to him the boons that she had asked of His father. Rama is actually the Supreme Personality of Godhead incarnated on earth, yet He accepts His step mother 's request and decides to leave the kingdom as it serves his purpose as well... The people of Ayodhya remonstrate against Queen Kaikeyi who firmly believes that she is doing the right thing. Rama attempts to dissuade Lakshman and Sita from joining him but is unable to do so. The scene becomes very emotional as Rama, Sita and Lakshman greet their mothers before finally going to Dashratha to take leave of him. Dashratha attempts, in vain, to try to talk Sita out of joining Rama in the forest.
The residents of Ayodhya ca n't spare the thought of being away from Rama and decide to join him in the forest. Rama, Sita, Lakshman and Sumantra go incognito and in the dead of the night leave the city and move into the forest. They leave for a place called Sringaverapur after which they meet Guha, the Nishad king. They arrive at Prayag, the holy city where the Rivers Ganges, Yamuna and Saraswati meet. Rama meets with the Sage Bharadwaj at his ashram. Rama is overwhelmed with the reception and love shown by the people inhabiting the banks of the Yamuna. Rama then meets Sage Valmiki, the author of the Ramayan at Chitrakoot dham. Valmiki recognises the true opulence of Rama and sings His praises. At this point Tulsidas takes great care to describe the beauty of the land of Chitrakoot with some inspiring poetry.
Rama asks Sumantra to return to Ayodhya which saddens Sumantra. He not only wants to stay with Rama, he is also afraid of going back only to face the anger and wrath of the citizens of Ayodhya. Rama persuades him to go back. On returning to Ayodhya, Sumantra meets Dashratha, who asks him the whereabouts of Rama. The pain of separation from Rama is too much for Dashratha who passes away crying Rama 's name.
Sage Vashishtha knows that Rama will not return to the kingdom and so immediately sends an envoy to call Bharata and Shatrughna back to Ayodhya. Bharata learns of all that has happened and chastises his mother, Queen Kaikeyi. He is greatly pained and blames himself for Rama leaving Ayodhya. He accuses her of bringing ruin to the family. Shatrughna comes across Manthara and beats her in rage. They approach Queen Kaushalya and see her in a sorry state. Bharata begs for her forgiveness and loudly laments while the Queen attempts to pacify him. She asks him to carry out his duty and rule Ayodhya, but Bharata can not bear the thought of sitting on the throne with his father dead and his brothers in exile in the forest. The cremation of King Dashratha takes place. Bharata and Shatrughna decide to go into the forest and ask Rama to return to Ayodhya and take the throne. Many citizens as well as the royal family, who have been grieving ever since Rama had left them, decide to join the brothers.
The Nishads see the approaching royal party and become suspicious. Guha approaches Bharata to understand his motive for bringing such a large party to the forest. He assumes that Bharata has some sinister motive. Bharata shows his love for Rama and Guha is moved to tears by his love for his brother. The royal procession then moves forward to Chitrakoot. Lakshman sees the huge army of people with Bharata and immediately begins to chastise Bharata. Rama counters this by praising the greatness of Bharata, leaving Lakshman feeling sorry for his harsh words. Bharata finally arrives at Chitrakoot where the brothers are all reunited once again. They collectively mourn the passing of their father and perform his Shraddha (obsequies) along with Sage Vashistha leading the ceremony.
Despite all of Bharata 's convincing, Rama is true to the word given to his father and step mother Kaikeyi, and vows that he will fulfill her wish. Bharata says that he simply can not sit on the throne while Rama wanders in the forest. He asks Rama for his sandals, which he would place at the throne and would only act as Rama 's representative and not as a full - fledged king. With much sorrow and hurt, Bharata leaves Rama and returns to Ayodhya. He decides that he would not live in the kingdom while Rama is in exile and so lives like a hermit in a nearby town called Nandigram.
The Forest Episode
Rama, Sita and Lakshman wander in the forest and come across the hermitage of a sage called Atri. Atri sees them approaching and is overcome with great joy. Sita is embraced by Atri 's wife, Anasuya. Anusuya talks to Sita at length about the duties of a devoted wife.
Rama, Sita and Lakshman venture further into the forest and encounter Viradha. Viradha attempts to capture Sita. Rama kills him by burying him in a ditch. They then visit the ashram of Sage Sarabhanga. Rama asks him of where he should go for shelter in the forest. He is advised to visit the sage Sutiksna. As Rama approaches Sutiksna, the latter comes out of his meditation. He tells Rama that he had been awaiting his arrival, and had even turned down the offer of entering the heavenly planets.
Continuing on their journey through the forest, they meet with Sage Agastya where Rama pays his respect to the sage. Agastya gifts divine weapons to Rama and advises him to venture further into the forest and into the region of Dandaka. Rama meets with the eagle, Jatayu. Rama, Sita and Lakshman take up abode at Panchavati and build a beautiful ashram, as per the advice of Agastya. Laksman becomes nostalgic of the past and begins to talk harshly about Kaikeyi. Rama pacifies him and explains that it is sinful to speak of his mother in such a way.
The story takes a new turn, as Rama, Sita and Lakshman are approached by the sister of the demon - king Ravana, called Surpanakha. She immediately takes a liking to Rama and falls in love with him. She disguises herself and talks to Rama in sweet tones. Rama rejects her advances explaining that he is already married and advises her to approach Laksman as he is unmarried. However, Laksman also rejects her advances. Surpanakha takes it as a great insult to be spurned like this, and attempts to hurt Sita. Laksman takes hold of his sword and lops off Surpanakha 's ear lobes and nose. Feeling humiliated, Surpanakha leaves the forest and goes to the abode of her brothers Khara, Dusana and Trisira. They are angry at the treatment meted out to their sister and leave with the intention of killing Rama. All three brothers are vanquished by Rama.
Surpanakha is greatly upset and visits Ravana at his residence in Lanka. She explains all that has happened, after which Ravana calls for his old friend Maricha. Ravana hatches a plot and asks Maricha to disguise himself as a golden deer, so that Ravana may then kidnap Sita. Maricha has already felt the power of Rama (as mentioned in Bālakāṇḍa) and is apprehensive, however, he thinks that he is going to die either way since Ravana will kill him in rage for refusing him. Ravana and Marich immediately leave for Rama 's forest abode. Maricha takes his position and instantly Sita is attracted by his deer form. Rama knows that Ravana 's intentions and orders Sita to place her shadow (Maya Sita) in her place, while she would hide in the fire. She asks Rama time and time again to hunt for the deer and bring it to her. Rama runs after the deer and is soon quite a far distance away from the ashram. Rama releases an arrow and hits the deer. Impersonating Rama 's voice, Marich shouts out to Laksman to help him. Maya Sita (hereafter called simply Sita) hears the cry and orders Laksman to go help his brother. Ravana, while posing as a begging minstrel, uses this opportunity to forcibly kidnap Sita from the ashram. Jatayu, the eagle, sees Ravana 's sinful act and attempts to fight with him, but Ravana has too much power and cuts off Jatayu 's wings and leaves him for dead. Rama and Lakshman return to find the ashram empty. They anxiously set out to find Sita and find the severely wounded eagle. Jatayu dies in Rama 's lap and receives liberation. As they continue to look for Sita they come across the hermitage of Shabari. Tulsidas says that Shabari washes the feet of Ram with tears from her eyes and feeds him half eaten wild berries to ensure he gets only sweet ones. She is given liberation by Rama.
The brothers then head towards the Pampasarovar lake.
The Kiśkindhā Region Episode
High up in the Rishyamuk mountains, Sugriva sees Rama and Laksman at the foothills. He consults Hanuman as to whether he thinks they have been sent by his brother Bali. Hanuman disguises himself as a Brahmin and approaches the brothers. Hanuman recognises the true nature of Rama as God - incarnation and surrenders himself to his Holy feet. He tells the brothers that his king, Sugriva, wishes to extend his friendship to Them and will help Them to find Sita. Rama asks Sugriva why he resides in the mountains instead of Kishkindha, where Sugriva tells of his feud with his brother Bali. Rama sympathises with Sugriva and decides to help Sugriva in return for the latter 's help in finding Sita. Ram kills Bali and installs Sugriva as king of Kishkindha and Angada, Bali 's son, as prince regent. Sugriva becomes too attached to his new regal lifestyle and forgets about his agreement with Rama, which fills Rama with great anger. Rama asks Laksman to bring Sugriva to him. Laksman enters the royal court and threatens to burn the entire city to ashes. Sugriva is gravely worried and asks Hanuman to pacify him. Laksman escorts Sugriva to Rama and upon seeing Him, Sugriva falls as His feet and begs forgiveness.
Sugriva immediately orders the gathering of the region 's bear and monkey community. Armies of bears and monkeys are dispatched north, south east and west to search for Sita. Rama knew that only Hanuman was really capable of finding Sita. He asks Hanuman to narrate the agony of separation from her and then hands over his ring. Hanuman is joined by Angad, Nala, Kesari and Jambavan as well as many others as they head to the south. As the army approach the coast, Jambavan and Angad see a cave by the shore of the ocean. The cave is occupied by Sampati (who is actually Jatayu 's older brother). There is a conversation during which Angad explains that Jatayu died serving Rama and thereafter Sampati narrates his biography. He tells the monkeys that he is sure that Sita is captive in Ashok Vatika in Lanka. The island is 400 miles away and requires someone who is able to jump the distance. Jambavan deduces that Hanuman is the only one capable of the task.
The Pleasant Episode
Hanuman takes Jambavan 's suggestion and immediately takes off for Lanka. He climbs onto the mountain and using it as a pivot, launches himself into the air. He meets Surasa, the mother of serpents and passes her test. The ocean demoness tries to capture Hanuman, thinking of him as a bird. He quickly kills her and then lands on the shore of the ocean in Lanka. He sees beautiful lush gardens, groves, lakes and reservoirs. Hanuman takes a minute form and, remembering Rama, enters Lanka. He is accosted by the demon Lankini whom he hits with his fist and causes her to fall to the ground.
Hanuman flies through the various palaces and gardens for his search of Sita, and amongst all the demonic activities going on in Lanka, Hanuman sees a palace where Sri Hari 's name is being chanted. He is drawn towards the palace and decides to visit the inhabitant. The palace belongs to Ravana 's brother, Vibhishan. Hanuman narrates Rama katha (story) and then introduces himself. Hanuman proceeds to Ashok Vatika where he finally sees Sita. He positions himself on a branch of a tree, under which Sita was sitting, and contemplates his next move. He sees Ravana walk towards Sita and beg her to glance at least once toward him. She simply looks at a blade of grass to insult him. Ravana threatens to behead Sita but is calmed down by his wife, Mandodari. Hanuman has to use all his powers of calm not to react to Ravana 's threats. When all is quiet again, Hanuman begins to sing the glory of Rama in sweet tones. He then approaches Sita and explains who he is. He presents the ring lord Rama had given him and Sita is overjoyed. She blesses Hanuman with many kind words and boons.
Hanuman tells Sita that he is hungry and asks for her permission to eat fruits from the grove. He not only eats but manages to destroy large parts of it. He easily kills one of Ravana 's sons, prince Aksaya. Indrajit arrives in the grove and Hanuman allows himself to be captured. He is brought in front of the king of Lanka, Ravana. Ravana orders his death, however, Vibhishan reminds him that Hanuman is an envoy and can not be killed according to religious principle. Ravana decides to humiliate Hanuman by setting his tail on fire. Large amounts of clothes are tied to his tail and soaked in oil. Hanuman chants the name of Rama and his tail begins to get longer, and more cloth and oil is used. He changes from his small form into a gigantic form and decides to torch alight the whole of Lanka.
He returns to the ocean to extinguish his tail and then goes to Sita to reassure her that the next time she sees him, it will be with Rama. He bids farewell to Sita and leaps back towards Angad and Jambavan. The monkey army then ventures back to where Sugriva, Rama and Lakshman are waiting. On arrival Hanuman explains all that happened and immediately an army is prepared to go south towards Lanka.
Meanwhile, in Lanka, both Mandodari and Vibhishan ask Ravana to hand Sita back to Rama. Ravana takes great exception to this suggestion and begins to insult Vibhishan particularly. He tells him he has no need for a weakling like him and that he is no longer needed. Vibhishan decides to join Rama at Kishkindha. Vibhishan falls at Ram 's feet and asks him for protection. The army deliberate over how to cross the ocean to Lanka. The deity of the seas tells Rama of the boon obtained by the monkey brothers Nila and Nala, and that they have the power to build a bridge to link the seashore to Lanka.
The Lanka Episode
Jambavan asks the monkeys Nala and Nila to begin work on building the bridge across the sea. The Mānas states that entire mountain ranges were used by Nala and Nila to complete their objective. Rama remembers Lord Shiva and decides to install a shrine for Rameswaram. Upon completion, the army of Rama begins to cross the bridge and arrives at Lanka, taking camp on Mount Suvela. Ravana hears of the advances of Rama 's army and feels greatly agitated. Mandodari asks Ravana to return Sita to Rama as she fears for her husband 's life. Ravana is dismissive of Rama 's power and pacifies his wife. Next, Ravana 's son Prahasta attempts to reinforce his mothers sentiments, but all to no avail.
Rama fires a warning shot from his retreat in Suvela. The arrow strikes Ravana 's crown and royal umbrella. Mandodari once again attempts to convince Ravana of handing Sita back to Rama. Meanwhile, Rama asks Jambavan what should be done. Jambavan suggests that they send Angada, as messenger, to give Ravana a chance to return Sita. On reaching Ravana 's court, Angada explains he is the ambassador of Rama, and tells Ravana that he still has time to save himself from destruction. Ravana insults Angada and his refusal to comply makes war inevitable.
The war begins with great ferocity as Ravana loses half of his army on the first day. Indrajit, Ravan 's son, is required to enter the battle far earlier than he expected. He severely wounds Lakshman with his special weapon, the Saang. Hanumanji is ordered to fetch the doctor of Lanka called Sushena. Sushena tells Rama that there exists a herb called Sanjivani which can only be found in the Himalayan mountains. It is the only hope to save Lakshman. Hanuman immediately reassures Rama that he shall find this herb. As Hanuman is about to leave, Ravana orders the demon Kalanemi to impede him. However, Hanuman kills Kalanemi with ease. Hanuman reaches the mountain and ca n't find the herb. In his frustration he decides to take the entire mountain to Lanka.
Hanuman makes good speed towards Lanka when suddenly he is shot by an arrow as he approaches Nandigram. Hanuman is mistaken to be a demon by Bharat. Hanuman falls to the ground together with the great hill. Hanuman regains consciousness and recognizes that Bharata is Rama 's brother. He continues on to Lanka where he delivers the Sanjivani herb and Sushena treats Lakshman. Rama embraces Hanuman with great pride and affection. Ravan takes the news of Lakshman 's recovery very badly and decides to awaken his brother Kumbhakarna. Kumbhakarna kills indiscriminantly and wreaks much havoc. Rama releases an arrow which kills him instantly. The death of his brother scares Ravan greatly. Indrajit hastily tries to arrange a ceremony to receive great boons and powers but is interrupted by Hanuman and Angada. Lakshman takes up arms against Indrajit and kills him. Rama throws numerous arrows at Ravana but is unable to kill him. He asks Vibhishan on how to kill his brother after which Rama finally kills Ravana. The war is over.
Ravana 's funeral takes place and Vibhishan is crowned the king of Lanka. Hanuman carries the happy news to Sita in Ashok vatika. Finally Rama and Sita are reunited. Rama and the army prepare to depart Lanka and return towards Ayodhya. Rama, Sita, Lakshman and the senior monkeys travel back in Ravana 's flying vehicle, Pushpak Vimaan.
The Epilogue
It is now the day before Rama is to return to Ayodhya after serving his exile. Bharata is anxious that his brother still has n't arrived. The Mānas mentions that Bharata had passed his days shedding tears for fourteen years in Nandigram. Hanuman meets Bharata telling him of the arrival of Rama, Sita and Laksman. Bharata rushes to Ayodhya to tell the citizens of the great news. As the Pushpak Vimaan landed in Ayodhya the citizens shouted chants of ' Glory be to Ramchandra '. Rama, Sita and Laksman collectively touch the feet of the sage Vashishta on arriving in Ayodhya and thereafter greet all that have gathered in the assembly. Lastly Rama meets Bharata with great affection and love. Rama 's coronation takes place and he is finally crowned king of Ayodhya. Shiva arrives to glorify the festivities further and asks Rama of the boon that he may have firm and undeviating devotion of Rama 's feet.
In conclusion to the tale, Rama has twin sons named Lava and Kusha. The other brothers each have two sons as well. It is mentioned that great sages like Nārad and Sanaka visit Ayodhya to meet with Rama and to see his great city.
In the subsequent passages of Uttar Kānd the biography of Saint Kakbhushundi is given, followed by a description of what is to be expected in the current age of Kaliyuga. Shiva ends his narration of the Rama Katha to Parvati as does Kakbhushundi to Garuda. It is not mentioned whether Yajnavalkya finishes his recitation to Bharadwaj. Finally, Goswami Tulsidas concludes his retelling of the Shri Ramcharitmanas. The Rudrastakam in Sanskrit is a part of this Kanda.
During the Bālakāṇḍa, it is mentioned that Shiva is retelling the story of Rama (Rama Katha) to his spouse Parvati. During this retelling, Shiva explains as many as five reasons why Rama incarnated on earth.
The brothers Jay and Vijay are the two favoured gate keepers of Hari. Due to a curse, by the Brahmin Sanaka and his three brothers, Jay and Vijay were born in the species of the demons. One took the birth of Hiranyakashipu and the other was born as Hiranyaksha. The Supreme incarnated Himself as Varaha in order to kill Hiranyaksha, while incarnating as Narasimha to kill Hiranyakashipu. Even though these brothers are killed by Hari Himself, they do not attain liberation as the Brahman 's had cursed them to three births and so were reborn as the powerful demons Ravana and Kumbhakarna. Hari took a human incarnation, as Rama, to kill Ravana and Kumbhakarna.
Nārad Muni was wandering in Himalayan mountains and begins to think about Vishnu. He instantly falls into a deep meditative trance. Seeing the sage 's state, Indra becomes apprehensive as he sees Nārad 's trance as a threat to his own position as the chief of demigods in heaven. Indra asks Kamadeva to disturb Nārad 's trance. He creates an illusion of fragrant flowers, delightful breezes and such. Heavenly damsels are called but all this has no effect on the sage. Kamadeva accepts defeat and falls at Nārad 's feet, addressing him with deep humility. He recalls all that happened to Shiva and becomes puffed up with pride of his defeating of Kamadeva. Shiva admonishes him not to repeat the story to Hari.
Nārad visits Vishnu at his abode, and unable to control his pride, re-tells his episode with Kamadeva, ignoring all that Shiva had advised. Vishnu further fans Nārad 's pride by telling him that his steadfast vow of celibacy is so strong that he can never be smitten. Nārad then departs Vishnu 's abode. Hari tells Laksmi that he has a plan and sets his illusory powers (maya) into operation. As Nārad departs Vaikuntha, Vishnu creates a beautiful illusory city with illusionary inhabitants. The city is ruled by King Sheelanidhi, who has a beautiful daughter called Vishvamohini. Nārad is intrigued with the city and decides to visit the king. Nārad sees the king 's daughter and falls in love with her. The king explains that he wishes to marry his daughter to a suitable man. Nārad devises a plot to get the princess to choose him.
Nārad approaches Hari and asks him for the gift of great beauty. Vishnu says that he will do only that which is beneficial to Nārad. The sage is glad at heart and thinks that with Vishnu 's favour, the princess will surely choose him. In reality the Hari had made Nārad look hideous. The entire royal court is aware of Nārad 's appearance, but says nothing. The princess filled with rage as soon as she sees Nārad 's ugly form and completely ignores him. He sees a reflection of his face in water and is consumed with rage. He instantly goes back to Vaikuntha and begins to speak to Hari in ugly tones. He curses Hari, "You made me look like a monkey; therefore You shall have monkeys for Your mates. And as You have grievously wronged me, so shall You suffer the pangs of separation from Your wife ''. Hari accepts Nārad 's curse and instantly withdraws his illusionary spell.
Nārad realises that there is no city and there is no Visvamohini, and is dismayed at what he has done. He begs Vishnu to invalidate his curse. Hari explains that it was His will and advises Nārad to chant his name to absolve himself of any sin. Nārad returns to his abode chanting the praises of Ram.
Svayambhuva Manu had Shatarupa as his wife. Manu ruled the earth for many years and carried out the Lord 's commandments. He longed to devotion to Hari and decides to give up rulership to his son so that he can retire to the forest with Satarupa and meditate upon the Lord. Manu and Satarupa settle at the banks of the Sarayu river and devoutly repeat the twelve - syllable Mantra, calling out to who is the source of many Brahmas, Vishnus and Shivas emanate. Some commentators indicate that the twelve - syllable mantra is the Vishnu mantra (Oṃ Namo Bhagavate Vāsudevāya). Rambhadracharya comments that the twelve - letter mantra is the coupled mantra for Sita and Rama.
Manu and Shatarupa first sacrifice food and then water and are finally willing to sacrifice air. Brahma, Hari and Shiva call on Manu but Manu and Satarupa are resolute and do not swerve on their sacrifices. A great voice from the heavens tells Manu, in sweet tones, to ask for a boon. Rama and Sita approach Manu in a beautiful form, which leaves Manu overcome with emotion. Manu explains now that he and Satarupa have seen the Lord 's lotus feet, all their desires have been met. Manu has one longing but does n't know how to ask the Lord. Finally he asks, "O gracious Lord, I tell You my sincere wish: I would have a son like You. I have nothing to conceal from You. ''
The Lord announces that it shall be, however, where would he find a son like Himself? The Lord tells Manu that He Himself would be a son to him. The Lord then asks Satarupa of her wish. She says that she greatly likes the boon received by her husband and wants the same. Bowing at the Lord 's feet, Manu then asks one more favour. He asks that he be dependent on which is granted. The Lord then commands the couple to dwell in Indra 's capital in heaven.
The Lord explains that after some time Manu would be born as the king of Ayodhya, Dashrath and Satarupa as Kausalya. He would then manifest Himself in the royal household as their son. He reassured the couple that their desire would be accomplished.
Prior to the birth of Rama, Muni Bharadwaja is told the story of King Pratapbhanu by Yajnavalkya. There is a kingdom called Kaikay where Satyaketu is king. He has two sons, Pratapbhanu and Arimardana and rules his kingdom with his prime minister Dharamaruchi. Satyaketu abdicates and hands the reign to Pratapbhanu, who becomes conqueror of the world.
Once Pratapbhanu goes into the forest to hunt and sees a wild boar. The boar is actually the demon Kalaketu in disguise who runs away from the king. Pratapbhanu gives chase deeper into the forest. Pratapbhanu chases for many miles and becomes thirsty. He approaches a fake saints ashram, where the resident fake saint wants to hurt and insult Pratapbhanu due to a previous incident. Pratapbhanu does n't recognise the saint, who begins to sweet talk the king and says that by pure love, he wishes to impart boons onto the king. The king asks to be invicible and never ageing, which the fake saint grants, but with the condition that he needs to win favour of all Brahmans. The fake saint advises that the king arrange the cooking of holy food (prasadam) to feed the bramanas, who would surely be in his favour for such an act of kindness. The fake saint 's real intention is to trap the king and repay him for his old grievances.
The fake saint asks the king to go rest, and that he would arrange the feast for the bramanas using his mystic powers. Pratapbhanu waits for three days for the fake saint. Kalaketu, now disguised as a priest, approaches the King in his court and says that he has been sent to cook the holy food. The entire brahmana community is invited. A heavenly voice from above warns the brahmanas that the food is unpure and they should run away immediately. They curse the king that he, his kingdom and entire family are wiped from the face of earth. They also curse that he be born a demon in his next life. The heavenly voice says that the brahmana 's curse is ill thought, as Pratapbhanu is not to blame. Since their curse can not be taken back, the voice says that it is the Brahmana community that will bare the brunt of the evil of his next life.
Pratapbhanu is distraught and quickly goes to his kitchen to find Kalaketu. The king is pained and cries as he realises Kalaketu has vanished. The brahmanas feel sorry for Pratapbhanu and tell him that his evil next life will be ended by Supreme Vishnu himself. As per the curse, Pratapbhanu, Arimardam and Dharmaruchi are all killed as other neighbouring kings invade Kaikay.
Pratapbhanu is reborn as Ravan, Arimardam is reborn as Kumbhkarna and Dharmaruchi as Vibhishan. All three take great penances and are approached by Brahma and Shiva and are asked for any boon. Ravan asks that no one should be able to kill me except the tribes of man and monkeys. Kumbhkarna asks for uninterrupted sleep for periods of six months. Vibhishan asks for unshakeable love for the feet of Vishnu.
The story of how Shiva came about retelling Ramkatha to his consort Parvati is retold in great detail within the Bālakāṇḍa. This part of the story is narrated by Sant Yajnavalkya to Bharadvaj Muni.
In the age of Treta, Shiva, accompanied by His consort Bhavani Sati, went to visit Rishi Agastya. The Rishi being pleased with Shiva 's visit, began to narrate the eternal story of Ram. Shiva listens with great pleasure and then they return towards Their abode. Around these exact days Ram had descended on earth and was wondering the Dandaka forest with Sita and Lakshman. Shiva ponders how he can catch sight of Ram. He finally sees Ram, who is frantically searching for Sita, and instantly joins his palms and prays "Glory to the Redeemer of the universe, who is Truth, Consciousness and Bliss ''. Sati can not recognise Ram and wonders why her Supreme Shiva is praising a mortal. Shiva is the knower of all truth and instantly reads Sati 's thoughts. He advises her to not harbour such doubts and accept that she had seen Ram, whom Agastya had praised earlier. He finally says that if she is still not convinced then she should seek to verify this truth herself. Shiva observes as Sati takes the guise of Sita. Ram and Lakshman instantly see through Sati 's disguised and asks about Shiva 's whereabouts. Sati feels very uncomfortable and heads towards Shiva, thinking of how she is going to explain her folly of questioning His word.
Shiva asks her to tell the truth of how she tested Ram. Sati is unable to tell the truth and says that she did not test Ram, but praised his as You had. Sati forgets that Shiva knows all that has happened and is disappointed that she was disguised as his Sita. He decides that Sati is too chaste to abandon and it is a sin to continue to be her Husband and so from then he has no connection with Sati in her current body. Sati concludes that Shiva has come to know everything and feels very foolish for having tried deceiving Him. Shiva sits under a banyan tree and enters into a long trance. Sati feel extremely sorry but accepts that providence is repaying her for her sins. Many years pass and Shiva finally ends his trance whilst praising Ram. Sati bows down at Shiva 's feet, after which he seats Sati opposite him and he begins to tell stories of Vishnu 's exploits.
While Shiva is narrating the stories of Vishnu, the air is filled with celestial beings. Sati asks Shiva what the occasion is. Shiva explains that Her father Daksha has organised a great sacrifice where many demigods were invited. All except Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva were invited as Daksha had developed a hatred towards the Gods. Sati thinks of Her father and asks if She may visit him at this time. Shiva says that they have no formal invite and that all of Sati 's sisters are invited but because of his animosity towards Shiva, Her father has not invited us. Shiva tries to reason with Sati, that no good can come of Her attending, but Tulsidas explains that a daughters ties to her father are very strong.
When she reaches her father 's abode, no one welcomes Her apart from Her mother. Daksha does not even acknowledge Her and actually burns with anger that She has turned up uninvited. Sati looks around and sees no oblations set apart for Shiva and the lack of respect of her father causes Her mind to rage with great anger. She faces Her father 's court and announces that Shiva is the father of the universe and the beneficent of all. It is the same Shiva that Her father vilifies. She burns Her body with the fires of Yoga. Her guards are beaten and thrashed. When Shiva came to know this, he sends Virabhadra, who wreaks havoc of the sacrifice and Daksha is slain. As Sati is about to die, She asks Lord Hari of the boon that she be devoted to Shiva 's feet in successive births. She is reborn as Parvati, the daughter of Himachal and Mena.
Years after the birth of Parvati, Nārad Muni visits her parents Himachal and Mena. Himachal asks Nārad what the future holds for his daughter. Nārad says that Parvati will be adorned with good traits and win unfailing love of her husband. She will remain ever united with him and bring great glory upon her parents. The only drawback is that her husband will be an ascetic with matted hair who is naked and of hideous accoutrements. Himachal and Mena become disconsolate while Parvati is greatly pleased, as she senses from Nārad 's words that her boon from Vishnu is coming true. Nārad explains to Himachal that the only person who shows the virtues as described by him is Shiva. Parvati 's parents are immediately uplifted and as Nārad leaves, he asks Parvati to fix Her thoughts on Hari and practice austerity. The young Parvati enters the forest and performs great penances in order to obtain Shiva. Her body thins greatly due to her self - mortification after which Brahma declares that she should cease her severe penances as Shiva would soon be hers. History had produced many great sages, but none had performed such penances as this. Brahma instructs that her father would soon come for her and that she should return home with him.
Ever since Sati had quit her body, Shiva had begun chanting Ram 's name and entered into a great trance. Through his mystic power, Ram asks Shiva to marry Parvati. Shiva says that this is not a justifiable request but the word of a master can not be set aside and must be obeyed. Shiva remains in his great trance. Around that time the demon Tāraka was causing distress and was in full flourish. Brahma declares that the son of Shiva will kill Tāraka, but for this to happen His wedding with Parvati needs to be arranged and for that to happen, Shiva 's trance has to be broken. It is decided that the God of Love should be sent to awaken Shiva. He fires five arrows of flowers at Shiva 's breast, the trance is broken and Shiva awakens. Shiva is enraged and, through his third eye, reduces Love to ashes. Love 's consort Rati faints as soon as she hears of her husband 's demise. Seeing the helpless woman, Shiva foretells that her husband will now be called bodiless and shall dominate all without a body form. When Krishna descends on earth, her husband would be born as His son Pradyumna. Thereafter Brahma and other gods approach Shiva and declare that they wish to witness His wedding with their own eyes. Remembering Vishnu 's early request, Shiva gladly agrees and Brahma proceeds to arrange the marriage.
Shiva has no real family and so his attendants begin to adorn Him for His wedding to Parvati. His hair is formed into a crown with serpents forming a crest. Serpents form His earrings, bracelets and adorn his neck and He is smeared in ashes and has lion 's skin wrapped around His loins. He heads the wedding procession and Vishnu and Brahma, as well as a host of spirits, gandharavs and danavs follow behind.
On the ninth day of the Chaitra month, the Manas describes that the Sun is at its meridian and the climate is neither cold nor hot. There is a cool, soft and fragrant breeze. The woods are full of blossom and the rivers or in full flow. Brahma deduces that the time for Ram 's birth is approaching and the heavenly beings all crowd over the skies to glimpse sight of the auspicious moment. The sky resounds of music and song as the heavenly beings offer their praises to the Supreme Personality of Godhead.
Here begins one of the most famous chhands from the Manas, the Ram Janam Stuti. The stuti begins with the appearance of Ram. Mother Kaushalya 's is filled with joy as she marvels over Ram 's dark complexion and his four armed form. He is adorned with jewels and a garland of Sylvan flowers and is described as being an ocean of beauty. Kaushalya joins her palms and prays. "O Infinite, How can I praise You! The Vedas and Puranas reveal you to be the repository of all virtues. You are the Lord of Laksmi and the lover of all of Your devotees and have appeared for my good. Every pore of Your body contains multitudes of universes and the thought that You stayed in my womb is truly staggering. '' Ram smiles and exhorts Kaushalya by telling her the charming account of her previous birth so that she can accept Him as her own child. Kaushalya asks Ram to give up His current superhuman form and to start to indulge in childish sports that are dear to a mother 's heart. Ram, described as the Lord of immortals, immediately becomes an infant and begins to cry.
Tulsidas concludes that whoever sings this Stuti attains the abode of Lord Vishnu and never falls into the well of mundane existence. The Stuti has therefore been immortalised and it is a popular prayer sung on the occasion of Ram 's birthday.
Ahalya, the wife of Rishi Gautam, was a beautiful woman. Indra, king of the gods, was tempted and decided to seduce her with trickery. Early morning Rishi Gautam when the dawn had arrived go down to the nearby Ganges for his usual morning bath. While the Rishi was bathing at the river, Indra assumed Gautam 's form and visited Ahalya, fooling her into thinking he was her husband. When Gautam returned, he encountered Indra, emerging from his hut in his (Gautam 's) form. Spiritually powerful, Gautam employed his divine vision to see the whole episode. Enraged, he cursed Indra with impotence. Losing his potency, Indra lost heaven to demons and sat prayerfully in a lotus flower for thousands of years in order to repent. Rishi Gautam, in a blind rage, also cursed his wife, Ahalya, to turn into a boulder. Innocent of any intentional wrongdoing, Ahalya begged for forgiveness. Gautam relented somewhat and said that when Ram is incarnated, he will bless her and break her curse.
Ram, while going to Mithila for Sita Svayamvar along with Sage Vishwamitra and Laksman, stopped at the, then - uninhabited, hermitage of Rishi Gautam. Vishwamitra narrated Ahalya 's story to Ram, and asked him to free her. Ram touched the boulder with his foot and Ahalya was immediately released from the curse. She fell to Ram 's feet and washed his feet with her tears. She felt that her curse had become her fortune as she got the opportunity to seek Ram 's refuge in person. She then returned to her husband 's place.
Many scholars have commented on the sudden ending to the Manas. Valmiki 's Uttar Kānd goes into great detail about Sita going into the forest, as a result of disapproving gossip of the citizens of Ayodhya, during the rule of Ram over Ayodhya. Sitaji asks mother Earth to receive her and Ram leaves His human form and returns to His celestial abode. Tulsidas decides not to mention these at all. The Katha Kar Morari Bapu has mentioned in many of his retellings of Ram Katha, that Tulsidasji did n't want to end the Manas in heartache for Sita. Tulsidas refers to Sita as his mother (as well as the mother of the entire universe) many times in the poem and so, on an emotional level, this becomes very understandable. She has endured enough pain throughout the Manas and so ends his retelling at a relatively happy moment. It is said that there are some Vaishnav devotees who will only recite the Bālakāṇḍa of the Manas, as this is seen as the happiest period of Ram and Sita 's lila on earth. However, Ramchritmans at few places do make reference of Sita 's abandonment, birth of lav - kush and Ram 's demise to his abode. These stories thus can be said to have mentioned in brief.
An unpublished English poetic translation of Ramcharitmanas is provided by (Late) Binda Prasad Khattri of New Market, Banda, Uttar Pradesh. Apparently, the translation can be sung essentially in the same way and with the same rhythm as the original Hindi work.
Frederick Growse translated the Ramcharitmanas into English under the title The Ramayan of Tulsidas during the nineteenth century. His translation remains in print.
The English commentary by Morari Bapu, Mangal Ramayan, is an English composition of one of his orrated Ram Katha commentaries. The book contains all the translations of prayers, Doha, Chaupais, and Chandan sung by Bapu, as well as an in - depth disccusion behind the meanings of the poetry.
Tulsi Manas Mandir
Notes
References
Online sources
Bibliography
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during the period of colonialism who took over the islands we now call indonesia | History of Indonesia - wikipedia
The history of Indonesia has been shaped by its geographic position, its natural resources, a series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and politics. Indonesia is an archipelagic country of 17,000 to 18,000 islands (8,844 named and 922 permanently inhabited) stretching along the equator in South East Asia. The country 's strategic sea - lane position fostered inter-island and international trade; trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. The area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. The archipelago 's landforms and climate significantly influenced agriculture and trade, and the formation of states. The boundaries of the state of Indonesia represent the 20th century borders of the Dutch East Indies.
Fossilised remains of Homo erectus and his tools, popularly known as the "Java Man '', suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited by at least 1.5 million years ago. Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, are thought to have originally been from Taiwan and arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE. From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished bringing Hindu and Buddhist influences with it. The agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties subsequently thrived and declined in inland Java. The last significant non-Muslim kingdom, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom, flourished from the late 13th century, and its influence stretched over much of Indonesia. The earliest evidence of Islamised populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra; other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam which became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences.
Europeans such as the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia from the 16th century seeking to monopolise the sources of valuable nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power by 1610. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies under government control. By the early 20th century, Dutch dominance extended to the current boundaries. The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation in 1942 -- 45 during WWII ended Dutch rule, and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, nationalist leader, Sukarno, declared independence and became president. The Netherlands tried to reestablish its rule, but a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence.
An attempted coup in 1965 led to a violent army - led anti-communist purge in which over half a million people were killed. General Suharto politically outmanoeuvred President Sukarno, and became president in March 1968. His New Order administration garnered the favour of the West whose investment in Indonesia was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. In the late 1990s, however, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis which led to popular protests and Suharto 's resignation on 21 May 1998. The Reformasi era following Suharto 's resignation, has led to a strengthening of democratic processes, including a regional autonomy program, the secession of East Timor, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, natural disasters, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas.
In 2007 analysis of cut marks on two bovid bones found in Sangiran, showed them to have been made 1.5 to 1.6 million years ago by clamshell tools. This is the oldest evidence for the presence of early man in Indonesia. Fossilised remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man '' were first discovered by the Dutch anatomist Eugène Dubois at Trinil in 1891, and are at least 700,000 years old, at that time the oldest human ancestor ever found. Further H. erectus fossils of a similar age were found at Sangiran in the 1930s by the anthropologist Gustav Heinrich Ralph von Koenigswald, who in the same time period also uncovered fossils at Ngandong alongside more advanced tools, re-dated in 2011 to between 550,000 and 143,000 years old. In 1977 another H. erectus skull was discovered at Sambungmacan. The earliest evidence of artistic activity ever found, in the form of diagonal etchings made with a sharks tooth, was detected in 2014 on a 500,000 - year - old fossil of a clam found in Java in the 1890s associated with H. erectus.
In 2003, on the island of Flores, fossils of a new small hominid dated between 74,000 and 13,000 years old and named "Flores Man '' (Homo floresiensis) were discovered much to the surprise of the scientific community. This 3 foot tall hominid is thought to be a species descended from Homo erectus and reduced in size over thousands of years by a well known process called island dwarfism. Flores Man seems to have shared the island with modern Homo sapiens until only 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct. In 2010 stone tools were discovered on Flores dating from 1 million years ago, which is the oldest evidence anywhere in the world that early man had the technology to make sea crossings at this very early time.
The archipelago was formed during the thaw after the latest ice age. Early humans travelled by sea and spread from mainland Asia eastward to New Guinea and Australia. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago. In 2011 evidence was uncovered in neighbouring East Timor, showing that 42,000 years ago these early settlers had high - level maritime skills, and by implication the technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other islands, as they were catching and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna.
Austronesian people form the majority of the modern population. They may have arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE and are thought to have originated in Taiwan. Dong Son culture spread to Indonesia bringing with it techniques of wet - field rice cultivation, ritual buffalo sacrifice, bronze casting, megalithic practises, and ikat weaving methods. Some of these practices remain in areas including the Batak areas of Sumatra, Toraja in Sulawesi, and several islands in Nusa Tenggara. Early Indonesians were animists who honoured the spirits of the dead believing their souls or life force could still help the living.
Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet - field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE, allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. These kingdoms (little more than collections of villages subservient to petty chieftains) evolved with their own ethnic and tribal religions. Java 's hot and even temperature, abundant rain and volcanic soil, was perfect for wet rice cultivation. Such agriculture required a well - organized society in contrast to dry - field rice which is a much simpler form of cultivation that does n't require an elaborate social structure to support it.
Buni culture clay pottery flourished in coastal northern West Java and Banten around 400 BCE to 100 CE. The Buni culture was probably the predecessor of the Tarumanagara kingdom, one of the earliest Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia, producing numerous inscriptions and marking the beginning of the historical period in Java.
Indonesia like much of Southeast Asia was influenced by Indian culture. From the 2nd century, through the Indian dynasties like the Pallava, Gupta, Pala and Chola in the succeeding centuries up to the 12th century, Indian culture spread across all of Southeast Asia.
References to the Dvipantara or Yawadvipa, a Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra appear in Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE. In India 's earliest epic, the Ramayana, Sugriva, the chief of Rama 's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita. According to the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram. The earliest archaeological relic discovered in Indonesia is from the Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java, where an early Hindu statue of Ganesha estimated from the 1st century CE was found on the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan island. There is also archaeological evidence of Sunda Kingdom in West Java dating from the 2nd - century, and Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, West Java was probably built around this time. South Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the south Indian Pallava dynasty in the 4th and 5th century. and by the 5th century, stone inscriptions written in Pallava scripts were found in Java and Borneo.
A number of Hindu and Buddhist states flourished and then declined across Indonesia. Three rough plinths dating from the beginning of the 4th century are found in Kutai, East Kalimantan, near Mahakam River. The plinths bear an inscription in the Pallava script of India reading "A gift to the Brahmin priests ''.
One such early kingdom was Tarumanagara, which flourished between 358 and 669 CE. Located in West Java close to modern - day Jakarta, its 5th century king, Purnawarman, established the earliest known inscriptions in Java, the Ciaruteun inscription located near Bogor. And other inscriptions called Pasar Awi inscription and Muncul inscription. On this monument, King Purnawarman inscribed his name and made an imprint of his footprints, as well as his elephant 's footprints. The accompanying inscription reads, "Here are the footprints of King Purnavarman, the heroic conqueror of the world ''. This inscription is written in Pallava script and in Sanskrit and is still clear after 1500 years. Purnawarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement purpose. In his stone inscriptions, Purnawarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project.
Around the same period, in the 6th to 7th century, the Kalingga Kingdom was established in Central Java northern coast, mentioned in Chinese account. The name of this kingdom was derived from ancient Indian kingdom of Kaling, which suggest the ancient link between India and Indonesia.
The political history of Indonesian archipelago during the 7th to 11th centuries was dominated by Srivijaya based in Sumatra, also Sailendra that dominated central Java and constructed Borobudur, the largest Buddhist monument in the world. The history prior of the 14th and 15th centuries is not well known due to scarcity of evidence. By the 15th century, two major states dominated this period; Majapahit in East Java, the greatest of the pre-Islamic Indonesian states, and Malacca on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, arguably one of the greatest of the Muslim trading empires, this marked the rise of Muslim states in Indonesian archipelago.
Medang or previously known as Mataram was an Indianized kingdom based in Central Java around modern - day Yogyakarta between the 8th and 10th centuries. The centre of the kingdom was moved from central Java to east Java by Mpu Sindok. An eruption of Mount Merapi volcano or a power struggle may have caused the move.
The first king of Mataram was Sri Sanjaya and left inscriptions in stone. The monumental Hindu temple of Prambanan in the vicinity of Yogyakarta was built by Pikatan. Dharmawangsa ordered the translation of the Mahabharata into Old Javanese in 996.
The kingdom collapsed into chaos at the end of Dharmawangsa 's reign under military pressure from Srivijaya. One of the last major kings of Mataram was Airlangga who reigned from 1016 until 1049. Airlangga was a son of Udayana of Bali and a relative of Dharmawangsa re-established the kingdom including Bali under the name of Kahuripan.
Srivijaya was an ethnic Malay kingdom on Sumatra which influenced much of the Maritime Southeast Asia. From the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.
Srivijaya was centred in the coastal trading centre of present - day Palembang. Srivijaya was not a "state '' in the modern sense with defined boundaries and a centralised government to which the citizens own allegiance. Rather Srivijaya was a confederacy form of society centred on a royal heartland. It was a thalassocracy and did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia. Trade was the driving force of Srivijaya just as it is for most societies throughout history. The Srivijayan navy controlled the trade that made its way through the Strait of Malacca.
By the 7th century, the harbours of various vassal states of Srivijaya lined both coasts of the Straits of Melaka. Around this time, Srivijaya had established suzerainty over large areas of Sumatra, western Java, and much of the Malay Peninsula. Dominating the Malacca and Sunda straits, the empire controlled both the Spice Route traffic and local trade. It remained a formidable sea power until the 13th century. This spread the ethnic Malay culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo. A stronghold of Vajrayana Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia.
The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola Empire attacked Srivijaya cities. A series of Chola raids in the 11th century weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long distance trade. Srivijayan influence waned by the 11th century. The island was in frequent conflict with the Javanese kingdoms, first Singhasari and then Majapahit. Islam eventually made its way to the Aceh region of Sumatra, spreading its influence through contacts with Arabs and Indian traders. By the late 13th century, the kingdom of Pasai in northern Sumatra converted to Islam. The last inscription dates to 1374, where a crown prince, Ananggavarman, is mentioned. Srivijaya ceased to exist by 1414, when Parameswara, the kingdom 's last prince, fled to Temasik, then to Malacca. Later his son converted to Islam and founded the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay peninsula.
Despite a lack of historical evidence, it is known that Majapahit was the most dominant of Indonesia 's pre-Islamic states. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada it experienced what is often referred to as a "Golden Age '' in Indonesian history, when its influence extended to much of southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali from about 1293 to around 1500.
The founder of the Majapahit Empire, Kertarajasa, was the son - in - law of the ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, also based in Java. After Singhasari drove Srivijaya out of Java in 1290, the rising power of Singhasari came to the attention of Kublai Khan in China and he sent emissaries demanding tribute. Kertanagara, ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, refused to pay tribute and the Khan sent a punitive expedition which arrived off the coast of Java in 1293. By that time, a rebel from Kediri, Jayakatwang, had killed Kertanagara. The Majapahit founder allied himself with the Mongols against Jayakatwang and, once the Singhasari kingdom was destroyed, turned and forced his Mongol allies to withdraw in confusion.
Gajah Mada, an ambitious Majapahit prime minister and regent from 1331 to 1364, extended the empire 's rule to the surrounding islands. A few years after Gajah Mada 's death, the Majapahit navy captured Palembang, putting an end to the Srivijayan kingdom. Although the Majapahit rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighbouring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that passed through the archipelago. About the time Majapahit was founded, Muslim traders and proselytisers began entering the area. After its peak in the 14th century, Majapahit power began to decline and was unable to control the rising power of the Sultanate of Malacca. Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478 to 1520. A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royal family moved east to the island of Bali at the end of Majapahit power.
The earliest accounts of the Indonesian archipelago date from the Abbasid Caliphate, according to those early accounts the Indonesian archipelago were famous among early Muslim sailors mainly due to its abundance of precious spice trade commodities such as nutmeg, cloves, galangal and many other spices.
Although Muslim traders first travelled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the spread of Islam among the inhabitants of the Indonesian archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra. Although it is known that the spread of Islam began in the west of the archipelago, the fragmentary evidence does not suggest a rolling wave of conversion through adjacent areas; rather, it suggests the process was complicated and slow. The spread of Islam was driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago; in general, traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were the first to adopt the new religion.
Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, making it the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. Only Bali retained a Hindu majority. In the eastern archipelago, both Christian and Islamic missionaries were active in the 16th and 17th centuries, and, currently, there are large communities of both religions on these islands.
The Sultanate of Mataram was the third Sultanate in Java, after the Sultanate of Demak Bintoro and the Sultanate of Pajang.
According to Javanese records, Kyai Gedhe Pamanahan became the ruler of the Mataram area in the 1570s with the support of the kingdom of Pajang to the east, near the current site of Surakarta (Solo). Pamanahan was often referred to as Kyai Gedhe Mataram after his ascension.
Pamanahan 's son, Panembahan Senapati Ingalaga, replaced his father on the throne around 1584. Under Senapati the kingdom grew substantially through regular military campaigns against Mataram 's neighbours. Shortly after his accession, for example, he conquered his father 's patrons in Pajang.
The reign of Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak (c. 1601 -- 1613), the son of Senapati, was dominated by further warfare, especially against powerful Surabaya, already a major centre in East Java. The first contact between Mataram and the Dutch East India Company (VOC) occurred under Krapyak. Dutch activities at the time were limited to trading from limited coastal settlements, so their interactions with the inland Mataram kingdom were limited, although they did form an alliance against Surabaya in 1613. Krapyak died that year.
Krapyak was succeeded by his son, who is known simply as Sultan Agung ("Great Sultan '') in Javanese records. Agung was responsible for the great expansion and lasting historical legacy of Mataram due to the extensive military conquests of his long reign from 1613 to 1646.
After years of war Agung finally conquered Surabaya. The city was surrounded by land and sea and starved into submission. With Surabaya brought into the empire, the Mataram kingdom encompassed all of central and eastern Java, and Madura; only in the west did Banten and the Dutch settlement in Batavia remain outside Agung 's control. He tried repeatedly in the 1620s and 1630s to drive the Dutch from Batavia, but his armies had met their match, and he was forced to share control over Java.
In 1645 he began building Imogiri, his burial place, about fifteen kilometres south of Yogyakarta. Imogiri remains the resting place of most of the royalty of Yogyakarta and Surakarta to this day. Agung died in the spring of 1646, with his image of royal invincibility shattered by his losses to the Dutch, but he did leave behind an empire that covered most of Java and its neighbouring islands.
Upon taking the throne, Agung 's son Susuhunan Amangkurat I tried to bring long - term stability to Mataram 's realm, murdering local leaders that were insufficiently deferential to him, and closing ports so he alone had control over trade with the Dutch.
By the mid-1670s dissatisfaction with the king fanned into open revolt. Raden Trunajaya, a prince from Madura, lead a revolt fortified by itinerant mercenaries from Makassar that captured the king 's court at Mataram in mid-1677. The king escaped to the north coast with his eldest son, the future king Amangkurat II, leaving his younger son Pangeran Puger in Mataram. Apparently more interested in profit and revenge than in running a struggling empire, the rebel Trunajaya looted the court and withdrew to his stronghold in East Java leaving Puger in control of a weak court.
Amangkurat I died just after his expulsion, making Amangkurat II king in 1677. He too was nearly helpless, though, having fled without an army or treasury to build one. In an attempt to regain his kingdom, he made substantial concessions to the Dutch, who then went to war to reinstate him. For the Dutch, a stable Mataram empire that was deeply indebted to them would help ensure continued trade on favourable terms. They were willing to lend their military might to keep the kingdom together. Dutch forces first captured Trunajaya, then forced Puger to recognise the sovereignty of his elder brother Amangkurat II. The kingdom collapsed after a two - year war, in which power plays crippled the Sunan.
In 1524 -- 25, Sunan Gunung Jati from Cirebon, together with the armies of Demak Sultanate, seized the port of Banten from the Sunda kingdom, and established The Sultanate of Banten. This was accompanied by Muslim preachers and the adoption of Islam amongst the local population. At its peak in the first half of the 17th century, the Sultanate lasted from 1526 to 1813 AD. The Sultanate left many archaeological remains and historical records.
Beginning in the 16th century, successive waves of Europeans -- the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and British -- sought to dominate the spice trade at its sources in India and the ' Spice Islands ' (Maluku) of Indonesia. This meant finding a way to Asia to cut out Muslim merchants who, with their Venetian outlet in the Mediterranean, monopolised spice imports to Europe. Astronomically priced at the time, spices were highly coveted not only to preserve and make poorly preserved meat palatable, but also as medicines and magic potions.
The arrival of Europeans in South East Asia is often regarded as the watershed moment in its history. Other scholars consider this view untenable, arguing that European influence during the times of the early arrivals of the 16th and 17th centuries was limited in both area and depth. This is in part due to Europe not being the most advanced or dynamic area of the world in the early 15th century. Rather, the major expansionist force of this time was Islam; in 1453, for example, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, while Islam continued to spread through Indonesia and the Philippines. European influence, particularly that of the Dutch, would not have its greatest impact on Indonesia until the 18th and 19th centuries.
New found Portuguese expertise in navigation, ship building and weaponry allowed them to make daring expeditions of exploration and expansion. Starting with the first exploratory expeditions sent from newly conquered Malacca in 1512, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in Indonesia, and sought to dominate the sources of valuable spices and to extend the Catholic Church 's missionary efforts. The Portuguese turned east to Maluku and through both military conquest and alliance with local rulers, they established trading posts, forts, and missions on the islands of Ternate, Ambon, and Solor among others. The height of Portuguese missionary activities, however, came at the latter half of the 16th century. Ultimately, the Portuguese presence in Indonesia was reduced to Solor, Flores and Timor in modern - day Nusa Tenggara, following defeat at the hands of indigenous Ternateans and the Dutch in Maluku, and a general failure to maintain control of trade in the region. In comparison with the original Portuguese ambition to dominate Asian trade, their influence on Indonesian culture was small: the romantic keroncong guitar ballads; a number of Indonesian words which reflect Portuguese 's role as the lingua franca of the archipelago alongside Malay; and many family names in eastern Indonesia such as da Costa, Dias, de Fretes, Gonsalves, etc. The most significant impacts of the Portuguese arrival were the disruption and disorganisation of the trade network mostly as a result of their conquest of Malacca, and the first significant plantings of Christianity in Indonesia. There have continued to be Christian communities in eastern Indonesia through to the present, which has contributed to a sense of shared interest with Europeans, particularly among the Ambonese.
In 1602, the Dutch parliament awarded the VOC a monopoly on trade and colonial activities in the region at a time before the company controlled any territory in Java. In 1619, the VOC conquered the West Javan city of Jayakarta, where they founded the city of Batavia (present - day Jakarta). The VOC became deeply involved in the internal politics of Java in this period, and fought in a number of wars involving the leaders of Mataram and Banten.
The Dutch followed the Portuguese aspirations, courage, brutality and strategies but brought better organisation, weapons, ships, and superior financial backing. Although they failed to gain complete control of the Indonesian spice trade, they had much more success than the previous Portuguese efforts. They exploited the factionalisation of the small kingdoms in Java that had replaced Majapahit, establishing a permanent foothold in Java, from which grew a land - based colonial empire which became one of the richest colonial possessions on earth.
By the mid-17th century, Batavia, the headquarter of VOC in Asia, had become an important trade centre in region. It had repelled attacks from the Javanese Mataram kingdom. In 1641 the Dutch captured Malacca from the Portuguese, thus weakened Portuguese position in Asia. The Dutch defeated the Sulawesi city of Makassar in 1667 thus bringing its trade under VOC control. Sumatran ports were also brought under VOC control and the last of the Portuguese were expelled in 1660. In return for monopoly control over the pepper trade and the expulsion of the British, the Dutch helped the son of the ruler of Banten overthrow his father in 1680. By the 18th century, the VOC has established themself firmly in Indonesian archipelago, controlling inter-island trade as part of their Asian business which include India, Ceylon, Formosa and Japan. VOC has established their important bases in some ports in Java, Maluku, and parts of Sulawesi, Sumatra and Malay Peninsula.
After the fall of the Netherlands to the First French Empire and the dissolution of the Dutch East India Company in 1800, there were profound changes in the European colonial administration of the East Indies. The Company 's assets in East Indies were nationalised as the Dutch colony, the Dutch East Indies. Meanwhile, Europe was devastated by the Napoleonic Wars. In the Netherlands, Napoleon Bonaparte in 1806 oversaw the dissolution of the Batavian Republic, which was replaced by the Kingdom of Holland, a French puppet kingdom ruled by Napoleon 's third brother Louis Bonaparte (Lodewijk Napoleon). The East Indies were treated as a proxy French colony, administrated through a Dutch intermediary.
In 1806, King Lodewijk of the Netherlands sent one of his generals, Herman Willem Daendels, to serve as governor - general of the East Indies, based in Java. Daendels was sent to strengthen Javanese defences against a predicted British invasion. Since 1685, the British had had a presence in Bencoolen on western coast of Sumatra, as well as several posts north of the Malaccan straits. Daendels was responsible for the construction of the Great Post Road (Indonesian: Jalan Raya Pos) across northern Java from Anjer to Panaroecan. The thousand - kilometre road was meant as to ease logistics across Java and was completed in only one year, during which thousands of Javanese forced labourers died.
In 1811, Java fell to a British East India Company force under Baron Minto, the governor - general of India. Lord Minto appointed Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles as lieutenant governor of Java. Raffles carried further the administrative centralisation previously initiated by Daendels. Raffles launched some military expeditions against local princes to subjugate them into British rule; such as the assault on Yogyakarta kraton on 21 June 1812, and the military expedition against Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II of Palembang, and seized the nearby Bangka Island. During his administration, numbers of ancient monuments in Java were rediscovered, excavated and systematically catalogued for the first time, the most important one is the rediscovery of Borobudur Buddhist temple in Central Java. Raffles was the enthusiast of the island 's history, as he wrote the book History of Java published later in 1817. In 1815, the island of Java was returned to control of the Netherlands following the end of Napoleonic Wars, under the terms of the Anglo - Dutch Treaty of 1824.
After the VOC was dissolved in 1800 following bankruptcy, and after a short British rule under Thomas Stamford Raffles, the Dutch state took over the VOC possessions in 1816. A Javanese uprising was crushed in the Java War of 1825 -- 1830. After 1830 a system of forced cultivations and indentured labour was introduced on Java, the Cultivation System (in Dutch: cultuurstelsel). This system brought the Dutch and their Indonesian allies enormous wealth. The cultivation system tied peasants to their land, forcing them to work in government - owned plantations for 60 days of the year. The system was abolished in a more liberal period after 1870. In 1901 the Dutch adopted what they called the Ethical Policy, which included somewhat increased investment in indigenous education, and modest political reforms.
The Dutch colonialists formed a privileged upper social class of soldiers, administrators, managers, teachers and pioneers. They lived together with the "natives '', but at the top of a rigid social and racial caste system. The Dutch East Indies had two legal classes of citizens; European and indigenous. A third class, Foreign Easterners, was added in 1920.
Upgrading the infrastructure of ports and roads was a high priority for the Dutch, with the goal of modernising the economy, pumping wages into local areas, facilitating commerce, and speeding up military movements. By 1950 Dutch engineers had built and upgraded a road network with 12,000 km of asphalted surface, 41,000 km of metalled road area and 16,000 km of gravel surfaces. In addition the Dutch built 7,500 kilometres (4,700 mi) of railways, bridges, irrigation systems covering 1.4 million hectares (5,400 sq mi) of rice fields, several harbours, and 140 public drinking water systems. These Dutch constructed public works became the economic base of the colonial state; after independence they became the basis of the Indonesian infrastructure.
For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over its territories in the Indonesian archipelago was tenuous. In some cases, Dutch police and military actions in parts of Indonesia were quite cruel. Recent discussions, for example, of Dutch cruelty in Aceh have encouraged renewed research on these aspects of Dutch rule. It was only in the early 20th century, three centuries after the first Dutch trading post, that the full extent of the colonial territory was established and direct colonial rule exerted across what would become the boundaries of the modern Indonesian state. Portuguese Timor, now East Timor, remained under Portuguese rule until 1975 when it was invaded by Indonesia. The Indonesian government declared the territory an Indonesian province but relinquished it in 1999.
In October 1908, the first nationalist movement was formed, Budi Utomo. On 10 September 1912, the first nationalist mass movement was formed: Sarekat Islam. By December 1912, Sarekat Islam had 93,000 members. The Dutch responded after the First World War with repressive measures. The nationalist leaders came from a small group of young professionals and students, some of whom had been educated in the Netherlands. In the post -- World War I era, the Indonesian communists who were associated with the Third International started to usurp the nationalist movement. The repression of the nationalist movement led to many arrests, including Indonesia 's first president, Sukarno (1901 -- 70), who was imprisoned for political activities on 29 December 1929. Also arrested was Mohammad Hatta, first Vice-President of Indonesia. Additionally, Sutan Sjahrir, who later became the first Prime Minister of Indonesia, was arrested on this date.
In 1914 the exiled Dutch socialist Henk Sneevliet founded the Indies Social Democratic Association. Initially a small forum of Dutch socialists, it would later evolve into the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) in 1924. In the post -- World War I era, the Dutch strongly repressed all attempts at change. This repression led to a growth of the PKI. By December 1924, the PKI had a membership of 1,140. One year later in 1925, the PKI had grown to 3,000 members. From 1926 to 1927, there was a PKI - led revolt against Dutch colonialism and the harsh repression of strikes of urban workers. However, the strikes and the revolt was put down by the Dutch with some 13,000 nationalists and communists leaders were arrested. Some 4,500 were given prison sentences.
Sukarno was released from prison in December 1931. However, Sukarno was re-arrested again on 1 August 1933.
The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. In May 1940, early in World War II, the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany. The Dutch East Indies declared a state of siege and in July redirected exports for Japan to the US and Britain. Negotiations with the Japanese aimed at securing supplies of aviation fuel collapsed in June 1941, and the Japanese started their conquest of Southeast Asia in December of that year. That same month, factions from Sumatra sought Japanese assistance for a revolt against the Dutch wartime government. The last Dutch forces were defeated by Japan in March 1942.
In July 1942, Sukarno accepted Japan 's offer to rally the public in support of the Japanese war effort. Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta were decorated by the Emperor of Japan in 1943. However, experience of the Japanese occupation of Dutch East Indies varied considerably, depending upon where one lived and one 's social position. Many who lived in areas considered important to the war effort experienced torture, sex slavery, arbitrary arrest and execution, and other war crimes. Thousands taken away from Indonesia as war labourers (romusha) suffered or died as a result of ill - treatment and starvation. People of Dutch and mixed Dutch - Indonesian descent were particular targets of the Japanese occupation.
In March 1945, the Japanese established the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPK) as the initial stage of the establishment of independence for the area under the control of the Japanese 16th Army. At its first meeting in May, Soepomo spoke of national integration and against personal individualism, while Muhammad Yamin suggested that the new nation should claim British Borneo, British Malaya, Portuguese Timor, and all the pre-war territories of the Dutch East Indies. The committee drafted the 1945 Constitution, which remains in force, though now much amended. On 9 August 1945 Sukarno, Hatta, and Radjiman Wediodiningrat were flown to meet Marshal Hisaichi Terauchi in Vietnam. They were told that Japan intended to announce Indonesian independence on 24 August. After the Japanese surrender, however, Sukarno unilaterally proclaimed Indonesian independence on 17 August. A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.
Under pressure from radical and politicised pemuda (' youth ') groups, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese Emperor 's surrender in the Pacific. The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) declared Sukarno President and Hatta Vice-President. Word of the proclamation spread by shortwave and fliers while the Indonesian war - time military (PETA), youths, and others rallied in support of the new republic, often moving to take over government offices from the Japanese. In December 1946 an intention by the Netherlands to transmit data and fulfill "sacred trust '' and decolonisation requirements of the ' ' Charter of the United Nations article 73 ' ' was ratified in ' ' General Assembly resolution 66 (II) ' '.
The Dutch, initially backed by the British, tried to re-establish their rule, and a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence. Dutch efforts to re-establish complete control met resistance. At the end of World War II, a power vacuum arose, and the nationalists often succeeded in seizing the arms of the demoralised Japanese. A period of unrest with city guerrilla warfare called the Bersiap period ensued. Groups of Indonesian nationalists armed with improvised weapons (like bamboo spears) and firearms attacked returning Allied troops. 3,500 Europeans were killed and 20,000 were missing, meaning there were more European deaths in Indonesia after the war than during the war. After returning to Java, Dutch forces quickly re-occupied the colonial capital of Batavia (now Jakarta), so the city of Yogyakarta in central Java became the capital of the nationalist forces. Negotiations with the nationalists led to two major truce agreements, but disputes about their implementation, and much mutual provocation, led each time to renewed conflict. Within four years the Dutch had recaptured almost the whole of Indonesia, but guerrilla resistance persisted, led on Java by commander Nasution. On 27 December 1949, after four years of sporadic warfare and fierce criticism of the Dutch by the UN, the Netherlands officially recognised Indonesian sovereignty under the federal structure of the United States of Indonesia (RUSI). On 17 August 1950, exactly five years after the proclamation of independence, the last of the federal states were dissolved and Sukarno proclaimed a single unitary Republic of Indonesia.
With the unifying struggle to secure Indonesia 's independence over, divisions in Indonesian society began to appear. These included regional differences in customs, religion, the impact of Christianity and Marxism, and fears of Javanese political domination. Following colonial rule, Japanese occupation, and war against the Dutch, the new country suffered from severe poverty, a ruinous economy, low educational and skills levels, and authoritarian traditions. Challenges to the authority of the Republic included the militant Darul Islam who waged a guerrilla struggle against the Republic from 1948 to 1962; the declaration of an independent Republic of South Maluku by Ambonese formerly of the Royal Dutch Indies Army; and rebellions in Sumatra and Sulawesi between 1955 and 1961.
In contrast to the 1945 Constitution, the 1950 constitution mandated a parliamentary system of government, an executive responsible to parliament, and stipulated at length constitutional guarantees for human rights, drawing heavily on the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A proliferation of political parties dealing for shares of cabinet seats resulted in a rapid turnover of coalition governments including 17 cabinets between 1945 and 1958. The long - postponed parliamentary elections were held in 1955; although the Indonesian National Party (PNI) -- considered Sukarno 's party -- topped the poll, and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) received strong support, no party garnered more than a quarter of the votes, which resulted in short - lived coalitions.
By 1956, Sukarno was openly criticising parliamentary democracy, stating that it was "based upon inherent conflict '' which ran counter to Indonesian notions of harmony as being the natural state of human relationships. Instead, he sought a system based on the traditional village system of discussion and consensus, under the guidance of village elders. He proposed a threefold blend of nasionalisme (' nationalism '), agama (' religion '), and komunisme (' communism ') into a co-operative ' Nas - A-Kom ' government. This was intended to appease the three main factions in Indonesian politics -- the army, Islamic groups, and the communists. With the support of the military, he proclaimed in February 1957 a system of ' Guided Democracy ', and proposed a cabinet representing all the political parties of importance (including the PKI). The US tried and failed to secretly overthrow the President, even though Secretary of State Dulles declared before Congress that "we are not interested in the internal affairs of this country. ''
Sukarno abrogated the 1950 Constitution on 9 July 1959 by a decree dissolving the Constitutional Assembly and restoring the 1945 Constitution. The elected parliament was replaced by one appointed by, and subject to the will of, the President. Another non-elected body, the Supreme Advisory Council, was the main policy development body, while the National Front was set up in September 1960 and presided over by the president to "mobilise the revolutionary forces of the people ''. Western - style parliamentary democracy was thus finished in Indonesia until the 1999 elections of the Reformasi era.
Charismatic Sukarno spoke as a romantic revolutionary, and under his increasingly authoritarian rule, Indonesia moved on a course of stormy nationalism. Sukarno was popularly referred to as bung ("older brother ''), and he painted himself as a man of the people carrying the aspirations of Indonesia and one who dared take on the West. He instigated a number of large, ideologically driven infrastructure projects and monuments celebrating Indonesia 's identity, which were criticised as substitutes for real development in a deteriorating economy.
Western New Guinea had been part of the Dutch East Indies, and Indonesian nationalists had thus claimed it on this basis. Indonesia was able to instigate a diplomatic and military confrontation with the Dutch over the territory following an Indonesian - Soviet arms agreement in 1960. It was, however, United States pressure on the Netherlands that led to an Indonesian takeover in 1963. Also in 1963, Indonesia commenced Konfrontasi with the new state of Malaysia. The northern states of Borneo, formerly British Sarawak and Sabah, had wavered in joining Malaysia, whilst Indonesia saw itself as the rightful ruler of Austronesian peoples and supported an unsuccessful revolution attempt in Brunei. Reviving the glories of the Indonesian National Revolution, Sukarno rallied against notions of British imperialism and mounted military offensives along the Indonesia - Malaysia border in Borneo. As the PKI rallied in Jakarta streets in support, the West became increasingly alarmed at Indonesian foreign policy and the United States withdrew its aid to Indonesia.
In social policy, Sukarno 's time in office witnessed substantial reforms in health and education, together with the passage of various pro-labour measures. However, Indonesia 's economic position deteriorated under Sukarno; by the mid-1960s, the cash - strapped government had to scrap critical public sector subsidies, inflation was at 1,000 %, export revenues were shrinking, infrastructure crumbling, and factories were operating at minimal capacity with negligible investment. Severe poverty and hunger were widespread.
Described as the great dalang ("puppet master ''), Sukarno 's position depended on balancing the opposing and increasingly hostile forces of the army and the PKI. Sukarno 's anti-imperialist ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on Soviet and then communist China. By 1965, the PKI was the largest communist party in the world outside the Soviet Union or China. Penetrating all levels of government, the party increasingly gained influence at the expense of the army.
On 30 September 1965, six of the most senior generals within the military and other officers were executed in an attempted coup. The insurgents, known later as the 30 September Movement, backed a rival faction of the army and took up positions in the capital, later seizing control of the national radio station. They claimed they were acting against a plot organised by the generals to overthrow Sukarno. Within a few hours, Major General Suharto, commander of the Army Strategic Reserve (Kostrad), mobilised counteraction, and by the evening of 1 October, it was clear that the coup, which had little co-ordination and was largely limited to Jakarta, had failed. Complicated and partisan theories continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup 's organisers and their aims. According to the Indonesian army, the PKI were behind the coup and used disgruntled army officers to carry it out, and this became the official account of Suharto 's subsequent New Order administration. Most historians agree that the coup and the surrounding events were not led by a single mastermind controlling all events, and that the full truth will never likely be known.
The PKI was blamed for the coup, and anti-communists, initially following the army 's lead, went on a violent anti-communist purge across much of the country. The PKI was effectively destroyed, and the most widely accepted estimates are that up to 500,000 were killed. The violence was especially brutal in Java and Bali. The PKI was outlawed and possibly more than 1 million of its leaders and affiliates were imprisoned.
Throughout the 1965 -- 66 period, President Sukarno attempted to restore his political position and shift the country back to its pre-October 1965 position but his Guided Democracy balancing act was destroyed with the PKI 's demise. Although he remained president, the weakened Sukarno was forced to transfer key political and military powers to General Suharto, who by that time had become head of the armed forces. In March 1967, the Provisional People 's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) named General Suharto acting president. Suharto was formally appointed president in March 1968. Sukarno lived under virtual house arrest until his death in 1970.
In the aftermath of Suharto 's rise, hundreds of thousands of people were killed or imprisoned by the military and religious groups in a backlash against alleged communist supporters. Suharto 's administration is commonly called the New Order era. Suharto invited major foreign investment, which produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth. However, Suharto enriched himself and his family through business dealings and widespread corruption.
At the time of independence, the Dutch retained control over the western half of New Guinea (also known as West Irian), and permitted steps towards self - government and a declaration of independence on 1 December 1961. After negotiations with the Dutch on the incorporation of the territory into Indonesia failed, an Indonesian paratroop invasion 18 December preceded armed clashes between Indonesian and Dutch troops in 1961 and 1962. In 1962 the United States pressured the Netherlands into secret talks with Indonesia which in August 1962 produced the New York Agreement, and Indonesia assumed administrative responsibility for West Irian on 1 May 1963.
Rejecting UN supervision, the Indonesian government under Suharto decided to settle the question of West Irian, the former Dutch New Guinea, in their favour. Rather than a referendum of all residents of West Irian as had been agreed under Sukarno, an ' Act of Free Choice ' was conducted in 1969 in which 1,025 Papuan representatives of local councils were selected by the Indonesians. They were warned to vote in favour of Indonesian integration with the group unanimously voting for integration with Indonesia. A subsequent UN General Assembly resolution confirmed the transfer of sovereignty to Indonesia.
West Irian was renamed Irian Jaya (' glorious Irian ') in 1973. Opposition to Indonesian administration of Irian Jaya (later known as Papua) gave rise to guerrilla activity in the years following Jakarta 's assumption of control.
In 1975, the Carnation Revolution in Portugal caused authorities there to announce plans for decolonisation of Portuguese Timor, the eastern half of the island of Timor whose western half was a part of the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara. In the East Timorese elections held in 1975, Fretilin, a left - leaning party, and UDT, aligned with the local elite, emerged as the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence from Portugal. Apodeti, a party advocating integration with Indonesia, enjoyed little popular support.
Indonesia alleged that Fretilin was communist, and feared that an independent East Timor would influence separatism in the archipelago. Indonesian military intelligence influenced the break - up of the alliance between Fretilin and UDT, which led to a coup by the UDT on 11 August 1975 and the start of a month - long civil war. During this time, the Portuguese government effectively abandoned the territory and did not resume the decolonisation process. On 28 November, Fretilin unilaterally declared independence, and proclaimed the ' Democratic Republic of East Timor '. Nine days later, on 7 December, Indonesia invaded East Timor, eventually annexing the tiny country of (then) 680,000 people. Indonesia was supported materially and diplomatically by the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom, who regarded Indonesia as an anti-communist ally.
Following the 1998 resignation of Suharto, the people of East Timor voted overwhelmingly for independence in a UN-sponsored referendum held on 30 August 1999. About 99 % of the eligible population participated; more than three quarters chose independence despite months of attacks by the Indonesian military and its militia. After the result was announced, elements of the Indonesian military and its militia retaliated by killing approximately 2,000 East Timorese, displacing two - thirds of the population, raping hundreds of women and girls, and destroying much of the country 's infrastructure. In October 1999, the Indonesian parliament (MPR) revoked the decree that annexed East Timor, and the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) assumed responsibility for governing East Timor until it officially became an independent state in May 2002.
The Transmigration program (Transmigrasi) was a National Government initiative to move landless people from densely populated areas of Indonesia (such as Java and Bali) to less populous areas of the country including Papua, Kalimantan, Sumatra, and Sulawesi. The stated purpose of this program was to reduce the considerable poverty and overpopulation on Java, to provide opportunities for hard - working poor people, and to provide a workforce to better utilise the resources of the outer islands. The program, however, has been controversial, with critics accusing the Indonesian Government of trying to use these migrants to reduce the proportion of native populations in destination areas to weaken separatist movements. The program has often been cited as a major and ongoing factor in controversies and even conflict and violence between settlers and indigenous populations.
In 1996 Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime, had changed direction and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the People 's Representative Council Suryadi against a faction loyal to Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno and the PDI 's chairperson.
After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan on 20 -- 22 June, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This led to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati 's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.
Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high - profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organised "democracy forums '' with several speakers at the site. On 26 July, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums.
On 27 July, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two hundred people were arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate - Spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday '' and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi '' or Reformation.
In 1997 and 1998, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis, which had dire consequences for the Indonesian economy and society, as well as Suharto 's presidency. At the same time, the country suffered a severe drought and some of the largest forest fires in history burned in Kalimantan and Sumatra. The rupiah, the Indonesian currency, took a sharp dive in value. Suharto came under scrutiny from international lending institutions, chiefly the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the United States, over longtime embezzlement of funds and some protectionist policies. In December, Suharto 's government signed a letter of intent to the IMF, pledging to enact austerity measures, including cuts to public services and removal of subsidies, in return for aid from the IMF and other donors. Prices for goods such as kerosene and rice, as well as fees for public services including education, rose dramatically. The effects were exacerbated by widespread corruption. The austerity measures approved by Suharto had started to erode domestic confidence with the New Order and led to popular protests.
Suharto stood for re-election by parliament for the seventh time in March 1998, justifying it on the grounds of the necessity of his leadership during the crisis. The parliament approved a new term. This sparked protests and riots throughout the country, now termed the Indonesian 1998 Revolution. Dissent within the ranks of his own Golkar party and the military finally weakened Suharto, and on 21 May he stood down from power. He was replaced by his deputy Jusuf Habibie.
President Habibie quickly assembled a cabinet. One of its main tasks was to re-establish International Monetary Fund and donor community support for an economic stabilisation program. He moved quickly to release political prisoners and lift some controls on freedom of speech and association. Elections for the national, provincial, and sub-provincial parliaments were held on 7 June 1999. In the elections for the national parliament, the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI - P, led by Sukarno 's daughter Megawati Sukarnoputri) won 34 % of the vote; Golkar (Suharto 's party, formerly the only legal party of government) 22 %; United Development Party (PPP, led by Hamzah Haz) 12 %; and National Awakening Party (PKB, led by Abdurrahman Wahid) 10 %.
In October 1999, the People 's Consultative Assembly (MPR), which consists of the 500 - member Parliament plus 200 appointed members, elected Abdurrahman Wahid, commonly referred to as "Gus Dur '', as President, and Megawati Sukarnoputri as Vice-President, both for five - year terms. Wahid named his first Cabinet in early November 1999 and a reshuffled, second Cabinet in August 2000. President Wahid 's government continued to pursue democratisation and to encourage renewed economic growth under challenging conditions. In addition to continuing economic malaise, his government faced regional, interethnic, and interreligious conflict, particularly in Aceh, the Maluku Islands, and Irian Jaya. In West Timor, the problems of displaced East Timorese and violence by pro-Indonesian East Timorese militias caused considerable humanitarian and social problems. An increasingly assertive Parliament frequently challenged President Wahid 's policies and prerogatives, contributing to a lively and sometimes rancorous national political debate.
During the People 's Consultative Assembly 's first annual session in August 2000, President Wahid gave an account of his government 's performance. On 29 January 2001 thousands of student protesters stormed parliament grounds and demanded that President Abdurrahman Wahid resign due to alleged involvement in corruption scandals. Under pressure from the Assembly to improve management and co-ordination within the government, he issued a presidential decree giving Vice President Megawati control over the day - to - day administration of government. Soon after, Megawati Sukarnoputri assumed the presidency on 23 July. In 2004, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono won Indonesia 's first direct presidential election and in 2009 he was elected to a second term.
In the 2014 presidential election Joko Widodo was elected president; he is from the PDI - P. Formerly Governor of Jakarta, he is the first Indonesian president without a high - ranking political or military background. However, his opponent Prabowo Subianto disputed the outcome and withdrew from the race before the count was completed.
As a multi-ethnic and multi-culture democratic country with a majority of moderate Muslim population, Indonesia faces the challenges to deal with terrorism that is linked to global militant Islamic movement. The Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), a militant Islamic organisation that aspired for the establishment of a Daulah Islamiyah that encompassed whole Southeast Asia including Indonesia, is responsible for a series of terrorist attacks in Indonesia. This terrorist organisation that is linked to Al - Qaeda, was responsible for the Bali bombings in 2002 and 2005, as well as Jakarta bombings in 2003, 2004, and 2009. The Indonesian government, people and authorities has ever since tried to crack down the terrorist cells in Indonesia.
On 14 January 2016, Indonesia encountered a terrorist attack in Jakarta. Suicide bombers and gunmen initiated the attack, which resulted in the death of seven people; an Indonesian, a Canadian and the rest were the attackers themselves. Twenty people were wounded from the attack. The assault was claimed as an act by the Islamic state.
On 26 December 2004, a massive earthquake and tsunami devastated parts of northern Sumatra, particularly Aceh. Partly as a result of the need for co-operation and peace during the recovery from the tsunami in Aceh, peace talks between the Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) were restarted. Accords signed in Helsinki created a framework for military de-escalation in which the government has reduced its military presence, as members of GAM 's armed wing decommission their weapons and apply for amnesty. The agreement also allows for Acehnese nationalist forces to form their own party, and other autonomy measures.
Since 1997 Indonesia has been struggling to contain forest fires, especially on the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan. Haze occurs annually during the dry season and is largely caused by illegal agricultural fires due to slash - and - burn practices in Indonesia, especially in the provinces of South Sumatra and Riau on Indonesia 's Sumatra island, and Kalimantan on Indonesian Borneo. The haze that occurred in 1997 was one of the most severe; dense hazes occurred again in 2005, 2006, 2009, 2013, and the worst was in 2015, killing dozens of Indonesians as a result of respiratory illnesses and road accidents due to poor visibility. Another 10 people were killed due to smog from forest and land fires.
In September 2014, Indonesia ratified the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution, becoming the last ASEAN country to do so.
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when were the efforts to pass ratifying the equal rights amendment abandoned | Equal Rights Amendment - wikipedia
The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution designed to guarantee equal legal rights for all American citizens regardless of sex; it seeks to end the legal distinctions between men and women in terms of divorce, property, employment, and other matters. The ERA was originally written by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman. The amendment was introduced in Congress for the first time in 1921 and has prompted conversations about the meaning of legal equality for women and men ever since.
In the early history of the Equal Rights Amendment, middle - class women were largely supportive, while those speaking for the working class were often opposed, pointing out that employed women needed special protections regarding working conditions and employment hours. With the rise of the women 's movement in the United States during the 1960s, the ERA garnered increasing support, and, after being reintroduced by U.S. Representative Martha Griffiths (D - Michigan), in 1971, it was approved by the U.S. House of Representatives on October 12 of that year and on March 22, 1972, it was approved by the U.S. Senate, thus submitting the ERA to the state legislatures for ratification, as provided for in Article V of the U.S. Constitution.
Congress had originally set a ratification deadline of March 22, 1979, for the state legislatures to consider the ERA. Through 1977, the amendment received 35 of the necessary 38 state ratifications. With wide, bipartisan support (including that of both major political parties, both houses of Congress, and Presidents Nixon, Ford and Carter) the ERA seemed destined for ratification until Phyllis Schlafly mobilized conservative women in opposition, arguing that the ERA would disadvantage housewives and cause women to be drafted into the military.
Five state legislatures (Idaho, Kentucky, Nebraska, Tennessee, and South Dakota) voted to revoke their ERA ratifications. Four claim to have rescinded their ratifications before the original March 22, 1979 ratification deadline, while the South Dakota legislature did so by voting to sunset its ratification as of that original deadline. However, it remains a legal question as to whether a state can revoke its ratification of a federal constitutional amendment.
In 1978, Congress passed (by simple majorities in each house), and President Carter signed, a joint resolution with the intent of extending the ratification deadline to June 30, 1982. Because no additional state legislatures ratified the ERA between March 22, 1979 and June 30, 1982, the validity of that disputed extension was rendered academic.
On March 22, 2017, the 45th anniversary of Congress ' submission of the ERA to the nation 's state lawmakers, the Nevada Legislature became the first to ratify the ERA after the expiration of both deadlines with its adoption of Senate Joint Resolution No. 2 (designated as "POM - 15 '' by the U.S. Senate and published verbatim in the Congressional Record of April 5, 2017, at pages S2361 and S2362).
The Illinois General Assembly then ratified the ERA on May 30, 2018 with its adoption of Senate Joint Resolution Constitutional Amendment No. 4 (designated as "POM - 299 '' by the U.S. Senate and likewise published verbatim in the Congressional Record of September 12, 2018, at page S6141).
Section 1. Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.
Section 2. The Congress shall have the power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
Section 3. This amendment shall take effect two years after the date of ratification.
On September 25, 1921, the National Woman 's Party announced plans to campaign for an amendment to the U.S. Constitution to guarantee women equal rights with men. The text of the proposed amendment read:
Section 1. No political, civil, or legal disabilities or inequalities on account of sex or on account of marriage, unless applying equally to both sexes, shall exist within the United States or any territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof.
Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Alice Paul, the head of the National Women 's Party, believed that the Nineteenth Amendment would not be enough to ensure that men and women were treated equally regardless of sex. In 1923, she revised the proposed amendment to read:
Men and women shall have equal rights throughout the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Paul named this version the Lucretia Mott Amendment, after a female abolitionist who fought for women 's rights and attended the First Women 's Rights Convention.
In 1943, Alice Paul further revised the amendment to reflect the wording of the Fifteenth and Nineteenth Amendments. This text became Section 1 of the version passed by Congress in 1972.
As a result, in the 1940s, ERA opponents proposed an alternative, which provided that "no distinctions on the basis of sex shall be made except such as are reasonably justified by differences in physical structure, biological differences, or social function. '' It was quickly turned down by both pro and anti-ERA coalitions.
Since the 1920s, the Equal Rights Amendment has been accompanied by discussion among feminists about the meaning of women 's equality. Alice Paul and her National Woman 's Party asserted that women should be on equal terms with men in all regards, even if that means sacrificing benefits given to women through protective legislation, such as shorter work hours and no night work or heavy lifting. Opponents of the amendment, such as the Women 's Joint Congressional Committee, believed that the loss of these benefits to women would not be worth the supposed gain to them in equality. Although it now appears courts would indeed consider physical distinctions when applying the amendment, and determine whether a compelling government interest was met by sex - based government classifications, those discussing the amendment at the time had not yet seen the thoughtful Constitutional interpretations relating to civil rights and sex - based classifications that occurred years later. In 1924, The Forum hosted a debate between Doris Stevens and Alice Hamilton concerning the two perspectives on the proposed amendment. Their debate reflected the wider tension in the developing feminist movement of the early 20th century between two approaches toward gender equality. One approach emphasized the common humanity of women and men, while the other stressed women 's unique experiences and how they were different from men, seeking recognition for specific needs. The opposition to the ERA was led by Mary Anderson and the Women 's Bureau beginning in 1923. These feminists argued that legislation including mandated minimum wages, safety regulations, restricted daily and weekly hours, lunch breaks, and maternity provisions would be more beneficial to the majority of women who were forced to work out of economic necessity, not personal fulfillment. The debate also drew from struggles between working class and professional women. Alice Hamilton, in her speech "Protection for Women Workers, '' said that the ERA would strip working women of the small protections they had achieved, leaving them powerless to further improve their condition in the future, or to attain necessary protections in the present.
The National Woman 's Party already had tested its approach in Wisconsin, where it won passage of the Wisconsin Equal Rights Law in 1921. The party then took the ERA to Congress, where U.S. Senator Charles Curtis, a future Vice President of the United States, introduced it for the first time in October 1921. Although the ERA was introduced in every congressional session between 1921 and 1972, it almost never reached the floor of either the Senate or the House for a vote. Instead, it was usually blocked in committee; except in 1946, when it was defeated in the Senate by a vote of 38 to 35 -- not receiving the required two - thirds supermajority.
In 1950 and 1953, the ERA was passed by the Senate with a provision known as "the Hayden rider '', introduced by Arizona Senator Carl Hayden. The Hayden rider added a sentence to the ERA to keep special protections for women: "The provisions of this article shall not be construed to impair any rights, benefits, or exemptions now or hereafter conferred by law upon persons of the female sex. '' By allowing women to keep their existing and future special protections, it was expected that the ERA would be more appealing to its opponents. Though opponents were marginally more in favor of the ERA with the Hayden rider, supporters of the original ERA believed it negated the amendment 's original purpose -- causing the amendment not to be passed in the House.
ERA supporters were hopeful that the second term of President Dwight Eisenhower would advance their agenda. Eisenhower had publicly promised to "assure women everywhere in our land equality of rights, '' and in 1958, Eisenhower asked a joint session of Congress to pass the Equal Rights Amendment, the first president to show such a level of support for the amendment. However, the National Woman 's Party found the amendment to be unacceptable and asked it to be withdrawn whenever the Hayden rider was added to the ERA.
The Republican Party included support of the ERA in its platform beginning in 1940, renewing the plank every four years until 1980. The ERA was strongly opposed by the American Federation of Labor and other labor unions, which feared the amendment would invalidate protective labor legislation for women. Eleanor Roosevelt and most New Dealers also opposed the ERA. They felt that ERA was designed for middle class women, but that working class women needed government protection. They also feared that the ERA would undercut the male - dominated labor unions that were a core component of the New Deal coalition. Most northern Democrats, who aligned themselves with the anti-ERA labor unions, opposed the amendment. The ERA was supported by southern Democrats and almost all Republicans.
At the 1944 Democratic National Convention, the Democrats made the divisive step of including the ERA in their platform, but the Democratic Party did not become united in favor of the amendment until congressional passage in 1972. The main support base for the ERA until the late 1960s was among middle class Republican women. The League of Women Voters, formerly the National American Woman Suffrage Association, opposed the Equal Rights Amendment until 1972, fearing the loss of protective labor legislation.
At the Democratic National Convention in 1960, a proposal to endorse the ERA was rejected after it met explicit opposition from liberal groups including the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), the AFL -- CIO, labor unions such as the American Federation of Teachers, Americans for Democratic Action (ADA), the American Nurses Association, the Women 's Division of the Methodist Church, and the National Councils of Jewish, Catholic, and Negro Women. The losing side then demanded that presidential candidate John F. Kennedy announce his support of the ERA; he did so in an October 21, 1960, letter to the chairman of the National Woman 's Party. When Kennedy was elected, he made Esther Peterson the highest - ranking woman in his administration as an Assistant Secretary of Labor. Peterson publicly opposed the Equal Rights Amendment based on her belief that it would weaken protective labor legislation. Peterson referred to the National Woman 's Party members, most of them veteran suffragists and preferred the "specific bills for specific ills '' approach to equal rights. Ultimately, Kennedy 's ties to labor unions meant that he and his administration did not support the ERA.
As a concession to feminists, Kennedy appointed a blue - ribbon commission on women, the President 's Commission on the Status of Women, to investigate the problem of sex discrimination in the United States. The commission was chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt who opposed the ERA but no longer spoke against it publicly. In the early 1960s, Eleanor Roosevelt announced that, due to unionization, she believed the ERA was no longer a threat to women as it once may have been and told supporters that, as far as she was concerned, they could have the amendment if they wanted it. However, she never went so far as to endorse the ERA. The commission that she chaired reported (after her death) that no ERA was needed. The commission did, though, help win passage of the Equal Pay Act of 1963 which banned sex discrimination in wages in a number of professions (it would later be amended in the early 1970s to include the professions that it initially excluded) and secured an executive order from Kennedy eliminating sex discrimination in the civil service. The commission, composed largely of anti-ERA feminists with ties to labor, proposed remedies to the widespread sex discrimination it unearthed and in its 1963 final report held that on the issue of equality "a constitutional amendment need not now be sought ''.
The national commission spurred the establishment of state and local commissions on the status of women and arranged for follow - up conferences in the years to come. The following year, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned workplace discrimination not only on the basis of race, religion, and national origin, but also on the basis of sex, thanks to the lobbying of Alice Paul and Coretta Scott King and the skillful politicking of Representative Martha Griffiths of Michigan.
A new women 's movement gained ground in the later 1960s as a result of a variety of factors: Betty Friedan 's bestseller The Feminine Mystique; the network of women 's rights commissions formed by Kennedy 's national commission; the frustration over women 's social and economic status; and anger over the lack of government and Equal Employment Opportunity Commission enforcement of the Equal Pay Act and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. In June 1966, at the Third National Conference on the Status of Women in Washington, D.C., Betty Friedan and a group of activists frustrated with the lack of government action in enforcing Title VII of the Civil Rights Act formed the National Organization for Women to act as an "NAACP for women '', demanding full equality for American women and men. In 1967, at the urging of Alice Paul, NOW endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment. The decision caused some union Democrats and social conservatives to leave the organization and form the Women 's Equity Action League (within a few years WEAL also endorsed the ERA), but the move to support the amendment benefited NOW, bolstering its membership. By the late 1960s, NOW had made significant political and legislative victories and was gaining enough power to become a major lobbying force. In 1969, newly - elected Representative Shirley Chisholm of New York gave her famous speech "Equal Rights for Women '' on the floor of the U.S. House of Representatives.
In February 1970, NOW picketed the United States Senate, a subcommittee of which was holding hearings on a constitutional amendment to lower the voting age to 18. NOW disrupted the hearings and demanded a hearing on the Equal Rights Amendment and won a meeting with Senators to discuss the ERA. That August, over 20,000 American women held a nationwide Women 's Strike for Equality protest to demand full social, economic, and political equality. Said Betty Friedan of the strike, "All kinds of women 's groups all over the country will be using this week on August 26 particularly, to point out those areas in women 's life which are still not addressed. For example, a question of equality before the law; we are interested in the Equal Rights Amendment. '' Despite being centered in New York City -- which was regarded as one of the biggest strongholds for NOW and other groups sympathetic to the women 's liberation movement such as Redstockings -- and having a small number of participants in contrast to the large - scale anti-war and civil rights protests that had occurred in the recent time prior to the event, the strike was credited as one of the biggest turning points in the rise of second - wave feminism.
In Washington, D.C., protesters presented a sympathetic Senate leadership with a petition for the Equal Rights Amendment at the U.S. Capitol. Influential news sources such as Time also supported the cause of the protestors. Soon after the strike took place, activists distributed literature across the country as well. In 1970, congressional hearings began on the ERA.
On August 10, 1970, Michigan Democrat Martha Griffiths successfully brought the Equal Rights Amendment to the House Floor, after fifteen years of the joint resolution languishing in the House Judiciary Committee. The joint resolution passed in the House and continued on to the Senate, which voted for the ERA with an added clause that women would be exempt from the military. The 91st Congress, however, ended before the joint resolution could progress any further.
Griffiths reintroduced the ERA, and achieved success on Capitol Hill with her House Joint Resolution No. 208, which was adopted by the House on October 12, 1971, with a vote of 354 yeas (For), 24 nays (Against) and 51 not voting. Griffiths ' joint resolution was then adopted by the Senate -- without change -- on March 22, 1972, by a vote of 84 yeas, 8 nays and 7 not voting. The Senate version, drafted by Senator Birch Bayh of Indiana, passed after the defeat of an amendment proposed by Senator Sam Ervin of North Carolina that would have exempted women from the draft. President Richard Nixon immediately endorsed the ERA 's approval upon its passage by the 92nd Congress.
On March 22, 1972, the ERA was placed before the state legislatures, with a seven - year deadline to acquire ratification by three - fourths (38) of the state legislatures. Most states were eager to ratify the proposed constitutional amendment. The U.S. Senate 's vote on House Joint Resolution No. 208 took place in the mid-to - late afternoon in Washington D.C., when it was still midday in Hawaii. The Hawaii Senate and House of Representatives voted their approval shortly after noon Hawaii Standard Time, making Hawaii the first state to ratify the ERA.
During 1972, a total of 22 state legislatures ratified the amendment and eight more joined in 1973. Between 1974 and 1977, only five states approved the ERA, and advocates became worried about the approaching March 22, 1979 deadline. At the same time, the legislatures of four states which had ratified the ERA then adopted legislation purporting to rescind those ratifications. If, indeed, a state legislature has the ability to rescind, then the ERA actually had ratifications by only 31 states -- not 35 -- when March 22, 1979, arrived.
The ERA has been ratified by the following states:
Although Article V is silent as to whether a state may rescind a previous ratification of a proposed -- but not yet ratified -- amendment to the U.S. Constitution, legislators in the following four states nevertheless voted to retract their earlier ratification of the ERA:
The action of the 95th Congress in October 1978 to extend the ERA ratification deadline from March 22, 1979, to June 30, 1982, was not universally accepted. On December 23, 1981, a federal district court ruled in Idaho v. Freeman that Congress had no power to extend ERA 's ratification deadline. On January 25, 1982, the U.S. Supreme Court opted to stay the district court 's decision. Taking no further action on the matter until October 4, 1982, the High Court, on that date, ruled in NOW v. Idaho and Carmen v. Idaho that the controversy had been rendered moot by virtue of the fact that no additional state legislatures ratified ERA between March 22, 1979 and June 30, 1982.
Among those rejecting Congress 's claim to even hold such authority, the South Dakota Legislature adopted Senate Joint Resolution No. 2 on March 1, 1979. The joint resolution stipulated that South Dakota 's 1973 ERA ratification would be "sunsetted '' as of the original March 22, 1979 deadline. South Dakota 's 1979 sunset joint resolution declared: "... the Ninety - fifth Congress ex post facto has sought unilaterally to alter the terms and conditions in such a way as to materially affect the congressionally established time period for ratification... '' (designated as "POM - 93 '' by the U.S. Senate and published verbatim in the Congressional Record of March 13, 1979, at pages 4861 and 4862).
The action on the part of South Dakota lawmakers -- occurring 21 days prior to originally agreed - upon March 22, 1979 deadline -- could be viewed as slightly different from a rescission. As noted in The Constitution of the United States Analysis and Interpretation (Centennial edition, 2017, at page 1005): "Four states had rescinded their ratifications (of the ERA) and a fifth had declared that its ratification would be void unless the (Equal Rights) amendment was ratified within the original time limit ''; (see footnote 43 at the bottom of page 1005, which identifies South Dakota as that "fifth '' state).
The Constitution is silent as to whether the governor -- or acting governor -- of a state has any formal role to play regarding state ratification of an amendment to the Constitution. However, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Hollingsworth v. Virginia (1798) that the President of the United States has no formal role in that process.
At various times, in 7 of the 13 non-ratifying states, one house of the legislature approved the ERA. It failed in those states because both houses of a state 's legislature must approve, during the same session, in order for that state to be deemed to have ratified.
Ratification resolutions have also been defeated in Arizona, Arkansas, and Mississippi.
The original joint resolution (H.J. Res. 208), by which the 92nd Congress proposed the amendment to the states, was prefaced by the following resolving clause:
Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled (two - thirds of each House concurring therein), That the following article is proposed as an amendment to the Constitution of the United States, which shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of the Constitution when ratified by the legislatures of three - fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission by the Congress: (emphasis added)
As the joint resolution was passed on March 22, 1972, this effectively set a March 22, 1979 deadline for the amendment to be ratified by the requisite number of states. However, the 92nd Congress did not incorporate any time limit into the body of the actual text of the proposed amendment, as had been done with a number of other proposed amendments.
In 1978, as the original 1979 deadline approached, the 95th Congress adopted House Joint Resolution No. 638 (H.J. Res. 638), by Representative Elizabeth Holtzman of New York, which purported to extend the ERA 's ratification deadline to June 30, 1982. H.J. Res. 638 received less than two - thirds of the vote (a simple majority, not a supermajority) in both the House of Representatives and the Senate; for that reason, ERA supporters deemed it necessary that H.J. Res. 638 be transmitted to then - President Jimmy Carter for signature as a safety precaution. Carter signed the joint resolution, although he noted, on strictly procedural grounds, the irregularity of his doing so. During this disputed extension of slightly more than three years, no additional states ratified or rescinded.
The purported extension of ERA 's ratification deadline was vigorously contested in 1978 as scholars were divided as to whether Congress actually has authority to revise a previously agreed - to deadline for the states to act upon a Federal constitutional amendment. On June 18, 1980, a resolution in the Illinois House of Representatives resulted in a vote of 102 - 71 in favor, but Illinois ' internal parliamentary rules required a three - fifths majority on constitutional amendments and so the measure failed by five votes. In 1982, seven female ERA supporters went on a fast and seventeen chained themselves to the entrance of the Illinois Senate chamber. The closest that the ERA came to gaining an additional ratification between the original deadline of March 22, 1979 and the revised June 30, 1982, expiration date was when it was approved by the Florida House of Representatives on June 21, 1982. In the final week before the revised deadline, that ratifying resolution, however, was defeated in the Florida Senate by a vote of 16 yeas and 22 nays. Even if Florida had ratified the ERA, the proposed amendment would still have fallen short of the required 38.
According to research by Professor Jules B. Gerard, professor of law at Washington University in St. Louis, of the 35 legislatures that passed ratification resolutions, 24 of them explicitly referred to the original 1979 deadline.
On December 23, 1981, a federal district court, in the case of Idaho v. Freeman, ruled that the extension of the ERA ratification deadline to June 30, 1982, was not valid and that, ERA had actually expired from state legislative consideration more than two years earlier on the original expiration date of March 22, 1979. On January 25, 1982, however, the U.S. Supreme Court "stayed '' the lower court 's decision, thus signaling to the legislatures of still - unratified states that they may continue consideration of ERA during their spring 1982 legislative sessions.
After the disputed June 30, 1982, extended deadline had come and gone, the Supreme Court, at the beginning of its new term, on October 4, 1982, in the separate case of NOW v. Idaho, 459 U.S. 809 (1982), vacated the federal district court decision in Idaho v. Freeman, which, in addition to declaring March 22, 1979, as ERA 's expiration date, had upheld the validity of state rescissions. The Supreme Court declared these controversies moot on the grounds that the ERA had not received the required number of ratifications (38), so that "the Amendment has failed of adoption no matter what the resolution of the legal issues presented here. ''
In the 1939 case of Coleman v. Miller, the Supreme Court ruled that Congress has the final authority to determine whether, by lapse of time, a proposed constitutional amendment has lost its vitality before being ratified by enough states, and whether state ratifications are effective in light of attempts at subsequent withdrawal. The Court stated: "We think that, in accordance with this historic precedent, the question of the efficacy of ratifications by state legislatures, in the light of previous rejection or attempted withdrawal, should be regarded as a political question pertaining to the political departments, with the ultimate authority in the Congress in the exercise of its control over the promulgation of the adoption of the amendment. '' The Court, in 1939, upheld Congressional authority to determine in 1868 that the Fourteenth Amendment was properly ratified, including states that had attempted to rescind prior ratifications.
In the context of this judicial precedent, nonpartisan counsel to a Nevada state legislative committee concluded in 2017 that "If three more states sent their ratification to the appropriate federal official, it would then be up to Congress to determine whether a sufficient number of states have ratified the Equal Rights Amendment. ''
Similarly, an informal advisory provided to Virginia State Senator Scott A. Surovell from the Virginia Attorney General 's office stated that Congress has the power to extend the ratification deadline even further. The advisory also stated that even without such a further extension, a contemporary ratification of the ERA by the Virginia General Assembly could be found valid by Congress.
In March, 2018, a formal opinion letter of Virginia Attorney General Mark Herring concurred, stating:
"In light of Congress 's significant control over the amendment process, I can not conclude that it lacks the power to extend the period in which an amendment can be ratified and recognize a State 's intervening ratifying resolution as legally effective for purposes of determining whether the ERA has been ratified. Although the precise issue you raise has not been conclusively resolved, the historical evidence and case law demonstrate Congress 's significant, even plenary, power over the amending process. ''
The Attorney General added, citing extensive sources: "As recognized by the constitutional scholars who testified before Congress and in the report of the House Judiciary Committee recommending extension, the limited Supreme Court precedent in this area suggests that Congress has authority to extend a ratification deadline. ''
After thorough discussion of legal precedent and testimony at the Congressional hearings, the opinion letter concluded: "It is my opinion that the lapse of the ERA 's original and extended ratification periods has not disempowered the (Virginia) General Assembly from passing a ratifying resolution. Given Congress 's substantial power over the amending process, I can not conclude that Congress would be powerless to extend or remove the ERA 's ratification deadline and recognize as valid a State 's intervening act of ratification. Indeed, legislation currently pending in Congress seeks to exercise that very power. ''
Supporters of the ERA point to the lack of a specific guarantee in the Constitution for equal rights protections on the basis of sex. In 1973, future Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg summarized a supporting argument for the ERA in the American Bar Association Journal:
The equal rights amendment, in sum, would dedicate the nation to a new view of the rights and responsibilities of men and women. It firmly rejects sharp legislative lines between the sexes as constitutionally tolerable. Instead, it looks toward a legal system in which each person will be judged on the basis of individual merit and not on the basis of an unalterable trait of birth that bears no necessary relationship to need or ability.
In the early 1940s both the Democratic and Republican parties added support for the ERA to their platforms.
The National Organization for Women (NOW) and ERAmerica, a coalition of almost 80 organizations, led the pro-ERA efforts. Between 1972 and 1982, ERA supporters held rallies, petitioned, picketed, went on hunger strikes, and performed acts of civil disobedience. On July 9, 1978, NOW and other organizations hosted a national march in Washington D.C., which garnered over 100,000 supporters, and was followed by a Lobby Day on July 10. On June 6, 1982, NOW sponsored marches in states that had not passed the ERA including Florida, Illinois, North Carolina, and Oklahoma. Key feminists of the time, such as Gloria Steinem, spoke out in favor of the ERA, arguing that ERA opposition was based on gender myths that overemphasized difference and ignored evidence of unequal treatment between men and women.
Many women in the African American community have supported the ERA in light of the dual effects of both race and sex discrimination. One prominent female supporter was New York Representative Shirley Chisholm. On August 10, 1970, she gave a speech on the ERA called "For the Equal Rights Amendment '' in Washington D.C. In her address, she pointed out how widespread sex discrimination had become and how the ERA would remedy it. She also said that laws to protect women in the workforce from unsafe working conditions would be needed by men, too, and thus the ERA would help all people.
By 1976, 60 % of African American women and 63 % of African American men were in favor of the ERA, and the legislation was supported by organizations such as the NAACP, National Council of Negro Women, Coalition of Black Trade Unionists, National Association of Negro Business, and the National Black Feminist Organization.
Opponents of the ERA focused on traditional gender roles, such as how men do the fighting in wartime. They argued that the amendment would guarantee the possibility that women would be subject to conscription and be required to have military combat roles in future wars if it were passed. Defense of traditional gender roles proved to be a useful tactic. In Illinois, supporters of Phyllis Schlafly, a conservative Republican activist from that state, used traditional symbols of the American housewife. They took homemade bread, jams, and apple pies to the state legislators, with the slogans, "Preserve us from a congressional jam; Vote against the ERA sham '' and "I am for Mom and apple pie. '' They appealed to married women by stressing that the amendment would invalidate protective laws such as alimony and eliminate the tendency for mothers to obtain custody over their children in divorce cases. It was suggested that single - sex bathrooms would be eliminated and same - sex couples would be able to get married if the amendment were passed. Women who supported traditional gender roles started to oppose the ERA. Schlafly said the ERA was designed for the benefit of young career women and warned that if men and women had to be treated identically it would threaten the security of middle - aged housewives with no job skills. They could no longer count on alimony or Social Security. Opponents also argued that men and women were already equal enough with the passage of the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and that women 's colleges would have to admit men. Schlafly 's argument that protective laws would be lost resonated with working - class women.
At the 1980 Republican National Convention, the Republican Party platform was amended to end its support for the ERA. The most prominent opponent of the ERA was Schlafly. Leading the Stop ERA campaign, Schlafly defended traditional gender roles and would often attempt to incite feminists by opening her speeches with lines such as, "I 'd like to thank my husband for letting me be here tonight -- I always like to say that, because it makes the libs so mad. '' When Schlafly began her campaign in 1972, public polls showed support for the amendment was widely popular and thirty states had ratified the amendment by 1973. After 1973, the number of ratifying states slowed to a trickle. Support in the states that had not ratified fell below 50 %. Critchlow and Stachecki noted that public opinion in key states shifted against the ERA as opponents, operating on the local and state levels, won over the public. The state legislators in battleground states followed public opinion in rejecting the ERA.
Experts agree that Phyllis Schlafly was a key player in the defeat. Political scientist Jane Mansbridge in her history of the ERA argues that the draft issue was the single most powerful argument used by Schlafly and the other opponents to defeat ERA. Mansbridge concluded, "Many people who followed the struggle over the ERA believed -- rightly in my view -- that the Amendment would have been ratified by 1975 or 1976 had it not been for Phyllis Schlafly 's early and effective effort to organize potential opponents. '' Legal scholar Joan C. Williams maintained, "ERA was defeated when Schlafly turned it into a war among women over gender roles. '' Historian Judith Glazer - Raymo asserted:
As moderates, we thought we represented the forces of reason and goodwill but failed to take seriously the power of the family values argument and the single - mindedness of Schlafly and her followers. The ERA 's defeat seriously damaged the women 's movement, destroying its momentum and its potential to foment social change... Eventually, this resulted in feminist dissatisfaction with the Republican Party, giving the Democrats a new source of strength that when combined with overwhelming minority support, helped elect Bill Clinton to the presidency in 1992 and again in 1996.
Many ERA supporters blamed their defeat on special interest forces, especially the insurance industry and conservative organizations, suggesting that they had funded an opposition that subverted the democratic process and the will of the pro-ERA majority. Such supporters argued that while the public face of the anti-ERA movement was Phyllis Schlafly and her STOP ERA organization, there were other important groups in the opposition as well, such as the powerful National Council of Catholic Women, labor feminists and (until 1973) the AFL -- CIO. Opposition to the amendment was particularly high among religious conservatives, who argued that the amendment would guarantee universal abortion rights and the right for homosexual couples to marry. Critchlow and Stachecki say the anti-ERA movement was based on strong backing among Southern whites, Evangelical Christians, Mormons, Orthodox Jews, and Roman Catholics, including both men and women. Sonia Johnson, a traditionally - raised Mormon housewife whose eventual feminist advocacy for the ERA 's passage led to her excommunication by the LDS church, subsequently wrote about her experiences in the memoir From Housewife to Heretic. Johnson and others led a hunger strike / fast at the Illinois State Senate chamber in an unsuccessful effort to push the Illinois General Assembly toward ERA ratification before the 1982 revised deadline.
Beginning in the mid 1990s, ERA supporters began an effort to win ratification of the ERA by the legislatures of states that did not ratify it between 1972 and 1982. These proponents state that Congress can remove the ERA 's ratification deadline despite the deadline having expired, allowing the states again to ratify it. They also state that the ratifications ERA previously received remain in force and that rescissions of prior ratifications are not valid. Those who espouse the "three - state strategy '' (now down to only one state if the Nevada Legislature 's and the Illinois General Assembly 's belated ERA approvals are deemed legitimate) were spurred, at least in part, by the unconventional 202 - year - long ratification of the Constitution 's Twenty - seventh Amendment (sometimes referred to as the "Madison Amendment '') which became part of the Constitution in 1992 after pending before the state legislatures since 1789. Although the "Madison Amendment '' was not associated with a ratification deadline, whereas the proposing clause of the ERA did include a deadline, states have in the past ratified amendments after a deadline, and Congress has not rejected those ratifications (as the Supreme Court has said, "Congress in controlling the promulgation of the adoption of a constitutional amendment has the final determination of the question whether by lapse of time its proposal of the amendment had lost its vitality prior to the required ratifications '').
On June 21, 2009, the National Organization for Women decided to support both efforts to obtain additional state ratifications for the 1972 ERA and any strategy to submit a fresh - start ERA to the states for ratification.
In 2013, the Library of Congress 's Congressional Research Service issued a report saying that ratification deadlines are a political question:
ERA proponents claim that the Supreme Court 's decision in Coleman v. Miller gives Congress wide discretion in setting conditions for the ratification process.
The report goes on to say:
Revivification opponents caution ERA supporters against an overly broad interpretation of Coleman v. Miller, which, they argue, may have been be (sic) a politically influenced decision.
However, most recently, ERA Action has both led and brought renewed vigor to the movement by instituting what has become known as the "three state strategy ''. It was in 2013 that ERA Action began to gain traction with this strategy through their coordination with U.S. Senators and Representatives not only to introduce legislation in both houses of Congress to remove the ratification deadline, but also in gaining legislative sponsors. The Congressional Research Service then issued a report on the "three state strategy '' on April 8, 2013 entitled "The Proposed Equal Rights Amendment: Contemporary Ratification Issues '', stating that the approach was viable.
In 2014, under the auspices of ERA Action and their coalition partners, both the Virginia and Illinois state senates voted to ratify the ERA. That year, votes were blocked in both states ' House chambers. In the meantime, the ERA ratification movement continued with the resolution being introduced in 10 state legislatures.
On March 22, 2017, the Nevada Legislature became the first state in 40 years to ratify the ERA.
Illinois lawmakers and citizens took another look at the ERA, with hearings, testimony, and research including work by the law firm Winston & Strawn to address common legal questions about the ERA.
Illinois state lawmakers ratified the ERA on May 30, 2018, with a 72 - 45 vote in the Illinois House following a 43 - 12 vote in the Illinois Senate in April 2018.
On February 10, 2018, the final day of that year 's legislative session on which the Virginia General Assembly committees could have brought up the four ERA resolutions for consideration, women and men from the League of Women Voters, Liberal Women of Chesterfield County, and several other women 's rights groups across Virginia packed the committee chamber rooms of the Virginia General Assembly; when the chairmen did not bring up the ERA for a vote, they demanded, to resulting in applause in the room that the resolutions be given a fair hearing and vote. The House committee did not bring up the resolutions for consideration, and the Virginia Senate Rules Committee voted to table the resolution until the following year, citing an alleged statement from an official at the National Archives and Records Administration.
The National Archives and Records Administration later noted that the alleged statement had never occurred. "' The Archivist of the United States has not taken such a stance and has never issued an opinion on this matter either officially or unofficially, ' said the agency 's director of communications, James Pritchett, in a statement. ''
The amendment has been reintroduced in every session of Congress since 1982. Senator Ted Kennedy (D - Massachusetts) championed it in the Senate from the 99th Congress through the 110th Congress. Senator Robert Menendez (D - New Jersey) introduced the amendment symbolically at the end of the 111th Congress and has supported it in the 112th Congress. In the House of Representatives, Carolyn Maloney (D - New York) has sponsored it since the 105th Congress, most recently in August 2013.
In 1983, the ERA passed through House committees with the same text as in 1972; however, it failed by six votes to achieve the necessary two - thirds vote on the House floor. That was the last time that the ERA received a floor vote in either house of Congress.
At the start of the 112th Congress on January 6, 2011, Senator Menendez, along with Representatives Maloney, Jerrold Nadler (D - New York) and Gwen Moore (D - Wisconsin), held a press conference advocating for the Equal Rights Amendment 's adoption.
The 113th Congress had a record number of women. On March 5, 2013, the ERA was reintroduced by Senator Menendez as S.J. Res. 10.
The "New ERA '' introduced in 2013, sponsored by Representative Carolyn B. Maloney, adds an additional sentence to the original text: "Women shall have equal rights in the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction. ''
On March 8, 2011, the 100th anniversary of International Women 's Day, Representative Tammy Baldwin (D - Wisconsin) introduced legislation (H.J. Res. 47) to remove the congressionally imposed deadline for ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment. Resolution co-sponsors included Representatives Robert Andrews (D - New Jersey), Jackie Speier (D - California), Luis Gutierrez (D - Illinois), Chellie Pingree (D - Maine) and Debbie Wasserman Schultz (D - Florida). On March 22, 2012, the 40th anniversary of the ERA 's congressional approval, Senator Benjamin L. Cardin (D - Maryland) introduced (S.J. Res. 39) -- which is worded with slight differences from Representative Baldwin 's (H.J. Res. 47). Senator Cardin was joined by ten other Senators who added their names to the Senate Joint Resolution.
On February 24, 2013, the New Mexico House of Representatives adopted House Memorial No. 7 asking that the congressionally - imposed deadline for ERA ratification be removed. House Memorial No. 7 was officially received by the U.S. Senate on January 6, 2014, was designated as "POM - 175 '', was referred to the Senate 's Committee on the Judiciary, and was published verbatim in the Congressional Record at page S24.
Twenty - four states and the District of Columbia have adopted constitutions or constitutional amendments providing that equal rights under the law shall not be denied because of sex. Most of these provisions mirror the broad language of the ERA, while the wording in others resembles the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The 1879 Constitution of California contains the earliest state equal rights provision on record. Narrowly written, it limits the equal rights conferred to "entering or pursuing a business, profession, vocation, or employment ''. Near the end of the 19th century two more states, Wyoming (1890) and Utah (1896), included equal rights provisions in their constitutions. These provisions were broadly written to ensure political and civil equality between women and men. Several states crafted and adopted their own equal rights amendments during the 1970s and 1980s, while the ERA was before the states, or afterward.
Some state equal rights amendments and original constitutional equal rights provisions are:
Alaska -- No person is to be denied the enjoyment of any civil or political right because of race, color, creed, sex or national origin. The legislature shall implement this section. Alaska Constitution, Article I, § 3 (1972)
California -- A person may not be disqualified from entering or pursuing a business, profession, vocation, or employment because of sex, race, creed, color, or national or ethnic origin. California Constitution, Article I, § 8 (1879)
Colorado -- Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the state of Colorado or any of its political subdivisions because of sex. Colorado Constitution, Article II, § 29 (1973)
Connecticut -- No person shall be denied the equal protection of the law nor be subjected to segregation or discrimination in the exercise or enjoyment of his or her civil or political rights because of religion, race, color, ancestry, national origin, sex or physical or mental disability. Connecticut Constitution, Article I, § 20 (1984)
Illinois -- The equal protection of the laws shall not be denied or abridged on account of sex by the State or its units of local government and school districts. Illinois Constitution, Article I, § 18 (1970)
Iowa -- All men and women are, by nature, free and equal and have certain inalienable rights -- among which are those of enjoying and defending life and liberty, acquiring, possessing and protecting property, and pursuing and obtaining safety and happiness. Iowa Constitution, Article I, § 1 (1998)
Maryland -- Equality of rights under the law shall not be abridged or denied because of sex. Maryland Constitution, Declaration of Rights, Article 46 (1972)
Massachusetts -- All people are born free and equal, and have certain natural, essential, and unalienable rights; among which may be reckoned the right of enjoying and defending their lives and liberties; that of acquiring, possessing and protecting property; in fine, that of seeking and obtaining their safety and happiness. Equality under the law shall not be denied or abridged because of sex, race, color, creed or national origin. Massachusetts Constitution, Part 1, Article 1 as amended by Article CVI by vote of the People, (1976)
Montana -- Individual dignity. The dignity of the human being is inviolable. No person shall be denied the equal protection of the laws. Neither the state nor any person, firm, corporation, or institution shall discriminate against any person in the exercise of his civil or political rights on account of race, color, sex, culture, social origin or condition, or political or religious ideas. Montana Constitution, Article II, § 4 (1973)
Oregon -- Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the state of Oregon or by any political subdivision in this state on account of sex. Oregon Constitution, Article I, § 46 (2014)
Utah -- The rights of citizens of the State of Utah to vote and hold office shall not be denied or abridged on account of sex. Both male and female citizens of this State shall enjoy all civil, political and religious rights and privileges. Utah Constitution, Article IV, § 1 (1896)
Washington, DC -- It is the intent of the Council of the District of Columbia, in enacting this chapter, to secure an end in the District of Columbia to discrimination for any reason other than that of individual merit, including, but not limited to, discrimination by reason of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, marital status, personal appearance, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression familial status, family responsibilities, matriculation, political affiliation, genetic information, disability, source of income, status as a victim of an intrafamily offense, and place of residence or business. District of Columbia Code (Title 2, Chapter 14, Human Rights Act of 1977, as Amended Mar. 2007)
Wyoming -- In their inherent right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, all members of the human race are equal. Since equality in the enjoyment of natural and civil rights is only made sure through political equality, the laws of this state affecting the political rights and privileges of its citizens shall be without distinction of race, color, sex, or any circumstance or condition whatsoever other than the individual incompetency or unworthiness duly ascertained by a court of competent jurisdiction. The rights of citizens of the state of Wyoming to vote and hold office shall not be denied or abridged on account of sex. Both male and female citizens of this state shall equally enjoy all civil, political and religious rights and privileges. Wyoming Constitution, Articles I and VI (1890)
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where did the red fox come from originally | Red fox - wikipedia
The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the largest of the true foxes and one of the most widely distributed members of the order Carnivora, being present across the entire Northern Hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, North America and Eurasia. It is listed as least concern by the IUCN. Its range has increased alongside human expansion, having been introduced to Australia, where it is considered harmful to native mammals and bird populations. Due to its presence in Australia, it is included among the list of the "world 's 100 worst invasive species ''.
The red fox originated from smaller - sized ancestors from Eurasia during the Middle Villafranchian period, and colonised North America shortly after the Wisconsin glaciation. Among the true foxes, the red fox represents a more progressive form in the direction of carnivory. Apart from its large size, the red fox is distinguished from other fox species by its ability to adapt quickly to new environments. Despite its name, the species often produces individuals with other colourings, including albinos and melanists. Forty - five subspecies are currently recognised, which are divided into two categories: the large northern foxes, and the small, basal southern foxes of Asia and North Africa.
Red foxes are usually together in pairs or small groups consisting of families, such as a mated pair and their young, or a male with several females having kinship ties. The young of the mated pair remain with their parents to assist in caring for new kits. The species primarily feeds on small rodents, though it may also target rabbits, game birds, reptiles, invertebrates and young ungulates. Fruit and vegetable matter is also eaten sometimes. Although the red fox tends to kill smaller predators, including other fox species, it is vulnerable to attack from larger predators, such as wolves, coyotes, golden jackals and medium - and large - sized felines.
The species has a long history of association with humans, having been extensively hunted as a pest and furbearer for many centuries, as well as being represented in human folklore and mythology. Because of its widespread distribution and large population, the red fox is one of the most important furbearing animals harvested for the fur trade. Too small to pose a threat to humans, it has extensively benefited from the presence of human habitation, and has successfully colonised many suburban and urban areas. Domestication of the Red fox is also underway in Russia, and has resulted in the Domesticated red fox.
Females are called vixens, and young cubs are known as kits. Although the Arctic fox has a small native population in northern Scandinavia, while the corsac fox 's range extends into European Russia, the red fox is the only fox native to Western Europe, and so is simply called "the fox '' in colloquial British English.
The word "fox '' comes from Old English, which derived from Proto - Germanic * fuhsaz. Compare with West Frisian foks, Dutch vos, and German Fuchs. This, in turn, derives from Proto - Indo - European * puḱ - ' thick - haired; tail '. Compare to the Hindi pū̃ch ' tail ', Tocharian B päkā ' tail; chowrie ', and Lithuanian paustìs ' fur '. The bushy tail also forms the basis for the fox 's Welsh name, llwynog, literally ' bushy ', from llwyn ' bush '. Likewise, Portuguese: raposa from rabo ' tail ', Lithuanian uodẽgis from uodegà ' tail ', and Ojibwa waagosh from waa, which refers to the up and down "bounce '' or flickering of an animal or its tail.
The scientific term vulpes derives from the Latin word for fox, and gives the adjectives vulpine and vulpecular.
The red fox is considered a more specialised form of Vulpes than the Afghan, corsac and Bengal foxes in the direction of size and adaptation to carnivory; the skull displays much fewer neotenous traits than in other species, and its facial area is more developed. It is, however, not as adapted for a purely carnivorous diet as the Tibetan fox.
Arctic fox
Kit fox
Corsac fox
Rüppell 's fox
Red fox
Cape fox
Blanford 's fox
Fennec fox
Raccoon dog
Bat - eared fox
The species is Eurasian in origin, and may have evolved from either Vulpes alopecoides or the related Chinese V. chikushanensis, both of which lived during the Middle Villafranchian. The earliest fossil specimens of V. vulpes were uncovered in Baranya, Hungary dating from 3.4 - 1.8 million years ago. The ancestral species was likely smaller than the current one, as the earliest red fox fossils are smaller than modern populations. The earliest fossil remains of the modern species date back to the mid-Pleistocene in association with the refuse of early human settlements. This has led to the theory that the red fox was hunted by primitive humans as both a source of food and pelts.
Red foxes colonised the North American continent in two waves: during or before the Illinoian glaciation, and during the Wisconsinan glaciation. Gene mapping demonstrates that red foxes in North America have been isolated from their Old World counterparts for over 400,000 years, thus raising the possibility that speciation has occurred, and that the previous binomial name of Vulpes fulva may be valid. In the far north, red fox fossils have been found in Sangamonian deposits in the Fairbanks District and Medicine Hat. Fossils dating from the Wisconsian are present in 25 sites in Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Missouri, New Mexico, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and Wyoming. Although they ranged far south during the Wisconsinan, the onset of warm conditions shrank their range toward the north, and have only recently reclaimed their former American ranges because of human - induced environmental changes. Genetic testing indicates two distinct red fox refugia exist in North America, which have been separated since the Wisconsinan. The northern (or boreal) refugium occurs in Alaska and western Canada, and consists of the large subspecies V. v. alascensis, V. v. abietorum, V. v. regalis, and V. v. rubricosa. The southern (or montane) refugium occurs in the subalpine parklands and alpine meadows of the Rocky Mountains, the Cascade Range, and Sierra Nevada. It encompasses the subspecies V. v. macroura, V. v. cascadensis, and V. v. necator. The latter clade has been separated from all other red fox populations since the last glacial maximum, and may possess unique ecological or physiological adaptations.
Although European foxes were introduced to portions of the United States in the 1900s recent genetic investigation indicates an absence of European fox haplotypes in any North American populations. Also, introduced eastern red foxes have colonized southern California, the San Joaquin Valley, and San Francisco Bay Area, but appear to have mixed with the Sacramento Valley red fox V. v. patwin only in a narrow hybrid zone. In addition, no evidence is seen of interbreeding of eastern red foxes in California with the montane Sierra Nevada red fox V. v. necator or other populations in the Intermountain West (between the Rocky Mountains to the east and the Cascade and Sierra Nevada ranges to the west.
As of 2005, 45 subspecies are recognised. In 2010, another distinct subspecies, which inhabits the grasslands of the Sacramento Valley, V. v. patwin, was identified through mitochondrial haplotype studies.
Substantial gene pool mixing between different subspecies is known; British red foxes have crossbred extensively with foxes imported from Germany, France, Belgium, Sardinia, and possibly Siberia and Scandinavia. However, genetic studies suggest very little differences between red foxes sampled across Europe. Lack of genetic diversity is consistent with the red fox being a highly vagile species, with one red fox covering 320 km (200 mi) in under a year 's time.
Red fox subspecies in Eurasia and North Africa are divided into two categories:
Red foxes living in Middle Asia show physical traits intermediate to the northern and southern forms.
(Nominate subspecies)
communis (Burnett, 1829) lineatus (Billberg, 1827) nigro - argenteus (Nilsson, 1820) nigrocaudatus (Billberg, 1827) septentrionalis (Brass, 1911) variegates (Billberg, 1827) vulgaris (Oken, 1816)
beringensis (Merriam, 1902) kamtschadensis (Brass, 1911) kamtschatica (Dybowski, 1922) schantaricus (Yudin, 1986)
cinera (Bechstein, 1801) diluta (Ognev, 1924) europaeus (Kerr, 1792) hellenica (Douma - Petridou and Ondrias, 1980) hypomelas (Wagner, 1841) lutea (Bechstein, 1801) melanogaster (Bonaparte, 1832) meridionalis (Fitzinger, 1855) nigra (Borkhausen, 1797) stepensis (Brauner, 1914)
V. v. hoole
V. v. indutus
V. v. japonica
V. v. karagan
melanotus (Pallas, 1811) pamirensis (Ognev, 1926) tarimensis (Matschie, 1907)
V. v. kenaiensis
himalaicus (Ogilby, 1837) ladacensis (Matschie, 1907) nepalensis (J.E. Gray, 1837) waddelli (Bonhote, 1906)
anubis (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1833) vulpecula (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1833)
V. v. ochroxantha
persicus (Blanford, 1875)
deletrix (Bangs, 1898) rubricos (Churcher, 1960) vafra (Bangs, 1897)
crymensis (Brauner, 1914)
The red fox has an elongated body and relatively short limbs. The tail, which is longer than half the body length (70 per cent of head and body length), is fluffy and reaches the ground when in a standing position. Their pupils are oval and vertically oriented. Nictitating membranes are present, but move only when the eyes are closed. The forepaws have five digits, while the hind feet have only four and lack dewclaws. They are very agile, being capable of jumping over 2 - metre - high (6 ft 7 in) fences, and swim well. Vixens normally have four pairs of teats, though vixens with seven, nine, or ten teats are not uncommon. The testes of males are smaller than those of Arctic foxes.
Their skulls are fairly narrow and elongated, with small braincases. Their canine teeth are relatively long. Sexual dimorphism of the skull is more pronounced than in corsac foxes, with female red foxes tending to have smaller skulls than males, with wider nasal regions and hard palates, as well as having larger canines. Their skulls are distinguished from those of dogs by their narrower muzzles, less crowded premolars, more slender canine teeth, and concave rather than convex profiles.
Red foxes are the largest species of the genus Vulpes. However, relative to dimensions, red foxes are much lighter than similarly sized dogs of the genus Canis. Their limb bones, for example, weigh 30 percent less per unit area of bone than expected for similarly sized dogs. They display significant individual, sexual, age and geographical variation in size. On average, adults measure 35 -- 50 cm (14 -- 20 in) high at the shoulder and 45 -- 90 cm (18 -- 35 in) in body length with tails measuring 30 -- 55.5 cm (11.8 -- 21.9 in). The ears measure 7.7 -- 12.5 cm (3 -- 5 in) and the hind feet 12 -- 18.5 cm (5 -- 7 in). Weights range from 2.2 -- 14 kg (5 -- 31 lb), with vixens typically weighing 15 -- 20 % less than males. Adult red foxes have skulls measuring 129 -- 167 mm (5.1 -- 6.6 in), while those of vixens measure 128 -- 159 mm (5.0 -- 6.3 in). The forefoot print measures 60 mm (2.4 in) in length and 45 mm (1.8 in) in width, while the hind foot print measures 55 mm (2.2 in) long and 38 mm (1.5 in) wide. They trot at a speed of 6 -- 13 km / h (4 -- 8 mph), and have a maximum running speed of 50 km / h (30 mph). They have a stride of 25 -- 35 cm (9.8 -- 13.8 in) when walking at a normal pace. North American red foxes are generally lightly built, with comparatively long bodies for their mass and have a high degree of sexual dimorphism. British red foxes are heavily built, but short, while continental European red foxes are closer to the general average among red fox populations. The largest red fox on record in Great Britain was a 17.2 kg (38 lb), 1.4 - metre (4 ft 7 in) long male, killed in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, in early 2012.
The winter fur is dense, soft, silky and relatively long. For the northern foxes, the fur is very long, dense and fluffy, but is shorter, sparser and coarser in southern forms. Among northern foxes, the North American varieties generally have the silkiest guard hairs, while most Eurasian red foxes have coarser fur. There are three main colour morphs; red, silver / black and cross (see Mutations). In the typical red morph, their coats are generally bright reddish - rusty with yellowish tints. A stripe of weak, diffuse patterns of many brown - reddish - chestnut hairs occurs along the spine. Two additional stripes pass down the shoulder blades, which, together with the spinal stripe, form a cross. The lower back is often a mottled silvery colour. The flanks are lighter coloured than the back, while the chin, lower lips, throat and front of the chest are white. The remaining lower surface of the body is dark, brown or reddish. During lactation, the belly fur of vixens may turn brick red. The upper parts of the limbs are rusty reddish, while the paws are black. The frontal part of the face and upper neck is bright brownish - rusty red, while the upper lips are white. The backs of the ears are black or brownish - reddish, while the inner surface is whitish. The top of the tail is brownish - reddish, but lighter in colour than the back and flanks. The underside of the tail is pale grey with a straw - coloured tint. A black spot, the location of the supracaudal gland, is usually present at the base of the tail. The tip of the tail is white.
Atypical colourations in red foxes usually represent stages toward full melanism, and mostly occur in cold regions.
Red foxes have binocular vision, but their sight reacts mainly to movement. Their auditory perception is acute, being able to hear black grouse changing roosts at 600 paces, the flight of crows at 0.25 -- 0.5 kilometres (0.16 -- 0.31 mi) and the squeaking of mice at about 100 metres (330 ft). They are capable of locating sounds to within one degree at 700 -- 3,000 Hz, though less accurately at higher frequencies. Their sense of smell is good, but weaker than that of specialised dogs.
Red foxes have a pair of anal sacs lined by sebaceous glands, both of which open through a single duct. The anal sacs act as fermentation chambers in which aerobic and anaerobic bacteria convert sebum into odorous compounds, including aliphatic acids. The oval - shaped caudal gland is 25 mm (1.0 in) long and 13 mm (0.51 in) wide, and reportedly smells of violets. The presence of foot glands is equivocal. The interdigital cavities are deep, with a reddish tinge and smell strongly. Sebaceous glands are present on the angle of the jaw and mandible.
Red foxes either establish stable home ranges within particular areas or are itinerant with no fixed abode. They use their urine to mark their territories. A male fox raises one hind leg and his urine is sprayed forward in front of him, whereas a female fox squats down so that the urine is sprayed in the ground between the hind legs. Urine is also used to mark empty cache sites, used to store found food, as reminders not to waste time investigating them. The use of up to 12 different urination postures allows them to precisely control the position of the scent mark. Red foxes live in family groups sharing a joint territory. In favourable habitats and / or areas with low hunting pressure, subordinate foxes may be present in a range. Subordinate foxes may number one or two, sometimes up to eight in one territory. These subordinates could be formerly dominant animals, but are mostly young from the previous year, who act as helpers in rearing the breeding vixen 's kits. Alternatively, their presence has been explained as being in response to temporary surpluses of food unrelated to assisting reproductive success. Non-breeding vixens will guard, play, groom, provision and retrieve kits, an example of kin selection. Red foxes may leave their families once they reach adulthood if the chances of winning a territory of their own are high. If not, they will stay with their parents, at the cost of postponing their own reproduction.
Red foxes reproduce once a year in spring. Two months prior to oestrus (typically December), the reproductive organs of vixens change shape and size. By the time they enter their oestrus period, their uterine horns double in size, and their ovaries grow 1.5 -- 2 times larger. Sperm formation in males begins in August -- September, with the testicles attaining their greatest weight in December -- February. The vixen 's oestrus period lasts three weeks, during which the dog - foxes mate with the vixens for several days, often in burrows. The male 's bulbus glandis enlarges during copulation, forming a copulatory tie which may last for more than an hour. The gestation period lasts 49 -- 58 days. Though foxes are largely monogamous, DNA evidence from one population indicated large levels of polygyny, incest and mixed paternity litters. Subordinate vixens may become pregnant, but usually fail to whelp, or have their kits killed postpartum by either the dominant female or other subordinates.
The average litter size consists of four to six kits, though litters of up to 13 kits have occurred. Large litters are typical in areas where fox mortality is high. Kits are born blind, deaf and toothless, with dark brown fluffy fur. At birth, they weigh 56 -- 110 g (2.0 -- 3.9 oz) and measure 14.5 cm (5.7 in) in body length and 7.5 cm (3.0 in) in tail length. At birth, they are short - legged, large - headed and have broad chests. Mothers remain with the kits for 2 -- 3 weeks, as they are unable to thermoregulate. During this period, the fathers or barren vixens feed the mothers. Vixens are very protective of their kits, and have been known to even fight off terriers in their defence. If the mother dies before the kits are independent, the father takes over as their provider. The kits ' eyes open after 13 -- 15 days, during which time their ear canals open and their upper teeth erupt, with the lower teeth emerging 3 -- 4 days later. Their eyes are initially blue, but change to amber at 4 -- 5 weeks. Coat colour begins to change at three weeks of age, when the black eye streak appears. By one month, red and white patches are apparent on their faces. During this time, their ears erect and their muzzles elongate. Kits begin to leave their dens and experiment with solid food brought by their parents at the age of 3 -- 4 weeks. The lactation period lasts 6 -- 7 weeks. Their woolly coats begin to be coated by shiny guard hairs after 8 weeks. By the age of 3 -- 4 months, the kits are long - legged, narrow - chested and sinewy. They reach adult proportions at the age of 6 -- 7 months. Some vixens may reach sexual maturity at the age of 9 -- 10 months, thus bearing their first litters at one year of age. In captivity, their longevity can be as long as 15 years, though in the wild they typically do not survive past 5 years of age.
Outside the breeding season, most red foxes favour living in the open, in densely vegetated areas, though they may enter burrows to escape bad weather. Their burrows are often dug on hill or mountain slopes, ravines, bluffs, steep banks of water bodies, ditches, depressions, gutters, in rock clefts and neglected human environments. Red foxes prefer to dig their burrows on well drained soils. Dens built among tree roots can last for decades, while those dug on the steppes last only several years. They may permanently abandon their dens during mange outbreaks, possibly as a defence mechanism against the spread of disease. In the Eurasian desert regions, foxes may use the burrows of wolves, porcupines and other large mammals, as well as those dug by gerbil colonies. Compared to burrows constructed by Arctic foxes, badgers, marmots and corsac foxes, red fox dens are not overly complex. Red fox burrows are divided into a den and temporary burrows, which consist only of a small passage or cave for concealment. The main entrance of the burrow leads downwards (40 -- 45 °) and broadens into a den, from which numerous side tunnels branch. Burrow depth ranges from 0.5 -- 2.5 metres (1 ft 8 in -- 8 ft 2 in), rarely extending to ground water. The main passage can reach 17 m (56 ft) in length, standing an average of 5 -- 7 m (16 -- 23 ft). In spring, red foxes clear their dens of excess soil through rapid movements, first with the forepaws then with kicking motions with their hind legs, throwing the discarded soil over 2 m (6 ft 7 in) from the burrow. When kits are born, the discarded debris is trampled, thus forming a spot where the kits can play and receive food. They may share their dens with woodchucks or badgers. Unlike badgers, which fastidiously clean their earths and defecate in latrines, red foxes habitually leave pieces of prey around their dens. > The average sleep time of a captive red fox is 9.8 hours per day.
Red fox body language consists of movements of the ears, tail and postures, with their body markings emphasising certain gestures. Postures can be divided into aggressive / dominant and fearful / submissive categories. Some postures may blend the two together.
Inquisitive foxes will rotate and flick their ears whilst sniffing. Playful individuals will perk their ears and rise on their hind legs. Male foxes courting females, or after successfully evicting intruders, will turn their ears outwardly, and raise their tails in a horizontal position, with the tips raised upward. When afraid, red foxes grin in submission, arching their backs, curving their bodies, crouching their legs and lashing their tails back and forth with their ears pointing backwards and pressed against their skulls. When merely expressing submission to a dominant animal, the posture is similar, but without arching the back or curving the body. Submissive foxes will approach dominant animals in a low posture, so that their muzzles reach up in greeting. When two evenly matched foxes confront each other over food, they approach each other sideways and push against each other 's flanks, betraying a mixture of fear and aggression through lashing tails and arched backs without crouching and pulling their ears back without flattening them against their skulls. When launching an assertive attack, red foxes approach directly rather than sideways, with their tails aloft and their ears rotated sideways. During such fights, red foxes will stand on each other 's upper bodies with their forelegs, using open mouthed threats. Such fights typically only occur among juveniles or adults of the same sex.
Red foxes have a wide vocal range, and produce different sounds spanning five octaves, which grade into each other. Recent analyses identify 12 different sounds produced by adults and 8 by kits. The majority of sounds can be divided into "contact '' and "interaction '' calls. The former vary according to the distance between individuals, while the latter vary according to the level of aggression.
Another call that does not fit into the two categories is a long, drawn out, monosyllabic "waaaaah '' sound. As it is commonly heard during the breeding season, it is thought to be emitted by vixens summoning males. When danger is detected, foxes emit a monosyllabic bark. At close quarters, it is a muffled cough, while at long distances it is sharper. Kits make warbling whimpers when nursing, these calls being especially loud when they are dissatisfied.
Red foxes are omnivores with a highly varied diet. In the former Soviet Union, up to 300 animal and a few dozen plant species are known to be consumed by them. They primarily feed on small rodents like voles, mice, ground squirrels, hamsters, gerbils, woodchucks, pocket gophers and deer mice. Secondary prey species include birds (with passeriformes, galliformes and waterfowl predominating), leporids, porcupines, raccoons, opossums, reptiles, insects, other invertebrates and flotsam (marine mammals, fish and echinoderms). On very rare occasions, foxes may attack young or small ungulates. They typically target mammals up to about 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) in weight, and they require 500 grams (18 oz) of food daily. Red foxes readily eat plant material, and in some areas fruit can amount to 100 % of their diet in autumn. Commonly consumed fruits include blueberries, blackberries, raspberries, cherries, persimmons, mulberries, apples, plums, grapes, and acorns. Other plant material includes grasses, sedges and tubers.
Red foxes are implicated in the predation of game and song birds, hares, rabbits, muskrats, and young ungulates, particularly in preserves, reserves, and hunting farms where ground nesting birds are protected and raised, as well as in poultry farms.
While the popular consensus is that olfaction is very important for hunting, two studies that experimentally investigated the role of olfactory, auditory, and visual cues found that visual cues are the most important ones for hunting in red foxes and coyotes.
Red foxes prefer to hunt in the early morning hours before sunrise and late evening. Although they typically forage alone, they may aggregate in resource - rich environments. When hunting mouse - like prey, they first pinpoint their prey 's location by sound, then leap, sailing high above their quarry, steering in mid-air with their tails, before landing on target up to 5 metres (16 ft) away. They typically only feed on carrion in the late evening hours and at night. They are extremely possessive of their food and will defend their catches from even dominant animals. Red foxes may occasionally commit acts of surplus killing; during one breeding season, four foxes were recorded to have killed around 200 black - headed gulls each, with peaks during dark, windy hours when flying conditions were unfavorable. Losses to poultry and penned game birds can be substantial because of this. Red foxes seem to dislike the taste of moles but will nonetheless catch them alive and present them to their kits as playthings.
A 2008 -- 2010 study of 84 red foxes in the Czech Republic and Germany found that successful hunting in long vegetation or under snow appeared to involve an alignment of the fox with the Earth 's magnetic field.
Red foxes typically dominate other fox species. Arctic foxes generally escape competition from red foxes by living farther north, where food is too scarce to support the larger - bodied red species. Although the red species ' northern limit is linked to the availability of food, the Arctic species ' southern range is limited by the presence of the former. Red and Arctic foxes were both introduced to almost every island from the Aleutian Islands to the Alexander Archipelago during the 1830s -- 1930s by fur companies. The red foxes invariably displaced the Arctic foxes, with one male red fox having been reported to have killed off all resident Arctic foxes on a small island in 1866. Where they are sympatric, Arctic foxes may also escape competition by feeding on lemmings and flotsam, rather than voles, as favoured by red foxes. Both species will kill each other 's kits, given the opportunity. Red foxes are serious competitors of corsac foxes, as they hunt the same prey all year. The red species is also stronger, is better adapted to hunting in snow deeper than 10 cm (4 in) and is more effective in hunting and catching medium to large - sized rodents. Corsac foxes seem to only outcompete red foxes in semi-desert and steppe areas. In Israel, Blanford 's foxes escape competition with red foxes by restricting themselves to rocky cliffs and actively avoiding the open plains inhabited by red foxes. Red foxes dominate kit and swift foxes. Kit foxes usually avoid competition with their larger cousins by living in more arid environments, though red foxes have been increasing in ranges formerly occupied by kit foxes due to human - induced environmental changes. Red foxes will kill both species, and compete for food and den sites. Grey foxes are exceptional, as they dominate red foxes wherever their ranges meet. Historically, interactions between the two species were rare, as grey foxes favoured heavily wooded or semiarid habitats as opposed to the open and mesic ones preferred by red foxes. However, interactions have become more frequent due to deforestation allowing red foxes to colonise grey fox - inhabited areas.
Wolves may kill and eat red foxes in disputes over carcasses. In areas in North America where red fox and coyote populations are sympatric, fox ranges tend to be located outside coyote territories. The principal cause of this separation is believed to be active avoidance of coyotes by the foxes. Interactions between the two species vary in nature, ranging from active antagonism to indifference. The majority of aggressive encounters are initiated by coyotes, and there are few reports of red foxes acting aggressively toward coyotes except when attacked or when their kits were approached. Foxes and coyotes have sometimes been seen feeding together. In Israel, red foxes share their habitat with golden jackals. Where their ranges meet, the two canids compete due to near identical diets. Foxes ignore jackal scents or tracks in their territories, and avoid close physical proximity with jackals themselves. In areas where jackals become very abundant, the population of foxes decreases significantly, apparently because of competitive exclusion.
Red foxes dominate raccoon dogs, sometimes killing their kits or biting adults to death. Cases are known of foxes killing raccoon dogs entering their dens. Both species compete for mouse - like prey. This competition reaches a peak during early spring, when food is scarce. In Tartaria, red fox predation accounted for 11.1 % of deaths among 54 raccoon dogs, and amounted to 14.3 % of 186 raccoon dog deaths in north - western Russia.
Red foxes may kill small mustelids like weasels, stone martens, pine martens, stoats, kolonoks, polecats and young sables. Eurasian badgers may live alongside red foxes in isolated sections of large burrows. It is possible that the two species tolerate each other out of mutualism; foxes provide badgers with food scraps, while badgers maintain the shared burrow 's cleanliness. However, cases are known of badgers driving vixens from their dens and destroying their litters without eating them. Wolverines may kill red foxes, often while the latter are sleeping or near carrion. Foxes in turn may kill unattended young wolverines.
Red foxes may compete with striped hyenas on large carcasses. Red foxes may give way to hyenas on unopened carcasses, as the latter 's stronger jaws can easily tear open flesh that is too tough for foxes. Foxes may harass hyenas, using their smaller size and greater speed to avoid the hyena 's attacks. Sometimes, foxes seem to deliberately torment hyenas even when there is no food at stake. Some foxes may mistime their attacks, and are killed. Fox remains are often found in hyena dens, and hyenas may steal foxes from traps.
In Eurasia, red foxes may be preyed upon by leopards, caracals and Eurasian lynxes. The lynxes chase red foxes into deep snow, where their longer legs and larger paws give them an advantage over foxes, especially when the depth of the snow exceeds one metre. In the Velikoluki district in Russia, red foxes are absent or are seen only occasionally where lynxes establish permanent territories. Researchers consider lynxes to represent considerably less danger to red foxes than wolves do. North American felid predators of red foxes include cougars, Canadian lynxes and bobcats. Occasionally, large raptors such as Eurasian eagle owls will prey on young foxes, while golden eagles have been known to kill adults.
Red foxes are wide - ranging animals, whose range covers nearly 70 million km (27 million sq mi). They are distributed across the entire Northern Hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, Central America, and Asia. They are absent in Iceland, the Arctic islands, some parts of Siberia, and in extreme deserts.
Red foxes are not present in New Zealand and are classed as a "prohibited new organism '' under the Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996, preventing them from being imported.
In Australia, 2012 estimates indicate that there are more than 7.2 million red foxes with a range extending throughout most of the continental mainland. The species became established in Australia through successive introductions by settlers in 1830s in the British colonies of Van Diemen 's Land (as early as 1833) and the Port Phillip District of New South Wales (as early as 1845) for the purpose of the traditional English sport of fox hunting. A permanent fox population was not established on the island of Tasmania and it is widely held that they were outcompeted by the Tasmanian devil. On the mainland, however, the species was successful as an apex predator. It is generally less common in areas where the dingo is more prevalent, however it has, primarily through its burrowing behaviour, achieved niche differentiation with both the feral dog and the feral cat. As such it has become one of the continent 's most invasive species. The red fox has been implicated in the extinction and decline of several native Australian species, particularly those of the family Potoroidae including the desert rat - kangaroo. The spread of red foxes across the southern part of the continent has coincided with the spread of rabbits in Australia and corresponds with declines in the distribution of several medium - sized ground - dwelling mammals, including brush - tailed bettongs, burrowing bettongs, rufous bettongs, bilbys, numbats, bridled nailtail wallabys and quokkas. Most of these species are now limited to areas (such as islands) where red foxes are absent or rare. Local eradication programs exist, although eradication has proven difficult due to the denning behaviour and nocturnal hunting, so the focus is on management with the introduction of state bounties. According to the Tasmanian government, red foxes were introduced to the previously fox - free island of Tasmania in 1999 or 2000, posing a significant threat to native wildlife including the eastern bettong, and an eradication program conducted by the Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries and Water has been established.
The origin of the Sardinian ichnusae subspecies is uncertain, as it is absent from Pleistocene deposits in their current homeland. It is possible it originated during the Neolithic following its introduction to the island by humans. It is likely then that Sardinian fox populations stem from repeated introductions of animals from different localities in the Mediterranean. This latter theory may explain the subspecies ' phenotypic diversity.
Red foxes are the most important rabies vector in Europe. In London, arthritis is not uncommon in foxes, being particularly frequent in the spine. Foxes may be infected with leptospirosis and tularemia, though they are not overly susceptible to the latter. They may also fall ill from listeriosis and spirochetosis, as well as acting as vectors in spreading erysipelas, brucellosis and tick - born encephalitis. A mysterious fatal disease near Lake Sartlan in the Novosibirsk Oblast was noted among local red foxes, but the cause was undetermined. The possibility was considered that it was caused by an acute form of encephalomyelitis, which was first observed in captive bred silver foxes. Individual cases of foxes infected with Yersinia pestis are known.
Red foxes are not readily prone to infestation with fleas. Species like Spilopsyllus cuniculi are probably only caught from the fox 's prey species, while others like Archaeopsylla erinacei are caught whilst travelling. Fleas that feed on red foxes include Pulex irritans, Ctenocephalides canis and Paraceras melis. Ticks such as Ixodes ricinus and I. hexagonus are not uncommon in foxes, and are typically found on nursing vixens and kits still in their earths. The louse Trichodectes vulpis specifically targets foxes, but is found infrequently. The mite Sarcoptes scabiei is the most important cause of mange in red foxes. It causes extensive hair loss, starting from the base of the tail and hindfeet, then the rump before moving on to the rest of the body. In the final stages of the condition, foxes can lose most of their fur, 50 % of their body weight and may gnaw at infected extremities. In the epizootic phase of the disease, it usually takes foxes four months to die after infection. Other endoparasites include Demodex folliculorum, Notoderes, Otodectes cynotis (which is frequently found in the ear canal), Linguatula serrata (which infects the nasal passages) and ringworms.
Up to 60 helminth species are known to infect foxes in fur farms, while 20 are known in the wild. Several coccidian species of the genera Isospora and Eimeria are also known to infect them. The most common nematode species found in fox guts are Toxocara canis and Uncinaria stenocephala, Capillaria aerophila and Crenosoma vulpis, the latter two infect their lungs. Capillaria plica infect the fox 's bladder. Trichinella spiralis rarely affects them. The most common tapeworm species in foxes are Taenia spiralis and T. pisiformis. Others include Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis. Eleven trematode species infect red foxes, including Metorchis conjunctus.
Red foxes feature prominently in the folklore and mythology of human cultures with which they are sympatric. In Greek mythology, the Teumessian fox or Cadmean vixen, was a gigantic fox that was destined never to be caught. The fox was one of the children of Echidna.
In Celtic mythology, the red fox is a symbolic animal. In the Cotswolds, witches were thought to take the shape of foxes to steal butter from their neighbours. In later European folklore, the figure of Reynard the Fox symbolises trickery and deceit. He originally appeared (then under the name of "Reinardus '') as a secondary character in the 1150 poem "Ysengrimus ''. He reappeared in 1175 in Pierre Saint Cloud 's Le Roman de Renart, and made his debut in England in Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Nun 's Priest 's Tale. Many of Reynard 's adventures may stem from actual observations on fox behaviour; he is an enemy of the wolf and has a fondness for blackberries and grapes.
Chinese folk tales tell of fox - spirits called huli jing that may have up to nine tails, or kumiho as they are known in Korea. In Japanese mythology, the kitsune are fox - like spirits possessing magical abilities that increase with their age and wisdom. Foremost among these is the ability to assume human form. While some folktales speak of kitsune employing this ability to trick others, other stories portray them as faithful guardians, friends, lovers, and wives. In Arab folklore, the fox is considered a cowardly, weak, deceitful, and cunning animal, said to feign death by filling its abdomen with air to appear bloated, then lies on its side, awaiting the approach of unwitting prey. The animal 's cunning was noted by the authors of the Bible, and applied the word "fox '' to false prophets (Ezekiel 13: 4) and the hypocrisy of Herod Antipas (Luke 13: 32).
The cunning Fox is commonly found in Native American mythology, where it is portrayed as an almost constant companion to Coyote. Fox, however, is a deceitful companion that often steals Coyote 's food. In the Achomawi creation myth, Fox and Coyote are the co-creators of the world, that leave just before the arrival of humans. The Yurok tribe believed that Fox, in anger, captured the sun, and tied him to a hill, causing him to burn a great hole in the ground. An Inuit story tells of how Fox, portrayed as a beautiful woman, tricks a hunter into marrying her, only to resume her true form and leave after he offends her. A Menominee story tells of how Fox is an untrustworthy friend to the Wolf.
The earliest historical records of fox hunting come from the fourth century BC; Alexander the Great is known to have hunted foxes and a seal dated from 350 BC depicts a Persian horseman in the process of spearing a fox. Xenophon, who viewed hunting as part of a cultured man 's education, advocated the killing of foxes as pests, as they distracted hounds from hares. The Romans were hunting foxes by 80 AD. During the Dark Ages in Europe, foxes were considered secondary quarries, but gradually grew in importance. Cnut the Great reclassed foxes as Beasts of the Chase, a lower category of quarry than Beasts of Venery. Foxes were gradually hunted less as vermin and more as Beasts of the Chase, to the point that by the late 1200s, Edward I had a royal pack of foxhounds and a specialised fox huntsman. In this period, foxes were increasingly hunted above ground with hounds, rather than underground with terriers. Edward, Second Duke of York assisted the climb of foxes as more prestigious quarries in his The Master of Game. By the Renaissance, fox hunting became a traditional sport of the nobility. After the English Civil War caused a drop in deer populations, fox hunting grew in popularity. By the mid-1600s, Britain was divided into fox hunting territories, with the first fox hunting clubs being formed (the first was the Charlton Hunt Club in 1737). The popularity of fox hunting in Britain reached a peak during the 1700s. Although already native to North America, red foxes from England were imported for sporting purposes to Virginia and Maryland in 1730 by prosperous tobacco planters. These American fox hunters considered the red species more sporting than grey species.
The grays furnished more fun, the reds more excitement. The grays did not run so far, but usually kept near home, going in a circuit of six or eight miles. ' An old red, generally so called irrespective of age, as a tribute to his prowess, might lead the dogs all day, and end by losing them as evening fell, after taking them a dead stretch for thirty miles. The capture of a gray was what men boasted of; a chase after ' an old red ' was what they ' yarned ' about.
Red foxes are still widely persecuted as pests, with human - caused deaths among the highest causes of mortality in the species. Annual fox kills are: UK 21,500 -- 25,000 (2000); Germany 600,000 (2000 -- 2001); Austria 58,000 (2000 -- 2001); Sweden 58,000 (1999 -- 2000); Finland 56,000 (2000 -- 2001); Denmark 50,000 (1976 -- 1977); Switzerland 34,832 (2001); Norway 17,000 (2000 -- 2001); Saskatchewan (Canada) 2,000 (2000 -- 2001); Nova Scotia (Canada) 491 (2000 -- 2001); Minnesota (US) 4,000 - 8,000 (average annual trapping harvest 2002 - 2009); New Mexico (US) 69 (1999 -- 2000).
Red foxes are among the most important furbearing animals harvested by the fur trade. Their pelts are used for trimmings, scarfs, muffs, jackets and coats. They are principally used as trimming for both cloth coats and fur garments, including evening wraps. The pelts of silver - morph foxes are popular as capes, while cross foxes are mostly used for scarves and rarely for trimming. The number of sold fox scarves exceeds the total number of scarves made from other furbearers. However, this amount is overshadowed by the total number of fox pelts used for trimming purposes. The silver morphs are the most valued by furriers, followed by the cross and red morphs respectively. > In the early 1900s, over 1,000 American fox skins were imported to Britain annually, while 500,000 were exported annually from Germany and Russia. The total worldwide trade of wild red foxes in 1985 -- 86 was 1,543,995 pelts. Foxes amounted to 45 % of US wild - caught pelts worth $50 million. Pelt prices are increasing, with 2012 North American wholesale auction prices averaging $39, and 2013 prices averaging $65.78.
North American red foxes, particularly those of northern Alaska, are the most valued for their fur, as they have guard hairs of a silky texture, which, after dressing, allow the wearer unrestricted mobility. Red foxes living in southern Alaska 's coastal areas and the Aleutian Islands are an exception, as they have extremely coarse pelts that rarely exceed one - third of the price of their northern Alaskan cousins. Most European peltries have coarse - textured fur compared to North American varieties. The only exceptions are the Nordic and Far Eastern Russian peltries, but they are still inferior to North American peltries in terms of silkiness.
Red foxes may on occasions prey on lambs. Usually, lambs targeted by foxes tend to be physically weakened specimens, but not invariably. Lambs belonging to small breeds, such as Blackface, are more vulnerable than larger breeds such as Merino. Twins may be more vulnerable to foxes than singlets, as ewes can not effectively defend both simultaneously. Crossbreeding small, upland ewes with larger, lowland rams can cause difficult and prolonged labour for ewes due to the heaviness of the resulting offspring, thus making the lambs more at risk to fox predation. Lambs born from gimmers (ewes breeding for the first time) are more often killed by foxes than those of experienced mothers, who stick closer to their young.
Red foxes may prey on domestic rabbits and guinea pigs if they are kept in open runs or are allowed to range freely in gardens. This problem is usually averted by housing them in robust hutches and runs. Urban foxes frequently encounter cats and may feed alongside them. In physical confrontations, the cats usually have the upper hand. Authenticated cases of foxes killing cats usually involve kittens. Although most foxes do not prey on cats, some may do so, and may treat them more as competitors rather than food.
In their unmodified wild state, red foxes are generally unsuitable as pets. Many supposedly abandoned kits are adopted by well - meaning people during the spring period, though it is unlikely that vixens would abandon their young. Actual orphans are rare, and the ones that are adopted are likely kits that simply strayed from their den site. Kits require almost constant supervision; when still suckling, they require milk at four - hour intervals day and night. Once weaned, they may become destructive to leather objects, furniture and electric cables. Though generally friendly toward people when young, captive red foxes become fearful of humans, save for their handlers, once they reach 10 weeks of age. They maintain their wild counterpart 's strong instinct of concealment, and may pose a threat to domestic birds, even when well fed. Although suspicious of strangers, they can form bonds with cats and dogs, even ones bred for fox hunting. Tame foxes were once used to draw ducks close to hunting blinds.
A strain of truly domesticated red foxes was introduced by Russian geneticist Dmitry Belyayev who, over a 40 - year period, bred several generations of silver morph foxes on fur farms, selecting only those individuals that showed the least fear of humans. Eventually, Belyayev 's team selected only those that showed the most positive response to humans, thus resulting in a population of foxes whose behaviour and appearance was significantly changed. After about ten generations of controlled breeding, these foxes no longer showed any fear of humans, and often wagged their tails and licked their human caretakers to show affection. These behavioural changes were accompanied by physical alterations, which included piebald coats, floppy ears in pups, and curled tails, similar to traits that distinguish domestic dogs from wolves.
Red foxes have been exceedingly successful in colonising built - up environments, especially lower - density suburbs, although many have also been sighted in dense urban areas far from the countryside. Throughout the twentieth century, they established themselves in many Australian, European, Japanese, and North American cities. The species first colonised British cities during the 1930s, entering Bristol and London during the 1940s, and later established themselves in Cambridge and Norwich. In Australia, red foxes were recorded in Melbourne as early as the 1930s, while in Zurich, Switzerland, they only starting appearing in the 1980s. Urban red foxes are most common in residential suburbs consisting of privately owned, low - density housing. They are rare in areas where industry, commerce or council - rented houses predominate. In these latter areas, the distribution is of a lower average density because they rely less on human resources; the home range of these foxes average from 80 -- 90 hectares (200 -- 220 acres), whereas those in more residential areas average from 25 -- 40 hectares (60 -- 100 acres).
In 2006 it was estimated that there were 10,000 foxes in London. City - dwelling foxes may have the potential to consistently grow larger than their rural counterparts, as a result of abundant scraps and a relative dearth of predators. In cities foxes may scavenge food from litter bins and bin bags, although much of their diet will be similar to rural foxes.
Urban red foxes are most active at dusk and dawn, doing most of their hunting and scavenging at these times. It is uncommon to spot them during the day, but they can be caught sunbathing on roofs of houses or sheds. Foxes will often make their homes in hidden and undisturbed spots in urban areas as well as on the edges of a city, visiting at night for sustenance. While foxes will scavenge successfully in the city (and the foxes tend to eat anything that the humans eat) some urban residents will deliberately leave food out for the animals, finding them endearing. Doing this regularly can attract foxes to one 's home; they can become accustomed to human presence, warming up to their providers by allowing themselves to be approached and in some cases even played with, particularly young cubs.
Urban foxes can cause problems for local residents. Foxes have been known to steal chickens, disrupt rubbish bins and damage gardens. Most complaints about urban foxes made to local authorities occur during the breeding season in late January / early February or from late April to August, when the new cubs are developing. In the UK, hunting foxes in urban areas is banned, and shooting them in an urban environment is not suitable. One alternative to hunting urban foxes has been to trap them, which appears to be a more viable method. However, killing foxes has little effect on the population in an urban area; those that are killed are very soon replaced, either by new cubs during the breeding season or by other foxes moving into the territory of those that were killed. A more effective method of fox control is to deter them from the specific areas they inhabit. Deterrents such as creosote, diesel oil, or ammonia can be used. Cleaning up and blocking access to den locations can also discourage a fox 's return.
In January 2014 it was reported that "Fleet '', a relatively tame urban fox tracked as part of a wider study by the University of Brighton in partnership with the BBC 's Winterwatch, had unexpectedly travelled 195 miles in 21 days from his neighbourhood in Hove, at the western edge of East Sussex, across rural countryside as far as Rye, at the eastern edge of the county. He was still continuing his journey when the GPS collar stopped transmitting, due to suspected water damage. Along with setting a record for the longest journey undertaken by a tracked fox in the United Kingdom, his travels have highlighted the fluidity of movement between rural and urban fox populations.
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when can you start driving in the us | List of countries by minimum Driving age - wikipedia
The minimum driving age is the minimum age at which a person may obtain a driver 's licence to lawfully drive a motor vehicle on public roads. That age is determined by and for each jurisdiction and is most commonly set at 18 years of age, but learner drivers may be permitted on the road at an earlier age under supervision. Before reaching the minimum age for a driver 's licence or anytime afterwards, the person wanting the licence would normally be tested for driving ability and knowledge of road rules before being issued with a licence, provided he or she is above the minimum driving age. Countries with the lowest driving ages (below 17) are Australia, Canada, El Salvador, Iceland, Israel, India, Macedonia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Slovenia, Sweden, the United Kingdom (Mainland), United States and Zimbabwe. In several jurisdictions in the United States and Canada, drivers can be as young as 14.
Most jurisdictions recognise driver 's licences issued by another jurisdiction, which may result in a young person who obtains a licence in a jurisdiction with a low minimum driving age being permitted to drive in a jurisdiction which normally has a higher driving age.
The minimum age may vary depending on vehicle type. This list refers to the minimum driving age for a motor vehicle with a maximum authorized mass not exceeding 3,500 kg and designed and constructed for the carriage of no more than eight passengers in addition to the driver (not including a trailer).
14, 3 months -- 17 (for license)
depending on state
15 (mopeds and micro cars)
16 (mopeds & tractors)
16 (motorcycles)
15 (EPA - tractors and mopeds)
16 (mopeds and tractors)
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who resigned in 1951 and founded new party | Janata party - Wikipedia
The Janata Party (JP or JNP) (translation: People 's Party) was an amalgam of Indian political parties opposed to the State of Emergency that was imposed between 1975 and 1977 by the Government of India under the Prime Ministership of Indira Gandhi and her party, the Indian National Congress (R). In the general election held after the end of the state of emergency in 1977, the Janata party defeated Congress (R) to form the first non-Congress government in the history of the Republic of India.
Raj Narain, a socialist leader, had filed a legal writ alleging electoral malpractice against Indira Gandhi in 1971. On 12 June 1975, Allahabad High Court found her guilty of using corrupt electoral practices in her 1971 election victory over Narain in the Rae Bareli constituency. She was barred from contesting any election for the next six years. Economic problems, corruption and the conviction of Gandhi led to widespread protests against the Congress (R) government, which responded by imposing a State of Emergency. The rationale was that of preserving national security. However, the government introduced press censorship, postponed elections and banned strikes and rallies. Opposition leaders such as Biju Patnaik, Jayaprakash Narayan, Satyendra Narayan Sinha, Jivatram Kripalani and Morarji Desai were imprisoned, along with thousands of other political activists. When the State of Emergency was lifted and new elections called in 1977, opposition political parties such as the Congress (O), Bharatiya Jana Sangh, Bharatiya Lok Dal as well as defectors from the Congress (R) joined to form the Janata party, which won a sweeping majority in the Indian Parliament. Narain defeated Gandhi at Rae Bareli in those elections.
The new Janata - led government reversed many Emergency - era decrees and opened official investigations into Emergency - era abuses. Although several major foreign policy and economic reforms were attempted, continuous in - fighting and ideological differences made the Janata government unable to effectively address national problems. By mid-1979, Prime Minister Morarji Desai was forced to resign and his successor Chaudhary Charan Singh failed to sustain a parliamentary majority as alliance partners withdrew support. Popular disenchantment with the political in - fighting and ineffective government led to the resurgence of Gandhi and her new Congress (I) party, which won the general election called in 1980. Although the original Janata Party fragmented and dissolved, modern political parties continue to invoke its legacy. In August 2013, the party was merged with the Bharatiya Janata Party.
Having led the Indian independence movement, the Indian National Congress became the most popular political party in independent India and won every election following national independence in 1947. However, the Indian National Congress bifurcated in 1967 over the issue of the leadership of Indira Gandhi, the daughter of India 's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Supporters of Indira Gandhi claimed to be the real Congress party, adopting the name Indian National Congress (R) -- where "R '' stood for "Requisition. '' Congress politicians who opposed Indira identified themselves as the Indian National Congress (O) -- where "O '' stood for "Organisation '' or "Old. '' For the 1971 election, the Congress (O), Samyukta Socialist Party and the Bharatiya Jana Sangh had formed a coalition called the "Grand Alliance '' to oppose Indira Gandhi and the Congress (R), but failed to have an impact; Indira 's Congress (R) won a large majority in the 1971 elections and her popularity increased significantly after India 's victory in the war of 1971 against Pakistan.
However, Indira 's subsequent inability to address serious issues such as unemployment, poverty, inflation and shortages eroded her popularity. The frequent invoking of "President 's rule '' to dismiss state governments led by opposition political parties was seen as authoritarian and opportunist. Political leaders such as Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Kripalani and Congress (O) chief Morarji Desai condemned Indira 's government as dictatorial and corrupt. Narayan and Desai founded the Janata Morcha (People 's Front), the predecessor of what would become the Janata party. The Janata Morcha won the elections for the Vidhan Sabha (State Legislature) of the state of Gujarat on 11 June 1975.
Raj Narain, a leader of the Socialist Party (India), who had unsuccessfully contested election against Indira from the constituency of Rae Bareilly in 1971, lodged a case at the Allahabad High Court, alleging electoral malpractices and the use of government resources for her election campaign. On 12 June 1975 in State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain, the Allahabad High Court found Indira guilty and barred her from holding public office for six years. Opposition politicians immediately demanded her resignation and stepped up mass protests against the government. On 25 June, Narayan and Desai held a massive rally in Delhi, calling for a "Satyagraha '' -- a campaign of non-violent civil disobedience to force the government to resign.
On 25 June 1975, the President of India, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, accepted prime minister Indira Gandhi 's recommendation to declare a state of national emergency. Indira argued that the political and civil disorder constituted a threat to national security. A state of emergency enabled the central government to issue executive decrees without requiring the consent of Parliament. Elections were postponed and public gatherings, rallies and strikes were banned. Curfews were imposed and police forces were empowered to make warrantless searches, seizures and arrests. Indira 's government imposed "President 's rule '' in the states of Tamil Nadu and Gujarat, dismissing the governments controlled by opposition political parties. The central government also imposed censorship on radio, television and newspapers. Across the country, police forces arrested thousands of opposition political activists, as well as leaders such as Jayaprakash Narayan, Jivatram Kripalani, Morarji Desai, Satyendra Narayan Sinha, Raj Narain, Vijay Raje Scindhia, Charan Singh, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Lal Krishna Advani and others. Opposition political organisations such as the Hindu nationalist Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) were banned and their leaders arrested. Only the Communist Party of India supported the state of emergency. Due to the advancing age and failing health, Narayan was released from prison, but remained prohibited from political activity.
During the Emergency, Indira Gandhi implemented a 20 - point program of economic reforms that resulted in greater economic growth, aided by the absence of strikes and trade union conflicts. Encouraged by these positive signs and distorted and biased information from her party supporters, Indira called elections for May 1977. However, the emergency era had been widely unpopular. The most controversial issue was the 42nd amendment to the Constitution of India, which deprived citizens of direct access to the Supreme Court, except when violation of the fundamental rights resulted from Union law. The Parliament was given unrestrained power to amend any parts of the Constitution. The Supreme Court was given exclusive jurisdiction as regards determination of the constitutional validity of laws passed by the Union government. It restricted the power of the courts to issue stay orders or injunctions. Almost all parts of the Constitution saw changes through this amendment. The clampdown on civil liberties and allegations of widespread abuse of human rights by police had angered the public. Indira Gandhi was believed to be under the influence of a clique of politicians led by her youngest son, Sanjay Gandhi, who had become notorious for using his influence in the government and the Congress (R) for alleged corrupt activities. Sanjay Gandhi had masterminded the Union government 's unpopular campaign of family planning, which had allegedly involved forcible sterilisation of young men by government officials. Sanjay Gandhi had also instigated the demolition of slums in the Jama Masjid area of New Delhi, the national capital, which left thousands of people, mostly Muslims, homeless. Indian labourers, urban workers, teachers and government employees were also disenchanted by wage freezes and the curtailing of trade union activities and rights.
Calling elections on 18 January 1977 the government released political prisoners and weakened restrictions and censorship on the press, although the state of emergency was not officially ended. When opposition leaders sought the support of Jayaprakash Narayan for the forthcoming election, Narayan insisted that all opposition parties form a united front. The Janata party was officially launched on 23 January 1977 when the Janata Morcha, Charan Singh 's Bharatiya Lok Dal, Swatantra Party, the Socialist Party of India of Raj Narain and George Fernandes, and the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS) joined together, dissolving their separate identities (the merger of all party organisations was to be completed after the election). Although the political ideologies of Janata constituents were diverse and conflicting, the party was able to unite under the over-reaching appeal of Jayaprakash Narayan, who had been seen as the ideological leader of the anti-Emergency movement and now the Janata party. Morarji Desai was elected the first party chairman. Ramakrishna Hegde became the party general secretary, and Jana Sangh politician Lal Krishna Advani became the party spokesperson.
The Janata manifesto was released on 10 February, which declared that the coming election presented voters with:
As it became clear that Indira 's Emergency rule had been widely unpopular, defections from the Congress (R) government increased. The most significant was that of Jagjivan Ram, who commanded great support amongst India 's Dalit communities. A former Minister of Defence, Ram left the Congress (R) and along with his supporters formed the Congress for Democracy on 2 February 1977. Other co-founders included the former Chief Minister of Orissa Nandini Satpathy, former Union Minister of State for Finance K.R. Ganesh, former M.P.D.N. Tiwari and Bihar politician Raj Mangal Pandey.
Although committing to contest the election with the Janata party, Ram resisted merging his party organisation with Janata. It was ultimately decided that the Congress for Democracy would contest the election with the same manifesto as the Janata party and would join the Janata party in Parliament, but would otherwise retain a separate identity (the CFD would merge with the Janata party after the elections on 5 May). On 30 January 1977 the Communist Party of India (Marxist) announced that it would seek to avoid a splintering in the opposition vote by not running candidates against the Janata party.
Congress (Urs) leaders like Devaraj Urs joined Janata Party in the later stage.
During the election campaign, the leaders of the Congress (R) and the Janata party travelled across the country to rally supporters. Indira and her Congress (R) promoted the record of achieving economic development and orderly government. Although she offered apologies for abuses committed during the Emergency, Indira and the Congress (R) defended the rationale 455 of imposing the state of emergency as being essential for national security. On the other hand, Janata leaders assailed Indira for ruling as a dictator and endangering human rights and democracy in India. Janata 's campaign evoked memories of India 's freedom struggle against British rule, during which Jayaprakash Narayan, Jivatram Kripalani and Morarji Desai had first emerged as political leaders. Although Narayan and Kripalani did not seek office themselves, they became the leading campaigners for the Janata party, drawing great masses of people in rallies across the country.
Actions taken during Emergency significantly diminished support for the Congress (R) amongst its most loyal constituencies. The bulldozing of slums near the Jama Masjid was widely unpopular amongst India 's Muslims, and the defection of Jagjivan Ram significantly diminished support for the Congress (R) amongst India 's Dalits. BLD leader Charan Singh 's peasant roots helped him raise considerable support in the rural parts of Uttar Pradesh, the most populous state of India. The Shiromani Akali Dal, the party of the Sikhs of Punjab and regional political parties such as the Tamil Nadu - based Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam became important allies. The leaders of the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Jana Sangh rallied India 's middle - class merchants, traders and conservative Hindus. The Hindu nationalist RSS and trade unions aligned with Janata helped rally considerable voting blocs.
The 1977 election drew a turnout of 60 % from an electorate of more than 320 million. On 23 March, it was announced that the Janata party had won a sweeping victory, securing 43.2 % of the popular vote and 271 seats. With the support of the Akali Dal and the Congress for Democracy, it had amassed a two - thirds, or absolute majority of 345 seats. Although the Congress for Democracy won 28 seats, Ram 's standing as a national Dalit leader and moving a significant share of the Dalit vote to the Janata party and its allies won him considerable influence.
In contrast to the rest of the country, the Janata party won only six seats from India 's southern states -- none from the state of Kerala -- where the Emergency had not caused political unrest. The Congress (R) won a total of 153 seats, mainly from India 's south. However, Janata candidates resoundingly defeated Congress (R) candidates in the northern "Hindi belt '', especially in Uttar Pradesh. One of the most shocking outcomes of the election was the defeat of Indira Gandhi in her bid to seek re-election from her constituency of Rae Bareilly, which she lost to her 1971 opponent Raj Narain by a margin of 55,200 votes. The Congress (R) did not win any seats in Uttar Pradesh and was wiped out in 10 states and territories by Janata candidates.
Summary of the 1977 March Lok Sabha election results of India, using alliances under Morarji Government from 1977 - 79 Sources: (1)
On the morning of 24 March, Jayaprakash Narayan and Jivatram Kripalani led the newly elected Janata MPs to Raj Ghat, where the ashes of Mahatma Gandhi were laid, and administered a pledge to continue Gandhi 's work and preserve honesty in serving the nation. Immediately afterwards, the Janata party faced a serious challenge in choosing a leader to become India 's new prime minister, where the rival bids of party leaders could divide the party and weaken its majority before it took power. Janata party chairman Morarji Desai, Charan Singh and Jagjivan Ram enjoyed the support of a significant number of Janata MPs and the activists brought from their own political parties into the Janata organisation. To avoid a potentially divisive contest, Janata leaders asked Jayaprakash Narayan and Jivatram Kripalani to select the party 's leader, pledging to abide by their choice. After a period of deliberation, Narayan and Kripalani selected Morarji Desai to become the chairman of the Janata Parliamentary Party on 24 May. Although some leaders such as George Fernandes and Jagjivan Ram hesitated to support Desai and criticised the undemocratic method of selection, Desai 's position was soon confirmed and consolidated.
Taking office as prime minister, Desai also took charge of the Ministry of Finance. He sought to carefully distribute important posts to satisfy Janata 's different constituents and the most powerful party leaders who were rivals for his own position of leadership. Both Charan Singh and Jagjivan Ram were accorded the title of deputy prime minister. Charan Singh became the Minister of Home Affairs, the second-most important position in the Council of Ministers, while Jagjivan Ram took charge of the Ministry of Defence. BJS leaders Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Lal Krishna Advani were respectively given charge of the Ministry of External Affairs and the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Raj Narain was appointed Minister of Health, Madhu Dandavate was to head the Ministry of Railways and trade unionist George Fernandes was made the Minister of Communications. Jurist Shanti Bhushan was appointed Minister of Law and Justice. Congress (O) veteran and Janata candidate Neelam Sanjiva Reddy won the presidential election to become the 6th President of India on 25 July 1977.
The results of its election defeat considerably weakened and diminished the Congress (R). Significant numbers of Congress (R) MPs and activists condemned Indira 's leadership and left the party. As a result, MPs still loyal to Indira Gandhi renamed their party to Congress (I) -- "I '' standing for Indira. Although no longer an MP, Indira Gandhi continued as the president of Congress (I), which remained the largest opposition party.
The first actions taken by the Desai government were to formally end the state of emergency and media censorship and repeal the controversial executive decrees issued during the Emergency. The Constitution was amended to make it more difficult for any future government to declare a state of emergency; fundamental freedoms and the independence of India 's judiciary was reaffirmed.
The new government also proceeded to withdraw all charges against the 25 accused in the Baroda dynamite case, which included the new Minister of Industry, George Fernandes. The Minister of Railways reinstated the railway employees disciplined after the May 1974 strike. The Desai government proceeded to establish inquiry commissions and tribunals to investigate allegations of corruption and human rights abuses by members of Indira Gandhi 's government, political party and the police forces. Specific inquiries were instituted on Sanjay Gandhi 's management of the state - owned Maruti Udyog Ltd., the activities of the former Minister of Defence Bansi Lal and the 1971 Nagarwala scandal. Both Indira and her son Sanjay were charged with allegations of corruption and briefly arrested.
Immediately upon taking office, the Janata government pressured the ten state governments where the Congress (R) was in power to dissolve the state assemblies and hold fresh elections in June. Tamil Nadu witnessed the massive victory of the AIADMK, led by M.G. Ramachandran, former matinee idol, who enjoyed a semi-divine status and respect from the people of the state, for his selfless and sincere nature of politics. Home Minister Charan Singh argued that the ruling party had been resoundingly rejected by voters and would need to win a new mandate from the people of the states. The Congress (R) was defeated in all the states, and the Janata party took power in seven -- Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh. In Punjab, the Janata party formed a coalition government with the Akali Dal.In Bihar, Karpuri Thakur won the closely contested janta legislature party leadership from the then Bihar Janata Party chief Satyendra Narayan Sinha to become the Bihar Chief Minister. The number of Janata members of the legislative assemblies (MLAs) of all the states increased from 386 to 1,246 seats. The government also called fresh elections in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, where the Janata party won 13 seats to the Congress ' 11, and the veteran Kashmiri politician Sheikh Abdullah returned to power after having been dismissed in 1953.
Prime Minister Morarji Desai and the Minister of External Affairs Atal Bihari Vajpayee began significant changes in India 's foreign policy, moving away from the course adopted by Indira 's government. Both Pakistan and China had celebrated the ouster of Indira Gandhi, who had preserved a hardline stance against India 's rival neighbours. In 1979, Atal Bihari Vajpayee became the highest - ranking Indian official to visit Beijing, meeting China 's leaders. The Desai government re-established diplomatic relations with the People 's Republic of China, which had been severed due to the Sino - Indian War of 1962. Both nations established regular dialogue to resolve long - standing territorial disputes, expand trade and enhance border security. The Desai government ended India 's support for the guerrillas loyal to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the founding leader of Bangladesh, who had been assassinated in 1975 by military officers and replaced by a military regime that sought to distance itself from India.
India also sought to improve relations with the United States, which had been strained due to the latter 's support for Pakistan during the 1971 war and India 's subsequent proximity with the Soviet Union. The Janata government announced its desire to achieve "genuine '' non-alignment in the Cold War, which had been the long - standing national policy. In 1978, Jimmy Carter became the first U.S. president to make an official visit to India. Both nations sought to improve trade and expand cooperation in science and technology. Vajpayee represented India at the U.N. conference on nuclear disarmament, defending India 's nuclear programme and its refusal to sign non-proliferation treaties.
The Janata government had lesser success in achieving economic reforms. It launched the Sixth Five - Year Plan, aiming to boost agricultural production and rural industries. Seeking to promote economic self - reliance and indigenous industries, the government required multi-national corporations to go into partnership with Indian corporations. The policy proved controversial, diminishing foreign investment and led to the high - profile exit of corporations such as Coca - Cola and IBM from India. But the government was unable to address the issues of resurging inflation, fuel shortages, unemployment and poverty. The legalisation of strikes and re-empowerment of trade unions affected business efficiency and economic production.
Despite a strong start, the Janata government began to wither as significant ideological and political divisions emerged. The party consisted of veteran socialists, trade unionists and pro-business leaders, making major economic reforms difficult to achieve without triggering a public divide. Socialists and secular Janata politicians shared an aversion to the Hindu nationalist agenda of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, whose members included Vajpayee, Advani and other leaders from the former Bharatiya Jana Sangh. Violence between Hindus and Muslims led to further confrontations within the Janata party, with most Janata leaders demanding that Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Lal Krishna Advani choose between staying in government and being members of the RSS. Both Vajpayee and Advani as well as other members of the former BJS opted to remain members of the RSS and consequently resigned from their posts and from the party.
The decline in the popularity of the Janata government was aided by the stalled prosecution of Emergency - era abuses. The government had failed to prove most of the allegations and obtained few convictions. Cases against Indira Gandhi had also stalled for lack of evidence, and her continued prosecution began to evoke sympathy for her from the Indian public and anger of her supporters, who saw it as a "witch hunt. ''
Through 1979, support for Morarji Desai had declined considerably due to worsening economic conditions as well as the emergence of allegations of nepotism and corruption involving members of his family. Desai 's confrontational attitude eroded his support. His main rival Charan Singh had developed an acrimonious relationship with Desai. Protesting Desai 's leadership, Singh resigned and withdrew the support of his BLD. Desai also lost the support of the secular and socialist politicians in the party, who saw him as favouring the Hindu nationalist BJS. On 19 July 1979 Desai resigned from the government and eventually retired to his home in Mumbai (then Bombay). The failing health of Jayaprakash Narayan made it hard for him to remain politically active and act as a unifying influence, and his death in 1979 deprived the party of its most popular leader. Dissidents projected Charan Singh as the new prime minister in place of Desai.
President Reddy appointed Charan Singh as the Prime Minister of a minority government on the strength of 64 MPs, calling upon him to form a new government and prove his majority. The departure of Desai and the BJS had considerably diminished Janata 's majority, and numerous Janata MPs refused to support Charan Singh. MPs loyal to Jagjivan Ram withdrew themselves from the Janata party. Former allies such as the DMK, Shiromani Akali Dal and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) had distanced themselves from the Janata party. Desperately seeking enough support for a majority, Charan Singh even sought to negotiate with Congress (I), which refused. After only three weeks in office, Charan Singh resigned. With no other political party in position to establish a majority government, President Reddy dissolved the Parliament and called fresh elections for January 1980.
In the run - up to the 1980 elections, the remaining Janata party leaders tried unsuccessfully to rebuild the party and make fresh alliances. Desai campaigned for the party but did not himself stand for election, preferring retirement from politics. The Congress (I) capitalised on the aversion of the Indian public to another fragile and dysfunctional government by campaigning on the slogan "Elect A Government That Works! '' Indira Gandhi apologised for mistakes made during the Emergency and won the endorsement of respected national leaders such as Vinoba Bhave. At the polls, the candidates running under the Janata ticket were resoundingly defeated -- the party lost 172 seats, winning only 31. Indira Gandhi and the Congress (I) returned to power with a strong majority. Sanjay Gandhi was also elected to the Parliament. President Reddy was succeeded at the end of his term in 1982 by Congress (I) leader Zail Singh.
Between 1980 and 1989, the Janata party maintained a small presence in the Indian Parliament under the leadership of socialist politician Chandra Sekhar. In 1988, it merged into the Janata Dal, which had emerged as the chief opposition party under the leadership of Vishwanath Pratap Singh and the main constituent of the National Front coalition. Singh had become widely popular for exposing the role of the government of prime minister Rajiv Gandhi, the eldest son and successor of Indira, in the Bofors scandal, though on 5 February 2004, the Delhi High Court quashed the charges of bribery against Rajiv Gandhi and others,. Under V.P. Singh, the Janata Dal and the National Front sought to replicate the Janata - style alliance of anti-Congress political parties. Although it failed to win a majority, it managed to form a fragile coalition government with V.P. Singh as the prime minister with the outside support of the BJP and the Communist Party of India (Marxist). However, Singh 's government soon fell victim to intra-party rivalries and power struggles, and his successor Chandra Sekhar 's Janata Dal (Socialist) government lasted barely into 1991.
Although its tenure in office was tumultuous and unsuccessful, the Janata party played a definitive role in Indian politics and history and its legacy remains strong in contemporary India. The Janata party led a popular movement to restore civil liberties, evoking the memories and principles of the Indian independence movement. Its success in ending 30 years of uninterrupted Congress rule helped strengthen India 's multi-party democracy. The term "Janata '' has been used by several major political parties such as the Biju Janata Dal (BJD), Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Janata Dal (United), Janata Dal (Secular), Rashtriya Janata Dal and others.
Participants in the struggle against the Indian Emergency (1975 -- 77) and of the Janata party went on to comprise a new generation of Indian political leaders. Chandra Shekhar, Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Deve Gowda went on to serve as Prime Ministers; Vajpayee led the first non-Congress government to complete a full five - year term from 1999 to 2004. Lal Krishna Advani served as deputy prime minister. Younger politicians such as Subramanian Swamy, Arun Jaitley, Pramod Mahajan, Sushma Swaraj and others were grass - roots activists in the Janata party.
The Janata Party continued to exist led by Subramanian Swamy, which maintained a small presence in the politics of the state of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra, Chandigarh, Delhi and at the national stage. Janata party continued its lead as opposition in AP until the formation of TDP party, due to prominent leaders such as Jaipal Reddy, Babul Reddy and T. Gajula Narasaiah.
Some of the promenient leaders of Janata Party at present are Jagadish Shetty, Aravind Chaturvedi, Smt. Lakshmibai Nalapat, Ajay Jagga, Manoj Mehta, C.S. Baheti and Smt. V.S. Chandralekha.
On the 11 of August 2013, party Chairman Subramanian Swamy merged the Janata Party with the Bharatiya Janata Party in presence of BJP president Rajnath Singh. The announcement was made by Swamy and BJP president Rajnath Singh after they met at the latter 's residence in Delhi. Former BJP president Nitin Gadkari and senior party leader Arun Jaitley were also present at the meet.
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when was the ford sierra launched in the uk | Ford Sierra - wikipedia
The Ford Sierra is a mid-size car or large family car that was built by Ford Europe from 1982 to 1993. It was designed by Uwe Bahnsen, Robert Lutz and Patrick le Quément. The code used during development was "Project Toni '' Its name came from the Spanish word for mountain range.
The Ford Sierra was first unveiled on 22 September 1982 at the British International Motor Show hosted at the NEC in Birmingham. with sales beginning on 15 October 1982, replacing the Ford Cortina. Its aerodynamic styling was ahead of its time and as such, many conservative buyers (including company car drivers) did not take fondly to the Ford Cortina 's replacement.
It was mainly manufactured in Germany, Belgium, and the United Kingdom, although Sierras were also assembled in Ireland, Argentina, Venezuela, South Africa and New Zealand.
Assembly for the Ford Sierra in Ireland was located at the Marina in Cork City, which became the first European vehicle plant for Ford Motor Company outside of the United States in 1932. After an investment in the plant of £ 10 million in 1982 to upgrade it for KD kit assembly of the Sierra, it briefly had a relatively small production output of the car, which was assembled mainly for export until the plant 's closure two years later in 1984. The former plant at the Marina is now a commercial business park. Some of the factory buildings were demolished in the late 1980s. The Sierra was the 1983 Semperit Irish Car of the Year in Ireland, although it missed out on the European Car of the Year award to the Audi 100.
By 1978, Ford Europe was working on a new mid-range model to replace the Cortina / Taunus during the early 1980s, working under the codename "Project Toni ''.
Ford had confirmed during 1981, a year before the Sierra 's official launch, that its new mid-range car would carry the Sierra name, signalling the end of the Cortina nameplate after 20 years and five generations. In September that year, it had unveiled the Probe III concept car at the Frankfurt Motor Show, hinting at what the new car would look like when the final product was unveiled 12 months later.
At first, many found the design blob - like and difficult to accept after being used to the sharp - edged, straight - line styling of the Cortina, and it was nicknamed "the jellymould ''. It was also nicknamed "the salesman 's spaceship '' on account of its status as a popular fleet car in Britain. Sales were slow at first - the situation being exacerbated by heavy discounting by Ford dealers of surplus Cortina stock from the autumn of 1982 onwards, with more than 11,000 new Cortinas being registered in 1983, although the Sierra still managed nearly 160,000 sales in Britain that year, outsold only by the smaller Escort. Ford had also launched the Escort - based Orion saloon that year, which also found favour with buyers who would normally have bought a Cortina or another similarly sized family saloon.
In West Germany, it was proving very popular from an early stage; within months of its launch, it was reportedly achieving treble the number of sales that the Taunus had been attaining - although in West Germany the Taunus had not been quite as popular or iconic as its Cortina equivalent had been in Britain.
It was later in the Sierra 's life that the styling began to pay off; ten years after its introduction, the Sierra 's styling was not nearly as outdated as its contemporaries, even though all major competitors were newer designs, although the Sierra had been tweaked on several occasions and many new engines had been added. The most notable changes came at the start of 1987, with a major facelift and the addition of a 4 - door saloon (UK: Sapphire). As other manufacturers adopted similar aerodynamic styling, the Sierra looked more normal. At its peak, it was Britain 's second best selling car in 1983, 1988 and 1989, and was still Britain 's fifth best selling car in 1992. Its best year was 1989, when more than 175,000 were sold. However, it was outsold by the Vauxhall Cavalier in MK2 form during 1984 and 1985, and then from 1990 until its demise by the MK3 Cavalier. Nevertheless, it comfortably outsold its second key rival, the Austin Montego, which was launched in April 1984. Between 1985 and 1988, the Sierra faced fresh competition in Europe from the likes of the Renault 21 and Peugeot 405, while Japanese carmaker Nissan was producing its Bluebird model in Britain from 1986.
Early versions suffered from crosswind stability problems, which were addressed in 1985 with the addition of "strakes '' (small spoilers), on the rear edge of the rubber seals of the rear-most side windows. These shortcomings saw a lot of press attention, and contributed to early slow sales, when it was outsold by its key rival the Vauxhall Cavalier in 1984 and 1985. Other rumours that the car hid major crash damage (in part true, as the new bumper design sprung back after minor impact and could n't be "read '' to interpret major damage) also harmed the car 's reputation. This reached near - hysterical heights in its early months on sale, with UK press making a report that Ford would reintroduce the previous Cortina model out of desperation. These reports were swiftly denied by Ford. However, sales began to rise during 1983, and it finished as Britain 's second best selling car behind the Escort. After being outsold by the Cavalier for the next two years, it regained its lead of the market sector in Britain during 1986, and a refreshed range (with more engine options as well as the introduction of a saloon) enjoyed a surge in sales from 1987, although the MK3 Cavalier finally outsold it in 1990. Even in 1992, the Sierra was still Britain 's fifth best selling car.
Additionally, earlier models used the 1.6 - and 2 - litre versions of the Pinto engine (as used in the Ford Cortina) paired with a 4 - speed manual gearbox. At a time when the rival Vauxhall Cavalier was offered with a 5 - speed option, this led to some critics commenting that the Sierra was somewhat underpowered. In the mid 1980s, many smaller cars (some even two sectors smaller) featured 5 - speed gearboxes.
At its launch some of the Sierra 's external styling differed depending on the specification. In place of the model 's regular two - bar grille, which was unpainted on the lowest specification model, the Ghia featured a narrower blanked - off grille between wider, but still inset, headlights while the front bumper was also restyled and featured combined indicator / foglight units compared to the lower specification model 's slimmer but wider indicator units. The XR4i had an identical front end to the Ghia, bar the bumper which was slightly different. The rear lights of the Ghia were the same shape and layout as other models, but featured tiny horizontal strakes on the lenses to give the impression that they were smoked. For the 1985 model year, all the lower spec models, except the base model, adopted the Ghia and XR4i 's front grille and headlight treatment.
The car was replaced by the Mondeo in Europe in March 1993, although stocks lasted for about two years afterwards. It remained a popular second - hand buy and common sight on British roads until well beyond the year 2000.
In Europe 's largest auto - market, the magazine Auto, Motor und Sport published, in December 1982, a three - way road test comparison involving the Sierra and its obvious competitors, the recently upgraded Volkswagen Passat and Opel Ascona (Vauxhall Cavalier Mk II in the UK). Then as now, a part of the magazine 's comparison road test report was a comparison chart rating each of approximately 100 attributes of cars tested out of ten or twenty points (according to importance) and then ranking the cars tested according to the total number of points awarded. On this basis the Sierra tested in 1982 outranked both the Passat and the Ascona. The significance of this result was highlighted more than three decades later, in February 2015, when the magazine reported that no Ford model had beaten a Volkswagen under their road test criteria since the Sierra 's "victory '' in 1982.
Just before he became leader of the Labour Party in 1983, Neil Kinnock became the owner of one of the first Sierras produced for the British market, but his car was wrecked in a crash on the M4 motorway in Berkshire soon after he bought it. He escaped from the crash uninjured.
In 1985, at the Geneva Motor Show, the four - wheel drive Sierra XR4x4 was shown as successor for the XR4i. It had two viscous differentials with two thirds of the power directed towards the rear wheels. It was available as a three - or five - door hatchback. In some markets the estate became available with this drivetrain for the 1987 model year, but with Ghia rather than XR4x4 badging. This version was better equipped and without the sporting edge of the hatchbacks. The XR4x4 did not have the distinctive biplane rear spoiler of the XR4 but did receive unique alloy wheels. The four - wheel drive allowed for an extra margin of security on slick or snowy roads, while retaining the car 's rear - wheel drive comportment. The XR4x4 originally came equipped with the 2.8 litre Cologne V6 engine using the same Bosch K - Jetronic mechanical injection system used since 1977 in the Granada, and since 1981 in the Capri, but it was replaced in 1989 by the new more efficient 2.9 litre Cologne V6 engine, with Electronic fuel injection.
In February 1987, a restyled Sierra was launched and a four - door saloon version was added to the range - this was marketed as the Sierra Sapphire on the UK market. The front end was completely revised, with the biggest difference seeing the indicators now positioned above the bumper and to the side of a new headlight design. While the grille again remained blanked - off, UK, Irish and South African versions of the newly introduced saloon bodystyle, featured a unique shallow black grille between the headlights. That apart, all specifications of the Sierra now shared a common front end, compared to the car 's original styling. The side windows were made slightly larger with the corners made sharper to increase outward vision. The rear lights were replaced with slimmer but wider models containing separate stop lamps. The saloon got similar rear lights as the revised hatchbacks, though not interchangeable. The rear end of the estate has never changed during the Sierra 's lifespan. The interior was slightly modernized.
Also new to the range was a new 1.8 litre "lean burn '' petrol engine, which proved to be one of the most popular choices in the Sierra range.
The XR4x4 was now based on the five - door hatchback bodystyle and featured different front and rear body - coloured bumper styling, along with wider side rubbing strips. The RS Cosworth, from January 1988, was now based on the newly introduced saloon bodystyle and featured another style of front bumper as well as the black grille which was only found on UK versions of the saloon bodystyle. The RS Cosworth received more power and four - wheel drive from January 1990. In addition, a roller cam engine was added in 1987 to prevent excessive wear to the cam.
From 1988 a pickup called the P100 was produced in Portugal using the Sierra - cab and engines, replacing the previous Cortina / Taunus - related model.
The Sierra was Ford 's answer to the success of the General Motors "J - car '' (Vauxhall Cavalier in the UK), which had been launched in 1981 with front - wheel drive and a hatchback bodystyle to complement the saloon. Unusually in its sector by that time, the Sierra was still rear - wheel drive.
It was also a strong competitor for other rivals of the early 1980s, including the Talbot Alpine, Peugeot 505 and Morris Ital and the Citroën BX, but by 1988, it was competing with a host of new rivals, including the third generation Vauxhall Cavalier (Opel Vectra), Rover Montego, Peugeot 405, Renault 21 and Nissan Bluebird.
During the life of the car, two different styles of 3 - door body were used; one with two pillars rear of the door, looking very much like a modified 5 - door frame, as used on the high - performance XR4i; and a one - pillar design used on standard - performance 3 - door hatchbacks and also at the other end of the scale as the basis for the very high - performance RS Cosworth. At the time of the car 's launch, both styles were already envisaged, and a demonstration model with one style on either side was displayed at a Sierra design exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. However, the one - pillar design was not launched until 1984.
The Ford Cortina had been manufactured in saloon and estate bodystyles but after the switch to the Sierra, combined with the redesign of the Escort to Mark III level in 1980 and the introduction of the Granada Mark III in 1985, Ford had changed its saloon - based line - up into a hatchback - based one.
The company launched the Ford Orion in 1983 to fill the gap in the saloon range between the late Cortina and the new Sierra. Ford found that customers were more attached to the idea of a saloon than they had expected, and this was further addressed in 1987 by the production of a saloon version of the Sierra. In the UK, this model was called the Ford Sierra Sapphire. This differed from the other Sierra models in having a traditional black grille, which only appeared in right hand drive markets. The 3 - door Sierra was dropped in the UK in 1984, although the Cosworth version continued. Production of the 3 - door Sierra continued in continental Europe, including after the Sierra range was given a facelift in 1987. The remodelled 3 - door was never offered in the UK.
A 5 - door van based on the estate, known as the Sierra Van, was introduced in 1984, which, unlike similar car - derived vans, retained its side windows. The back seat was removed and the metal cargo floor was extended towards the front seats. A diesel engine and a limited choice of petrol engines were available for the Van. This variant was never sold in the UK. although some were produced in right hand drive for the Irish market.
During its career, the Sierra was available with a wide range of petrol engines:
Two diesel engines were available:
1300, 1600 and 2000 engines all have a 4 - speed manual gearbox; a 5 - speed manual gearbox was optional with 1600 and 2000 engines, and standard with the 1600 Economy engine, the 2300 and 2300 Diesel. An optional 3 - speed automatic transmission was available with 1600, 2000 and 2300 engines.
The 2.0 V6 and 2.3 V6 versions of the Sierra were dropped at the end of 1985 and the 1.3 was discontinued in 1986. A 1.8 and 2.0 i petrol engine were added. In 1990, the 2.3 diesel was replaced by a 1.8 turbodiesel. The turbocharged 2.0 RS Cosworth engine featured on all three Cosworth versions of the Sierra; the three - door rear - wheel drive hatchback, the rear - wheel drive saloon, and the four - wheel drive saloon.
The sporting model XR4i utilized the 2.8 engine with mechanical fuel injection (Bosch K Jetronic) coupled to rear - wheel drive (1983 - 1984) and to four - wheel - drive as XR4x4 (1985 - 1987). In the MarkII Sierra 's this engine was replaced by a 2.9 - litre version. Both the 2.8 / 2.9 - litre engines gave 150 bhp. The well known Cosworth model was powered by a turbocharged 16 - valve 4 - cylinder engine known as the YB which was based on the Ford ' Pinto ' block. The Ford Sierra RS Cosworth was introduced in 1986 as a three - door hatchback, with a 2 - litre DOHC turbo engine producing 204 PS (150 kW; 201 hp) and a top speed of 150 mph - a speed normally found only in sports cars from prestige brands like Ferrari and Porsche, at much higher prices as well as with less practicality. At the time Ford wanted to compete in group A touring cars and therefore eligible to produce a limited run of 10 % of the initial production, therefore this would be 500 cars. this was known as an ' evolution ' model. Ford employed Tickford to help with the development. The Sierra RS500 as it was known sported a small additional rear spoiler, and larger front chin spoiler, extra cooling ducts for the engine, brakes and intercooler. Under the bonnet a larger turbo and intercooler was fitted along with an extra set of injectors, so instead of the standard four injectors it was built with eight, although in road trim these extra injectors did not function. These modifications produced 225 PS (165 kW; 222 hp) in road trim and around 550 hp (410 kW) in race trim. They were very successful in motorsport and are highly tunable road cars with a very large following.
In 1987, Ford introduced a four - door saloon (marketed in the UK as the Sierra Sapphire), which was sold alongside the hatchback and estate until the Sierra was replaced by the Mondeo in early 1993. The last Sierra rolled off the production line in December 1992.
The Sierra Cosworth switched to a saloon bodystyle in January 1988, again with rear - wheel drive, before the four - wheel drive version replaced it two years later.
In South Africa, the Sierra range featured both the five - door hatchback and station wagon bodies and production began at the Silverton (Pretoria) plant in January 1983. The restyled Sierra range differed from its European equivalent by featuring the traditional black grille of the Sierra sedan on the hatchback and wagon, though later, the grille would feature on these models in Europe. The Sierra Sapphire sedan, introduced in South Africa in 1990, was known simply as the "Ford Sapphire ''.
Versions sold in South Africa were available with the 1.6 (Kent) and 2.0 (Pinto) four - cylinders, 2.3 V6 (Cologne) or 3.0 - litre V6 (Essex) petrol engines. While the Cortina MkV in South Africa had retained the old 3.0 V6 Essex engine, the Sierra was initially given the new 2.3 V6 Cologne motor, this being fitted to the top of the line model only. However, owing to the low cost of petrol, and the popularity of the old Cortina XR6, a Sierra XR6 was later launched, featuring the old Essex, initially producing 103 kW (138 hp).
Versions were LX, GL and GLX, the Ghia trim level was not available for the South African market except on the Ford Sapphire, the sedan version.
As the 2.8 / 2.9 Cologne was never launched in South Africa, the venerable and popular Essex V6 remained the best normal production engine fitted to the Sierra. At the top of the range, the 2.3 GLS quickly gave way to a 3.0 GLX flagship model (producing less power but more torque than the XR6) and that was the end of the Cologne in South Africa, even the station wagon receiving the 3.0 V6 Essex. By 1985, the Sierra had become the largest Ford model, following the demise of the Granada.
Towards the end of its production life, the Essex was modified again - the standard carb version tuned to produce 110 kW (150 PS; 148 hp) from 1991 to 1993, while a fuel - injected version was available from 1992 to 1993. Fitted to the Sierra as the 3.0 i RS (replacing the XR6) and to the Sapphire sedan as the Sapphire Ghia (replacing the 3.0 GLX), the fuel - injected Essex put out around 117 kW (157 hp) and was the most powerful Sierra / Sapphire version sold in South Africa, excluding the small number of XR8s built for homologation purposes. At the end of production a limited edition of 150 vehicles designated as 3.0 i RS which based on the sedan (Sapphire) body was produced with some slight engine tweaks which resulted in a power output of 125kW. This vehicle was also fitted with the ATE ABS system as was customary only on the Sapphire GHIA models at the time. These limited edition vehicles were only available to two colours, namely red and white.
Uniquely, the South African market also saw the introduction of a 5.0 - litre XR8 between June 1984 and 1988. A limited number of 250 Sierras were made for the purposes of homologation, as this model was the premier Ford used in Group A racing. The XR8 was fitted with the 302 ci engine from the US Ford Mustang, and the Borg Warner T5 heavy duty transmission. Front brakes were AP Racing four - piston calipers on 280 mm discs. Max power is 209 PS (154 kW) and a top speed of 225 km / h (140 mph) was claimed. The XR8 is easily recognized by having four cooling slats between the headlights, whereas lesser versions were sold with the original smooth front.
The 1.6 Kent continued almost unchanged during the 9 year life of the Sierra / Sapphire, while the 2.0 Cologne was revised several times, being fitted to the Sierra 2.0 GL and GLE and later to the stripped down Sierra 2.0 LX and Sapphire 2.0 GL and GLE models. It eventually even received fuel injection in the Sapphire 2.0 GLi, boosting the power from 77 kW (103 hp) to 85 kW (114 hp).
The Sierra was eventually replaced in South Africa by the Telstar in 1993. Samcor, which assembled Ford models under license after Ford had divested from the country, was already assembling the smaller Laser and Meteor, alongside the Mazda 323, on which they were based, as well as a facelifted earlier version of the Mazda 626. The Telstar was finally replaced by the Mondeo in 1998.
Whereas British buyers rued the absence of a saloon version of the Sierra, in New Zealand, it was the absence of an estate (a "station wagon '' there) that customers missed, when Ford New Zealand replaced the Cortina with the Ford Telstar range. In order to fill the gap in the market, Ford introduced the Sierra wagon in 1984, in spite of opposition at Ford Asia Pacific and from the Detroit headquarters. This was assembled locally from imported CKD ("completely knocked down '') kits. The wagon was offered in 1.6 - (base) and 2.0 - litre "L '' and "Ghia '' models initially, and proved to be a strong seller. The then Prime Minister, Sir Robert Muldoon, used a Sierra as his personal transport and would drive it to his office in the government building known as the Beehive. New Zealand was the only market in the world where both the Telstar and the Sierra were offered next to each other.
In one month in 1987, the facelifted Ford Sierra, by then a single station wagon model, was the country 's top - selling car range. A few fully built - up 2.3 V6 five - doors and XR4i three - doors were also imported from 1984.
However, Ford cancelled the Sierra once Mazda, which developed the Telstar, could offer a station wagon. The Telstar wagon, while popular, never reached the Sierra 's heights, especially its competition successes overseas. Further reasons could be customers ' knowledge of the Telstar 's Japanese roots, and that the equivalent Mazda 626 wagon offered a considerably longer warranty at a similar price.
Relative rejection of the Telstar forced Ford to import completely built - up (CBU) premium models built in Genk, Belgium from 1990: the Sierra 2.0 GLX Wagon, the Sierra Sapphire 2.0 Ghia and the XR4 × 4 were part of this range. The advertising copy read, "Introducing the new car that needs no introduction. '' However, a relatively high price did not help -- the Wagon began at over NZ $31,000 -- and production errors in the launch brochure showed cars with no steering wheels. Furthermore, any marketing boosts Ford could have gained through Group A touring car racing were over with the Escort Cosworth becoming the company 's standard - bearer in competition (and the Escort, meanwhile, was absent from the New Zealand market).
The Sierra was withdrawn from the New Zealand market in 1992, and it would be another five years before its European successor the Mondeo would arrive there. Sierra Cosworths remain sought - after performance cars.
By contrast, the Sierra was never sold in Australia, as there was less demand for a medium - sized wagon than in New Zealand, although the RS Cosworth / RS500 was used in the Australian Touring Car Championships from the late 80 's and early 90 's.
In Argentina, the Sierra was offered as a five - door hatchback beginning in the summer of 1984. A station wagon body style was added in September 1985. The sporting XR4, with three - door bodywork arrived a couple of months after the original introduction. The face - lifted post-1987 model did not reach the Argentinian market, where the range continued with a Merkur XR4Ti - like grille until 1991 for XR4 and 1992 for five - door models, when it was replaced by the Volkswagen Santana - based Galaxy. Argentinian Sierras can be distinguished by a more sculpted front bumper with an extra cooling inlet.
The 1.6 L was offered in GL model only, while the LX, Ghia, Ghia S / SX and XR4 were available with a 2.3 - litre inline - four with some differences in specs. Both engines, as for the preceding Taunus TC3, were from the "Pinto '' family. The power ranged between 75 PS (55 kW) for the 1.6 and 120 PS (88 kW) for the XR4 and later Ghia S versions. Some Ghia models also featured automatic transmission as an optional. The station wagon was called the Sierra Rural. Ford had previously used the name "Rural '' for station wagons in Argentina, such as the Taunus, in a similar way to "Turnier '' in Germany.
The GL model was the base model replaced by the LX with the same equipment. The XR4 was eventually complemented by the five - door Ghia S / SX.
In Venezuela the locally assembled Ford Sierra was launched in 1985, the 2.8 L V6 engine being standard on versions sold there, including the 5 door hatchback (280ES), 3 door hatchback (280GT) and station wagon (Ranchera). In 1990, a face - lifted version of the Sierra, powered by the 2.9 L V6 engine was offered as both a hatchback and a sedan, the latter being known as the Sierra 300 Sapphire. Also launched in Venezuela was the XR6i.
In North America, the Ford Sierra and the Ford Scorpio were offered under the now defunct Merkur brand. The Sierra was imported as a three - door only, and called the XR4Ti (similar to sub-model designations in other markets). The Sierra name was not used by Ford in North America; the market had already seen the similar - sounding Oldsmobile Ciera, and the Sierra name was used and trademarked by General Motors Corporation from the 1970s as a trim level on its pickup trucks.
The car was offered from the start of the Merkur brand in 1985 until 1989. It was equipped as a rear - wheel - drive 2.3 - litre SOHC inline 4 - cylinder (commonly known as the "Lima '' engine) equipped with a Garrett T3 turbocharger and fuel injection.
Although offering the top - selling XR model worldwide, the Merkur brand is claimed to have been a commercial flop. The reasons vary. Safety and emissions regulations in the U.S. forced Ford to make costly modifications, resulting in relatively high prices, coupled with the required addition of air bags for all 1990 and newer vehicles (not required in foreign markets) doomed the mark to an untimely end. Exchange rates also fluctuated too frequently. Moreover, since Merkurs were sold at Lincoln -- Mercury dealers, many customers were more attracted towards Mercury models, such as the Mercury Sable, which were similarly styled and had similar equipment for significantly lower prices.
Unlike many of its rivals, the Sierra retained rear - wheel drive, albeit with a modern, fully independent rear suspension, departing from the Cortina 's live axle.
In the beginning the Sierra used engines and transmissions from the Taunus / Cortina. The engines were of two types, the SOHC Ford Pinto engine in 1.3, 1.6, 1.8 and 2.0 - litre displacements, and the OHV Cologne V6 engine (in 2.0, 2.3, 2.8, and 2.9 - litre capacities). Towards the end of the 1980s due to tightening emission standards, the Pinto engine began to be phased out - the 1.8 - litre in 1988 replaced by a 1.8 - litre CVH, the 2.0 - litre in 1989, replaced with the Ford I4 DOHC engine and the 1.6 in 1992, replaced by the 1.6 CVH first seen in the Escort in 1980, described as a "CFi '', a single point fuel injection system with a catalytic converter. The 2.9 L Cologne engine was available in the Sierra XR4x4 and the Sierra Ghia. Models with the 2.0 L and Cologne V6 engines had an option of a limited slip differential. Models built until 1989 used the type 9 gearbox that had been used in the Cortina, with the exception of 2WD Cosworth models that used the T5. The T5 had several variations, most were internal. This was basically the same transmission used in the Ford Mustang. The. 80 overdrive gears were the weak link. It was later superseded by the MT75 unit (for DOHC, 4X4 and V6 models). All Sierras had rear drum brakes, except sporting models (2.0 iS (some), 2.0 GLX & GLS, XR4x4, Sierra Cosworth, other special / sporting models inc 2.0 i 4x4) and models with anti-lock brakes. American versions meanwhile were sold only with a 2.3 L four - cylinder turbocharged version of the Pinto engine.
The Sierra also had a diesel option on the engine, namely at launch the 2.3 L normally aspirated 67 PS (49 kW; 66 hp) Indenor diesel made by Peugeot. This engine was also used in contemporary Granadas and whilst reliable and economical it made an unrefined, noisy and very slow vehicle, but remained a popular option for Taxi firms. This was later superseded in 1990 by a 1.8 L turbocharged powerplant of Ford 's own design which offered better response times and slightly more power. During the Sierra 's production run the engine was known both as the Lynx and as the Endura - D, though was further rebranded as the ' Endura - DE ' with the release of the second - generation Ford Mondeo.
In 1983, the high - performance XR4i version was introduced. It utilised the same 2.8 L Cologne engine as used in the Ford Capri 2.8 Injection of that era and sported a restyled version of the 3 - door Sierra bodyshell. The double rear spoiler and curious multi-pillared rear windows were considered over-styled by some prospective buyers, and the car never achieved the cult status of the smaller Fiesta XR2 and Escort XR3i. A version of the XR4i with a 2.3 L turbocharged engine was sold in the United States as the Merkur XR4Ti. The XR4Ti was raced in Europe, most notably by Andy Rouse who used one to win the 1985 BTCC.
In South Africa, there was a 3.0 L V6 version, called the XR6, also made in South Africa was a limited run of 250 V8 XR8s for saloon car racing homologation in 1984. These were based on the Ford Windsor 302 engine.
In 1985 the XR4i was replaced by the XR4x4, which was based on the five - door hatchback, had four - wheel drive and was powered by the same 2.8 L V6 engine but was n't equipped with the bi-plane rear spoiler. Only a very limited number of three - door XR4x4 's have been built. By the end of its production in 1990, 23,540 had been produced. From 1990 to 1993 the XR4x4 was available with both the revised 2.9 EFi and 2.0 DOHC EFi engines. The XR4i also made a reappearance (as a badging exercise) in 5 - door form but with the DOHC 2.0 engine instead of the V6.
In 1989, Ford nodded towards its past and created the Sierra 2.0 i 2000E, a model name used with limited success on the Mk3 Cortina. The Sierra 2000E had two - tone metallic paint, alloys, light grey leather interior, and a trip computer in addition the standard features on the ' Ghia ' models. It was only available in saloon form and a limited number of models were sold between 1989 and 1991. Ford used this to showcase the new DOHC twin cam engine which was also released in 1989.
In Argentina the non-injected XR4 model was equipped with the Taunus 2.3 engine and was produced between 1986 and 1991. In this market the most direct rival was the Renault Fuego 2.2.
In July 1986, a special version called the Ford Sierra RS Cosworth was launched, using the 2.0 OHC bottom end with a 16V DOHC cylinder head specially developed by Cosworth. With the Cosworth Garret T3 turbocharger and intercooler setup the engine produced 204 PS (150 kW; 201 hp). It was designed by Ford 's Special Vehicle Engineering (SVE) group and made in Ford 's Genk factory in Belgium for use in group A. It was based on a three - door Sierra with the dashboard from the Merkur XR4Ti. The car was available in only white, black or Ford 's ' Moonstone Blue ' and only 5545 were made. The Sierra RS Cosworth was available in both right hand drive and left hand drive, the RS500 was only produced in Right Hand Drive. Racing conversion were done with the European Merkur dashboard.
In 1987, a 225 PS (165 kW; 222 hp) Sierra Cosworth, the RS500, was sold alongside the regular version. Only 500 were produced as the minimum number of road - going cars required to meet with newly introduced homologation racing rules, allowing it to compete in evolution form for group A racing. The car was modified by the Tickford Engineering Company in conjunction with Ford. Revisions included uprated brakes and larger brake cooling ducts and modified front and rear spoilers (a second smaller rear spoiler was added beneath the large "whale - tail ''), a modified front bumper to allow extra cooling for a larger intercooler, as well as various engine upgrades including a larger turbocharger and a second fuel rail (which did not operate on road models). Race outputs were as high as 550 bhp (410 kW; 558 PS), in which the Sierra dominated group A series around the world.
Racing versions of the Cosworth were highly successful in European and World Touring Car racing throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s, and the RS500 helped Ford to win the manufacturer 's title in the 1987 World Touring Car Championship. Ford was forced to fall back on the Sierra for rallying from 1987, after the banning of the Group B formula. With only rear - drive, the Sierra struggled to compete on looser surfaces but was very quick on asphalt, Didier Auriol winning his first World Championship rally in a Sierra in Corsica, 1988. It was replaced by the 4x4 Sapphire version from 1990, which never managed to win a World Championship event but became a popular and successful car in national championships. The Sierra was replaced by the Escort Cosworth in 1993.
In 1988, a new Cosworth was produced which was based on the Sierra Sapphire saloon. 13,140 were produced until it was replaced in 1990 by a four - wheel - drive version, the Sierra Sapphire RS Cosworth 4x4, of which 12,250 were built. Its replacement came in the form of the Escort RS Cosworth which appeared in 1992, which used a shortened and developed version of the Sierra platform and running gear but clothed with an Escort-esque bodyshell and the return of the whale - tail spoiler.
Turbocharged versions of the Sierra were also available as post-production models from companies like Janspeed and, most notably, from Turbo Technics. The XR4x4 2.8 was available with a range of aftermarket kits pushing power from 150 PS (110 kW; 148 hp) to over 200 hp (149 kW). The 2.9 got a twin - turbo setup, available with variants up to 280 hp (209 kW). Even the DOHC version got a single turbo kit, of which only a small number were made. Turbo Technics even sold their own pre-prepared Sierra known as the Minker; only a handful were ever produced, as they cost significantly more than Ford 's own RS Cosworth.
In Finland, tax laws made the 1.3 L and 1.6 L - engined Sierras attractive business cars in the mid 1980s. Beginning in 1982, a number of these smaller engines were turbocharged locally in order to gain 2.0 L engine power without moving into the higher tax bracket. The 2.0 L OHC engine was also available turbocharged. These are often called "Stockmann Turbo '' Sierras, after the provider of the most popular conversion kits. After stricter emissions standards were introduced for 1989, Stockmann focused on getting the more popular 1.6 - litre kit approved and stopped offering the other ones. They were not intended as sporting cars, but were "tax specials '' meant to save owners money without sacrificing power. The purchase price of a 1.6 Turbo was marginally higher than that of a factory 2.0, but the difference was quickly made up in tax savings.
After the major facelift of 1987, and the introduction of the DOHC engines in 1989, further changes to the Sierra were superficial. Some detail styling changes were made in 1990, when the dashboard styling was freshened up, the front was given clear - lensed indicators, the rear given smoked rear lamp lenses, the steering wheel redesigned and a new front grille was added, together with fuel injection as standard, 15 - inch wheels and rear disc brakes. A further revision to the dashboard which saw a new instrument binnacle (similar in style to the 1990 Escort / Orion) along with colour and trim upgrades for the 1992 model year was the final change. UK production of the Sierra ceased, with right hand drive production moving to Belgium.
By 1989, Ford had confirmed that the successor to the Sierra (due by 1993) would feature front - wheel drive, and a number of concept cars were shown in the motoring press, hinting at what the new car might look like.
By the early 1990s, however, it had become clear that the Sierra had fallen out of step technologically against modern Japanese rivals which offered multi-valve engines and multi-link rear suspension. All of these features appeared on the Sierra 's replacement, the front - wheel - drive Mondeo, which was unveiled in November 1992 and went on sale the following March.
The Sierra is the tenth most popular car to have been sold in Britain, with 1,299,993 units having been sold. The first Sierras were sold in October 1982, and stocks lasted for around two years after the end of production - with more than 200 models being sold in 1994 and at least one example being sold in 1995 (in February as an M - registered model).
The Sierra remained a common sight on the roads of Britain and several other European countries, and a popular second hand buy, until well into the 21st century. However, just over 4,000 Sierras were reported to be use by February 2016, although thousands more are believed to have survived but were currently out of use.
Only models sold in Continental Europe are shown, overseas territories often have different offerings.
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how many chapters are there in the book of esther | Book of Esther - wikipedia
The Book of Esther, also known in Hebrew as "the Scroll '' (Megillah), is a book in the third section (Ketuvim, "Writings '') of the Jewish Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) and in the Christian Old Testament. It is one of the five Scrolls (Megillot) in the Hebrew Bible. It relates the story of a Hebrew woman in Persia, born as Hadassah but known as Esther, who becomes queen of Persia and thwarts a genocide of her people. The story forms the core of the Jewish festival of Purim, during which it is read aloud twice: once in the evening and again the following morning. The books of Esther and Song of Songs are the only books in the Hebrew Bible that do not explicitly mention God.
The biblical Book of Esther is set in the Persian capital of Susa (Shushan) in the third year of the reign of the Persian king Ahasuerus. The name Ahasuerus is equivalent to Xerxes (both deriving from the Persian Khshayārsha), and Ahasuerus is usually identified in modern sources as Xerxes I, who ruled between 486 and 465 BC, as it is to this monarch that the events described in Esther are thought to fit the most closely.
Assuming that Ahasuerus is indeed Xerxes I, the events described in Esther began around the years 483 -- 482 BC, and concluded in March 473 BC.
Classical sources such as Josephus, the Jewish commentary Esther Rabbah and the Christian theologian Bar - Hebraeus, as well as the Greek Septuagint translation of Esther, instead identify Ahasuerus as either Artaxerxes I (reigned 465 to 424 BC) or Artaxerxes II (reigned 404 to 358 BC).
On his accession however Artaxerxes II lost Egypt to pharaoh Amyrtaeus, after which it was no longer part of the Persian empire. In his Historia Scholastica Petrus Comestor identified Ahasuerus (Esther 1: 1) as Artaxerxes III (358 -- 338 BC) who reconquered Egypt.
The Book of Esther consists of an introduction (or exposition) in chapters 1 and 2; the main action (complication and resolution) in chapters 3 to 9: 19; and a conclusion in 9: 20 -- 10: 3.
The plot is structured around banquets (mishteh), a word that occurs twenty times in Esther and only 24 times in the rest of the Hebrew bible. This is appropriate given that Esther describes the origin of a Jewish feast, the feast of Purim, but Purim itself is not the subject and no individual feast in the book is commemorated by Purim. The book 's theme, rather, is the reversal of destiny through a sudden and unexpected turn of events: the Jews seem destined to be destroyed, but instead are saved. In literary criticism such a reversal is termed "peripety '', and while on one level its use in Esther is simply a literary or aesthetic device, on another it is structural to the author 's theme, suggesting that the power of God is at work behind human events.
King Ahasuerus, ruler of the Persian Empire, holds a lavish 180 - day banquet, initially for his court and dignitaries and afterwards a seven day banquet for all inhabitants of the capital city, Shushan. (Esther 1: 1 - 9.) On the seventh day of the latter banquet, Ahasuerus orders the queen, Vashti, to display her beauty before the guests by coming before them wearing only her crown. (1: 10 - 11.) She refuses, infuriating Ahasuerus, who on the advice of his counselors removes her from her position as an example to other women who might be emboldened to disobey their husbands. (1: 12 - 19.) A decree follows that "that every man should bear rule in his own house. '' (1: 20 - 22.)
Ahasuerus then makes arrangements to choose a new queen from a selection of beautiful young women from throughout the empire. (2: 1 - 4.) Among these women is a Jewish orphan named Esther, who was raised by her cousin or uncle, Mordecai. (2: 5 - 7.) She finds favour in the King 's eyes, and is crowned his new queen, but does not reveal her Jewish heritage. (2: 8 - 20.) Shortly afterwards, Mordecai discovers a plot by two courtiers, Bigthan and Teresh, to assassinate Ahasuerus. The conspirators are apprehended and hanged, and Mordecai 's service to the King is recorded. (2: 21 - 23.)
Ahasuerus appoints Haman as his viceroy. (3: 1.) Mordecai, who sits at the palace gates, falls into Haman 's disfavour, as he refuses to bow down to him. (3: 2 - 5.) Haman discovers that Mordecai refused to bow on account of his Jewishness, and in revenge plots to kill not just Mordecai, but all the Jews in the empire. (3: 6.) He obtains Ahasuerus ' permission to execute this plan, against payment of ten thousand talents of silver, and casts lots ("purim '') to choose the date on which to do this -- the thirteenth of the month of Adar. (3: 7 - 12.) A royal decree is issued throughout the kingdom to slay all Jews on that date. (3: 13 - 15.)
When Mordecai discovers the plan, he goes into mourning and implores Esther to intercede with the King. (4: 1 - 5) But she is afraid to present herself to the King unsummoned, an offense punishable by death. (4: 6 - 12.) Instead, she directs Mordecai to have all Jews fast for three days for her, and vows to fast as well. (4: 15 - 16.) On the third day she goes to Ahasuerus, who stretches out his sceptre to her to indicate that she is not to be punished. (5: 1 - 2.) She invites him to a feast in the company of Haman. (5: 3 - 5.) During the feast, she asks them to attend a further feast the next evening. (5: 6 - 8.) Meanwhile, Haman is again offended by Mordecai and, at his wife 's suggestion, has a gallows built to hang him. (5: 9 - 14.)
That night, Ahasuerus can not sleep, and orders the court records be read to him. (6: 1.) He is reminded that Mordecai interceded in the previous plot against his life, and discovers that Mordecai never received any recognition. (6: 2 - 3.) Just then, Haman appears to request the King 's permission to hang Mordecai, but before he can make this request, Ahasuerus asks Haman what should be done for the man that the King wishes to honor. (6: 4 - 6.) Assuming that the King is referring to Haman himself, Haman suggests that the man be dressed in the King 's royal robes and led around on the King 's royal horse, while a herald calls: "See how the King honours a man he wishes to reward! '' (6: 7 - 9.) To his surprise and horror, the King instructs Haman to do so to Mordecai. (6: 10 - 11.)
Immediately after, Ahasuerus and Haman attend Esther 's second banquet. The King promises to grant her any request, and she reveals that she is Jewish and that Haman is planning to exterminate her people, including her. (7: 1 - 6.) Overcome by rage, Ahasuerus leaves the room; meanwhile Haman stays behind and begs Esther for his life, falling upon her in desperation. (7: 7.) The King returns in at this very moment and thinks Haman is assaulting the queen; this makes him angrier and he orders Haman hanged on the very gallows that Haman had prepared for Mordecai. (7: 8 - 10.)
Unable to annul a formal royal decree, the King instead adds to it, permitting the Jews to arm and defend themselves on the day chosen for their annihilation. (8: 1 - 14.) On 13 Adar, Haman 's ten sons and 500 other men are killed in Shushan. (9: 1 - 12.) Upon hearing of this Esther requests it be repeated the next day, whereupon 300 more men are killed. (9: 13 - 15.) Over 75,000 people are slaughtered by the Jews, who are careful to take no plunder. (9: 16 - 17.) Mordecai and Esther send letters throughout the provinces instituting an annual commemoration of the Jewish people 's redemption, in a holiday called Purim (lots). (9: 20 - 28.) Ahasuerus remains very powerful and continues his reign, with Mordecai assuming a prominent position in his court. (10: 1 - 3.)
The Megillat Esther (Book of Esther) became the last of the 24 books of the Tanakh to be canonized by the Sages of the Great Assembly. According to the Talmud, it was a redaction by the Great Assembly of an original text by Mordecai. It is usually dated to the 4th century BC. Shemaryahu Talmon, however, suggests that "the traditional setting of the book in the days of Xerxes I can not be wide off the mark. ''
The Greek book of Esther, included in the Septuagint, is a retelling of the events of the Hebrew Book of Esther rather than a translation and records additional traditions which do not appear in original Hebrew version, in particular the identification of Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes and details of various letters. It is dated around the late 2nd to early 1st century BC. The Coptic and Ethiopic versions of Esther are translations of the Greek rather than the Hebrew Esther.
A Latin version of Esther was produced by Jerome for the Vulgate. It translates the Hebrew Esther but interpolates translations of the Greek Esther where the latter provides additional material.
Several Aramaic targums of Esther were produced in the Middle Ages of which two survive -- the Targum Rishon ("First Targum '') and Targum Sheni ("Second Targum '') dated c. 500 -- 1000 AD. These were not targums ("translations '') in the true sense but like the Greek Esther are retellings of events and include additional legends relating to Purim. There is also a 16th - century recension of the Targum Rishon, sometimes counted as Targum Shelishi ("Third Targum '').
The book of Esther falls under the category of Ketuvim, one of three parts of the Jewish canon. According to some sources, it is a historical novella, written to explain the origin of the Jewish holiday of Purim.
As noted by biblical scholar Michael D. Coogan, the book contains specific details regarding certain subject matter (for example, Persian rule) which are historically inaccurate. For example, Coogan discusses an apparent inaccuracy regarding the age of Esther 's cousin (or, according to others, uncle) Mordecai. In Esther 2: 5 -- 6, either Mordecai or his great - grandfather Kish is identified as having been exiled from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar II in 597 BC: "Mordecai son of Jair, the son of Shimei, the son of Kish, who had been carried into exile from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, among those taken captive with Jeconiah king of Judah ''. If this refers to Mordecai, he would have had to live over a century to have witnessed the events described in the Book of Esther. However, the verse may be read as referring not to Mordecai 's exile to Babylon, but to his great - grandfather Kish 's exile.
In her article "The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling '', biblical scholar Adele Berlin discusses the reasoning behind scholarly concern about the historicity of Esther. Much of this debate relates to the importance of distinguishing history and fiction within biblical texts, as Berlin argues, in order to gain a more accurate understanding of the history of the Israelite people. Berlin quotes a series of scholars who suggest that the author of Esther did not mean for the book to be considered as a historical writing, but intentionally wrote it to be a historical novella. The genre of novellas under which Esther falls was common during both the Persian and Hellenistic periods to which scholars have dated the book of Esther.
There are certain elements of the book of Esther that are historically accurate. The story told in the book of Esther takes place during the rule of Ahasuerus, who amongst others has been identified as the 5th - century Persian king Xerxes I (reigned 486 -- 465 BC). The author also displays an accurate knowledge of Persian customs and palaces. However, according to Coogan, considerable historical inaccuracies remain throughout the text, supporting the view that the book of Esther is to be read as a historical novella which tells a story describing historical events but is not necessarily historical fact. Edwin M. Yamauchi has questioned the reliability of other historical sources, such as Herodotus, to which Esther has been compared. Yamauchi wrote, "(Herodotus) was, however, the victim of unreliable informants and was not infallible. '' The reason for questioning the historical accuracy of such ancient writers as Herodotus is that he is one of the primary sources of knowledge for this time period, and it has been frequently assumed that his account may be more accurate than Esther 's account.
Those arguing in favour of a historical reading of Esther most commonly identify Ahasuerus with Xerxes I (ruled 486 -- 465 BC), although in the past it was often assumed that he was Artaxerxes II (ruled 405 -- 359 BC). The Hebrew Ahasuerus (ʔaḥašwērōš) is most likely derived from Persian Xšayārša, the origin of the Greek Xerxes. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Xerxes sought his harem after being defeated in the Greco - Persian Wars. He makes no reference to individual members of the harem except for a domineering Queen consort named Amestris, whose father, Otanes, was one of Xerxes 's generals. (In contrast, the Greek historian Ctesias refers to a similar father - in - law / general figure named Onaphas.) Amestris has often been identified with Vashti, but this identification is problematic, as Amestris remained a powerful figure well into the reign of her son, Artaxerxes I, whereas Vashti is portrayed as dismissed in the early part of Xerxes 's reign. Alternative attempts have been made to identify her with Esther, although Esther is an orphan whose father was a Jew named Abihail.
As for the identity of Mordecai, the similar names Marduka and Marduku have been found as the name of officials in the Persian court in over thirty texts from the period of Xerxes I and his father Darius I, and may refer to up to four individuals, one of which might after all be Mordecai.
The "Old Greek '' Septuagint version of Esther translates the name Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes, a Greek name derived from the Persian Artaxšaθra. Josephus too relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks, and the Midrashic text, Esther Rabba also makes the identification. Bar - Hebraeus identified Ahasuerus explicitly as Artaxerxes II; however, the names are not necessarily equivalent: Hebrew has a form of the name Artaxerxes distinct from Ahasuerus, and a direct Greek rendering of Ahasuerus is used by both Josephus and the Septuagint for occurrences of the name outside the Book of Esther. Instead, the Hebrew name Ahasuerus accords with an inscription of the time that notes that Artaxerxes II was named also Aršu, understood as a shortening of Aḫšiyaršu the Babylonian rendering of the Persian Xšayārša (Xerxes), through which the Hebrew ʔaḥašwērōš (Ahasuerus) is derived. Ctesias related that Artaxerxes II was also called Arsicas which is understood as a similar shortening with the Persian suffix - ke that is applied to shortened names. Deinon related that Artaxerxes II was also called Oarses which is also understood to be derived from Xšayārša.
Another view attempts to identify him instead with Artaxerxes I (ruled 465 -- 424 BC), whose Babylonian concubine, Kosmartydene, was the mother of his son Darius II (ruled 424 -- 405 BC). Jewish tradition relates that Esther was the mother of a King Darius and so some try to identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I and Esther with Kosmartydene.
Based on the view that the Ahasuerus of the Book of Tobit is identical with that of the Book of Esther, some have also identified him as Nebuchadnezzar 's ally Cyaxares (ruled 625 -- 585 BC). In certain manuscripts of Tobit, the former is called Achiachar, which, like the Greek Cyaxares, is thought to be derived from Persian Huwaxšaθra. Depending on the interpretation of Esther 2: 5 -- 6, Mordecai or his great - grandfather Kish was carried away from Jerusalem with Jeconiah by Nebuchadnezzar, in 597 BC. The view that it was Mordecai would be consistent with the identification of Ahasuerus with Cyaxares. Identifications with other Persian monarchs have also been suggested.
Jacob Hoschander has argued that evidence of the historicity of Haman and his father Hamedatha is seen in Omanus and Anadatus mentioned by Strabo as being honoured with Anahita in the city of Zela. Hoschander argues that these were not deities as Strabo supposed but garbled forms of "Haman '' and "Hamedatha '' who were being worshipped as martyrs. The names are indeed unattested in Persian texts as gods, however the Talmud (Sanhedrin 61b) and Rashi both record a practice of deifying Haman and Josephus speaks of him being worshipped. Attempts have been made to connect both "Omanus '' and "Haman '' with the Zoroastrian term Vohu Mana; however this denotes the principle of "Good Thoughts '' and is not the name of a deity.)
In his Historia Scholastica Petrus Comestor identified Ahasuerus (Esther 1: 1) as Artaxerxes III who reconquered Egypt.
Christine Hayes contrasts the Book of Esther with apocalyptic writings, the Book of Daniel in particular: both Esther and Daniel depict an existential threat to the Jewish people, but while Daniel commends the Jews to wait faithfully for God to resolve the crisis, in Esther the crisis is resolved entirely through human action and national solidarity. God, in fact, is not mentioned, Esther is portrayed as assimilated to Persian culture, and Jewish identity in the book is an ethnic category rather than a religious one.
This contrasts with traditional Jewish commentaries, such as the commentary of the Vilna Gaon, which states "But in every verse it discusses the great miracle. However, this miracle was in a hidden form, occurring through apparently natural processes, not like the Exodus from Egypt, which openly revealed the might of God. '' This follows the approach of the Talmud, which states that "(The Book of) Esther is referenced in the Torah in the verse ' And I shall surely hide (in Hebrew, ' haster astir, ' related to ' Esther ') My Face from them on that day.
An additional six chapters appear interspersed in Esther in the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Bible. This was noted by Jerome in compiling the Latin Vulgate. Additionally, the Greek text contains many small changes in the meaning of the main text. Jerome recognized the former as additions not present in the Hebrew Text and placed them at the end of his Latin translation. This placement and numbering system is used in Catholic Bible translations based primarily on the Vulgate, such as the Douay -- Rheims Bible and the Knox Bible. In contrast, the 1979 revision of the Vulgate, the Nova Vulgata, incorporates the additions to Esther directly into the narrative itself, as do most modern Catholic English translations based on the original Hebrew and Greek (e.g., Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition, New American Bible, New Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition). The numbering system for the additions differs with each translation. The Nova Vulgata accounts for the additional verses by numbering them as extensions of the verses immediately following or preceding them (e.g., Esther 11: 2 -- 12 in the old Vulgate becomes Esther 1: 1a -- 1k in the Nova Vulgata), while the NAB and its successor, the NABRE, assign letters of the alphabet as chapter headings for the additions (e.g., Esther 11: 2 -- 12: 6 in the Vulgate becomes Esther A: 1 -- 17). The RSVCE and the NRSVCE place the additional material into the narrative, but retain the chapter and verse numbering of the old Vulgate.
These additions include:
By the time Esther was written, the foreign power visible on the horizon as a future threat to Judah was the Macedonians of Alexander the Great, who defeated the Persian empire about 150 years after the time of the story of Esther; the Septuagint version noticeably calls Haman a "Bougaion '' (βουγαῖον) where the Hebrew text describes him as an Agagite.
The canonicity of these Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in the Septuagint -- Martin Luther, being perhaps the most vocal Reformation - era critic of the work, considered even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value. Luther 's complaints against the book carried past the point of scholarly critique and may reflect Luther 's antisemitism, which is disputed, such as in the biography of Luther by Derek Wilson, which points out that Luther 's anger at the Jews was not at their race but at their theology.
The Council of Trent, the summation of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation, reconfirmed the entire book, both Hebrew text and Greek additions, as canonical. The Book of Esther is used twice in commonly used sections of the Catholic Lectionary. In both cases, the text used is not only taken from a Greek addition, the readings also are the prayer of Mordecai, and nothing of Esther 's own words is ever used. The Eastern Orthodox Church uses the Septuagint version of Esther, as it does for all of the Old Testament. The additions are specifically listed in the Thirty - Nine Articles, Article VI, of the Church of England: "The rest of the Book of Esther ''.
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distance of voyager 1 and new horizons from earth | Voyager 1 - wikipedia
Voyager 1 is a space probe launched by NASA on September 5, 1977. Part of the Voyager program to study the outer Solar System, Voyager 1 launched 16 days after its twin, Voyager 2. Having operated for 40 years, 3 months and 14 days as of December 19, 2017, the spacecraft still communicates with the Deep Space Network to receive routine commands and return data. At a distance of 141 AU (2.11 × 10 km), approximately 13 billion miles (21 billion km), from the Sun as of November 22, 2017, it is the farthest spacecraft and human - made object from Earth.
The probe 's objectives included flybys of Jupiter, Saturn and Saturn 's large moon, Titan. While the spacecraft 's course could have been altered to include a Pluto encounter by forgoing the Titan flyby, exploration of the moon, which was known to have a substantial atmosphere, took priority. It studied the weather, magnetic fields and rings of the two planets and was the first probe to provide detailed images of their moons.
After completing its primary mission with the flyby of Saturn on November 20, 1980, Voyager 1 became the third of five artificial objects to achieve the escape velocity that will allow them to leave the Solar System. On August 25, 2012, Voyager 1 became the first spacecraft to cross the heliopause and enter the interstellar medium.
In a further testament to the robustness of Voyager 1, the Voyager team completed a successful test of the spacecraft 's "trajectory correction maneuver '' (TCM) thrusters on November 28, 2017. The last time these backup thrusters were fired up was in November of 1980, 37 years prior. Voyager project manager Suzanne Dodd anticipates that successful utilization of the TCM thrusters will extend the Voyager mission by an additional "two to three years ''.
Voyager 1 's extended mission is expected to continue until around 2025 when its radioisotope thermoelectric generators will no longer supply enough electric power to operate its scientific instruments.
In the 1960s, a Grand Tour to study the outer planets was proposed which prompted NASA to begin work on a mission in the early 1970s. Information gathered by the Pioneer 10 spacecraft helped Voyager 's engineers design Voyager to cope more effectively with the intense radiation environment around Jupiter.
Initially, Voyager 1 was planned as "Mariner 11 '' of the Mariner program. Due to budget cuts, the mission was scaled back to be a flyby of Jupiter and Saturn and renamed the Mariner Jupiter - Saturn probes. As the program progressed, the name was later changed to Voyager, since the probe designs began to differ greatly from previous Mariner missions.
Voyager 1 was constructed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. It has 16 hydrazine thrusters, three - axis stabilization gyroscopes, and referencing instruments to keep the probe 's radio antenna pointed toward Earth. Collectively, these instruments are part of the Attitude and Articulation Control Subsystem (AACS), along with redundant units of most instruments and 8 backup thrusters. The spacecraft also included 11 scientific instruments to study celestial objects such as planets as it travels through space.
The radio communication system of Voyager 1 was designed to be used up to and beyond the limits of the Solar System. The communication system includes a 3.7 - meter (12 ft) diameter parabolic dish high - gain antenna to send and receive radio waves via the three Deep Space Network stations on the Earth. The craft normally transmits data to Earth over Deep Space Network Channel 18, using a frequency of either 2.3 GHz or 8.4 GHz, while signals from Earth to Voyager are broadcast at 2.1 GHz.
When Voyager 1 is unable to communicate directly with the Earth, its digital tape recorder (DTR) can record about 64 kilobytes of data for transmission at another time. Signals from Voyager 1 take over 19 hours to reach Earth.
Voyager 1 has three radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) mounted on a boom. Each MHW - RTG contains 24 pressed plutonium - 238 oxide spheres. The RTGs generated about 470 W of electric power at the time of launch, with the remainder being dissipated as waste heat. The power output of the RTGs declines over time (due to the 87.7 - year half - life of the fuel and degradation of the thermocouples), but the craft 's RTGs will continue to support some of its operations until 2025.
Diagram of RTG fuel container, showing the plutonium - 238 oxide spheres
Diagram of RTG shell, showing the power - producing silicon - germanium thermocouples
Model of an RTG unit
As of December 19, 2017, Voyager 1 has 72.73 % of the plutonium - 238 that it had at launch. By 2050, it will have 56.5 % left.
Unlike the other onboard instruments, the operation of the cameras for visible light is not autonomous, but rather it is controlled by an imaging parameter table contained in one of the on - board digital computers, the Flight Data Subsystem (FDS). Since the 1990s, space probes usually have completely autonomous cameras.
The computer command subsystem (CCS) controls the cameras. The CCS contains fixed computer programs such as command decoding, fault detection and correction routines, antenna pointing routines, and spacecraft sequencing routines. This computer is an improved version of the one that was used in the 1970s Viking orbiters. The hardware in both custom - built CCS subsystems in the Voyagers is identical. There is only a minor software modification for one of them that has a scientific subsystem that the other lacks.
The Attitude and Articulation Control Subsystem (AACS) controls the spacecraft orientation (its attitude). It keeps the high - gain antenna pointing towards the Earth, controls attitude changes, and points the scan platform. The custom - built AACS systems on both Voyagers are the same.
For more details on the Voyager space probes ' identical instrument packages, see the separate article on the overall Voyager Program.
The Voyager 1 probe was launched on September 5, 1977, from Launch Complex 41 at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, aboard a Titan IIIE launch vehicle. The Voyager 2 probe had been launched two weeks earlier, on August 20, 1977. Despite being launched later, Voyager 1 reached both Jupiter and Saturn sooner, following a shorter trajectory.
Voyager 1 began photographing Jupiter in January 1979. Its closest approach to Jupiter was on March 5, 1979, at a distance of about 349,000 kilometers (217,000 miles) from the planet 's center. Because of the greater photographic resolution allowed by a closer approach, most observations of the moons, rings, magnetic fields, and the radiation belt environment of the Jovian system were made during the 48 - hour period that bracketed the closest approach. Voyager 1 finished photographing the Jovian system in April 1979.
Discovery of active volcanic activity on the moon Io was probably the greatest surprise. It was the first time active volcanoes had been seen on another body in the Solar System. It appears that activity on Io affects the entire Jovian system. Io appears to be the primary source of matter that pervades the Jovian magnetosphere -- the region of space that surrounds the planet influenced by the planet 's strong magnetic field. Sulfur, oxygen, and sodium, apparently erupted by Io 's volcanoes and sputtered off the surface by impact of high - energy particles, were detected at the outer edge of the magnetosphere of Jupiter.
The two Voyager space probes made a number of important discoveries about Jupiter, its satellites, its radiation belts, and its never - before - seen planetary rings.
Voyager 1 time - lapse movie of Jupiter approach (Link to full - size video)
Jupiter 's Great Red Spot, an anti-cyclonic storm larger than Earth, as seen from Voyager 1
View of sulfur - rich lava flows radiating from the volcano Ra Patera on Io
The eruption plume of the volcano Loki rises 160 km (100 mi) over the limb of Io
Europa 's lineated but un-cratered face, evidence of currently active geology, at a distance of 2.8 million km.
Ganymede 's tectonically disrupted surface, marked with bright impact sites, from 253,000 km.
The gravitational assist trajectories at Jupiter were successfully carried out by both Voyagers, and the two spacecraft went on to visit Saturn and its system of moons and rings. Voyager 1 encountered Saturn in November 1980, with the closest approach on November 12, 1980, when the space probe came within 124,000 kilometers (77,000 mi) of Saturn 's cloud - tops. The space probe 's cameras detected complex structures in the rings of Saturn, and its remote sensing instruments studied the atmospheres of Saturn and its giant moon Titan.
Voyager 1 found that about seven percent of the volume of Saturn 's upper atmosphere is helium (compared with 11 percent of Jupiter 's atmosphere), while almost all the rest is hydrogen. Since Saturn 's internal helium abundance was expected to be the same as Jupiter 's and the Sun 's, the lower abundance of helium in the upper atmosphere may imply that the heavier helium may be slowly sinking through Saturn 's hydrogen; that might explain the excess heat that Saturn radiates over energy it receives from the Sun. Winds blow at high speeds in Saturn. Near the equator, the Voyagers measured winds about 500 m / s (1,100 mph). The wind blows mostly in an easterly direction.
The Voyagers found aurora - like ultraviolet emissions of hydrogen at mid-latitudes in the atmosphere, and auroras at polar latitudes (above 65 degrees). The high - level auroral activity may lead to the formation of complex hydrocarbon molecules that are carried toward the equator. The mid-latitude auroras, which occur only in sunlit regions, remain a puzzle, since bombardment by electrons and ions, known to cause auroras on Earth, occurs primarily at high latitudes. Both Voyagers measured the rotation of Saturn (the length of a day) at 10 hours, 39 minutes, 24 seconds.
Voyager 1 's mission included a flyby of Titan, Saturn 's largest moon, which had long been known to have an atmosphere. Images taken by Pioneer 11 in 1979 had indicated the atmosphere was substantial and complex, further increasing interest. The Titan flyby occurred as the spacecraft entered the system to avoid any possibility of damage closer to Saturn compromising observations, and approached to within 6,400 km (4,000 mi), passing behind Titan as seen from Earth and the Sun. Voyager 's measurement of the atmosphere 's effect on sunlight, and Earth - based measurement of its effect on the probe 's radio signal were used to determine the atmosphere 's composition, density, and pressure. Titan 's mass was also measured by observing its effect on the probe 's trajectory. Thick haze prevented any visual observation of the surface, but the measurement of the atmosphere 's composition, temperature, and pressure led to speculation that lakes of liquid hydrocarbons could exist on the surface.
Because observations of Titan were considered vital, the trajectory chosen for Voyager 1 was designed around the optimum Titan flyby, which took it below the south pole of Saturn and out of the plane of the ecliptic, ending its planetary science mission. Had Voyager 1 failed or been unable to observe Titan, Voyager 2 's trajectory would have been altered to incorporate the Titan flyby, precluding any visit to Uranus and Neptune. The trajectory Voyager 1 was launched into would not have allowed it to continue on to Uranus and Neptune, but could have been altered to avoid a Titan flyby and travel from Saturn to Pluto, arriving in 1986.
Crescent Saturn from 5.3 million km, four days after closest approach
Voyager 1 image of Saturn 's narrow, twisted and braided F Ring.
Mimas at a range of 425,000 km; the crater Herschel is at upper right
Tethys, with its giant rift valley Ithaca Chasma, from 1.2 million km.
Fractured ' wispy terrain ' on Dione 's trailing hemisphere.
The icy surface of Rhea is nearly saturated with impact craters.
Titan 's thick haze layer is shown in this enhanced Voyager 1 image.
Layers of haze, composed of complex organic compounds, covering Saturn 's satellite Titan.
On February 14, 1990, Voyager 1 took the first ever "family portrait '' of the Solar System as seen from outside, which includes the image of planet Earth known as Pale Blue Dot. Soon afterward its cameras were deactivated to conserve power and computer resources for other equipment. The camera software has been removed from the spacecraft, so it would now be complex to get them working again. Earth - side software and computers for reading the images are also no longer available.
On February 17, 1998, Voyager 1 reached a distance of 69 AU from the Sun and overtook Pioneer 10 as the most distant spacecraft from Earth. Travelling at about 17 kilometers per second (11 mi / s) it has the fastest heliocentric recession speed of any spacecraft.
As Voyager 1 headed for interstellar space, its instruments continued to study the Solar System. Jet Propulsion Laboratory scientists used the plasma wave experiments aboard Voyager 1 and 2 to look for the heliopause, the boundary at which the solar wind transitions into the interstellar medium. As of 2013, the probe was moving with a relative velocity to the Sun of about 17030 m / s. With the velocity the probe is currently maintaining, Voyager 1 is traveling about 325 million miles per year (520 million kilometers per year), or approximately half a light - year per ten millennia.
Scientists at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory think that Voyager 1 entered the termination shock in February 2003. This marks the point where the solar wind slows down to subsonic speeds. Some other scientists expressed doubt, discussed in the journal Nature of November 6, 2003. The issue would not be resolved until other data became available, since Voyager 1 's solar - wind detector ceased functioning in 1990. This failure meant that termination shock detection would have to be inferred from the data from the other instruments on board.
In May 2005, a NASA press release said that the consensus was that Voyager 1 was then in the heliosheath. In a scientific session at the American Geophysical Union meeting in New Orleans on the morning of May 25, 2005, Dr. Ed Stone presented evidence that the craft crossed the termination shock in late 2004. This event is estimated to have occurred on December 15, 2004 at a distance of 94 AU from the Sun.
On March 31, 2006, amateur radio operators from AMSAT in Germany tracked and received radio waves from Voyager 1 using the 20 - meter (66 ft) dish at Bochum with a long integration technique. Retrieved data was checked and verified against data from the Deep Space Network station at Madrid, Spain. This seems to be the first such amateur tracking of Voyager 1.
It was confirmed on December 13, 2010 that Voyager 1 had passed the reach of the radial outward flow of the solar wind, as measured by the Low Energy Charged Particle device. It is suspected that solar wind at this distance turns sideways because of interstellar wind pushing against the heliosphere. Since June 2010, detection of solar wind had been consistently at zero, providing conclusive evidence of the event. On this date, the spacecraft was approximately 116 AU or 10.8 billion miles (17.3 billion kilometers) from the Sun.
Voyager 1 was commanded to change its orientation to measure the sideways motion of the solar wind at that location in space on March 2011. A test roll done in February had confirmed the spacecraft 's ability to maneuver and reorient itself. The course of the spacecraft was not changed. It rotated 70 degrees counterclockwise with respect to Earth to detect the solar wind. This was the first time the spacecraft had done any major maneuvering since the Family Portrait photograph of the planets was taken in 1990. After the first roll the spacecraft had no problem in reorienting itself with Alpha Centauri, Voyager 1 's guide star, and it resumed sending transmissions back to Earth. Voyager 1 was expected to enter interstellar space "at any time ''. Voyager 2 was still detecting outward flow of solar wind at that point but it was estimated that in the following months or years it would experience the same conditions as Voyager 1.
The spacecraft was reported at 12.44 ° declination and 17.163 hours right ascension, and at an ecliptic latitude of 34.9 ° (the ecliptic latitude changes very slowly), placing it in the constellation Ophiuchus as observed from the Earth on May 21, 2011.
On December 1, 2011, it was announced that Voyager 1 had detected the first Lyman - alpha radiation originating from the Milky Way galaxy. Lyman - alpha radiation had previously been detected from other galaxies, but because of interference from the Sun, the radiation from the Milky Way was not detectable.
NASA announced on December 5, 2011, that Voyager 1 had entered a new region referred to as a "cosmic purgatory ''. Within this stagnation region, charged particles streaming from the Sun slow and turn inward, and the Solar System 's magnetic field is doubled in strength as interstellar space appears to be applying pressure. Energetic particles originating in the Solar System decline by nearly half, while the detection of high - energy electrons from outside increases 100-fold. The inner edge of the stagnation region is located approximately 113 AU from the Sun.
NASA announced in June 2012 that the probe was detecting changes in the environment that were suspected to correlate with arrival at the heliopause. Voyager 1 had reported a marked increase in its detection of charged particles from interstellar space, which are normally deflected by the solar winds within the heliosphere from the Sun. The craft thus began to enter the interstellar medium at the edge of the Solar System.
Voyager 1 became the first spacecraft to cross the heliopause in August 2012, then at a distance of 121 AU from the Sun, although this was not confirmed for another year.
As of September 2012, sunlight took 16.89 hours to get to Voyager 1 which was at a distance of 121 AU. The apparent magnitude of the Sun from the spacecraft was − 16.3 (less than 30 times the brightness of the full moon). The spacecraft was traveling at 17.043 km / s (10.590 mi / s) relative to the Sun. It would need about 17,565 years at this speed to travel a light - year. To compare, Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the Sun, is about 4.2 light - years (7016396434357355000 ♠ 2.65 × 10 AU) distant. Were the spacecraft traveling in the direction of that star, 73,775 years would pass before Voyager 1 reaches it. (Voyager 1 is heading in the direction of the constellation Ophiuchus.)
In late 2012, researchers reported that particle data from the spacecraft suggested that the probe had passed through the heliopause. Measurements from the spacecraft revealed a steady rise since May in collisions with high energy particles (above 70 MeV), which are thought to be cosmic rays emanating from supernova explosions far beyond the Solar System, with a sharp increase in these collisions in late August. At the same time, in late August, there was a dramatic drop in collisions with low - energy particles, which are thought to originate from the Sun. Ed Roelof, space scientist at Johns Hopkins University and principal investigator for the Low - Energy Charged Particle instrument on the spacecraft declared that "Most scientists involved with Voyager 1 would agree that (these two criteria) have been sufficiently satisfied. '' However, the last criterion for officially declaring that Voyager 1 had crossed the boundary, the expected change in magnetic field direction (from that of the Sun to that of the interstellar field beyond), had not been observed (the field had changed direction by only 2 degrees), which suggested to some that the nature of the edge of the heliosphere had been misjudged. On December 3, 2012, Voyager project scientist Ed Stone of the California Institute of Technology said, "Voyager has discovered a new region of the heliosphere that we had not realized was there. We 're still inside, apparently. But the magnetic field now is connected to the outside. So it 's like a highway letting particles in and out. '' The magnetic field in this region was 10 times more intense than Voyager 1 encountered before the termination shock. It was expected to be the last barrier before the spacecraft exited the Solar System completely and entered interstellar space.
In March 2013, it was announced that Voyager 1 might have become the first spacecraft to enter interstellar space, having detected a marked change in the plasma environment on August 25, 2012. However, until September 12, 2013, it was still an open question as to whether the new region was interstellar space or an unknown region of the Solar System. At that time, the former alternative was officially confirmed.
In 2013 Voyager 1 was exiting the solar system at a speed of about 3.6 AU per year, while Voyager 2 is going slower, leaving the solar system at 3.3 AU per year. Each year Voyager 1 increases its lead over Voyager 2.
Voyager 1 reached a distance of 135 AU from the Sun on May 18, 2016. By September 5, 2017 that had increased to about 139.64 AU from the Sun, or just over 19 light - hours, and at that time Voyager 2 was 115.32 AU from the Sun.
Its progress can be monitored at NASA 's website (see: External links).
On September 12, 2013, NASA officially confirmed that Voyager 1 had reached the interstellar medium in August 2012 as previously observed, with a generally accepted date of August 25, 2012, the date durable changes in the density of energetic particles were first detected. By this point most space scientists had abandoned the hypothesis that a change in magnetic field direction must accompany crossing of the heliopause; a new model of the heliopause predicted that no such change would be found. A key finding that persuaded many scientists that the heliopause had been crossed was an indirect measurement of an 80-fold increase in electron density, based on the frequency of plasma oscillations observed beginning on April 9, 2013, triggered by a solar outburst that had occurred in March 2012 (electron density is expected to be two orders of magnitude higher outside the heliopause than within). Weaker sets of oscillations measured in October and November 2012 provided additional data. An indirect measurement was required because Voyager 1 's plasma spectrometer had stopped working in 1980. In September 2013, NASA released audio renditions of these plasma waves. The recordings represent the first sounds to be captured in interstellar space.
While Voyager 1 is commonly spoken of as having left the Solar System simultaneously with having left the heliosphere, the two are not the same. The Solar System is usually defined as the vastly larger region of space populated by bodies that orbit the Sun. The craft is presently less than one seventh the distance to the aphelion of Sedna, and it has not yet entered the Oort cloud, the source region of long - period comets, regarded by astronomers as the outermost zone of the Solar System.
Voyager 1 is expected to reach the theorized Oort cloud in about 300 years and take about 30,000 years to pass through it. Though it is not heading towards any particular star, in about 40,000 years, it will pass within 1.6 light - years of the star Gliese 445, which is at present in the constellation Camelopardalis. That star is generally moving towards the Solar System at about 119 km / s (430,000 km / h; 270,000 mph). NASA says that "The Voyagers are destined -- perhaps eternally -- to wander the Milky Way. ''
Provided Voyager 1 does not collide with anything and is not retrieved, the New Horizons space probe will never pass it, despite being launched from Earth at a faster speed than either Voyager spacecraft. New Horizons is traveling at about 15 km / s, 2 km / s slower than Voyager 1, and is still slowing down. When New Horizons reaches the same distance from the Sun as Voyager 1 is now, its speed will be about 13 km / s (8 mi / s).
In December of 2017 it was announced that NASA had successfully fired up all four of Voyager 1 's trajectory correction maneuver (TCM) thrusters. The TCM thrusters will be used in the place of a degraded set of jets which were used to help keep the probe 's antenna pointed towards the Earth. Use of the TCM thrusters will allow Voyager 1 to continue to transmit data to NASA for two to three more years.
Each Voyager space probe carries a gold - plated audio - visual disc in case the spacecraft should ever be found by intelligent life forms from other planetary systems. The disc carries photos of the Earth and its lifeforms, a range of scientific information, spoken greetings from people such as the Secretary - General of the United Nations and the President of the United States and a medley, "Sounds of Earth, '' that includes the sounds of whales, a baby crying, waves breaking on a shore, and a collection of music, including works by Mozart, Blind Willie Johnson, Chuck Berry, and Valya Balkanska. Other Eastern and Western classics are included, as well as various performances of indigenous music from around the world. The record also contains greetings in 55 different languages.
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central christian college of the bible men's basketball | Central Christian College of the Bible - wikipedia
Founded in 1957, Central Christian College of the Bible in Moberly, Missouri is an accredited (Association for Biblical Higher Education) four - year college supported by Christian churches and churches of Christ to prepare leaders with biblical instruction and practical training for service around the world. Central enrolls several hundred students, providing full - tuition scholarships, which allows students the opportunity to train free of educational debt. Central 's stated mission is to develop servant - leaders for the church. The focus is not only quality education, but also practical ministry. They offer Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees in the following: Christian Education, Christian Counselors, Pastoral Ministry, Youth and Family Ministry, Religious Studies, General Ministry and Cross-Cultural Ministry. As of 2008, certain programs that were either currently offered as four - year degrees or not originally offered were made into optional certificate programs that students could choose to take. Among these included the former four - year Music Ministry degree, and a new addition of Children 's Ministry.
The founding board of directors, meeting in February 1957, was led by chairman O.S. Lincoln in unanimously declaring and affirming that "the purpose of the school is to recruit and train leadership for the church at large according to the New Testament teaching. '' Central remains exclusively committed to pursuing this purpose.
From 1957 to 1968, the college 's campus was located east of downtown Moberly on Ault Street. In 1968 the college moved to its present campus in southeastern Moberly.
Over these years, the college has grown in its facilities, its resources, and its family of alumni. Graduates of Central Christian College of the Bible are serving across the nation and around the world.
The college began serving students with online courses in 2007; they are taught by instructors from Central and other brotherhood Bible colleges. The College currently offers eighteen online courses between their faculty and the offerings of other participating colleges. The college is working to develop additional future offerings.
"Central Christian College of the Bible exists to develop servant - leaders for the church. '' As a traditional undergraduate Bible college, Central equips men and women for leadership in the Kingdom of God both nationally and internationally.
Central provides both Associate 's and Bachelor 's degrees that equip students with a Bible - centered higher educational foundation within the context of a Christian worldview, and help students become productive, contributing members of their communities.
Affiliated with the Restoration Movement, Central seeks to graduate faithful servant - leaders distinguished by authentic Christian character, who have the ability to communicate the Gospel effectively and become disciple - makers worldwide. This mission obeys the Biblical mandates of 2 Timothy 2: 2, "Pass on what you heard from me... to reliable leaders who are competent to teach others '' (The Message) and Matthew 28: 19, "Go, therefore, and make disciples of all the nations... '' (NASB)
The faculty includes many published scholars, including Chancellor Lloyd Pelfrey, M.A.; President David B. Fincher, Ph. D.; Richard Koffarnus, M. Div.; Gareth L. Reese, M. Div.; and Daniel D. Schantz, M.A.
On October 19, 2010, an announcement was made that on October 1, 2010, the Board of Directors unanimously decided to ask four faculty members to transition into retirement via part - time teaching with a reduced course load. This would take effect July 1, 2011, and was asked of Gareth Reese, Daniel Schantz, Lloyd Pelfrey, and William Walton. The purpose was to maintain financial accountability in light of the economy and low enrollment numbers.
Central 's campus is located on 40 acres (16.2 ha) in the southeastern part of Moberly. Moberly High School and Zion Lutheran Church are adjacent to the College 's campus. Timber Lake Christian Church and the YMCA are within walking distance. Privately owned affordable housing is available nearby for married students. To find the campus, take US Highway 63 to Moberly and exit at Route M / Urbandale Drive. Follow the signs west one - mile (1.6 km) and the campus is on the right side of the street.
Central 's campus features seven buildings and two outdoor athletic fields. Pelfrey Hall contains the cafeteria, gymnasium, offices, classrooms and conference room. Reese Resource Center, completed in 2001, contains the library and bookstore. Lang Hall is the men 's dormitory and Spurling Hall is the women 's dormitory. North of Pelfrey Hall is the maintenance facility. Foundation Hall, which opened for residents for the Fall 2004 semester, houses men and women on separate floors. The newest facility, the Walton Student Center, contains The Harvest House (a coffee house), a computer hub, lounging areas around TVs, a workout room, a prayer room, and a collaboratory room.
The CCCB Saints hold dual affiliation with both the Association of Christian College Athletics (ACCA) and the National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA). The Men 's Soccer team placed 2nd in the 2007 ACCA National Tournament, and won the 2008 ACCA National Tournament. The team placed 8th in the NCCAA Division II National Championships. Central also offers women 's volleyball and both men 's and women 's basketball. The women 's basketball program placed third in the Midwest Christian College Conference in 2006.
In the 2008 - 2009 season, the Central Christian College Saints men 's basketball set a school record for most wins in a season with a record of 20 wins. They placed 2nd in the 2009 ACCA national tournament, while finishing the season with a 20 - 14 record.
In the 2014 - 2015 season, the Central Christian College Saints women 's basketball took second at nationals.
CCCB offers Men 's Basketball, Women 's Basketball, Women 's Volleyball, Men 's Soccer, and Men and Women 's Cross-Country.
In May 2007, Central Christian College organized an Alumni Association. The official purpose is to be "an advisory council to the CCCB President that provides a voice for graduates and former students in the ongoing development & growth of Central Christian College of the Bible. The Alumni Association also serves as a fellowship association that connects graduates and former students together to develop a strong sense of fellowship and pride in the College. One of the main projects that the Alumni Association has is the annual "Alumni Homecoming. ''
The school does not have regional accreditation. The school pursued regional accreditation with the HLC from 2013 - 2017. On July 31st, 2017, the "Central 's executive leadership team and the Board of Directors agreed to withdraw voluntarily from the process '' of regional accreditation with the HLC after conversations with the HLC.
The school does have national accreditation via the Association for Biblical Higher Education and is recognized as an approved institution by the USDE and MDHE, which allows students at the school to receive veterans ' benefits and federal financial aid.
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where does the river dee start and finish | River Dee, Wales - wikipedia
The River Dee (Welsh: Afon Dyfrdwy, Latin: Deva Fluvius) is a river in the United Kingdom. It flows through parts of both Wales and England, forming part of the border between the two countries.
The river rises in Snowdonia, Wales, flows east via Chester, England, and discharges to the sea in an estuary between Wales and the Wirral Peninsula in England. It has a total length of 110 km (68 miles).
The River Dee was the traditional boundary of the Kingdom of Gwynedd in Wales for centuries, possibly since its founding in the 5th century. It was recorded in the 13th century as flumen Dubr Duiu; the name appears to derive from the Brythonic dēvā: "River of the Goddess '' or "Holy River ''.
The total catchment area of the River Dee down to Chester Weir is 1,816.8 km (701.5 sq mi). The estimated average annual rainfall over the catchment area is 640 mm (25 in), yielding an average flow of 37 m / s. The larger reservoirs in the catchment area are:
The River Dee has its source on the slopes of Dduallt above Llanuwchllyn in the mountains of Snowdonia in Meirionydd, Gwynedd, Wales. Between its source and Bala Lake the river is known by its Welsh name, Afon Dyfrdwy. Legend tells that the waters of the river pass through Bala Lake and emerge undiluted and unmixed at the outflow. On leaving Bala the river meets its confluence with Afon Tryweryn and passes through the Bala sluice gates, part of the Dee Regulation System protecting communities further downstream from severe flooding. Skirting the village of Llanfor, the path of the river takes it past Llandderfel and under the Grade II listed Pont Fawr bridge. The river trends generally east - southeast through the Vale of Edeyrnion, shadowed by the B4401 Bala to Cynwyd road. Leaving Gwynedd and entering Denbighshire the Dee flows beneath other historic bridges at Llandrillo and Cynwyd before arriving at the town of Corwen. From here the river passes the Iron Age hillfort of Caer Drewyn and enters the Clwydian Range and Dee Valley AONB. Through its forested valley the course takes it through Carrog, Glyndyfrdwy and Llantysilio, with the Llangollen Railway following the river on its route between Llangollen and Corwen.
At Berwyn the river passes over the manmade Horseshoe Falls, before picking up speed on a downhill gradient past the Chain Bridge Hotel and its historic pedestrian bridge. First built in 1814, and later refurbished by Henry Robertson in 1870, it was considered a marvel of early suspension bridge design. In 1928 the original bridge was destroyed by severe flooding and was rebuilt in its current form from original parts in 1929. The course of the river then takes it through Llangollen and under its 16th - century, Grade I listed bridge. The bridge is also a Scheduled Ancient Monument and considered one of the Seven Wonders of Wales. On leaving Llangollen the river continues east, generally skirting the outcropping Karstic limestone exposures of Eglwyseg Rocks (Welsh: Creigiau Eglwyseg). Overlooking the river here is the medieval Castell Dinas Brân, a ruined fortress abandoned by John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey in 1282. The river then enters Wrexham County Borough, passing south of Trevor and under Thomas Telford 's Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, of 1805, which carries the Llangollen Canal 120 feet (37 m) overhead.
Less than a mile east of the aqueduct at Cefn Mawr, the river is crossed by the Cefn Mawr Viaduct, built in 1848 by Thomas Brassey and carries the Shrewsbury to Chester railway line across the Dee. Beyond this point the river forms the boundary between Wrexham County Borough in Wales and Shropshire in the West Midlands of England. Passing Chirk and the confluence with the River Ceiriog, the river begins to trace gentle meanders on the level ground at the beginning of the Cheshire Plain. The course continues past Erbistock on the Welsh side, and the 5th - century earthwork of Wat 's Dyke on the English, before passing wholly into Wales at Overton bridge. A couple more miles downstream is Bangor - on - Dee, known for its Racecourse. Until 1974 this area was part of an exclave of historic Flintshire known as English Maelor (Welsh: Maelor Saesneg). The Dee continues to meander past Worthenbury where it is joined by the River Clywedog. At this point the border between Wrexham and Cheshire West and Chester follows the course of the river. It passes the Cheshire village of Crewe by Farndon, before cutting between Holt in Wales and Farndon in England beneath the 14th - century, Grade I listed Farndon Bridge.
One of the major tributaries of the Dee, the River Alyn (Afon Alun) crosses the Carboniferous Limestone from Halkyn Mountain and runs down through the Loggerheads area before making its confluence north of Holt. Throughout the length of the Alyn there are numerous swallow holes and caverns and during the summer months long stretches of the river bed run dry. These caves include Ogof Hesp Alyn and Ogof Hen Ffynhonnau. A significant part of this lost flow reemerges in the Milwr Tunnel, a manmade tunnel, entering the west bank of the Dee estuary and carrying 12 million imperial gallons per day (600 l / s). This tunnel was originally constructed to drain metal mines in Halkyn Mountain. Once the main River Dee approaches the Cheshire border and the Carboniferous Coal Measures, it turns sharply northwards before meandering up to Chester. This long stretch of the river drops in height by only a few feet. The rich adjoining farmland has many remnants of abandoned coal workings and deep claypits used to make bricks and tiles. A number of these pits are now being used as landfill sites for domestic and commercial waste.
Approaching Churton and Aldford, the river crosses entirely into England, and passes the grand country house of Eaton Hall, seat of the Duke of Westminster. It then continues past the village of Eccleston and beneath the A55 North Wales Expressway, tracing northwards past the Roman Eaton Road to the Chester suburbs of Huntington and Handbridge before reaching the centre of Chester. In the city centre the river passes and around the Earl 's Eye (s) meadow at Queen 's Park. In this vicinity, the riverside is used as a recreation area with a bandstand, benches and boat cruises, being crossed by four bridges. The first is the Queen 's Park Suspension Bridge, which forms the only exclusively pedestrian footway across the river in Chester. The second is the Old Dee Bridge, a road bridge and by far the oldest bridge in Chester, being built in about 1387 on the site of a series of wooden predecessors which dated originally from the Roman period.
Above the Old Dee Bridge is Chester Weir, which was built by Hugh Lupus to supply power to his corn mills. Throughout the centuries the weir has been used to power corn, fulling, needle, snuff and flint mills. The same weir was used as part of a hydroelectric scheme in 1911 with the help of a small generator building which is still visible today, used as a pumping station for water since 1951. However the first water pumping station here was set up in 1600 by John Tyrer who pumped water to a square tower built on the city 's Bridgegate. It was destroyed in the Civil War but an octagonal tower built in 1690 for the same purpose lasted until the gate was replaced with an arch in the mid-18th century.
On this weir is a fish pass and fish counting station to monitor the numbers of salmon ascending the river, and also a weirgate for navigating the weir at spring tides. A little further downstream stands the Grosvenor Bridge (designed by architect Thomas Harrison of Chester), which was opened in 1833 to ease congestion on the Old Dee Bridge. This bridge was opened by Princess Victoria five years before she became Queen.
The other side of the Grosvenor Bridge is the Roodee, Chester 's race course and the oldest course in the country. This used to be the site of Chester 's Roman harbour until, aided by the building of the weir, the River Dee silted up to become the size it is today. The only curiously remaining reminder of this site 's maritime past is a stone cross which stands in the middle of the Roodee which exhibits the marks of water ripples. To the end of the Roodee the river is crossed by Chester 's fourth bridge which carries the North Wales Coast railway line, before leaving Chester. This was the scene of one of the first serious railway accidents in the country, the Dee bridge disaster.
West of Chester, the river flows along an artificial channel excavated between 1732 and 1736. The work was planned and undertaken by engineers from the Netherlands and paid for by local merchants and Chester Corporation. It was an attempt to improve navigation for shipping and reduce silting. Chester 's trade had declined steadily since the end of the 17th century as sediment had prevented larger craft reaching the city, spelling the end for the Port of Chester.
After four years ' work, the river was diverted from its meandering natural course which passed Blacon, Saughall, Shotwick Castle, Burton and Parkgate and up the west shore of Wirral. Instead, the new canalised section followed the coast along northeast Wales. During this time, Sealand and Shotton were reclaimed from the estuary. Land reclamation in this area continued until 1916. The river 's natural course can still be determined by following the bank and low bluffs that mark the western edge of the Wirral Peninsula.
The manmade channel, which runs in a straight line for 8 km (5 miles), passes into Wales and Flintshire at Saltney. On the west shore is Hawarden Airport and the large Airbus factory at Broughton. This region is known as Deeside and contains several heavy industries. From here the Dee passes beneath three road bridges. The first two are adjacent to each other at Queensferry. They are a 1960s fixed - arch bridge carrying the A494 Queensferry to Dolgellau trunk road and its predecessor the Jubilee Bridge, which is a rolling Bascule bridge completed in 1926. The third crossing, and the most recent, is at Connah 's Quay. The Flintshire Bridge is a fixed cable - stayed bridge which opened in 1999.
Between the second and third road bridges is Hawarden railway bridge at Shotton, originally constructed as a swing bridge but now never opened. It carries the Bidston to Wrexham Central Borderlands Line over the river. Hawarden Bridge station serves the Deeside Industrial Park, Deeside Power Station and the works at Dee Marsh.
A footbridge replaced the passenger ferry at Saltney in the 1970s.
Beyond Connah 's Quay the river opens out into the Dee Estuary, forming the northeasternmost section of the North Wales coast and the western coast of the Wirral. Towns along the coast include Flint, Holywell and Mostyn on the Welsh side and Neston, Parkgate, Heswall, West Kirby and Hoylake on the Wirral side. South of Bagillt and Parkgate the Dee Estuary forms the boundary between the local authority areas of Flintshire and Cheshire West and Chester. Northwards it forms the boundary with the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral in Merseyside, North West England. The estuary continues to widen until finally entering the Irish Sea and Liverpool Bay between the northernmost point of mainland Wales, Point of Ayr at Talacre, Flintshire and Hilbre Point, near Hoylake and West Kirby in Wirral, Merseyside. Hilbre Island, part of Wirral, straddles the mouth of the estuary at this point. The waters of the Dee then converge with those of the River Mersey and Ribble, producing a notable drop in salinity and increase in sediment which can be tracked a considerable distance along the Sefton and Lancashire coasts.
The estuary is hugely important for birdlife and has been designated both as an SSSI and as a Ramsar site accordingly. Its value lies in the huge expanses of mud which are exposed between tides and the extensive saltmarsh developed on both sides but principally on the right bank north and south of Neston.
The estuary owes its origins to the scouring of a broad channel through the Triassic sandstones and Carboniferous mudstones by glacial ice during successive ice ages to form an iceway. The channel continues inland south of Chester but its higher reaches have long since been infilled with sand, gravel and mud. The process of infilling by mud continues to the present day as the rapid growth of the saltmarsh in the last century testifies, pushing the high tide line further out into the estuary.
Large parts of the catchment are devoted to agriculture and there a number of abstractions made from the river for summer irrigation. The volumes involved are not however significant.
From Chirk downstream, the river valley has supported a wide range of industries that were initially drawn to the area by the presence of coal mines and later by the deep deposits of Carboniferous clays used to make bricks and tiles.
The coal industry in particular gave rise to a number of chemical industries some of which survive to this day and which both take water from the river and discharge their cleaned up effluent back into the river. Industries in the valley include commercial chemicals manufacture, wood chip and MDF fabrication, cocoa milling, fibreglass manufacture, waste disposal (in old clay pits) and a great variety of smaller industries concentrated around Wrexham. The main impact on the river of these industries is their thirst for a dependable good quality water supply.
Currently the wings for the Airbus A380, which are made at Airbus 's manufacturing factory in Broughton, are taken downriver by barge to the Port of Mostyn because they are too large to be shipped in an Airbus Beluga. However, the dredging of the river for the barge may be responsible for a weakening of the tidal bore.
There are a number of direct water abstractions upstream of Chester by three water companies and by the canal. The size of the abstraction is very large compared to the summer flow and the flow in the river is very highly regulated through the use of reservoirs to store water in the winter and release it in the summer. The whole system is managed as the River Dee regulation system. Below Chester water is also abstracted as cooling water by the gas - fired power station at Connah 's Quay. Process and cooling water is also abstracted for the paper mill and power station at Shotton.
The Dee used to be a popular whitewater kayaking and touring river (particularly the grade III / IV whitewater section upstream of Llangollen). It stays high after rain for longer than most British rivers and is paddleable year - round (thanks to the River Dee Regulation System). Canoeing used to be allowed on about twelve weekends per year, and tens of thousands of canoeists descended on Llangollen for recreational paddling (several Dee tours were held every winter), slalom competitions, and wild water races.
In 2003, negotiations with the angling associations owning fishing rights on the Dee broke down. The anglers wanted to restrict the numbers of paddlers on the river when paddling was allowed but the Welsh Canoe Association wanted to renew the previous agreement. In November 2004, a protest about the lack of access on the Dee, and to rivers across England and Wales, was held in Llangollen. Following the failure of the access agreement, the Welsh Canoeing Association advises canoeists to use their own judgement about using the river, which in practice means many canoeists use the river at will from the numerous access points along its banks.
Canoeing is permitted on one 100 m long rapid, 1 km upstream of Llangollen. Wildwater and slalom races are still held at Serpent 's Tail rapid upstream of Llangollen. Canoeing and kayaking are also permitted between Farndon and Chester, as this section of the river is tidal and falls under the jurisdiction of Cheshire West and Chester Council.
Each July the Chester Raft Race is held on the Dee in aid of charity.
The Deva (Chester) Triathlon uses the Dee for the swim leg of the race.
The rowing clubs on the Dee are Royal Chester Rowing Club (hosting also Chester University Rowing Club) and Grosvenor Rowing Club. King 's School Rowing Club and Queens Park High School are school - dedicated rowing clubs. All these share the slightly meandering Chester / lower reach before the estuary.
The river has been famed as a mixed fishery with salmon and trout fishing, mostly in the upper waters and a good coarse fishery in the lower reaches. A major pollution incident in the middle reaches in the late 1990s did extensive damage to the fishery from which it is now largely recovered.
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when did the fate of the furious come out | The Fate of the Furious - wikipedia
The Fate of the Furious (alternatively known as Fast & Furious 8 and Fast 8, and often stylized as F8) is a 2017 American action film directed by F. Gary Gray and written by Chris Morgan. It is the eighth installment in The Fast and the Furious franchise. The film stars Vin Diesel, Dwayne Johnson, Jason Statham, Michelle Rodriguez, Tyrese Gibson, Chris "Ludacris '' Bridges, Scott Eastwood, Nathalie Emmanuel, Elsa Pataky, Kurt Russell and Charlize Theron. The Fate of the Furious follows Dominic Toretto (Diesel), who has settled down with his wife Letty (Rodriguez), until cyberterrorist Cipher (Theron) coerces him into working for her and turns him against his team, forcing them to find Dom and take down Cipher.
The Fate of the Furious marks the first installment in the franchise since The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006) not to star both Paul Walker, who died in a single - vehicle crash during the filming of Furious 7 (2015) on November 30, 2013, and Jordana Brewster. Script rewrites to the seventh installment after Walker 's death were intended to complete the story arcs for both of their characters (Brian O'Conner and Mia Toretto, respectively).
Plans for an eighth installment were first announced in March 2015 when Diesel appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live! and announced that the film would be set in New York City. Preparations for the film began immediately after the release of Furious 7, with Diesel, Morgan and producer Neal H. Moritz re-signing. After setting an initial release date in the same month, casting took place between April and June 2015. In October 2015, Gray was announced to direct the film in the place of James Wan, who had directed the previous installment. Principal photography began in March 2016 in locations such as Mývatn, Havana, Atlanta, Cleveland and New York City, continuing the franchise 's tradition of filming in exotic locations around the world.
The Fate of the Furious premiered in Berlin on April 4, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States on April 14, 2017, playing in 3D, IMAX 3D and 4DX internationally. The film received mixed reviews from critics, many of whom praised the action sequences and acting performances but criticized the storyline. The film grossed over $1.2 billion worldwide, making it the 30th film (and the second in the franchise, after Furious 7) to gross over $1 billion, the third highest - grossing film of 2017 and the 12th highest - grossing film of all time. The film grossed $542 million worldwide during its opening weekend, setting the record for the highest - grossing opening of all time, ahead of Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($529 million).
Dominic "Dom '' Toretto and Letty Ortiz are on their honeymoon in Havana when Dom 's cousin Fernando gets in trouble owing money to local racer Raldo. Sensing Raldo is a loan shark, Dom challenges Raldo to a race, pitting Fernando 's reworked car against Raldo 's, and wagering his own show car. After narrowly winning the race, Dom allows Raldo to keep his car, earning his respect, and instead leaves his cousin with his show car.
The next day, Dom is approached by the elusive cyberterrorist Cipher who coerces him into working for her. Shortly afterwards, Dom and his team, comprising Letty, Roman Pearce, Tej Parker, and Ramsey, are recruited by Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) agent Luke Hobbs to help him retrieve an EMP device from a military outpost in Berlin. During the getaway, Dom goes rogue, forcing Hobbs off the road and stealing the device for Cipher. Hobbs is arrested and locked up in the same high - security prison he helped imprison Deckard Shaw in. After escaping, Deckard and Hobbs are recruited by intelligence operative Mr. Nobody and his protégé to help the team find Dom and capture Cipher. Deckard reveals that Cipher had hired his brother Owen Shaw to steal the Nightshade device and Mose Jakande to steal God 's Eye, Ramsey 's software program. The team tracks Dom and Cipher to their very location just as the latter two attack the base and steal God 's Eye. When Dom questions Cipher 's motives, she reveals that she has been holding hostage Dom 's ex-lover and DSS agent Elena Neves -- as well as their son, of whose existence Dom was previously unaware. Elena tells Dom that she wanted him to decide the child 's first name, having already given him the middle name Marcos.
In New York City, Cipher sends Dom to retrieve a nuclear football held by the Russian Minister of Defence. Prior to the theft, Dom briefly evades Cipher and persuades Deckard and Owen 's mother, Magdalene Shaw, to help him. Cipher hacks into the electronics systems of a large number of cars, causing them to drive automatically and taking out the convoy so that Dom can take the football. The team intercepts Dom, but Dom escapes, shooting and apparently killing Deckard in the process. Letty catches up to Dom, but is ambushed and nearly killed by Cipher 's enforcer, Connor Rhodes, before Dom rescues her. In retaliation, Cipher has Rhodes execute Elena in front of Dom.
Dom infiltrates a base in Russia to use the EMP device to disable their security and then to disable a nuclear submarine, enabling Cipher to hijack it and attempt to use its arsenal to trigger a nuclear war. They are once again intercepted by the team, who attempt to shut down the sub, and then drive out toward the gates that would prevent the sub from leaving into open waters. Meanwhile, Deckard, whose death was apparently faked, teams up with Owen, and under Magdalene 's behest, infiltrates Cipher 's plane to rescue Dom 's son. Once Deckard reports that the child is safe, Dom turns on Cipher and kills Rhodes, avenging Elena 's death, before rejoining his team. Outraged, Cipher fires an infrared homing missile at Dom, but he breaks away from his team and maneuvers around it, causing the missile to hit the submarine instead. The team quickly forms a vehicular blockade around Dom, shielding him from the ensuing explosion. When Deckard reaches the front of the plane and confronts Cipher, she makes her escape by parachuting out of the plane.
Mr. Nobody and his protégé visit Dom and his team in New York City to report that Cipher is still at large in Athens. Hobbs is offered his DSS job back, but he declines in order to spend more time with his daughter. Deckard delivers Dom his son, putting his differences aside with Dom and Hobbs. Dom names his son Brian, after his friend and brother - in - law Brian O'Conner, and they celebrate.
Tego Calderón and Don Omar reprise their roles from previous films as Tego Leo and Rico Santos, former members of Dom 's team from the Dominican Republic and Rio de Janeiro, respectively. Luke Evans reprises his role from Fast & Furious 6 (2013) as Owen Shaw, Deckard 's younger brother and a former Special Air Service (SAS) soldier who formerly opposed Dom 's team in Europe, and who helps his brother in rescuing Dom 's son. Kristofer Hivju appears as Connor Rhodes, Cipher 's enforcer and right - hand man. Patrick St. Esprit appears as DS Allen. Helen Mirren makes an uncredited cameo appearance as Magdalene Shaw, the mother of Deckard and Owen Shaw.
Following the release of Furious 7 (2015), Vin Diesel said regarding a possible sequel:
I was trying to keep it close to the vest throughout the release. Paul Walker used to say that (an eighth film) was guaranteed. And in some ways, when your brother guarantees something, you sometimes feel like you have to make sure it comes to pass... so if fate has it, then you 'll get this when you hear about it. (Furious 7) was for Paul, (the eighth film) is from Paul.
Diesel further hinted at an eighth film on Jimmy Kimmel Live! when he stated that Kurt Russell 's character would span multiple films. He also stated that the next film would take place in New York City. Chris Morgan wrote his sixth script in the franchise, while Neal H. Moritz returned to produce. Moritz later stated, "(The story) is going to have to be something enticing for all of us. It has to be as good as or better (than Furious 7) ''.
At the 2015 CinemaCon in Las Vegas, Diesel announced the film for an April 14, 2017 release date. On August 16, 2015, at the 2015 Teen Choice Awards (where Furious 7 received the award for Choice Movie -- Action and Walker received the award for Choice Movie Actor -- Action), Diesel gave the film the initial title Fast 8. In September 2015, Diesel stated that the script had almost been completed, and expressed interest in Rob Cohen, who directed the first film, to direct the eighth installment. On October 14, 2015, Diesel announced on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon that Straight Outta Compton director F. Gary Gray would direct the film.
In July 2015, Moritz said that Walker 's character, Brian O'Conner, would not appear in the film, following the use of CGI in the previous film after Walker died in a single - vehicle accident on November 30, 2013, with Moritz stating that his character had "moved on ''. It had previously been reported that Paul 's younger brother, Cody Walker, would either join the cast in a new role, or replace his older brother in the role of O'Conner; however, it was later announced that the character will not return to the franchise. Moritz also said that the film would shift the focus of the franchise from a series of heist films to a spy caper, following a similar change in focus from street racing in Fast Five (2011). In December 2016, the film was retitled The Fate of the Furious.
Diesel, Russell and Michelle Rodriguez were the first to confirm their involvement in the film, and Tyrese Gibson and Chris Bridges both confirmed their return soon after. Lucas Black had signed on to reprise his role from The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift as Sean Boswell for Furious 7, and two more installments in September 2013, though he did not appear in Fate. In May 2015, Dwayne Johnson confirmed his involvement in the film, additionally hinting at a possible spin - off film involving his character, Luke Hobbs. Jason Statham also confirmed his return. In April 2016, Charlize Theron and Kristofer Hivju were confirmed as additions to the cast, in villainous roles, while Scott Eastwood also joined the film as a law enforcement agent. On May 17, 2016, Diesel posted a photo on his Instagram page of himself and Elsa Pataky on set, indicating that she had also returned for the film, and was followed two days later by a video on set with Nathalie Emmanuel, who also starred in the previous film. In June 2016, Helen Mirren announced in an interview with Elle that she would appear in the film. In July 2016, Don Omar tweeted that he and Tego Calderon would return to the franchise for the eighth picture. During an interview with Chris Mannix on July 21, 2016, Lucas Black confirmed he would not appear in the eighth installment, due to scheduling conflicts.
In keeping with the franchise 's penchant for filming in "exotic '' locations, such as Dubai and Rio de Janeiro, in January 2016 it was announced that Universal was seeking approval from the United States and Cuban governments to shoot part of the film in Cuba. Principal photography began on March 14, 2016, in Mývatn, Iceland, where strong winds sent a plastic iceberg prop flying into a paddock. The prop struck two horses: one was wounded and the other mortally injured; it was later euthanized. In late April, filming began in Cuba 's capital city, Havana. In May, filming also took place in Cleveland, Ohio. Franchise cinematographer Stephen F. Windon returned for the eighth installment. Filming also took place in Atlanta and New York City.
Brian Tyler, who scored the third, fourth, fifth, and seventh installments, was tapped to compose the film score for the eighth picture. A soundtrack album by Atlantic Records was released on April 14, 2017, coinciding with the film 's US theatrical release. The film 's score album was released on April 27, by Back Lot Music.
The Fate of the Furious had its world premiere in Berlin on April 4, 2017. The film was theatrically released in the United States on April 14, 2017, playing in 3D, IMAX 3D, and 4DX internationally, and received a day - and - date release across major markets such as Australia, the United Kingdom, China, and India, beginning on April 12, 2017. The film was released day - and - date in 1,074 IMAX screens around the world, making it the widest day - and - date opening in IMAX history.
The Fate of the Furious was released on 4K, Blu - ray, DVD and Digital HD on July 11, 2017.
The Fate of the Furious grossed $226 million in the United States and Canada and $1.010 billion in other territories for a worldwide total of $1.236 billion, against a production budget of $250 million ($350 million including marketing costs). It is Universal Pictures ' most ambitious worldwide distribution release in the studio 's history. The film was released day - and - date in 64 territories worldwide, including almost all major markets (minus Japan), starting from April 12, 2017, and was projected to earn anywhere between $375 -- 440 million in its five - day opening weekend. By the end of the weekend, it ended up earning $539.9 million from nearly 23,000 screens, way above initial projections, to score the biggest global opening in cinematic history. It also marked the third time that a film earned over $500 million in a single weekend, after Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($529 million) and Jurassic World ($525.5 million). In IMAX, the film made $31.1 million from 1,079 screens to record the biggest IMAX April debut and the fourth biggest overall.
On April 30, it crossed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the second release of 2017 (following Beauty and the Beast), the fifth film released by Universal Pictures (after Jurassic Park, Furious 7, Jurassic World, and Minions) and the thirtieth film overall in cinematic history to gross over $1 billion. It is currently the third highest - grossing film of the year, behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi, and Beauty and the Beast, the second - biggest action film that is not a fantasy or superhero movie, behind Furious 7, and is Universal 's highest - grossing live - action release since Jurassic World back in June 2015.
Like many of its predecessors, The Fate of the Furious was released in the United States and Canada in the month of April, and like its immediate predecessor, occupied the lucrative Easter week holiday period slot, where it was expected to open with $100 -- 125 million. It received the widest pre-summer release ever, at an estimated 4,304 venues, besting the 4,242 opening theater count of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice the previous March. The film made $10.4 million from Thursday night previews from 3,310 theaters, the second - highest of the franchise behind Furious 7 's $15.8 million. A sequel is scheduled to be released on April 10, 2020. On its opening day it grossed $45.6 million, with Thursday previews making up 22.8 % of the amount, slightly better than the 23 % for Furious 7. Earning a total of $98.8 million on its opening weekend, the film scored the second biggest opening in the franchise (the third biggest adjusted for inflation) and the third biggest April debut, behind Furious 7 and The Jungle Book. It posted an almost identical weekend multiplier like its immediate predecessor (2.166 x vs 2.18 x). However, this is not surprising considering how both films opened over Good Friday / Easter Sunday stretch. Scott Mendelson of Forbes magazine compared the opening to how Spectre (2015) opening fell from Skyfall (2012). One notable record the film set was the best opening for a film with an African American director, with Gray besting his own record set with Straight Outta Compton in 2015.
Sticking to the franchise 's famous and lauded habit of including a multi-ethnic cast of characters, the film played to audiences of all ethnicities. Domestically, Caucasians made up 41 percent of the audience, followed by Hispanics (26 percent), African - Americans (21) percent, Asians (11 percent), and Native American / Other (3 percent), according to comScore 's exit polling service PostTrack. The pic skewed male at 58 percent, far more than the last film at 51 percent. 2D ticketbuyers repped 57 % of the film 's opening compared to its predecessor 's 71 %. This means more die - hard moviegoers came out to watch the eighth installment rather than people who do not typically go to the movies.
While The Fate of the Furious 's debut is 34 % less than its predecessor 's opening, critics have noted that the debut is still considered a massive success and not a big let down given how it is the eighth installment in an action franchise. Universal Pictures was well aware that the robust debut of Furious 7 could not be duplicated due to the wave of good reviews and publicity over the death of star Paul Walker, as well as the notion that the installment was both a farewell to said actor and a kind of coronation for the franchise as a whole. Nevertheless, the film benefited from Easter holiday business with 74 % of all K - 12 schools off on Good Friday as well as a third of the nation 's colleges. The film comes out in the wake of its parent franchise celebrating 16 years of availability in cinemas. To wit, few film franchises which are close to 20 years old have demonstrated a box office ability to increase their openings with each installment over time or maintain them in close proximity in terms of debut numbers; James Bond film series, Batman film series, Jurassic Park franchise, and Star Wars franchise.
Its hefty opening was followed by the second - biggest April Monday gross ever with $8.5 million, behind the seventh installment. Its Sunday to Monday drop was 60 % compared to its prequel 's 57 % drop which is far better than the Monday dropped witnessed by other April releases; The Jungle Book (- 76 %) and Captain America: The Winter Soldier (- 73 %), albeit without the advantage of a school holiday. Despite the entry of four new wide releases, critics and box office prognosticators kept a close watch on how much the film would drop in its second weekend. The film fell precipitously on its second Friday earning $11.17 million for a 76 % drop which is the biggest in the franchise 's history, besting the 72 % drops for both its two immediate predecessors. The steep decline maybe attributed not because of the onslaught of competitions, but rather due to the polarised reception received by the film and due to just 12 % K - 12 schools beings off compared to 74 % on Good Friday. It kept its hold at No. 1, albeit dropping about 61 % in its sophomore frame for an estimated $38.4 million. That domestic drop is right in line with the 59 - 63 % drops of the six previous installment in the franchise 's on their second weekend out. It topped the box office for three straight weekends, witnessing similar weekend - to - weekend percentage drops like its prequel, albeit earning lesser in terms of numbers.
Internationally, The Fate of the Furious secured a release in 69 countries. The film was projected to post an opening between $275 -- 330 million from over 20,000 screens, with some analysts believing it could go as high as $350 -- 400 million. It opened Wednesday, April 12, 2017, in 8 countries, earning $17.9 million (including previews from 12 countries). It opened in 33 more countries on Thursday, April 2, for a total of 41 countries, earning $58.4 million, marking Universal Pictures overseas ' highest - grossing Thursday ever, and for a two - day total of $82.2 million. It added 22 more countries on Friday, April 3, earning $112.1 million to score Universal International 's highest grossing Friday of all time, for a three - day total of $194.8 million. The robust Friday take helped Universal push past $1 billion internationally in 2017 which is the second quickest ever and the studio 's eleventh consecutive year overall the pass the mark. Moreover, on the same day, the franchise crossed the $4 billion milestone. In total, through Sunday, the film registered an opening of $441.1 million from 64 markets, setting new records for the biggest April international debut, Universal 's biggest, and the biggest of all time overall (ahead of Jurassic World) -- It is the first such film to open past $400 million in a single weekend with a bulk of it coming from China. Around $22.6 million came from (681) IMAX screens which is Universal 's second biggest behind only Jurassic World. It topped the international charts for a second consecutive term, adding another $158.1 million after which it was surpassed by Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, another film starring Diesel and Russel, in its third weekend. In IMAX, the film has grossed north of $58 million. On May 28, the film officially passed the $1 billion threshold to become the second film in the franchise, following Furious 7, and the sixth film to pass the said mark.
It set the record for the biggest opening day of 2017 in every territory it has been released at, the biggest opening day of all time in 16 markets, Universal 's biggest opening day ever in 22 territories and the biggest opening in the franchise in 38 markets. Moreover, it recorded the biggest paid previews of all time in Malaysia, Singapore, Venezuela, and Vietnam. In terms of opening weekend, the film debuted at No. 1 in all markets where it set the biggest opening weekend of all time in 20 markets; Universal 's biggest opening weekend ever in 28 markets; and the biggest opening in the franchise in 40 markets. The top openings were recorded in China ($192 million), Mexico ($17.7 million), the UK and Ireland ($17.5 million), Russia ($14.2 million), Germany ($13.6 million), Brazil ($12.8 million), India ($10.7 million), Korea ($10.6 million), Middle East combined ($9.9 million), Taiwan ($9.3 million), France ($9.2 million), Australia ($9.5 million), Argentina ($9 million), Indonesia ($8.5 million), Italy ($6.7 million), Malaysia ($6.3 million), Spain ($6.1 million), Colombia ($4.9 million), Thailand ($4.9 million), Panama ($4.8 million), and Romania ($1.7 million). Comparing market - to - market performance, Furious 7 had an opening worth $250 million without China and Russia while The Fate of the Furious delivered $228.2 million debut, sans the two aforementioned markets. In Japan, the film debuted with $7.5 million. Although that 's a new record for the franchise, the film debuted at number three behind Disney 's Beauty and the Beast and local film Detective Conan: Crimson Love Letter -- their robust second weekend earnings blocked the former from taking the top spot, making Japan one of the few markets where the film did n't open at No. 1.
Expectations were high for the film 's performance in China, as its predecessor set notable records and went on to become the biggest film release there (now the biggest Hollywood release). The film was rebranded in Chinese as The Fast and the Furious 8 to make clear its connection to Furious 7. After ticket sales began on April 2, the film pre-sold more than RMB 125 million ($18.1 million) worth of tickets before its release, breaking the previous record held by local film Journey to the West: Conquering the Demons three months prior. Moreover, it also set a record for the fastest IMAX advance sales, with RMB 16.5 million ($2.4 million), breaking the previous record held by Captain America: Civil War, according to leading local movie site Mtime. In total, it pre-sold around $43.5 million tickets two hours before previews began, the biggest ever in the country. It earned a record - breaking RMB 59.8 million ($8.7 million) from Thursday paid previews ($8 million excluding online ticketing surcharges which now count as grosses), breaking its predecessor 's former record of RMB 52.5 million ($8.5 million in 2015; $7.6 million in 2017 exchange rates). On Friday, the film was screened in approximately 158,000 screens, a new record for any film, breaking Warcraft 's former 122,000 screen counts, and almost double the estimated 80,700 screen count of its predecessor. By Friday noon, it had already grossed $30 million. Buoyed by positive word - of - mouth -- 9.4 / 10 user rating on mobile ticketing platform Maoyan, and 7.4 / 10 from reviews aggregator Douban -- and effective marketing campaign, it set a new record for the biggest single - day ever at the Chinese box office, including previews. This was achieved at 7 p.m. local time. In total, the film grossed an estimated RMB 452.8 million ($65.8 million) on its opening day, inclusive of previews and online ticketing surcharges, compared to the RMB 398 million ($57.8 million) posted by its predecessor. It is the first film in Chinese history to register above RMB 400 million ($58 million) in a single day. Earning a total of RMB 1.323 billion ($192.2 million), according to Chinese sources and 190 million, according to Universal, in its debut weekend, it set a new milestone for three day opening weekend and overall the second best debut ever behind only local pic The Mermaid, which had the benefit of four days of previews over the New Year period in February 2016. An estimated $14 million came from 395 IMAX screens, the second biggest ever in the country, behind Warcraft. Its three - day debut alone made it the biggest Hollywood release of 2017 and the third biggest overall. Factoring out online ticketing surcharges, the total comes to a slightly less - hefty RMB 1.245 billion ($182.2 million). In just nine days, the film passed the historic RMB 2 billion ($300 million) and thereby became the biggest release of the year. The film fell precipitously by 71.4 % in its second weekend (from its $190 million debut), earning RMB 374 million ($54.3 million) for a massive 10 - day total of RMB 2.19 billion ($318 million). On April 30, it became the biggest Hollywood / foreign release of all - time with RMB 2.44 billion, surpassing its prequels former record of 2.41 billion. However, in terms of US currency, The Fate of the Furious ($381 million) is still behind Furious 7 ($391 million). After three consecutive weeks of topping the charts, it slipped to fourth place after being dethroned by Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 from the top spot. It has so far grossed a total of RMB 2.648 billion ($383.9 million) and is the country 's second - biggest grosser ever, behind only The Mermaid.
In India, the film secured a release across approximately 1,600 -- 1,800 screens (1,000 -- 1,200 screens less than its predecessor). Like other Hollywood releases, it was released in both 2K projections and normal projections, and dubbed in local languages such as Hindi, Tamil and Telugu. It is the first international film to be dubbed into the Kannada language. Despite clashing with local pic Begum Jaan, analysts believe the two films will not affect each other 's performance, as they appeal to distinct moviegoers. Universal had high hopes in the territory, after Furious 7 grossed an unprecedented $24.9 million in 2015, and became the biggest foreign release ever in the country at the time of its release (now the second biggest). The Central Board of Film Certification gave the film a UA rating (parental guidance suggested for children under 12), rather than an A for adults, after the studio agreed to cut several profanities (CBFC was willing to pass the film with an A certificate with no cuts but Universal wanted a UA certificate leading to the board censoring all profanities with few cuts). It earned around ₹ 8.50 crore (US $1.3 million) net from Wednesday paid previews. The following day it grossed ₹ 22.50 crore (US $3.4 million), including previews. On its official opening day, it grossed ₹ 16.10 crore (US $2.5 million) for a three - day total of ₹ 38.60 crore (US $5.9 million). Earning a total of $10.7 million, it set a new record for the biggest ever foreign opening in the country, toppling its prequel 's former record. As such, it is the first foreign film to open north of $10 million. Following its record breaking opening, it fell about 58 % on its second weekend excluding previews, earning another $4 million for a two weekend total of over $17.4 million, With over $19.2 million it is currently the biggest foreign release of the year. However, in terms of net earnings -- which is the base for box office calculations in India -- the film was unable to break past the ₹ 100 crore (US $15 million) mark, stalling at around ₹ 85.59 crore (US $13 million). Despite a record breaking opening, it lost significant amount of screen counts and audiences thereafter, partly due to the release of Baahubali: The Conclusion.
The biggest earning markets are China ($390.2 million), followed by Brazil ($41.6 million), the UK and Ireland ($37.4 million), Mexico ($36.8 million) and Germany ($32.1 million). In Peru, it has become Universal 's highest - grossing film ever. With over $1 billion in international receipts and representing a boffo 82 % of the film 's total worldwide gross, it is currently the seventh - biggest overseas earner behind Avatar, Titanic, Furious 7, Star Wars: The Force Awakens, and Jurassic World.
The Fate of the Furious received mixed reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 66 % based on 256 reviews, and an average rating of 6.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "The Fate of the Furious opens a new chapter in the franchise, fueled by the same infectious cast chemistry and over-the - top action fans have come to expect. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a weighted average score 56 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Mike Ryan of Uproxx gave the film a positive review, writing: "This is n't my favorite of the series -- that 's still Furious 7 (it 's hard to top those jumps from skyscraper to skyscraper, but this is a worthy entry). These movies know what they are. These movies know they are fun. These are fun movies! '' Owen Gleiberman of Variety, in his positive review of the film, wrote: "Most franchises, after eight films, are feeling a twinge of exhaustion, but this one has achieved a level of success -- and perpetual kinetic creative energy -- that 's a testament to its commercial / cultural / demographic resonance. '' He also wrote, "If this series, over the last 16 years, has taught us anything, it 's that just when you think it 's about to run out of gas, it gets outfitted with an even more elaborate fuel - injection system. ''
Conversely, David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a C − and called it the worst entry of the franchise, saying: "As much a mess of conflicting tones and styles as it is of locations, this setpiece -- like the rest of Gray 's movie -- feels like a heap of random parts that were thrown together in the hopes that fate might somehow weld them into a roadworthy vehicle. But it 's not all groundbreaking. '' J.R. Kinnard of PopMatters magazine gave a lukewarm review, writing: "It 's unlikely that devotees will consider The Fate of the Furious one of the stronger entries in the series. Still, the filmmakers and actors are clearly dedicated to making a quality product, avoiding the complacency that often plagues action sequels. '' Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, saying: "Moments after Dom has gone rogue and apparently wants to kill them, they 're making jokes. As they 're racing through the streets of New York City or skidding along the ice in Russia, killing bad guys and narrowly avoiding getting killed themselves, they 're crackin ' wise. Even within this ludicrous universe, it 's jarring to hear these supposedly smart folks, who refer to themselves as ' family, ' acting like idiots who do n't seem to care if they live or die, or if their friends survive. ''
Professor of international political economy Richard E Feinberg has commented on the political significance of the film 's opening setting of Havana in the context of shifting US - Cuban relations, calling the eighth installment, "Hollywood 's love letter to Havana ''. He writes, "In the Cuban sequence 's dramatic climax, Dom wins his hard - fought one - mile race ('' a Cuban mile ") against a tough local competitor, by a nose. The loser is gracious: ' You won my car and you earned my respect, ' he admits to the FF hero. Dom 's response is equally magnanimous: ' Keep your car, your respect is good enough for me. ' In this instance, FF8 captures the essence of the relations between the United States and Cuba: it 's all about mutual respect. ''
On February 3, 2016, Universal Pictures set initial release dates for the two remaining films in the franchise. The first, tentatively titled Fast & Furious 9, is scheduled to be released on April 10, 2020.
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where did the titanic depart from in the movie | Titanic (1997 film) - wikipedia
Titanic is a 1997 American epic romance - disaster film directed, written, co-produced and co-edited by James Cameron. A fictionalized account of the sinking of the RMS Titanic, it stars Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet as members of different social classes who fall in love aboard the ship during its ill - fated maiden voyage.
Cameron 's inspiration for the film came from his fascination with shipwrecks; he felt a love story interspersed with the human loss would be essential to convey the emotional impact of the disaster. Production began in 1995, when Cameron shot footage of the actual Titanic wreck. The modern scenes on the research vessel were shot on board the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, which Cameron had used as a base when filming the wreck. Scale models, computer - generated imagery, and a reconstruction of the Titanic built at Playas de Rosarito in Baja California were used to re-create the sinking. The film was partially funded by Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox. It was the most expensive film ever made at the time, with a production budget of $200 million.
Upon its release on December 19, 1997, Titanic achieved critical and commercial success. Nominated for 14 Academy Awards, it tied All About Eve (1950) for the most Oscar nominations, and won 11, including the awards for Best Picture and Best Director, tying Ben Hur (1959) for the most Oscars won by a single film. With an initial worldwide gross of over $1.84 billion, Titanic was the first film to reach the billion - dollar mark. It remained the highest - grossing film of all time until Cameron 's Avatar surpassed it in 2010. A 3D version of Titanic, released on April 4, 2012 to commemorate the centennial of the sinking, earned it an additional $343.6 million worldwide, pushing the film 's worldwide total to $2.18 billion. It became the second film to gross more than $2 billion worldwide (after Avatar).
In 1996, treasure hunter Brock Lovett and his team aboard the research vessel Akademik Mstislav Keldysh search the wreck of RMS Titanic for a necklace with a rare diamond, the Heart of the Ocean. They recover a safe containing a drawing of a young woman wearing only the necklace dated April 14, 1912, the day the ship struck the iceberg. Rose Dawson Calvert, the woman in the drawing, is brought aboard Keldysh and tells Lovett of her experiences aboard Titanic.
In 1912 Southampton, 17 - year - old first - class passenger Rose DeWitt Bukater, her fiancé Cal Hockley, and her mother Ruth board the luxurious Titanic. Ruth emphasizes that Rose 's marriage will resolve their family 's financial problems and retain their high - class persona. Distraught over the engagement, Rose considers suicide by jumping from the stern; Jack Dawson, a penniless artist, intervenes and discourages her. Discovered with Jack, Rose tells a concerned Cal that she was peering over the edge and Jack saved her from falling. When Cal becomes indifferent, she suggests to him that Jack deserves a reward. He invites Jack to dine with them in first class the following night. Jack and Rose develop a tentative friendship, despite Cal and Ruth being wary of him. Following dinner, Rose secretly joins Jack at a party in third class.
Aware of Cal and Ruth 's disapproval, Rose rebuffs Jack 's advances, but realizes she prefers him over Cal. After rendezvousing on the bow at sunset, Rose takes Jack to her state room; at her request, Jack sketches Rose posing nude wearing Cal 's engagement present, the Heart of the Ocean necklace. They evade Cal 's bodyguard, Mr. Lovejoy, and have sex in an automobile inside the cargo hold. On the forward deck, they witness a collision with an iceberg and overhear the officers and designer discussing its seriousness.
Cal discovers Jack 's sketch of Rose and an insulting note from her in his safe along with the necklace. When Jack and Rose attempt to inform Cal of the collision, Lovejoy slips the necklace into Jack 's pocket and he and Cal accuse him of theft. Jack is arrested, taken to the master - at - arms ' office, and handcuffed to a pipe. Cal puts the necklace in his own coat pocket.
With the ship sinking, Rose flees Cal and her mother, who has boarded a lifeboat, and frees Jack. On the boat deck, Cal and Jack encourage her to board a lifeboat; Cal claims he can get himself and Jack off safely. After Rose boards one, Cal tells Jack the arrangement is only for himself. As her boat lowers, Rose decides that she can not leave Jack and jumps back on board. Cal takes his bodyguard 's pistol and chases Rose and Jack into the flooding first - class dining saloon. After using up his ammunition, Cal realizes he gave his coat and consequently the necklace to Rose. He later boards a collapsible lifeboat by carrying a lost child.
After braving several obstacles, Jack and Rose return to the boat deck. The lifeboats have departed and passengers are falling to their deaths as the stern rises out of the water. The ship breaks in half, lifting the stern into the air. Jack and Rose ride it into the ocean and he helps her onto a wooden panel only buoyant enough for one person. He assures her that she will die an old woman, warm in her bed. Jack dies of hypothermia but Rose is saved.
With Rose hiding from Cal en route, the RMS Carpathia takes the survivors to New York City where Rose gives her name as Rose Dawson. She later finds out Cal committed suicide after losing all his money in the 1929 Wall Street crash.
Back in the present, Lovett decides to abandon his search after hearing Rose 's story. Alone on the stern of Keldysh, Rose takes out the Heart of the Ocean -- in her possession all along -- and drops it into the sea over the wreck site. While she is seemingly asleep or has died in her bed, photos on her dresser depict a life of freedom and adventure inspired by the life she wanted to live with Jack. A young Rose reunites with Jack at the Titanic 's Grand Staircase, applauded by those who died.
Although not intended to be an entirely accurate depiction of events, the film includes portrayals of several historical figures:
Several crew members of the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh appear in the film, including Anatoly Sagalevich, creator and pilot of the MIR self - propelled Deep Submergence Vehicle. Anders Falk, who filmed a documentary about the film 's sets for the Titanic Historical Society, makes a cameo appearance in the film as a Swedish immigrant whom Jack Dawson meets when he enters his cabin; Edward Kamuda and Karen Kamuda, then President and Vice President of the Society who served as film consultants, were cast as extras in the film.
James Cameron had a fascination with shipwrecks, and, for him, the RMS Titanic was "the Mount Everest of shipwrecks. '' He was almost past the point in his life when he felt he could consider an undersea expedition, but said he still had "a mental restlessness '' to live the life he had turned away from when he switched from the sciences to the arts in college. So when an IMAX film was made from footage shot of the wreck itself, he decided to seek Hollywood funding to "pay for an expedition and do the same thing. '' It was "not because I particularly wanted to make the movie, '' Cameron said. "I wanted to dive to the shipwreck. ''
Cameron wrote a scriptment for a Titanic film, met with 20th Century Fox executives including Peter Chernin, and pitched it as "Romeo and Juliet on the Titanic ''. Cameron stated, "They were like, ' Oooooohkaaaaaay -- a three - hour romantic epic? Sure, that 's just what we want. Is there a little bit of Terminator in that? Any Harrier jets, shoot - outs, or car chases? ' I said, ' No, no, no. It 's not like that. ' '' The studio was dubious about the idea 's commercial prospects, but, hoping for a long - term relationship with Cameron, they gave him a greenlight.
Cameron convinced Fox to promote the film based on the publicity afforded by shooting the Titanic wreck itself, and organized several dives to the site over a period of two years. "My pitch on that had to be a little more detailed, '' said Cameron. "So I said, ' Look, we 've got to do this whole opening where they 're exploring the Titanic and they find the diamond, so we 're going to have all these shots of the ship. '' Cameron stated, "Now, we can either do them with elaborate models and motion control shots and CG and all that, which will cost X amount of money -- or we can spend X plus 30 per cent and actually go shoot it at the real wreck. '' The crew shot at the real wreck in the Atlantic Ocean twelve times in 1995 and actually spent more time with the ship than its passengers. At that depth, with a water pressure of 6,000 pounds per square inch, "one small flaw in the vessel 's superstructure would mean instant death for all on board. '' Not only were the dives high - risk, but adverse conditions prevented Cameron from getting the high quality footage that he wanted. During one dive, one of the submersibles collided with Titanic 's hull, damaging both sub and ship and leaving fragments of the submersible 's propeller shroud scattered around the superstructure. The external bulkhead of Captain Smith 's quarters collapsed, exposing the interior. The area around the entrance to the Grand Staircase was also damaged.
Descending to the actual site made both Cameron and crew want "to live up to that level of reality... But there was another level of reaction coming away from the real wreck, which was that it was n't just a story, it was n't just a drama, '' he said. "It was an event that happened to real people who really died. Working around the wreck for so much time, you get such a strong sense of the profound sadness and injustice of it, and the message of it. '' Cameron stated, "You think, ' There probably are n't going to be many filmmakers who go to Titanic. There may never be another one -- maybe a documentarian. '' Due to this, he felt "a great mantle of responsibility to convey the emotional message of it -- to do that part of it right, too ''.
After filming the underwater shots, Cameron began writing the screenplay. He wanted to honor the people who died during the sinking, so he spent six months researching all of the Titanic 's crew and passengers. "I read everything I could. I created an extremely detailed timeline of the ship 's few days and a very detailed timeline of the last night of its life, '' he said. "And I worked within that to write the script, and I got some historical experts to analyze what I 'd written and comment on it, and I adjusted it. '' He paid meticulous attention to detail, even including a scene depicting the Californian 's role in Titanic 's demise, though this was later cut (see below). From the beginning of the shoot, they had "a very clear picture '' of what happened on the ship that night. "I had a library that filled one whole wall of my writing office with Titanic stuff, because I wanted it to be right, especially if we were going to dive to the ship, '' he said. "That set the bar higher in a way -- it elevated the movie in a sense. We wanted this to be a definitive visualization of this moment in history as if you 'd gone back in a time machine and shot it. ''
Cameron felt the Titanic sinking was "like a great novel that really happened '', but that the event had become a mere morality tale; the film would give audiences the experience of living the history. The treasure hunter Brock Lovett represented those who never connected with the human element of the tragedy, while the blossoming romance of Jack and Rose, Cameron believed, would be the most engaging part of the story: when their love is finally destroyed, the audience would mourn the loss. He said: "All my films are love stories, but in Titanic I finally got the balance right. It 's not a disaster film. It 's a love story with a fastidious overlay of real history. ''
Cameron framed the romance with the elderly Rose to make the intervening years palpable and poignant. While Winslet and Stuart stated their belief that, instead of being asleep in her bed, the character dies at the end of the film, Cameron said that he would rather not reveal what he intended with the ending because "(t) he answer has to be something you supply personally; individually. ''
Harland and Wolff, the RMS Titanic 's builders, opened their private archives to the crew, sharing blueprints that were thought lost. For the ship 's interiors, production designer Peter Lamont 's team looked for artifacts from the era. The newness of the ship meant every prop had to be made from scratch. Fox acquired 40 acres of waterfront south of Playas de Rosarito in Mexico, and began building a new studio on May 31, 1996. A horizon tank of seventeen million gallons was built for the exterior of the reconstructed ship, providing 270 degrees of ocean view. The ship was built to full scale, but Lamont removed redundant sections on the superstructure and forward well deck for the ship to fit in the tank, with the remaining sections filled with digital models. The lifeboats and funnels were shrunken by ten percent. The boat deck and A-deck were working sets, but the rest of the ship was just steel plating. Within was a fifty - foot lifting platform for the ship to tilt during the sinking sequences. Towering above was a 162 - foot - tall (49 m) tower crane on 600 feet (180 m) of rail track, acting as a combined construction, lighting, and camera platform.
The sets representing the interior rooms of the Titanic were reproduced exactly as originally built, using photographs and plans from the Titanic 's builders. The Grand Staircase, which features prominently in the film, was recreated to a high standard of authenticity, though it was widened 30 % compared to the original and reinforced with steel girders. Craftsmen from Mexico and Britain sculpted the ornate paneling and plaster - work based on Titanic 's ' original designs. The carpeting, upholstery, individual pieces of furniture, light fixtures, chairs, cutlery and crockery with the White Star Line crest on each piece were among the objects recreated according to original designs. Cameron additionally hired two Titanic historians, Don Lynch and Ken Marschall, to authenticate the historical detail in the film.
Principal photography for Titanic began in July 1996 at Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, with the filming of the modern day expedition scenes aboard the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh. In September 1996, the production moved to the newly built Fox Baja Studios in Rosarito, Mexico, where a full scale RMS Titanic had been constructed. The poop deck was built on a hinge which could rise from zero to 90 degrees in a few seconds, just as the ship 's stern rose during the sinking. For the safety of the stuntmen, many props were made of foam rubber. By November 15, the boarding scenes were being shot. Cameron chose to build his RMS Titanic on the starboard side as a study of weather data revealed it was a prevailing north - to - south wind which blew the funnel smoke aft. This posed a problem for shooting the ship 's departure from Southampton, as it was docked on its port side. Implementation of written directions, as well as props and costumes, had to be reversed; for example, if someone walked to their right in the script, they had to walk left during shooting. In post-production, the film was flipped to the correct direction.
A full - time etiquette coach was hired to instruct the cast in the manners of the upper class gentility in 1912. Despite this, several critics picked up on anachronisms in the film, not least involving the two main stars.
Cameron sketched Jack 's nude portrait of Rose for a scene which he feels has the backdrop of repression. "You know what it means for her, the freedom she must be feeling. It 's kind of exhilarating for that reason, '' he said. The nude scene was DiCaprio and Winslet 's first scene together. "It was n't by any kind of design, although I could n't have designed it better. There 's a nervousness and an energy and a hesitance in them, '' Cameron stated. "They had rehearsed together, but they had n't shot anything together. If I 'd had a choice, I probably would have preferred to put it deeper into the body of the shoot. '' Cameron said he and his crew "were just trying to find things to shoot '' because the big set "was n't ready for months, so we were scrambling around trying to fill in anything we could get to shoot. '' After seeing the scene on film, Cameron felt it worked out considerably well.
Other times on the set were not as smooth. The shoot was an arduous experience that "cemented Cameron 's formidable reputation as ' the scariest man in Hollywood '. He became known as an uncompromising, hard - charging perfectionist '' and a "300 - decibel screamer, a modern - day Captain Bligh with a megaphone and walkie - talkie, swooping down into people 's faces on a 162ft crane ''. Winslet chipped a bone in her elbow during filming and had been worried that she would drown in the 17m - gallon water tank the ship was to be sunk in. "There were times when I was genuinely frightened of him. Jim has a temper like you would n't believe, '' she said. "' God damn it! ' he would yell at some poor crew member, ' that 's exactly what I did n't want! ' '' Her co-star, Bill Paxton, was familiar with Cameron 's work ethic from his earlier experience with him. "There were a lot of people on the set. Jim is not one of those guys who has the time to win hearts and minds, '' he said. The crew felt Cameron had an evil alter ego and so nicknamed him "Mij '' (Jim spelt backwards). In response to the criticism, Cameron stated, "Film - making is war. A great battle between business and aesthetics. ''
During the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh shoot in Canada, an angry crew member put the dissociative drug PCP into the soup that Cameron and various others ate one night in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. It sent more than 50 people to the hospital, including actor Bill Paxton. "There were people just rolling around, completely out of it. Some of them said they were seeing streaks and psychedelics, '' said actor Lewis Abernathy. Cameron managed to vomit before the drug took a full hold. Abernathy was shocked at the way he looked. "One eye was completely red, like the Terminator eye. A pupil, no iris, beet red. The other eye looked like he 'd been sniffing glue since he was four. '' The person behind the poisoning was never caught.
The filming schedule was intended to last 138 days but grew to 160. Many cast members came down with colds, flu, or kidney infections after spending hours in cold water, including Winslet. In the end, she decided she would not work with Cameron again unless she earned "a lot of money ''. Several others left the production, and three stuntmen broke their bones, but the Screen Actors Guild decided, following an investigation, that nothing was inherently unsafe about the set. Additionally, DiCaprio said there was no point when he felt he was in danger during filming. Cameron believed in a passionate work ethic and never apologized for the way he ran his sets, although he acknowledged:
I 'm demanding, and I 'm demanding on my crew. In terms of being kind of militaresque, I think there 's an element of that in dealing with thousands of extras and big logistics and keeping people safe. I think you have to have a fairly strict methodology in dealing with a large number of people.
The costs of filming Titanic eventually began to mount and finally reached $200 million. Fox executives panicked and suggested an hour of specific cuts from the three - hour film. They argued the extended length would mean fewer showings, thus less revenue, even though long epics are more likely to help directors win Oscars. Cameron refused, telling Fox, "You want to cut my movie? You 're going to have to fire me! You want to fire me? You 're going to have to kill me! '' The executives did not want to start over, because it would mean the loss of their entire investment, but they also initially rejected Cameron 's offer of forfeiting his share of the profits as an empty gesture, as they predicted profits would be unlikely.
Cameron explained forfeiting his share as complex. "... the short version is that the film cost proportionally much more than T2 and True Lies. Those films went up seven or eight percent from the initial budget. Titanic also had a large budget to begin with, but it went up a lot more, '' he said. "As the producer and director, I take responsibility for the studio that 's writing the checks, so I made it less painful for them. I did that on two different occasions. They did n't force me to do it; they were glad that I did. ''
Cameron wanted to push the boundary of special effects with his film, and enlisted Digital Domain to continue the developments in digital technology which the director pioneered while working on The Abyss and Terminator 2: Judgment Day. Many previous films about the RMS Titanic shot water in slow motion, which did not look wholly convincing. Cameron encouraged his crew to shoot their 45 - foot - long (14 m) miniature of the ship as if "we 're making a commercial for the White Star Line ''. Afterwards, digital water and smoke were added, as were extras captured on a motion capture stage. Visual effects supervisor Rob Legato scanned the faces of many actors, including himself and his children, for the digital extras and stuntmen. There was also a 65 - foot - long (20 m) model of the ship 's stern that could break in two repeatedly, the only miniature to be used in water. For scenes set in the ship 's engines, footage of the SS Jeremiah O'Brien 's engines were composited with miniature support frames, and actors shot against a greenscreen. In order to save money, the first - class lounge was a miniature set incorporated into a greenscreen backdrop behind the actors. The miniature of the Lounge would later be crushed to simulate the destruction of the room and a scale model of a First - Class corridor flooded with jets of water while the camera pans out.
An enclosed 5,000,000 - US - gallon (19,000,000 L) tank was used for sinking interiors, in which the entire set could be tilted into the water. In order to sink the Grand Staircase, 90,000 US gallons (340,000 L) of water were dumped into the set as it was lowered into the tank. Unexpectedly, the waterfall ripped the staircase from its steel - reinforced foundations, although no one was hurt. The 744 - foot - long (227 m) exterior of the RMS Titanic had its first half lowered into the tank, but as the heaviest part of the ship it acted as a shock absorber against the water; to get the set into the water, Cameron had much of the set emptied and even smashed some of the promenade windows himself. After submerging the dining saloon, three days were spent shooting Lovett 's ROV traversing the wreck in the present. The post-sinking scenes in the freezing Atlantic were shot in a 350,000 - US - gallon (1,300,000 L) tank, where the frozen corpses were created by applying on actors a powder that crystallized when exposed to water, and wax was coated on hair and clothes.
The climactic scene, which features the breakup of the ship directly before it sinks as well as its final plunge to the bottom of the Atlantic, involved a tilting full - sized set, 150 extras, and 100 stunt performers. Cameron criticized previous Titanic films for depicting the liner 's final plunge as a graceful slide underwater. He "wanted to depict it as the terrifyingly chaotic event that it really was ''. When carrying out the sequence, people needed to fall off the increasingly tilting deck, plunging hundreds of feet below and bouncing off of railings and propellers on the way down. A few attempts to film this sequence with stunt people resulted in some minor injuries, and Cameron halted the more dangerous stunts. The risks were eventually minimized "by using computer generated people for the dangerous falls ''.
There was one "crucial historical fact '' Cameron chose to omit from the film -- the SS Californian was close to the Titanic the night she sank but had turned off its radio for the night, did not hear her crew 's SOS calls, and did not respond to their distress flares. "Yes, the (SS) Californian. That was n't a compromise to mainstream filmmaking. That was really more about emphasis, creating an emotional truth to the film, '' stated Cameron. He said there were aspects of retelling the sinking that seemed important in pre - and post-production, but turned out to be less important as the film evolved. "The story of the Californian was in there; we even shot a scene of them switching off their Marconi radio set, '' said Cameron. "But I took it out. It was a clean cut, because it focuses you back onto that world. If Titanic is powerful as a metaphor, as a microcosm, for the end of the world in a sense, then that world must be self - contained. ''
During the first assembly cut, Cameron altered the planned ending, which had given resolution to Brock Lovett 's story. In the original version of the ending, Brock and Lizzy see the elderly Rose at the stern of the boat and fear she is going to commit suicide. Rose then reveals that she had the "Heart of the Ocean '' diamond all along but never sold it, in order to live on her own without Cal 's money. She tells Brock that life is priceless and throws the diamond into the ocean, after allowing him to hold it. After accepting that treasure is worthless, Brock laughs at his stupidity. Rose then goes back to her cabin to sleep, whereupon the film ends in the same way as the final version. In the editing room, Cameron decided that by this point, the audience would no longer be interested in Brock Lovett and cut the resolution to his story, so that Rose is alone when she drops the diamond. He also did not want to disrupt the audience 's melancholy after the Titanic 's sinking.
The version used for the first test screening featured a fight between Jack and Lovejoy which takes place after Jack and Rose escape into the flooded dining saloon, but the test audiences disliked it. The scene was written to give the film more suspense, and featured Cal (falsely) offering to give Lovejoy, his valet, the "Heart of the Ocean '' if he can get it from Jack and Rose. Lovejoy goes after the pair in the sinking first - class dining room. Just as they are about to escape him, Lovejoy notices Rose 's hand slap the water as it slips off the table behind which she is hiding. In revenge for framing him for the "theft '' of the necklace, Jack attacks him and smashes his head against a glass window, which explains the gash on Lovejoy 's head that can be seen when he dies in the completed version of the film. In their reactions to the scene, test audiences said it would be unrealistic to risk one 's life for wealth, and Cameron cut it for this reason, as well as for timing and pacing reasons. Many other scenes were cut for similar reasons.
The soundtrack album for Titanic was composed by James Horner. For the vocals heard throughout the film, subsequently described by Earle Hitchner of The Wall Street Journal as "evocative '', Horner chose Norwegian singer Sissel Kyrkjebø, commonly known as "Sissel ''. Horner knew Sissel from her album Innerst i sjelen, and he particularly liked how she sang "Eg veit i himmerik ei borg '' ("I Know in Heaven There Is a Castle ''). He had tried twenty - five or thirty singers before he finally chose Sissel as the voice to create specific moods within the film.
Horner additionally wrote the song "My Heart Will Go On '' in secret with Will Jennings because Cameron did not want any songs with singing in the film. Céline Dion agreed to record a demo with the persuasion of her husband René Angélil. Horner waited until Cameron was in an appropriate mood before presenting him with the song. After playing it several times, Cameron declared his approval, although worried that he would have been criticized for "going commercial at the end of the movie ''. Cameron also wanted to appease anxious studio executives and "saw that a hit song from his movie could only be a positive factor in guaranteeing its completion ''.
20th Century Fox and Paramount Pictures co-financed Titanic, with Paramount handling the North American distribution and Fox handling the international release. They expected Cameron to complete the film for a release on July 2, 1997. The film was to be released on this date "in order to exploit the lucrative summer season ticket sales when blockbuster films usually do better ''. In April, Cameron said the film 's special effects were too complicated and that releasing the film for summer would not be possible. With production delays, Paramount pushed back the release date to December 19, 1997. "This fueled speculation that the film itself was a disaster. '' A preview screening in Minneapolis on July 14 "generated positive reviews '' and "(c) hatter on the internet was responsible for more favorable word of mouth about the (film) ''. This eventually led to more positive media coverage.
The film premiered on November 1, 1997, at the Tokyo International Film Festival, where reaction was described as "tepid '' by The New York Times. Positive reviews started to appear back in the United States; the official Hollywood premiere occurred on December 14, 1997, where "the big movie stars who attended the opening were enthusiastically gushing about the film to the world media ''.
Including revenue from the 2012 reissue, Titanic earned $658,672,302 in North America and $1,526,700,000 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $2,185,372,302. It became the highest - grossing film of all time worldwide in 1998, and remained so for twelve years, until Avatar (2009), also written and directed by Cameron, surpassed it in 2010. On March 1, 1998, it became the first film to earn more than $1 billion worldwide and on the weekend April 13 -- 15, 2012 -- a century after the original vessel 's foundering, Titanic became the second film to cross the $2 billion threshold during its 3D re-release. Box Office Mojo estimates that Titanic is the fifth highest - grossing film of all time in North America when adjusting for ticket price inflation. The site also estimates that the film sold over 128 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.
The film received steady attendance after opening in North America on Friday, December 19, 1997. By the end of that same weekend, theaters were beginning to sell out. The film earned $8,658,814 on its opening day and $28,638,131 over the opening weekend from 2,674 theaters, averaging to about $10,710 per venue, and ranking number one at the box office, ahead of the eighteenth James Bond film, Tomorrow Never Dies. By New Year 's Day, Titanic had made over $120 million, had increased in popularity and theaters continued to sell out. Its highest grossing single day was Saturday, February 14, 1998, on which it earned $13,048,711, more than eight weeks after its North American debut. It stayed at number one for 15 consecutive weeks in North America, a record for any film. The film stayed in theaters in North America for almost 10 months before finally closing on Thursday, October 1, 1998 with a final domestic gross of $600,788,188. Outside North America, the film made double its North American gross, generating $1,242,413,080 and accumulating a grand total of $1,843,201,268 worldwide from its initial theatrical run.
Before Titanic 's release, various film critics predicted the film would be a significant disappointment at the box office, especially due to it being the most expensive film ever made at the time. When it was shown to the press in autumn of 1997, "it was with massive forebodings '' since the "people in charge of the screenings believed they were on the verge of losing their jobs -- because of this great albatross of a picture on which, finally, two studios had to combine to share the great load of its making ''. Cameron also thought he was "headed for disaster '' at one point during filming. "We labored the last six months on Titanic in the absolute knowledge that the studio would lose $100 million. It was a certainty, '' he stated. As the film neared release, "particular venom was spat at Cameron for what was seen as his hubris and monumental extravagance ''. A film critic for the Los Angeles Times wrote that "Cameron 's overweening pride has come close to capsizing this project '' and that the film was "a hackneyed, completely derivative copy of old Hollywood romances ''.
When the film became a success, with an unprecedented box office performance, it was credited for being a love story that captured its viewers ' emotions. The film was playing on 3,200 screens ten weeks after it opened, and out of its fifteen straight weeks on top of the charts, jumped 43 % in total sales in its ninth week of release. It earned over $20 million a week for ten weeks, and after 14 weeks was still bringing in more than $1 million a week. 20th Century Fox estimated that seven percent of American teenage girls had seen Titanic twice by its fifth week. Although young women who saw the film several times, and subsequently caused "Leo - Mania '', were often credited with having primarily propelled the film to its all - time box office record, other reports have attributed the film 's success to positive word of mouth and repeat viewership due to the love story combined with the ground - breaking special effects.
The film 's impact on men has also been especially credited. Now considered one of the films that "make men cry '', MSNBC 's Ian Hodder stated that men admire Jack 's sense of adventure, stowing away on a steamship bound for America. "We cheer as he courts a girl who was out of his league. We admire how he suggests nude modeling as an excuse to get naked. So when (the tragic ending happens), an uncontrollable flood of tears sinks our composure, '' he said. Titanic 's ability to make men cry was briefly parodied in the 2009 film Zombieland, where character Tallahassee (Woody Harrelson), when recalling the death of his young son, states: "I have n't cried like that since Titanic. ''
In 2010, the BBC analyzed the stigma over men crying during Titanic and films in general. "Middle - aged men are not ' supposed ' to cry during movies, '' stated Finlo Rohrer of the website, citing the ending of Titanic as having generated such tears, adding that "men, if they have felt weepy during (this film), have often tried to be surreptitious about it. '' Professor Mary Beth Oliver, of Penn State University, stated, "For many men, there is a great deal of pressure to avoid expression of ' female ' emotions like sadness and fear. From a very young age, males are taught that it is inappropriate to cry, and these lessons are often accompanied by a great deal of ridicule when the lessons are n't followed. '' Rohrer said, "Indeed, some men who might sneer at the idea of crying during Titanic will readily admit to becoming choked up during Saving Private Ryan or Platoon. '' For men in general, "the idea of sacrifice for a ' brother ' is a more suitable source of emotion ''.
Scott Meslow of The Atlantic stated while Titanic initially seems to need no defense, given its success, it is considered a film "for 15 - year - old girls '' by its main detractors. He argued that dismissing Titanic as fodder for 15 - year - old girls fails to consider the film 's accomplishment: "that (this) grandiose, 3 + hour historical romantic drama is a film for everyone -- including teenage boys. '' Meslow stated that despite the film being ranked high by males under the age of 18, matching the ratings for teenage boy - targeted films like Iron Man, it is common for boys and men to deny liking Titanic. He acknowledged his own rejection of the film as a child while secretly loving it. "It 's this collection of elements -- the history, the romance, the action -- that made (and continues to make) Titanic an irresistible proposition for audiences of all ages across the globe, '' he stated. "Titanic has flaws, but for all its legacy, it 's better than its middlebrow reputation would have you believe. It 's a great movie for 15 - year - old girls, but that does n't mean it 's not a great movie for everyone else too. ''
Quotes in the film aided its popularity. Titanic 's catchphrase "I 'm the king of the world! '' became one of the film industry 's more popular quotations. According to Richard Harris, a psychology professor at Kansas State University, who studied why people like to cite films in social situations, using film quotations in everyday conversation is similar to telling a joke and a way to form solidarity with others. "People are doing it to feel good about themselves, to make others laugh, to make themselves laugh '', he said.
Cameron explained the film 's success as having significantly benefited from the experience of sharing. "When people have an experience that 's very powerful in the movie theatre, they want to go share it. They want to grab their friend and bring them, so that they can enjoy it, '' he said. "They want to be the person to bring them the news that this is something worth having in their life. That 's how Titanic worked. '' Media Awareness Network stated, "The normal repeat viewing rate for a blockbuster theatrical film is about 5 %. The repeat rate for Titanic was over 20 %. '' The box office receipts "were even more impressive '' when factoring in "the film 's 3 - hour - and - 14 - minute length meant that it could only be shown three times a day compared to a normal movie 's four showings ''. In response to this, "(m) any theatres started midnight showings and were rewarded with full houses until almost 3: 30 am ''.
Titanic held the record for box office gross for twelve years. Cameron 's follow - up film, Avatar, was considered the first film with a genuine chance at surpassing its worldwide gross, and did so in 2010. Various explanations for why the film was able to successfully challenge Titanic were given. For one, "Two - thirds of Titanic 's haul was earned overseas, and Avatar (tracked) similarly... Avatar opened in 106 markets globally and was no. 1 in all of them '' and the markets "such as Russia, where Titanic saw modest receipts in 1997 and 1998, are white - hot today '' with "more screens and moviegoers '' than ever before. Brandon Gray, president of Box Office Mojo, said that while Avatar may beat Titanic 's revenue record, the film is unlikely to surpass Titanic in attendance. "Ticket prices were about $3 cheaper in the late 1990s. '' In December 2009, Cameron had stated, "I do n't think it 's realistic to try to topple Titanic off its perch. Some pretty good movies have come out in the last few years. Titanic just struck some kind of chord. '' In a January 2010 interview, he gave a different take on the matter once Avatar 's performance was easier to predict. "It 's gon na happen. It 's just a matter of time, '' he said.
Author Alexandra Keller, when analyzing Titanic 's success, stated that scholars could agree that the film 's popularity "appears dependent on contemporary culture, on perceptions of history, on patterns of consumerism and globalization, as well as on those elements experienced filmgoers conventionally expect of juggernaut film events in the 1990s -- awesome screen spectacle, expansive action, and, more rarely seen, engaging characters and epic drama. ''
Titanic garnered mainly positive reviews from film critics, and was positively reviewed by audiences and scholars, who commented on the film 's cultural, historical and political impacts. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88 % based on 178 reviews, with a rating average of 8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "A mostly unqualified triumph for Cameron, who offers a dizzying blend of spectacular visuals and old - fashioned melodrama. '' At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating to reviews, the film has a score of 74 based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorably reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 60 films in the history of the service to earn the score.
With regard to the film 's overall design, Roger Ebert stated, "It is flawlessly crafted, intelligently constructed, strongly acted, and spellbinding... Movies like this are not merely difficult to make at all, but almost impossible to make well. '' He credited the "technical difficulties '' with being "so daunting that it 's a wonder when the filmmakers are also able to bring the drama and history into proportion '' and "found (himself) convinced by both the story and the sad saga ''. He named it his ninth best film of 1997. On the television program Siskel & Ebert, the film received "two thumbs up '' and was praised for its accuracy in recreating the ship 's sinking; Ebert described the film as "a glorious Hollywood epic '' and "well worth the wait, '' and Gene Siskel found Leonardo DiCaprio "captivating ''. James Berardinelli stated, "Meticulous in detail, yet vast in scope and intent, Titanic is the kind of epic motion picture event that has become a rarity. You do n't just watch Titanic, you experience it. '' It was named his second best film of 1997. Almar Haflidason of the BBC wrote that "the sinking of the great ship is no secret, yet for many exceeded expectations in sheer scale and tragedy '' and that "when you consider that (the film) tops a bum - numbing three - hour running time, then you have a truly impressive feat of entertainment achieved by Cameron ''. Joseph McBride of Boxoffice Magazine concluded, "To describe Titanic as the greatest disaster movie ever made is to sell it short. James Cameron 's recreation of the 1912 sinking of the ' unsinkable ' liner is one of the most magnificent pieces of serious popular entertainment ever to emanate from Hollywood. ''
The romantic and emotionally charged aspects of the film were equally praised. Andrew L. Urban of Urban Cinefile said, "You will walk out of Titanic not talking about budget or running time, but of its enormous emotive power, big as the engines of the ship itself, determined as its giant propellers to gouge into your heart, and as lasting as the love story that propels it. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly described the film as, "A lush and terrifying spectacle of romantic doom. Writer - director James Cameron has restaged the defining catastrophe of the early 20th century on a human scale of such purified yearning and dread that he touches the deepest levels of popular moviemaking. '' Janet Maslin of The New York Times commented that "Cameron 's magnificent Titanic is the first spectacle in decades that honestly invites comparison to Gone With the Wind. '' Richard Corliss of Time magazine, on the other hand, wrote a mostly negative review, criticizing the lack of interesting emotional elements.
Some reviewers felt that the story and dialogue were weak, while the visuals were spectacular. Kenneth Turan 's review in the Los Angeles Times was particularly scathing. Dismissing the emotive elements, he stated, "What really brings on the tears is Cameron 's insistence that writing this kind of movie is within his abilities. Not only is it not, it is not even close. '', and later claimed that the only reason that the film won Oscars was because of its box office total. Barbara Shulgasser of The San Francisco Examiner gave Titanic one star out of four, citing a friend as saying, "The number of times in this unbelievably badly written script that the two (lead characters) refer to each other by name was an indication of just how dramatically the script lacked anything more interesting for the actors to say. '' Also, filmmaker Robert Altman called it "the most dreadful piece of work I 've ever seen in my entire life ''. In his 2012 study of the lives of the passengers on the Titanic, historian Richard Davenport - Hines said, "Cameron 's film diabolized rich Americans and educated English, anathematizing their emotional restraint, good tailoring, punctilious manners and grammatical training, while it made romantic heroes of the poor Irish and the unlettered ''.
Titanic suffered backlash in addition to its success. In 2003, the film topped a poll of "Best Film Endings '', and yet it also topped a poll by Film 2003 as "the worst movie of all time ''. The British film magazine Empire reduced their rating of the film from the maximum five stars and an enthusiastic review, to four stars with a less positive review in a later edition, to accommodate its readers ' tastes, who wanted to disassociate themselves from the hype surrounding the film, and the reported activities of its fans, such as those attending multiple screenings. In addition to this, positive and negative parodies and other such spoofs of the film abounded and were circulated on the internet, often inspiring passionate responses from fans of various opinions of the film. Benjamin Willcock of DVDActive.com did not understand the backlash or the passionate hatred for the film. "What really irks me..., '' he said, "are those who make nasty stabs at those who do love it. '' Willcock stated, "I obviously do n't have anything against those who dislike Titanic, but those few who make you feel small and pathetic for doing so (and they do exist, trust me) are way beyond my understanding and sympathy. ''
Cameron responded to the backlash, and Kenneth Turan 's review in particular. "Titanic is not a film that is sucking people in with flashy hype and spitting them out onto the street feeling let down and ripped off, '' he stated. "They are returning again and again to repeat an experience that is taking a 3 - hour and 14 - minute chunk out of their lives, and dragging others with them, so they can share the emotion. '' Cameron emphasized people from all ages (ranging from 8 to 80) and from all backgrounds were "celebrating their own essential humanity '' by seeing it. He described the script as earnest and straightforward, and said it intentionally "incorporates universals of human experience and emotion that are timeless -- and familiar because they reflect our basic emotional fabric '' and that the film was able to succeed in this way by dealing with archetypes. He did not see it as pandering. "Turan mistakes archetype for cliche, '' he said. "I do n't share his view that the best scripts are only the ones that explore the perimeter of human experience, or flashily pirouette their witty and cynical dialogue for our admiration. ''
Empire eventually reinstated its original five star rating of the film, commenting, "It should be no surprise then that it became fashionable to bash James Cameron 's Titanic at approximately the same time it became clear that this was the planet 's favourite film. Ever. ''
Titanic began its awards sweep starting with the Golden Globes, winning four, namely Best Motion Picture -- Drama, Best Director, Best Original Score, and Best Original Song. Kate Winslet and Gloria Stuart were also nominees. It won the ACE "Eddie '' Award, ASC Award, Art Directors Guild Award, Cinema Audio Society Awards, Screen Actors Guild Award (Best Supporting Actress for Gloria Stuart), The Directors Guild of America Award, and Broadcast Film Critics Association Award (Best Director for James Cameron), and The Producer Guild of America Award. It was also nominated for ten BAFTA awards, including Best Film and Best Director; it failed to win any.
The film garnered fourteen Academy Awards nominations, tying the record set in 1950 by Joseph L. Mankiewicz 's All About Eve and won eleven: Best Picture (the second film about the Titanic to win that award, after 1933 's Cavalcade), Best Director, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Visual Effects, Best Film Editing, Best Costume Design, Best Sound (Gary Rydstrom, Tom Johnson, Gary Summers, Mark Ulano), Best Sound Effects Editing, Best Original Dramatic Score, Best Original Song. Kate Winslet, Gloria Stuart and the make - up artists were the three nominees that did not win. James Cameron 's original screenplay and Leonardo DiCaprio were not nominees. It was the second film to receive eleven Academy Awards, after Ben - Hur. The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King would also match this record in 2004.
Titanic won the 1997 Academy Award for Best Original Song, as well as three Grammy Awards for Record of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television. The film 's soundtrack became the best - selling primarily orchestral soundtrack of all time, and became a worldwide success, spending sixteen weeks at number - one in the United States, and was certified diamond for over eleven million copies sold in the United States alone. The soundtrack also became the best - selling album of 1998 in the U.S. "My Heart Will Go On '' won the Grammy Awards for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television. The film also won Best Male Performance for Leonardo DiCaprio and Best Movie at the MTV Movie Awards, Best Film at the People 's Choice Awards, and Favorite Movie at the 1998 Kids ' Choice Awards. It won various awards outside the United States, including the Awards of the Japanese Academy as the Best Foreign Film of the Year. Titanic eventually won nearly ninety awards and had an additional forty - seven nominations from various award - giving bodies around the world. Additionally, the book about the making of the film was at the top of The New York Times ' bestseller list for several weeks, "the first time that such a tie - in book had achieved this status ''.
Since its release, Titanic has appeared on the American Film Institute 's award - winning 100 Years... series. So far, it has ranked on the following six lists:
Titanic was released worldwide in widescreen and pan and scan formats on VHS and laserdisc on September 1, 1998. The VHS was also made available in a deluxe boxed gift set with a mounted filmstrip and six lithograph prints from the movie. A DVD version was released on August 31, 1999 in a widescreen - only (non-anamorphic) single - disc edition with no special features other than a theatrical trailer. Cameron stated at the time that he intended to release a special edition with extra features later. This release became the best - selling DVD of 1999 and early 2000, becoming the first DVD ever to sell one million copies. At the time, fewer than 5 % of all U.S. homes had a DVD player. "When we released the original Titanic DVD, the industry was much smaller, and bonus features were not the standard they are now, '' said Meagan Burrows, Paramount 's president of domestic home entertainment, which made the film 's DVD performance even more impressive.
Titanic was re-released to DVD on October 25, 2005 when a three - disc Special Collector 's Edition was made available in the United States and Canada. This edition contained a newly restored transfer of the film, as well as various special features. An international two and four - disc set followed on November 7, 2005. The two - disc edition was marketed as the Special Edition, and featured the first two discs of the three - disc set, only PAL - enabled. A four - disc edition, marketed as the Deluxe Collector 's Edition, was also released on November 7, 2005. Available only in the United Kingdom, a limited 5 - disc set of the film, under the title Deluxe Limited Edition, was released with only 10,000 copies manufactured. The fifth disc contains Cameron 's documentary Ghosts of the Abyss, which was distributed by Walt Disney Pictures. Unlike the individual release of Ghosts of the Abyss, which contained two discs, only the first disc was included in the set.
Titanic was released on Blu - ray as a single disc variant and a 2 disc version featuring special features on September 10, 2012. A 4 Disc Blu - ray 3D version was released the same day. A limited Collector 's Edition box set including the Blu - ray 3D, 2D Blu - ray, DVD, a digital copy and a variety of souvenirs was also released exclusively to Amazon.com and other international retailers.
With regard to television broadcasts, the film airs occasionally across the United States on networks such as TNT. To permit the scene where Jack draws the nude portrait of Rose to be shown on network and specialty cable channels, in addition to minor cuts, the sheer, see - through robe worn by Winslet was digitally painted black. Turner Classic Movies also began to show the film, specifically during the days leading up to the 82nd Academy Awards.
A 2012 re-release, also known as Titanic in 3D, was created by re-mastering the original to 4K resolution and post-converting to stereoscopic 3D format. The Titanic 3D version took 60 weeks and $18 million to produce, including the 4K restoration. The 3D conversion was performed by Stereo D and Sony with Slam Content 's Panther Records remastering the soundtrack. Digital 2D and in 2D IMAX versions were also struck from the new 4K master created in the process. For the 3D release, Cameron opened up the Super 35 film and expanded the image of the film into a new aspect ratio, from 2: 35: 1 to 1: 78: 1, allowing the viewer to see more image on the top and bottom of the screen. The only scene entirely redone for the re-release was Rose 's view of the night sky at sea, on the morning of April 15, 1912. The scene was replaced with an accurate view of the night - sky star pattern, including the Milky Way, adjusted for the location in the North Atlantic Ocean in April 1912. The change was prompted by astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, who had criticized the scene for showing an unrealistic star pattern. He agreed to send film director Cameron a corrected view of the sky, which was the basis of the new scene.
The 3D version of Titanic premiered at the Royal Albert Hall in London on March 27, 2012, with James Cameron and Kate Winslet in attendance, and entered general release on April 4, 2012, six days shy of the centenary of RMS Titanic embarking on her maiden voyage.
Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers rated the reissue 3.5 stars out of 4, explaining he found it "pretty damn dazzling ''. He said, "The 3D intensifies Titanic. You are there. Caught up like never before in an intimate epic that earns its place in the movie time capsule. '' Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman gave the film an A grade. He wrote, "For once, the visuals in a 3 - D movie do n't look darkened or distracting. They look sensationally crisp and alive. '' Richard Corliss of Time who was very critical in 1997 remained in the same mood, "I had pretty much the same reaction: fitfully awed, mostly water - logged. '' In regards to the 3D effects, he noted the "careful conversion to 3D lends volume and impact to certain moments... (but) in separating the foreground and background of each scene, the converters have carved the visual field into discrete, not organic, levels. '' Ann Hornaday for The Washington Post found herself asking "whether the film 's twin values of humanism and spectacle are enhanced by Cameron 's 3 - D conversion, and the answer to that is: They are n't. '' She further added that the "3 - D conversion creates distance where there should be intimacy, not to mention odd moments in framing and composition. ''
The film grossed an estimated $4.7 million on the first day of its re-release in North America (including midnight preview showings) and went on to make $17.3 million over the weekend, finishing in third place. Outside North America it earned $35.2 million finishing second, and improved on its performance the following weekend by topping the box office with $98.9 million. China has proven to be its most successful territory where it earned $11.6 million on its opening day, going on to earn a record - breaking $67 million in its opening week and taking more money in the process than it did in the entirety of its original theatrical run. The reissue ultimately earned $343.4 million worldwide, with $145 million coming from China and $57.8 million from Canada and United States.
The 3D conversion of the film was also released in the 4DX format in selected international territories, which allows the audience to experience the film 's environment using motion, wind, fog, lighting and scent - based special effects.
Titanic Live was a live performance of James Horner 's original score by a 130 - piece orchestra, choir and Celtic musicians, accompanying a showing of the film. In April 2015, Titanic Live premiered at the Royal Albert Hall, London, where the 2012 3D re-release had premiered. The Express said it was "An absolute triumph, Titanic Live brought the film to life in a beautiful new way. ''
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what is the function of the petals in the unopened flower | Petal - wikipedia
Petals are modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. Together, all of the petals of a flower are called a corolla. Petals are usually accompanied by another set of special leaves called sepals, that collectively form the calyx and lie just beneath the corolla. The calyx and the corolla together make up the perianth. When the petals and sepals of a flower are difficult to distinguish, they are collectively called tepals. Examples of plants in which the term tepal is appropriate include genera such as Aloe and Tulipa. Conversely, genera such as Rosa and Phaseolus have well - distinguished sepals and petals. When the undifferentiated tepals resemble petals, they are referred to as "petaloid '', as in petaloid monocots, orders of monocots with brightly coloured tepals. Since they include Liliales, an alternative name is lilioid monocots.
Although petals are usually the most conspicuous parts of animal - pollinated flowers, wind - pollinated species, such as the grasses, either have very small petals or lack them entirely.
The role of the corolla in plant evolution has been studied extensively since Charles Darwin postulated a theory of the origin of elongated corollae and corolla tubes.
A corolla of separate tepals is apopetalous. If the petals are free from one another in the corolla, the plant is polypetalous or choripetalous; while if the petals are at least partially fused together, it is gamopetalous or sympetalous. In the case of fused tepals, the term is syntepalous. The corolla in some plants forms a tube.
Petals can differ dramatically in different species. The number of petals in a flower may hold clues to a plant 's classification. For example, flowers on eudicots (the largest group of dicots) most frequently have four or five petals while flowers on monocots have three or six petals, although there are many exceptions to this rule.
The petal whorl or corolla may be either radially or bilaterally symmetrical (see Symmetry in biology and Floral symmetry). If all of the petals are essentially identical in size and shape, the flower is said to be regular or actinomorphic (meaning "ray - formed ''). Many flowers are symmetrical in only one plane (i.e., symmetry is bilateral) and are termed irregular or zygomorphic (meaning "yoke - '' or "pair - formed ''). In irregular flowers, other floral parts may be modified from the regular form, but the petals show the greatest deviation from radial symmetry. Examples of zygomorphic flowers may be seen in orchids and members of the pea family.
In many plants of the aster family such as the sunflower, Helianthus annuus, the circumference of the flower head is composed of ray florets. Each ray floret is anatomically an individual flower with a single large petal. Florets in the centre of the disc typically have no or very reduced petals. In some plants such as Narcissus the lower part of the petals or tepals are fused to form a floral cup (hypanthium) above the ovary, and from which the petals proper extend.
Petal often consists of two parts: the upper, broad part, similar to leaf blade, also called the blade and the lower part, narrow, similar to leaf petiole, called the claw, separated from each other at the limb. Claws are developed in petals of some flowers of the family Brassicaceae, such as Erysimum cheiri.
The inception and further development of petals shows a great variety of patterns. Petals of different species of plants vary greatly in colour or colour pattern, both in visible light and in ultraviolet. Such patterns often function as guides to pollinators, and are variously known as nectar guides, pollen guides, and floral guides.
The genetics behind the formation of petals, in accordance with the ABC model of flower development, are that sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels are modified versions of each other. It appears that the mechanisms to form petals evolved very few times (perhaps only once), rather than evolving repeatedly from stamens.
Pollination is an important step in the sexual reproduction of higher plants. Pollen is produced by the male flower or by the male organs of hermaphroditic flowers.
Pollen does not move on its own and thus requires wind or animal pollinators to disperse the pollen to the stigma (botany) of the same or nearby flowers. However, pollinators are rather selective in determining the flowers they choose to pollinate. This develops competition between flowers and as a result flowers must provide incentives to appeal to pollinators (unless the flower self - pollinates or is involved in wind pollination). Petals play a major role in competing to attract pollinators. Henceforth pollination dispersal could occur and the survival of many species of flowers could prolong.
Petals have various functions and purposes depending on the type of plant. In general, petals operate to protect some parts of the flower and attract / repel specific pollinators.
This is where the positioning of the flower petals are located on the flower is the corolla e.g. the buttercup having shiny yellow flower petals which contain guidelines amongst the petals in aiding the pollinator towards the nectar. Pollinators have the ability to determine specific flowers they wish to pollinate. Using incentives flowers draw pollinators and set up a mutual relation between each other in which case the pollinators will remember to always guard and pollinate these flowers (unless incentives are not consistently met and competition prevails).
The petals could produce different scents to allure desirable pollinators or repel undesirable pollinators. Some flowers will also mimic the scents produced by materials such as decaying meat, to attract pollinators to them.
Various colour traits are used by different petals that could attract pollinators that have poor smelling abilities, or that only come out at certain parts of the day. Some flowers are able to change the colour of their petals as a signal to mutual pollinators to approach or keep away.
Furthermore, the shape and size of the flower / petals is important in selecting the type of pollinators they need. For example, large petals and flowers will attract pollinators at a large distance or that are large themselves. Collectively the scent, colour and shape of petals all play a role in attracting / repelling specific pollinators and providing suitable conditions for pollinating. Some pollinators include insects, birds, bats and the wind. In some petals, a distinction can be made between a lower narrowed, stalk - like basal part referred to as the claw, and a wider distal part referred to as the blade. Often the claw and blade are at an angle with one another.
Wind - pollinated flowers often have small dull petals and produce little or no scent. Some of these flowers will often have no petals at all. Flowers that depend on wind pollination will produce large amounts of pollen because most of the pollen scattered by the wind tends to not reach other flowers.
Flowers have various regulatory mechanisms in order to attract insects. One such helpful mechanism is the use of colour guiding marks. Insects such as the bee or butterfly can see the ultraviolet marks which are contained on these flowers, acting as an attractive mechanism which is not visible towards the human eye. Many flowers contain a variety of shapes acting to aid with the landing of the visiting insect and also influence the insect to brush against anthers and stigmas (parts of the flower). One such example of a flower is the pōhutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa) which acts to regulate colour within a different way. The pōhutukawa contains small petals also having bright large red clusters of stamens. Another attractive mechanism for flowers is the use of scent which is highly attractive towards humans such as the rose, but some are very fragrant within attracting flies as they have a smell of rotting meat. Dark is another factor in which flowers have grown to adapt these conditions so colour lacks vision at night therefore scent is the solution for flowers which are pollinated by night flying insects such as the moth.
Flowers are also pollinated by birds and must be large and colorful to be visible against natural scenery. Such bird -- pollinated native plants include: Kōwhai (Sophora species), flax (Phormium tenax, harakeke) and kākā beak (Clianthus puniceus, kōwhai ngutu - kākā). Interestingly enough, flowers adapt the mechanism on their petals to change colour in acting as a communicative mechanism for the bird to visit. An example is the tree fuchsia (Fuchsia excorticata, kōtukutuku) which are green when needing to be pollinated and turn red for the birds to stop coming and pollinating the flower.
Flowers can be pollinated by short tailed bats. An example of this is the dactylanthus (Dactylanthus taylorii). This plant has its home under the ground acting the role of a parasite on the roots of forest trees. The dactylanthus has only its flowers pointing to the surface and the flowers lack colour but have the advantage of containing lots of nectar and a very strong scent. These act as a very useful mechanism in attracting the bat.
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when was the olympics held in the united states last | List of Olympic Games host cities - wikipedia
This is a list of host cities of the Olympic Games, both summer and winter, since the modern Olympics began in 1896. Since then, summer games have usually -- but not always -- celebrated a four - year period known as an Olympiad. There have been 28 Summer Olympic Games held in 23 cities, and 23 Winter Olympic Games held in 20 cities. In addition, three summer and two winter editions of the Games were scheduled to take place but later cancelled due to war: Berlin (summer) in 1916; Tokyo / Helsinki (summer) and Sapporo / Garmisch - Partenkirchen (winter) in 1940; and London (summer) and Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy (winter) in 1944. The 1906 Summer Olympics were officially sanctioned and held in Athens. However, in 1949, the International Olympic Committee (IOC), decided to unrecognize the 1906 Games. Four cities have been chosen by the IOC to host upcoming Olympic Games: Tokyo for the 2020 Summer Olympics, Beijing for the 2022 Winter Olympics, Paris for the 2024 Summer Olympics, and Los Angeles for the 2028 Summer Olympics.
In 2022, Beijing will become the only city that has held both the summer and the winter Olympic Games. Nine cities will have hosted the Olympic Games more than once: Athens (1896 and 2004 Summer Olympics), Paris (1900, 1924 and 2024 Summer Olympics), London (1908, 1948 and 2012 Summer Olympics), St. Moritz (1928 and 1948 Winter Olympics), Lake Placid (1932 and 1980 Winter Olympics), Los Angeles (1932, 1984 and 2028 Summer Olympics), Innsbruck (1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics), Tokyo (1964 and 2020 Summer Olympics) and Beijing (2008 Summer Olympics and 2022 Winter Olympics). In addition, Stockholm hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics. London became the first city to have hosted three Games with the 2012 Summer Olympics. Paris will become the second city to do this with the 2024 Summer Olympics, followed by Los Angeles as the third in 2028. The United States has hosted a total of eight Olympic Games, more than any other country, followed by France with five editions. Canada, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom have each hosted three Games.
The Games have primarily been hosted in the continents of Europe (36 editions) and North America (12 editions); eight Games have been hosted in Asia and two have been hosted in Oceania. In 2016, Rio de Janeiro became South America 's first Olympic host city, while the African continent has yet to hold the Games. Other major geographic regions which have never hosted the Olympics include the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia.
Host cities are selected by the IOC membership, usually seven years in advance. The selection process lasts approximately two years. In the first stage, any city in the world may submit an application to become a host city. After 10 months, the Executive Board of the IOC decides which applicant city will become official candidates as based on the recommendation of a working group that reviews the applications. In a second stage, the candidate cities are investigated thoroughly by an Evaluation Commission, which then submits a final short list of cities to be considered for selection. The host city is then chosen by vote of the IOC session, a general meeting of IOC members.
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a handmaid's tale season 1 episode 8 | The Handmaid 's Tale (TV series) - wikipedia
The Handmaid 's Tale is an American dystopian drama web television series created by Bruce Miller, based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood. It was ordered by the streaming service Hulu as a straight - to - series order of 10 episodes, for which production began in late 2016. The plot features a dystopian future following a Second American Civil War wherein a totalitarian society subjects fertile women, called "Handmaids '', into child - bearing servitude.
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017; the subsequent seven episodes aired on a weekly basis every Wednesday. In May 2017, the series was renewed for a second season which premiered on April 25, 2018.
The Handmaid 's Tale has received widespread critical acclaim and its first season won eight Primetime Emmy Awards from thirteen nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, becoming the first series on a streaming service to win an Emmy for Outstanding Series. It also won Golden Globe Awards for Best Television Series -- Drama and Best Actress for Elisabeth Moss.
In May 2018, Hulu announced that the series had been renewed for a third season.
In the near future, fertility rates collapse as a result of sexually transmitted diseases and environmental pollution. With this chaos, the totalitarian, theonomic government of "Gilead '' establishes rule in the former United States in the aftermath of a civil war. Society is organized by power - hungry leaders along with a new, militarized, hierarchical regime of fanaticism and newly created social classes, in which women are brutally subjugated, and by law are not allowed to work, own property, handle money, or read.
Worldwide infertility has resulted in the conscription of the few remaining fertile women in Gilead, called "Handmaids '', according to an extremist interpretation of the Biblical account of Bilhah. They are assigned to the homes of the ruling elite, where they must submit to ritualized rape by their male masters in order to become pregnant and bear children for those men and their wives.
Alongside the Handmaids, much of society is now grouped into classes that dictate their freedoms and duties. Women are divided into a small range of social categories, each one signified by a plain dress in a specific color: Handmaids wear red, Marthas (who are housekeepers and cooks, named after the biblical figure) wear green, and Wives (who are expected to run their households) wear blue and turquoise.
Econowives, the lower - class women who still have minimal agency, are a sort of mixture of all these categories, and they wear gray (a departure from the book in which Econowives wear clothing striped with the aforementioned colors). Women prisoners are called Unwomen and are worked to death clearing toxic waste in the Colonies.
Another class of women, Aunts (who train and oversee the Handmaids), wear brown. Additionally, the Eyes are a secret police watching over the general populace for signs of rebellion, Hunters track down people attempting to flee the country, and Jezebels are prostitutes in secret brothels catering to the elite ruling class.
June Osborne, renamed Offred (Elisabeth Moss), is the Handmaid assigned to the home of the Gileadan Commander Fred Waterford (Joseph Fiennes) and his wife Serena Joy (Yvonne Strahovski). Offred is subject to strict rules and constant scrutiny; an improper word or deed on her part can lead to brutal punishment.
Offred, who is named after her male master ("Of Fred '') like all Handmaids, can remember the "time before '', when she was married and had a daughter, a job, a bank account, and her own name and identity, but all she can safely do now is follow the rules of Gilead in hopes that she can someday live free again and be reunited with her daughter. The Waterfords, key players in the rise of Gilead, have their own conflicts with the realities of the society they have helped create.
June has been helping Serena to complete Fred 's work for some months while he is too ill from his bomb injuries to do so himself, but as soon as he returns home he excludes Serena from his office. Serena tells June that the Putnams ' child, Angela, (called Charlotte by Janine, who is her biological mother) is sick. June advocates for Janine to be able to see the baby, and Serena agrees to ask about it for the baby 's sake. Naomi Putnam dislikes the idea, but she is overruled by her husband, Warren. Serena petitions Fred to allow the sick child to be seen by a Martha who, prior to the Sons of Jacob coup, was one of the nation 's top neonatologists. Fred denies the request, saying that whatever happens to the child must now be left to God 's will. A dismayed Serena forges Fred 's signature to a written order that transfers the Martha to the hospital for a day. Aunt Lydia tells June that she will hold her personally responsible if anything goes wrong with Janine 's visit to the hospital. The neonatologist can find nothing physically wrong with the child, and she advises them to simply unplug the baby from all of the machines and help her to feel safe and warm. When Fred discovers that Serena forged his signature on an order to temporarily transfer the physician / Martha, he beats Serena with his belt as June is forced to watch. Serena later tearfully rejects June 's offer of sympathy. Meanwhile, Eden is working hard to please Nick, but after she rearranges his garret and uncovers the bundle of handmaids ' letters he recovered from June, he becomes angry, demanding that she never touch his belongings. The episode ends in the hospital with Janine, partly undressed, singing "I Only Want to Be with You '' to her child and bouncing her as her baby gurgles happily.
A straight - to - series order by Hulu of The Handmaid 's Tale was announced in April 2016, with Elisabeth Moss set to star. Based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood, the series was created by Bruce Miller, who is also an executive producer with Daniel Wilson, Fran Sears, and Warren Littlefield. Atwood serves as consulting producer, giving feedback on some of the areas where the series expands upon or modernizes the book. She also played a small cameo role in the first episode. Moss is also a producer. In June 2016, Reed Morano was announced as director of the series. Samira Wiley, Max Minghella, and Ann Dowd joined the cast in July 2016. Joseph Fiennes, Madeline Brewer, and Yvonne Strahovski were cast in August 2016, followed by O.T. Fagbenle and Amanda Brugel in September 2016. In October 2016, Ever Carradine joined the cast, and Alexis Bledel was added in January 2017.
Filming on the series took place in Toronto, Mississauga, Hamilton, Oakville, and Cambridge, Ontario, from September 2016 to February 2017. The first full trailer of the TV series was released by Hulu on YouTube on March 23, 2017. The series premiered on April 26, 2017.
On May 3, 2017, The Handmaid 's Tale was renewed for a second season to premiere in 2018. Moss told the news media that the subsequent episodes would cover further developments in the story, filling in some of the unanswered questions and continuing the narrative already "finished '' in the book. The second season consists of 13 episodes and began filming in fall 2017. Alexis Bledel returned as a series regular. Showrunner Bruce Miller stated that he envisioned 10 seasons of the show, stating, "Well, you know, honestly, when I started, I tried to game out in my head what would ten seasons be like? If you hit a home run, you want energy to go around the bases, you want enough story to keep going, if you can hook the audience to care about these people enough that they 're actually crying at the finale. ''
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017; the subsequent seven episodes were released on a weekly basis. In Canada, the series is broadcast by Bravo; the first two episodes premiered on April 30, 2017. In Scandinavia, the series is available on HBO Nordic. In the United Kingdom, the series premiered on May 28, 2017, on Channel 4. In Ireland, the series premiered on February 5, 2018 on RTÉ2, with a showing of the first two episodes. RTÉ also became the first broadcaster in Europe to debut Season 2 following its broadcast in the US and Canada.
In New Zealand, the series was released on the subscription video on demand service Lightbox on June 8, 2017. In Australia, the series premiered on the TV channel SBS 's video streaming service SBS on Demand, on July 6, 2017.
The first season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on March 13, 2018.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 95 % based on 107 reviews, with an average rating of 8.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Haunting and vivid, The Handmaid 's Tale is an endlessly engrossing adaptation of Margaret Atwood 's dystopian novel that 's anchored by a terrific central performance from Elisabeth Moss. '' On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 92 out of 100 based on 41 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter called it "probably the spring 's best new show ''. Jen Chaney of Vulture gave it a highly positive review, and wrote that it is "A faithful adaptation of the book that also brings new layers to Atwood 's totalitarian, sexist world of forced surrogate motherhood '' and that "this series is meticulously paced, brutal, visually stunning, and so suspenseful from moment to moment that only at the end of each hour will you feel fully at liberty to exhale ''.
There was much debate on whether parallels could be drawn between the series (and by extension, the book it is based on) and American society during the Presidency of Donald Trump. A comparison has also been made to the Salafi / Wahabbi extremism of ISIL, under which enslaved women of religious minorities are passed around and utilized as sex objects and vessels to bear new jihadis.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 92 % based on 73 reviews, with an average rating of 8.34 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Beautifully shot but dishearteningly relevant, The Handmaid 's Tale centers its sophomore season tightly around its compelling cast of characters, making room for broader social commentary through more intimate lenses. '' On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 86 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
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who played jessie spano on saved by the bell | Elizabeth Berkley - wikipedia
Elizabeth Berkley Lauren (born July 28, 1972) is an American actress. Berkley 's most notable roles were as Jessie Spano in the television series Saved by the Bell, and as Nomi Malone in the 1995 Paul Verhoeven film Showgirls.
Berkley was born and raised in Farmington Hills, a community located among Detroit 's northern suburbs in Oakland County, Michigan. She is the daughter of Jere, a gift basket business owner, and Fred Berkley, a lawyer. Berkley 's family is Jewish, she was raised in the Conservative tradition of Judaism, and at age 12 became bat mitzvah. Berkley was born with heterochromia, the condition of differently colored irises; her right eye is half green and half brown, and her left eye is all green. She also has a mole on her forehead which she covers with camouflage makeup, citing it was a bother to her growing up, after name calling. She graduated in 1990 from North Farmington High School in Farmington Hills after previously having attended the Cranbrook Kingswood School, a private school in Bloomfield Hills.
From a young age she danced, and she practiced in a room that her parents arranged for her in the basement of their house. She auditioned for the lead role in the film Annie, but was turned down. As her love for dancing increased, she became more interested in pursuing it professionally, traveling to New York to train with other dancers and choreographers. She began to take part in several ballets, including Swan Lake and in 1983 she appeared in some musicals.
Berkley was a teenage model for Elite before pursuing an acting career. She made her television film debut in 1987 with a role in the television film Frog and following this, made a number of guest appearances on several television shows. In 1989, at the age of fifteen, she auditioned for the role of Kelly Kapowski in Saved by the Bell, but the producers of the show could not decide whether to cast her or Tiffani - Amber Thiessen. In the end, they created for Berkley the character Jessie Spano, a role she played from 1989 to 1993, as well as in both of the show 's television film installments.
After leaving Saved by the Bell to try to break into film, Berkley auditioned for (and won) the role of Nomi Malone, a character in the controversial 1995 Paul Verhoeven film Showgirls. The sex - and nudity - laden film was given a controversial NC - 17 rating in the United States (the first big budget film that was deliberately intended to receive this rating), was a box office bomb, and was widely panned by critics. Berkley was dropped by her agent; due to the negative fallout from the film other agents refused to take her telephone calls. Over the years, however, Showgirls has achieved cult status among film fans and ranks 36 on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the Top 50 Cult Movies. It is also one of top 20 highest - grossing films of all time for MGM.
Berkley was cast in the title role in the anime film Armitage III: Poly Matrix, which also starred Kiefer Sutherland, and accepted a small role in The First Wives Club, a comedy starring Diane Keaton, Goldie Hawn, and Bette Midler. She then played a Madonna body double named Tina in the independent film The Real Blonde. She has performed in supporting roles in independent films such as The Taxman, Tail Lights Fade, Roger Dodger, and Moving Malcolm. She also had a small role as a call girl hired by Al Pacino 's character in Oliver Stone 's sports drama Any Given Sunday, as well as a key supporting role in Woody Allen 's The Curse of the Jade Scorpion.
Berkley appeared on stage opposite Eddie Izzard for her role as Honey in the London stage version of Lenny in 1999. She went on to make her Broadway debut in the comedy Sly Fox, opposite Richard Dreyfuss in February 2004, three months after her marriage to artist Greg Lauren. She replaced Catherine Keener as Bonnie in the 2005 Off Broadway production of David Rabe 's Hurlyburly, appearing alongside Ethan Hawke, Parker Posey and Bobby Cannavale.
Berkley received much praise for her role in Hurlyburly, with Charles Isherwood of The New York Times even going as far as apologizing to her for his past criticisms of her ability, stating that the fact she held "her own among this skilled company of scene - stealers is a testament to how much her talent has grown ''. In 2006 stage she appeared at the sixth annual 24 Hour Plays alongside Jennifer Aniston, Rosie Perez, and Lili Taylor, in which six writers, six directors, 24 actors, and production crews have 24 hours to write, direct, and perform six 10 - minute plays.
Berkley has been seen in many dramatic television roles, guest starring on series such as CSI: Miami, NYPD Blue, Without a Trace, Threshold, and Law & Order: Criminal Intent. She had a recurring role in the successful and critically acclaimed sitcom Titus, in which she played the title character 's sister, Shannon. She also starred in the Lifetime television film Student Seduction, in which she played Christie Dawson, a high school teacher wrongfully accused of sexual harassment by one of her students who becomes obsessed with her. This was followed by another made - for - television film in 2007, entitled Black Widow in which she played a woman suspected of killing her husbands for their money. The film Meet Market, which she starred in along with Julian McMahon, Krista Allen, and Aisha Tyler, was released straight to DVD in 2008.
In 2008, Berkley signed on to star in a multi-episode arc of CSI: Miami, in which she plays Horatio Caine 's (David Caruso) ex-lover, Julia Winston, who is also the mother of his recently discovered son. The episodes which Berkley appeared in were very highly rated and all of them featured in the top 10 Nielsen ratings chart. She has since appeared in the show 's season six finale.
Berkley hosted Bravo 's reality series, Step It Up and Dance, a competition featuring the exploits of 10 wannabe dancers who compete against each other to win a cash prize of $100,000 as well as the opportunity to work with and perform for some of the country 's top choreographers. The show premiered in April 2008 on Bravo and was cancelled after the first season. The show came out as the network 's strongest ever in its time slot (10 / 11c) with 826,000 viewers. The show continued to perform well throughout its run, averaging 756,000 viewers each week -- of whom 522,000 were aged 18 to 49 -- and helped contribute to Bravo 's highest - rated April ever. According to Berkley hosting the show is a very fulfilling job. She was quoted as saying that she gets "invested in the dancers '' because she has befriended many of them offstage.
During the press tour for Step It Up and Dance, Berkley appeared on various shows including various morning news programs, ABC 's Jimmy Kimmel Live!, Fuse TV 's The Sauce, E! 's Chelsea Lately, CNBC 's The Big Idea with Donny Deutsch, and ABC 's The View. While on The View, she spoke of her admiration for co-host Whoopi Goldberg, calling her "an extraordinary being ''. Her appearance on the show was unique in that she brought the ladies of the show tap shoes and taught them a short dance routine. Berkley starred alongside Thomas Jane in the David Arquette directed short film The Butler 's in Love which premiered at Mann 's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles in June 2008.
In 2009, Berkley starred in a multi-episode arc of the Showtime series The L Word, during its sixth and final season. She played Kelly Wentworth, a straight girl who got away from Jennifer Beals ' character Bette Porter in college. Berkley and Beals are best friends in real life, having previously worked on the 2002 independent film Roger Dodger. Berkley continued with television work, reprising her role as Julia Winston in CSI: Miami, appearing in three more episodes, including the season seven finale. In the sequel to the cult hit Donnie Darko, S. Darko, she played Trudy, a former drug addict turned born again Christian who becomes infatuated with her pastor. She also appeared as Tracy in the 2009 comedy Women in Trouble.
During Berkley 's guest appearance on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon in June 2009, her Saved by the Bell co-star Mark - Paul Gosselaar -- as Zack Morris -- expressed his desire to take part in Jimmy Fallon 's "class reunion '' of the show 's original cast members and revealed that Berkley has also agreed to take part in the reunion. Dennis Haskins, Lark Voorhies, Mario Lopez, Elizabeth Berkley and Mark - Paul Gosselaar agreed to a reunion. Gosselaar reprised his role as Zack Morris on Late Night on June 8, 2009, while promoting his then current TNT drama, Raising the Bar. The spoof interview closed with a performance of "Friends Forever '' originally by Zack Attack, where Zack played guitar and sang with backing from Fallon 's house band, the Roots. Tiffani Thiessen posted a parody video to the online website Funny or Die, where she said she was just too busy to join in a reunion.
In 2011, Berkley played the lead female role in the Hallmark Channel original movie Lucky Christmas, about a woman who wins the lottery only to have to recover the ticket from the glove compartment of her stolen car. The film premiered on Hallmark Film Channel on November 12, 2011.
In September 2013, Berkley was announced as one of the contestants on the 17th season of Dancing with the Stars. She partnered with Valentin Chmerkovskiy. They were eliminated on the 9th week of competition and landed in 6th place despite receiving high judge scores. Several perfect scores were earned & awarded by expert panel judges. Ultimately however, the public vote eliminated her team based upon popularity metrics used by the show.
In 2014, the TV movie The Unauthorized Saved by the Bell Story aired, with actress Tiera Skovbye portraying Berkley. On February 4, 2015, Berkley reunited with Mark - Paul Gosselaar, Mario Lopez, Dennis Haskins and Tiffani Thiessen on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon where they appeared in a Saved by the Bell sketch with Fallon.
In 2006, Berkley set up a self - help program online for teen girls called Ask - Elizabeth. The website was created when husband Greg Lauren commented on the number of girls who came to her asking for advice and joked that she should have her own column. She regularly meets with young girls to discuss different issues and topics and to help them with any problems that they are going through and speaks of her own troubles in the past.
Ask - Elizabeth was also the working title of a reality series focusing on the program 's success and its continued efforts to help girls throughout the country. The show, produced by MTV, featured Berkley traveling around the United States looking at the issues and topics most important to teenage girls. Amy Bailey, vice president of development in MTV 's News & Documentaries division, said Berkley approached MTV with the idea. "She does these workshops around the country with teen girls and gets them to really open up about self - esteem and body issues, '' said Bailey. "We had been looking for a program that tackled the same issues, so it seemed like a perfect match. '' The status of the show itself is unknown as it was originally expected to premiere in late 2008, but production has since been pushed back indefinitely.
In 2011, Berkley published Ask - Elizabeth, a self - help book for teenage girls which drew from the workshops she conducted for the Ask - Elizabeth program.
Berkley is an animal rights activist and in 1997, donned a $600 form - fitting gown made entirely of collard greens for the "Lettuce Be Lean '' campaign, sponsored by PETA to try to encourage people to embrace vegetarianism. In 2008 & 2009, she was among a number of celebrities included in an online poll by PETA to select the "Sexiest Vegetarian of the Year ''.
In 2000, Berkley was tangentially involved in a $45 million lawsuit when actor and screenwriter Roger Wilson filed suit against Leonardo DiCaprio, claiming that DiCaprio had encouraged his friends to assault Wilson in a street fight, related to invitations to socialize directed at Berkley.
On November 1, 2003, Berkley married artist and occasional actor Greg Lauren at the Esperanza Hotel in Cabo San Lucas. Berkley formally changed her name to Elizabeth Berkley Lauren; however, she still uses her maiden name professionally. On March 5, 2012, Berkley announced she was expecting her first child in the summer. She gave birth to son Sky Cole on July 20, 2012.
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when did gambling become legal in the us | Gambling in the United states - wikipedia
Gambling is legally restricted in the United States, but its availability and participation is increasing. In 2008, gambling activities generated gross revenues (the difference between the total amounts wagered minus the funds or "winnings '' returned to the players) of $92.27 billion in the United States.
The American Gaming Association, an industry trade group, states that gaming in the US is a $240 billion industry, employing 1.7 million people in 40 states. In 2016, gaming taxes contributed $8.85 billion in state and local tax revenues.
Critics of gambling argue it leads to increased political corruption, compulsive gambling and higher crime rates. Others argue that gambling is a type of regressive tax on the individuals in local economies where gambling venues are located.
According to the American Gaming Association, legal gambling revenues for 2007 were as follows:
Grand Total - $92.27 billion
Games of chance came to the British American colonies with the first settlers. Attitudes on gambling varied greatly from community to community, but there were no large - scale restrictions on the practice. Early on, the British colonies used lotteries from time to time to help raise revenue. For example, lotteries were used to establish or improve dozens of universities and hundreds of secondary schools during the 18th and 19th centuries. A 1769 restriction on lotteries by the British crown became one of many issues which fueled tensions between the Colonies and Britain prior to the American Revolution.
Lotteries continued to be used at the state and federal level in the early United States. Gambling businesses slowly developed in various communities. The lower Mississippi River valley became a hotbed of gambling activity with New Orleans emerging as the nation 's leading gambling center. A wave of hostility against gambling in the mid 19th century pushed gambling activity onto boats in the Mississippi River and toward younger territories in the West. Anti-gambling forces in the northeast put an end to lotteries in those locations and this trend spread to some other parts of the country. The rise of railroads caused passenger travel on the Mississippi to decline, heavily damaging the riverboat casinos ' revenue. The increasing legal pressures on gambling gradually created opportunities for illegal operations.
During the California Gold Rush, San Francisco became a populous town flush with aspiring prospectors. By the 1850s, the new city had overtaken New Orleans as the gambling capital of the U.S.
As California gradually strengthened its laws and its policing of gambling, the practice went underground.
Lotteries and other forms of gambling would be revived temporarily in the South and in other areas during Reconstruction. Gambling was extremely popular on the frontier during the settlement of the West; nearly everyone participated in games of chance. Towns like Deadwood, Dodge City, Denver, and Kansas City were famous for their many lavish gambling houses. Citizens of the West viewed gamblers as respected members of society who worked at an honest trade.
By the early 20th century, gambling was almost uniformly outlawed throughout the U.S. Gambling became a largely illegal activity, helping to spur the growth of the mafia and other organized crime.
During the Prohibition era, illegal liquor provided an additional revenue stream for mob figures, and organized crime blossomed. Towns which already had lax attitudes about vice, such as Miami, Galveston, and Hot Springs, became major gambling centers, stimulating the tourist industry in those places.
The Great Depression saw the legalization of some forms of gambling such as bingo in some cities to allow churches and other groups to raise money, but most gambling remained illegal. Major gangsters became wealthy from casinos and speakeasies. As legal pressures began to rise in many states, gangsters in New York and other states looked toward Texas, California, and other more tolerant locales to prosper.
The stock market crash of 1929 and the Hoover Dam project led to the legalization of gambling in Nevada. In 1931, Nevada legalized most forms of gambling when Assembly Bill 98 was signed into law, providing a source of revenue for the state. Interest in development in the state was slow at first as the state itself had a limited population. After World War II, enforcement of gambling laws became more strict in most places and the desert town of Las Vegas became an attractive target for investment by crime figures such as New York 's Bugsy Siegel. The town rapidly developed during the 1950s dooming some illegal gambling empires such as Galveston. Nevada, and Las Vegas in particular, became the center of gambling in the U.S. In the 1960s Howard Hughes and other legitimate investors purchased many of the most important hotels and casinos in the city gradually reducing the city 's connections to organized crime.
Southern Maryland became popular for its slot machines which operated legally there between 1949 (1943 in some places) and 1968. In 1977, New Jersey legalized gambling in Atlantic City. The city rapidly grew into a significant tourist destination, briefly revitalizing what was previously largely a run - down slum community. In 1979, the Seminole tribe opened the first reservation - based commercial gambling beginning a trend that would be followed by other reservations. Gradually, lotteries and some types of parimutuel betting were legalized in other areas of the country.
In the 1990s, riverboat casinos were legalized in Louisiana and Illinois in addition to other states. In 1996, Michigan legalized gambling in the city of Detroit creating an economic center for potential casino growth.
In the early 21st century, Internet gambling grew rapidly in popularity worldwide, but interstate and international transactions remained illegal under the Federal Wire Act of 1961, with additional penalties added by the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006.
Many levels of government have authorized multiple forms of gambling in an effort to raise money for needed services without raising taxes. These include everything from bingo games in church basements, to multimillion - dollar poker tournaments. Sometimes states advertise revenues from certain games to be devoted to particular needs, such as education.
When New Hampshire authorized a state lottery in 1963, it represented a major shift in social policy. No state governments had previously directly run gambling operations to raise money. Other states followed suit, and now the majority of the states run some type of lottery to raise funds for state operations. This has brought about morally questionable issues, such as states ' using marketing firms to increase their market share, or to develop new programs when old forms of gambling do not raise as much money.
The American Gaming Association breaks gambling down into the following categories:
Gambling is legal under US federal law, although there are significant restrictions pertaining to interstate and online gambling. Each state is free to regulate or prohibit the practice within its borders. If state - run lotteries are included, almost every state can be said to allow some form of gambling. Only two states completely outlaw all forms of gambling, Hawaii and Utah. However, casino - style gambling is much less widespread. Federal law provides leeway for Native American Trust Land to be used for games of chance if an agreement is put in place between the State and the Tribal Government (e.g. A ' Compact ' or ' Agreement ') under the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988.
Nevada and Louisiana are the only two states in which casino - style gambling is legal statewide. Both state and local governments impose licensing and zoning restrictions. All other states that allow casino - style gambling restrict it to small geographic areas (e.g., Atlantic City, New Jersey or Tunica, Mississippi), or to American Indian reservations, some of which are located in or near large cities. As domestic dependent nations, American Indian tribes have used legal protection to open casinos, which has been a contentious political issue in California and other states. In some states, casinos are restricted to "riverboats '', large multi-story barges that are, more often than not, permanently moored in a body of water.
Online gambling has been more strictly regulated. The Federal Wire Act of 1961 outlawed interstate wagering on sports, but did not address other forms of gambling. It has been the subject of court cases. The Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006 (UIGEA) did not specifically prohibit online gambling; instead, it outlawed financial transactions involving online gambling service providers. Some offshore gambling providers reacted by shutting down their services for US customers. Other operators, however, have continued to circumvent UIGEA and have continued to service US customers. For this reason, UIGEA has received criticism from notable figures within the gambling industry.
Commercial casinos are founded and run by private companies on non-Native American land. There are 22 states (and two US Territories) that allow commercial casinos in some form: California, Colorado, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Puerto Rico, South Dakota, U.S. Virgin Islands, Washington, and West Virginia.
The approximately 450 commercial casinos in total produced a gross gambling revenue of $34.11 billion in 2006.
The history of native American commercial gambling began in 1979, when the Seminoles began running bingo games. Prior to this, the native Americans had no previous experience with large - scale commercial gambling. Native Americans were familiar with the concept of small - scale gambling, such as placing bets on sporting contests. For example, the Iroquois, Ojibways, and Menominees would place bets on games of snow snake. Within six years after commercial gambling among native Americans developed, seventy - five to eighty of the three hundred federally recognized tribes became involved. By 2006, about three hundred native American groups hosted some sort of gaming.
Some native American tribes operate casinos on tribal land to provide employment and revenue for their government and their tribe members. Tribal gaming is regulated on the tribal, state, and federal level. Native American tribes are required to use gambling revenue to provide for governmental operations, economic development, and the welfare of their members. Federal regulation of native American gaming was established under the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988. Under the provisions of that law, games are divided into three distinct categories:
Of the 562 federally recognized tribes in 1988, 201 participated in class two or class III gaming by 2001. Tribal gambling had revenues of $14.5 billion in 2002 from 354 casinos. Approximately forty percent of the 562 federally recognized tribes operate gaming establishments.
Like other Americans, many indigenous Americans have dissension over the issue of casino gambling. Some tribes are too isolated geographically to make a casino successful, while some do not want non-native Americans on their land. Though casino gambling is controversial, it has proven economically successful for most tribes, and the impact of American Indian gambling has proven to be far - reaching.
Gaming creates many jobs, not only for native Americans, but also for non-native Americans, and in this way can positively affect relations with the non-native American community. On some reservations, the number of non-native American workers is larger than the number of Native American workers because of the scale of the casino resorts. Also, some tribes contribute a share of casino revenues to the state in which they are located, or to charitable and non-profit causes. For example, the San Manuel Band of Mission Indians of California gave 4 million dollars to the UCLA Law School to establish a center for American Indian Studies. The same tribe also gave $1 million to the state for disaster relief when the area was ravaged by wildfires in 2003.
Although casinos have proven successful for both the tribes and the surrounding regions, state residents may oppose construction of native American casinos, especially if they have competing projects. For example, in November 2003, the state of Maine voted against a $650 million casino project proposed by the Penobscots and Passamaquoddies. The project 's objective was to create jobs for the tribes ' young people. The same day the state voted against the Indian casino project, Maine voters approved a plan to add slot machines to the state 's harness racing tracks.
The National Indian Gaming Commission oversees Native American gaming for the federal government. The National Indian Gaming Commission (NIGC) was established under the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act in 1988. Under the NIGC, Class I gaming is under the sole jurisdiction of the tribe. Class II gaming is governed by the tribe, but it is also subject to NIGC regulation. Class III gaming is under the jurisdiction of the states. For instance, in order for a tribe to build and operate a casino, the tribe must work and negotiate with the state in which it is located. These Tribal - State compacts determine how much revenue the states will obtain from the Indian casinos.
The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act requires that gaming revenues be used only for governmental or charitable purposes. The tribal governments determine specifically how gaming revenues are spent. Revenues have been used to build houses, schools, and roads; to fund health care and education; and to support community and economic development initiatives. Indian gaming is the first and essentially the only economic development tool available on Indian reservations. The National Gaming Impact Study Commission has stated that "no... economic development other than gaming has been found ''. Tribal governments, though, use gaming revenues to develop other economic enterprises such as museums, malls, and cultural centers.
There are currently 30 states that have native American gaming: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.
The classic lottery is a drawing in which each contestant buys a combination of numbers. Each combination of numbers, or "play '', is usually priced at $1. Plays are usually non-exclusive, meaning that two or more ticket holders may buy the same combination. The lottery organization then draws the winning combination of 5 - 8 numbers, usually from 1 to 50, using a randomized, automatic ball tumbler machine.
To win, contestants match their combinations of numbers with the drawn combination. The combination may be in any order, except in some "mega ball '' lotteries, where the "mega '' number for the combination must match the ball designated as the "mega ball '' in the winning combination. If there are multiple winners, they split the winnings, also known as the "Jackpot ''. Winnings are currently subject to federal income taxes as ordinary income. Winnings can be awarded as a yearly annuity or as a lump sum, depending on lottery rules.
Most states have state - sponsored and multi-state lotteries. There are only six states that do not sell lottery tickets: Alabama, Alaska, Hawaii, Mississippi, Nevada, and Utah. In some states, revenues from lotteries are designated for a specific budgetary purpose, such as education. Other states put lottery revenue into the general fund.
Multi-jurisdictional lotteries generally have larger jackpots due to the greater number of tickets sold. The Mega Millions and Powerball games are the biggest of such lotteries in terms of numbers of participating states.
Some state lotteries run games other than the lotteries. Usually, these are in the scratchcard format, although some states use pull - tab games. In either format, cards are sold that have opaque areas. In some games, all of the opaque material is removed to see if the contestant has won, and how much. In other scratchcard games, a contestant must pick which parts of a card to scratch, to match amounts or play another form of game. These games are prone to forgeries both from card dealers (Which can sell fake cards) and players (Which can fake winning cards at home).
On July 1, 2000, a new law took effect in the state of South Carolina, whereby the ownership, possession, or operation of a video poker machine, for either commercial or personal use, became illegal. Violators are subject to prosecution and substantial fines. Through at least 2007, the only type of legalized gambling in that state is the South Carolina Education Lottery.
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who won season 10 of australias next top model | Australia 's Next Top Model (cycle 10) - wikipedia
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The tenth cycle of Australia 's Next Top Model began airing on 20 September 2016 on Fox8. Head judge and host Jennifer Hawkins and judge Alex Perry returned along with model mentor Cheyenne Tozzi. Tozzi 's co-mentor and former judge Didier Cohen left the show after cycle 9, and was replaced by the Stenmark twins, models Jordan and Zac Stenmark, as her new co-mentors. Model Megan Gale joined the judging panel as a permanent judge.
The prizes for this cycle included a one - year modelling contract with Priscilla 's Model Management in Sydney, a trip to New York City for New York Fashion Week valued at A $ 20,000 thanks to Colgate Optic White, a brand new Mazda2 Hatch, and an editorial spread in Elle Australia.
The winner of the competition was 16 year - old Aleyna FitzGerald from Newcastle, New South Wales.
All applying contestants were required to be aged 16 and over on 1 January to apply for the show. Those auditioning had to be at least 170 cm (5 ft 7 in) tall. To qualify, all applicants had to be an Australian citizen currently living in Australia. Additional requirements stated that a contestant could not have had previous experience as a model in a national campaign within the last five years.
Auditions were held in Gold Coast in 23 September, Sydney in 25 -- 26 September, Melbourne in 30 September and 1 October, Hobart in 3 October and Perth in 9 October. Applicants from Darwin, Dubbo, Port Macquarie and Townsville were also invited to auditions. Applicants were also encouraged to apply for the competition online if they were unable to make an appearance at the live auditions.
To celebrate the series ' ten year anniversary, the show decided to invite several well known Australian models as guests for the new cycle. These included Elle Macpherson, Gemma Ward, and Miranda Kerr. The show also invited back several contestants from cycles past for guest appearances. Among these were cycle 7 winner Montana Cox and 2nd runner - up Simone Holtznagel, cycle 6 winner Amanda Ware, and cycle 5 runner - up Cassi Van Den Dungen. The series finale culminated with a runway show that invited several other alumni from multiple cycles of the show.
(Ages stated are at start of contest)
The final thirteen took part in their first runway challenge in front of a crowd of 400 people, and had to model designs from Alex Perry 's S / S16 collection. They later had a night time photo shoot at The Star, facing off against cycle 7 winner Montana Cox.
The models competed in groups for a challenge in which they had to create a social media video for Colgate Optic White, with the best performer being chosen as an ambassador for the brand. The contestants later arrived at Randwick Racecourse, where they were introduced to Australian model Elle Macpherson, and took part in an equestrian inspired photo shoot with a racehorse.
The remaining eleven contestants were challenged to walk in a presentation for Swarovski as a part of Mercedes - Benz Fashion Week to win the opportunity of being featured in the brands upcoming Crystaldust campaign, and were later coached by former Australia 's Next Top Model contestants Amanda Ware, Cassi Van Den Dungen, and Simone Holtznagel in preparation for a latex photo shoot in groups photographed by Jez Smith.
The contestants received makeovers, and after having had no challenge or challenge scores, had to rely solely on their performance at a photo shoot session with alternative models at the Skyline Drive - In in Blacktown to guarantee their spot in the competition.
After a screen test challenge mentored by model - actress Gemma Ward, the models took part in a photo shoot session at Cradle Mountain in Tasmania. One of the contestants was left unable to participate after a medical emergency, and was granted exemption from elimination.
The final eight models were challenged to walk in a runway show over a pool, where they had to dive underwater and pose in a bid to be granted immunity from the upcoming double elimination. They later took part in a photo shoot session with fire performers.
The final six took part in a Fitbit look book challenge, for which the winner was awarded the chance of becoming the brand 's new ambassador. The models were later styled in Jennifer Hawkins ' line of swimwear, Cozi, for a shoot that focused entirely on their body while their face was hidden from view.
The remaining models were paired off into two teams in a challenge for Mazda, where they had to take their own photos in an attempt to have it featured in the brand 's new print campaign. On set, the contestants had to model colorful costume designs, as they were mentored by Australian model Miranda Kerr.
Immediately following the previous elimination, it was revealed that the final four contestants would be heading overseas to Milan. After arriving, the models took on a casting challenge for Trussardi, for which the winner was awarded double the amount of time in front of the camera for the upcoming photo shoot. On set, the girls were dressed in Italian fashion labels for an editorial session overlooking the Naviglio Grande. Back in Australia, it was revealed that only two contestants would advance to the finale.
The final two shot for a mock cover and their winning editorial spread to be published in the December issue of Elle Australia. Later, the formerly eliminated models returned for a final runway show, with 40 contestants from all nine cycles of the series. After the judges reviewed the covers from the final photo shoot of the series, Aleyna was crowned as the tenth winner of Australia 's Next Top Model.
(Total and average scores on the table only reflect scores calculated from the full sets added during panel)
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why arctic ocean is a grave to many ships | Arctic Ocean - Wikipedia
The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea, classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean. Alternatively, the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all - encompassing World Ocean.
Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere, the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America. It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter. The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to low evaporation, heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities. The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 %. The US National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years.
For much of European history, the north polar regions remained largely unexplored and their geography conjectural. Pytheas of Massilia recorded an account of a journey northward in 325 BC, to a land he called "Eschate Thule '', where the Sun only set for three hours each day and the water was replaced by a congealed substance "on which one can neither walk nor sail ''. He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as "growlers '' or "bergy bits ''; his "Thule '' was probably Norway, though the Faroe Islands or Shetland have also been suggested.
Early cartographers were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as in Johannes Ruysch 's map of 1507, or Gerardus Mercator 's map of 1595) or water (as with Martin Waldseemüller 's world map of 1507). The fervent desire of European merchants for a northern passage, the Northern Sea Route or the Northwest Passage, to "Cathay '' (China) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such as Johann Homann featured an extensive "Oceanus Septentrionalis '' at the northern edge of their charts.
The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond the Arctic Circle in this era added only small islands, such as Novaya Zemlya (11th century) and Spitzbergen (1596), though since these were often surrounded by pack - ice, their northern limits were not so clear. The makers of navigational charts, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only fragments of known coastline sketched in.
This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, the myth of an "Open Polar Sea '' was persistent. John Barrow, longtime Second Secretary of the British Admiralty, promoted exploration of the region from 1818 to 1845 in search of this.
In the United States in the 1850s and 1860s, the explorers Elisha Kane and Isaac Israel Hayes both claimed to have seen part of this elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authority Matthew Fontaine Maury included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbook The Physical Geography of the Sea (1883). Nevertheless, as all the explorers who travelled closer and closer to the pole reported, the polar ice cap is quite thick, and persists year - round.
Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a nautical crossing of the Arctic Ocean, in 1896. The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by Wally Herbert in 1969, in a dog sled expedition from Alaska to Svalbard, with air support. The first nautical transit of the north pole was made in 1958 by the submarine USS Nautilus, and the first surface nautical transit occurred in 1977 by the icebreaker NS Arktika.
Since 1937, Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations have extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean. Scientific settlements were established on the drift ice and carried thousands of kilometres by ice floes.
In World War II, the European region of the Arctic Ocean was heavily contested: the Allied commitment to resupply the Soviet Union via its northern ports was opposed by German naval and air forces.
The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km (5,427,000 sq mi), almost the size of Antarctica. The coastline is 45,390 km (28,200 mi) long. It is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia, North America, Greenland, and by several islands.
It is generally taken to include Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, White Sea and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea and Labrador Sea.
Countries bordering the Arctic Ocean are: Russia, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Canada and the United States.
There are several ports and harbours around the Arctic Ocean
In Alaska, the main ports are Barrow (71 ° 17 ′ 44 '' N 156 ° 45 ′ 59 '' W / 71.29556 ° N 156.76639 ° W / 71.29556; - 156.76639 (Barrow)) and Prudhoe Bay (70 ° 19 ′ 32 '' N 148 ° 42 ′ 41 '' W / 70.32556 ° N 148.71139 ° W / 70.32556; - 148.71139 (Prudhoe)).
In Canada, ships may anchor at Churchill (Port of Churchill) (58 ° 46 ′ 28 '' N 094 ° 11 ′ 37 '' W / 58.77444 ° N 94.19361 ° W / 58.77444; - 94.19361 (Port of Churchill)) in Manitoba, Nanisivik (Nanisivik Naval Facility) (73 ° 04 ′ 08 '' N 084 ° 32 ′ 57 '' W / 73.06889 ° N 84.54917 ° W / 73.06889; - 84.54917 (Nanisivik Naval Facility)) in Nunavut, Tuktoyaktuk (69 ° 26 ′ 34 '' N 133 ° 01 ′ 52 '' W / 69.44278 ° N 133.03111 ° W / 69.44278; - 133.03111 (Tuktoyaktuk)) or Inuvik (68 ° 21 ′ 42 '' N 133 ° 43 ′ 50 '' W / 68.36167 ° N 133.73056 ° W / 68.36167; - 133.73056 (Inuvik)) in the Northwest territories.
In Greenland, the main port is at Nuuk (Nuuk Port and Harbour) (64 ° 10 ′ 15 '' N 051 ° 43 ′ 15 '' W / 64.17083 ° N 51.72083 ° W / 64.17083; - 51.72083 (Nuuk Port and Harbour)).
In Norway, Kirkenes (69 ° 43 ′ 37 '' N 030 ° 02 ′ 44 '' E / 69.72694 ° N 30.04556 ° E / 69.72694; 30.04556 (Kirkenes)) and Vardø (70 ° 22 ′ 14 '' N 031 ° 06 ′ 27 '' E / 70.37056 ° N 31.10750 ° E / 70.37056; 31.10750 (Vardø)) are ports on the mainland. Also, there is Longyearbyen (78 ° 13 ′ 12 '' N 15 ° 39 ′ 00 '' E / 78.22000 ° N 15.65000 ° E / 78.22000; 15.65000 (Longyearbyen)) on Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago, next to Fram Strait.
In Russia, major ports sorted by the different sea areas are:
The ocean 's Arctic shelf comprises a number of continental shelves, including the Canadian Arctic shelf, underlying the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and the Russian continental shelf, which is sometimes simply called the "Arctic Shelf '' because it is greater in extent. The Russian continental shelf consists of three separate, smaller shelves, the Barents Shelf, Chukchi Sea Shelf and Siberian Shelf. Of these three, the Siberian Shelf is the largest such shelf in the world. The Siberian Shelf holds large oil and gas reserves, and the Chukchi shelf forms the border between Russian and the United States as stated in the USSR -- USA Maritime Boundary Agreement. The whole area is subject to international territorial claims.
An underwater ridge, the Lomonosov Ridge, divides the deep sea North Polar Basin into two oceanic basins: the Eurasian Basin, which is between 4,000 and 4,500 m (13,100 and 14,800 ft) deep, and the Amerasian Basin (sometimes called the North American, or Hyperborean Basin), which is about 4,000 m (13,000 ft) deep. The bathymetry of the ocean bottom is marked by fault block ridges, abyssal plains, ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 m (3,406 ft). The deepest point is Litke Deep in the Eurasian Basin, at 5,450 m (17,880 ft).
The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into the Canada Basin (between Alaska / Canada and the Alpha Ridge), Makarov Basin (between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges), Amundsen Basin (between Lomonosov and Gakkel ridges), and Nansen Basin (between the Gakkel Ridge and the continental shelf that includes the Franz Josef Land).
In large parts of the Arctic Ocean, the top layer (about 50 m (160 ft)) is of lower salinity and lower temperature than the rest. It remains relatively stable, because the salinity effect on density is bigger than the temperature effect. It is fed by the freshwater input of the big Siberian and Canadian streams (Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Mackenzie), the water of which quasi floats on the saltier, denser, deeper ocean water. Between this lower salinity layer and the bulk of the ocean lies the so - called halocline, in which both salinity and temperature are rising with increasing depth.
Because of its relative isolation from other oceans, the Arctic Ocean has a uniquely complex system of water flow. It is classified as a mediterranean sea, which as "a part of the world ocean which has only limited communication with the major ocean basins (these being the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans) and where the circulation is dominated by thermohaline forcing ''. The Arctic Ocean has a total volume of 18.07 × 10 km, equal to about 1.3 % of the World Ocean. Mean surface circulation is predominately cyclonic on the Eurasian side and anticyclonic in the Canadian Basin.
Water enters from both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and can be divided into three unique water masses. The deepest water mass is called Arctic Bottom Water and begins around 900 metres (3,000 feet) depth. It is composed of the densest water in the World Ocean and has two main sources: Arctic shelf water and Greenland Sea Deep Water. Water in the shelf region that begins as inflow from the Pacific passes through the narrow Bering Strait at an average rate of 0.8 Sverdrups and reaches the Chukchi Sea. During the winter, cold Alaskan winds blow over the Chukchi Sea, freezing the surface water and pushing this newly formed ice out to the Pacific. The speed of the ice drift is roughly 1 -- 4 cm / s. This process leaves dense, salty waters in the sea that sink over the continental shelf into the western Arctic Ocean and create a halocline.
This water is met by Greenland Sea Deep Water, which forms during the passage of winter storms. As temperatures cool dramatically in the winter, ice forms and intense vertical convection allows the water to become dense enough to sink below the warm saline water below. Arctic Bottom Water is critically important because of its outflow, which contributes to the formation of Atlantic Deep Water. The overturning of this water plays a key role in global circulation and the moderation of climate.
In the depth range of 150 -- 900 metres (490 -- 2,950 feet) is a water mass referred to as Atlantic Water. Inflow from the North Atlantic Current enters through the Fram Strait, cooling and sinking to form the deepest layer of the halocline, where it circles the Arctic Basin counter-clockwise. This is the highest volumetric inflow to the Arctic Ocean, equalling about 10 times that of the Pacific inflow, and it creates the Arctic Ocean Boundary Current. It flows slowly, at about 0.02 m / s. Atlantic Water has the same salinity as Arctic Bottom Water but is much warmer (up to 3 ° C). In fact, this water mass is actually warmer than the surface water, and remains submerged only due to the role of salinity in density. When water reaches the basin it is pushed by strong winds into a large circular current called the Beaufort Gyre. Water in the Beaufort Gyre is far less saline than that of the Chukchi Sea due to inflow from large Canadian and Siberian rivers.
The final defined water mass in the Arctic Ocean is called Arctic Surface Water and is found from 150 -- 200 metres (490 -- 660 feet). The most important feature of this water mass is a section referred to as the sub-surface layer. It is a product of Atlantic water that enters through canyons and is subjected to intense mixing on the Siberian Shelf. As it is entrained, it cools and acts a heat shield for the surface layer. This insulation keeps the warm Atlantic Water from melting the surface ice. Additionally, this water forms the swiftest currents of the Arctic, with speed of around 0.3 - 0.6 m / s. Complementing the water from the canyons, some Pacific water that does not sink to the shelf region after passing through the Bering Strait also contributes to this water mass.
Waters originating in the Pacific and Atlantic both exit through the Fram Strait between Greenland and Svalbard Island, which is about 2,700 metres (8,900 feet) deep and 350 kilometres (220 miles) wide. This outflow is about 9 Sv. The width of the Fram Strait is what allows for both inflow and outflow on the Atlantic side of the Arctic Ocean. Because of this, it is influenced by the Coriolis force, which concentrates outflow to the East Greenland Current on the western side and inflow to the Norwegian Current on the eastern side. Pacific water also exits along the west coast of Greenland and the Hudson Strait (1 - 2 Sv), providing nutrients to the Canadian Archipelago.
As noted, the process of ice formation and movement is a key driver in Arctic Ocean circulation and the formation of water masses. With this dependence, the Arctic Ocean experiences variations due to seasonal changes in sea ice cover. Sea ice movement is the result of wind forcing, which is related to a number of meteorological conditions that the Arctic experiences throughout the year. For example, the Beaufort High -- an extension of the Siberian High system -- is a pressure system that drives the anticyclonic motion of the Beaufort Gyre. During the summer, this area of high pressure is pushed out closer to its Siberian and Canadian sides. In addition, there is a sea level pressure (SLP) ridge over Greenland that drives strong northerly winds through the Fram Strait, facilitating ice export. In the summer, the SLP contrast is smaller, producing weaker winds. A final example of seasonal pressure system movement is the low pressure system that exists over the Nordic and Barents Seas. It is an extension of the Icelandic Low, which creates cyclonic ocean circulation in this area. The low shifts to centre over the North Pole in the summer. These variations in the Arctic all contribute to ice drift reaching its weakest point during the summer months. There is also evidence that the drift is associated with the phase of the Arctic Oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation.
Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice that varies in extent and thickness seasonally. The mean extent of the ice has been decreasing since 1980 from the average winter value of 15,600,000 km (6,023,200 sq mi) at a rate of 3 % per decade. The seasonal variations are about 7,000,000 km (2,702,700 sq mi) with the maximum in April and minimum in September. The sea ice is affected by wind and ocean currents, which can move and rotate very large areas of ice. Zones of compression also arise, where the ice piles up to form pack ice.
Icebergs occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island, and icebergs are formed from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. These icebergs pose a hazard to ships, of which the Titanic is one of the most famous. Permafrost is found on most islands. The ocean is virtually icelocked from October to June, and the superstructure of ships are subject to icing from October to May. Before the advent of modern icebreakers, ships sailing the Arctic Ocean risked being trapped or crushed by sea ice (although the Baychimo drifted through the Arctic Ocean untended for decades despite these hazards).
Under the influence of the Quaternary glaciation, the Arctic Ocean is contained in a polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by the polar night, extreme cold, frequent low - level temperature inversions, and stable weather conditions. Cyclones are only common on the Atlantic side. Summers are characterized by continuous daylight (midnight sun), and temperatures can rise above the melting point (0 ° C (32 ° F). Cyclones are more frequent in summer and may bring rain or snow. It is cloudy year - round, with mean cloud cover ranging from 60 % in winter to over 80 % in summer.
The temperature of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant, near the freezing point of seawater. Because the Arctic Ocean consists of saltwater, the temperature must reach − 1.8 ° C (28.8 ° F) before freezing occurs.
The density of sea water, in contrast to fresh water, increases as it nears the freezing point and thus it tends to sink. It is generally necessary that the upper 100 -- 150 m (330 -- 490 ft) of ocean water cools to the freezing point for sea ice to form. In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on the Antarctic continent.
There is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the Arctic ice pack is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April -- about 20 to 50 cm (7.9 to 19.7 in) over the frozen ocean.
The climate of the Arctic region has varied significantly in the past. As recently as 55 million years ago, during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum, the region reached an average annual temperature of 10 -- 20 ° C (50 -- 68 ° F). The surface waters of the northernmost Arctic Ocean warmed, seasonally at least, enough to support tropical lifeforms requiring surface temperatures of over 22 ° C (72 ° F).
Endangered marine species in the Arctic Ocean include walruses and whales. The area has a fragile ecosystem which is slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage. Lion 's mane jellyfish are abundant in the waters of the Arctic, and the banded gunnel is the only species of gunnel that lives in the ocean.
The Arctic Ocean has relatively little plant life except for phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are a crucial part of the ocean and there are massive amounts of them in the Arctic, where they feed on nutrients from rivers and the currents of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. During summer, the sun is out day and night, thus enabling the phytoplankton to photosynthesize for long periods of time and reproduce quickly. However, the reverse is true in winter when they struggle to get enough light to survive.
Petroleum and natural gas fields, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, fish, seals and whales can all be found in abundance in the region.
The political dead zone near the centre of the sea is also the focus of a mounting dispute between the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and Denmark. It is significant for the global energy market because it may hold 25 % or more of the world 's undiscovered oil and gas resources.
The Arctic ice pack is thinning, and in many years there is also a seasonal hole in the ozone layer. Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice reduces the planet 's average albedo, possibly resulting in global warming in a positive feedback mechanism. Research shows that the Arctic may become ice free for the first time in human history within a few years or by 2040. Estimates vary for when the last time the Arctic was ice free: 65 million years ago when fossils indicate that plants existed there to as few as 5,500 years ago; ice and ocean cores going back 8000 years to the last warm period or 125,000 during the last intraglacial period.
Warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh meltwater to enter the north Atlantic, possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns. Potentially severe changes in the Earth 's climate might then ensue.
As the extent of sea ice diminishes and sea level rises, the effect of storms such as the Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 on open water increases, as does possible salt - water damage to vegetation on shore at locations such as the Mackenzie 's river delta as stronger storm surges become more likely.
Sea ice, and the cold conditions it sustains, serves to stabilise methane deposits on and near the shoreline, preventing the clathrate breaking down and outgassing methane into the atmosphere, causing further warming. Melting of this ice may release large quantities of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas into the atmosphere, causing further warming in a strong positive feedback cycle and; marine genus and species to become extinct.
Other environmental concerns relate to the radioactive contamination of the Arctic Ocean from, for example, Russian radioactive waste dump sites in the Kara Sea and Cold War nuclear test sites such as Novaya Zemlya. In addition, Shell planned to drill exploratory wells in the Chukchi and Beaufort seas during the summer of 2012, which environmental groups filed a lawsuit about in an attempt to protect native communities, endangered wildlife, and the Arctic Ocean in the event of a major oil spill.
On July 16, 2015, five nations (United States of America, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark / Greenland) signed a declaration committing to keep their fishing vessels out of a 1.1 million square mile zone in the central Arctic Ocean near the North Pole. The agreement calls for those nations to refrain from fishing there until there is better scientific knowledge about the marine resources and until a regulatory system is in place to protect those resources.
Coordinates: 90 ° N 0 ° E / 90 ° N 0 ° E / 90; 0
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iron maiden number of the beast album cover | The Number of the Beast (album) - wikipedia
The Number of the Beast is the third studio album by the English heavy metal band Iron Maiden, released in March 1982. It was their first release to feature vocalist Bruce Dickinson and their last with drummer Clive Burr.
The Number of the Beast met with considerable critical and commercial success and was a landmark release for the band -- becoming their first album to reach No. 1 in the UK Albums Chart, and to reach the Top 40 Billboard 200 in the US. The album also produced the singles "Run to the Hills '' and "The Number of the Beast '', the former of which was the band 's first top - ten UK single. The album was also controversial, particularly in the US, due to the religious references in its artwork and the title track 's lyrics.
Since the release of The Number of the Beast and its subsequent tour, The Beast on the Road, "The Beast '' has become an alternate name for Iron Maiden and was later used in the titles of some of their compilations and live releases, including Best of the Beast and Visions of the Beast.
The Number of the Beast is Iron Maiden 's only album to include songwriting credits from Clive Burr and was the band 's first album to feature writing by guitarist Adrian Smith. In addition, the release saw Steve Harris adopt a different approach to writing, which would cater more for new vocalist Bruce Dickinson. The album 's producer Martin Birch remarked, "I simply did n't think (former vocalist Paul Di'Anno) was capable of handling lead vocals on some of the quite complicated directions I knew Steve wanted to explore... When Bruce joined, it opened up the possibilities for the new album tremendously. ''
According to several interviews, Dickinson was heavily involved in writing several of the album 's songs, and in particular the tracks "Children of the Damned '', "The Prisoner '' and "Run to the Hills ''. Due to his previous band Samson 's ongoing contractual issues, Dickinson could not legally take part in any songwriting for the record, and had to make what he called a "moral contribution '', which meant he was able to influence particular tracks, but not provide enough creative input so as to earn a writing credit. The recording and mixing of the album had to be completed in only five weeks, after the band had spent too long constructing the new songs. This was because the group were for the first time creating a new album from scratch, with very little material written prior to the record 's pre-production stage.
Music press reports told stories of unexplained phenomena occurring during the sessions at Battery Studios, such as lights turning on and off of their own accord and the recording gear mysteriously breaking down. This all climaxed when Birch was involved in a car accident with a mini-bus transporting a group of nuns, after which he was presented with a repair bill for £ 666.
"Run to the Hills '' was released as a single on 12 February 1982, two weeks before Iron Maiden 's UK tour, acting as a preview for the forthcoming album, which would not be released until two days after the British dates ended. Released alongside a music video, made using live footage and clips from Buster Keaton films, the single performed remarkably well, earning the band their first top ten in the UK Singles Chart. As they were rushing to complete the album in time, as well as record and mix the single for an even earlier release, the band hastily selected "Total Eclipse '' as the B - side.
As they had written too much material, they had to choose between "Total Eclipse '' and "Gangland '' for the "Run to the Hills '' single release, with the understanding that the other song would make it onto the album. Several band - members have since expressed regret over the decision, with Steve Harris commenting, "We just chose the wrong track as the B - side. I think if ' Total Eclipse ' had been on the album instead of ' Gangland ' it would have been far better. '' On top of this, Harris has stated that the record 's opening track, "Invaders '', was not good enough, commenting that it "could have been replaced with something a bit better, only we did n't have anything else to replace it with at the time. We had just enough time to do what we did, and that was it. ''
While the title track was considered by many religious groups in the United States as evidence that Iron Maiden were a Satanic band, the song was in fact inspired by a nightmare bassist Steve Harris had, triggered by watching the film Damien: Omen II late at night. In addition, Harris has stated that the lyrics were also influenced by Robert Burns ' Tam o ' Shanter. The track opens with a spoken introduction from the Book of Revelation, read by actor Barry Clayton. According to Dickinson, the band originally approached Vincent Price to record the passage, but were unwilling to pay Price 's fee of £ 25,000. Although the liner notes state that the passage is from Revelations 13: 18, the first line comes from 12: 12.
The closing song "Hallowed Be Thy Name '' has remained in all but two of the band 's setlists since the album 's recording (the only exceptions being the Maiden England World Tour 2012 -- 14, and the second leg of the Book of Souls World Tour in 2017). AllMusic describes the track as "perhaps the most celebrated of the band 's extended epics; it 's the tale of a prisoner about to be hanged, featuring some of Harris ' most philosophical lyrics. '' Several band - members have since stated that it is one of their favourite tracks, with Dickinson describing it as "fantastic '' and that performing it live is like "narrating a movie to the audience. '' A live version of the song was released in 1993, gaining the band another top ten placement in the UK Singles Chart.
"Children of the Damned '' is based on the films Village of the Damned and Children of the Damned, which in turn were adapted from the novel The Midwich Cuckoos by John Wyndham. On his last radio show for BBC Radio 6, during a segment in tribute to the late Ronnie James Dio, Dickinson mentioned that Children of the Damned was inspired by Black Sabbath 's "Children of the Sea ''.
"The Prisoner '' was inspired by the British TV show of the same name, and features dialogue from its title sequence. The band 's manager, Rod Smallwood, had to telephone Patrick McGoohan to ask permission to use the audio clips for the song and was extremely hesitant during his conversation with whom Smallwood himself describes as "a real bona fide superstar actor ''. McGoohan was reported to have said "What did you say the name was? A rock band, you say? Do it. '' Iron Maiden later made another song based on the series, "Back in the Village '' from 1984 's Powerslave.
"22 Acacia Avenue '' is the second song in the "Charlotte the Harlot '' saga, which was originally written by Adrian Smith several years earlier, while playing in his old band, Urchin. According to Smith, Steve Harris remembered hearing the song at an Urchin concert in a local park, and modified it for The Number of the Beast album.
The album was strongly opposed by social conservatives -- especially in the United States, where Iron Maiden were accused of being Satanists. Public burnings of the band 's catalogue were organised, although some religious groups smashed the records with hammers, for fear of inhaling fumes from burning vinyl. The Beast on the Road tour was subject to numerous boycotts and demonstrations: venues were sometimes surrounded by activists who handed out leaflets and, in one case, a 25 - foot cross was carried in protest. Harris has stated, "It was mad. They completely got the wrong end of the stick. They obviously had n't read the lyrics. They just wanted to believe all that rubbish about us being Satanists. ''
Since its release, the album has received consistent critical acclaim, with AllMusic describing it as "among the top five most essential heavy metal albums ever recorded. A cornerstone of the genre. '' Sputnikmusic calls it "a classic in the world of metal '', while BBC Music praised the record 's complex arrangements, stating "Whereas even some of the venerable HM institutions (think Black Sabbath) would struggle to make material that was something more than a collection of minor - key riffs, Iron Maiden pull this feat off with considerable élan. '' Q magazine placed the album at No. 100 in its list of the "100 Greatest British Albums Ever '' in 2000; in 2001 named it one of the "50 Heaviest Albums of All Time ''; and in 2006 placed it at No. 40 in its "40 Best Albums of the ' 80s '' list. IGN and Metal Rules placed it third and second, respectively, in their lists of the Top Heavy Metal Albums, and Guitar World ranked it at No. 17 on their list of "100 Greatest Guitar Albums of All Time ''. Classic Rock placed it at No. 15 in their list of the "100 Greatest British Rock Albums '', describing it as "the most important metal album of the decade '', and it was voted No. 1 in HMV 's list of "The Best British Albums of the Past 60 Years '' in 2012. The Number of the Beast is one of two Iron Maiden records listed in Robert Dimery 's book, 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die (1980 's Iron Maiden being the other). In 2017, it was ranked 4th on Rolling Stone 's list of "100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time ''.
In 2001, the BBC made a documentary about The Number of the Beast as part of the Classic Albums series, which was released on DVD in the same year.
Like all of Iron Maiden 's album artwork during the 1980s and early 90s, it was painted by Derek Riggs. The cover was originally created for the song "Purgatory '', but Rod Smallwood deemed it of too high a calibre for a single release and decided to save it for The Number of the Beast album instead. The original 1982 artwork includes a blue sky in the background; this was a mistake by the printers of the album cover, and was later rectified and became black when the album was remastered for compact disc in 1998. In the lower right hand corner of the album art, the outline of a Xenomorph alien with an outstretched arm can be seen.
The album was also the centre of controversy, particularly in the United States, due to the lyrics of the title track and the cover art depicting Eddie controlling Satan like a puppet, while Satan is also controlling a smaller Eddie. Smallwood explains that the concept was to ask "who 's the really evil one here? Who 's manipulating who? '' According to Riggs this was inspired by a Doctor Strange comic book "which had some big villain with Doctor Strange dangling on some strings like a puppet, it was something I read as a child back in the 1960s I think '', while the images of hell were "taken from my knowledge of medieval European Christian art which was full of such scenes. ''
The album 's cover art has been parodied several times -- by crossover thrash band Stormtroopers of Death for the cover art of their 1999 album Bigger than the Devil, and on a T - shirt by Streetwear brand Diamond Supply Co.
On 24 October 2002, progressive metal outfit Dream Theater played the original album in its entirety at La Mutualite in Paris, France. The performance was recorded and has been released through the band 's YtseJam Records label.
"Run to the Hills '' was covered on the tribute album Numbers From The Beast, featuring vocalist Robin McAuley, guitarists Michael Schenker and Pete Fletcher, bassist Tony Franklin and drummer Brian Tichy. A Tribute to the Beast, Vol. 2 features covers of "Children of the Damned '', by Sebastian Bach of Skid Row fame, and "Hallowed Be Thy Name '', by Iced Earth, who have also covered "Hallowed Be Thy Name '' and "The Number of the Beast '' on their own album, Tribute to the Gods. "Hallowed Be Thy Name '' has also been covered by Machine Head on Maiden Heaven: A Tribute To Iron Maiden, which was released by Kerrang! magazine in 2008, and by Cradle of Filth, while the title track has also been covered by Billy Corgan 's band Djali Zwan on the soundtrack of the film Spun. Acoustic reinterpretations of "Children of the Damned '' and "22 Acacia Avenue '' were included on the album Across The Seventh Sea (2012) by the tribute project Maiden uniteD.
Several of the record 's songs have been used in video games: "Run to the Hills '' is featured in SSX On Tour as the opening theme, Grand Theft Auto: Episodes from Liberty City, and a cover version is included in Rock Band, the only song in the game listed as ' Impossible ' for all instruments. In addition, "The Number of the Beast '' (as the original master recording), "Run to the Hills '' and "Hallowed Be Thy Name '' (the latter being a live recording found on Flight 666) were made downloadable to Rock Band on 8 June 2009. "The Number of the Beast '' was also featured in Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock (master recording), and on Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater 4.
The Number of the Beast was released on 22 March 1982 through EMI and its sister label Capitol in the United States. The album was reissued in 1995 with a bonus CD containing two songs ("Total Eclipse '', and a live version of "Remember Tomorrow '') that had been the B - sides of the album 's two singles. The US version of the 1995 reissue incorrectly gives Paul Di'Anno a song - writing credit for "Total Eclipse ''; the song had actually been written by Harris, Murray, and Burr.
The album was also reissued in 1998 by EMI and Sanctuary / Columbia in the US as an enhanced CD version, which included photos, band history and the music videos for the songs "The Number of the Beast '' and "Run to the Hills '', in addition to "Total Eclipse '', which was restored to the album 's track listing (having been excluded from the original edition due to space constraints). This version mistakenly lists the track lengths for "22 Acacia Avenue '' and "The Number of the Beast '' as 4: 49 and 3: 50; they are in fact 6: 38 and 4: 51, respectively.
All songs written and composed by Steve Harris, except where noted.
Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes and AllMusic.
The Number of the Beast was a commercial success, with The New York Times reporting in 2010 that 14 million copies have been sold worldwide. It was the band 's first record to top the UK charts, entering the Top 40 directly at No. 1 on 10 April, maintaining the top position for a further week, and then remaining in the Top 75 for a total of 31 weeks. It entered the Billboard 200 at No. 150 and went on to peak at No. 33. In addition, the album reached the Top ten in Austria and Sweden, and No. 11 and No. 13 in Canada and Norway, respectively.
It was awarded platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), and received a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on 4 October 1983 (eventually going platinum in 1986). The album reached No. 11 in Germany and was certified gold ten years later, and it received a 3x platinum award in Canada for sales exceeding 300,000 units.
The two singles, "Run to the Hills '' and the title track, debuted in the UK single charts at No. 7 and No. 18, respectively. Both songs entered the Irish Singles Chart in the same order, and reached No. 16 and No. 19.
Album
Certifications
shipments figures based on certification alone
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what area of new york is central park in | Central Park - Wikipedia
Central Park is an urban park in Manhattan, New York City, U.S. state of New York. It comprises 843 acres (341 ha) between the Upper West Side and Upper East Side, roughly bounded by Fifth Avenue on the east, Central Park West (Eighth Avenue) on the west, Central Park South (59th Street) on the south, and Central Park North (110th Street) on the north. Central Park is the most visited urban park in the United States, with 40 million visitors in 2013, and one of the most filmed locations in the world.
The park was established in 1857 on 778 acres (315 ha) of land acquired by the city. In 1858, landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted and architect / landscape designer Calvert Vaux won a design competition to improve and expand the park with a plan they titled the "Greensward Plan ''. Construction began the same year, and the park 's first area was opened to the public in the winter of 1858. Construction north of the park continued during the American Civil War in the 1860s, and the park was expanded to its current size in 1873. After a period of decline in the early 20th century, Robert Moses started a program to clean up Central Park. Another decline in the late 20th century spurred the creation of the Central Park Conservancy in 1980, which refurbished many parts of the park during the 1980s and 1990s.
Central Park was designated a National Historic Landmark by the U.S. Department of the Interior in 1962, which in April 2017 placed it on the tentative list for UNESCO World Heritage sites. The park, managed for decades by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, is currently managed by the Central Park Conservancy under contract with the municipal government in a public - private partnership. The Conservancy is a non-profit organization that contributes 75 percent of Central Park 's $65 million annual budget and is responsible for all basic care of the 843 - acre park.
Central Park, which has been a National Historic Landmark since 1962, was designed by landscape architect and writer Frederick Law Olmsted and the English architect Calvert Vaux in 1858 after winning a design competition. They also designed Brooklyn 's Prospect Park. Central Park is one of the most famous sightseeing spots in New York. It is bordered on the north by Central Park North, on the south by Central Park South, on the west by Central Park West, and on the east by Fifth Avenue. Only Fifth Avenue along the park 's eastern border retains its name; the other streets bordering the park (110th Street, 59th Street, and Eighth Avenue, respectively) change names while they are adjacent to the park. The park, with a perimeter of 6.1 miles (9.8 km), was opened on 770 acres (3.1 km) of land and was expanded to 843 acres (3.41 km; 1.317 sq mi). It is 2.5 miles (4 km) long between 59th Street (Central Park South) and 110th Street (Central Park North), and is 0.5 mile (0.8 km) wide between Fifth Avenue and Central Park West. Central Park constitutes its own United States census tract, number 143. According to American Community Survey 5 - year estimates, the park 's population was five people, all female, with a median age of 19.8 years. However Central Park officials have rejected the claim of anyone permanently living there. The real estate value of Central Park was estimated by property appraisal firm Miller Samuel to be about $528.8 billion in December 2005.
Central Park 's size and cultural position, similar to London 's Hyde Park and Munich 's Englischer Garten, has served as a model for many urban parks, including San Francisco 's Golden Gate Park, Tokyo 's Ueno Park, and Vancouver 's Stanley Park. The park, which receives approximately 35 million visitors annually, is the most visited urban park in the United States. It is also the most filmed location in the world. A December 2017 report found that 231 movies have used Central Park for on - location shoots, more than the 160 movies that have filmed in Greenwich Village or the 99 movies that have filmed in Times Square.
The park is maintained by the Central Park Conservancy, a private, not - for - profit organization that manages the park under a contract with the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, in which the president of the Conservancy is ex officio Administrator of Central Park. Today, the conservancy employs 80 % of maintenance and operations staff in the park. It effectively oversees the work of both the private and public employees under the authority of the Central Park administrator (publicly appointed), who reports to the parks commissioner, conservancy 's president. As of 2007, the conservancy had invested approximately $450 million in the restoration and management of the park; the organization presently contributes approximately 85 % of Central Park 's annual operating budget of over $37 million. The system was functioning so well that in 2006 the conservancy created the Historic Harlem Parks initiative, providing horticultural and maintenance support and mentoring in Morningside Park, St. Nicholas Park, Jackie Robinson Park, and Marcus Garvey Park.
The park has its own New York City Police Department precinct, the Central Park Precinct, which employs both regular police and auxiliary officers. In 2005, safety measures held the number of crimes in the park to fewer than one hundred per year (down from approximately 1,000 annually in the early 1980s). The New York City Parks Enforcement Patrol also patrols Central Park. There is an all - volunteer ambulance service, the Central Park Medical Unit, that provides free emergency medical service to patrons of Central Park and the surrounding streets. It operates a rapid - response bicycle patrol, particularly during major events such as the New York City Marathon, the 1998 Goodwill Games, and concerts in the park.
While planting and land form in much of the park appear natural, it is in fact almost entirely landscaped. The park contains several natural - looking lakes and ponds that have been created artificially by damming natural seeps and flows. There is a large area of woods in addition to seven major lawns, the "meadows '', and many minor grassy areas; some of them are used for informal or team sports and some set aside as quiet areas; there are a number of enclosed playgrounds for children. The 6 miles (9.7 km) of drives within the park are used by joggers, cyclists, skateboarders, and inline skaters, especially when automobile traffic is prohibited, on weekends and in the evenings after 7: 00 pm.
Between 1821 and 1855, New York City nearly quadrupled in population. As the city expanded northward up Manhattan Island, people were drawn to the few existing open spaces, mainly cemeteries, to get away from the noise and chaotic life in the city. Since Central Park was not part of the original Commissioners ' Plan of 1811, John Randel, Jr., surveyed the grounds. The only remaining surveying bolt from his survey is embedded in a rock located north of the present Dairy and the 65th Street Transverse, and south of Center Drive. The bolt marks the location where West 65th Street would have intersected Sixth Avenue.
New York City 's need for a great public park was resounded by the famed poet and editor of the Evening Post (now the New York Post), William Cullen Bryant, as well as by the first American landscape architect, Andrew Jackson Downing, who predicted and began to publicize the city 's need for a public park in 1844. A stylish place for open - air driving, similar to Paris ' Bois de Boulogne or London 's Hyde Park, was felt to be needed by many influential New Yorkers, and, after an abortive attempt in 1850 -- 1851 to designate Jones 's Wood, in 1853 the New York legislature settled upon a 700 - acre (280 ha) area from 59th to 106th Streets for the creation of the park, at a cost of more than US $5 million for the land.
The state appointed a Central Park Commission to oversee the development of the park, and in 1857 the commission held a landscape design contest. Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux developed what came to be known as the "Greensward Plan '', which was selected as the winning design. According to Olmsted, the park was "of great importance as the first real Park made in this country -- a democratic development of the highest significance... '', a view probably inspired by his various trips to Europe during 1850 (he had visited several parks during these trips and was particularly impressed by Birkenhead Park and Derby Arboretum in England). The Greensward Plan called for some 36 bridges, all designed by Vaux, ranging from rugged spans of Manhattan schist or granite, to lacy Neo-Gothic cast iron; no two are alike. The ensemble of the formal line of the Mall 's doubled allées of elms culminating at Bethesda Terrace, whose centerpiece is the Bethesda Fountain, with a composed view beyond of lake and woodland, was at the heart of the larger design. Execution of the Greensward Plan was the responsibility of a number of individuals, including Jacob Wrey Mould (architect), Ignaz Anton Pilat (master gardener), George E. Waring, Jr. (engineer), and Andrew Haswell Green (politician), in addition to Olmsted and Vaux.
Several influences came together in the design. Landscaped cemeteries, such as Mount Auburn (Cambridge, Massachusetts) and Green - Wood (Brooklyn, New York) had set examples of idyllic, naturalistic landscapes. The most influential innovations in the Central Park design were the "separate circulation '' systems for pedestrians, horseback riders, and pleasure vehicles. The "crosstown '' commercial traffic was entirely concealed in sunken roadways (today called "transverses ''), screened with densely planted shrub belts so as to maintain a rustic ambiance.
In 1850, the land was occupied by free blacks and Irish immigrants who had purchased land, where they raised livestock, built churches and cemeteries, and had lived as a community for close to 50 years. Before the construction of the park could start, the area had to be cleared of its inhabitants. Rossi states that part of the impetus to schemes such as Central Park and others was to remove what they incorrectly deemed as shanty towns and their denizens. However, most lived in small villages, such as Harsenville, the Piggery District, or Seneca Village; or in the school and convent at Mount St. Vincent 's Academy. Approximately 1,600 residents were evicted under the rule of eminent domain during 1857. Seneca Village and parts of the other communities were razed to make room for the park. In addition, when the commission finally submitted its report for public examination on October 4, 1855, taxpayers learned that they would be paying $5 million just for the park land, more than three times what they had been told the completed park as a whole would cost. At the same time, the offsetting revenue from property taxes of adjacent land came to $1.7 million, or one - third of the purchase price, and was considerably less than earlier estimates.
During the park 's construction, Olmsted battled with the park commissioners, many of them also politicians. In 1860, he was forced out for the first of many times as Central Park 's superintendent, and Andrew Haswell Green, the former president of New York City 's Board of Education took over as the commission 's chairman. Despite his having relatively little experience, Green managed to accelerate the construction. Green also finalized the negotiations to purchase an additional 65 acres (260,000 m) at the north end of the park, between 106th and 110th Streets, which would be used as the "rugged '' part of the park, its swampy northeast corner dredged, and reconstructed as the Harlem Meer.
Between 1860 and 1873, most of the major hurdles to construction were overcome, and the park was substantially completed. Construction combined the modern with the ageless: up - to - date steam - powered equipment and custom - designed wheeled tree - moving machines augmented massive numbers of unskilled laborers wielding shovels. The work was extensively documented with technical drawings and photographs. During this period, more than 18,500 cubic yards (14,100 m) of topsoil had been transported from New Jersey, because the original soil was neither fertile nor sufficiently substantial to sustain the various trees, shrubs, and plants called for by the Greensward Plan. When the park was officially completed in 1873, more than 10 million cartloads of material had been transported out of the park, including soil and rocks, and more than four million trees, shrubs, and plants representing approximately 1,500 species were transplanted to the park. More gunpowder was used to clear the area than was used at the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War.
A proposal to have ornate, European - style entrances to the park was opposed by Olmsted and Vaux, who intended for the park 's unadorned entrances to signal "that all were welcome, regardless of rank or wealth. '' The park 's commissioners assigned a name to each of the original 18 gates in 1862. The names were chosen to represent the broad diversity of New York City 's trades; for example, "Mariner 's Gate '' for the entrance at 85th Street and Central Park West. The majority of entrances did not receive an inscription, however, until a park restoration effort in 1999.
Sheep grazed on the Sheep Meadow from the 1860s until 1934, when they were moved to Prospect Park in Brooklyn and soon thereafter moved to a farm near Otisville, New York, in the Catskill Mountains. It was feared they would be used for food by impoverished Depression - era New Yorkers.
Following completion, the park quickly slipped into decline. One of the main reasons for this was the lack of interest from the Tammany Hall political machine, which was the largest political force in New York at the time. Around the turn of the 20th century, the park faced several new challenges. Cars were becoming commonplace, bringing with them their burden of pollution, and people 's attitudes were beginning to change. No longer were parks to be used only for walks and picnics in an idyllic environment but also for sports and similar recreation. Following the dissolution of the Central Park Commission in 1870 and Andrew Green 's departure from the project, and Vaux 's death in 1895, the maintenance effort gradually declined. All of this changed in 1934, when Republican Fiorello La Guardia was elected mayor of New York City and unified the five park - related departments then in existence. Robert Moses was given the task of cleaning up the park. Moses, about to become one of the most powerful men in New York City, took over what was essentially a relic, a leftover from a bygone era.
According to historian Robert Caro:
Lawns, unseeded, were expanses of bare earth, decorated with scraggly patches of grass and weeds, that became dust holes in dry weather and mud holes in wet... The once beautiful Mall looked like a scene of a wild party the morning after. Benches lay on their backs, their legs jabbing at the sky...
In a single year, Moses managed to clean up Central Park and other parks in New York City. Lawns and flowers were replanted, dead trees and bushes were replaced, walls were sandblasted, and bridges were repaired. Another dramatic change was Moses 's removal of the "Hoover valley '' shantytown, whose site was transformed into the 30 acres (12 ha) Great Lawn. Major redesigning and construction also was carried out: for instance, the Croton Lower Reservoir was filled in so the Great Lawn could be created. The Greensward Plan 's purpose of creating an idyllic landscape was combined with Moses ' vision of a park to be used for recreational purposes: 19 playgrounds, 12 ball fields, and handball courts were constructed. Moses managed to secure funds from the New Deal program, as well as donations from the public. He also created the 67th Street Transverse, widened West Drive, and evicted the sheep from Sheep Meadow.
Lower end of mall in 1901
Skating in Central Park, a movie by Frank S. Armitage, American Mutoscope and Biograph, 1900. Collection of EYE Film Institute Netherlands.
Brooklyn Museum collection: "Early Spring Afternoon -- Central Park '' (1911) by Willard Leroy Metcalf
Belvedere Castle, Central Park, built 1869
The 1960s marked the beginning of an "Events Era '' in Central Park that reflected the widespread cultural and political trends of the period. The Public Theater 's annual Shakespeare in the Park festival was settled in the Delacorte Theater in 1961, and summer performances were instituted on the Sheep Meadow, and then on the Great Lawn by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra and the Metropolitan Opera. During the late 1960s, the park became the venue for rallies and cultural events such as the "Love - ins '' and "Be-Ins '' of the period. In 1966, Mayor John Lindsay, an avid cyclist, initiated a weekend ban on automobiles in Central Park for the enjoyment of cyclists and public alike -- a policy that continues. Increasingly through the 1970s, the park became a venue for events of unprecedented scale, including rallies, demonstrations, festivals, and concerts.
Despite the increasing numbers of visitors to the park, Robert Moses ' departure in 1960 marked the beginning of a 20 - year period of decline in its management. The city was experiencing economic and social changes, with some residents leaving the city and moving to the suburbs in the wake of increased crime. The Parks Department, suffering from budget cuts, responded by opening the park to any and all activities that would bring people into it, without adequate oversight and maintenance follow - up. Some of these events nevertheless became milestones in the social history of the park and in the cultural history of the city.
By the mid-1970s, however, managerial neglect was taking a toll on the park 's condition. "Years of poor management and inadequate maintenance had turned a masterpiece of landscape architecture into a virtual dustbowl by day and a danger zone by night '', in the opinion of Douglas Blonsky, a president of the Central Park Conservancy. Vandalism, territorial use (e.g. a pick - up game of softball or association football, which commandeered open space and excluded others), and illicit activities were taking place in the park. Several volunteer citizen groups emerged, intent upon reclaiming the park by fundraising and organizing volunteer initiatives. One of these groups, the Central Park Community Fund, commissioned a study of the park 's management. The study 's conclusion was bi-linear; it called for establishment of a single position within the New York City Parks Department, responsible for overseeing both the planning and management of Central Park, as well as a board of guardians to provide citizen oversight.
In 1979, Parks Commissioner Gordon Davis established the Office of Central Park Administrator, appointing to the position the executive director of another citizen organization, the Central Park Task Force. The Central Park Conservancy was founded the following year, to support the office and initiatives of the administrator and to provide consistent leadership through a self - perpetuating, citizen - based board that also would include as ex-officio trustees, the Parks Commissioner, the Central Park Administrator, and mayoral appointees.
Under the leadership of the Central Park Conservancy, the park 's reclamation began with modest but highly significant first steps, addressing needs that could not be met within the existing structure and resources of the parks department. Interns were hired and a small restoration staff to reconstruct and repair unique rustic features, undertaking horticultural projects, and removing graffiti under the broken windows theory. The state of the park has improved since the 1970s, according to Conservancy president Douglas Blonsky:
Graffiti does n't last 24 hours in Central Park; visible litter gets carted off by 9 each morning and throughout the day. Our workers empty trash receptacles daily (at least) and maintain lawns with tremendous care. Broken benches and playground equipment get fixed on the spot.
By 1980, the Conservancy was also engaged in design efforts and long - term restoration planning, using both its own staff and external consultants. It provided the impetus and leadership for several early restoration projects funded by the city, preparing a comprehensive plan for rebuilding the park. The restoration was accompanied by a crucial restructuring of management, whereby the park was subdivided into zones, to each of which a supervisor was designated, responsible for maintaining restored areas. That year, the Dairy (which was originally designed as a refreshment stand and rest spot) was transformed into the park 's first visitor 's center, with the Conservancy using it to revitalize public interest in the park through exhibits, music series, and children 's programs. The first landscape to be restored was the Sheep Meadow, primarily with funds provided by New York State. During the next few years, Bethesda Terrace and Fountain, Belvedere Castle, and the East Green were restored.
Bethesda Fountain, which had been dry for decades, was restored in 1980 -- 81 and the Terrace was restored a year later, its stonework disassembled, cleaned, deteriorated surfaces removed, restored, patched, and reset. Resodding, and fifty new trees, 3,500 shrubs and 3,000 ground cover plants specified by Philip Winslow followed in 1986, most of which, having matured into dense blocks, were removed in 2008, to make way for plants native to the United States. Around the same time, the Belvedere Castle, which had been closed for many years, was renovated and reopened on May 1, 1983, as the Henry Luce Nature Observatory.
By 1982, the Chess & Checkers House and Frisbee Hill had been restored; thousands of shrubs and flowers asserted the park as a horticultural showpiece. To tend to those plants, more than 1,900 volunteers contributed more than 4,000 hours of work in the park. On completion of the planning stage in 1985, the conservancy launched its first capital campaign, assuming increasing responsibility for funding the park 's restoration, and full responsibility for designing, bidding, and supervising all capital projects in the park. The Conservancy launched its first fundraising campaign in 1986, mapping out a 15 - year restoration plan that sought to remain true to the original design. Over the next several years, Campaign for the Central Park Conservancy restored landmarks in the southern part of the park -- Grand Army Plaza, Shakespeare Garden, and Cedar Hill. By 1988, Conservancy volunteers logged more than 13,000 hours in the park, with the organization 's volunteer program winning a citation for excellence from the White House.
In the early 1990s, the Conservancy announced a $50 million capital campaign to focus on improvements to the northern end of the park. Efforts culminated in the restoration of the Mall and Concert Ground, Harlem Meer, and the Ravine in the North Woods. The Conservancy 's work on the Meer and the Charles A. Dana Discovery Center was subsequently honored with three awards: the 1994 New York City Landmarks Preservation Award, the American Society of Landscape Architects ' Design Merit Award and the Victorian Society 's Citation of Merit. In 1996, the Conservancy embarked on its most ambitious landscape restoration: the overhaul of the 55 acres (22 hectares) including and surrounding the Great Lawn and Turtle Pond (formerly the Great Lawn and the Belvedere Lake). The project was the centerpiece of the Conservancy 's three - year Wonder of New York Campaign, which raised $71.5 million and also helped restore southern and westside landscapes, as well as the North Meadow. The Great Lawn project was completed in 1997, featuring new amenities to encourage passive and active recreation as well as nature appreciation.
Citywide budget cuts in the early 1990s, however, resulted in attrition of the park 's routine maintenance staff, and the conservancy began hiring staff to replace these workers. Management of the restored landscapes by the conservancy 's "zone gardeners '' proved so successful that core maintenance and operations staff were reorganized in 1996. The zone - based system of management was implemented throughout the park, which was divided into 49 zones. Zone gardeners supervise volunteers assigned to them; these volunteers commit to a consistent work schedule and are supported by specialized crews in areas of maintenance requiring specific expertise or equipment, or more effectively conducted on a park - wide basis. In 2007, there were 3,000 volunteers compared to just under 250 paid workers in the park.
Renovations continued through the early 2000s. In 2000 the Conservatory Water opened after a six - month restoration effort, with a $4 million project beginning on the 59th Street Pond, one of the park 's most visible and heavily used landscapes. A new Reservoir fence was installed in 2003 under a $2 million capital project that replaced the old chain - link fence with a replica of the 8,000 - foot long steel and cast - iron one that had enclosed the Reservoir in 1926. The new fence, along with removal of invasive trees and shrubs, restored the panoramic views of the park and Manhattan skyline.
Another ambitious restoration effort began in 2004, when Conservancy staff and contractors worked together to refurbish the 15,876 Minton tiles that hang on the ceiling of the Bethesda Arcade. Originally designed by Calvert Vaux and Jacob Wrey Mould, the ceiling of the Arcade is lined by 15,876 elaborately patterned encaustic tiles. Made by Minton and Company, a leading 19th - century ceramic manufacturer in England, the ceiling tiles are divided into 49 panels, each containing 324 tiles. Salt and water infiltration from the roadway above had badly damaged the tiles, leaving their backing plates so corroded they had to be removed in the 1980s. The tiles sat in storage for more than 20 years until the Conservancy received a generous private donation for their restoration. The Conservancy embarked on a $7 million restoration effort to return the Minton tiles to their original luster in 2004. A team of seven conservation technicians cleaned and repaired more than 14,000 original tiles by hand. Only three panels of replica tiles were needed to replace those that had been damaged beyond repair. For those recreations, the Conservancy decided to commission Maw and Company, Minton 's successor in Stoke - on - Trent, England. The completed Bethesda Terrace Arcade was unveiled to much fanfare in March 2007. In 2006, the Conservancy completed a nine - month renovation of the Mall in a project that returned the landscape to its original character and ensured the protection of its great American Elms.
The Lake was the last of Central Park 's bodies of water to be renovated by the Central Park Conservancy, in a project to enhance both its ecological and scenic aspects. In the summer of 2007, the first phase of a restoration of the Lake and its shoreline plantings commenced, with replanting using native shrubs and understory trees around the northern end of the Lake, from Bank Rock Bay -- a narrow cove in the northwest corner that had become a silted - up algae - covered stand of aggressively invasive Phragmites reeds -- to Bow Bridge, which received replicas of its four original Italianate cast - iron vases, overspilling with annuals. In the earliest stages, invasive non-native plants like Japanese knotweed were eradicated, the slopes were regraded with added humus and protected with landscaping burlap to stabilize the slopes while root systems became established and leaf litter developed.
During the same time, Bank Rock Bridge, also called Cabinet Bridge, across the mouth of the cove was recreated in carved oak with cast - iron panels and pine decking, its original materials, following Vaux 's original design of 1859 -- 60. The cascade, where the Gill empties into the lake, was reconstructed to approximate its dramatic original form, inspired by paintings of Asher B. Durand. Sections of the Lake were dredged of accumulated silt -- topsoil that had washed off the surrounding slopes -- and the island formerly in the lake, which gradually eroded below water level, was reconstructed in the summer of 2007 with rugged boulders along its shoreline, graded wetland areas, and submerged planting shelves for water - loving native plants, like Pickerel weed.
Oak Bridge, the major entrance to the Ramble from the Upper West Side, spans Bank Rock Bay in the Lake 's northwest corner; the long - lost picturesque feature was recreated in 2009 based on Calvert Vaux 's original drawings. The bridge, built in 1860 of white oak with decorative openwork panels of cast iron, has been recreated in steel clad in ornamental cast iron facings, with wooden deck and railings. Restoration of further sections of the Lake 's shoreline landscapes was undertaken, and the first renovated sections were opened to visitors in April 2008.
On October 23, 2012, hedge fund manager John A. Paulson announced a $100 million gift to the Central Park Conservancy, the largest ever monetary donation to New York City 's park system.
Since the 1960s, there has been a grassroots campaign to restore the park 's loop drives to their original car - free state. Over the years, the number of car - free hours has increased, though a full closure is currently resisted by the New York City Department of Transportation. Legislation was proposed in October 2014 to conduct a study to make the park car - free in summer 2015. In 2015, Mayor Bill de Blasio announced the permanent closure of West and East Drives north of 72nd Street to vehicular traffic as it was proven that closing the roads did not adversely impact traffic. The law was to take into effect permanently north of 72nd Street.
Visitor attractions include:
A total of 29 sculptures by sculptors such as Augustus Saint - Gaudens, Emma Stebbins, and John Quincy Adams Ward have been erected over the years, most donated by individuals or organizations. Much of the first statuary placed was of authors and poets, in an area now known as Literary Walk. Some of the sculptures are:
Geographic features include:
There are four different types of bedrock in Manhattan. In Central Park, Manhattan schist and Hartland schist, which are both metamorphosed sedimentary rock, are exposed in various outcroppings. The other two types, Fordham gneiss (an older deeper layer) and Inwood marble (metamorphosed limestone which overlays the gneiss), do not surface in the park. Fordham gneiss, which consists of metamorphosed igneous rocks, was formed a billion years ago, during the Grenville orogeny that occurred during the creation of an ancient super-continent. It is the oldest rock in the Canadian Shield, the most ancient part of the North American tectonic plate. Manhattan schist and Hartland schist were formed in the Iapetus Ocean during the Taconic orogeny in the Paleozoic era, about 450 million years ago. During this period the tectonic plates began to move toward each other, which resulted in the creation of the supercontinent Pangaea.
Cameron 's Line is a fault zone that traverses Central Park on an east - west axis.
Various glaciers have covered the area of Central Park in the past, with the most recent being the Wisconsin glacier which receded about 12,000 years ago. Evidence of past glaciers are visible throughout the park in the form of glacial erratics (large boulders dropped by the receding glacier) and north - south glacial striations visible on stone outcroppings.
One such outcrop is Rat Rock at 40 ° 46 ′ 10 '' N 73 ° 58 ′ 40 '' W / 40.769361 ° N 73.977655 ° W / 40.769361; - 73.977655, named after the rats that used to swarm there at night but also known as ' Umpire Rock '. Located near the southwest corner of the park, the outcrop is roughly circular, about 55 feet (17 m) wide and 15 feet (4.6 m) tall with different east, west, and north faces. Boulderers usually congregate there, as many as fifty per day, with some being regulars, and others being tourists; the quality of the stone is poor, and the climbs present so little challenge that it has been called "one of America 's most pathetic boulders ''. The park police formerly ticketed climbers who climbed more than a few feet up the rock, but the City Climbers Club approached the park authorities and, by working to provide safety features such as wood chips around the base, they were able to legalize climbing there.
Central Park is home to seven bodies of water, all artificial. The largest lake is the Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Reservoir, so named since 1994. It was constructed between 1858 and 1862. Covering an area of 106 acres (43 ha) between 86th and 96th Streets, the reservoir reaches a depth of more than 40 feet (12 m) in places and contains about 1 billion US gallons (3.8 billion litres) of water. The Reservoir is best known to New Yorkers for the jogging track around it.
The Ramble and Lake south of the Great Lawn covers nearly 18 acres (7.3 ha). Built on a former swamp, it was designed by Olmsted and Vaux to accommodate boats in the summer and ice skaters in winter. The Lake was opened to skaters in December 1858, while the rest of the park was still under construction. At the northern end of the park, at 110th Street, the Harlem Meer, named in honor of one of the first communities in the region, covers nearly 11 acres (4.5 ha). Located in a wooded area of oak, cypress, and beech trees, it was built after the completion of the southern portion of the park. Harlem Meer also allows visitors to fish, on a catch and release basis. In the southeast corner is the Pond, with an area of 3.5 acres (1.4 ha). The Pond is located near one of the busiest entrances to Central Park but still provides an atmosphere of calm and solitude.
Central Park is home to over 25,000 trees and has a stand of 1,700 American elms, one of the largest remaining stands in the northeastern U.S., protected by their isolation from the Dutch elm disease that devastated the tree throughout its native range.
A partial listing of the tree species found in Central Park, both natives and exotics, includes:
A wooded section of the park, called the Ramble and Lake, is popular among birders. Many species of woodland birds, especially warblers, may be seen in the Ramble in the spring and the fall.
Rowboats and kayaks are rented on an hourly basis at the Loeb Boathouse, which also houses a restaurant overlooking the Lake. As early as 1922, model power boating was popular on park waters.
The tradition of carriage horses in New York City was revived in 1935. The carriages have appeared in many films, and the first female horse and carriage driver, Maggie Cogan, appeared in a Universal newsreel in 1967. As such, they have become a symbolic institution of the city. After the September 11 attacks, in a much - publicized event, Mayor Rudolph Giuliani went to the stables himself to ask the drivers to go back to work to help return a sense of normality.
Some activists such as NYCLASS, as well as politicians, have questioned the ethics of this tradition. The history of accidents involving spooked horses has come under scrutiny with recent horse deaths. Protests from People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, and celebrities including Alec Baldwin, Alecia Beth Moore and Cheryl Hines have raised the issue 's profile. Additional media accounts have corroborated some charges, but they have also shown that the standards vary from stable to stable.
Both activists and horse owners agree that part of the problem is lack of enforcement of the city code. Supporters of the trade say it needs to be reformed, not shut down, and that carriage drivers deserve a raise, which the city has not authorized since 1989. Paris, London, Beijing, and several U.S. cities have banned carriage horses. Replacements for the carriage horses may include electric vintage cars.
Pedicabs operate mostly in the southern part of the park, the same part as horse carriages. Such vehicles have more recently offered visitors a more dynamic way in which to view the park; covering three to ten times the distance of a typical Central Park horse carriage ride, pedicabs have become very popular with visitors and New Yorkers alike; also, they are being eyed as another replacement for the carriage horses.
Park Drive, just over 6 miles (9.7 km) long, is heavily used by runners, joggers, pedestrians, bicyclists, and inline skaters.
On most weekends, running races take place in the park, many of which are organized by the New York Road Runners. The New York City Marathon finishes in Central Park outside Tavern on the Green. Many other professional races are run in the park, including the 2008 USA Men 's 8k Championships. Baseball fields are numerous, and there are also courts for volleyball, tennis, croquet and lawn bowling. The park is home to several competitive running clubs, including Central Park Track Club.
Central Park has two ice skating rinks, Wollman Rink and Lasker Rink; during summer, the former is the site of Victorian Gardens seasonal amusement park, and the latter converts to an outdoor swimming pool.
The park drives are used as the home course for the Century Road Club Association 's racing series. The CRCA is a USA Cycling sanctioned amateur cycling club.
Central Park 's glaciated rock outcroppings attract climbers, especially boulderers. The two most renowned spots for boulderers are Rat Rock and Cat Rock; others include Dog Rock, Duck Rock, Rock N ' Roll Rock, and Beaver Rock, near the south end of the park.
Central Park has twenty - one playgrounds for children located throughout the park; the largest, at 3 acres (12,000 m), is Heckscher Playground named for August Heckscher. The current Central Park Carousel, installed in 1951, is one of the largest merry - go - rounds in the United States. The fifty - eight hand - carved horses and two chariots were made by Solomon Stein and Harry Goldstein in 1908. The carousel originally was installed in Coney Island in Brooklyn.
The Central Park Zoo is part of a system of four zoos and one aquarium that is managed by the Wildlife Conservation Society. The zoo is home to an indoor rainforest, a leafcutter ant colony, a chilled penguin house, and a polar bear pool.
Swedish Cottage Marionette Theatre is located in the Swedish Cottage. The building was originally a model schoolhouse built in Sweden. Made of native pine and cedar, it was disassembled and rebuilt in the U.S. as Sweden 's exhibit for the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. Frederick Law Olmsted moved the cottage to its present site in 1877.
Central Park is home to two indoor restaurants. The famed New York City restaurant Tavern on the Green is located on the park 's grounds at Central Park West and West 67th Street. It was originally the sheepfold that housed the sheep that grazed Sheep Meadow, built to a design by Calvert Vaux in 1870. It became a restaurant as part of a 1934 renovation of the park under Robert Moses. In 1974, Warner LeRoy took over the restaurant 's lease and reopened it in 1976 after $10 million in renovations including the addition of a glass - enclosed Crystal Room overlooking the restaurant 's garden (one of several dining rooms), which doubled the seating capacity to 800. The restaurant closed in 2009 and reopened on April 24, 2014, after a renovation.
The Loeb Boathouse restaurant is the other indoor restaurant in Central Park. Located at the Loeb Boathouse on The Lake, it was designed in 1874, destroyed in 1950, and rebuilt in 1954 on the East Side between 74th and 75th Streets.
The oldest free classical music concert series in the United States, the Naumburg Orchestral Concerts -- founded in 1905 -- presents concerts in the park 's only neo-classical building, the Naumburg Bandshell on the Concert Ground, each summer. The concerts feature promising new talent and promote the professional development of young composers and conductors.
Central Park has given birth to other arts groups dedicated to performing in the park, notably Central Park Brass, which performs an annual concert series, and the New York Classical Theatre, which produces an annual series of plays.
Each summer, there are several events happening in the park. The Public Theater presents free open - air theatre productions, often starring well - known stage and screen actors. The Delacorte Theater is the summer performing venue of the New York Shakespeare Festival, where most, although not all, of the plays presented are by William Shakespeare, and the performances are generally regarded as being of high quality since its founding by Joseph Papp in 1962. The New York Philharmonic gives an open - air concert on the Great Lawn yearly during the summer. City Parks Foundation has offered Central Park Summerstage since 1985, a series of free performances including music, dance, spoken word, and film presentations, often featuring famous performers; the Summerstage facility also has non-free concerts that are branded under different names. Since 1992, local singer - songwriter David Ippolito has performed almost every summer weekend to large crowds of passers - by and regulars and has become a New York icon, often simply referred to as "That guitar man from Central Park ''. From 1967 until 2007, the Metropolitan Opera presented two operas in concert each year. The Fifth Avenue Mile is along the east side of the park between 80th and 60th Streets each September.
Many popular one - time concerts have been given in the park including Barbra Streisand, 1967; The Supremes, 1970; Carole King, 1973; Bob Marley and The Wailers, 1975; America, 1979; Elton John, 1980; the Simon and Garfunkel reunion, 1981; Diana Ross, 1983; Paul Simon, 1991; Garth Brooks, 1997; Sheryl Crow, 1999; Dave Matthews Band, 2003; Bon Jovi, 2008; and Andrea Bocelli, 2011. Central Park was the location of the largest concert ever on record when country superstar Garth Brooks performed a free concert in August 1997, to which about 980,000 had attended.
The New York City Subway 's IND Eighth Avenue Line runs along the western edge of the park, with a transfer station to the IRT Broadway -- Seventh Avenue Line at Columbus Circle. In addition, the IRT Lenox Avenue Line has a station at Central Park North. From there the line curves southwest under the park, and heads west under 104th Street, and the BMT Broadway Line has a station at Fifth Avenue and 59th Street.
Central Park is surrounded by four roadways: Central Park North, Central Park South, Central Park West, and Fifth Avenue. There are four plazas, one on each corner of the park: Frederick Douglass Circle on the northwest, Duke Ellington Circle on the northeast, Columbus Circle at the southwest, and Grand Army Plaza at the southeast. There are also four transverse roadways: 65th -- 66th Streets, 79th -- 81st Streets, 86th Street, and 96th Street. The park has three roadways that travel it vertically: West, Center, and East Drives.
West Drive is the westernmost of the park 's three vertical "drives ''. The southbound - running road is described as "... concealed in sunken roadways and screened with densely planted shrub belts, creating a country - road feel in the center of the city. '' In the early 20th century, the drive was a popular place for carriage rides. A painting by Gifford Beal shows a picture of West Drive depicted with a horse and buggy. However, the drive is also dangerous; in 2014, a 0.5 - mile (0.80 km) stretch of West Drive was considered to be "the most dangerous section of Central Park '' for pedestrians, with bicycle crashes along the drive leaving 15 people injured.
Center Drive (also known as the "Central Park Lower Loop '') connects northbound traffic from Midtown at West Drive and Sixth Avenue near the 65th Street Transverse. The street generally goes east and then north, forming the bottom part of the Central Park loop. The attractions along this street include the Victorian Gardens Amusement Park, the Central Park Carousel and the Central Park Mall.
East Drive, the easternmost of the three drives, connects northbound traffic from Midtown to the Upper West Side at Lenox Avenue. The street is renowned for its country scenery and free concerts. It generally straddles the east side of the park along Fifth Avenue. The drive passes by the Central Park Zoo around 63rd Street and the Metropolitan Museum of Art around the 80th to 84th Street area. The drive is also one of the legs of the New York Marathon. It is known as the "Elite Carriage Parade '', because at the time of the park 's opening, only 5 percent of the city was able to afford the carriage; of this, Walt Whitman said that the carriage parade was "an impressive, rich, interminable circus on a grand scale, full of action and color. ''
Central Park was once a very dangerous place, especially after dark, as measured by crime statistics. The park is considerably safer in the 21st century, though during prior periods it was the site of numerous muggings and rapes. Well - publicized incidents of sexual and confiscatory violence, such as the notorious 1989 Central Park jogger case, dissuaded many from visiting one of Manhattan 's most scenic areas. Fear was also directed to the gay community after World War II from a panic of sex crimes. As crime has declined in the park and in the rest of New York City, many of the negative perceptions have begun to wane. Safety measures hold the number of crimes in the park to fewer than one hundred per year, down from approximately 1,000 in the early 1980s.
On June 11, 2000, following the Puerto Rican Day Parade, gangs of drunken men sexually assaulted women in the park. Several arrests were made shortly after the attacks, but it was not until 2006 that a civil suit against the city for failing to provide police protection was finally settled.
Permission to hold issue - centered rallies in Central Park, similar to the be-ins of the 1960s, has been met with increasingly stiff resistance from the city. During some 2004 protests, the organization United for Peace and Justice wanted to hold a rally on the Great Lawn during the Republican National Convention. The city denied application for a permit, stating that such a mass gathering would be harmful to the grass and that such damage would make it harder to collect private donations to maintain the park. Courts upheld the refusal.
During the 2000s and early 2010s, new towers were constructed along the southern end of Central Park. According to a Municipal Art Society report, such buildings cast shadows over the southern end of the park. There has been some controversy over this.
The Lake and San Remo apartments in the background
Lower Central Park
The Mall & Literary Walk
Strawberry Fields with the Dakota behind
The Pond, looking south, with the Plaza Hotel in view
One of the park 's bridges; no two are alike.
Bethesda Fountain with the Loeb Boathouse in background
Passage under Bethesda Terrace
Chess and Checkers House
Aerial view of Central Park
The Mall
The buildings that line Central Park South include Essex House
Bridge in Central Park, designed by Calvert Vaux, separates pedestrians from the carriage drive.
Central Park viewed from atop the GE Building
The Pond and Central Park South
Wollman Skating Rink
Jose de Creeft, Statue of Alice, 1959
Jogging in Central Park
The Lake in snow, seen from the San Remo on Central Park West
Vista of the Great Lawn from Belvedere Castle
Bicycles
Benches
Landscape
Carriage horse
Bicyclists
Shakespeare Garden
Turtle Pond
The Ramble
Hans Christian Andersen Statue
Sheep Meadow
The Pond
The West Drive, now closed to automobiles
At dusk
View of Harlem Meer and Dana Discovery Center
Cleopatra 's Needle, Central Park
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who did betty date in the archie comics | Betty Cooper - wikipedia
Elizabeth "Betty '' Cooper is one of the main characters appearing in American comic books published by Archie Comics. The character was created by Bob Montana and John L. Goldwater, and first appeared in Pep Comics # 22 (cover - dated Dec. 1941), on the first page of the first Archie story, serving as a love interest to Archie Andrews. Betty 's infatuation with Archie, which drives her attempts to win his affections by whatever means possible, and her rivalry with her friend Veronica Lodge, have been among of the longest running themes in the comics. In 2011, Betty Cooper was ranked 66th in Comics Buyer 's Guide 's "100 Sexiest Women in Comics '' list.
Betty was named for, and originally based on, Betty Tokar Jankovich, a Czech immigrant who briefly dated Archie creator Bob Montana in 1939 when she was 18. She is portrayed as a smart, nice, sweet, talented, and tomboyish yet beautiful girl with blonde hair and blue eyes. She was created to serve as a love interest for Archie Andrews.
Betty Cooper (Bety Rosas in the spanish version) is the daughter of Hal Cooper and Alice Cooper. Her older brother Chic Cooper and older sister Polly Cooper have both moved out of Riverdale, their hometown. Chic moved to New York City and Polly to San Francisco, but both occasionally appear in flashbacks to Betty 's childhood, and both occasionally visit their family.
The quintessential 16 - year - old girl next door, Betty 's middle class upbringing is a world apart from the flashy lifestyle of her wealthy friend, Veronica Lodge. Nowhere is this more evident than when she and Veronica are competing for Archie Andrews ' heart, and yet they remain best friends (Veronica once told Archie that she and Betty are only rivals in unimportant matters, like boys.)
In the late 1960s, the two girls joined Archie 's band, a garage band appropriately named The Archies. Both sang (usually backup), and Betty played tambourine, while Veronica played organ. This implies that Veronica is more musically talented, but that is not necessarily true. Some stories indicate that Betty is the better vocalist. Additionally, there is little consistency in the instruments she is able to play. Betty has played the recorder, tambourine, maracas, guitar, banjo, keyboard, saxophone, cello, and the bongos.
Betty is friends with everybody, and is a loving daughter and sister. She likes to help the homeless, read to the senior citizens, and rescue wounded animals and birds.
Betty 's hobbies include playing sports (particularly baseball), cooking, and looking after animals (she owns a cat, Caramel). She is also concerned with the environment and other social issues and encourages the rest of the gang to clean up after themselves. She loves children and sometimes babysits Jellybean with Jughead as well as other children in Riverdale. Occasionally, families hire Betty to keep their elderly members company. Betty is a skilled mechanic who frequently helps Archie with his broken down car Betsy. Betty is also good at skiing and car - racing. She is often said to be the best pitcher in the girls ' baseball team. Betty is a scuba diver, wearing a red shorty wetsuit, breathing with an air tank she carries on her back and a regulator in her mouth, wears red fins on her feet and a mask on her face, but she prefers to swim underwater.
Contrary to the "dumb blonde '' - stereotype, Betty actually has an above - average intelligence and is one of the smartest students at Riverdale High School, along with Dilton Doiley. In one story she won an award and was sent to compete in New York and has won numerous academic awards. At one point, she gained ESP when an encyclopedia accidentally fell on her head. This ability took away all hope for the future; Archie asked Veronica for a date, but Betty knew that Archie would dump Veronica for her. Betty lost her ESP power when a ball that Reggie kicked accidentally hit her; in her gratefulness, she gave him a thankful kiss.
Betty 's many talents and accomplishments often make her friend Veronica jealous, who then tries to sabotage Betty to steal her glory and make her look bad.
During a stay at the Lodge mansion, while the family are in Europe, Betty is waited on hand and foot by the servants and, keeping true to her caring, loving, and unselfish nature, she begins to feel guilty about being waited on.
Wanting to do something very special for them in appreciation for the tough jobs that they do (and for what also seems to be a very thankless job in serving someone like Veronica, who tends to be very snobbish towards those who serve her), she throws them a pool party which surprises Mr. and Mrs. Lodge, and angers Veronica. In return, Smithers, the butler, and the rest of the staff, who are quite appreciative of what Betty did for them (since they never seem to get any appreciation from Veronica), offer to help Betty with the next party she throws, for free. Mr. Lodge would then lecture Veronica about how servants were people too.
Betty 's best friend is Veronica. Although the two are often involved in disputes over Archie or something else that evokes jealousy, they have remained the best of friends since their childhood. The two have commented that Jughead and Archie 's friendship could not compare to theirs. In many stories, Betty and Veronica team up or help each other despite Veronica 's jealousy and bitterness towards her. Betty 's other female friends include Ethel Muggs, Midge Klump, and Nancy Woods, all of whom share common interests and group activities such as shopping and cheer - leading.
Frequently, Betty has been shown to date Reggie Mantle early on in the titles ' runs and occasionally still, more often than not as a casual date when Veronica has Archie take her out. Sometimes, Reggie and Betty are seen to be flirting with each other; when Betty is feeling sad, Reggie always tells her that she has won a date with the most handsome man in the world. Although Reggie does not appear to admit it, he seems to care about Betty, but his self - image sometimes is more important. Once Betty said that sometimes the way Archie and Reggie fight over her, it sounds like she has the plague. In the Life with Archie magazines that depict a future timeline in which Archie marries Veronica, Betty and Reggie are portrayed as a loving couple. It has been hinted they may be planning to get married.
Betty 's relationship with Jughead Jones has mostly been that of close confidant and close friend, as they normally discuss their issues more candidly with each other than anyone else; Jughead will provide commentary on her feelings for Archie, and Betty will attempt to "better '' Jughead, by getting rid of his slothful attitude and laziness. Once when she had a sprained ankle, Veronica told both Archie and Jughead to visit her. The four of them were having dinner together when people from the school mistook Jughead as Betty 's boyfriend because he was carrying chocolates to her house. Jughead appears to care more about Betty than other girls and there have been hints of a potential romantic relationship between them. He once accidentally asked her out to a school dance. When he was telling Archie what to do, Betty walked up behind him and thought he was asking her even though he was just demonstrating how to ask Betty to the dance. In one story, Jughead even says that if the time ever comes that he would willingly kiss a girl, it would be Betty. A happy tear is seen sliding down Betty 's face at this comment.
She had a friendship with an elderly woman named Lydia Wyndham, whom she found when doing research about World War I. With this acquaintance Betty got to know an accomplished writer and poet with a sharp mind (and a sad past -- Betty 's research had turned up a beau of Ms. Wyndham 's who was killed in combat), but after a while Ms. Wyndham herself died.
At times, Betty is seen to have a close friendship with Cheryl Blossom, especially in Cheryl 's own title. However, at other times, Betty and Veronica regard the seductive Cheryl as a threat because she tries to lure Archie away from them, and the two best friends unite against Cheryl to protect their interests. Jason Blossom, Cheryl 's twin brother, is sometimes seen to have genuine interest towards Betty, which makes Archie jealous.
In the late 90s, Betty started dating Adam Chisholm. It was thought by some people that Betty had chosen Adam over Archie. This event made Archie jealous and he concentrated his attention on Betty, ignoring Veronica, as he always does when he thinks someone else may take Betty away from him. Though in actuality, Adam has rarely been seen in the stories after that story arc, and Betty has continued to prefer Archie.
Betty enjoys writing and keeps a diary that is featured in the series Betty 's Diary. She wants to be a famous writer someday, an aspiration that her teacher Ms. Grundy approves of. She submits her work to writing magazines and has been published a number of times. She once got to be an intern for a fashion magazine but ended up modeling as well. At the same time, she takes various types of employment, including some work as a mechanic, which is also a career that she is interested in. In some stories she finds employment as an assistant teacher at the local elementary school. Betty is also a well known baby sitter, and baker.
In this one - shot, Betty hails from a long - line of werewolf hunters that have always taken down members of the Jones lineage. She only befriended Archie and faked her affections towards him in an effort to get closer to the newest werewolf of Riverdale, Jughead. Archie convinces her to try curing Jughead of his lycanthropy with Wolfsbane, which works for months before it wears off and results in Reggie 's death. Jughead leaves town because he knows Betty wo n't give him a second chance.
Betty appears as a main character in Life with Archie: The Married Life. In Archie Loves Veronica, she runs a catering business while her boyfriend, Reggie Mantle, runs a repair shop. They both star in a reality show based on their lives. In Archie Loves Betty, she is an English teacher at Riverdale High. However, in both universes, Betty previously worked as a buyer for Saks Fifth Avenue in New York.
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who were the philosophers and what did they believe | Epicureanism - wikipedia
Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus, founded around 307 BC. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Following Aristippus -- about whom very little is known -- Epicurus believed that what he called "pleasure '' was the greatest good, but that the way to attain such pleasure was to live modestly, to gain knowledge of the workings of the world, and to limit one 's desires. This would lead one to attain a state of tranquility (ataraxia) and freedom from fear as well as an absence of bodily pain (aponia). The combination of these two states constitutes happiness in its highest form. Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism insofar as it declares pleasure to be its sole intrinsic goal, the concept that the absence of pain and fear constitutes the greatest pleasure, and its advocacy of a simple life, make it very different from "hedonism '' as it is colloquially understood.
Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism, though later it became the main opponent of Stoicism. Epicurus and his followers shunned politics. After the death of Epicurus, his school was headed by Hermarchus; later many Epicurean societies flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era (such as those in Antiochia, Alexandria, Rhodes, and Ercolano). Its best - known Roman proponent was the poet Lucretius. By the end of the Roman Empire, being opposed by philosophies (mainly Neo-Platonism) that were now in the ascendant, Epicureanism had all but died out, and would be resurrected in the Age of Enlightenment.
Some writings by Epicurus have survived. Some scholars consider the epic poem On the Nature of Things by Lucretius to present in one unified work the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism. Many of the papyrus scrolls unearthed at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean texts. At least some are thought to have belonged to the Epicurean Philodemus. Today, there are large Epicurean communities in Greece, a Society of Friends of Epicurus in the West, and the School has a growing online presence. In the French - speaking world, Michel Onfray is considered Neo-Epicurean.
In Mytilene, the capital of the island Lesbos, and then in Lampsacus Epicurus taught and gained followers. In Athens Epicurus bought a property for his school called "Garden '', later the name of Epicurus school. Its members included Hermarchus, Idomeneus, Colotes, Polyaenus, and Metrodorus. Epicurus emphasized friendship as an important ingredient of happiness, and the school seems to have been a moderately ascetic community which rejected the political limelight of Athenian philosophy. They were fairly cosmopolitan by Athenian standards, including women and slaves. Some members were also vegetarians as, from slender evidence, Epicurus did not eat meat, although no prohibition against eating meat was made.
The school 's popularity grew and it became, along with Stoicism, Platonism, Peripateticism, and Pyrrhonism, one of the dominant schools of Hellenistic philosophy, lasting strongly through the later Roman Empire. Another major source of information is the Roman politician and philosopher Cicero, although he was highly critical, denouncing the Epicureans as unbridled hedonists, devoid of a sense of virtue and duty, and guilty of withdrawing from public life. Another ancient source is Diogenes of Oenoanda, who composed a large inscription at Oenoanda in Lycia.
Deciphered carbonized scrolls obtained from the library at the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum contain a large number of works by Philodemus, a late Hellenistic Epicurean, and Epicurus himself, attesting to the school 's enduring popularity. Diogenes reports slanderous stories, circulated by Epicurus ' opponents. With growing dominance of Neoplatonism and Peripateticism, and later, Christianity, Epicureanism declined. By the late third century CE, there was little trace of its existence. The early Christian writer Lactantius criticizes Epicurus at several points throughout his Divine Institutes. In Dante Alighieri 's Divine Comedy, the Epicureans are depicted as heretics suffering in the sixth circle of hell. In fact, Epicurus appears to represent the ultimate heresy. The word for a heretic in the Talmudic literature is "Apiqoros '' (אפיקורוס ).
In the 17th century the French Franciscan priest, scientist and philosopher Pierre Gassendi wrote two books forcefully reviving Epicureanism. Shortly thereafter, and clearly influenced by Gassendi, Walter Charleton published several works on Epicureanism in English. Attacks by Christians continued, most forcefully by the Cambridge Platonists.
In the early modern period, scientists adopted atomist theories, while materialist philosophers embraced Epicurus ' hedonist ethics and restated his objections to natural teleology.
Epicureanism emphasizes the neutrality of the gods, that they do not interfere with human lives. It states that gods, matter, and souls are all made up of atoms. Souls are made from atoms, and gods possess souls, but their souls adhere to their bodies without escaping. Humans have the same kind of souls, but the forces binding human atoms together do not hold the soul forever. The Epicureans also used the atomist theories of Democritus and Leucippus to assert that man has free will. They held that all thoughts are merely atoms swerving randomly.
The Riddle of Epicurus, or Problem of evil, is a famous argument against the existence of an all - powerful and providential God or gods. As recorded by Lactantius:
God either wants to eliminate bad things and can not, or can but does not want to, or neither wishes to nor can, or both wants to and can. If he wants to and can not, then he is weak -- and this does not apply to god. If he can but does not want to, then he is spiteful -- which is equally foreign to god 's nature. If he neither wants to nor can, he is both weak and spiteful, and so not a god. If he wants to and can, which is the only thing fitting for a god, where then do bad things come from? Or why does he not eliminate them?
This type of trilemma argument (God is omnipotent, God is good, but Evil exists) was one favoured by the ancient Greek skeptics, and this argument may have been wrongly attributed to Epicurus by Lactantius, who, from his Christian perspective, regarded Epicurus as an atheist. According to Reinhold F. Glei, it is settled that the argument of theodicy is from an academical source which is not only not Epicurean, but even anti-Epicurean. The earliest extant version of this trilemma appears in the writings of the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus.
Epicurus ' view was that there were gods, but that they were neither willing nor able to prevent evil. This was not because they were malevolent, but because they lived in a perfect state of ataraxia, a state everyone should strive to emulate; it is not the gods who are upset by evils, but people. Epicurus conceived the gods as blissful and immortal yet material beings made of atoms inhabiting the metakosmia: empty spaces between worlds in the vastness of infinite space. In spite of his recognition of the gods, the practical effect of this materialistic explanation of the gods ' existence and their complete non-intervention in human affairs renders his philosophy akin in divine effects to the attitude of Deism.
In Dante 's Divine Comedy, the flaming tombs of the Epicureans are located within the sixth circle of hell (Inferno, Canto X). They are the first heretics seen and appear to represent the ultimate, if not quintessential, heresy. Similarly, according to Jewish Mishnah, Epicureans (apiqorsim, people who share the beliefs of the movement) are among the people who do not have a share of the "World - to - Come '' (afterlife or the world of the Messianic era).
Parallels may be drawn to Buddhism, which similarly emphasizes a lack of divine interference and aspects of its atomism. Epicureanism also resembles Buddhism in its temperateness, including the belief that great excess leads to great dissatisfaction.
Many contemporary Epicureans are atheists or agnostics.
The philosophy originated by Epicurus flourished for seven centuries. It propounded an ethic of individual pleasure as the sole or chief good in life. Hence, Epicurus advocated living in such a way as to derive the greatest amount of pleasure possible during one 's lifetime, yet doing so moderately in order to avoid the suffering incurred by overindulgence in such pleasure. The emphasis was placed on pleasures of the mind rather than on physical pleasures. Therefore, according to Epicurus, with whom a person eats is of greater importance than what is eaten. Unnecessary and, especially, artificially produced desires were to be suppressed. Since learning, culture, and civilization as well as social and political involvements could give rise to desires that are difficult to satisfy and thus result in disturbing one 's peace of mind, they were discouraged. Knowledge was sought only to rid oneself of religious fears and superstitions, the two primary fears to be eliminated being fear of the gods and of death. Viewing marriage and what attends it as a threat to one 's peace of mind, Epicurus lived a celibate life but did not impose this restriction on his followers.
The philosophy was characterized by an absence of divine principle. Lawbreaking was counseled against because of both the shame associated with detection and the punishment it might bring. Living in fear of being found out or punished would take away from pleasure, and this made even secret wrongdoing inadvisable. To the Epicureans, virtue in itself had no value and was beneficial only when it served as a means to gain happiness. Reciprocity was recommended, not because it was divinely ordered or innately noble, but because it was personally beneficial. Friendships rested on the same mutual basis, that is, the pleasure resulting to the possessors. Epicurus laid great emphasis on developing friendships as the basis of a satisfying life.
of all the things which wisdom has contrived which contribute to a blessed life, none is more important, more fruitful, than friendship
While the pursuit of pleasure formed the focal point of the philosophy, this was largely directed to the "static pleasures '' of minimizing pain, anxiety and suffering. In fact, Epicurus referred to life as a "bitter gift ''.
When we say... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do by some through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul.
The Epicureans believed in the existence of the gods, but believed that the gods were made of atoms just like everything else. It was thought that the gods were too far away from the earth to have any interest in what man was doing; so it did not do any good to pray or to sacrifice to them. The gods, they believed, did not create the universe, nor did they inflict punishment or bestow blessings on anyone, but they were supremely happy; this was the goal to strive for during one 's own human life.
"Live unknown was one of (key) maxims. This was completely at odds with all previous ideas of seeking fame and glory, or even wanting something so apparently decent as honor. ''
Epicureanism rejects immortality and mysticism; it believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is as mortal as the body. Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while still contending that one need not fear death: "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us. '' From this doctrine arose the Epicurean Epitaph: Non fui, fui, non sum, non curo ("I was not; I was; I am not; I do not care ''), which is inscribed on the gravestones of his followers and seen on many ancient gravestones of the Roman Empire. This quotation is often used today at humanist funerals.
Epicurus was an early thinker to develop the notion of justice as a social contract. He defined justice as an agreement "neither to harm nor be harmed ''. The point of living in a society with laws and punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to pursue happiness. Because of this, laws that do not contribute to promoting human happiness are not just. He gave his own unique version of the Ethic of Reciprocity, which differs from other formulations by emphasizing minimizing harm and maximizing happiness for oneself and others:
It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly (agreeing "neither to harm nor be harmed ''), and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life.
Epicureanism incorporated a relatively full account of the social contract theory, following after a vague description of such a society in Plato 's Republic. The social contract theory established by Epicureanism is based on mutual agreement, not divine decree.
The human soul is mortal because, like everything, it is composed of atoms, but made up the most perfect, rounded and smooth. It disappears with the destruction of the body. We do n't have to fear death because, firstly, nothing follows after the disappearance of the body, and, secondly, the experience of death is not so: "the most terrible evil, death, is nothing for us, since when we exist, death does not exist, and when death exists, we do not exist "(Epicurus, '' Letter to Menoeceus ").
Nature has set a target of every action of living beings (including men) seeking pleasure, as shown by the fact that children and animals instinctively tend to seek pleasure and shy away from pain. Pleasure and pain are the main reasons for each action of living beings. Pure pleasure is the highest good, pain the supreme evil.
The pleasures and pains are the result of the realization or impairment of appetites. Epicurus distinguishes three kinds of appetites:
Types of pleasures: since man is composed of body and soul there are two general types of pleasures:
Epicurus ' philosophy of the physical world is found in his Letter to Herodotus: Diogenes Laertius 10.34 -- 83.
If the sum of all matter ("the totality '') was limited and existed within an unlimited void, it would be scattered and constantly becoming more diffuse, because the finite collection of bodies would travel forever, having no obstacles. Conversely, if the totality was unlimited it could not exist within a limited void, for the unlimited bodies would not all have a place to be in. Therefore, either both the void and the totality must be limited or both must be unlimited and -- as is mentioned later -- the totality is unlimited (and therefore so is the void).
Forms can change, but not their inherent qualities, for change can only affect their shape. Some things can be changed and some things can not be changed because forms that are unchangeable can not be destroyed if certain attributes can be removed; for attributes not only have the intention of altering an unchangeable form, but also the inevitable possibility of becoming -- in relation to the form 's disposition to its present environment -- both an armor and a vulnerability to its stability.
Further proof that there are unchangeable forms and their inability to be destroyed, is the concept of the "non-evident. '' A form can not come into being from the void -- which is nothing; it would be as if all forms come into being spontaneously, needless of reproduction. The implied meaning of "destroying '' something is to undo its existence, to make it not there anymore, and this can not be so: if the void is that which does not exist, and if this void is the implied destination of the destroyed, then the thing in reality can not be destroyed, for the thing (and all things) could not have existed in the first place (as Parmenides said, ex nihilo nihil fit: nothing comes from nothing). This totality of forms is eternal and unchangeable.
Atoms move, in the appropriate way, constantly and for all time. Forms first come to us in images or "projections '' -- outlines of their true selves. For an image to be perceived by the human eye, the "atoms '' of the image must cross a great distance at enormous speed and must not encounter any conflicting atoms along the way. The presence of atomic resistance equal atomic slowness; whereas, if the path is deficient of atomic resistance, the traversal rate is much faster (and clearer). Because of resistance, forms must be unlimited (unchangeable and able to grasp any point within the void) because, if they were n't, a form 's image would not come from a single place, but fragmented and from several places. This confirms that a single form can not be at multiple places at the same time.
Epicurus for the most part follows Democritean atomism but differs in proclaiming the clinamen (swerve or declination). Imagining atoms to be moving under an external force, Epicurus conceives an occasional atom "swerving '' for reasons peculiar to itself, i.e. not by external compulsion but by "free will ''. In this, his view absolutely opposes Democritean determinism as well as developed Stoicism. Otherwise he conceives of atoms as does Democritus -- in that they have position, number, and shape. To Democritus ' differentiating criteria, Epicurus adds "weight '', but maintains Democritus ' view that atoms are necessarily indivisible and hence possess no demonstrable internal space.
And the senses warrant us other means of perception: hearing and smelling. As in the same way an image traverses through the air, the atoms of sound and smell traverse the same way. This perceptive experience is itself the flow of the moving atoms; and like the changeable and unchangeable forms, the form from which the flow traverses is shed and shattered into even smaller atoms, atoms of which still represent the original form, but they are slightly disconnected and of diverse magnitudes. This flow, like that of an echo, reverberates (off one 's senses) and goes back to its start; meaning, one 's sensory perception happens in the coming, going, or arch, of the flow; and when the flow retreats back to its starting position, the atomic image is back together again: thus when one smells something one has the ability to see it too (because atoms reach the one who smells or sees from the object.)
And this leads to the question of how atomic speed and motion works. Epicurus says that there are two kinds of motion: the straight motion and the curved motion, and its motion traverse as fast as the speed of thought.
Epicurus proposed the idea of ' the space between worlds ' (metakosmia) the relatively empty spaces in the infinite void where worlds had not been formed by the joining together of the atoms through their endless motion.
Epicurean epistemology has three criteria of truth: sensations (aisthêsis), preconceptions (prolepsis), and feelings (pathê). Prolepsis is sometimes translated as "basic grasp '' but could also be described as "universal ideas '': concepts that are understood by all. An example of prolepsis is the word "man '' because every person has a preconceived notion of what a man is. Sensations or sense perception is knowledge that is received from the senses alone. Much like modern science, Epicurean philosophy posits that empiricism can be used to sort truth from falsehood. Feelings are more related to ethics than Epicurean physical theory. Feelings merely tell the individual what brings about pleasure and what brings about pain. This is important for the Epicurean because these are the basis for the entire Epicurean ethical doctrine.
According to Epicurus, the basic means for our understanding of things are the "sensations '' (aestheses), "concepts '' (prolepsis), "emotions '' (pathe), and the "focusing of thought into an impression '' (phantastikes epiboles tes dianoias).
Epicureans reject dialectic as confusing (parelkousa) because for the physical philosophers it is sufficient to use the correct words which refer to the concepts of the world. Epicurus then, in his work On the Canon, says that the criteria of truth are the senses, the preconceptions and the feelings. Epicureans add to these the focusing of thought into an impression. He himself is referring to those in his Epitome to Herodotus and in Principal Doctrines.
The senses are the first criterion of truth, since they create the first impressions and testify the existence of the external world. Sensory input is neither subjective nor deceitful, but the misunderstanding comes when the mind adds to or subtracts something from these impressions through our preconceived notions. Therefore, our sensory input alone can not lead us to inaccuracy, only the concepts and opinions that come from our interpretations of our sensory input can. Therefore, our sensory data is the only truly accurate thing which we have to rely for our understanding of the world around us.
And whatever image we receive by direct understanding by our mind or through our sensory organs of the shape or the essential properties that are the true form of the solid object, since it is created by the constant repetition of the image or the impression it has left behind. There is always inaccuracy and error involved in bringing into a judgment an element that is additional to sensory impressions, either to confirm (what we sensed) or deny it.
Epicurus said that all the tangible things are real and each impression comes from existing objects and is determined by the object that causes the sensations.
Therefore all the impressions are real, while the preconceived notions are not real and can be modified.
If you battle with all your sensations, you will be unable to form a standard for judging which of them are incorrect.
The concepts are the categories which have formed mentally according to our sensory input, for example the concepts "man '', "warm '', and "sweet '', etc. These concepts are directly related to memory and can be recalled at any time, only by the use of the respective word. (Compare the anthropological Sapir -- Whorf hypothesis). Epicurus also calls them "the meanings that underlie the words '' (hypotetagmena tois phthongois: semantic substance of the words) in his letter to Herodotus. The feelings or emotions (pathe) are related to the senses and the concepts. They are the inner impulses that make us feel like or dislike about certain external objects, which we perceive through the senses, and are associated with the preconceptions that are recalled.
In this moment that the word "man '' is spoken, immediately due to the concept (or category of the idea) an image is projected in the mind which is related to the sensory input data.
First of all Herodotus, we must understand the meanings that underlie the words, so that by referring to them, we may be able to reach judgments about our opinions, matters of inquiry, or problems and leave everything undecided as we can argue endlessly or use words that have no clearly defined meaning.
Apart from these there is the assumption (hypolepsis), which is either the hypothesis or the opinion about something (matter or action), and which can be correct or incorrect. The assumptions are created by our sensations, concepts and emotions. Since they are produced automatically without any rational analysis and verification (see the modern idea of the subconscious) of whether they are correct or not, they need to be confirmed (epimarteresis: confirmation), a process which must follow each assumption.
For beliefs they (the Epicureans) use the word hypolepsis which they claim can be correct or incorrect.
Referring to the "focusing of thought into an impression '' or else "intuitive understandings of the mind '', they are the impressions made on the mind that come from our sensations, concepts and emotions and form the basis of our assumptions and beliefs. All this unity (sensation -- concept or category -- emotion -- focusing of thought into an impression) leads to the formation of a certain assumption or belief (hypolepsis). (Compare the modern anthropological concept of a "world view ''.) Following the lead of Aristotle, Epicurus also refers to impressions in the form of mental images which are projected on the mind. The "correct use of impressions '' was something adopted later by the Stoics.
Our assumptions and beliefs have to be ' confirmed ', which actually proves if our opinions are either accurate or inaccurate. This verification and confirmation (epimarteresis) can only be done by means of the "evident reason '' (henargeia), which means what is self - evident and obvious through our sensory input.
An example is when we see somebody approaching us, first through the sense of eyesight, we perceive that an object is coming closer to us, then through our preconceptions we understand that it is a human being, afterwards through that assumption we can recognize that he is someone we know, for example Theaetetus. This assumption is associated with pleasant or unpleasant emotions accompanied by the respective mental images and impressions (the focusing of our thoughts into an impression), which are related to our feelings toward each other. When he gets close to us, we can confirm (verify) that he is Socrates and not Theaetetus through the proof of our eyesight. Therefore, we have to use the same method to understand everything, even things which are not observable and obvious (adela, imperceptible), that is to say the confirmation through the evident reason (henargeia). In the same way we have to reduce (reductionism) each assumption and belief to something that can be proved through the self - evident reason (empirically verified). Verification theory and reductionism have been adopted, as we know, by the modern philosophy of science. In this way, one can get rid of the incorrect assumptions and beliefs (biases) and finally settle on the real (confirmed) facts.
Consequently the confirmation and lack of disagreement is the criterion of accuracy of something, while non-confirmation and disagreement is the criterion of its inaccuracy. The basis and foundation of (understanding) everything are the obvious and self - evident (facts).
All the above - mentioned criteria of knowledge form the basic principles of the (scientific) method, that Epicurus followed in order to find the truth. He described this method in his work On the Canon or On the Criteria.
If you reject any sensation and you do not distinguish between the opinion based on what awaits confirmation and evidence already available based on the senses, the feelings and every intuitive faculty of the mind, you will send the remaining sensations into a turmoil with your foolish opinions, thus getting rid of every standard for judging. And if among the perceptions based on beliefs are things that are verified and things that are not, you are guaranteed to be in error since you have kept everything that leads to uncertainty concerning the correct and incorrect.
(Based on excerpt from Epicurus ' Gnoseology Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Nikolaos Bakalis, Trafford Publishing 2005, ISBN 1 - 4120 - 4843 - 5)
Tetrapharmakos, or "The four - part cure '', is Epicurus ' basic guideline as to how to live the happiest possible life. This poetic doctrine was handed down by an anonymous Epicurean who summed up Epicurus ' philosophy on happiness in four simple lines:
Do n't fear god, Do n't worry about death; What is good is easy to get, and What is terrible is easy to endure.
One of the earliest Roman writers espousing Epicureanism was Amafinius. Other adherents to the teachings of Epicurus included the poet Horace, whose famous statement Carpe Diem ("Seize the Day '') illustrates the philosophy, as well as Lucretius, as he showed in his De Rerum Natura. The poet Virgil was another prominent Epicurean (see Lucretius for further details). The Epicurean philosopher Philodemus of Gadara, until the 18th century only known as a poet of minor importance, rose to prominence as most of his work along with other Epicurean material was discovered in the Villa of the Papyri.
Julius Caesar leaned considerably toward Epicureanism, which e.g. led to his plea against the death sentence during the trial against Catiline, during the Catiline conspiracy where he spoke out against the Stoic Cato.
In modern times Thomas Jefferson referred to himself as an Epicurean:
If I had time I would add to my little book the Greek, Latin and French texts, in columns side by side. And I wish I could subjoin a translation of Gassendi 's Syntagma of the doctrines of Epicurus, which, notwithstanding the calumnies of the Stoics and caricatures of Cicero, is the most rational system remaining of the philosophy of the ancients, as frugal of vicious indulgence, and fruitful of virtue as the hyperbolical extravagances of his rival sects.
Other modern - day Epicureans were Gassendi, Walter Charleton, François Bernier, Saint - Evremond, Ninon de l'Enclos, Denis Diderot, Frances Wright and Jeremy Bentham. Christopher Hitchens referred to himself as an Epicurean. In France, where perfumer / restaurateur Gérald Ghislain refers to himself as an Epicurean, Michel Onfray is developing a post-modern approach to Epicureanism. In his recent book titled The Swerve, Stephen Greenblatt identified himself as strongly sympathetic to Epicureanism and Lucretius.
In modern popular usage, an epicurean is a connoisseur of the arts of life and the refinements of sensual pleasures; epicureanism implies a love or knowledgeable enjoyment especially of good food and drink -- see the definition of gourmet at Wiktionary.
Because Epicureanism posits that pleasure is the ultimate good (telos), it has been commonly misunderstood since ancient times as a doctrine that advocates the partaking in fleeting pleasures such as constant partying, sexual excess and decadent food. This is not the case. Epicurus regarded ataraxia (tranquility, freedom from fear) and aponia (absence of pain) as the height of happiness. He also considered prudence an important virtue and perceived excess and overindulgence to be contrary to the attainment of ataraxia and aponia.
Instead, Epicurus preferred "the good '', and "even wisdom and culture '' to the "pleasure of the stomach ''. While some twentieth - century commentary has sought to diminish this and related quotations, the consistency with Epicurean philosophy overall has more recently been explained. When Epicurus sought moderation at meals, he was also not averse to moderation in moderation, that is, to occasional luxury. His community also became known for its feasts of the twentieth (of the Greek month).
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italian province in the heart of piedmont noted for its variety of sparkling white wine | Piemonte (wine) - wikipedia
Piemonte wine is the range of Italian wines made in the region of Piedmont in the northwestern corner of Italy. The best - known wines from the region include Barolo and Barbaresco. They are made from the Nebbiolo grape. These wines are ideal for storage and a well - aged Barolo for instance may leave a feeling of drinking velvet because the tannins are polished and integrated more and more into the wine. As the wine matures the colour becomes more brownish and rust - red.
Other popular grapes used for red wine production are Barbera and Dolcetto. Wine made on the Barbera grape is often fruity and delicate with less tannin than wine made from the Nebbiolo grape. Dolcetto on the other side, is not as the name indicates sweet, Dolcetto means just a little bit sweet. (dolce is Italian for sweet). The grape gives fresh and dry red wines with some tannin. The wines made on the Dolcetto grape should be consumed young.
The sparkling wine Asti spumante is made from the Moscato grape. The majority of the area 's winemaking take places in the provinces of Cuneo, Asti and Alessandria. The Brachetto is another variety used for making sweet and sparkling red wines.
While Turin is the capital of the Piedmont, Alba and Asti are at the heart of the region 's wine industry. The wine making industry of the Piedmont played a significant role in the early stages of the Risorgimento with some of the era 's most prominent figures - like Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi owning vineyards in Piedmont region and making significant contributions to the development of Piedmontese wines. The excessively high tariffs imposed by the Austrian Empire on the export of Piedmontese wines to Austrian controlled areas of northern Italy was one of the underlying sparks to the revolutions of 1848 -- 1849.
As in most of Italy, native vines are abundant in the land that the Ancient Greeks called Oenotrua (meaning "land of vines '') and was subsequently cultivated by the Romans. With its close proximity, France has been a significant viticultural influence on the region, particularly Burgundy, which is evident today in the varietal styles of most Piedmontese wines with very little blending. One of the earliest mention of Piedmontese wines occurred in the 14th century when the Italian agricultural writer Pietro de Crescentius wrote his Liber Ruralium Commodorum. He noted the efforts of the Piedmontese to make "Greek style '' sweet wines by twisting the stems of the grapes clusters and letting them hang longer on the vine to dry out. He also noted the changes with trellising in the region with more vines being staked close to the grounds rather than cultivated high among trees in the manner more common to Italian viticulture at the time. In the 17th century, the court jeweller of Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy earned broad renown for his pale red Chiaretto made entirely from the Nebbiolo grape.
During the Risorgimento (Italian unification) of the 19th century, many Piemontese winemakers and land owners played a pivotal role. The famous Italian patriot Giuseppe Garibaldi was a winemaker who in the 1850s introduced the use of the Bordeaux mixture to control the spread of oidium that was starting to ravage the area 's vineyards. Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour was a wealthy vineyard owner who went abroad to study advance viticulture prior to founding the political newspaper Il Risorgimento. He was highly influential in the adoption of many French viticultural techniques among the Piemontese vineyards.
One of the early sparks of the Italian revolts against Austria was the act of the Austrian government to double the tariffs of Piemontese wines into the Austrian control lands of Lombardy, Emilia and the Veneto. This had a crippling effect on the Piemontese wine industry, essentially cutting them off from their main export market. In 1846, King Charles Albert of Sardinia spoke to the Piedmontese winegrowers at the meeting of the Agricultural Congress at Casale Monferrato where he assailed the Austrian oppression. By 1848, Piedmont was at war with Austria in one of the early events that eventually led to the unification of the Italian peninsula under the rule of Charles Albert 's son Victor Emmanuel.
The Piedmont region is located in the foothills of the Alps forming its border with France and Switzerland. To the northwest is the Valle d'Aosta, to the east is the province of Lombardy with the Liguria region forming its southern border along the Apennines. In addition to the vast mountainous terrain, the Po Valley consumes a large area of available land - leaving only 30 % of the region suitable for vineyard plantings. The valley and the mountains do contribute to the area 's noted fog cover which aides in the ripening of the Nebbiolo grape (which gets its name from the Piedmontese word nebbia meaning "fog '').
Although the winemaking regions of the Piedmont and Bordeaux are very close in latitude, only the summertime temperatures are similar: the Piedmont wine region has a colder, continental winter climate, and significantly lower rainfall due to the rain shadow effect of the Alps. Vineyards are typically planted on hillsides altitudes between 490 -- 1150 ft (150 - 400 metre). The warmer south facing slopes are mainly used for Nebbiolo or Barbera while the cooler sites are planted with Dolcetto or Moscato.
The majority of the region 's winemaking (about 90 %) takes place in the southern part of Piedmont around the towns of Alba (in Cuneo), Asti and Alessandria. The Piemonte wine region is divided into five broad zones.
The Piedmont region is home to 42 Denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) and 17 Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG).
The 17 DOCG wines in Piedmont are:
Barbera is the most widely planted grape in the region, but Nebbiolo and Dolcetto account for a significant portion of the area 's red wine production as well. With white wines, Moscato is the most prominent with its sparkling and frizzante style wines. Other notable white wines include styles made from the Cortese grape in Gavi as well as blends of Cortese with Arneis and Favorita from Colli Tortonesi and Alto Monferrato. Since the 1980s there has been growing numbers of experimental plantings with the international varieties of Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Merlot, Pinot noir, Sauvignon blanc and Syrah. Other local or indigenous grapes include Baratuciat, Bonarda, Croatina, Erbaluce, Freisa, Grignolino, Grisa nera, Malvasia nera, Pelaverga, Plassa, Rossese bianco, Timorasso, Uvalino, Uva Rara and Vespolina.
The Piedmont produces more DOCG wines by volume than any other Italian wine region with nearly 84 % of all the areas wine production falling under a DOCG designation. The area has no Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT) classification, in contrast to Tuscany where IGT wines or Super Tuscans make up a significant portion of that region 's wine production.
Some varietal style wines are made in the Piedmont region with the name of the grape and town both appearing on the label. Some DOC examples include Barbera d'Alba, Barbera d'Asti, and Dolcetto di Dogliani made entirely from the Barbera and Dolcetto grape respectively.
In 1980, the wines of the Barolo region became one of the first Italian wines to receive DOCG status. Produced to the southwest of the town of Alba in the hills of the Langhe, Barolo is a big, tannic expression of the Nebbiolo grape. The soil of this area is a composition of clay and marl which helps to lessen the naturally high acidity of Nebbiolo. The Tanaro river flows through the heart of Barolo country and serves as a tempering influence on the region 's summertime heat till harvest time in late October / mid November. A small wine region, extending over 7 miles in length and 5 miles at its widest point, Barolo produces about 500,000 cases of wine annually. Nearly 87 % of the zone productions comes from vineyards in five communities: Barolo, Castiglione Falletto, La Morra, Monforte d'Alba, and Serralunga d'Alba. Wines from the Central Valley of La Morra and Barolo tend to be very perfumed and velvety with less tannins than other Barolos. The soil of the Central Valley itself is more clay based with increased levels of magnesium oxide and manganese. The wines from the Serralunga Valley are more full bodied and tannic and require aging of 12 -- 15 years before they hit their peak. The soil of the Serralunga is heavy in sand, iron, limestone, phosphorus and potassium.
Being produced from the same grape as Barolo and less than 10 miles apart, there are a lot of similarities that Barbaresco has with it neighboring wines but the slight maritime influence of the Tanaro river helps fashion distinctly different wines. Generally less tannic, Barbaresco tend to be more elegant and approachable in their youth. The Barbaresco DOCG regulation stipulates wines with minimum alcohol content of 12.5 % and 2 years minimum aging in the winery for standard labels and 4 years minimum for riservas wines. Being an even smaller zone then Barolo, producers in the region produce a little more than 200,000 cases annually. The majority of Barbaresco production takes place in 3 communities: Barbaresco, Treiso and Neive. The soils in the Barbaresco zone are more uniform across the region which tends to produce a more consistent profile with the wines than what can be achieved across the widely different areas of Barolo.
The white wines made from the Moscato Bianco (also known as Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains) are most noted for their frizzante and sparkling spumante styles but some still wines are produced as well. Located northeast of Alba, the wines from the Asti region are known for their delicate light bodies, low alcohol content and slightly sweet nature. Like many sparkling wines, Asti are not vintage dated even though a majority of the grapes might all come from the same vintage year. The wines are typically at their peak between 1 and 2 years from their release.
The Barbera grape is the most widely planted variety in all of the Piedmont and makes a juicy, muscular red wine that is not as tannic as Barolo and Barbaresco. It is grown in nearly every major wine making region of the Piedmont but seems to do best in the southern part of the province of Asti in the Nizza DOCG zone. Some producers are experimenting with blending Barbera with Nebbiolo to combine the former 's fruitiness with the later 's structure. The light fruitiness of wines from the Dolcetto grape has caused some wine writers to describe it as the Italian version of Beaujolais. The wines have a sense of spiciness to them with little acid and tannins. They are able to be drunk relatively young and tend to be the every day drinking wines of the Piedmontese.
Up until the 1980s, when the wines of the Friuli - Venezia Giulia began to receive notice, the white wines of the Gavi region were touted as the best expression of dry Italian wine. Made primarily from the Cortese grape, these wines are noted for their dry, crisp acidity with citrus and mineral notes. The white wines made from the Arneis grape tend to be dry, vibrant and full body with notes of pears and apricots. Produced in the hills of the Roero to the northwest of Alba, the name Arneis means "rascal '' in Piedmontese.
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where does morton's steakhouse get their beef | Morton 's the Steakhouse - wikipedia
Morton 's The Steakhouse is a chain of more than 78 steak restaurants with locations in the United States and franchised abroad. It is a wholly owned subsidiary of Landry 's, Inc... founded in Chicago in 1978.
Morton 's was co-founded in 1978 by Arnold J. Morton and Klaus Fritsch. Before they became friends and restaurant entrepreneurs, Morton and Fritsch worked together at the Playboy Club in Montreal. While the club was in the process of changing its menu, Fritsch prepared a hamburger for Morton to sample. Morton said the burger was the best he 'd ever tasted. Together, they opened Morton 's of Chicago in Newberry Plaza in Downtown Chicago. The original location remains open.
In 1987, Morton 's, then with $15 million in sales and nine restaurants throughout the United States, was sold for $12.4 million to the venture capital firm Quantum Restaurant Group, Inc. in partnership with the Baltimore brokerage house Alex. Brown & Sons. Fritsch stayed on as president.
In December 2011, Tilman Fertitta, President, CEO and sole owner of Landry 's, Inc., announced his company had acquired all shares of Morton 's stock, assuming complete ownership. In 2012, Landry 's completed the acquisition and moved company operations to its headquarters in Houston.
Some Morton 's locations host ESPN 's "Lunch with a Legend '' series, where guests dine and interact with current and former athletes: in the past these have included Dwyane Wade, Bobby Hull, Derrick Rose, Dick Vermeil, Tony Stewart, Elgin Baylor and others. Morton 's also hosts "Celebrity Server '' events to raise funds for local foundations and charities. Local celebrities act as waiters at these special events, which have included Larry Fitzgerald, Jim Furyk, Jack Nicklaus and Jonathan Vilma.
Headquarter for Landry 's Inc List of all subsidiaries of Landry 's Inc
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the wisdom of crowds said what about public opinion | The Wisdom of crowds - Wikipedia
The Wisdom of Crowds: Why the Many Are Smarter Than the Few and How Collective Wisdom Shapes Business, Economies, Societies and Nations, published in 2004, is a book written by James Surowiecki about the aggregation of information in groups, resulting in decisions that, he argues, are often better than could have been made by any single member of the group. The book presents numerous case studies and anecdotes to illustrate its argument, and touches on several fields, primarily economics and psychology.
The opening anecdote relates Francis Galton 's surprise that the crowd at a county fair accurately guessed the weight of an ox when their individual guesses were averaged (the average was closer to the ox 's true butchered weight than the estimates of most crowd members).
The book relates to diverse collections of independently deciding individuals, rather than crowd psychology as traditionally understood. Its central thesis, that a diverse collection of independently deciding individuals is likely to make certain types of decisions and predictions better than individuals or even experts, draws many parallels with statistical sampling; however, there is little overt discussion of statistics in the book.
Its title is an allusion to Charles Mackay 's Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds, published in 1841.
Surowiecki breaks down the advantages he sees in disorganized decisions into three main types, which he classifies as
Not all crowds (groups) are wise. Consider, for example, mobs or crazed investors in a stock market bubble. According to Surowiecki, these key criteria separate wise crowds from irrational ones:
Based on Surowiecki 's book, Oinas - Kukkonen captures the wisdom of crowds approach with the following eight conjectures:
Surowiecki studies situations (such as rational bubbles) in which the crowd produces very bad judgment, and argues that in these types of situations their cognition or cooperation failed because (in one way or another) the members of the crowd were too conscious of the opinions of others and began to emulate each other and conform rather than think differently. Although he gives experimental details of crowds collectively swayed by a persuasive speaker, he says that the main reason that groups of people intellectually conform is that the system for making decisions has a systematic flaw.
Surowiecki asserts that what happens when the decision making environment is not set up to accept the crowd, is that the benefits of individual judgments and private information are lost and that the crowd can only do as well as its smartest member, rather than perform better (as he shows is otherwise possible). Detailed case histories of such failures include:
The Office of the Director of National Intelligence and the CIA have created a Wikipedia - style information sharing network called Intellipedia that will help the free flow of information to prevent such failures again.
At the 2005 O'Reilly Emerging Technology Conference Surowiecki presented a session entitled Independent Individuals and Wise Crowds, or Is It Possible to Be Too Connected?
The question for all of us is, how can you have interaction without information cascades, without losing the independence that 's such a key factor in group intelligence?
He recommends:
Tim O'Reilly and others also discuss the success of Google, wikis, blogging, and Web 2.0 in the context of the wisdom of crowds.
Surowiecki is a very strong advocate of the benefits of decision markets and regrets the failure of DARPA 's controversial Policy Analysis Market to get off the ground. He points to the success of public and internal corporate markets as evidence that a collection of people with varying points of view but the same motivation (to make a good guess) can produce an accurate aggregate prediction. According to Surowiecki, the aggregate predictions have been shown to be more reliable than the output of any think tank. He advocates extensions of the existing futures markets even into areas such as terrorist activity and prediction markets within companies.
To illustrate this thesis, he says that his publisher can publish a more compelling output by relying on individual authors under one - off contracts bringing book ideas to them. In this way, they are able to tap into the wisdom of a much larger crowd than would be possible with an in - house writing team.
Will Hutton has argued that Surowiecki 's analysis applies to value judgments as well as factual issues, with crowd decisions that "emerge of our own aggregated free will (being) astonishingly... decent ''. He concludes that "There 's no better case for pluralism, diversity and democracy, along with a genuinely independent press. ''
Applications of the wisdom - of - crowds effect exist in three general categories: Prediction markets, Delphi methods, and extensions of the traditional opinion poll.
The most common application is the prediction market, a speculative or betting market created to make verifiable predictions. Surowiecki discusses the success of prediction markets. Similar to Delphi methods but unlike opinion polls, prediction (information) markets ask questions like, "Who do you think will win the election? '' and predict outcomes rather well. Answers to the question, "Who will you vote for? '' are not as predictive.
Assets are cash values tied to specific outcomes (e.g., Candidate X will win the election) or parameters (e.g., Next quarter 's revenue). The current market prices are interpreted as predictions of the probability of the event or the expected value of the parameter. Betfair is the world 's biggest prediction exchange, with around $28 billion traded in 2007. NewsFutures is an international prediction market that generates consensus probabilities for news events. Intrade.com, which operated a person to person prediction market based in Dublin Ireland achieved very high media attention in 2012 related to the US Presidential Elections, with more than 1.5 million search references to Intrade and Intrade data. Several companies now offer enterprise class prediction marketplaces to predict project completion dates, sales, or the market potential for new ideas. A number of Web - based quasi-prediction marketplace companies have sprung up to offer predictions primarily on sporting events and stock markets but also on other topics. Those companies include Piqqem, Cake Financial, Covestor, Predictify, and the Motley Fool (with its Fool CAPS product). The principle of the prediction market is also used in project management software such as Yanomo to let team members predict a project 's "real '' deadline and budget.
The Delphi method is a systematic, interactive forecasting method which relies on a panel of independent experts. The carefully selected experts answer questionnaires in two or more rounds. After each round, a facilitator provides an anonymous summary of the experts ' forecasts from the previous round as well as the reasons they provided for their judgments. Thus, participants are encouraged to revise their earlier answers in light of the replies of other members of the group. It is believed that during this process the range of the answers will decrease and the group will converge towards the "correct '' answer. Many of the consensus forecasts have proven to be more accurate than forecasts made by individuals.
Designed as an optimized method for unleashing the wisdom of crowds, this approach implements real - time feedback loops around synchronous groups of users with the goal of achieving more accurate insights from fewer numbers of users. Human Swarming (sometimes referred to as Social Swarming) is modeled after biological processes in birds, fish, and insects, and is enabled among networked users by using mediating software such as the UNU collective intelligence platform. As published by Rosenberg (2015), such real - time control systems enable groups of human participants to behave as a unified collective intelligence. When logged into the UNU platform, for example, groups of distributed users can collectively answer questions, generate ideas, and make predictions as a singular emergent entity. Early testing shows that human swarms can out - predict individuals across a variety of real - world projections.
Hugo - winning writer John Brunner 's 1975 science fiction novel The Shockwave Rider includes an elaborate planet - wide information futures and betting pool called "Delphi '' based on the Delphi method.
Illusionist Derren Brown claimed to use the ' Wisdom of Crowds ' concept to explain how he correctly predicted the UK National Lottery results in September 2009. His explanation was met with criticism on - line, by people who argued that the concept was misapplied. The methodology employed was too, flawed; the sample of people, could n't have been totally objective and free in thought, because they were gathered multiple times and socialised with each other too much; a condition Surowiecki tells us is corrosive to pure independence and the diversity of mind required (Surowiecki 2004: 38). Groups thus fall into groupthink where they increasingly make decisions based on influence of each other and are thus less accurate. However, other commentators have suggested that, given the entertainment nature of the show, Brown 's misapplication of the theory may have been a deliberate smokescreen to conceal his true method.
This was also shown in the television series East of Eden where a social network of roughly 10,000 individuals came up with ideas to stop missiles in a very short span of time.
Wisdom of Crowds would have a significant influence on the naming of the crowdsourcing creative company Tongal, which is an anagram for Galton, the last name of the social - scientist highlighted in the introduction to Surowiecki 's book. Sir Francis Galton recognized the ability of a crowd 's averaged weight - guesses for oxen to exceed the accuracy of experts.
In his book Embracing the Wide Sky, Daniel Tammet finds fault with this notion. Tammet points out the potential for problems in systems which have poorly defined means of pooling knowledge: Subject matter experts can be overruled and even wrongly punished by less knowledgeable persons in systems like Wikipedia, citing a case of this on Wikipedia. Furthermore, Tammet mentions the assessment of the accuracy of Wikipedia as described in a study mentioned in Nature in 2005, outlining several flaws in the study 's methodology which included that the study made no distinction between minor errors and large errors.
Tammet also cites the Kasparov versus the World, an online competition that pitted the brainpower of tens of thousands of online chess players choosing moves in a match against Garry Kasparov, which was won by Kasparov, not the "crowd '' (which was not "wise '' according to Surowiecki 's criteria.). Although Kasparov did say, "It is the greatest game in the history of chess. The sheer number of ideas, the complexity, and the contribution it has made to chess make it the most important game ever played. ''
In his book You Are Not a Gadget, Jaron Lanier argues that crowd wisdom is best suited for problems that involve optimization, but ill - suited for problems that require creativity or innovation. In the online article Digital Maoism, Lanier argues that the collective is more likely to be smart only when
Lanier argues that only under those circumstances can a collective be smarter than a person. If any of these conditions are broken, the collective becomes unreliable or worse.
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when did they start building the rail in hawaii | Honolulu rail transit - Wikipedia
The Honolulu Rail Transit Project (also known as the Honolulu High - Capacity Transit Corridor Project) is an urban rail rapid transit system under construction in Honolulu County, Oahu, Hawaii. The mostly - elevated system features design elements from both heavy rail systems and light metros, with a commuter rail - like design incorporated into trains and suburban stations. It will become the first large - scale publicly run metro system in the United States to feature platform screen doors and will be driver-less. The first phase of the project, linking East Kapolei and Aloha Stadium, is scheduled to open in late 2020, while the second phase of the project continuing the line across urban Honolulu to Ala Moana Center is due to open in December 2025.
For more than 40 years, debate over the development of a rail system in Honolulu has been a major point of contention in local politics, especially leading into the 2008, 2012, and 2016 election cycles. Proponents of the system say it will alleviate worsening traffic congestion, already among the worst in the United States. They assert that the urban agglomeration in south Oahu is ideally suited to rail as it is constrained by mountains to a narrow strip along the coast, which will be well served by a single rail line and which has the fourth highest population density in the US. Rail opponent and freeway advocate Panos Prevedouros has questioned its cost effectiveness compared to alternatives and claims that it will have marginal impact on future congestion and that new roads will therefore still be required.
The project is financed by a surcharge on local taxes as well as a $1.55 billion grant from the Federal Transit Administration (FTA). After major cost overruns, the tax surchages were extended in 2016 by five years to raise another $1.2 billion; however that additional funding was only sufficient for construction out to Middle Street in Kalihi. The FTA stated that its contribution is contingent to completion of the line all the way to Ala Moana Center and will not be increased. After much wrangling, the state legislature in 2017 approved $2.4 billion in additional taxes to allow the city to complete the project according to the original plan.
Construction of the final 4.3 - mile (6.9 km) section through downtown Honolulu, which is expected to be the most difficult to build, has not commenced. The contractor selection process for this section was restarted in September 2017 and is expected to take eighteen months. The first major contract for that section, a $400 million contract to relocate utilities to clear the path of the line, was awarded in May 2018.
The final cost has grown from preliminary projections of $4 billion in 2006 to between $9 billion and $10 billion by 2017. Critics have called for a "forensic audit '' to establish the cause of the increase. The tax increase legislation passed in 2017 also requires the State auditor carry out an audit of the project 's accounts and to consider alternatives for completing the system.
Plans for a mass transit line to connect Honolulu 's urban center with outlying areas began in the 1960s, but funding was not approved until 2005. The controversy over the rail line was the dominant issue for local politics leading into the 2008 Honolulu elections, and culminated in a city charter amendment which left the final decision to a direct vote of the citizens of Oahu. Construction of the rail line was approved with 53 % of voters in favor, and ground broke on project construction on February 22, 2011.
For more than 50 years, Honolulu politicians have attempted to construct a rail transit line. In 1966, then - mayor Neal S. Blaisdell suggested a rail line as a solution to alleviate traffic problems in Honolulu, stating, "Taken in the mass, the automobile is a noxious mechanism whose destiny in workaday urban use is to frustrate man and make dead certain that he approaches his daily occupation unhappy and inefficient. ''
Frank Fasi was elected to office in 1968, and started planning studies for a rail project, named Honolulu Area Rapid Transit (HART), in 1977. After Fasi lost the 1980 reelection to Eileen Anderson, President Ronald Reagan cut off funding for all upcoming mass transit projects, which led Anderson to cancel HART in 1981. Fasi defeated Anderson in their 1984 rematch and restarted the HART project in 1986, but this second effort was stopped in a 1992 vote by the Honolulu City Council against the necessary tax increase.
Fasi resigned in 1994 to run for governor, with Jeremy Harris winning the special election to replace him. Harris unsuccessfully pursued a bus rapid transit project as an interim solution until he left office in 2004. His successor, Mufi Hannemann, began the Honolulu High - Capacity Transit Corridor Project (HHCTCP), the island 's fourth attempt to build a mass transit system operating in a dedicated right - of - way.
The City and County of Honolulu Department of Transportation Services released the first formal study related to the HHCTCP on November 1, 2006, the Alternatives Analysis Report. The report compared the cost and benefits of a "fixed guideway system '', along with three alternatives. The first expanded the existing bus system to match population growth. A second option called for a further expansion to the bus system, with improvements to existing roads. The third alternative proposed a two - lane flyover above the H - 1 freeway between Pearl City and Honolulu International Airport, continuing over Nimitz Highway, and into downtown Honolulu. The report recommended construction of the fixed guideway, and is considered the city 's official justification for building a rail line.
A second planning document, the Draft Environmental Impact Statement (DEIS), studied possible natural and social impacts of the construction and operation of the HHCTCP. The DEIS was completed and cleared for public release by the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) on October 29, 2008. After minor changes were made to comply with state law, the document was distributed via the city 's official project website four days later. The DEIS indicated that impacts of the rail project would include land acquisition from private owners on the route, displacement of residents and businesses, aesthetic concerns related to the elevated guideway, and noise from passing trains.
The city was criticized for timing the release only two days before the 2008 general election. City Councilmember Ann Kobayashi, running as a mayoral candidate against incumbent Hannemann, suggested that the city deliberately withheld key information to early voters who had already cast their ballots for the mayoral candidates, and a city charter amendment related to the project. The anti-rail advocacy group Stop Rail Now criticized the report for not further discussing bus rapid transit and toll lanes, options studied earlier by the city in its Alternatives Analysis.
The third and final official planning document, the Final Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS), was approved and cleared for public release by the FTA on June 14, 2010. The FEIS addresses and incorporates public comments received regarding the DEIS. The FTA subsequently declared the environmental review process complete in a record of decision issued on January 18, 2011.
The importance of the Honolulu High - Capacity Transit Corridor Project in the 2008 mayoral election led one observer to describe the vote as a "referendum on rail transit ''. Two challengers emerged as rivals to incumbent Mufi Hannemann: City Councilmember Ann Kobayashi and University of Hawaii professor Panos D. Prevedouros. Kobayashi supported a "rubber - tired '' mass transit system, as opposed to the conventional steel - wheel - on - steel - rail system chosen by the Hannemann administration. Prevedouros, on the other hand, opposed any mass transit project, favoring construction of a reversible tollway over the H - 1, similar to the Managed Lane option which the Alternatives Analysis studied and rejected, and reworking existing road systems to ease congestion. No candidate won a majority of votes in the September 20 non-partisan primary, forcing a runoff between Hannemann and Kobayashi; Hannemann successfully retained his post with 58 % of the vote in the November 4 general election.
On April 22, 2008, the Stop Rail Now advocacy group announced their intent to file a petition with the city to place a question on the 2008 ballot to create an ordinance that read: "Honolulu mass transit shall not include trains or rail ''. Stop Rail Now attempted to submit the petition with 49,041 signatures to City Clerk Denise De Costa on August 5, but was initially denied after De Costa claimed the city charter did not allow the petition to be submitted less than 180 days before a general election, as the wording of the petition called for a special election. Stop Rail Now filed a lawsuit to force the city to accept the petition, and the courts ruled in Stop Rail Now 's favor on August 14. Stop Rail Now 's petition drive ultimately failed on September 4 when De Costa deemed only 35,056 of the signatures valid, well short of the 44,525 required.
In response to the possibility that Stop Rail Now 's petition would fail, the City Council had however voted on August 21 to place a proposed amendment to the city charter on the ballot, asking voters to decide the fate of the project. Mayor Hannemann signed the proposal the following day. The City Council 's proposed amendment was not intended to have a direct legal effect on the city 's ability to continue the project, but was meant as a means for Oahu residents to express their opinions on its construction. The charter amendment was approved with 53 % of votes cast in favor of rail and 47 % against. Majorities of voters in Leeward and Central Oahu, the areas that will be served by the project, voted in favor of the amendment, while the majority of those living outside the project 's scope in Windward Oahu and East Honolulu voted against it.
In the 2016 Honolulu mayoral elections the main three candidates again took opposing views on rail. Former lieutenant - governor Charles Djou, former mayor Peter Carlisle, and incumbent Kirk Caldwell all ran for mayor with the stated goal of finishing rail. However, Republican Djou ran on drastically cutting spending on rail by cutting funding on buying cars on the rail before its completion, and hiring mainland consultants. Kirk Caldwell also stated that spending on rail should be cut, but instead by shortening the rail to end at Middle Street. Carlisle was the only candidate in full support of funding the rail system and stated that rail has gone too far to be stopped. Kirk Caldwell won the election, and promptly went on to adopt Carlisle 's position that rail should be completed.
Construction on the HHCTCP rail line was originally scheduled to begin in December 2009 but did not occur on that date owing to delays in the project review process and delays in obtaining federal approval of the environmental impact statement.
In January 2010, Republican Governor Linda Lingle publicly recommended that the city alter plans for the rail line after news reports on FTA documents where the federal agency raised issues over declining tax revenues in connection with a global economic recession, and commissioned a study by the state to review the project 's finances in March. The state financial study, publicly released on December 2, 2010, indicated that the project would likely experience a $1.7 billion overrun above the $5.3 billion projected cost, and that collections from the General Excise Tax would be 30 % below forecasts. Then Mayor Peter Carlisle (Democrat) dismissed the study as "damaged goods, '' and "a pre-determined anti-rail rant. '' He also pointed to several conclusions as "erroneous '' and "inaccurate '' before concluding that "spending a third of a million dollars for this shoddy, biased analysis is an appalling waste of our tax dollars. '' Lingle 's Democratic successor, Neil Abercrombie, publicly stated that the financial analysis would not affect his decision to approve or disapprove of the project, saying that the state 's responsibility is limited to the environmental review process, and that decisions regarding the project 's finances belong to the city and the FTA. Governor Abercrombie subsequently approved the project 's final environmental impact statement on December 16, 2010. The Honolulu City Council held a hearing on January 12, 2011 about the state 's financial review, but the hearing was not attended by any state officials, who had been invited to testify.
On January 18, 2011, the FTA issued a "record of decision '', indicating that the HHCTCP had met the requirements of its environmental review and that the city was allowed to begin construction work on the project. The record of decision allowed the city to begin negotiating with owners of land that will be purchased for the project, to begin relocating utility lines to make way for construction of the line and stations, and to purchase rolling stock for the rail line. A ground - breaking ceremony was held on February 22, 2011 in Kapolei, at the site of the future East Kapolei station along Kualakai Parkway.
In 2014 HART CEO Dan Grabauskas blamed lawsuits, launched in 2011, for some of the cost overruns after bids to construct the first nine stations exceeded the budget by $100 million. His claims were disputed by the plaintiffs in one of the cases who said HART could have put the stations out to tender and that HART had deliberately delayed the legal proceedings so a judgement would only be delivered after a significant proportion of the line had been completed.
Like most major infrastructure work in Hawaii, construction of the rail line is likely to uncover historic human remains, notably in its downtown Honolulu section. The Oahu Island Burial Council (part of the State Historic Preservation Division, within the State of Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources) refused to sign a programmatic agreement on October 21, 2009, over concerns about likely burial sites located along the line 's proposed route over Halekauwila Street in Kaka ʻako. Three construction projects in the area since 2002 have each encountered unforeseen human remains that led to delays, and archaeologist Thomas Dye stated, "The council is absolutely right that you should expect to find burials on Halekauwila Street ''.
The Burial Council 's core contention is the city 's decision to conduct an archaeological survey of the rail line 's route in phases, meaning construction on a majority of the line will be complete by the time the survey in the Kaka ʻako area is performed, which in turn increases the likelihood that any remains discovered will be moved instead of being allowed to remain in situ. In response to the Burial Council 's concerns, the city agreed to begin conducting an archaeological survey of the area in 2010, two years earlier than originally planned. The state Department of Land and Natural Resources later signed the city 's programmatic agreement on January 15, 2011, over the continuing concerns of the Burial Council.
The city 's decision to conduct the archaeological survey in phases subsequently led to a lawsuit filed on February 1, 2011, by the Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation on behalf of cultural practitioner Paulette Kaleikini. The suit, which named both the city and the State of Hawaii as defendants, contended that state law requires the full length of the rail line to have an archaeological survey conducted before any construction takes place, and seeks to void the environmental impact statement and all construction permits issued for the project. Kaleikini 's lawyers filed on February 18 a request for an injunction to stop work on the project until the case is resolved. The suit was initially dismissed on March 23, 2011, after Circuit Court Judge Gary Chang ruled that state and federal laws allow the archaeological surveys to be conducted in phases. Kaleikini 's lawyers subsequently appealed to the Hawaii Supreme Court, which heard oral arguments in the case on May 24, 2012. The court ruled on August 24, 2012, that it agreed with plaintiff Kaleikini that the archaeological survey needed to be completed before construction could take place, and that the State Historic Preservation Division did not comply with state law when it approved the project. The case has now been remanded to Circuit Court. On December 27, 2012, the United States District Court for the District of Hawaii granted the plaintiffs ' injunction, and ordered that all construction - related activities in segment 4 of the archaeological survey be halted until compliance with the Hawaii Supreme Court decision made earlier this year is met. This ruling does not affect construction activities in the first three segments, nor does it affect construction planning, design, or engineering in segment 4, which is the final segment to be built. The Phase 4 area encompasses the downtown area and its immediate environs, including Chinatown, Mother Waldron Park, and Beretania Street. Judge Tashima, the only sitting judge on the case, ruled on condition of the injunction that the city is required to file periodic status updates on their compliance with the judgment. The injunction will then terminate 30 days after defendants file a notice of final compliance. City planners and rail representatives stated that archeological surveys will be completed early in 2013, and that this ruling would have no effect on construction in City Center. Both sides are expected to appeal portions of the ruling that they do not agree with.
After winning the 2004 election, Hannemann announced that construction of a rail line was an administration priority. The following May and upon prompting by the city, the Hawaii State Legislature passed a bill (Act 247) to allow counties a one - half percent increase in the Hawaii General Excise Tax (GET), from 4 % to 4.5 %, to fund transportation projects. According to the bill, increased revenue would be delivered to counties implementing the raised tax to fund general public transportation infrastructure throughout Hawaii, and to pay for mass transit in the case of the City and County of Honolulu. Money collected from the initial 4 % GET would remain state revenue.
Republican governor Linda Lingle initially threatened to veto the bill, believing that money destined for county governments should be collected by the individual counties. After compromising with legislative leaders and Mayor Hannemann, however, she allowed the bill to become law. On July 12, 2005, the bill was enacted as Act 247 of the Session Laws of Hawaii 2005, without the Governor 's signature. A month later, the Honolulu City Council authorized the one - half percent GET increase, and Hannemann signed the measure into law on August 24. Act 247 required Honolulu to use the funds only for the construction and operation of a mass transit system, and barred its use for public roads and other existing transit systems, such as TheBus. Since no other county authorized the excise tax increase before the deadline of December 31, 2005, the Hawaii GET remains at 4 % for Hawaii 's three other counties. The increase went into effect on January 1, 2007, and was due to expire on December 31, 2022.
The Legislature considered a bill in the 2009 legislative session that would have redirected income from the half - percent increase back to the state to offset a $1.8 billion projected shortfall in the following three fiscal years. The bill was opposed by Mayor Hannemann and other city leaders who believed that redirecting the money would jeopardize federal funding for the project, and was eventually dropped after U.S. Senator Daniel Inouye indicated to the Legislature that he shared the city 's concerns.
In January 2016 the Council extended the GET for another five years to add $1.2 billion in funding to cover a budget blowout. The Council also required that the money raised by the extension go into a contingency fund and to pay for disability access to the system. HART was required to provide quarterly financial reports to the Council.
On 1 September 2017 the Legislature, after meeting for a week in a special session on rail financing, approved further taxes to raise $2.4 billion for the project. The taxes include a further three - year extension to the 0.5 percent General Excise Tax surcharge, which will now expire in 2030, and a thirteen - year, 1.0 percent surcharge on the existing 9.25 percent statewide Transient Accommodation Tax (TAT) which is charged to tourists. Efforts to pass a funding bill in May 2017 had failed and the impetus for the special session was a FTA deadline of September 15 for a funding plan to cover the shortfall. The bill also grants the state government oversight over the project including the appointment of two non-voting representatives on the HART board and calls for an audit of HART by the state auditor. It was signed into law by the governor on September 5.
In mid 2016 the FTA requested that HART develop a "recovery plan '' by August 7, 2016. Also in June a separate report by Jacobs Engineering, the project management contractor, said under a worst - case scenario the final cost would $10.79 billion.
In January 2017 group called "Salvage the Rail '' published a plan, based on Option 2A from six alternatives proposed by the FTA to HART in 2016, that would terminate the elevated section at Middle Street and run at street level to the terminus along a route one block inland from the HART plan. The system would need to be reconfigured to use new driver - operated low floor vehicles, lowering the platforms on the stations already constructed. Proponents say it would save $3 billion and four years of construction, as well as avoid disturbing burial sites under the downtown area.
After a lodgement extension was granted by the FTA, HART submitted its recovery plan in April 2017 which concluded that completion of the original 21 station route was the only viable option. An alternative "Plan B '' to build only 14 stations within the already funded $6.5 billion budget, was ruled out because of lower ridership, legal risks, insufficient contingency and other reasons. The new project cost was $8.165 billion with media reports indicating that after financing charges are included it could be over $10 billion. An updated schedule for opening said the section from East Kapolei to Aloha Stadium will open at the end of 2020 and operation of the full route by December 2025.
In September 2017 HART submitted an updated recovery plan to the FTA with a new estimate price of $9.02 billion. The plan still includes $8.165 billion in construction costs, but has reduced financing costs of $858 million following state legislation granting both prolonged and new taxes to fund the project. The State Auditor has been tasked to consider alternatives for completing the system, as part of its audit of HART. As of January 2018 the FTA has not formally accepted the new recovery plan but has asked HART for more details including how it came up with its tax - revenue forecasts.
The project constructs an elevated rapid transit line from the eastern edge of Kapolei, near the University of Hawaii - West Oahu campus, to Ala Moana Center (East of Honolulu downtown). The line passes through communities along southern Oahu, via Honolulu International Airport and downtown Honolulu. The long term plan includes four extensions: two extensions east, to the University of Hawaii - Manoa campus and to Waikiki, one extension west through Kapolei to Kalaeloa, and a link through Salt Lake. None of these extensions is currently funded, but in November 2017 the rail authority took a first step towards preserving a corridor for the extension between Ala Moana Center and the University of Hawaii at Manoa.
The rail line will have twenty - one stations and run from Kapolei to Honolulu, passing through Waipahu, Pearl City, Waimalu, Aiea, and Halawa. From the eastern terminus at Ala Moana Shopping Center in Honolulu, the line is proposed to split into two future extensions to the University of Hawaii at Manoa campus and Waikiki. Originally, the line was to fork near Aloha Stadium into two routes, one passing Honolulu International Airport, and the other through Salt Lake, before reuniting at Middle Street in Kalihi. The city council initially decided to build the Salt Lake route before the airport route, as a result of horse - trading with City Councilmember Romy Cachola, whose constituents included Salt Lake residents and whose vote was needed to pass the decision. After the city charter amendment on rail transit passed, the City Council reconsidered the decision, and decided to re-route the rail line to pass by Pearl Harbor and the airport, without a Salt Lake alignment. The airport route is 4 % more expensive, but is expected to have significantly higher ridership since it will ferry workers to both the airport and the Pearl Harbor military base. The trains will operate with up to twenty departures per hour. The Rail will operate from 4am to midnight.
On October 21, 2009, the city announced Kiewit Pacific Co. had won the $483 million contract to build the first two stages of the line, bidding $90 million under the expected price. The stations were tendered separately.
The construction of the rail line started from suburban areas in Kapolei and Ewa, and progresses towards the urban center in Honolulu. There will be 112 columns from East Kapolei to Ewa. The choice to start from Kapolei was made because the first phase must include a baseyard for trains, which is more cheaply built away from the center, but also because the city chose to delay to later phases of the project the major infrastructure impacts and unpopular traffic delays that will be associated with construction in the urban center.
As of November 2016, the line is scheduled to open in two phases in late 2020 and late 2025:
The line will use 256 ft (78 m) four - car train sets, each with the capacity to carry about 780 passengers, similar in weight to light rail systems elsewhere in the United States (such as the MAX in Portland, Oregon), as opposed to heavier, and thus more expensive, lines found on rapid transit systems like the subways and elevated systems of Chicago and New York City. However, the stations will be standalone structures and will be substantially bigger than typical light rail stations. Physically, the Honolulu system will have a good deal in common with light rapid transit systems such as SkyTrain in Vancouver, British Columbia or the Copenhagen Metro, as well as the Docklands Light Railway in London. The system will be the first metro system in the United States to feature platform gates and will be driverless.
Rolling stock for the line will initially include 80 cars in 20 four - car train sets built by a joint venture between AnsaldoBreda and Ansaldo STS named Ansaldo Honolulu. (AnsaldoBreda and Ansaldo STS previously collaborated on the construction and operation of vehicles for the Copenhagen Metro and the Brescia Metro). Both companies were later bought by Hitachi Rail. Each car will be 64 ft (20 m) long, weigh 72,000 lb (33,000 kg), and have 36 seats with a listed total capacity of 195 people. The cars will be powered by a third - rail electrification system. The two unsuccessful bidders for the rail car contract, Bombardier Transportation and Sumitomo Corporation of America, filed protests over the award. Both protests were rejected during the administrative process, but Bombardier sought judicial review of their bid protest. The administrative decision against Bombardier 's protest was affirmed by both the state Circuit Court and the Intermediate Court of Appeals.
In December 2016, Hitachi Rail Italy reported defects were discovered in the welds in the extruded aluminum beams of twenty - seven car shells, four of which were already in Hawaii. The manufacturer will fix the problems, but warned delivery may be delayed as production of new vehicles will be halted. In March 2017 HART said they would meet the interim opening needs after repair of the defective cars and that full opening would not be affected.
In May 2017 trains were towed on tracks in Honolulu for the first time, to check clearances. Testing of trains under their own power commenced in October 2017.
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manic street preachers you stole the sun from my heart meaning | You Stole the Sun from My Heart - wikipedia
"You Stole the Sun from My Heart '' is a song by Manic Street Preachers, released as the third single from the album This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours. All three members of the band - James Dean Bradfield, Sean Moore and Nicky Wire - share the writing credits.
Wire has described the music as a mix of New Order and Nirvana: "something you might be able to go along with if you really do the audio equivalent of squinting -- and explained that the drum loop (yes, more drum machines) was sampled by Moore from the sound of a pinball machine, of all things ''.
The lyric concerns Nicky Wire 's dislike of touring. He has said that as much as he enjoys being on stage, he hates the routine of travelling, soundchecks, hotels and the homesickness it causes.
The song title is namechecked in a much later Manic Street Preachers single, "Your Love Alone Is Not Enough ''.
The song was included on the 2002 compilation Forever Delayed
The single was released on 8 March 1999 in the UK, and reached # 5 on the UK Singles Chart, spending 12 weeks in the top 100. In Australia, "You Stole the Sun From My Heart '' spent one week on the ARIA top 100 singles chart in April 1999, peaking at # 97. The single peaked at # 94 in the Netherlands in June 1999, spending 3 weeks on the chart.
CD one contains a live version of The Clash 's Train in Vain, and the B - side "Socialist Serenade ''.
In the 2000 Brit Awards, "You Stole the Sun From My Heart '' was nominated from "Best British Single '', but failed to win the prize.
The video presents a dark / light contrast where the band plays in a room in front of a huge ornate feature window. Outside the weather rapidly alternates between stormy and sunny. Rabbits and animated birds also make an appearance.
All music written by James Dean Bradfield and Sean Moore; except where indicated. All lyrics written by Nick Jones; except where indicated.
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who was dulce et decorum est written for | Dulce et Decorum est - wikipedia
"Dulce et Decorum est '' (read here) is a poem written by Wilfred Owen during World War I, and published posthumously in 1920. The Latin title is taken from the Roman poet Horace and means "it is sweet and honorable... '', followed by pro patria mori, which means "to die for one 's country ''. One of Owen 's most renowned works, the poem is known for its horrific imagery and condemnation of war. It was drafted at Craiglockhart in the first half of October 1917 and later revised, probably at Scarborough but possibly Ripon, between January and March 1918. The earliest surviving manuscript is dated 8 October 1917 and addressed to his mother, Susan Owen, with the message "Here is a gas poem done yesterday (which is not private, but not final). ''
Formally, the poem combines two sonnets, as it is formed by 28 lines, though the spacing of the stanzas is irregular. The text presents a vignette from the front lines of World War I; specifically, of British soldiers attacked with chlorine gas. In the rush when the shells with poison gas explode, one soldier is unable to get his mask on in time. The speaker of the poem describes the gruesome effects of the gas on the man and concludes that, if one were to see first - hand the reality of war, one might not repeat mendacious platitudes like dulce et decorum est pro patria mori: "How sweet and honourable it is to die for one 's country. ''
Throughout the poem, and particularly strong in the last stanza, there is a running commentary, a letter to Jessie Pope, a civilian propagandist of World War I, who encouraged -- "with such high zest '' -- young men to join the battle, through her poetry, e.g. "Who 's for the game? ''
The first draft of the poem, indeed, was dedicated to Pope. A later revision amended this to "a certain Poetess '', though this did not make it into the final publication, either, as Owen apparently decided to address his poem to the larger audience of war supporters in general such as the women who handed out white feathers during the conflict to men whom they regarded as cowards for not being at the front. In the last stanza, however, the original intention can still be seen in Owen 's bitter address. This poem has such detailed imagery, even by today 's standards, it is still thought of as an unforgettable excoriation of World War I with the use of its intense tone, it truly gives the reader an insight of what the feeling of being on the front line would have been like.
The title of this poem means ' It is sweet and glorious '. The title and the Latin exhortation of the final two lines are drawn from the phrase "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori '' written by the Roman poet Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) in (Ode III. 2.13):
Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori: mors et fugacem persequitur virum nec parcit inbellis iuventae poplitibus timidoque tergo.
How sweet and honourable it is to die for one 's country: Death pursues the man who flees, spares not the hamstrings or cowardly backs Of battle - shy youths.
These words were well known and often quoted by supporters of the war near its inception and were, therefore, of particular relevance to soldiers of the era.
In 1913, the first line, Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, was inscribed on the wall of the chapel of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. In the final stanza of his poem, Owen refers to this as "The old Lie ''.
The style of "Dulce et Decorum est '' is similar to the French ballade poetic form. By referencing this formal poetic form and then breaking the conventions of pattern and rhyming, Owen accentuates the disruptive and chaotic events being told. Each of the stanzas has a traditional rhyming scheme, they use two quatrains of rhymed iambic pentameter with several spondaic substitutions. which give the poem a reading pace, that of which is closest to casual talking speed, clarity and volume.
The poem is in two parts, each of 14 lines. The first part of the poem (the first 8 line and the second 6 line stanzas) is written in the present as the action happens and everyone is reacting to the events around them. In second part (the third 2 line and the last 12 line stanzas), Owen writes as though at a distance from the horror: he refers to what is happening twice as if in a "dream '', as though standing back watching the events or even recalling them. Another interpretation is to read the lines literally. "In all my dreams '' surely means this sufferer of shell shock is haunted by his friend drowning in his own blood and can not sleep without revisiting the horror nightly. The second part looks back to draw a lesson from what happened at the start. The two 14 line parts of the poem again echoes a formal poetic style, the sonnet, and again it is a broken and unsettling version of this form.
The second half of this poem, has the narrator reminded by seeing the soldier who did n't get his helmet on fast enough to offer some dark and harsh advice to readers about how quick and impartial thinking can get you thinking irrationally and can and will ultimately get you killed. It includes a broken sonnet, this sonnet form along with the irregularity give the feeling of other worldliness and a sense of being foreign when read. Studying the two parts of the poem also reveals a change in the use of language from visual impressions outside the body, to sounds produced by the body - or a movement from the visual to the visceral. In the opening lines, the scene is set with visual phrases like ' haunting flares ' but after the gas attack, Owen uses sounds produced by the victim - ' guttering ', ' choking ', ' gargling '. In this way, Owen mirrors the terrible nature of phosgene, which corrodes the body from inside.
In May 1917 Owen was diagnosed with neurasthenia (shell - shock) and sent to Craiglockhart hospital near Edinburgh to recover. Whilst receiving treatment at the hospital, Owen became the editor of the hospital magazine, The Hydra, and met the poet Siegfried Sassoon, who was to have a major impact upon his life and work and to play a crucial role in the dissemination of Owen 's poetry following his untimely death in 1918, aged only 25. Owen wrote a number of his most famous poems at Craiglockhart, including several drafts of both ' Dulce et Decorum est ', ' Soldier 's Dream ' and ' Anthem for Doomed Youth '. Sassoon advised and encouraged Owen, and this is evident in a number of drafts which include Sassoon 's annotations.
Only five of Owen 's poems were published throughout his lifetime. However, after his death his heavily worked manuscript drafts were brought together and published in two different editions by Siegfried Sassoon with the assistance of Edith Sitwell (in 1920) and Edmund Blunden (in 1931).
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what is a direct source of material for the formation of metamorphic rock | Metamorphic rock - Wikipedia
Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process called metamorphism, which means "change in form ''. The original rock (protolith) is subjected to heat (temperatures greater than 150 to 200 ° C) and pressure (150 megapascals (1,500 bar)), causing profound physical or chemical change. The protolith may be a sedimentary, igneous, or existing metamorphic rock.
Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth 's crust and form 12 % of the Earth 's land surface. They are classified by texture and by chemical and mineral assemblage (metamorphic facies). They may be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earth 's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above it. They can form from tectonic processes such as continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure, friction and distortion. They are also formed when rock is heated by the intrusion of hot molten rock called magma from the Earth 's interior. The study of metamorphic rocks (now exposed at the Earth 's surface following erosion and uplift) provides information about the temperatures and pressures that occur at great depths within the Earth 's crust. Some examples of metamorphic rocks are gneiss, slate, marble, schist, and quartzite.
Metamorphic minerals are those that form only at the high temperatures and pressures associated with the process of metamorphism. These minerals, known as index minerals, include sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and some garnet.
Other minerals, such as olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, feldspars, and quartz, may be found in metamorphic rocks, but are not necessarily the result of the process of metamorphism. These minerals formed during the crystallization of igneous rocks. They are stable at high temperatures and pressures and may remain chemically unchanged during the metamorphic process. However, all minerals are stable only within certain limits, and the presence of some minerals in metamorphic rocks indicates the approximate temperatures and pressures at which they formed.
The change in the particle size of the rock during the process of metamorphism is called recrystallization. For instance, the small calcite crystals in the sedimentary rock limestone and chalk change into larger crystals in the metamorphic rock marble; in metamorphosed sandstone, recrystallization of the original quartz sand grains results in very compact quartzite, also known as metaquartzite, in which the often larger quartz crystals are interlocked. Both high temperatures and pressures contribute to recrystallization. High temperatures allow the atoms and ions in solid crystals to migrate, thus reorganizing the crystals, while high pressures cause solution of the crystals within the rock at their point of contact.
The layering within metamorphic rocks is called foliation (derived from the Latin word folia, meaning "leaves ''), and it occurs when a rock is being shortened along one axis during recrystallization. This causes the platy or elongated crystals of minerals, such as mica and chlorite, to become rotated such that their long axes are perpendicular to the orientation of shortening. This results in a banded, or foliated rock, with the bands showing the colors of the minerals that formed them.
Textures are separated into foliated and non-foliated categories. Foliated rock is a product of differential stress that deforms the rock in one plane, sometimes creating a plane of cleavage. For example, slate is a foliated metamorphic rock, originating from shale. Non-foliated rock does not have planar patterns of strain.
Rocks that were subjected to uniform pressure from all sides, or those that lack minerals with distinctive growth habits, will not be foliated. Where a rock has been subject to differential stress, the type of foliation that develops depends on the metamorphic grade. For instance, starting with a mudstone, the following sequence develops with increasing temperature: slate is a very fine - grained, foliated metamorphic rock, characteristic of very low grade metamorphism, while phyllite is fine - grained and found in areas of low grade metamorphism, schist is medium to coarse - grained and found in areas of medium grade metamorphism, and gneiss coarse to very coarse - grained, found in areas of high - grade metamorphism. Marble is generally not foliated, which allows its use as a material for sculpture and architecture.
Another important mechanism of metamorphism is that of chemical reactions that occur between minerals without them melting. In the process atoms are exchanged between the minerals, and thus new minerals are formed. Many complex high - temperature reactions may take place, and each mineral assemblage produced provides us with a clue as to the temperatures and pressures at the time of metamorphism.
Metasomatism is the drastic change in the bulk chemical composition of a rock that often occurs during the processes of metamorphism. It is due to the introduction of chemicals from other surrounding rocks. Water may transport these chemicals rapidly over great distances. Because of the role played by water, metamorphic rocks generally contain many elements absent from the original rock, and lack some that originally were present. Still, the introduction of new chemicals is not necessary for recrystallization to occur.
Contact metamorphism is the name given to the changes that take place when magma is injected into the surrounding solid rock (country rock). The changes that occur are greatest wherever the magma comes into contact with the rock because the temperatures are highest at this boundary and decrease with distance from it. Around the igneous rock that forms from the cooling magma is a metamorphosed zone called a contact metamorphism aureole. Aureoles may show all degrees of metamorphism from the contact area to unmetamorphosed (unchanged) country rock some distance away. The formation of important ore minerals may occur by the process of metasomatism at or near the contact zone.
When a rock is contact altered by an igneous intrusion it very frequently becomes more indurated, and more coarsely crystalline. Many altered rocks of this type were formerly called hornstones, and the term hornfels is often used by geologists to signify those fine grained, compact, non-foliated products of contact metamorphism. A shale may become a dark argillaceous hornfels, full of tiny plates of brownish biotite; a marl or impure limestone may change to a grey, yellow or greenish lime - silicate - hornfels or siliceous marble, tough and splintery, with abundant augite, garnet, wollastonite and other minerals in which calcite is an important component. A diabase or andesite may become a diabase hornfels or andesite hornfels with development of new hornblende and biotite and a partial recrystallization of the original feldspar. Chert or flint may become a finely crystalline quartz rock; sandstones lose their clastic structure and are converted into a mosaic of small close - fitting grains of quartz in a metamorphic rock called quartzite.
If the rock was originally banded or foliated (as, for example, a laminated sandstone or a foliated calc - schist) this character may not be obliterated, and a banded hornfels is the product; fossils even may have their shapes preserved, though entirely recrystallized, and in many contact - altered lavas the vesicles are still visible, though their contents have usually entered into new combinations to form minerals that were not originally present. The minute structures, however, disappear, often completely, if the thermal alteration is very profound. Thus small grains of quartz in a shale are lost or blend with the surrounding particles of clay, and the fine ground - mass of lavas is entirely reconstructed.
By recrystallization in this manner peculiar rocks of very distinct types are often produced. Thus shales may pass into cordierite rocks, or may show large crystals of andalusite (and chiastolite), staurolite, garnet, kyanite and sillimanite, all derived from the aluminous content of the original shale. A considerable amount of mica (both muscovite and biotite) is often simultaneously formed, and the resulting product has a close resemblance to many kinds of schist. Limestones, if pure, are often turned into coarsely crystalline marbles; but if there was an admixture of clay or sand in the original rock such minerals as garnet, epidote, idocrase, wollastonite, will be present. Sandstones when greatly heated may change into coarse quartzites composed of large clear grains of quartz. These more intense stages of alteration are not so commonly seen in igneous rocks, because their minerals, being formed at high temperatures, are not so easily transformed or recrystallized.
In a few cases rocks are fused and in the dark glassy product minute crystals of spinel, sillimanite and cordierite may separate out. Shales are occasionally thus altered by basalt dikes, and feldspathic sandstones may be completely vitrified. Similar changes may be induced in shales by the burning of coal seams or even by an ordinary furnace.
There is also a tendency for metasomatism between the igneous magma and sedimentary country rock, whereby the chemicals in each are exchanged or introduced into the other. Granites may absorb fragments of shale or pieces of basalt. In that case, hybrid rocks called skarn arise, which do n't have the characteristics of normal igneous or sedimentary rocks. Sometimes an invading granite magma permeates the rocks around, filling their joints and planes of bedding, etc., with threads of quartz and feldspar. This is very exceptional but instances of it are known and it may take place on a large scale.
Regional metamorphism, also known as dynamic metamorphism, is the name given to changes in great masses of rock over a wide area. Rocks can be metamorphosed simply by being at great depths below the Earth 's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure caused by the immense weight of the rock layers above. Much of the lower continental crust is metamorphic, except for recent igneous intrusions. Horizontal tectonic movements such as the collision of continents create orogenic belts, and cause high temperatures, pressures and deformation in the rocks along these belts. If the metamorphosed rocks are later uplifted and exposed by erosion, they may occur in long belts or other large areas at the surface. The process of metamorphism may have destroyed the original features that could have revealed the rock 's previous history. Recrystallization of the rock will destroy the textures and fossils present in sedimentary rocks. Metasomatism will change the original composition.
Regional metamorphism tends to make the rock more indurated and at the same time to give it a foliated, shistose or gneissic texture, consisting of a planar arrangement of the minerals, so that platy or prismatic minerals like mica and hornblende have their longest axes arranged parallel to one another. For that reason many of these rocks split readily in one direction along mica - bearing zones (schists). In gneisses, minerals also tend to be segregated into bands; thus there are seams of quartz and of mica in a mica schist, very thin, but consisting essentially of one mineral. Along the mineral layers composed of soft or fissile minerals the rocks will split most readily, and the freshly split specimens will appear to be faced or coated with this mineral; for example, a piece of mica schist looked at facewise might be supposed to consist entirely of shining scales of mica. On the edge of the specimens, however, the white folia of granular quartz will be visible. In gneisses these alternating folia are sometimes thicker and less regular than in schists, but most importantly less micaceous; they may be lenticular, dying out rapidly. Gneisses also, as a rule, contain more feldspar than schists do, and are tougher and less fissile. Contortion or crumbling of the foliation is by no means uncommon; splitting faces are undulose or puckered. Schistosity and gneissic banding (the two main types of foliation) are formed by directed pressure at elevated temperature, and to interstitial movement, or internal flow arranging the mineral particles while they are crystallizing in that directed pressure field.
Rocks that were originally sedimentary and rocks that were undoubtedly igneous may be metamorphosed into schists and gneisses. If originally of similar composition they may be very difficult to distinguish from one another if the metamorphism has been great. A quartz - porphyry, for example, and a fine feldspathic sandstone, may both be metamorphosed into a grey or pink mica - schist.
The five basic metamorphic textures with typical rock types are slaty (includes slate and phyllite; the foliation is called "slaty cleavage ''), schistose (includes schist; the foliation is called "schistosity ''), gneissose (gneiss; the foliation is called "gneissosity ''), granoblastic (includes granulite, some marbles and quartzite), and hornfelsic (includes hornfels and skarn).
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why did the united states and soviet union split after the war | Division of Korea - wikipedia
The division of Korea between North and South Korea occurred after World War II, ending the Empire of Japan 's 35 - year rule over Korea in 1945. The United States and the Soviet Union each occupied a portion of the country, with the boundary between their zones of control along the 38th parallel.
With the onset of the Cold War, negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union failed to lead to an Independent, Unified Korea. In 1948, UN-supervised elections were held in the US - occupied south only. The anti-communist Syngman Rhee won the election while Kim Il - sung was appointed as the leader of North Korea by Joseph Stalin. This led to the establishment of the Republic of Korea in South Korea, which was promptly followed by the establishment of the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea in North Korea. The United States supported the South, the Soviet Union supported the North, and each government claimed sovereignty over the whole Korean peninsula.
The subsequent Korean War, which lasted from 1950 to 1953, ended with a stalemate and has left the two Koreas separated by the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) up to the present day.
When the Russo - Japanese War ended in 1905 Korea became a nominal protectorate of Japan, and was annexed by Japan in 1910. The Korean Emperor Gojong was removed. In the following decades, nationalist and radical groups emerged, mostly in exile, to struggle for independence. Divergent in their outlooks and approaches, these groups failed to unite in one national movement. The Korean Provisional Government in China failed to obtain widespread recognition.
In November 1943, Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Chiang Kai - shek met at the Cairo Conference to discuss what should happen to Japan 's colonies, and agreed that Japan should lose all the territories it had conquered by force. In the declaration after this conference, Korea was mentioned for the first time. The three powers declared that they were, "mindful of the enslavement of the people of Korea,... determined that in due course Korea shall become free and independent. '' Roosevelt floated the idea of a trusteeship over Korea, but did not obtain agreement from the other powers. Roosevelt raised the idea with Joseph Stalin at the Tehran Conference in November 1943 and the Yalta Conference in February 1945. Stalin did not disagree, but advocated that the period of trusteeship be short.
At the Tehran Conference and the Yalta Conference, the Soviet Union promised to join its allies in the Pacific War in two to three months after victory in Europe. On August 8, 1945, three months to the day after the end of hostilities in Europe, and two days after the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan. Soviet troops advanced rapidly, and the US government became anxious that they would occupy the whole of Korea. On August 10, 1945 two young officers -- Dean Rusk and Charles Bonesteel -- were assigned to define an American occupation zone. Working on extremely short notice and completely unprepared, they used a National Geographic map to decide on the 38th parallel. They chose it because it divided the country approximately in half but would place the capital Seoul under American control. No experts on Korea were consulted. The two men were unaware that forty years before, Japan and pre-revolutionary Russia had discussed sharing Korea along the same parallel. Rusk later said that had he known, he "almost surely '' would have chosen a different line. The division placed sixteen million Koreans in the American zone and nine million in the Soviet zone. To the surprise of the Americans, the Soviet Union immediately accepted the division. The agreement was incorporated into General Order No. 1 (approved on 17 August 1945) for the surrender of Japan.
Soviet forces began amphibious landings in Korea by August 14 and rapidly took over the north - east of the country, and on August 16 they landed at Wonsan. On August 24, the Red Army reached Pyongyang.
General Abe Nobuyuki, the last Japanese Governor - General of Korea, had established contact with a number of influential Koreans since the beginning of August 1945 to prepare the hand - over of power. Throughout August, Koreans organized people 's committee branches for the "Committee for the Preparation of Korean Independence '' (CPKI, 조선 건국 준비 위원회), headed by Lyuh Woon - hyung, a left - wing politician. On September 6, 1945, a congress of representatives was convened in Seoul and founded the short - lived People 's Republic of Korea.
In December 1945, at the Moscow Conference, the Allies agreed that the Soviet Union, the US, the Republic of China, and Britain would take part in a trusteeship over Korea for up to five years in the lead - up to independence. Many Koreans demanded independence immediately; however, the Korean Communist Party, which was closely aligned with the Soviet Communist party, supported the trusteeship.
A Soviet - US Joint Commission met in 1946 and 1947 to work towards a unified administration, but failed to make progress due to increasing Cold War antagonism and to Korean opposition to the trusteeship. Meanwhile, the division between the two zones deepened. The difference in policy between the occupying powers led to a polarization of politics, and a transfer of population between North and South. In May 1946 it was made illegal to cross the 38th parallel without a permit. At the final meeting of the Joint Commission in September 1947, Soviet delegate Terentii Shtykov proposed that both Soviet and US troops withdraw and give the Korean people the opportunity to form their own government. This was rejected by the US.
With the American government fearing Soviet expansion, and the Japanese authorities in Korea warning of a power vacuum, the embarkation date of the US occupation force was brought forward three times.
On September 7, 1945, General Douglas MacArthur announced that Lieutenant General John R. Hodge was to administer Korean affairs, and Hodge landed in Incheon with his troops the next day. The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, which had operated from China, sent a delegation with three interpreters to Hodge, but he refused to meet with them. Likewise, Hodge refused to recognize the newly formed People 's Republic of Korea and its People 's Committees, and outlawed it on 12 December.
In September 1946, thousands of laborers and peasants rose up against the military government. This uprising was quickly defeated, and failed to prevent scheduled October elections for the South Korean Interim Legislative Assembly.
The ardent anti-communist Syngman Rhee, who had been the first president of the Provisional Government and later worked as a pro-Korean lobbyist in the US, became the most prominent politician in the South. Rhee pressured the American government to abandon negotiations for a trusteeship and create an independent Republic of Korea in the south. On July 19, 1947, Lyuh Woon - hyung, the last senior politician committed to left - right dialogue, was assassinated by a right - winger.
The occupation government conducted a number of military campaigns against left - wing insurgents. Over the course of the next few years, between 30,000 and 100,000 people were killed.
When Soviet troops entered Pyongyang, they found a local branch of the Committee for the Preparation of Korean Independence operating under the leadership of veteran nationalist Cho Man - sik. The Soviet Army allowed these "People 's Committees '' (which were friendly to the Soviet Union) to function. Colonel - General Terentii Shtykov set up the Soviet Civil Administration, taking control of the committees and placing communists in key positions.
In February 1946 a provisional government called the Provisional People 's Committee was formed under Kim Il - sung, who had spent the last years of the war training with Soviet troops in Manchuria. Conflicts and power struggles ensued at the top levels of government in Pyongyang as different aspirants maneuvered to gain positions of power in the new government. In March 1946 the provisional government instituted a sweeping land - reform program: land belonging to Japanese and collaborator landowners was divided and redistributed to poor farmers. Organizing the many poor civilians and agricultural laborers under the people 's committees, a nationwide mass campaign broke the control of the old landed classes. Landlords were allowed to keep only the same amount of land as poor civilians who had once rented their land, thereby making for a far more equal distribution of land. The North Korean land reform was achieved in a less violent way than in China or in Vietnam. Official American sources stated: "From all accounts, the former village leaders were eliminated as a political force without resort to bloodshed, but extreme care was taken to preclude their return to power. '' The farmers responded positively; many collaborators and former landowners fled to the south, where some of them obtained positions in the new South Korean government. According to the U.S. military government, 400,000 northern Koreans went south as refugees.
Key industries were nationalized. The economic situation was nearly as difficult in the north as it was in the south, as the Japanese had concentrated agriculture in the south and heavy industry in the north.
Soviet forces departed in 1948.
With the failure of the Joint Commission to make progress, the US brought the problem before the United Nations in September 1947. The Soviet Union opposed UN involvement. At that time, the US had more influence over the UN than the USSR. The UN passed a resolution on November 14, 1947, declaring that free elections should be held, foreign troops should be withdrawn, and a UN commission for Korea, the United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea (UNTCOK), should be created. The Soviet Union boycotted the voting and did not consider the resolution to be binding, arguing that the UN could not guarantee fair elections. In the absence of Soviet co-operation, it was decided to hold UN-supervised elections in the south only. This was in defiance of the report of the chairman of the Commission, K.P.S. Menon, who had argued against a separate election. Some UNTCOK delegates felt that the conditions in the south gave unfair advantage to right - wing candidates, but they were overruled.
The decision to proceed with separate elections was unpopular among many Koreans, who rightly saw it as a prelude to a permanent division of the country. General strikes in protest against the decision began in February 1948. In April, Jeju islanders rose up against the looming division of the country. South Korean troops were sent to repress the rebellion. Tens of thousands of islanders were killed and by one estimate, 70 % of the villages were burned by the South Korean troops. The uprising flared up again with the outbreak of the Korean War.
In April 1948, a conference of organizations from the north and the south met in Pyongyang. The southern politicians Kim Koo and Kim Kyu - sik attended the conference and boycotted the elections in the south, as did other politicians and parties. The conference called for a united government and the withdrawal of foreign troops. Syngman Rhee and General Hodge denounced the conference. Kim Koo was assassinated the following year.
On May 10, 1948 the south held a general election. It took place amid widespread violence and intimidation, as well as a boycott by opponents of Syngman Rhee. On August 15, the "Republic of Korea '' (Daehan Minguk) formally took over power from the U.S. military, with Syngman Rhee as the first president. In the North, the "Democratic People 's Republic of Korea '' (Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk) was declared on September 9, with Kim Il - sung as prime minister.
On December 12, 1948, the United Nations General Assembly accepted the report of UNTCOK and declared the Republic of Korea to be the "only lawful government in Korea ''. However, none of the members of UNTCOK considered that the election had established a legitimate national parliament. The Australian government, which had a representative on the commission declared that it was "far from satisfied '' with the election.
Unrest continued in the South. In October 1948, the Yeosu -- Suncheon Rebellion took place, in which some regiments rejected the suppression of the Jeju uprising and rebelled against the government. In 1949, the Syngman Rhee government established the Bodo League in order to keep an eye on its political opponents. The majority of the Bodo League 's members were innocent farmers and civilians who were forced into membership. The registered members or their families were executed at the beginning of the Korean War. On December 24, 1949, South Korean Army massacred Mungyeong citizens who were suspected communist sympathizers or their family and affixed blame to communists.
This division of Korea, after more than a millennium of being unified, was seen as controversial and temporary by both regimes. From 1948 until the start of the civil war on June 25, 1950, the armed forces of each side engaged in a series of bloody conflicts along the border. In 1950, these conflicts escalated dramatically when North Korean forces invaded South Korea, triggering the Korean War. The United Nations intervened to protect the South, sending a US - led force. As it occupied the south, the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea attempted to unify Korea under its regime, initiating the nationalisation of industry, land reform, and the restoration of the People 's Committees.
While UN intervention was conceived as restoring the border at the 38th parallel, Syngman Rhee argued that the attack of the North had obliterated the boundary. Similarly UN Commander in Chief, General Douglas MacArthur stated that he intended to unify Korea, not just drive the North Korean forces back behind the border. However, the North overran 90 % of the south until a counter-attack by US - led forces. As the North Korean forces were driven from the south, South Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel on 1 October, and American and other UN forces followed a week later. This was despite warnings from the People 's Republic of China that it would intervene if American troops crossed the parallel. As it occupied the north, the Republic of Korea, in turn, attempted to unify the country under its regime, with the Korean National Police enforcing political indoctrination. As US - led forces pushed into the north, China unleashed a counter-attack which drove them back into the south.
In 1951, the front line stabilized near the 38th parallel, and both sides began to consider an armistice. Rhee, however, demanded the war continue until Korea was unified under his leadership. The Communist side supported an armistice line being based on the 38th parallel, but the United Nations supported a line based on the territory held by each side, which was militarily defensible. The UN position, formulated by the Americans, went against the consensus leading up to the negotiations. Initially, the Americans proposed a line that passed through Pyongyang, far to the north of the front line. The Chinese and North Koreans eventually agreed to a border on the military line of contact rather than the 38th parallel, but this disagreement led to a tortuous and drawn - out negotiating process.
The Korean Armistice Agreement was signed after three years of war. The two sides agreed to create a four - kilometer - wide buffer zone between the states, known as the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). This new border, reflecting the territory held by each side at the end of the war, crossed the 38th parallel diagonally. Rhee refused to accept the armistice and continued to urge the reunification of the country by force. Despite attempts by both sides to reunify the country, the war perpetuated the division of Korea and led to a permanent alliance between South Korea and the U.S., and a permanent U.S. garrison in the South.
As dictated by the terms of the Korean Armistice, a Geneva Conference was held in 1954 on the Korean question. Despite efforts by many of the nations involved, the conference ended without a declaration for a unified Korea.
The Armistice established a Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission (NNSC) which was tasked to monitor the Armistice. Since 1953, members of the Swiss and Swedish armed forces have been members of the NNSC stationed near the DMZ. Poland and Czechoslovakia were the neutral nations chosen by North Korea, but North Korea expelled their observers after those countries embraced capitalism.
Since the war, Korea has remained divided along the DMZ. North and South have remained in a state of conflict, with the opposing regimes both claiming to be the legitimate government of the whole country. Sporadic negotiations have failed to produce lasting progress towards reunification.
On April 27, 2018 North Korean leader Kim Jong - un and South Korean President Moon Jae - in met in the Demilitarized Zone. The Panmunjom Declaration signed by both leaders called for the end of longstanding military activities near the border and the reunification of Korea.
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do yahoo email addresses end in com or net | Yahoo! Mail - wikipedia
Yahoo! Mail is an email service launched in 1997 through the American parent company Yahoo. Yahoo Mail provides four different email plans: three for personal use (Basic, Plus, and Ad Free) and another for businesses. By December 2011, Yahoo! Mail had 281 million users, making it the third largest web - based email service in the world. Since 2015 its webmail client also supports managing non-Yahoo e-mail accounts.
As many as three web interfaces were available at any given time. The traditional "Yahoo! Mail Classic '' preserved the availability of their original 1997 interface until July 2013 in North America. A 2005 version included a new Ajax interface, drag - and - drop, improved search, keyboard shortcuts, address auto - completion, and tabs. However, other features were removed, such as column widths and one click delete - move - to - next. In October 2010, Yahoo! released a beta version of Yahoo! Mail, which included improvements to performance, search, and Facebook integration. In May 2011, this became the default interface. Their current Webmail interface was introduced in 2017.
Yahoo! made a deal with the online communications company Four11 for co-branded white pages. Marvin Gavin, who worked at Four11 as the Director of International Business Development, said "We always had a bias about being acquired by Yahoo. They were more entrepreneurial than Microsoft. We had a great cultural fit -- it made a lot of sense. '' In the end, Yahoo! acquired Four11 for $96 million. The purpose behind acquiring Four11 was the company 's RocketMail webmail service, which launched in 1997. Yahoo! announced the acquisition on October 8, 1997, close to the time that Yahoo! Mail was launched. Yahoo! chose acquisition rather than internal platform development, because, as Healy said, "Hotmail was growing at thousands and thousands users per week. We did an analysis. For us to build, it would have taken four to six months, and by then, so many users would have taken an email account. The speed of the market was critical. ''
The transition to Yahoo! Mail was not easy for many Rocketmail users. On March 21, 2002, Yahoo! eliminated free software client access and introduced the $29.99 per year Mail Forwarding Service. Mary Osako, a Yahoo! Spokeswoman, told CNET, "For - pay services on Yahoo!, originally launched in February 1999, have experienced great acceptance from our base of active registered users, and we expect this adoption to continue to grow. ''
During 2002, the Yahoo! network was gradually redesigned. On July 2, the company website was changed, and it was announced that Yahoo! Mail and other services would also be redesigned. Along with this new design, new features were to be implemented, including drop - down menus in DHTML, different category tabs, and a new user - customizable color scheme. Yahoo! Network Services senior vice president Geoff Ralston stated that
((quote source = The launch of Yahoo! Mail Plus is part of Yahoo 's strategic initiative to offer premium services that deliver innovative, reliable and relevant services to consumers... In just five years, Yahoo! Mail has grown from one million to tens of millions of users, illustrating how consumers have made email an essential part of their daily lives. Through Yahoo! Mail Plus, Yahoo! continues to demonstrate leadership and innovation by offering consumers the industry 's most complete and powerful email solution.
On April 1, 2004, Google announced its Gmail service with 1 GB of storage, however Gmail 's invitation - only accounts kept the other webmail services at the forefront. Most major webmail providers, including Yahoo! Mail, increased their mailbox storage in response. Yahoo! first announced 100 MB of storage for basic accounts and 2 GB of storage for premium users. However, soon Yahoo! Mail increased its free storage quota to 1 GB, before eventually allowing unlimited storage. Yahoo! Mail had free unlimited storage from March 27, 2007 until October 8, 2013.
On July 9, 2004, Yahoo! acquired Oddpost, a webmail service which simulated a desktop email client. Oddpost had features such as drag - and - drop support, right - click menus, RSS feeds, a preview pane, and increased speed using email caching to shorten response time. Many of the features were incorporated into an updated Yahoo! Mail service.
On September 17, 2010, Yahoo! showed off a new Mail program to reporters. Codenamed "Minty '', the 2011 release was announced on September 16, 2010. It included a new interface, enhanced performance, improved Facebook and Twitter integration, the ability to watch YouTube videos straight from email, and improved search. Public beta began on October 26, 2010. In May 2011, the new Yahoo! Mail became the default interface. As the new interface became mandatory for users, some users of Yahoo! Mail reported slow typing speeds, contradicting Yahoo 's claims of faster performance. Yahoo! offered no resolution to the problem as of September 12, 2011. Users also missed the ability to paste textual email addresses into the sender box. The new version disabled the use of the "secondary '' addresses provided in the previous version. The new interface overrode the browser 's right mouse button (making functions such as opening mails in new tab windows unavailable).
In 2013, Yahoo redesigned the site and removed several features, such as simultaneously opening multiple emails in tabs, sorting by sender name, and dragging mails to folders. The new email interface was geared to give an improved user - experience for mobile devices, but was criticized for having an inferior desktop interface. Many users objected to the unannounced nature of the changes through an online post asking Yahoo to bring back mail tabs with one hundred thousand voting and nearly ten thousand commenting. The redesign produced a problem that caused an unknown number of users to lose access to their accounts for several weeks.
In December 2013, Yahoo Mail suffered a major outage where approximately one million users, one percent of the site 's total users, could not access their emails for several days. Mayer publicly apologized to the site 's users.
Yahoo! Mail China officially announced its shutdown on April 18, 2013. Users were warned that all emails, contacts, and account settings would be inaccessible, unless users migrated to the American version of Yahoo! Mail. Individuals who made China Yahoo! Mail accounts during the Alibaba takeover were required to create new accounts under new usernames.
In January 2014, an undisclosed number of usernames and passwords were released to hackers, following a security breach that Yahoo believed had occurred through a third - party website. Yahoo contacted affected users and requested that passwords be changed.
Yahoo updated the mail service with a "more subtle '' redesign in 2015, as well as improving mobile features, and introducing the Yahoo Account Key, a smartphone - based replacement for password logins.
On December 23, Yahoo introduced a new Developer update, containing not as many ads as previous versions.
Yahoo! Mail is often used by spammers to provide a "remove me '' email address. Often, these addresses are used to verify the recipient 's address, thus opening the door for more spam.
Yahoo! does not tolerate this practice and terminates accounts connected with spam - related activities without warning, causing spammers to lose access to any other Yahoo! services connected with their ID under the Terms of Service. Additionally, Yahoo! stresses that its servers are based in California and any spam - related activity which uses its servers could potentially violate that state 's anti-spam laws.
In February 2006, Yahoo! announced its decision (along with AOL) to give some organizations the option to "certify '' mail by paying up to one cent for each outgoing message, allowing the mail in question to bypass inbound spam filters.
In April 2011, Yahoo! Mail began rejecting spam reports, which involved sending a copy of the spam with full headers by email to Yahoo 's abuse department, offering the use of a form instead. However, the requirement to use a form is prohibited by several Internet RFCs, and the availability of abuse at example.com (in this case abuse at yahoo.com) is required by the Invariants clause of RFC 2142, because the domain has a mail server and an MX record. Yahoo 's claim was that its "standard '' was better than the Internet standards referred to. This is the only working form through which users can report spam or misuse of the Yahoo! email service.
In order to prevent abuse, in 2002 Yahoo! Mail activated filters which changed certain words (that could trigger unwanted Javascript events) and word fragments into other words. "mocha '' was changed to "espresso '', "expression '' became "statement '', and "eval '' (short for "evaluation '') became "review ''. This resulted in many unintended corrections, such as "prreviewent '' (prevalent), "reviewuation '' (evaluation) and "medireview '' (medieval).
When asked about these changes, Yahoo! explained that the changed words were common terms used in web scripting, and were blacklisted to prevent hackers from sending damaging commands via the program 's HTML function. Starting before February 7, 2006, Yahoo! Mail ended the practice, and began to add an underscore as a prefix to certain suspicious words and word fragments.
Incoming mail to Yahoo! addresses can be subjected to deferred delivery as part of Yahoo 's incoming spam controls. This can delay delivery of mail sent to Yahoo! addresses without the sender or recipients being aware of it. The deferral is typically of short duration, but may extend up to several hours. Yahoo! does not specifically document this policy in detail, although some information is available.
In 2004, Yahoo 's Hong Kong office provided technical information to the Chinese authorities about the account of journalist Shi Tao, who was subsequently sentenced to ten years ' imprisonment for "leaking state secrets ''. Yahoo! was criticized by Reporters Without Borders for acting as a "police informant '' to increase its profits. In August 2007, the United States Congress began an investigation into Yahoo 's handling of the case. Yahoo! founder Jerry Yang testified before Congress. On November 6, 2007, the congressional panel criticized Yahoo! for not giving full details to the House Foreign Affairs Committee the previous year, stating it had been "at best inexcusably negligent '' and at worst "deceptive ''. Representative Tom Lantos described its executives as moral "pygmies ''. Yang stated that Yahoo! no longer controlled its Chinese operations, and was collaborating with human rights groups to formulate ethical code for technology companies.
In a February 2006 hearing, Yahoo! executives swore that they had received no information about the investigation. Several months later, it was discovered that the document provided to Yahoo! China on April 22, 2004 by the Beijing State Security Bureau stated that "Your office is in possession of the following items relating to a case of suspected illegal provision of state secrets to foreign entities. ''
On November 13, 2007, Yahoo! settled with Shi for an undisclosed sum. Shi was released from prison in September 2013.
On February 20, 2006, it was revealed that Yahoo! Mail was banning the word "Allah '' in email usernames, both separately and as part of a user name such as linda. callahan. Shortly after the news of the ban, it was lifted on February 23, 2006. Along with this action, Yahoo! also made the following statement:
We continuously evaluate abuse patterns in registration usernames to help prevent spam, fraud and other inappropriate behavior. A small number of people registered for IDs using specific terms with the sole purpose of promoting hate, and then used those IDs to post content that was harmful or threatening to others, thus violating Yahoo! 's Terms of Service.
' Allah ' was one word being used for these purposes, with instances tied to defamatory language. We took steps to help protect our users by prohibiting use of the term in Yahoo! usernames. We recently re-evaluated the term ' Allah ' and users can now register for IDs with this word because it is no longer a significant target for abuse. We regularly evaluate this type of activity and will continue to make adjustments to our registration process to help foster a positive customer experience.
In November 2012, an exploit for Yahoo! Mail was sold for $700 by an Egyptian hacker, allowing hijackers to hack Yahoo! Mail user accounts and redirect users to a malicious website. The attack used cross-site scripting which let hackers steal cookies. In January 2013, hacker and security researcher Shahin Ramezany pointed out another DOM - based XSS loophole that placed 400 million users at risk.
From 2007, Yahoo! was the email service used by New Zealand Telecom, which came under criticism in early 2013 following a spam and phishing attack that was described as the biggest to have ever hit the country. Telecom and Yahoo! automatically reset "about 60,000 '' users ' passwords. In April, Telecom announced that despite the issue, it would retain Yahoo! as an email provider.
On October 3, 2017, Yahoo reported that all Yahoo user accounts, approximately 3 billion, were affected by the previously announced August 2013 theft of accounts. This information updates the December 14, 2016, announcement that more than 1 billion user accounts were hacked in a breach that had occurred back in 2013. Earlier that year in September, Yahoo! announced that an additional 500 million user accounts had been breached in 2014. The company was said to have discovered about the breach that affected hundreds of millions of accounts years before their initial announcement.
The contents of Yahoo! Mail messages are scanned for the purposes of targeted advertising, in contrast to its main competitors Gmail and Outlook.com.
The mobile app for Yahoo! Mail can be downloaded from the App Store for iOS, and the Google Play Store for Android. Both versions of the app perform the same function, but are tailored to the mobile device 's operating system. Some characteristics include replying to a message by opening a notification and separately archiving, deleting and starring notifications. It is available in several languages.
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rick and morty season 3 episode 7 airing date | Rick and Morty (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of the animated television series Rick and Morty originally aired in the United States on Cartoon Network 's late night programming block, Adult Swim. It premiered with "The Rickshank Rickdemption '', which aired unannounced on April 1, 2017 as part of Adult Swim 's annual April Fools ' prank. The remaining episodes began airing weekly four months later, on July 30, 2017. The season concluded on October 1, 2017 and consisted of ten episodes.
The season has received positive reviews, with critics highlighting its focus on character development. Beth and Jerry are given the opportunity to realize how much they need each other, Morty and Summer seek more control over their lives and Rick remains unable to change his self - destructive behavior.
The actors and actresses listed below lend their voices to the corresponding animated characters.
Other cast members of the season, who each have voiced one or more characters, include: Dan Harmon, Brandon Johnson, Tom Kenny, Maurice LaMarche, Nolan North, Cassie Steele, Kari Wahlgren, Laura Bailey, John DiMaggio, Ryan Ridley, Scott Chernoff, Dan Benson, Clancy Brown, Echo Kellum, Melique Berger, William Holmes, Tara Strong, Jeff B. Davis, Jonas Briedis, Phil Hendrie, Rob Paulsen, Alex Jayne Go, Jennifer Hale and Mariana Wise.
Rick is interrogated via a mind - computer link, inside a galactic federal prison. Summer and Morty attempt to rescue him, but they are captured by SEAL Team Ricks, who take them to the Citadel of Ricks and decide to assassinate Rick. Back at the prison, Rick tricks both the federal agents and his aspiring assassins by switching bodies with them. He then teleports the entire Citadel into the federal prison, prompting a massive battle. Amid the confusion, Rick rescues Morty and Summer and uses the Galactic Federation 's mainframe to make its currency worthless. The Federation falls into chaos and collapses as a result, with the aliens leaving Earth. Rick, Morty, and Summer return home, where Jerry gives Beth an ultimatum to choose between him and Rick. Beth chooses Rick and they decide to get a divorce. After the new status quo is established, Rick reveals to Morty that his ulterior motive was to become his de facto male influence. This escalates into a nonsensical angry rant, centered around Rick 's desire to find more of the discontinued McDonald 's Szechuan sauce, a promotional product for the 1998 film Mulan.
Rick takes Morty and Summer to a Mad Max-esque version of Earth, where they are chased by a group of scavengers, known as Death Stalkers. Rick notices that the group is carrying a valuable rock of Isotope 322, so he and the kids join them in hope of stealing it. Summer falls in love with the Death Stalkers ' leader, while Morty is given the strength of a giant arm, which takes him in search of its previous owner 's killer. Rick leaves and replaces the kids with androids to fool Beth. When he returns, he helps the Death Stalkers use the Isotope to power a more advanced civilization. Summer does n't like how the change softens the Death Stalkers, and she decides to follow Rick and Morty back home. Before leaving, Rick steals the Isotope. The experience helps the kids overcome their parents ' divorce. Summer reconciles with Jerry, and Morty realizes he must live his own life.
Rick turns himself into a pickle to get out of attending school - ordered family therapy, but Beth takes Rick 's serum which would revert the transformation. Left alone, Rick eventually rolls down into an open sewer drain, where he manages to manipulate the nervous systems of dead roaches and rats to build himself a mobile exoskeleton, with added weapons such as razors and drills. He unwittingly escapes into a foreign government agency. The guards try to kill Rick, under orders from the agency director, but Rick kills them all. In the process, Rick battles and ultimately befriends a prisoner named Jaguar. Rick changes his mind and decides to attend the therapy session, arriving towards the end. Dr. Wong gives her diagnosis, observing that Rick crafts relationships that punish emotions and vulnerability. On their way home, Rick apologizes to Beth for deceiving her and uses the serum to turn human again. Morty and Summer wish to continue seeing Dr. Wong, but Rick and Beth ignore them.
At Morty 's insistence, Rick agrees to join the Vindicators, a group of intergalactic superheroes, to fight their arch - nemesis, Worldender. Rick can not hide his disdain for the superheroes, while Morty is thrilled. The next morning, the Vindicators enter Worldender 's base, only to find that, the previous night, Rick had killed him and set up a variety of puzzles that the Vindicators must solve to survive while he was blackout drunk. They start arguing and kill one another, while Morty solves all the puzzles, as he knows what Rick had in mind when he put them up. After all puzzles are solved, the only ones left alive are Rick, Morty and Supernova, a member of the Vindicators. Supernova tries to kill Rick and Morty, but before she can do so, the three of them are transported to a party that Rick also set up while blackout drunk, where she gets away.
To bolster Jerry 's self - esteem, Rick takes him on an adventure at Morty 's request. They visit an otherworldly resort within an immortality field so Jerry wo n't be harmed while away. Jerry encounters Risotto Groupon, an alien who blames Rick for his kingdom being usurped. Risotto enlists Jerry in a plot to kill Rick, but Jerry backs out after Rick apologizes for ruining his marriage. Meanwhile, Summer deals with self - esteem issues as well. Her boyfriend, Ethan, leaves her for a larger - breasted girlfriend, and Summer attempts to enlarge her own breasts using one of Rick 's devices. Her aim is off, and she grows to freakish proportions. Morty wants to call Rick for assistance, but Beth refuses. Arrogantly trying to prove her own self - worth, Beth repeatedly fails to fix the problem and is tricked into releasing three tiny technical support workers that were trapped inside the machine. Once Morty figures out how the machine works, he restores Summer 's size and spitefully uses it to deform Ethan in an act of vengeance.
After a six - day outer space adventure that leaves them on the verge of psychological collapse, Rick and Morty decide to spend some time at an alien spa. There, they use a machine that extracts a person 's negative personality traits. However, without Rick and Morty knowing, those traits are transposed into toxic physical counterparts, characterized by Rick 's arrogance and Morty 's self - loathing. On the other hand, the true Rick becomes more considerate, and Morty 's confidence soars, which allows him to start dating girls. Toxic Rick uses a moonlight tower to remake the whole Earth in his own image, but the true Rick reverts the situation by merging back with him. Morty avoids merging back with his toxic counterpart and goes on to live a life as a stockbroker in New York City. Rick tracks him down with the help of Jessica, Morty 's classmate, and restores order by re-injecting the negative personality traits into him.
As Rick and Morty adventure to Atlantis, the episode shifts focus towards the Citadel, a secret society populated by numerous versions of Ricks and Mortys. There, a group of Mortys journey to a portal to have their wishes granted, a rookie cop Rick starts working with an experienced Morty cop to take down drug dealers and a worker Rick revolts at a wafer factory, where the key ingredient is extracted from a Rick hooked up to a machine to re-experience his best memories. Meanwhile, an election is held for the new president of the Citadel. Despite being the underdog, the Morty Party candidate manages to secure the presidency. When his campaign manager receives information that the new president is in fact Evil Morty from the first - season episode "Close Rick - counters of the Rick Kind '', he attempts to assassinate him but he fails. Evil Morty orders the execution of a shadow council of Ricks and anybody else he considers a potential threat to his rule.
After Morty requests to have a traumatic memory deleted, Rick reveals a room where he has been storing a number of memories he has removed from Morty 's mind. However, as it turns out, besides the memories that Morty did n't want to keep from their adventures, the room also contains memories in which Rick was made to look foolish, so he had them forcibly removed from Morty. This revelation prompts a fight, during which Rick and Morty have their memories accidentally erased. Morty scours the memories to replace the ones he lost, but he is displeased with the truth he finds, and convinces Rick to both kill themselves. Summer enters the room moments before they commit suicide. At this point, it is revealed that Rick has a contingency plan should this happen. Summer, following written instructions, tranquilizes Rick and Morty, restores their memories and drags them to the living room. Rick and Morty wake up on the couch, believing that they slept through an entire "Interdimensional Cable '' episode.
Rick and Beth enter Froopyland, a fantasy world created by Rick for young Beth. Their goal is to recover Tommy, Beth 's childhood friend who 's been trapped in Froopyland, and prevent the execution of his father, who is being falsely accused of eating him. Tommy, who has survived all these years by resorting to bestiality, incest and cannibalism, refuses to return to the real world. Rick and Beth manage to save his father 's life by creating a clone of Tommy. Back at home, Beth is presented with the option of having a replacement clone of her created, so that she will be free to travel the world. Meanwhile, Jerry dates an alien hunter named Kiara, to Morty and Summer 's dismay. When he decides to get out of the relationship, Kiara is enraged and tries to kill the kids, whom she holds responsible. The situation is resolved following the revelation that Kiara was using Jerry to get over her previous boyfriend, much like Jerry was doing with her.
The President calls on Rick and Morty to defeat a monster in the tunnels underneath the White House, which they do with little effort. Annoyed that he constantly calls on them without any gratitude, they go back home, with the President quickly finding out. The resulting argument leads to a battle of egos that culminates in a fight in the White House between Rick and the President 's security. Meanwhile, fearing she might be a clone made by Rick, Beth reunites with Jerry to figure out the truth. Shortly after, the entire family gets together to hide from Rick, but he tracks them down. Rick eventually submits to Jerry once again being a family - member. Rick ends his conflict with the President by pretending to be Fly Fishing Rick, a Rick from a different reality, and calling a truce. The episode ends with the family happy to be together again, except for Rick who is disappointed by this outcome.
On August 12, 2015, Adult Swim announced that the series had been renewed for a third season. Roiland reportedly began writing on November 2, 2015. Mike McMahan announced that the first episode was recorded on February 18, 2016. On February 5, 2017, Dan Harmon, answering questions regarding the delayed release, announced on his podcast, Harmontown, that the show was in the animation process, after a long period of writing. On June 24, 2017, Harmon wrote a series of posts on Twitter, explaining that the writing process took that long to complete because of his perfectionism. As a result, the third season of the show consisted of only ten episodes instead of fourteen, as was initially intended.
The season currently holds a 98 % approval rating from review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes based on 12 reviews, with an average rating of 8.77 out of 10 and an audience score average of 4.7 out of 5. Jesse Schedeen of IGN described the third season of the show as darker and more unpredictable than the first two, and praised its high - concept storytelling and character development. Schedeen gave the season an 8.8 out of 10 rating, saying that it "did n't quite reach the heights of Season 2, but it is the series ' most consistently entertaining and ambitious season yet. '' Julia Alexander of Polygon highlights the philosophical conflict between nihilist realism and life in ignorant bliss as the season 's main theme, and notes that "after an introspective season built on the importance of self - realization and reflection, Rick and Morty 's third year ended on a total reset '', with Beth and the kids seeking comfort through escapism and ignoring the realities of their lives.
The McDonald 's Szechuan sauce reference in the season premiere brought huge online attention for the discontinued promotional product. Internet memes spread rapidly on Reddit and Twitter, more than 40,000 people signed a petition at Change.org, asking for the return of the sauce, while an eBay auction resulted in a 20 - year - old packet of this teriyaki sauce being sold for $14,700. On October 7, 2017, McDonald 's served limited quantities of Szechuan sauce, with the company calling it "the year 's most talked - about dipping sauce. ''
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who plays in whose line is it anyway | Whose Line is It Anyway? - Wikipedia
Whose Line Is It Anyway? is a short - form improvisational comedy show originating as a popular British radio programme, before moving to British television in 1988. Following the conclusion of the British run in 1999, ABC began airing an American version, which ran until 2007 and was later revived by The CW in 2013.
Each version of the show consists of a panel of four performers who create characters, scenes, and songs on the spot, in the style of short - form improvisation games, many taken from theatresports. Topics for the games are based on either audience suggestions or predetermined prompts from the host. Both the British and the American shows ostensibly take the form of a game show with the host arbitrarily assigning points and likewise choosing a winner at the end of each episode. However, the show lacks the true stakes and competition of a game show (by design). The "game show '' format is simply part of the comedy.
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in 500 b.c. the roman government was beginning to form what would become a republic | Roman Republic - wikipedia
The Roman Republic (Latin: Res publica Romana; Classical Latin: (ˈreːs ˈpuːb. lɪ. ka roːˈmaː.na)) was the era of ancient Roman civilization beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom, traditionally dated to 509 BC, and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire. It was during this period that Rome 's control expanded from the city 's immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world.
Roman government was headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and advised by a senate composed of appointed magistrates. As Roman society was very hierarchical by modern standards, the evolution of the Roman government was heavily influenced by the struggle between the patricians, Rome 's land - holding aristocracy, who traced their ancestry to the founding of Rome, and the plebeians, the far more numerous citizen - commoners. Over time, the laws that gave patricians exclusive rights to Rome 's highest offices were repealed or weakened, and leading plebeian families became full members of the aristocracy. The leaders of the Republic developed a strong tradition and morality requiring public service and patronage in peace and war, making military and political success inextricably linked. Many of Rome 's legal and legislative structures (later codified into the Justinian Code, and again into the Napoleonic Code) can still be observed throughout Europe and much of the world in modern nation states and international organizations.
During the first two centuries of its existence, the Roman Republic expanded through a combination of conquest and alliance, from central Italy to the entire Italian peninsula. By the following century, it included North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, and what is now southern France. Two centuries after that, towards the end of the 1st century BC, it included the rest of modern France, Greece, and much of the eastern Mediterranean. By this time, internal tensions led to a series of civil wars, culminating with the assassination of Julius Caesar, which led to the transition from republic to empire.
The exact date of transition can be a matter of interpretation. Historians have variously proposed Julius Caesar 's crossing of the Rubicon River in 49 BC, Caesar 's appointment as dictator for life in 44 BC, and the defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. However, most use the same date as did the ancient Romans themselves, the Roman Senate 's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian and his adopting the title Augustus in 27 BC, as the defining event ending the Republic.
The exact causes and motivations for Rome 's military conflicts and expansions during the republic are subject to wide debate. While they can be seen as motivated by outright aggression and imperialism, historians typically take a much more nuanced view. They argue that Rome 's expansion was driven by short - term defensive and inter-state factors (that is, relations with city - states and kingdoms outside Rome 's hegemony), and the new contingencies that these decisions created. In its early history, as Rome successfully defended itself against foreign threats in central and then northern Italy, neighboring city - states sought the protection a Roman alliance would bring. As such, early republican Rome was not an "empire '' or "state '' in the modern sense, but an alliance of independent city - states (similar to the Greek hegemonies of the same period) with varying degrees of genuine independence (which itself changed over time) engaged in an alliance of mutual self - protection, but led by Rome. With some important exceptions, successful wars in early republican Rome generally led not to annexation or military occupation, but to the restoration of the way things were. But the defeated city would be weakened (sometimes with outright land concessions) and thus less able to resist Romanizing influences, such as Roman settlers seeking land or trade with the growing Roman confederacy. It was also less able to defend itself against its non-Roman enemies, which made attack by these enemies more likely. It was, therefore, more likely to seek an alliance of protection with Rome.
This growing coalition expanded the potential enemies that Rome might face, and moved Rome closer to confrontation with major powers. The result was more alliance - seeking, on the part of both the Roman confederacy and city - states seeking membership (and protection) within that confederacy. While there were exceptions to this (such as military rule of Sicily after the First Punic War), it was not until after the Second Punic War that these alliances started to harden into something more like an empire, at least in certain locations. This shift mainly took place in parts of the west, such as the southern Italian towns that sided with Hannibal.
In contrast, Roman expansion into Spain and Gaul occurred as a mix of alliance - seeking and military occupation. In the 2nd century BC, Roman involvement in the Greek east remained a matter of alliance - seeking, but this time in the face of major powers that could rival Rome. According to Polybius, who sought to trace how Rome came to dominate the Greek east in less than a century, this was mainly a matter of several Greek city - states seeking Roman protection against the Macedonian kingdom and Seleucid Empire in the face of destabilisation created by the weakening of Ptolemaic Egypt. In contrast to the west, the Greek east had been dominated by major empires for centuries, and Roman influence and alliance - seeking led to wars with these empires that further weakened them and therefore created an unstable power vacuum that only Rome could fill. This had some important similarities to (and important differences from) the events in Italy centuries earlier, but this time on a global scale.
Historians see the growing Roman influence over the east, as with the west, as not a matter of intentional empire - building, but constant crisis management narrowly focused on short - term goals within a highly unstable, unpredictable, and inter-dependent network of alliances and dependencies. With some major exceptions of outright military rule, the Roman Republic remained an alliance of independent city - states and kingdoms (with varying degrees of independence, both de jure and de facto) until it transitioned into the Roman Empire. It was not until the time of the Roman Empire that the entire Roman world was organized into provinces under explicit Roman control.
The first Roman republican wars were wars of both expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region. Initially, Rome 's immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villages, or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond. One by one Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities, both those under Etruscan control and those that had cast off their Etruscan rulers. Rome defeated the Latin cities in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC, the Battle of Mons Algidus in 458 BC, the Battle of Corbione in 446 BC, the Battle of Aricia, and especially the Battle of the Cremera in 477 BC wherein it fought against the most important Etruscan city of Veii.
By the end of this period, Rome had effectively completed the conquest of their immediate Etruscan and Latin neighbours, and also secured their position against the immediate threat posed by the nearby Apennine hill tribes.
By 390 BC, several Gallic tribes were invading Italy from the north as their culture expanded throughout Europe. The Romans were alerted to this when a particularly warlike tribe, the Senones, invaded two Etruscan towns close to Rome 's sphere of influence. These towns, overwhelmed by the enemy 's numbers and ferocity, called on Rome for help. The Romans met the Gauls in pitched battle at the Battle of Allia River around 390 -- 387 BC. The Gauls, led by the chieftain Brennus, defeated the Roman army of approximately 15,000 troops, pursued the fleeing Romans back to Rome, and sacked the city before being either driven off or bought off. The Romans and Gauls continued to war intermittently in Italy for more than two centuries.
After recovering surprisingly fast from the sack of Rome, the Romans immediately resumed their expansion within Italy. The First Samnite War from 343 BC to 341 BC was relatively short: the Romans defeated the Samnites in two battles, but were forced to withdraw before they could pursue the conflict further due to the revolt of several of their Latin allies in the Latin War. Rome defeated the Latins in the Battle of Vesuvius and again in the Battle of Trifanum, after which the Latin cities were obliged to submit to Roman rule.
The Second Samnite War, from 327 BC to 304 BC, was much longer and more serious for both the Romans and Samnites. The fortunes of the two sides fluctuated throughout its course. But the Romans won the Battle of Bovianum, and the tide turned strongly against the Samnites from 314 BC onwards, leading them to sue for peace with progressively less generous terms. By 304 BC, the Romans had effectively annexed the greater degree of the Samnite territory, founding several colonies.
Seven years after their defeat, with Roman dominance of the area looking assured, the Samnites rose again and defeated a Roman army in 298 BC, to open the Third Samnite War. Following this success they built a coalition of several previous enemies of Rome. At the Battle of Populonia in 282 BC Rome finished off the last vestiges of Etruscan power in the region.
By the beginning of the 3rd century BC, Rome had established itself as a major power on the Italian Peninsula, but had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers in the Mediterranean Basin at the time: Carthage and the Greek kingdoms.
When a diplomatic dispute between Rome and a Greek colony in Italy erupted into open warfare in a naval confrontation, the Greek colony appealed for military aid to Pyrrhus, ruler of the northwestern Greek kingdom of Epirus. Motivated by a personal desire for military accomplishment, Pyrrhus landed a Greek army of some 25,000 men on Italian soil in 280 BC.
Despite early victories, Pyrrhus found his position in Italy untenable. Rome steadfastly refused to negotiate with Pyrrhus as long as his army remained in Italy. Facing unacceptably heavy losses from each encounter with the Roman army, Pyrrhus withdrew from the peninsula. In 275 BC, Pyrrhus again met the Roman army at the Battle of Beneventum. While Beneventum was indecisive, Pyrrhus realised his army had been exhausted and reduced by years of foreign campaigns. Seeing little hope for further gains, he withdrew completely from Italy.
The conflicts with Pyrrhus would have a great effect on Rome. Rome had shown it was capable of pitting its armies successfully against the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean, and that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italy and abroad. Rome quickly moved into southern Italia, subjugating and dividing the Greek colonies. Now, Rome effectively dominated the Italian peninsula, and won an international military reputation.
The First Punic War began in 264 BC when inhabitants of Sicily began to appeal to the two powers between which they lay -- Rome and Carthage -- to resolve internal conflicts. The war saw land battles in Sicily early on, but the theatre shifted to naval battles around Sicily and Africa. Before the First Punic War there was no Roman navy to speak of. The new war in Sicily against Carthage, a great naval power, forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors.
The first few naval battles were disasters for Rome. However, after training more sailors and inventing a grappling engine, a Roman naval force was able to defeat a Carthaginian fleet, and further naval victories followed. The Carthaginians then hired Xanthippus of Carthage, a Spartan mercenary general, to reorganise and lead their army. He cut off the Roman army from its base by re-establishing Carthaginian naval supremacy. The Romans then again defeated the Carthaginians in naval battle at the Battle of the Aegates Islands and left Carthage with neither a fleet nor sufficient financial means to raise one. For a maritime power the loss of their access to the Mediterranean stung financially and psychologically, and the Carthaginians sued for peace.
Continuing distrust led to the renewal of hostilities in the Second Punic War when Hannibal Barca attacked an Iberian town which had diplomatic ties to Rome. Hannibal then crossed the Italian Alps to invade Italy. Hannibal 's successes in Italy began immediately, and reached an early climax at the Battle of Cannae, where 70,000 Romans were killed.
The Romans held off Hannibal in three battles, but then Hannibal smashed a succession of Roman consular armies. By this time Hannibal 's brother Hasdrubal Barca sought to cross the Alps into Italy and join his brother with a second army. Hasdrubal managed to break through into Italy only to be defeated decisively on the Metaurus River. Unable to defeat Hannibal on Italian soil, the Romans boldly sent an army to Africa under Scipio Africanus to threaten the Carthaginian capital. Hannibal was recalled to Africa, and defeated at the Battle of Zama.
Carthage never recovered militarily after the Second Punic War, but quickly did so economically and the Third Punic War that followed was in reality a simple punitive mission after the neighbouring Numidians allied to Rome robbed / attacked Carthaginian merchants. Treaties had forbidden any war with Roman allies, and defence against robbing / pirates was considered as "war action '': Rome decided to annihilate the city of Carthage. Carthage was almost defenceless, and submitted when besieged. However, the Romans demanded complete surrender and removal of the city into the (desert) inland far off any coastal or harbour region, and the Carthaginians refused. The city was besieged, stormed, and completely destroyed.
Ultimately, all of Carthage 's North African and Iberian territories were acquired by Rome. Note that "Carthage '' was not an ' empire ', but a league of Punic colonies (port cities in the western Mediterranean) like the 1st and 2nd Athenian ("Attic '') leagues, under leadership of Carthage. Punic Carthage was gone, but the other Punic cities in the western Mediterranean flourished under Roman rule.
Rome 's preoccupation with its war with Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of the kingdom of Macedonia, located in the north of the Greek peninsula, to attempt to extend his power westward. Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal 's camp in Italy, to negotiate an alliance as common enemies of Rome. However, Rome discovered the agreement when Philip 's emissaries were captured by a Roman fleet. The First Macedonian War saw the Romans involved directly in only limited land operations, but they ultimately achieved their objective of pre-occupying Philip and preventing him from aiding Hannibal.
The past century had seen the Greek world dominated by the three primary successor kingdoms of Alexander the Great 's empire: Ptolemaic Egypt, Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire. In 202 BC, internal problems led to a weakening of Egypt 's position, thereby disrupting the power balance among the successor states. Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire agreed to an alliance to conquer and divide Egypt. Fearing this increasingly unstable situation, several small Greek kingdoms sent delegations to Rome to seek an alliance. The delegation succeeded, even though prior Greek attempts to involve Rome in Greek affairs had been met with Roman apathy. Our primary source about these events, the surviving works of Polybius, do not state Rome 's reason for getting involved. Rome gave Philip an ultimatum to cease his campaigns against Rome 's new Greek allies. Doubting Rome 's strength (a reasonable doubt, given Rome 's performance in the First Macedonian War) Philip ignored the request, and Rome sent an army of Romans and Greek allies, beginning the Second Macedonian War. Despite his recent successes against the Greeks and earlier successes against Rome, Philip 's army buckled under the pressure from the Roman - Greek army. In 197 BC, the Romans decisively defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynoscephalae, and Philip was forced to give up his recent Greek conquests. The Romans declared the "Peace of the Greeks '', believing that Philip 's defeat now meant that Greece would be stable. They pulled out of Greece entirely, maintaining minimal contacts with their Greek allies.
With Egypt and Macedonia weakened, the Seleucid Empire made increasingly aggressive and successful attempts to conquer the entire Greek world. Now not only Rome 's allies against Philip, but even Philip himself, sought a Roman alliance against the Seleucids. The situation was made worse by the fact that Hannibal was now a chief military advisor to the Seleucid emperor, and the two were believed to be planning an outright conquest not just of Greece, but of Rome itself. The Seleucids were much stronger than the Macedonians had ever been, because they controlled much of the former Persian Empire, and by now had almost entirely reassembled Alexander the Great 's former empire.
Fearing the worst, the Romans began a major mobilization, all but pulling out of recently pacified Spain and Gaul. They even established a major garrison in Sicily in case the Seleucids ever got to Italy. This fear was shared by Rome 's Greek allies, who had largely ignored Rome in the years after the Second Macedonian War, but now followed Rome again for the first time since that war. A major Roman - Greek force was mobilized under the command of the great hero of the Second Punic War, Scipio Africanus, and set out for Greece, beginning the Roman - Syrian War. After initial fighting that revealed serious Seleucid weaknesses, the Seleucids tried to turn the Roman strength against them at the Battle of Thermopylae (as they believed the 300 Spartans had done centuries earlier). Like the Spartans, the Seleucids lost the battle, and were forced to evacuate Greece. The Romans pursued the Seleucids by crossing the Hellespont, which marked the first time a Roman army had ever entered Asia. The decisive engagement was fought at the Battle of Magnesia, resulting in a complete Roman victory. The Seleucids sued for peace, and Rome forced them to give up their recent Greek conquests. Although they still controlled a great deal of territory, this defeat marked the decline of their empire, as they were to begin facing increasingly aggressive subjects in the east (the Parthians) and the west (the Greeks). Their empire disintegrated into a rump over the course of the next century, when it was eclipsed by Pontus. Following Magnesia, Rome again withdrew from Greece, assuming (or hoping) that the lack of a major Greek power would ensure a stable peace. In fact, it did the opposite.
In 179 BC Philip died. His talented and ambitious son, Perseus, took the throne and showed a renewed interest in conquering Greece. With her Greek allies facing a major new threat, Rome declared war on Macedonia again, starting the Third Macedonian War. Perseus initially had some success against the Romans. However, Rome responded by sending a stronger army. This second consular army decisively defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC and the Macedonians duly capitulated, ending the war.
Convinced now that the Greeks (and therefore the rest of the region) would not have peace if left alone, Rome decided to establish its first permanent foothold in the Greek world, and divided the Kingdom of Macedonia into four client republics. Yet, Macedonian agitation continued. The Fourth Macedonian War, 150 to 148 BC, was fought against a Macedonian pretender to the throne who was again destabilizing Greece by trying to re-establish the old kingdom. The Romans swiftly defeated the Macedonians at the Second battle of Pydna.
The Achaean League chose this moment to fight Rome but was swiftly defeated. In 146 BC (the same year as the destruction of Carthage), Corinth was besieged and destroyed, which led to the league 's surrender. After nearly a century of constant crisis management in Greece, which always led back to internal instability and war when she withdrew, Rome decided to divide Macedonia into two new Roman provinces, Achaea and Macedonia.
The Jugurthine War of 111 -- 104 BC was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of the North African kingdom of Numidia. It constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa, after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain. Following Jugurtha 's usurpation of the throne of Numidia, a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars, Rome felt compelled to intervene. Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpation. Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery.
In 121 BC, Rome came into contact with two Celtic tribes (from a region in modern France), both of which they defeated with apparent ease. The Cimbrian War (113 -- 101 BC) was a far more serious affair than the earlier clashes of 121 BC. The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons migrated from northern Europe into Rome 's northern territories, and clashed with Rome and her allies. At the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae both tribes were virtually annihilated, which ended the threat.
The extensive campaigning abroad by Roman generals, and the rewarding of soldiers with plunder on these campaigns, led to a general trend of soldiers becoming increasingly loyal to their generals rather than to the state. Rome was also plagued by several slave uprisings during this period, in part because vast tracts of land had been given over to slave farming in which the slaves greatly outnumbered their Roman masters. In the 1st century BC at least twelve civil wars and rebellions occurred. This pattern continued until 27 BC, when Octavian (later Augustus) successfully challenged the Senate 's authority, and was made princeps (first citizen).
Between 135 BC and 71 BC there were three "Servile Wars '' involving slave uprisings against the Roman state. The third and final uprising was the most serious, involving ultimately between 120,000 and 150,000 slaves under the command of the gladiator Spartacus. In 91 BC the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies in Italy when the allies complained that they shared the risk of Rome 's military campaigns, but not its rewards. Although they lost militarily, the allies achieved their objectives with legal proclamations which granted citizenship to more than 500,000 Italians.
The internal unrest reached its most serious state, however, in the two civil wars that were caused by the clash between generals Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla starting from 88 BC. In the Battle of the Colline Gate at the very door of the city of Rome, a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Marius supporters and entered the city. Sulla 's actions marked a watershed in the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another that was to pave the way for the wars which ultimately overthrew the Republic, and caused the founding of the Roman Empire.
Mithridates the Great was the ruler of Pontus, a large kingdom in Asia Minor (modern Turkey), from 120 to 63 BC. Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom, and Rome for her part seemed equally eager for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring. In 88 BC, Mithridates ordered the killing of a majority of the 80,000 Romans living in his kingdom. The massacre was the official reason given for the commencement of hostilities in the First Mithridatic War. The Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla forced Mithridates out of Greece proper, but then had to return to Italy to answer the internal threat posed by his rival, Gaius Marius. A peace was made between Rome and Pontus, but this proved only a temporary lull.
The Second Mithridatic War began when Rome tried to annex a province that Mithridates claimed as his own. In the Third Mithridatic War, first Lucius Licinius Lucullus and then Pompey the Great were sent against Mithridates and his Armenian ally Tigranes the Great. Mithridates was finally defeated by Pompey in the night - time Battle of the Lycus.
The Mediterranean had at this time fallen into the hands of pirates, largely from Cilicia. The pirates not only strangled shipping lanes but also plundered many cities on the coasts of Greece and Asia. Pompey was nominated as commander of a special naval task force to campaign against the pirates. It took Pompey just forty days to clear the western portion of the sea of pirates and restore communication between Iberia (Spain), Africa, and Italy.
During his term as praetor in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal and Spain), Pompey 's contemporary Julius Caesar defeated two local tribes in battle. After his term as consul in 59 BC, he was appointed to a five - year term as the proconsular Governor of Cisalpine Gaul (part of current northern Italy), Transalpine Gaul (current southern France) and Illyria (part of the modern Balkans). Not content with an idle governorship, Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul (modern France and Belgium), which would give him the dramatic military success he sought. When two local tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near (not into) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul, Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his Gallic Wars, fought between 58 BC and 49 BC.
Caesar defeated large armies at major battles 58 and 57 BC. In 55 and 54 BC he made two expeditions into Britain, the first Roman to do so. Caesar then defeated a union of Gauls at the Battle of Alesia, completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul. By 50 BC, all of Gaul lay in Roman hands. Gaul never regained its Celtic identity, never attempted another rebellion, and, except for the Crisis of the Third Century, remained loyal to Rome until the fall of the empire in 476.
By 59 BC an unofficial political alliance known as the First Triumvirate was formed between Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great '') to share power and influence. In 53 BC, Crassus launched a Roman invasion of the Parthian Empire (modern Iraq and Iran). After initial successes, he marched his army deep into the desert; but here his army was cut off deep in enemy territory, surrounded and slaughtered at the Battle of Carrhae in which Crassus himself perished. The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate and, consequently, Caesar and Pompey began to move apart. While Caesar was fighting in Gaul, Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome that revealed that he was at best ambivalent towards Caesar and perhaps now covertly allied with Caesar 's political enemies. In 51 BC, some Roman senators demanded that Caesar not be permitted to stand for consul unless he turned over control of his armies to the state, which would have left Caesar defenceless before his enemies. Caesar chose civil war over laying down his command and facing trial.
By the spring of 49 BC, the hardened legions of Caesar crossed the river Rubicon, the legal boundary of Roman Italy beyond which no commander might bring his army, and swept down the Italian peninsula towards Rome, while Pompey ordered the abandonment of Rome. Afterwards Caesar turned his attention to the Pompeian stronghold of Hispania (modern Spain) but decided to tackle Pompey himself in Greece. Pompey initially defeated Caesar, but failed to follow up on the victory, and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, despite outnumbering Caesar 's forces two to one, albeit with inferior quality troops. Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where he was murdered.
Pompey 's death did not end the civil war, as Caesar 's many enemies fought on. In 46 BC Caesar lost perhaps as much as a third of his army, but ultimately came back to defeat the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in the Battle of Thapsus, after which the Pompeians retreated yet again to Hispania. Caesar then defeated the combined Pompeian forces at the Battle of Munda.
Caesar was now the primary figure of the Roman state, enforcing and entrenching his powers. His enemies feared that he had ambitions to become an autocratic ruler. Arguing that the Roman Republic was in danger, a group of senators hatched a conspiracy and assassinated Caesar at a meeting of the Senate in March 44 BC. Mark Antony, Caesar 's lieutenant, condemned Caesar 's assassination, and war broke out between the two factions. Antony was denounced as a public enemy, and Caesar 's adopted son and chosen heir, Gaius Octavianus, was entrusted with the command of the war against him. At the Battle of Mutina Mark Antony was defeated by the consuls Hirtius and Pansa, who were both killed.
Octavian came to terms with Caesarians Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 43 BC when the Second Triumvirate was formed. In 42 BC Mark Antony and Octavian fought the Battle of Philippi against Caesar 's assassins Brutus and Cassius. Although Brutus defeated Octavian, Antony defeated Cassius, who committed suicide. Brutus did likewise soon afterwards.
However, civil war flared again when the Second Triumvirate of Octavian, Lepidus and Mark Antony failed. The ambitious Octavian built a power base of patronage and then launched a campaign against Mark Antony. At the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC off the coast of Greece, Octavian decisively defeated Antony and Cleopatra. Octavian was granted a series of special powers including sole "imperium '' within the city of Rome, permanent consular powers and credit for every Roman military victory, since all future generals were assumed to be acting under his command. In 27 BC Octavian was granted the use of the names "Augustus '' and "Princeps '', indicating his primary status above all other Romans, and he adopted the title "Imperator Caesar '' making him the first Roman Emperor.
The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases. The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the monarchy in 509 BC. The final phase ended with the transition that transformed the Republic into what would effectively be the Roman Empire, in 27 BC. Throughout the history of the Republic, the constitutional evolution was driven by the Conflict of the Orders between the aristocracy and the ordinary citizens.
The last king of the Roman Kingdom, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown in 509 BC by a group of noblemen led by Lucius Junius Brutus. Tarquin made a number of attempts to retake the throne, including the Tarquinian conspiracy, the war with Veii and Tarquinii and finally the war between Rome and Clusium, all of which failed to achieve Tarquin 's objectives. The most important constitutional change during the transition from kingdom to republic involved a new form of chief magistrate. Before the revolution, a king would be elected by the senators for a life term. Now, two consuls were elected by the citizens for an annual term. Each consul would check his colleague, and their limited term in office would open them up to prosecution if they abused the powers of their office. Consular political powers, when exercised conjointly with a consular colleague, were no different from those of the old king.
In 494 BC, the city was at war with two neighboring tribes. The plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy, and instead seceded to the Aventine Hill. The plebeians demanded the right to elect their own officials. The patricians agreed, and the plebeians returned to the battlefield. The plebeians called these new officials "plebeian tribunes ''. The tribunes would have two assistants, called "plebeian aediles ''. During the 5th century BC, a series of reforms were passed. The result of these reforms was that any law passed by the plebeian would have the full force of law. In 443 BC, the censorship was created. From 375 BC to 371 BC, the republic experienced a constitutional crisis during which the tribunes used their vetoes to prevent the election of senior magistrates.
In 367 BC a law was passed which required the election of at least one plebeian aedile each year. Also in 366 BC, the praetorship and curule aedileship were created. Shortly after the founding of the Republic, the Comitia Centuriata ("Assembly of the Centuries '') became the principal legislative assembly. In this assembly, magistrates were elected and laws were passed.
After the consulship had been opened to the plebeians, the plebeians were able to hold both the dictatorship and the censorship. Plebiscites of 342 BC placed limits on political offices; an individual could hold only one office at a time, and ten years must elapse between the end of his official term and his re-election. Further laws attempted to relieve the burden of debt from plebeians by banning interest on loans. In 337 BC, the first plebeian praetor was elected. During these years, the tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close. The senate realised the need to use plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals. To win over the tribunes, the senators gave the tribunes a great deal of power and the tribunes began to feel obligated to the senate. As the tribunes and the senators grew closer, plebeian senators were often able to secure the tribunate for members of their own families. In time, the tribunate became a stepping stone to higher office.
Shortly before 312 BC, the Plebeian Council enacted the Plebiscitum Ovinium. During the early republic, only consuls could appoint new senators. This initiative, however, transferred this power to the censors. It also required the censor to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the senate. By this point, plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices. Thus, the number of plebeian senators probably increased quickly. However, it remained difficult for a plebeian to enter the senate if he was not from a well - known political family, as a new patrician - like plebeian aristocracy emerged. The old nobility existed through the force of law, because only patricians were allowed to stand for high office. The new nobility existed due to the organization of society. As such, only a revolution could overthrow this new structure.
By 287 BC, the economic condition of the average plebeian had become poor. The problem appears to have centered around widespread indebtedness. The plebeians demanded relief, but the senators refused to address their situation. The result was the final plebeian secession. The plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill. To end the secession, a dictator was appointed. The dictator passed a law (the Lex Hortensia), which ended the requirement that the patrician senators must agree before any bill could be considered by the Plebeian Council. This was not the first law to require that an act of the Plebeian Council have the full force of law. The Plebeian Council acquired this power during a modification to the original Valerian law in 449 BC. The significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the patricians of their final weapon over the plebeians. The result was that control over the state fell, not onto the shoulders of voters, but to the new plebeian nobility.
The plebeians had finally achieved political equality with the patricians. However, the plight of the average plebeian had not changed. A small number of plebeian families achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic patrician families had always had, but the new plebeian aristocrats became as uninterested in the plight of the average plebeian as the old patrician aristocrats had always been. The plebeians rebelled by leaving Rome and refusing to return until they had more rights. The patricians then noticed how much they needed the plebeians and accepted their terms. The plebeians then returned to Rome and continued their work.
The Hortensian Law deprived the patricians of their last weapon against the plebeians, and thus resolved the last great political question of the era. No such important political changes occurred between 287 BC and 133 BC. The important laws of this era were still enacted by the senate. In effect, the plebeians were satisfied with the possession of power, but did not care to use it. The senate was supreme during this era because the era was dominated by questions of foreign and military policy. This was the most militarily active era of the Roman Republic.
In the final decades of this era many plebeians grew poorer. The long military campaigns had forced citizens to leave their farms to fight, while their farms fell into disrepair. The landed aristocracy began buying bankrupted farms at discounted prices. As commodity prices fell, many farmers could no longer operate their farms at a profit. The result was the ultimate bankruptcy of countless farmers. Masses of unemployed plebeians soon began to flood into Rome, and thus into the ranks of the legislative assemblies. Their poverty usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered them the most. A new culture of dependency was emerging, in which citizens would look to any populist leader for relief.
The prior era saw great military successes and great economic failures. The patriotism of the plebeians had kept them from seeking any new reforms. Now, the military situation had stabilised, and fewer soldiers were needed. This, in conjunction with the new slaves that were being imported from abroad, inflamed the unemployment situation further. The flood of unemployed citizens to Rome had made the assemblies quite populist.
Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune in 133 BC. He attempted to enact a law which would have limited the amount of land that any individual could own. The aristocrats, who stood to lose an enormous amount of money, were bitterly opposed to this proposal. Tiberius submitted this law to the Plebeian Council, but the law was vetoed by a tribune named Marcus Octavius. Tiberius then used the Plebeian Council to impeach Octavius. The theory, that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people, was counter to Roman constitutional theory. If carried to its logical end, this theory would remove all constitutional restraints on the popular will, and put the state under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority. His law was enacted, but Tiberius was murdered with 300 of his associates when he stood for reelection to the tribunate.
Tiberius ' brother Gaius was elected tribune in 123 BC. Gaius Gracchus ' ultimate goal was to weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces. In the past, for example, the senate would eliminate political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate ''). Both devices would allow the Senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had. Gaius outlawed the judicial commissions, and declared the senatus consultum ultimum to be unconstitutional. Gaius then proposed a law which would grant citizenship rights to Rome 's Italian allies. This last proposal was not popular with the plebeians and he lost much of his support. He stood for election to a third term in 121 BC, but was defeated and then murdered by representatives of the senate with 3,000 of his supporters on Capitoline Hill in Rome.
In 118 BC, King Micipsa of Numidia (current - day Algeria and Tunisia) died. He was succeeded by two legitimate sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and an illegitimate son, Jugurtha. Micipsa divided his kingdom between these three sons. Jugurtha, however, turned on his brothers, killing Hiempsal and driving Adherbal out of Numidia. Adherbal fled to Rome for assistance, and initially Rome mediated a division of the country between the two brothers. Eventually, Jugurtha renewed his offensive, leading to a long and inconclusive war with Rome. He also bribed several Roman commanders, and at least two tribunes, before and during the war. His nemesis, Gaius Marius, a legate from a virtually unknown provincial family, returned from the war in Numidia and was elected consul in 107 BC over the objections of the aristocratic senators. Marius invaded Numidia and brought the war to a quick end, capturing Jugurtha in the process. The apparent incompetence of the Senate, and the brilliance of Marius, had been put on full display. The populares party took full advantage of this opportunity by allying itself with Marius.
Several years later, in 88 BC, a Roman army was sent to put down an emerging Asian power, king Mithridates of Pontus. The army, however, was defeated. One of Marius ' old quaestors, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, had been elected consul for the year, and was ordered by the senate to assume command of the war against Mithridates. Marius, a member of the "populares '' party, had a tribune revoke Sulla 's command of the war against Mithridates. Sulla, a member of the aristocratic ("optimates '') party, brought his army back to Italy and marched on Rome. Sulla was so angry at Marius ' tribune that he passed a law intended to permanently weaken the tribunate. He then returned to his war against Mithridates. With Sulla gone, the populares under Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city.
During the period in which the populares party controlled the city, they flouted convention by re-electing Marius consul several times without observing the customary ten - year interval between offices. They also transgressed the established oligarchy by advancing unelected individuals to magisterial office, and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation. Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates. In 83 BC, he returned to Rome, overcame all resistance, and recaptured the city. Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius ' supporters. Sulla, having observed the violent results of radical popular reforms, was naturally conservative. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and by extension the senate. Sulla made himself dictator, passed a series of constitutional reforms, resigned the dictatorship, and served one last term as consul. He died in 78 BC.
In 77 BC, the senate sent one of Sulla 's former lieutenants, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great ''), to put down an uprising in Hispania. By 71 BC, Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission. Around the same time, another of Sulla 's former lieutenants, Marcus Licinius Crassus, had just put down the Spartacus - led gladiator / slave revolt in Italy. Upon their return, Pompey and Crassus found the populares party fiercely attacking Sulla 's constitution. They attempted to forge an agreement with the populares party. If both Pompey and Crassus were elected consul in 70 BC, they would dismantle the more obnoxious components of Sulla 's constitution. The two were soon elected, and quickly dismantled most of Sulla 's constitution.
Around 66 BC, a movement to use constitutional, or at least peaceful, means to address the plight of various classes began. After several failures, the movement 's leaders decided to use any means that were necessary to accomplish their goals. The movement coalesced under an aristocrat named Lucius Sergius Catilina. The movement was based in the town of Faesulae, which was a natural hotbed of agrarian agitation. The rural malcontents were to advance on Rome, and be aided by an uprising within the city. After assassinating the consuls and most of the senators, Catiline would be free to enact his reforms. The conspiracy was set in motion in 63 BC. The consul for the year, Marcus Tullius Cicero, intercepted messages that Catiline had sent in an attempt to recruit more members. As a result, the top conspirators in Rome (including at least one former consul) were executed by authorisation (of dubious constitutionality) of the senate, and the planned uprising was disrupted. Cicero then sent an army, which cut Catiline 's forces to pieces.
The most important result of the Catilinarian conspiracy was that the populares party became discredited. The prior 70 years had witnessed a gradual erosion in senatorial powers. The violent nature of the conspiracy, in conjunction with the senate 's skill in disrupting it, did a great deal to repair the senate 's image.
In 62 BC, Pompey returned victorious from Asia. The Senate, elated by its successes against Catiline, refused to ratify the arrangements that Pompey had made. Pompey, in effect, became powerless. Thus, when Julius Caesar returned from a governorship in Spain in 61 BC, he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey. Caesar and Pompey, along with Crassus, established a private agreement, now known as the First Triumvirate. Under the agreement, Pompey 's arrangements would be ratified. Caesar would be elected consul in 59 BC, and would then serve as governor of Gaul for five years. Crassus was promised a future consulship.
Caesar became consul in 59 BC. His colleague, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, was an extreme aristocrat. Caesar submitted the laws that he had promised Pompey to the assemblies. Bibulus attempted to obstruct the enactment of these laws, and so Caesar used violent means to ensure their passage. Caesar was then made governor of three provinces. He facilitated the election of the former patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher to the tribunate for 58 BC. Clodius set about depriving Caesar 's senatorial enemies of two of their more obstinate leaders in Cato and Cicero. Clodius was a bitter opponent of Cicero because Cicero had testified against him in a sacrilege case. Clodius attempted to try Cicero for executing citizens without a trial during the Catiline conspiracy, resulting in Cicero going into self - imposed exile and his house in Rome being burnt down. Clodius also passed a bill that forced Cato to lead the invasion of Cyprus which would keep him away from Rome for some years. Clodius also passed a law to expand the previous partial grain subsidy to a fully free grain dole for citizens.
Clodius formed armed gangs that terrorised the city and eventually began to attack Pompey 's followers, who in response funded counter-gangs formed by Titus Annius Milo. The political alliance of the triumvirate was crumbling. Domitius Ahenobarbus ran for the consulship in 55 BC promising to take Caesar 's command from him. Eventually, the triumvirate was renewed at Lucca. Pompey and Crassus were promised the consulship in 55 BC, and Caesar 's term as governor was extended for five years. Crassus led an ill - fated expedition with legions led by his son, Caesar 's lieutenant, against the Kingdom of Parthia. This resulted in his defeat and death at the Battle of Carrhae. Finally, Pompey 's wife, Julia, who was Caesar 's daughter, died in childbirth. This event severed the last remaining bond between Pompey and Caesar.
Beginning in the summer of 54 BC, a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome. This chaos reached a climax in January of 52 BC, when Clodius was murdered in a gang war by Milo. On 1 January 49 BC, an agent of Caesar presented an ultimatum to the senate. The ultimatum was rejected, and the senate then passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year, he would be considered an enemy of the Republic. Meanwhile, the senators adopted Pompey as their new champion against Caesar. On 7 January of 49 BC, the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum, which vested Pompey with dictatorial powers. Pompey 's army, however, was composed largely of untested conscripts. On 10 January, Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his veteran army (in violation of Roman laws) and marched towards Rome. Caesar 's rapid advance forced Pompey, the consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece. Caesar entered the city unopposed.
A period of reform occurred between 49 BC, when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon, and 29 BC, when Octavian returned to Rome after Actium. During this period the previous century 's gradual unravelling of republican institutions accelerated rapidly. By 29 BC, Rome had completed its transition from a city - state with a network of dependencies to the capital of a world empire.
With Pompey defeated and order restored, Caesar wanted to achieve undisputed control over the government. The powers which he gave himself were later assumed by his imperial successors. His assumption of these powers decreased the authority of Rome 's other political institutions.
Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, and alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship. In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers. This made his person sacrosanct, gave him the power to veto the senate, and allowed him to dominate the Plebeian Council. In 46 BC, Caesar was given censorial powers, which he used to fill the senate with his own partisans. Caesar then raised the membership of the Senate to 900. This robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made it increasingly subservient to him. While the assemblies continued to meet, he submitted all candidates to the assemblies for election, and all bills to the assemblies for enactment. Thus, the assemblies became powerless and were unable to oppose him.
Near the end of his life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome would limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC, and all consuls and tribunes in 42 BC. This transformed the magistrates from representatives of the people to representatives of the dictator.
Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44 BC. The assassination was led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus. Most of the conspirators were senators, who had a variety of economic, political, or personal motivations for carrying out the assassination. Many were afraid that Caesar would soon resurrect the monarchy and declare himself king. Others feared loss of property or prestige as Caesar carried out his land reforms in favor of the landless classes. Virtually all the conspirators fled the city after Caesar 's death in fear of retaliation. The civil war that followed destroyed what was left of the Republic.
After the assassination, Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) formed an alliance with Caesar 's adopted son and great - nephew, Gaius Octavianus (Octavian). Along with Marcus Lepidus, they formed an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate. They held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution. As such, the Senate and assemblies remained powerless, even after Caesar had been assassinated. The conspirators were then defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. Eventually, however, Antony and Octavian fought against each other in one last battle. Antony was defeated in the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and he committed suicide with his lover, Cleopatra. In 29 BC, Octavian returned to Rome as the unchallenged master of the Empire and later accepted the title of Augustus ("Exalted One ''). He was convinced that only a single strong ruler could restore order in Rome.
The structural history of the Roman military describes the major chronological transformations in the organisation and constitution of the Roman armed forces. The Roman military was split into the Roman army and the Roman navy, although these two branches were less distinct than they tend to be in modern defence forces. Within the top - level branches of army and navy, structural changes occurred both as a result of positive military reform and through organic structural evolution.
As with most ancient civilizations, Rome 's military served the triple purposes of securing its borders, exploiting peripheral areas through measures such as imposing tribute on conquered peoples, and maintaining internal order. From the outset, Rome 's military typified this pattern and the majority of Rome 's wars were characterized by one of two types. The first is the foreign war, normally begun as a counter-offensive or defense of an ally. The second is the civil war, which plagued the Roman Republic in its final century. Roman armies were not invincible, despite their formidable reputation and host of victories. Over the centuries the Romans "produced their share of incompetents '' who led Roman armies into catastrophic defeats. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of the greatest of Rome 's enemies, such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal, to win early battles but lose the war. The history of Rome 's campaigning is, if nothing else, a history of obstinate persistence overcoming appalling losses.
During this period, Roman soldiers seem to have been modelled after those of the Etruscans to the north, who themselves are believed to have copied their style of warfare from the Greeks. Traditionally, the introduction of the phalanx formation into the Roman army is ascribed to the city 's penultimate king, Servius Tullius (ruled 578 to 534 BC). According to Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the front rank was composed of the wealthiest citizens, who were able to purchase the best equipment. Each subsequent rank consisted of those with less wealth and poorer equipment than the one before it.
One disadvantage of the phalanx was that it was only effective when fighting in large, open spaces, which left the Romans at a disadvantage when fighting in the hilly terrain of the central Italian peninsula. In the 4th century BC, the Romans abandoned the phalanx in favour of the more flexible manipular formation. This change is sometimes attributed to Marcus Furius Camillus and placed shortly after the Gallic invasion of 390 BC; it is more likely, however, that they were copied from Rome 's Samnite enemies to the south, possibly as a result of Samnite victories during the Second Samnite War (326 to 304 BC).
During this period, an army formation of around 5,000 men (of both heavy and light infantry) was known as a legion. The manipular army was based upon social class, age and military experience. Maniples were units of 120 men each drawn from a single infantry class.
The maniples were typically deployed into three discrete lines based on the three heavy infantry types:
The three infantry classes may have retained some slight parallel to social divisions within Roman society, but at least officially the three lines were based upon age and experience rather than social class. Young, unproven men would serve in the first line, older men with some military experience would serve in the second line, and veteran troops of advanced age and experience would serve in the third line.
The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry and cavalry troops, typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion. The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians. There was an additional class of troops who followed the army without specific martial roles and were deployed to the rear of the third line. Their role in accompanying the army was primarily to supply any vacancies that might occur in the maniples. The light infantry consisted of 1,200 unarmoured skirmishing troops drawn from the youngest and lower social classes. They were armed with a sword and a small shield, as well as several light javelins.
Rome 's military confederation with the other peoples of the Italian peninsula meant that half of Rome 's army was provided by the Socii, such as the Etruscans, Umbrians, Apulians, Campanians, Samnites, Lucani, Bruttii, and the various southern Greek cities. Polybius states that Rome could draw on 770,000 men at the beginning of the Second Punic War, of which 700,000 were infantry and 70,000 met the requirements for cavalry. Rome 's Italian allies would be organized in alae, or wings, roughly equal in manpower to the Roman legions, though with 900 cavalry instead of 300.
A small navy had operated at a fairly low level after about 300 BC, but it was massively upgraded about forty years later, during the First Punic War. After a period of frenetic construction, the navy mushroomed to a size of more than 400 ships on the Carthaginian ("Punic '') pattern. Once completed, it could accommodate up to 100,000 sailors and embarked troops for battle. The navy thereafter declined in size.
The extraordinary demands of the Punic Wars, in addition to a shortage of manpower, exposed the tactical weaknesses of the manipular legion, at least in the short term. In 217 BC, near the beginning of the Second Punic War, Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long - standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners. During the 2nd century BC, Roman territory saw an overall decline in population, partially due to the huge losses incurred during various wars. This was accompanied by severe social stresses and the greater collapse of the middle classes. As a result, the Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state, which it did not have to do in the past.
The distinction between the heavy infantry types began to blur, perhaps because the state was now assuming the responsibility of providing standard - issue equipment. In addition, the shortage of available manpower led to a greater burden being placed upon Rome 's allies for the provision of allied troops. Eventually, the Romans were forced to begin hiring mercenaries to fight alongside the legions.
In a process known as the Marian reforms, Roman consul Gaius Marius carried out a programme of reform of the Roman military. In 107 BC, all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for entry into the Roman army. This move formalised and concluded a gradual process that had been growing for centuries, of removing property requirements for military service. The distinction among the three heavy infantry classes, which had already become blurred, had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry. The heavy infantry legionaries were drawn from citizen stock, while non-citizens came to dominate the ranks of the light infantry. The army 's higher - level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy.
Unlike earlier in the Republic, legionaries were no longer fighting on a seasonal basis to protect their land. Instead, they received standard pay, and were employed by the state on a fixed - term basis. As a consequence, military duty began to appeal most to the poorest sections of society, to whom a salaried pay was attractive. A destabilising consequence of this development was that the proletariat "acquired a stronger and more elevated position '' within the state.
The legions of the late Republic were, structurally, almost entirely heavy infantry. The legion 's main sub-unit was called a cohort and consisted of approximately 480 infantrymen. The cohort was therefore a much larger unit than the earlier maniple sub-unit, and was divided into six centuries of 80 men each. Each century was separated further into 10 "tent groups '' of 8 men each. The cavalry troops were used as scouts and dispatch riders rather than battlefield cavalry. Legions also contained a dedicated group of artillery crew of perhaps 60 men. Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied (non-Roman) troops.
However, the most obvious deficiency of the Roman army remained its shortage of cavalry, especially heavy cavalry. As Rome 's borders expanded and its adversaries changed from largely infantry - based to largely cavalry - based troops, the infantry - based Roman army began to find itself at a tactical disadvantage, particularly in the East.
After having declined in size following the subjugation of the Mediterranean, the Roman navy underwent short - term upgrading and revitalisation in the late Republic to meet several new demands. Under Caesar, an invasion fleet was assembled in the English Channel to allow the invasion of Britannia; under Pompey, a large fleet was raised in the Mediterranean Sea to clear the sea of Cilician pirates. During the civil war that followed, as many as a thousand ships were either constructed or pressed into service from Greek cities.
The Constitution of the Roman Republic was a constantly - evolving, unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent, by which the government and its politics operated.
The senate 's ultimate authority derived from the esteem and prestige of the senators. This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom, as well as the caliber and reputation of the senators. The senate passed decrees, which were called senatus consulta. These were officially "advice '' from the senate to a magistrate. In practice, however, they were usually followed by the magistrates. The focus of the Roman senate was usually directed towards foreign policy. Though it technically had no official role in the management of military conflict, the senate ultimately was the force that oversaw such affairs. The power of the senate expanded over time as the power of the legislative assemblies declined, and the senate took a greater role in ordinary law - making. Its members were usually appointed by Roman Censors, who ordinarily selected newly elected magistrates for membership in the senate, making the senate a partially elected body. During times of military emergency, such as the civil wars of the 1st century BC, this practice became less prevalent, as the Roman Dictator, Triumvir or the senate itself would select its members.
The legal status of Roman citizenship was limited and was a vital prerequisite to possessing many important legal rights such as the right to trial and appeal, to marry, to vote, to hold office, to enter binding contracts, and to special tax exemptions. An adult male citizen with the full complement of legal and political rights was called "optimo jure. '' The optimo jure elected their assemblies, whereupon the assemblies elected magistrates, enacted legislation, presided over trials in capital cases, declared war and peace, and forged or dissolved treaties. There were two types of legislative assemblies. The first was the comitia ("committees ''), which were assemblies of all optimo jure. The second was the concilia ("councils ''), which were assemblies of specific groups of optimo jure.
Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and tribes, which would each gather into their own assemblies. The Comitia Centuriata ("Centuriate Assembly '') was the assembly of the centuries (i.e., soldiers). The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually a consul. The centuries would vote, one at a time, until a measure received support from a majority of the centuries. The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had imperium powers (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare war, and ratify the results of a census. It also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases.
The assembly of the tribes (i.e., the citizens of Rome), the Comitia Tributa, was presided over by a consul, and was composed of 35 tribes. The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical subdivisions. The order that the thirty - five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot. Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes, the voting would end. While it did not pass many laws, the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes. The Plebeian Council was identical to the assembly of the tribes, but excluded the patricians (the elite who could trace their ancestry to the founding of Rome). They elected their own officers, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles. Usually a plebeian tribune would preside over the assembly. This assembly passed most laws, and could also act as a court of appeal.
Each republican magistrate held certain constitutional powers. Only the People of Rome (both plebeians and patricians) had the right to confer these powers on any individual magistrate. The most powerful constitutional power was imperium. Imperium was held by both consuls and praetors. Imperium gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force. All magistrates also had the power of coercion. This was used by magistrates to maintain public order. While in Rome, all citizens could seek judgment against coercion. This protection was called provocatio (see below). Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens. This power would often be used to obstruct political opponents.
One check on a magistrate 's power was his collegiality. Each magisterial office would be held concurrently by at least two people. Another such check was provocatio. Provocatio was a primordial form of due process. It was a precursor to habeas corpus. If any magistrate tried to use the powers of the state against a citizen, that citizen could appeal the decision of the magistrate to a tribune. In addition, once a magistrate 's one - year term of office expired, he would have to wait ten years before serving in that office again. This created problems for some consuls and praetors, and these magistrates would occasionally have their imperium extended. In effect, they would retain the powers of the office (as a promagistrate), without officially holding that office.
The consuls of the Roman Republic were the highest ranking ordinary magistrates; each consul served for one year. Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters. While in the city of Rome, the consuls were the head of the Roman government. They would preside over the senate and the assemblies. While abroad, each consul would command an army. His authority abroad would be nearly absolute. Praetors administered civil law and commanded provincial armies. Every five years, two censors were elected for an 18 - month term, during which they would conduct a census. During the census, they could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate. Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, such as managing public games and shows. The quaestors would usually assist the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces. Their duties were often financial.
Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity. One consequence was that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to interfere with a tribune. In times of military emergency, a dictator would be appointed for a term of six months. Constitutional government would be dissolved, and the dictator would be the absolute master of the state. When the dictator 's term ended, constitutional government would be restored.
Life in the Roman Republic revolved around the city of Rome, and its famed seven hills. The city also had several theatres, gymnasiums, and many taverns, baths and brothels. Throughout the territory under Rome 's control, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas, and in the capital city of Rome, to the residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word "palace '' is derived. The vast majority of the population lived in the city center, packed into apartment blocks.
Most Roman towns and cities had a forum and temples, as did the city of Rome itself. Aqueducts brought water to urban centers and wine and cooking oil were imported from abroad. Landlords generally resided in cities and left their estates in the care of farm managers. To stimulate a higher labor productivity, many landlords freed large numbers of slaves.
Beginning in the middle of the 2nd century BC, Greek culture was increasingly ascendant, in spite of tirades against the "softening '' effects of Hellenised culture. By the time of Augustus, cultured Greek household slaves taught the Roman young (sometimes even the girls). Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape gardening on the Palatine or in the villas, and much of ancient Roman cuisine was essentially Greek. Roman writers disdained Latin for a cultured Greek style.
Many aspects of Roman culture were borrowed from the Greeks. In architecture and sculpture, the difference between Greek models and Roman paintings are apparent. The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch and the dome. Rome has also had a tremendous impact on European cultures following it. Its significance is perhaps best reflected in its endurance and influence, as is seen in the longevity and lasting importance of the works of Virgil and Ovid. Latin, the Republic 's primary language, remains used for liturgical purposes by the Roman Catholic Church, and up to the 19th century was used extensively in scholarly writings in, for example, science and mathematics. Roman law laid the foundations for the laws of many European countries and their colonies.
The center of the early social structure was the family, which was not only marked by blood relations but also by the legally constructed relation of patria potestas. The Pater familias was the absolute head of the family; he was the master over his wife, his children, the wives of his sons, the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen, disposing of them and of their goods at will, even putting them to death. Roman law recognised only patrician families as legal entities.
Slavery and slaves were part of the social order; there were slave markets where they could be bought and sold. Many slaves were freed by their masters for services rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom. Generally, mutilation and murder of slaves was prohibited by legislation. However, Rome did not have a law enforcement arm. All actions were treated as "torts, '' which were brought by an accuser who was forced to prove the entire case himself. If the accused were a noble and the victim not a noble, the likelihood of finding for the accused was small. At most, the accused might have to pay a fine for killing a slave. It is estimated that over 25 % of the Roman population was enslaved.
Men typically wore a toga, and women a stola. The woman 's stola differed in looks from a toga, and was usually brightly coloured. The cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. The tunic worn by plebeians, or common people, like shepherds and slaves, was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool. A knight or magistrate would wear an augusticlavus, a tunic bearing small purple studs. Senators wore tunics with broad red stripes, called tunica laticlavia. Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians. Boys, up until the festival of Liberalia, wore the toga praetexta, which was a toga with a crimson or purple border. The toga virilis (or toga pura) was worn by men over the age of 16 to signify their citizenship in Rome. The toga picta was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield. The toga pulla was worn when in mourning.
Even footwear indicated a person 's social status. Patricians wore red and orange sandals, senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots. The Romans also invented socks for those soldiers required to fight on the northern frontiers, sometimes worn in sandals.
The staple foods were generally consumed around 11 o'clock, and consisted of bread, lettuce, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before. The Roman poet Horace mentions another Roman favorite, the olive, in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance. '' The family ate together, sitting on stools around a table. Fingers were used to eat solid foods and spoons were used for soups.
Wine was considered the basic drink, consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite inexpensive. Cato the Elder once advised cutting his rations in half to conserve wine for the workforce. Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well. Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for alcoholism, the debilitating physical and psychological effects of which were known to the Romans. An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic was an effective way to discredit political rivals. Prominent Roman alcoholics included Marcus Antonius, and Cicero 's own son Marcus (Cicero Minor). Even Cato the Younger was known to be a heavy drinker.
Following various military conquests in the Greek East, Romans adapted a number of Greek educational precepts to their own fledgling system. They began physical training to prepare the boys to grow as Roman citizens and for eventual recruitment into the army. Conforming to discipline was a point of great emphasis. Girls generally received instruction from their mothers in the art of spinning, weaving, and sewing. Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 BC. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of reading, writing and counting. By the age of twelve, they would be learning Latin, Greek, grammar and literature, followed by training for public speaking. Oratory was an art to be practiced and learnt, and good orators commanded respect.
The native language of the Romans was Latin. Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylised and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the actual spoken language was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and eventually pronunciation. Rome 's expansion spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectised in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages. Many of these languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian and Spanish, flourished, the differences between them growing greater over time. Although English is Germanic rather than Roman in origin, English borrows heavily from Latin and Latin - derived words.
Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works we possess are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. His Aeneid tells the story of the flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settlement of the city that would become Rome. Lucretius, in his On the Nature of Things, attempted to explicate science in an epic poem. The genre of satire was common in Rome, and satires were written by, among others, Juvenal and Persius. The rhetorical works of Cicero are considered to be some of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity.
In the 3rd century BC, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. Portrait sculpture during the period utilised youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, often depicting Roman victories.
Music was a major part of everyday life. The word itself derives from Greek μουσική (mousike), "(art) of the Muses ''. Many private and public events were accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and manoeuvres. In a discussion of any ancient music, however, non-specialists and even many musicians have to be reminded that much of what makes our modern music familiar to us is the result of developments only within the last 1,000 years; thus, our ideas of melody, scales, harmony, and even the instruments we use may not have been familiar to Romans who made and listened to music many centuries earlier.
Over time, Roman architecture was modified as their urban requirements changed, and the civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. The Roman concrete has remained a riddle, and even after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still stand magnificently. The architectural style of the capital city was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence. Roman cities were well planned, efficiently managed and neatly maintained.
The city of Rome had a place called the Campus Martius ("Field of Mars ''), which was a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers. Later, the Campus became Rome 's track and field playground. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Equestrian sports, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities. In the countryside, pastimes included fishing and hunting. Board games played in Rome included dice (Tesserae or Tali), Roman Chess (Latrunculi), Roman Checkers (Calculi), Tic - tac - toe (Terni Lapilli), and Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon. Other activities included chariot races, and musical and theatrical performances.
Roman religious beliefs date back to the founding of Rome, around 800 BC. However, the Roman religion commonly associated with the republic and early empire did not begin until around 500 BC, when Romans came in contact with Greek culture, and adopted many of the Greek religious beliefs. Private and personal worship was an important aspect of religious practices. In a sense, each household was a temple to the gods. Each household had an altar (lararium), at which the family members would offer prayers, perform rites, and interact with the household gods. Many of the gods that Romans worshiped came from the Proto - Indo - European pantheon, others were based on Greek gods. The two most famous deities were Jupiter (the king God) and Mars (the god of war). With its cultural influence spreading over most of the Mediterranean, Romans began accepting foreign gods into their own culture, as well as other philosophical traditions such as Cynicism and Stoicism.
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what was the original story of sleeping beauty | Sleeping Beauty - wikipedia
Sleeping Beauty (French: La Belle au bois dormant), or Little Briar Rose (German: Dornröschen), also titled in English as The Sleeping Beauty in the Woods, is a classic fairy tale which involves a beautiful princess, a sleeping enchantment, and a handsome prince. The tale was originally written by Charles Perrault. The version collected by the Brothers Grimm was an orally transmitted version of the original literary tale published by Perrault in Histoires ou contes du temps passé in 1697. This in turn was based on Sun, Moon, and Talia by Italian poet Giambattista Basile (published posthumously in 1634), which was in turn based on one or more folk tales. The earliest known version of the story is found in the narrative Perceforest, composed between 1330 and 1344.
Perrault 's narrative is written in two parts, which some folklorists believe were originally separate tales, as they were in the Brothers Grimm 's version, and were later joined together by Giambattista Basile and once more by Perrault.
At the christening of a king and queen 's long - wished - for child, seven good fairies are invited to be godmothers to the infant princess. The fairies attend the banquet at the palace. Each fairy is presented with a golden plate and drinking cups adorned with jewels. Soon after, an old fairy enters the palace and is seated with a plate of fine china and a crystal drinking glass. This old fairy is overlooked because she has been within a tower for many years and everyone had believed her to be deceased. Six of the other seven fairies then offer their gifts of beauty, wit, grace, dance, song, and goodness to the infant princess. The evil fairy is very angry about having been forgotten, and as her gift, enchants the infant princess so that she will one day prick her finger on a spindle of a spinning wheel and die. The seventh fairy, who has n't yet given her gift, attempts to reverse the evil fairy 's curse. However, she can only do so partially. Instead of dying, the Princess will fall into a deep sleep for 100 years and be awakened by a kiss from a king 's son. This is her gift of protection.
The King orders that every spindle and spinning wheel in the kingdom to be destroyed, to try to save his daughter from the terrible curse. Fifteen or sixteen years pass and one day, when the king and queen are away, the Princess wanders through the palace rooms and comes upon an old woman, spinning with her spindle. The princess, who has never seen anyone spin before, asks the old woman if she can try the spinning wheel. The curse is fulfilled as the princess pricks her finger on the spindle and instantly falls into a deep sleep. The old woman cries for help and attempts are made to revive the princess. The king attributes this to fate and has the Princess carried to the finest room in the palace and placed upon a bed of gold and silver embroidered fabric. The king and queen kiss their daughter goodbye and depart, proclaiming the entrance to be forbidden. The good fairy who altered the evil prophecy is summoned. Having great powers of foresight, the fairy sees that the Princess will awaken to distress when she finds herself alone, so the fairy puts everyone in the castle to sleep. The fairy also summons a forest of trees, brambles and thorns that spring up around the castle, shielding it from the outside world and preventing anyone from disturbing the Princess.
A hundred years pass and a prince from another family spies the hidden castle during a hunting expedition. His attendants tell him differing stories regarding the castle until an old man recounts his father 's words: within the castle lies a beautiful princess who is doomed to sleep for a hundred years until a king 's son comes and awakens her. The prince then braves the tall trees, brambles and thorns which part at his approach, and enters the castle. He passes the sleeping castle folk and comes across the chamber where the Princess lies asleep on the bed. Struck by the radiant beauty before him, he falls on his knees before her. The enchantment comes to an end by a kiss and the princess awakens and converses with the prince for a long time. Meanwhile, the rest of the castle awakens and go about their business. The prince and princess are later married by the chaplain in the castle chapel.
After wedding the Princess in secret, the Prince continues to visit her and she bears him two children, Aurore (Dawn) and Jour (Day), unbeknown to his mother, who is of an ogre lineage. When the time comes for the Prince to ascend the throne, he brings his wife, children, and the talabutte ("Count of the Mount '').
The Ogress Queen Mother sends the young Queen and the children to a house secluded in the woods and directs her cook to prepare the boy with Sauce Robert for dinner. The kind - hearted cook substitutes a lamb for the boy, which satisfies the Queen Mother. She then demands the girl but the cook this time substitutes a young goat, which also satisfies the Queen Mother. When the Ogress demands that he serve up the young Queen, the latter offers to slit her throat so that she may join the children that she imagines are dead. While the Queen Mother is satisfied with a hind prepared with Sauce Robert in place of the young Queen, there is a tearful secret reunion of the Queen and her children. However, the Queen Mother soon discovers the cook 's trick and she prepares a tub in the courtyard filled with vipers and other noxious creatures. The King returns in the nick of time and the Ogress, her true nature having been exposed, throws herself into the tub and is fully consumed. The King, young Queen, and children then live happily ever after.
In Giambattista Basile 's version of Sleeping Beauty, Sun, Moon, and Talia, the sleeping beauty is named Talia. By asking wise men and astrologers to predict her future after her birth, her father who is a great lord learns that Talia will be in danger from a splinter of flax. The splinter later causes what appears to be Talia 's death; however, it is later learned that it is a long, deep sleep. After Talia falls into deep sleep, she is seated on a velvet throne and her father, to forget his misery of what he thinks is her death, closes the doors and abandons the house forever. One day, while a king is walking by, one of his falcons flies into the house. The king knocks, hoping to be let in by someone, but no one answers and he decides to climb in with a ladder. He finds Talia alive but unconscious, and "... gathers the first fruits of love. '' Afterwards, he leaves her in the bed and goes back to his kingdom. Though Talia is unconscious, she gives birth to twins -- one of whom keeps sucking her fingers. Talia awakens because the twin has sucked out the flax that was stuck deep in Talia 's finger. When she wakes up, she discovers that she is a mother and has no idea what happened to her. One day, the king decides he wants to go see Talia again. He goes back to the palace to find her awake and a mother to his twins. He informs her of who he is, what has happened, and they end up bonding. After a few days, the king has to leave to go back to his realm, but promises Talia that he will return to take her to his kingdom.
When he arrives back in his kingdom, his wife hears him saying "Talia, Sun, and Moon '' in his sleep. She bribes and threatens the king 's secretary to tell her what is going on. After the queen learns the truth, she pretends she is the king and writes to Talia asking her to send the twins because he wants to see them. Talia sends her twins to the "king '' and the queen tells the cook to kill the twins and make dishes out of them. She wants to feed the king his children; instead, the cook takes the twins to his wife and hides them. He then cooks two lambs and serves them as if they were the twins. Every time the king mentions how good the food is, the queen replies, "Eat, eat, you are eating of your own. '' Later, the queen invites Talia to the kingdom and is going to burn her alive, but the king appears and finds out what 's going on with his children and Talia. He then orders that his wife be burned along with those who betrayed him. Since the cook actually did not obey the queen, the king thanks the cook for saving his children by giving him rewards. The story ends with the king marrying Talia and living happily ever after.
There are earlier elements that contributed to the tale. In the medieval courtly romance Perceforest (published in 1528), a princess named Zellandine falls in love with a man named Troylus. Her father sends him to perform tasks to prove himself worthy of her, and while he is gone, Zellandine falls into an enchanted sleep. Troylus finds her and impregnates her in her sleep; when their child is born, he draws from her finger the flax that caused her sleep. She realizes from the ring he left her that the father was Troylus, who later returns to marry her.
Earlier influences come from the story of the sleeping Brynhild in the Volsunga saga and the tribulations of saintly female martyrs in early Christian hagiography conventions. It was, in fact, the existence of Brynhild that persuaded the Brothers Grimm to include the story in later editions of their work rather than eliminate it, as they did to other works they deemed to be purely French, stemming from Perrault 's work. Their decision was odd on one point, at least, since in none of the Teutonic myths, meaning the Poetic and Prose Eddas or Volsunga Saga, is their sleeper awakened with a kiss, a fact Jacob Grimm would certainly have known, who wrote an important and encyclopedic volume on German Mythology.
The second half, in which the princess and her children are almost put to death, but instead hidden, may have been influenced by Genevieve of Brabant.
The princess 's name has varied from one adaptation to the other. In Sun, Moon, and Talia, she is named Talia (Sun and Moon being her twin children). She has no name in Perrault 's story but her daughter is called "Aurore ''. The Brothers Grimm named her "Briar Rose '' in their 1812 collection. Tchaikovsky 's ballet and Disney 's version named her Princess Aurora; however, in the Disney version, she is also called "Briar Rose '' in her childhood, when she is being raised incognito by the good fairies. John Stejean named her "Rosebud '' in TeleStory Presents.
The Brothers Grimm included a variant Little Briar Rose in their collection (1812). Their version ends when the prince arrives to wake Sleeping Beauty, unlike the stories of Basile and Perrault. Some translations of the Grimms ' tale give the princess the name "Rosamond ''. The brothers considered rejecting the story on the grounds that it was derived from Perrault 's version, but the presence of the Brynhild tale convinced them to include it as an authentically German tale. Still, it is the only known German variant of the tale, and Perrault 's influence is almost certain.
The Brothers Grimm also included, in the first edition of their tales, a fragmentary fairy tale, "The Evil Mother - in law ''. This story begins with the heroine a married mother of two children, as in the second part of Perrault 's tale, and her mother - in - law attempting to eat her and the children. Unlike Perrault 's version, the heroine suggested an animal be substituted in the dish, and ends with the heroine 's worry that she can not keep her children from crying and getting the mother - in - law 's attention. Like many German tales showing French influence, it appeared in no subsequent edition.
Italo Calvino included a variant in Italian Folktales. The cause of her sleep is an ill - advised wish by her mother. As in Pentamerone, the prince rapes her in her sleep and her children are born. He retains the element that the woman who tries to kill the children is the king 's mother, not his wife, but adds that she does not want to eat them herself, but instead serves them to the king. His version came from Calabria, but he noted that all Italian versions closely followed Basile 's.
Besides Sun, Moon, and Talia, Basile included another variant of this Aarne - Thompson type, The Young Slave. The Grimms also included a second, more distantly related one, The Glass Coffin.
Joseph Jacobs noted that the figure of the Sleeping Beauty was in common between this tale and the Gypsy tale The King of England and his Three Sons, in his More English Fairy Tales.
The hostility of the king 's mother to his new bride is repeated in the fairy tale The Six Swans, and also features The Twelve Wild Ducks, where she is modified to be the king 's stepmother. However, these tales omit the attempted cannibalism.
Some folklorists have analyzed Sleeping Beauty as indicating the replacement of the lunar year (with its thirteen months, symbolically depicted by the thirteen fairies) by the solar year (which has twelve, symbolically the invited fairies). The basic elements of the story can also be interpreted as a nature allegory: the princess represents nature, the wicked fairy godmother is winter, who puts the Court to sleep with pricks of frost until the prince (spring) cuts away the brambles with his sword (a sunbeam) to allow the Sun to awaken sleeping princess (nature).
Sleeping Beauty, by Alexander Zick (1845 -- 1907)
He stands -- he stoops to gaze -- he kneels -- he wakes her with a kiss, woodcut by Walter Crane
Prince Florimund finds the "Sleeping Beauty ''
Sleeping Beauty by Jenny Harbour
Perrault 's La Belle au bois dormant (Sleeping Beauty), illustration by Gustave Doré
Book cover for a Dutch interpretation of the story by Johann Georg van Caspel
Briar Rose
Sleeping Beauty by Edward Frederick Brewtnall
Louis Sußmann - Hellborn (1828 - 1908) Sleeping Beauty,
Sleeping Princess by Viktor Vasnetsov
The Sleeping Beauty by Sir Edward Burne - Jones
Sleeping Beauty, statue in Wuppertal -- Germany
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when is it legal to smoke weed in canada | Cannabis in Canada - Wikipedia
Cannabis -- or marijuana -- is currently legal in Canada only for medicinal purposes, under conditions outlined in the Access to Cannabis for Medical Purposes Regulations (ACMPR) issued by Health Canada, and for seed, grain and fibre production under licence by Health Canada. On October 17, 2018, Canada is to become the third nation in the world, after Uruguay and Georgia, to formally legalize the drug. It will also become the first G7 and G20 nation to do so.
Cannabis was banned in Canada from 1923 until regulated medical cannabis became legal in 2001. In response to popular opinion, Justin Trudeau, the leader of the Liberal Party of Canada, committed while campaigning during the 2015 federal election to legalize cannabis for recreational use. The Liberal Party of Canada won the election with 184 seats, allowing the party to form a majority government with Trudeau as Prime Minister. The plan was to remove cannabis possession for personal consumption from the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act; however, new laws would be enacted to strengthen punishment of those convicted of either supplying cannabis to minors, or of impairment while driving a motor vehicle.
The legislation to legalize cannabis for recreational use (Cannabis Act, Bill C - 45) was passed by the House of Commons of Canada in late November 2017; it passed second reading in the Senate of Canada on 22 March 2018. On 18 June 2018, the House passed the bill with most, but not all, of the Senate 's amendments. The Senate accepted this version of the Act the following day. Prime Minister Justin Trudeau announced the next day that recreational use of cannabis would no longer violate the criminal law as of 17 October 2018.
Cannabis has been illegal since it was added to the country 's Confidential Restricted List in 1923 under the Narcotics Drug Act Amendment Bill after a vague reference to a "new drug '' during a late night session of the House of Commons on 23 April 1923. According to one government official, cannabis was outlawed after the Director of the Federal Division of Narcotic Control returned from League of Nations meetings where the international control of cannabis was broached. Cannabis did not begin to attract official attention in Canada until the later 1930s, and even then it was minimal; the first seizure of cannabis by Canadian police was not until 1937. Commercial cultivation of industrial hemp was forbidden in 1938. Between 1946 and 1961, cannabis accounted for only 2 % of all drug arrests in Canada.
In the 1960s cannabis began to rapidly increase in Canada. For the entire period 1930 -- 1946 the RCMP recorded only 25 cannabis arrests, but this rose to 2,300 cases in 1968, and to 12,000 cases in 1972. In response to the increased popularization of marijuana and the increase in criminal charges against middle class citizens, the government formed the Royal Commission of Inquiry in the Non-Medical Use of Drugs, usually referred to as the Le Dain Commission in 1969 to investigate the non-medical cannabis use in Canada. The commission 's 1972 report recommended removing criminal penalties for cannabis possession, though not legalization, per se. While the subsequent two federal governments discussed the recommendation, no steps were actually taken to change legislation.
On 15 September 2017, Canada 's first licence for recreational cannabis distribution was awarded to Organigram Holdings (market name OGI: CVE) by the province of New Brunswick. This marked a milestone for marijuana distribution in Canada.
After he was elected Prime Minister in 2015, the first significant step that Justin Trudeau took was the creation of a federal - provincial - territorial task force to discuss a jointly suitable process for the legalization of cannabis possession for casual use. This Task Force on Marijuana Legalization and Regulation released a 106 - page report to the public on 13 December 2016, with various recommendations. Those were provided for consideration by the federal and provincial governments but they were not binding. Sales for recreational use will not commence until 1 July 2018, at the earliest, based on legislation (Bill C - 45, the Cannabis Act) passed by the federal government in June 2018.
Subsequently, the substance will remain controlled: sold only at government licensed retailers, and grown only by licensed producers. During the federal election campaign, the Liberals had promised "new, stronger laws '' against sales to minors, driving while impaired and sales through channels not specifically authorized to do so.
Until approximately 17 October 2018, marijuana remains illegal (except with a physician 's prescription, for medical purposes), as Trudeau reminded police forces across the country in late 2016. He insisted that they "enforce the law '': criminally charge illegal storefront dispensaries. Trudeau also explained that the intent of the legislation is not to encourage recreational use of cannabis. The intent is "to better protect our kids from the easy access they have right now to marijuana (and) to remove the criminal elements that were profiting from marijuana '', he told the Toronto Star on 2 December 2016.
Police forces took the Prime Minister seriously and in March 2017 raided five locations of the Cannabis Culture retailer in Toronto, one in Vancouver, British Columbia, and another in Hamilton, Ontario. They also searched homes in Toronto, Stoney Creek and Vancouver. Multiple charges were laid against Marc Emery and Jodie Emery, owners of Cannabis Culture, a company that franchised pot dispensary shops. The couple was convicted in December 2017 of drug related charges, including possession of marijuana for purpose of trafficking, fined and placed on two years of probation. Drug - related charges were laid against three others who were also subsequently convicted.
Toronto Police had told the media that the unlicensed marijuana dispensaries are linked to "high - level drug traffickers... often tied to organized crime, given the amount of marijuana sold ''.
First Nations chiefs attending the Assembly of First Nations widely agreed that the distribution of cannabis on reserve lands should be governed by First Nations governments, and not provincial legislation.
On 1 June 2018, the Canadian Senate passed an amendment to C - 45 outlawing cannabis "brand - stretching ''. The amendment, which passed 34 -- 28, outlaws the sale and display of cannabis - related merchandise and makes it difficult to publicly promote cannabis once legalized. However, this amendment was rejected by the Liberal government when the bill was returned to the House of Commons and does not appear in the final version of C - 45 that received Royal Assent.
On 19 June 2018, the Senate passed the bill and the Prime Minister announced the effective legalization date as 17 October 2018. Canada is the second nation (after Uruguay) to legalise the drug.
In Canada, regulation varies province to province, though there are some general rules regarding promotion, packaging, and advertising. Adult - use marijuana can only be sold in packages of a single colour without graphics other than the logo and a health warning. Cannabis companies in Canada will not be allowed to promote themselves through TV commercials, billboards or glossy magazine ads, sponsor people or events, or put their names on sports and cultural facilities. To address these advertising challenges, some brands are connecting with popular media influencers like Gene Simmons and the Trailer Park Boys.
The Cannabis Act (2018) has given provinces the power to determine the method of distribution and sale, and whether cannabis use will be legal inside private residence or homes if children are present in the home 12 or more hours in a day and each will also establish the legal age for cannabis use. An excise tax will be levied, to be shared with the provinces and territories. According to the federal government, estimated annual sales will be $4 billion (US $3.2 b).
The Act (2018) also allows householders to grow up to four cannabis plants but Quebec announced that it would not permit this option. Manitoba will also not allow householders to grow their own plants. Alberta will allow only indoor growing; New Brunswick will take a similar approach, specifying indoor growing only and in a separate locked space.
Since 1997, public opinion polls have found an increasing majority of Canadians agree with the statement, "Smoking marijuana should not be a criminal offence ''. A June 2016 national poll conducted by Nanos Research showed that 7 in 10 Canadians are in favour of legalization.
By 2006, a high percentage of the population was using cannabis, in spite of the risk of police charges for possession, and especially for selling it without the required licence, according to statistics gathered by the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. Nearly half (44 %) of Canadians admit to trying it at least once; no statistics were provided as to the percentage who use it frequently. The CAMH report also indicates that by the last year of high school, nearly half (46 %) of Ontario students admit to having used marijuana in the past year. Naturally, the CAMH discussion includes warnings about the negative effects of cannabis. Other groups also warn about the risk, including the Canadian Automobile Association whose 2016 poll indicated that "Almost two thirds of Canadians are concerned that roads will become more dangerous (due to impairment by the drug) with the legalization of marijuana ''. An October 2016 national poll by Forum suggests that about five million adult Canadians now use cannabis at least once a month; this is expected to increase by 19 percent after marijuana is legalized. Canaccord Genuity analysts Matt Bottomley and Neil Maruoka released a research note with a more moderate estimate of the number of users. They predicted that approximately 3.8 million persons will be recreational users (presumably on a frequent basis) by 2021. A report by Canada 's Parliamentary Budget Officer (PBO) is more bullish, estimating that by 2021 some 5.2 million adults may be users.
Growers that currently produce marijuana are licensed by Health Canada under the Access to Cannabis for Medical Purposes Regulations (ACMPR). As of late 2016, there were 36 authorized producers across the country in Health Canada 's list. Sales were allowed only by mail order, but by late 2017, some major retailers had applied for a change in the rules to allow them to also sell the product. By 21 December 2017, 82 licences had been issued under the Access to Cannabis for Medical Purposes Regulations (ACMPR), but not all of the producers had been licensed to begin selling medical marijuana. The vast majority of these companies were located in Ontario. At that time, no licences had been issued yet for producing recreational cannabis; the producers already licensed were hoping to be added to that list after it is created. Between 1 February and early April 2018, some 89 additional applicants were approved as cannabis growers by Health Canada; at the time the agency was considering the merits of another 244 applications.
Statistics indicate that as of September 2016 nearly 100,000 Canadians had bought medical marijuana legally, a significant increase over the 30,537 in September 2015, presumably since it is becoming a mainstream drug and since supplies are becoming more readily available. According to a StatsCan estimate, Canadians may have spent roughly CAD $6.2 billion (US $4.8 billion) on marijuana in 2015, although the agency admits that there is no scientific method of accurately measuring illegal consumption.
The largest of the licensed producers is Canopy Growth Corporation of Smiths Falls, Ontario, renamed from Tweed Marijuana Inc. in September 2015 after it purchased competitor Bedrocan. Subsequent acquisitions for this corporation included Vert Medical, the German cannabis distributor MedCann and a majority interest in Quebec 's Groupe H.E.M.P. CA Inc. In early December 2016, Canopy announced a friendly takeover bid of another Canadian producer, Mettrum Health (CVE: MT), in anticipation of an expanding market after marijuana is legalized for recreational purposes in 2017. In addition to sales in the domestic market, Canopy Growth began selling medical cannabis products in Germany and Brazil in 2016. The company was described as "one of the world 's -- and Canada 's first -- premier exporters of marijuana '' by the Financial Post news organization.
Canopy Growth 's patient base increased by approximately 260 per cent and revenue increased by about 180 percent in the calendar year 2016 vs. 2015. The increase would have been even greater but the company had difficulty maintaining adequate stock in some high - demand categories such as mid-to - high THC level products and oils. A report by the Financial Post indicated that inventory shortfalls have been a problem for many of Canada 's licensed medical marijuana producers; this could worsen after recreational marijuana is legalized. When the year end report was released, Canopy Growth 's share price fell seven percent to $12.09 on the Toronto Stock Exchange (ticker WEED). The December 2016 year end report indicated a profit for the first time in the company 's history (3 million in net income). Previously, Canopy Growth had been operating at a loss ($3.3 million in 2015, for example) partly because it was using funds to acquire competitors in preparation for significantly increased cannabis demand by the recreational use market expected to commence in early 2018. (The company 's most recently announced acquisition is of Mettrum Health Corp., for $430 million, awaiting final regulatory approval.) In early December 2016, Reuter 's survey of four market analysts had indicated a consensus rating of Buy in early December 2016.
In 2018, Aurora Cannabis bought competitor CanniMed in advance of the anticipated growth in the market and announced a plan to acquire MedReleaf. If that second deal is approved, the value of the new company could be as high as $7 billion, making it larger than Canopy Growth Corporation with its market cap of $6.45 billion. It would have distribution agreements in a number of countries, including Germany, Italy, Brazil and Australia.
The report by the Task Force on Marijuana Legalization and Regulation had recommended that cannabis growers should be licensed at a federal level, separately from the producers of medical marijuana. The expert panel also recommended that the process ensure competition by licensing both large and small producers. While licensing should be federal, each of the provinces should be allowed to determine how and where the product will be sold.
After the probable date of legalisation (summer 2018) became well publicized, industry analysts reported that some of the producers who had been licensed for medical marijuana, including Aurora Cannabis, were already increasing the capacity of their operations for future sales to the distributors of recreational cannabis. Nonetheless, a report in June 2017 raised concerns that the companies licensed for medical marijuana would be unable to meet the very high demand of 655,000 kilograms per year when recreational use of the product becomes legal.
A report in late November by Ernst & Young suggested that there would be mergers, leaving fewer players in this industry. "Many believe that consolidation is inevitable, leaving a few large players post-legalization. '' Also in late 2017, Deloitte predicted that the recreational cannabis market would be worth close to $23 billion.
At times in 2016, and in 2017, the stock prices of some producers increased significantly as retail investors became more bullish on this segment of the market but then dropped at a later date. Between September and mid-November 2017, the typical stock cannabis producer 's value increased by 54 %, according to Vahan Ajamian of Beacon Securities Ltd. The share price of Canopy Growth, for example, more than doubled in price during the fall of the year, but declined in mid-November while others, such as Aurora Cannabis, increased at the same time during another volatile period. At the time, analysts could not predict the long - term outcome for any company. A report by Investopedia on 15 November said that most cannabis stocks "can be labeled as penny stocks, so any investment may carry a significantly higher risk component. One of the few Canadian marijuana stocks to trade on a major exchange (NASDAQ) and not as a penny stock, was the late comer Neptune Wellness Solutions. Neptune converted its krill oil extraction plant to focus on CBD oil.
Market analysts Matt Bottomley and Neil Maruoka of Canaccord Genuity believe that approximately 3.8 million persons will be recreational users (presumably on a frequent basis) by 2021 with a potential for $6 - billion of sales. These analysts predicted that after legalization, there may be a "shortfall of supply in the near term '' (until about 2020 perhaps) which is likely to increase the product 's selling price. Their prediction was based on the government 's strict standards which have resulted in few producers becoming licensed under the current system. Presumably the government will relax the qualification standards to increase the number of producers who will be licensed after cannabis is legalized for recreational use but no such plans have been revealed to date.
Some industry observers had warned that "speculation and investor frenzy are fuelling many of the gains ''. Other observers pointed out that marijuana company values are high but point out that "the players have real products with real sales that are growing, unlike the many dot - com firms that fed that bubble. '' Nonetheless, "cannabis investors chasing the Big Green Rush are playing a dangerous game, '' according to Dan Nicholls, Vice President of the Marijuana Index in Los Angeles. "For a first - time investor, stocks are always risky, '' he said. "You can lose everything you put in, potentially, especially in a market like this. '' Some market analysts voiced concern about the long - term retail price of recreational marijuana; they predict that it will decline over time after legalization because of competition and bulk sales to provincial governments. According to the CEO of Cronos Group, "It 's not going to be 80 or 90 per cent margins forever. There will be a very rapid price compression '' after the initial shortage of product is resolved.
The probability of reducing prices as producers ' costs decline due to economies of scale was confirmed by the head of the federal - provincial task force in late 2017. The government also intends to keep the net cost to the consumer adequately low so as to virtually eliminate the need for an illegal market but "not so low as to create an incentive for increased use ''.
Certain investment counsellors also warned clients that marijuana stocks are very risky. According to Barry Schwartz, chief investment officer at Baskin Wealth Management in Toronto, "It 's not the type of investment we 'd ever make '' adding that he would advise anyone who asks about investing in this sector, "do n't do it ''. In spite of the significant increases in the stock prices of several cannabis producers in early November 2017, few institutional investors were buying such shares because of the uncertainty as to which would succeed and which would fail.
In November 2017, business columnist David Olive of the Toronto Star strongly recommended against investing in this industry. His rationale includes these aspects: there are too many producers for the small Canadian market ("close to 100 players ''), retail prices will drop significantly, reducing margins, and the expense ratio is excessively high, so most companies will not be profitable. "Only the most risk - tolerant and speculative - minded investors should go anywhere near it, '' he warned.
The promise of legalization boosted the price of shares in companies such as Aurora Cannabis Inc. (ACB.TO), Canopy Growth Corp. (WEED.TO 2.00 %), Aphria Inc. (APH.TO), ABcann Global (ABCN.TO) and MedReleaf Corp. (LEAF.TO) in November and December 2017. A market analyst explained that the confidence was based on the fact that legal marijuana will not be more expensive, with tax included, than the black market product; this should ensure a sizeable market for producers. Advertising will probably be used to boost sales. The federal task force had recommended that restrictions on ad content should be similar to those for tobacco ads, extremely stringent. The cannabis producers ' lobby group, however, was proposing the gentler restrictions that apply to alcohol producers: not to appeal to youth and to promote only the brand, not the recreational use of the product.
As the stock markets approached the year - end closing in 2017, the price of major cannabis stocks surged but Bloomberg News reported that "some analysts are skeptical about demand projections, and betting against the stocks is difficult to do '' because there was "almost no stock left to short, and some investors who have taken short positions in the market have lost money '', quoting Ihor Dusaniwsky of S3 Partners (investment analysts) in New York. The BCMI Cannabis Report warned that the boom could "end badly '', with the bubble bursting as other industries ' "manias '' had burst in the past. On 4 January 2018, a plunge in prices was being reported by Bloomberg.
From the early planning stages, the government indicated that the substance would be taxed. An estimate in late 2016 suggested revenues of $618 million per year from a federal tax initially, and eventually, billions, according to a report by Canada 's Parliamentary Budget Officer (PBO). (A recent government estimate indicates that the illegal marijuana industry is worth $7 billion per year.) The Task Force report recommended that high - potency cannabis (with a high THC content) be taxed at a higher level than the conventional product to make it less attractive to consumers.
The federal government had announced in October 2017 that its budget would include $546 million over five years to prepare the "legal framework to strictly regulate and restrict access to cannabis '' and another $150 million over six years to enforce the restrictions on drug - impaired driving. Health Canada and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police will receive a share of the funds. Of this amount, municipal and indigenous police services should receive $81 million to offset the increased cost of training and resources.
On 10 November 2017, the government announced that the federal excise tax, to be shared 50 / 50 with the provinces and territories, should not exceed $1 a gram or 10 per cent of the producer 's price, whichever is higher. The government 's press released did not specify higher tax on high - potency products. In December 2017, after demands from provinces for a higher percentage, a two - year agreement was signed to provide a full 75 % of the tax; as well, the maximum to be taken by the federal government would be $100 million per annum, with any excess paid to the provinces and territories. The final retail price of the product will include provincial sales tax, ranging from 5 % to 15 % depending on the province. This arrangement will be discussed again in December 2018 to determine whether the five months of experience indicated that the 75 / 25 tax splitting scheme had proved to be appropriate.
In provinces where householders would be permitted to grow their own plants, no tax would be charged on such cannabis.
After the federal government announced that marijuana would be legalized, Ontario Premier Kathleen Wynne commented that the Liquor Control Board of Ontario (LCBO) stores might be the ideal distribution network for stocking, controlling and selling such products. After it was known that the federal legislation would give the provinces the power to determine the method of distribution and sale, Ontario announced that the Liquor Control Board of Ontario would be the sole vendor but not through the 651 stores that sell alcoholic beverages. The product would also be marketed through online sales. In late July 2018, after Doug Ford became the new Premier of Ontario after the 2018 Ontario general election, an announcement was expected from Finance Minister Vic Fedeli and Attorney General Caroline Mulroney that would change the plan for retail distribution to private enterprise instead of the LCBO - operated stores. (This had been one of Ford 's campaign promises.) If the anticipated new plan and the relevant retail outlets can not be in place by October 17, 2018, only online sales would be possible initially. One industry observer estimated that only 10 to 15 stores would be operational on October 17, and even that would be possible only if the government announced the specific requirements in the near future.
As of mid-November 2017, New Brunswick planned to take a similar approach, as did Quebec. The latter had announced that their Société des alcools du Québec (SAQ) liquor stores would be the sole retailer of recreational cannabis in the province. Initially, 20 retail outlets would be opened and products sold online would be delivered to customers made by Canada Post. Also home - growing will not be permitted in Quebec.
Manitoba would also handle online sales using a public system but would allow retail stores to be operated by the private sector while Alberta was considering the possibility of permitting on - line sales by the private sector. Manitoba 's plan was quite specific, with the Liquor and Gaming Authority (LGA) to regulate all aspects of the product and the Manitoba Liquor and Lotteries Corporation (MBLL) to purchase and track the cannabis that was being sold. British Columbia, however, was considering a more flexible system of outlets that would differ from one community to the next, including "government liquor stores, private liquor stores or other variations of retail operations ''. None of the provinces would allow cannabis to be sold at outlets that also sell alcoholic beverages.
Nova Scotia intends to sell its recreational cannabis, as well as cannabis seeds, through both online, and existing 12 select Nova Scotia Liquor Corporation (NSLC) stores across the province.
A July 2017 report indicated that Canopy Growth Corporation already had retail licenses in Newfoundland, Manitoba and Saskatchewan but this company may not be the only retailer in those provinces.
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what is the full form of gdp in economics | Gross domestic product - wikipedia
Gross domestic product (GDP) is a monetary measure of the market value of all the final goods and services produced in a period (quarterly or yearly) of time. Nominal GDP estimates are commonly used to determine the economic performance of a whole country or region, and to make international comparisons. Nominal GDP per capita does not, however, reflect differences in the cost of living and the inflation rates of the countries; therefore using a basis of GDP per capita at purchasing power parity (PPP) is arguably more useful when comparing differences in living standards between different nations.
The OECD defines GDP as "an aggregate measure of production equal to the sum of the gross values added of all resident and institutional units engaged in production (plus any taxes, and minus any subsidies, on products not included in the value of their outputs). '' An IMF publication states that "GDP measures the monetary value of final goods and services -- that are bought by the final user -- produced in a country in a given period of time (say a quarter or a year). ''
Total GDP can also be broken down into the contribution of each industry or sector of the economy. The ratio of GDP to the total population of the region is the per capita GDP and the same is called Mean Standard of Living. GDP is considered the "world 's most powerful statistical indicator of national development and progress ''.
William Petty came up with a basic concept of GDP to attack landlords against unfair taxations during warfare between the Dutch and the English between 1652 and 1674. Charles Davenant developed the method further in 1695. The modern concept of GDP was first developed by Simon Kuznets for a US Congress report in 1934. In this report, Kuznets warned against its use as a measure of welfare (see below under limitations and criticisms). After the Bretton Woods conference in 1944, GDP became the main tool for measuring a country 's economy. At that time gross national product (GNP) was the preferred estimate, which differed from GDP in that it measured production by a country 's citizens at home and abroad rather than its ' resident institutional units ' (see OECD definition above). The switch from "GNP '' to "GDP '' in the US was in 1991, trailing behind most other nations. The role that measurements of GDP played in World War II was crucial to the subsequent political acceptance of GDP values as indicators of national development and progress. A crucial role was played here by the US Department of Commerce under Milton Gilbert where ideas from Kuznets were embedded into governmental institutions.
The history of the concept of GDP should be distinguished from the history of changes in ways of estimating it. The value added by firms is relatively easy to calculate from their accounts, but the value added by the public sector, by financial industries, and by intangible asset creation is more complex. These activities are increasingly important in developed economies, and the international conventions governing their estimation and their inclusion or exclusion in GDP regularly change in an attempt to keep up with industrial advances. In the words of one academic economist "The actual number for GDP is therefore the product of a vast patchwork of statistics and a complicated set of processes carried out on the raw data to fit them to the conceptual framework. ''
GDP can be determined in three ways, all of which should, in principle, give the same result. They are the production (or output or value added) approach, the income approach, or the speculated expenditure approach.
The most direct of the three is the production approach, which sums the outputs of every class of enterprise to arrive at the total. The expenditure approach works on the principle that all of the product must be bought by somebody, therefore the value of the total product must be equal to people 's total expenditures in buying things. The income approach works on the principle that the incomes of the productive factors ("producers, '' colloquially) must be equal to the value of their product, and determines GDP by finding the sum of all producers ' incomes.
This approach mirrors the OECD definition given above.
Gross value added = gross value of output -- value of intermediate consumption.
Value of output = value of the total sales of goods and services plus value of changes in the inventory.
The sum of the gross value added in the various economic activities is known as "GDP at factor cost ''.
GDP at factor cost plus indirect taxes less subsidies on products = "GDP at producer price ''.
For measuring output of domestic product, economic activities (i.e. industries) are classified into various sectors. After classifying economic activities, the output of each sector is calculated by any of the following two methods:
The gross value of all sectors is then added to get the gross value added (GVA) at factor cost. Subtracting each sector 's intermediate consumption from gross output gives the GVA at factor cost. Adding indirect tax minus subsidies in GVA at factor cost gives the "GVA at producer prices ''.
The second way of estimating GDP is to use "the sum of primary incomes distributed by resident producer units ''.
If GDP is calculated this way it is sometimes called gross domestic income (GDI), or GDP (I). GDI should provide the same amount as the expenditure method described later. By definition, GDI is equal to GDP. In practice, however, measurement errors will make the two figures slightly off when reported by national statistical agencies.
This method measures GDP by adding incomes that firms pay households for factors of production they hire - wages for labour, interest for capital, rent for land and profits for entrepreneurship.
The US "National Income and Expenditure Accounts '' divide incomes into five categories:
These five income components sum to net domestic income at factor cost.
Two adjustments must be made to get GDP:
Total income can be subdivided according to various schemes, leading to various formulae for GDP measured by the income approach. A common one is:
The sum of COE, GOS and GMI is called total factor income; it is the income of all of the factors of production in society. It measures the value of GDP at factor (basic) prices. The difference between basic prices and final prices (those used in the expenditure calculation) is the total taxes and subsidies that the government has levied or paid on that production. So adding taxes less subsidies on production and imports converts GDP at factor cost to GDP (I).
Total factor income is also sometimes expressed as:
The third way to estimate GDP is to calculate the sum of the final uses of goods and services (all uses except intermediate consumption) measured in purchasers ' prices.
Market goods which are produced are purchased by someone. In the case where a good is produced and unsold, the standard accounting convention is that the producer has bought the good from themselves. Therefore, measuring the total expenditure used to buy things is a way of measuring production. This is known as the expenditure method of calculating GDP.
GDP (Y) is the sum of consumption (C), investment (I), government spending (G) and net exports (X -- M).
Here is a description of each GDP component:
Note that C, G, and I are expenditures on final goods and services; expenditures on intermediate goods and services do not count. (Intermediate goods and services are those used by businesses to produce other goods and services within the accounting year.)
According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, which is responsible for calculating the national accounts in the United States, "In general, the source data for the expenditures components are considered more reliable than those for the income components (see income method, below). ''
GDP can be contrasted with gross national product (GNP) or, as it is now known, gross national income (GNI). The difference is that GDP defines its scope according to location, while GNI defines its scope according to ownership. In a global context, world GDP and world GNI are, therefore, equivalent terms.
GDP is product produced within a country 's borders; GNI is product produced by enterprises owned by a country 's citizens. The two would be the same if all of the productive enterprises in a country were owned by its own citizens, and those citizens did not own productive enterprises in any other countries. In practice, however, foreign ownership makes GDP and GNI non-identical. Production within a country 's borders, but by an enterprise owned by somebody outside the country, counts as part of its GDP but not its GNI; on the other hand, production by an enterprise located outside the country, but owned by one of its citizens, counts as part of its GNI but not its GDP.
For example, the GNI of the USA is the value of output produced by American - owned firms, regardless of where the firms are located. Similarly, if a country becomes increasingly in debt, and spends large amounts of income servicing this debt this will be reflected in a decreased GNI but not a decreased GDP. Similarly, if a country sells off its resources to entities outside their country this will also be reflected over time in decreased GNI, but not decreased GDP. This would make the use of GDP more attractive for politicians in countries with increasing national debt and decreasing assets.
Gross national income (GNI) equals GDP plus income receipts from the rest of the world minus income payments to the rest of the world.
In 1991, the United States switched from using GNP to using GDP as its primary measure of production. The relationship between United States GDP and GNP is shown in table 1.7. 5 of the National Income and Product Accounts.
The international standard for measuring GDP is contained in the book System of National Accounts (1993), which was prepared by representatives of the International Monetary Fund, European Union, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations and World Bank. The publication is normally referred to as SNA93 to distinguish it from the previous edition published in 1968 (called SNA68)
SNA93 provides a set of rules and procedures for the measurement of national accounts. The standards are designed to be flexible, to allow for differences in local statistical needs and conditions.
Within each country GDP is normally measured by a national government statistical agency, as private sector organizations normally do not have access to the information required (especially information on expenditure and production by governments).
The raw GDP figure as given by the equations above is called the nominal, historical, or current, GDP. When one compares GDP figures from one year to another, it is desirable to compensate for changes in the value of money -- i.e., for the effects of inflation or deflation. To make it more meaningful for year - to - year comparisons, it may be multiplied by the ratio between the value of money in the year the GDP was measured and the value of money in a base year.
For example, suppose a country 's GDP in 1990 was $100 million and its GDP in 2000 was $300 million. Suppose also that inflation had halved the value of its currency over that period. To meaningfully compare its GDP in 2000 to its GDP in 1990, we could multiply the GDP in 2000 by one - half, to make it relative to 1990 as a base year. The result would be that the GDP in 2000 equals $300 million × one - half = $150 million, in 1990 monetary terms. We would see that the country 's GDP had realistically increased 50 percent over that period, not 200 percent, as it might appear from the raw GDP data. The GDP adjusted for changes in money value in this way is called the real, or constant, GDP.
The factor used to convert GDP from current to constant values in this way is called the GDP deflator. Unlike consumer price index, which measures inflation or deflation in the price of household consumer goods, the GDP deflator measures changes in the prices of all domestically produced goods and services in an economy including investment goods and government services, as well as household consumption goods.
Constant - GDP figures allow us to calculate a GDP growth rate, which indicates how much a country 's production has increased (or decreased, if the growth rate is negative) compared to the previous year.
Another thing that it may be desirable to account for is population growth. If a country 's GDP doubled over a certain period, but its population tripled, the increase in GDP may not mean that the standard of living increased for the country 's residents; the average person in the country is producing less than they were before. Per - capita GDP is a measure to account for population growth.
The level of GDP in different countries may be compared by converting their value in national currency according to either the current currency exchange rate, or the purchasing power parity exchange rate.
The ranking of countries may differ significantly based on which method is used.
There is a clear pattern of the purchasing power parity method decreasing the disparity in GDP between high and low income (GDP) countries, as compared to the current exchange rate method. This finding is called the Penn effect.
For more information, see Measures of national income and output.
GDP per capita is often used as an indicator of living standards.
The major advantage of GDP per capita as an indicator of standard of living is that it is measured frequently, widely, and consistently. It is measured frequently in that most countries provide information on GDP on a quarterly basis, allowing trends to be seen quickly. It is measured widely in that some measure of GDP is available for almost every country in the world, allowing inter-country comparisons. It is measured consistently in that the technical definition of GDP is relatively consistent among countries.
GDP does not include several factors that influence the standard of living. In particular, it fails to account for:
It can be argued that GDP per capita as an indicator standard of living is correlated with these factors, capturing them indirectly. As a result, GDP per capita as a standard of living is a continued usage because most people have a fairly accurate idea of what it is and know it is tough to come up with quantitative measures for such constructs as happiness, quality of life, and well - being.
Simon Kuznets, the economist who developed the first comprehensive set of measures of national income, stated in his first report to the US Congress in 1934, in a section titled "Uses and Abuses of National Income Measurements '':
The valuable capacity of the human mind to simplify a complex situation in a compact characterization becomes dangerous when not controlled in terms of definitely stated criteria. With quantitative measurements especially, the definiteness of the result suggests, often misleadingly, a precision and simplicity in the outlines of the object measured. Measurements of national income are subject to this type of illusion and resulting abuse, especially since they deal with matters that are the center of conflict of opposing social groups where the effectiveness of an argument is often contingent upon oversimplification. (...)
All these qualifications upon estimates of national income as an index of productivity are just as important when income measurements are interpreted from the point of view of economic welfare. But in the latter case additional difficulties will be suggested to anyone who wants to penetrate below the surface of total figures and market values. Economic welfare can not be adequately measured unless the personal distribution of income is known. And no income measurement undertakes to estimate the reverse side of income, that is, the intensity and unpleasantness of effort going into the earning of income. The welfare of a nation can, therefore, scarcely be inferred from a measurement of national income as defined above.
In 1962, Kuznets stated:
Distinctions must be kept in mind between quantity and quality of growth, between costs and returns, and between the short and long run. Goals for more growth should specify more growth of what and for what.
Ever since the development of GDP, multiple observers have pointed out limitations of using GDP as the overarching measure of economic and social progress.
Many environmentalists argue that GDP is a poor measure of social progress because it does not take into account harm to the environment.
Although a high or rising level of GDP is often associated with increased economic and social progress within a country, a number of scholars have pointed out that this does not necessarily play out in many instances. For example, Jean Drèze and Amartya Sen have pointed out that an increase in GDP or in GDP growth does not necessarily lead to a higher standard of living, particularly in areas such as healthcare and education. Another important area that does not necessarily improve along with GDP is political liberty, which is most notable in China, where GDP growth is strong yet political liberties are heavily restricted.
GDP does not account for the distribution of income among the residents of a country, because GDP is merely an aggregate measure. An economy may be highly developed or growing rapidly, but also contain a wide gap between the rich and the poor in a society. These inequalities often occur on the lines of race, ethnicity, gender, religion, or other minority status within countries. This can lead to misleading characterizations of economic well - being if the income distribution is heavily skewed toward the high end, as the poorer residents will not directly benefit from the overall level of wealth and income generated in their country. Even GDP per capita measures may have the same downside if inequality is high. For example, South Africa during apartheid ranked high in terms of GDP per capita, but the benefits of this immense wealth and income were not shared equally among the country.
GDP does not take into account the value of household and other unpaid work. Some, including Martha Nussbaum, argue that this value should be included in measuring GDP, as household labor is largely a substitute for goods and services that would otherwise be purchased for value. Even under conservative estimates, the value of unpaid labor in Australia has been calculated to be over 50 % of the country 's GDP. A later study analyzed this value in other countries, with results ranging from a low of about 15 % in Canada (using conservative estimates) to high of nearly 70 % in the United Kingdom (using more liberal estimates). For the United States, the value was estimated to be between about 20 % on the low end to nearly 50 % on the high end, depending on the methodology being used. Because many public policies are shaped by GDP calculations and by the related field of national accounts, the non-inclusion of unpaid work in calculating GDP can create distortions in public policy, and some economists have advocated for changes in the way public policies are formed and implemented.
The UK 's Natural Capital Committee highlighted the shortcomings of GDP in its advice to the UK Government in 2013, pointing out that GDP "focuses on flows, not stocks. As a result, an economy can run down its assets yet, at the same time, record high levels of GDP growth, until a point is reached where the depleted assets act as a check on future growth ''. They then went on to say that "it is apparent that the recorded GDP growth rate overstates the sustainable growth rate. Broader measures of wellbeing and wealth are needed for this and there is a danger that short - term decisions based solely on what is currently measured by national accounts may prove to be costly in the long - term ''.
It has been suggested that countries that have authoritarian governments, such as the People 's Republic of China, and Russia, inflate their GDP figures.
In response to these and other limitations of using GDP, alternative approaches have emerged.
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kowloon bay international trade & exhibition centre address | Kowloonbay International Trade & Exhibition centre - wikipedia
The Kowloonbay International Trade & Exhibition Centre (Chinese: 九龍 灣 國際 展 貿 中心) or KITEC, formerly known as the Hong Kong International Trade and Exhibition Centre (香港 國際 展 貿 中心) or HITEC, is an exhibition centre, shopping mall and performance venue situated at 1 Trademart Drive, Kowloon Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong. It was developed by Hopewell Holdings Ltd.
Multi-functional venues, including Music Zone @ E-Max, Rotunda 1, Rotunda 2, Rotunda 3 and Star Hall, can accommodate exhibitions, concerts, banquets and business functions. There is an auditorium with 702 tiered seats and a conference centre with 17 meeting rooms on the 6th and 7th floors.
The mall provides dining in the forms of Chinese and western restaurants and cafés. Major tenants include:
The centre offers office spaces ranging from 56 m (600 sq ft) to an entire floor of 9,300 m (100,000 sq ft).
Star Hall (匯 星) is the performance venue inside KITEC. It can accommodate audiences of 3,600 people. It is a popular venue for concerts. The 4 - storey Star Hall measuring 2,800 m (30,000 sq ft) offers column - free space.
KITEC joined A Symphony of Lights on 26 June 2007 with its searchlights.
Coordinates: 22 ° 19 ′ 26 '' N 114 ° 12 ′ 13 '' E / 22.32389 ° N 114.20361 ° E / 22.32389; 114.20361
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where does a substrate attach to an enzyme | Active site - wikipedia
In biology, the active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction. The active site consists of residues that form temporary bonds with the substrate (binding site) and residues that catalyse a reaction of that substrate (catalytic site). Although the active site is small relative to the whole volume of the enzyme (it only occupies 10 ~ 20 % of the total volume), it is the most important part of the enzyme as it directly catalyzes the chemical reaction. It usually consists of three to four amino acids, while other amino acids within the protein are required to maintain the protein tertiary structure of the enzyme.
Each active site is specially designed in response to their substrates, as a result, most enzymes have specificity and can only react with particular substrates. This specificity is determined by the arrangement of amino acids within the active site and the structure of the substrates. Sometimes enzymes also need to bind with some cofactors to fulfil their function. The active site is usually a groove or pocket of the enzyme which can be located in a deep tunnel within the enzyme, or between the interfaces of multimeric enzymes. An active site can catalyse a reaction repeatedly as residues are not altered at the end of the reaction (they may change during the reaction, but are regenerated by the end). This process is achieved by lowering the activation energy of the reaction, so more substrates have enough energy to undergo reaction.
Usually, an enzyme molecule has only two active sites, and the active sites fit with one specific type of substrate. An active site contains a binding site that binds the substrate and orients it for catalysis. The orientation of the substrate and the close proximity between it and the active site is so important that in some cases the enzyme can still function properly even though all other parts are mutated and lose function.
Initially, the reaction between the active site and the substrate is non-covalent and temporal. There are four important kinds of interaction that hold the substrate in a right orientation and form an enzyme - substrate complex (ES complex): hydrogen bond, Van der Waals force, hydrophobic interaction and electrostatic force. The charges distribution on the substrate and active site must be complementary, which means all positive and negative charges must be cancelled out. Otherwise, there will be a repulsive force to push them apart. The active site usually contains non-polar amino acids, although sometimes polar amino acids may also occur. The binding of substrate to the binding site requires at least three contact points. For example, when alcohol dehydrogenase catalyses the transfer of H group from alcohol to NADH there are interactions through methyl group, hydroxyl group and pro-R hydrogen group.
In order to function, the proper protein folding and maintaining of the enzyme 's tertiary structure rely on various chemical bonds between its amino acids. And external changes can break them down and cause the enzyme to misfold and lose function. For example, denaturation of the protein by high temperatures or extreme pH values will destroy its catalytic activity. This is because Hydrogen bond, which plays an important role in protein folding, is relatively weak and easily affected by external factors.
A tighter fit between an active site and the substrate molecule is believed to increase the efficiency of a reaction. If the tightness between the active site of DNA polymerase and its substrate was increased, the fidelity, which means the correct rate of DNA replication is also increased. Most enzymes have deeply buried active sites, which can be accessed by a substrate via access channels.
There are two proposed models of how enzymes fit their specific substrate: the lock and key model and the induced fit model.
This concept was suggested by the 19th - century chemist Emil Fischer. He proposed that the active site and substrate are two stable structures that fit perfectly without any further modification. This is just like a key fits into a lock. If one substrate perfectly binds to its active site, the bonds formed between them will be strongest with highest catalytic efficiency.
As time goes by its limitation started to appear. For example, an enzyme inhibitor, methylglucoside, can bind tightly to the active site and perfectly fits into it. However, there is no reaction between them and Lock and Key hypothesis can not explain this. In addition, this theory can not explain the mechanism of non-competitive inhibitors as they do not bind to the active site.
Daniel Koshland 's theory of enzyme - substrate binding is that the active site and the binding portion of the substrate are not exactly complementary. The induced fit model is a development of the lock - and - key model and assumes that an active site is flexible and changes shape until the substrate is completely bound. This model is similar to a person wearing a glove: it changes shape to fit the hand. The enzyme initially has a configuration that attracts its substrate. Enzyme surface is flexible and only the correct catalyst can induce interaction leading to catalysis. Conformational changes may then occur as the substrate is bound. After the reaction products will move away from the enzyme and the active site returns to its initial shape. This hypothesis is supported by the observation that the entire protein domain could move several nanometers during catalysis. This movement of protein surface can create microenvironments that favour the catalysis.
Electrostatic interaction: In an aqueous environment, the oppositely charged groups in amino acid side chains within the active site and substrates attract each other, which is termed electrostatic interaction. For example, when a carboxylic acid (R - COOH) dissociates into RCOO and H ions, COO will attract positively charged groups such as protonated guanidine side chain of arginine.
Hydrogen bond: A hydrogen bond is a specific type of dipole - dipole interaction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative electron donor that contain a pair of electrons such as oxygen, sulfur and nitrogen. The strength of hydrogen bond depends on the chemical nature and geometric arrangement of each group.
Van der Waals force: Van der Waals force is formed between oppositely charged groups due to transient uneven electron distribution in each group. If all electrons all concentrated at one pole of the group this end will be negative, while the other end will be positive. Although the individual force is weak, as the total number of interactions between the active site and substrate is massive the sum of them will be significant.
Hydrophobic interaction: Non-polar hydrophobic groups tend to aggregate together in the aqueous environment and try to leave from polar solvent. These hydrophobic groups usually have long carbon chain and do not react with water molecules. When dissolving in water a protein molecule will curl up into a ball - like shape, leaving hydrophilic groups in outside while hydrophobic groups are deeply buried within the centre.
Once the substrate is bound and oriented to the active site, catalysis can begin. The residues of the catalytic site are typically very close to the binding site, and some residues can have dual - roles in both binding and catalysis.
Catalytic residues of the site interact with the substrate to lower the activation energy of a reaction and so make it proceed faster. They do this by a number of different mechanisms including the approximation of the reactants, nucleophilic / electrophilic catalysis and acid / base catalysis. These mechanisms will be explained below.
During enzyme catalytic reaction, the substrate and active site are brought together in a close proximity. This approach has various purposes. Firstly, when substrates bind within the active site the effective concentration of it significantly increases than in solution. This means the number of substrate molecules involved in the reaction is also increased. This process also reduces the desolvation energy required for the reaction to occur. In solution substrate molecules are surrounded by solvent molecules and energy is required for enzyme molecules to replace them and contact with the substrate. Since bulk molecules can be excluded from the active site this energy output can be minimised. Next, the active site is designed to reorient the substrate to reduce the activation energy for the reaction to occur. The alignment of the substrate, after binding, is locked in a high energy state and can proceed to the next step. In addition, this binding is favoured by entropy as the energy cost associated with solution reaction is largely eliminated since solvent can not enter active site. In the end, the active site may manipulate the Molecular orbital of the substrate into a suitable orientation to reduce activation energy.
The electrostatic states of substrate and active site must be complementary to each other. A polarized negatively charged amino acid side chain will repel uncharged substrate. But if the transition state involves the formation of a ion centre then the side chain will now produce a favourable interaction.
Many enzymes including serine protease, cysteine protease, protein kinase and phosphatase evolved to form transient covalent bonds between them and their substrates to lower the activation energy and allow the reaction to occur. This process can be divided into 2 steps: formation and breakdown. The former step is rate - limit step while the later step is needed to regenerate intact enzyme.
Nucleophilic catalysis: This process involves the donation of electrons from the enzyme 's nucleophile to a substrate to form a covalent bond between them during the transition state. The strength of this interaction depends on two aspects.: the ability of the nucleophilic group to donate electrons and the electrophile to accept them. The former one is mainly affected by the basicity (the ability to donate electron pairs) of the species while the later one is in regard to its pK. Both groups are also affected by their chemical properties such as polarizability, electronegativity and ionization potential. Amino acids that can form nucleophile including serine, cysteine, aspartate and glutamine.
Electrophilic catalysis: The mechanism behind this process is exactly same as nucleophilic catalysis except that now amino acids in active site act as electrophile while substrates are nucleophiles. This reaction usually requires cofactors as the amino acid side chains are not strong enough in attracting electrons.
Metal ions have multiple roles during the reaction. Firstly it can bind to negatively charged substrate groups so they will not repel electron pairs from active site 's nucleophilic groups. It can attract negatively charged electrons to increase electrophilicity.It can also bridge between active site and substrate. At last, they may change the conformational structure of the substrate to favour reaction.
In some reactions, protons and hydroxide may directly act as acid and base in term of specific acid and specific base catalysis. But more often groups in substrate and active site act as Brønsted -- Lowry acid and base. This is called general acid and general base theory. The easiest way to distinguish between them is to check whether the reaction rate is determined by the concentrations of the general acid and base. If the answer is yes then the reaction is the general type. Since most enzymes have an optimum pH of 6 to 7, the amino acids in the side chain usually have a pK of 4 ~ 10. Candidate of them including aspartate, glutamate, histidine, cysteine... These acid / base can stabilise the nucleophile / electrophile formed during the catalysis by providing positive and negative charges.
Quantitative studies of enzymatic reactions often found that the acceleration of chemical reaction speed can not be fully explained by existing theories like the approximation, acid / base catalysis and electrophile / nucleophile catalysis. And there is an obvious paradox: in reversible enzymatic reaction if the active site perfectly fits the substrates then the backward reaction will be slowed down since products can not fit perfectly into the active site. So conformational distortion was introduced and argues that both active site and substrate can undergo conformational changes to fit with each other all the time.
This theory is a little similar to the Lock and Key Theory, but at this time the active site is preprogrammed to bind perfectly to substrate in transition state rather than in ground state. The formation of transition state within the solution requires a large amount of energy to relocate solvent molecules and the reaction speed is slowed down. So the active site can substitute solvent molecules and surround the substrates to minimize the counterproductive effect imposed by the solution. The presence of charged groups with the active site will attract substrates and ensure electrostatic complementarity
In reality, most enzyme mechanisms involve a combination of several different types of catalysis.
The role of glutathione (GSH) is to remove accumulated reactive oxygen species which may damage cells. During this process, its thiol side chain is oxidised and two glutathione molecules are connected by a disulphide bond to form a dimer (GSSG). In order to regenerate glutathione the disulphide bond has to be broken, In human cells, this is done by glutathione reductase (GR).
Glutathione reductase is a dimer that contains two identical subunits. It requires one NADP and one FAD as the cofactors. The active site is located in the linkage between two subunits. The NADPH is involved in the generation of FADH -. In the active site, there are two cysteine residues besides the FAD cofactor and are used to break the disulphide bond during the catalytic reaction. NADPH is bound by three positively charged residues: Arg - 218, His - 219 and Arg - 224.
The catalytic process starts when the FAD is reduced by NADPH to accept one electron and from FADH.It then attacks the disulphide bond formed between 2 cysteine residues, forming one SH bond and a single S group. This S group will act as a nucleophile to attack the disulphide bond in the oxidised glutathione (GSSG), breaking it and forming a cysteine - SG complex. The first SG anion is released and then receives one proton from adjacent SH group and from the first glutathione monomer. Next the adjacent S group attack disulphide bond in cysteine - SG complex and release the second SG anion. It receives one proton in solution and forms the second glutathione monomer.
Chymotrypsin is a serine endopeptidase that always presents in pancreatic juice and helps the hydrolysis of proteins and peptide.It catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds in L - isomers of tyrosine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan.In the active site of this enzyme three amino acid residues work together to form a catalytic triad which forms the catalytic site.In chymotrypsin, these enzymes are ser - 195, His - 157 and Asp - 102.
The mechanism of chymotrypsin can be divided into two phases. Firstly Serine - 195 nucleophilically attacks the carbon in peptide bond to form a tetrahedral intermediate. His - 157 accepts one proton from Ser - 195 and generate a cation. This is stabilised by the negatively charged carboxylate group (RCOO) in the Asp - 102. And the oxyanion in the intermediate is stabilised by hydrogen bonds from Ser - 195 and Gly - 193.
In the second stage, the R'NH group leaves the intermediate and is protonated by His - 157 to form R'NH. Now, serine - 195 is in the acyl form. His - 157 then acts as a base again to receive one proton from a water molecule. The hydroxide anion generated nucleophilically attacks acyl - enzyme to form a second tetrahedral intermediate. The oxyanion is stabilised by H bonds. In the end, the CO bond that connects serine and the carbon is broken down and H is transferred through His - 157. All three amino acid residues are regenerated.
Enzymes can use cofactors as ' helper molecules '. Coenzymes are referred to those non-protein molecules that bind with enzymes to help them fulfil their jobs. Mostly they are connected to the active site by non-covalent bonds such as hydrogen bond or hydrophobic interaction. But sometimes a covalent bond can also form between them. For example, the heme in cytochrome C is bound to the protein through thioester bond. In some occasions, coenzymes can leave enzymes after the reaction is finished. Otherwise, they permanently bind to the enzyme. Coenzyme is a board concept which includes metal ions, various vitamins and ATP. If an enzyme needs coenzyme to work itself is termed as apoenzyme. In fact, it alone can not catalyses reaction properly. Only when its cofactor comes in and binds to the active site to form holoenzyme it can work properly.
One example of the cofactor is Flavin. It contains a distinct conjugated isoalloxazine ring system. Flavin has multiple redox states and can be used in processes that involve the transfer of one or two electrons.It can act as an electron acceptor in reaction, like the oxidation of NAD to NADH, to accept two electrons and form 1, 5 - dihydroflavin. On the other hand, it can form semiquinone (free radical) by accepting one electron, and then converts to fully reduced form by the addition of an extra electron. This property allows it to be used in one electron oxidation process.
Inhibitors disrupt the interaction between enzyme and substrate, slowing down the rate of a reaction. There are different types of inhibitor, including both reversible and irreversible forms.
Competitive inhibitors are inhibitors that only target free enzyme molecules. They compete with substrates for free enzyme acceptor and can be overcome by increasing the substrate concentration. They have two mechanisms. Competitive inhibitors usually have structural similarities to the substrates and or ES complex. As a result, they can fit into the active site and trigger favourable interactions to fill in the space and block substrates from entry. They can also induce transient conformational changes in the active site so substrates can not fit perfectly with it. After a short period of time, competitive inhibitors will drop off and leave the enzyme intact.
Inhibitors are classified as non-competitive inhibitors when they bind both free enzyme and ES complex. Since they do not compete with substrates for the active site, they can not be overcome by simply increasing the substrate concentration. They usually bind to a different site on the enzyme and alter the 3 - dimensional structure of the active site to block substrates from entry or leaving the enzyme.
Irreversible inhibitors are similar to competitive inhibitors as they both bind to the active site. However, the former one then forms irreversible covalent bonds with the amino acid residues in the active site and never leave. Therefore the active site is occupied and the substrate can not enter. Occasionally the inhibitor will leave but the catalytic site is permanently altered in shape. These inhibitors usually contain electrophilic groups like halogen substitutes and epoxides. As time goes by more and more enzymes are bound by irreversible inhibitors and can not function anymore.
HIV protease inhibitors are used to treat patients having AIDS virus by preventing its DNA replication. HIV protease is used by the virus to cleave Gag - Pol polyprotein into 3 smaller proteins that are responsible for virion assembly, package and maturation. This enzyme targets the specific phenylalanine - proline cleave site within the target protein. If HIV protease is switched off the virion particle will lose function and can not infect patients. Since it is essential in viral replication and is absent in healthy human, it is an ideal target for drug development.
HIV protease belongs to aspartic protease family and has a similar mechanism. Firstly the aspartate residue activates a water molecule and turns it into a nucleophile. Then it attacks the carbonyl group within the peptide bond (NH - CO) to form a tetrahedral intermediate. The nitrogen atom within the intermediate receives a proton, forming an amide group and subsequent rearrangement leads to the break down of the bond between it and the intermediate and forms two products.
So inhibitors usually contain a nonhydrolyzable hydroxyethylene or hydroxyethylamine groups that mimic the tetrahedral intermediate. Since they share a similar structure and electrostatic arrangement to the transition state of substrates they can still fit into the active site but can not be broken down. So hydrolysis can not occur.
Strychnine is a neurotoxin that causes death by affecting nerves that control muscular contraction and cause respirational difficulty. The impulse is transmitted between the synapse through a neurotransmitter called acetylcholinesterase. it is released into the synapse between nerve cells and bind to receptors in the postsynaptic cell. Then an action potential is generated and transmitted through the postsynaptic cell to start a new cycle.
Glycine can inhibit the activity of neurotransmitter receptor, thus a larger amount of acetylcholinesterase is required to trigger an action potential. This makes sure that the generation of nervous impulse is under tight control. However, this control is broken down when strychnine is added. It inhibits glycine receptors (a chloride channel) and a much lower level of neurotransmitter concentration can trigger an action potential. Nerves now constantly transmit signals and cause excessive muscular contraction, leading to asphyxiation and death.
Diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DIFP) is an irreversible inhibitor that blocks the action of serine protease. When it binds to the enzyme a nucleophilic substitution reaction occurs and releases one hydrogen fluoride molecule. The OH group in active site acts as a nucleophile to attack the phosphorus in DIFP and form a tetrahedral intermediate and release a proton. Then the P-F bond is broken, one electron is transferred to the F atom and it leaves the intermediate as F anion. It combines with a proton in solution to form one HF molecule. Now there is a covalent bond formed between the active site and DIFP, so the serine side chain is no longer available to the substrate.
Identification of active sites is crucial in the process of drug discovery. The 3 - D structure of the enzyme is analysed to identify active sites and design drugs which can fit into them. Proteolytic enzymes are targets for some drugs, such as protease inhibitors, which include drugs against AIDS and hypertension. These protease inhibitors bind to an enzyme 's active site and block interaction with natural substrates. An important factor in drug design is the strength of binding between the active site and an enzyme inhibitor. If the enzyme found in bacteria is significantly different from the human enzyme then an inhibitor can be designed against that particular bacterium without harming the human enzyme. If one kind of enzyme is only present in one kind of organism, its inhibitor can be used to specifically wipe them out.
Active sites can be mapped to aid the design of new drugs such as enzyme inhibitors. This involves the description of the size of an active site and the number and properties of sub-sites, such as details of the binding interaction. Modern database technology called CPASS (Comparison of Protein Active Site Structures) however allows the comparison of active sites in more detail and the finding of structural similarity using software.
An allosteric site is a site on an enzyme, unrelated to its active site, which can bind an effector molecule. This interaction is another mechanism of enzyme regulation. Allosteric modification usually happens in proteins with more than one subunit. Allosteric interactions are often present in metabolic pathways and are beneficial in that they allow one step of a reaction to regulate another step. They allow an enzyme to have a range of molecular interactions, other than the highly specific active site.
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who was involved in the silver discovery in tombstone | Silver Reef, Utah - wikipedia
Silver Reef is a ghost town in Washington County, Utah, United States, about 15 miles (24 km) northeast of St. George and 1 mile (1.6 km) west of Leeds. Silver Reef was established after John Kemple, a prospector from Nevada, discovered a vein of silver in a sandstone formation in 1866. At first, geologists were uncertain about Kemple 's find because silver is not usually found in sandstone. In 1875, two bankers from Salt Lake City sent William Barbee to the site to stake mining claims. He staked 21 claims, and an influx of miners came to work Barbee 's claims and to stake their own. To accommodate the miners, Barbee established a town called Bonanza City. Property values there were high, so several miners settled on a ridge to the north of it and named their settlement "Rockpile ''. The town was renamed Silver Reef after silver mines in nearby Pioche closed and businessmen arrived.
By 1879, about 2,000 people were living in Silver Reef. The town had a mile - long Main Street with many businesses, among them a Wells Fargo office, the Rice Building, and the Cosmopolitan Restaurant. Although adjacent to many settlements with a majority of Mormon residents, the town never had a meeting house for Latter - day Saints, only a Catholic church. In 1879, a fire destroyed several businesses, but the residents rebuilt them. Mines were gradually closed, most of them by 1884, as the worldwide price of silver dropped. By 1901, most of the buildings in town had either been demolished or moved to Leeds.
In 1916, mining operations in Silver Reef resumed under the direction of Alex Colbath, who organized the area 's mines into the Silver Reef Consolidated Mining Company. These mines were purchased by American Smelting and Refining Company in 1928, but the company did minimal work as a result of the Great Depression. The Western Gold & Uranium Corporation purchased Silver Reef 's mines in 1948, and in 1951, they began mining uranium in the area. These operations did not last long either, and the Western Gold & Uranium Corporation sold their mines to the 5M Corporation in 1979. Today, the Wells Fargo office, the Cosmopolitan Restaurant, the Rice Building, and numerous foundations and walls remain in the town site, and a few dozen homes have been constructed in the area.
The sandstone formations from which Silver Reef gets its name were formed when tectonic stresses forced long, longitudinally aligned sections of Navajo Sandstone to buckle and stand on their sides, giving them the appearance of ocean reefs. Over long periods of time silver ore, sediments, and vegetation were carried in water runoff from the Chinle Formation to the White, Buckeye, and East reefs. The ore settled as deposits and the vegetation became petrified. The Silver Reef Mining District 's geologic resources consist mainly of silver deposits, with smaller deposits of copper, gold, lead, and uranium oxide. Iron oxide deposits in the soil rocks cause a red coloration, and dinosaur tracks from the early Jurassic period have been found in the area.
Silver Reef is close to the western border of the Colorado Plateau and about 15 miles (24 km) northeast of St. George and 1 mile (1.6 km) west of Leeds. Dixie National Forest, Leeds Creek, the White Reef, and the Pine Valley Mountain Wilderness lie directly west of Silver Reef. The Pine Valley Mountain Wilderness has sage steppe, mountain brush, pinyon pine, coniferous trees, and ponderosa pine. Interstate 15 and Toquerville are 1 mile (1.6 km) and 4 miles (6.4 km) east of Silver Reef, respectively. Pintura is 9.5 miles (15.3 km) north of Silver Reef, and Quail Creek State Park, the ghost town of Harrisburg, the Buckeye Reef, and Red Cliffs Recreation Area are south of Silver Reef. The elevation of Red Cliffs Recreation Area is between 2,000 feet (610 m) and 3,000 feet (910 m).
Silver Reef is located in one of the driest and hottest parts of the state of Utah; summer temperatures often rise above 100 ° F (38 ° C). Temperatures of 50 ° F (10 ° C) or above can occur during the winter, but nighttime winter temperatures occasionally drop below 0 ° F (− 18 ° C). Silver Reef receives about 12 inches (30 cm) of precipitation annually. It is not unusual to see an inch or more of snow in the winter. July has the warmest average temperature, 99 ° F (37 ° C), and December is coldest, with an average temperature of 53 ° F (12 ° C). The highest recorded temperature was 114 ° F (46 ° C), in July 2001, and the lowest recorded temperature was − 2 ° F (− 19 ° C), in January 1963.
Silver Reef was first settled in 1875; by the 1880 Census, 1,046 people were living there, and a local census taken in 1884 gave a population of 1,500. By 1890, after most of the mines had closed, the population had dropped to 177, and by 1900, only lessees of the mines were living there. In 1916, Alex Colbath organized the Silver Reef Consolidated Mining Company. Several miners moved in to work for Colbath, who lived in the town with his wife, Mayme, until the 1950s. After the Colbaths ' departure, Silver Reef was completely abandoned. Subdivision of the land, planned in the 1960s, was finalized by 1980. During the Census of 1990, 50 people lived in Silver Reef, and today Silver Reef is considered a part of Leeds.
The Silver Reef area was first inhabited by Anasazi Native Americans between about 200 AD and 1300 AD. The Anasazi were nomads who followed the migration of the animals they hunted, typically deer, mountain sheep, elk, and jackrabbits. They were also farmers and gardeners, growing corn, wheat, rye, and barley. Many were potters, and pottery can be found in abandoned villages. The Anasazi usually constructed temporary dwellings out of sticks and leaves, often using bark for the roofs. Occasionally they built more permanent dwellings out of rocks, usually along the side of a mountain, often large enough to accommodate several families. Storage pits were often placed behind the rock dwellings. Settlements were typically small, as food was scarce. A group of Virgin Anasazi lived in what is now the Red Cliffs Anasazi Site in Red Cliffs Recreation Area.
Silver was discovered in the area in the 1860s. One commonly accepted story is that a prospector named John Kemple came to the area in 1866 from Montana. While staying at the home of Orson B. Adams in the settlement of Harrisburg, Kemple decided to do some prospecting, and soon located a vein of silver a few hundred yards southwest of the home. He did not find enough ore to interest him, so he left for Nevada. Five years later, Kemple returned to the Silver Reef area, staked a few mining claims, and organized them under the Union Mining District. The Union Mining District was abandoned, but in 1874, Kemple returned with a group of miners, reorganized the claims under the Harrisburg Mining District, and began developing a mine. Kemple later became discouraged with his claims and sold them.
According to a less accepted story, a man known as "Metalliferous '' Murphy, an assayer from Pioche, Nevada, was brought a piece of a grindstone made of sandstone from the Silver Reef area by miners in Pioche. After performing tests on the sample, Murphy stated that it contained over $200 of silver per ton. After some investigation, Murphy discovered that the samples had come from the area that was to become Silver Reef. There is no record of Murphy ever staking a claim, but he did allegedly attract the attention of miners.
Geologists and other miners refused at first to believe the news that silver had been found in sandstone. When brought an actual sample from the area, the Smithsonian Institution called it an "interesting fake ''. In 1875, news of the silver discovery reached the Walker brothers, well - known bankers from Salt Lake City. They hired William T. Barbee, who had previously staked mining claims in Ophir, to stake claims on their behalf. He staked 21 claims and published an article on the claims in The Salt Lake Tribune. In the article, Barbee mentioned that the area had "an abundance of rich silver mines ''. This set off a silver rush, and by late 1875, Barbee had established a town called Bonanza City. Several businessmen then came into the area, inflating property values. Many miners and businessmen looking for inexpensive land set up a tent city north of Bonanza City and called it "Rockpile ''. When the mines in nearby Pioche were closed in November 1875, many of the miners and business owners who had worked there came into the area of "Rockpile '' in what is known as the "Pioche Silver Stampede '', and the name of the settlement was changed to Silver Reef. As construction of the St. George LDS Temple ended in mid-1877, labor opportunities for the workers became available in Silver Reef. Pine Valley Mills and Mount Trumbull in the Arizona Strip supplied most of the lumber used to construct the buildings. During its first year, Silver Reef did not have a smelter; as a result, the silver ore mined in Silver Reef was taken to Pioche and Salt Lake City for smelting.
Immediately following the initial silver rush, a town site was platted and the town was built. The first permanent business building established in Silver Reef was a store at the intersection of the roads from the Buckeye, White, and East reefs. By 1878, the town 's business district consisted of a hotel, boarding houses, nine stores, six saloons, five restaurants, a bank, two dance halls, a newspaper called The Silver Echo (which later became the Silver Reef Miner), and eight dry goods stores. Two cemeteries, one Catholic and one Protestant, were located south of Silver Reef 's business district. Most of the businesses in Silver Reef were situated along a mile - long Main Street. The mining district consisted of 37 mines and five stamp mills: the Christy, Stormont, Leeds, Buckeye and Barbee & Walker mills. Although it was surrounded by settlements with large Mormon populations, the town never had a Mormon meeting house. A Catholic church was the only church located within the town. After the First Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869, many of the Chinese workers who had been hired to build it were out of work. Some returned to China, but others remained in Utah. A group of 250 of these workers set up a Chinatown in a level area just south of Silver Reef. Silver Reef 's Chinatown had a Chinese mayor and several businesses. By 1879, Silver Reef 's population had reached 2,000, and the town also had a horse race track, a brewery, and a brass band. Shooting matches among members of the Silver Reef Rifle Club and sometimes residents of nearby towns took place on the horse race track.
Although most of the residents of Silver Reef were not Mormon, they had good relations with residents of the nearby Mormon settlements. A lot of the cotton and other agricultural items produced in the area were transported by wagon to Silver Reef. Many of the town 's buildings were constructed by Mormon labor workers. Reverend Lawrence Scanlan was invited to say Mass in the St. George Tabernacle of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints before the Catholic church in Silver Reef was constructed. To assist Scanlan, the Mormon choir learned Latin chants. When politics were involved, however, these good relations were forgotten. Most Mormons were members of the People 's Party, and most people in Silver Reef were members of the Liberal Party. As Silver Reef grew, the townspeople wanted to change the county seat of Washington County from St. George to Silver Reef. This alarmed the members of the People 's Party, the main figures in the territorial legislature. The legislature moved the county line eastward in 1882; this maintained the People 's Party majority in Washington County by transferring such Mormon farming communities as Grafton, Rockville, and Springdale from Kane County to Washington County.
Although it had good relations with other towns, Silver Reef had the usual labor disputes between mining camp wage laborers and mine owners. After a major dispute with the Stormont Mining Company, the Silver Reef Miners Union was formed to support wages. Gambling, prostitution, and shootouts were also commonplace. One shootout involved Town Marshal Johnny Diamond and mine guard Jack Truby. Tensions between Diamond and Truby temporarily shut down the Kinner mine. Truby was hired by Colonel Enos Wall, foreman and owner of the Kinner, to guard the mine until told otherwise. Diamond went to the Kinner mine to serve the closure warrant, but Truby refused to allow Diamond into the mine, and forced Diamond to leave the property immediately.
The gunfight started during court proceedings in the back room of a saloon. Diamond and Truby argued about Truby wearing his hat inside, and continued the argument outside. When Diamond asked for Truby 's gun, Truby shot at Diamond, Diamond returned fire, and both men died. An inquest on both men, held in the saloon, found that the bodies each contained bullet wounds from the. 41 caliber revolvers that were used, and powder burns caused by the proximity of the shootout. Truby also had. 45 caliber bullet wounds in his back, indicating that somebody else had shot him during the shootout.
Another shootout occurred between Henry Clark and Sykes Griffen on December 1, 1878, at Cassidy 's Silver Reef Saloon. Although it is not known exactly what happened, it is believed that Griffen, a faro dealer at the saloon, and Clark, a regular patron, had previously argued over gambling matters. The shooting began when Griffen argued with Clark about a bet they had made. After arguing for several minutes, Griffen pulled a pistol on Clark and shot him. Several witnesses said that Clark pulled a pistol on Griffen and shot him, while other witnesses said that after Clark was shot, other patrons in the saloon, including Clark 's father, beat and shot Griffen.
Another instance of murder occurred on October 3, 1880, when Thomas Forrest stabbed Michael Carbis. Carbis, the foreman of the California mine, had fired Forrest the day before on account of his violent nature. The murder occurred near the Buckeye boarding house. Forrest initially had a pistol, but he put it away and drew a knife instead when he got within a few feet of Carbis. Carbis died soon after the stab wound was inflicted. Silver Reef 's residents were angered by the murder and soon lynch threats were delivered. Forrest, who had been arrested soon after the murder had been committed, was transferred to the jail in St. George for his own safety. Prior to the moving of Forrest, a lynch mob gathered and followed the sheriff 's escort to the St. George jail. Once there, they overpowered the sheriff, took Forrest out of his cell, and tried to hang him on a telegraph pole. When the pole broke, they took him to a cottonwood tree and hung him there. The residents of St. George were shocked at the sight of Forrest 's hanging, and one man was reputed to have said, "I have observed that tree growing there for the last 25 years. This is the first time I have ever seen it bearing fruit. ''
On May 30, 1879, fire was discovered under a restaurant. Hundreds of Silver Reef 's residents threw buckets of water from nearby Leeds Creek on the fire and put wet blankets on the adjacent business buildings, but the fire spread to the Harrison House Hotel, one of the town 's most prominent buildings. The fire destroyed several other businesses along Main Street before it was finally extinguished. The Salt Lake Tribune reported that Silver Reef had been "Chicagoed '', and that a state of panic was felt even after the fire had been extinguished.
Silver Reef 's residents rebuilt the businesses that had been destroyed, but the town soon began to decline. In 1881, the Stormont Mining Company and the Barbee & Walker Mining Company had to decrease wages from $4 per day to $3.50 per day in all of their mines except the Savage mine (a Stormont property). In response to the decrease in wages, the Silver Reef Miners Union was formed. In February 1881, union members began talking about striking the mines, and as word of this potential strike spread, the Stormont Mining Company discharged those of its miners who were part of the Miners Union. In response, the discharged union members escorted the company 's superintendent, Washington Allen, out of Silver Reef. Allen immediately went to the Second District Court in Beaver and filed a lawsuit against the union members. Before they went to court, the union members held a meeting and decided to shut down the Savage mine. Led by Matthew O'Loughlin, the president of the Silver Reef Miners Union, they walked through Silver Reef in rows of two, and, upon arriving at the Savage mine, O'Loughlin and nine other men went into the hoisting works and ordered the engineer on duty to shut down the pumps that kept water from the water table out of the mine. After the pumps were shut down, the group of ten went into the Savage mine and ordered everyone out.
A few days later, the sheriff of St. George, accompanied by a posse of 30 men, arrested 25 members of the Miners Union, including Matthew O'Loughlin. As Silver Reef 's jail was too small to hold all 25 prisoners, most of them were jailed in the Rice Building. The Rice Building could not hold all of the prisoners, so a line was drawn around the building, and anyone who crossed the line was threatened with shooting. The Miners Union members were transferred to Beaver, where they were tried for riot, conspiracy, and false imprisonment. Thirteen of the members were sentenced to imprisonment; three were bailed out, while ten were sent to the Utah Territorial Penitentiary. Matthew O'Loughlin was sentenced to twenty days in prison and was charged a $75 fine.
A few years after the strike, the world 's silver market dropped, causing the foreclosure of many of the mines. To compensate for the drop in prices, the mines ' stockholders reduced the wages of the miners. Instead of striking again, the miners accepted this. In addition, the miners inadvertently dug below the water table, and the mine shafts began filling with water faster than it could be pumped out. By 1884, most of the mines were idle or closed; the last was officially closed in 1891, although lessees of the mines continued to operate them past that year. Many merchants went bankrupt and left town. The Silver Reef mines produced about $8 million worth of silver ore. Between 1891 and 1901, another $250,000 worth was mined. Several people attempted to restart mining operations in 1898, 1909, 1916, and 1950, but none of these attempts were successful. After Silver Reef 's mines were closed, many of the buildings were purchased for their lumber and building stone. One buyer dismantled the building he bought and discovered $10,000 in gold coins. News of the find spread quickly, and most of the buildings in Silver Reef were demolished in hopes of discovering more gold, but none was found.
The Silver Reef Consolidated Mining Company was organized in 1916 by Alex Colbath, who owned most of the area 's mines. In 1928, American Smelting and Refining Company purchased its mines, and in 1929 they sank a three - compartment shaft on the White Reef. This new mine was connected with the flooded Savage mine, and the water was pumped out. Minimal work was done after that, however, as there was not enough ore to keep the operation profitable during the Great Depression. Ownership of the mines was then passed back to Alex Colbath, but in 1948 the Western Gold and Uranium Corporation purchased the claims from Colbath, and in 1951 they mined the sandstone for uranium oxide deposits. The first shipment of uranium oxide came from the Ann 's Pride mine, and in total, 2,500 pounds (1,100 kg) of uranium oxide was shipped out of the region. The claims were bought in 1979 by the 5M Corporation, but the company did not operate in Silver Reef for long.
Following the closure of the district 's mines, the Wells Fargo office was used as a residence by Alex and Mayme Colbath until the 1950s. It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 11, 1971, and currently serves as an art gallery and a museum. The Rice Building burned down, and was rebuilt in 1991. The Cosmopolitan Restaurant was reconstructed to appear as it did in the 19th century, and it served European cuisine until it was closed in 2010. There are many remnants of houses and other buildings, and there are also markers indicating where some buildings once stood, such as the Elk Horn Saloon. Some of the area has been preserved for its history.
Behind the Wells Fargo office is a powder house which, as of 2011, contains models of the town, the town 's major mills, and its Catholic church. The Catholic and Protestant cemeteries were restored by the Leeds Lion 's Club in 1998 and can be visited. Several other original buildings remain, including the Clancy Market, McCormick Store, the two - story Harrison House Hotel, and some of the mining buildings. Main Street, once a mile long, is now only a few hundred yards long and is surrounded by private homes.
Besides exploring the ghost town, visitors can explore the red rock country surrounding Silver Reef. Backpacking, camping, fishing, mountain biking, birdwatching, and hunting are among the activities available. Visitors to Red Cliffs Recreation Area, located south of Silver Reef, can picnic in a designated area with cottonwood trees. A half - mile hiking trail leads to the Red Cliffs Anasazi Site, the remains of an Anasazi habitation. The 6 - mile (9.7 km) Red Reef Trail leads to the Cottonwood Wilderness Study Area. Dinosaur footprints that date back to the early Jurassic period can be found in the area, and the Orson Adams House in nearby Harrisburg allows visitors to study the pioneer history of Washington County.
Silver Reef has appeared in American films since the late 1960s. The area was scouted by corporate executives from Twentieth - Century Fox for use in the 1969 film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid and served as a backdrop in the 1979 film The Electric Horseman. Silver Reef was featured in the 1998 documentary Treasure House: The Utah Mining Story.
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gerry & the pacemakers - i like it | I Like it (Gerry and the Pacemakers song) - wikipedia
"I Like It '' is the second single by Liverpudlian band Gerry and the Pacemakers. Like Gerry Marsden 's first number one, it was written by Mitch Murray. The song reached number one in the UK Singles Chart on 20 June 1963, where it stayed for four weeks. It reached No. 17 in the American charts in 1964.
In 1978, The Rezillos did a punk cover version on their debut album Ca n't Stand The Rezillos. In 1980, Depeche Mode had it in their early live set.
It was used in the first part of two - part Australian miniseries called Peter Allen: Not The Boy Next Door that screened in 2015 on Channel Seven.
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what does the red white and blue mean in the american flag | Flag of the United States - wikipedia
The flag of the United States of America, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. It consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the "union '') bearing fifty small, white, five - pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternate with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and became the first states in the U.S. Nicknames for the flag include The Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, and The Star - Spangled Banner.
The current design of the U.S. flag is its 27th; the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48 - star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49 - star version became official on July 4, 1959. The 50 - star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21, 1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the longest - used version of the U.S. flag and has been in use for over 57 years.
The Continental Colors (aka the "Grand Union Flag '')
Flag of the British East India Company, 1707 -- 1801
At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the Continental Congress would not legally adopt flags with "stars, white in a blue field '' for another year. The flag contemporaneously known as "the Continental Colors '' has historically been referred to as the first national flag.
The Continental Navy raised the Colors as the ensign of the fledgling nation in the American War for Independence -- likely with the expedient of transforming their previous British red ensigns by adding white stripes -- and would use this flag until 1777, when it would form the basis for the subsequent de jure designs.
The name "Grand Union '' was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the U.S. flag.
The flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been easily constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign, one of the three maritime flags used throughout the British Empire at the time. However, an East India Company flag could have from nine to 13 stripes, and was not allowed to be flown outside the Indian Ocean.
In any case, both the stripes (barry) and the stars (mullets) have precedents in classical heraldry. Mullets were comparatively rare in early modern heraldry, but an example of mullets representing territorial divisions predating the U.S. flag are those in the coat of arms of Valais of 1618, where seven mullets stood for seven districts.
On June 14, 1777, the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation. '' Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment.
The first official U.S. flag flown during battle was on August 3, 1777, at Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix) during the Siege of Fort Stanwix. Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes; scarlet material to form the red was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers ' wives, while material for the blue union was secured from Capt. Abraham Swartwout 's blue cloth coat. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag.
The 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a national flag did not yet exist, or was only nascent. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee. On May 10, 1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern "it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. '' However, the term, "Standard, '' referred to a national standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the national standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag.
The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars and the arrangement or whether the flag had to have seven red stripes and six white ones or vice versa. The appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows and some replaced a state 's star with its initial. One arrangement features 13 five - pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle (as opposed to up), the so - called Betsy Ross flag. This flag, however, is more likely a flag used for celebrations of anniversaries of the nation 's birthday. Experts have dated the earliest known example of this flag to be 1792 in a painting by John Trumbull.
Despite the 1777 resolution, the early years of American independence featured many different flags. Most were individually crafted rather than mass - produced. While there are many examples of 13 - star arrangements, some of those flags included blue stripes as well as red and white. Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, in a letter dated October 3, 1778, to Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, described the American flag as consisting of "13 stripes, alternately red, white, and blue, a small square in the upper angle, next the flag staff, is a blue field, with 13 white stars, denoting a new Constellation. '' John Paul Jones used a variety of 13 - star flags on his U.S. Navy ships including the well - documented 1779 flags of the Serapis and the Alliance. The Serapis flag had three rows of eight - pointed stars with stripes that were red, white, and blue. The flag for the Alliance, however, had five rows of eight - pointed stars with 13 red and white stripes, and the white stripes were on the outer edges. Both flags were documented by the Dutch government in October 1779, making them two of the earliest known flags of 13 stars.
Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a naval flag designer, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board 's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777. The Navy Board was under the Continental Marine Committee. Not only did Hopkinson claim that he designed the U.S. flag, but he also claimed that he designed a flag for the U.S. Navy. Hopkinson was the only person to have made such a claim during his own lifetime, when he sent a letter and several bills to Congress for his work. These claims are documented in the Journals of the Continental Congress and George Hasting 's biography of Hopkinson. Hopkinson initially wrote a letter to Congress, via the Continental Board of Admiralty, on May 25, 1780. In this letter, he asked for a "Quarter Cask of the Public Wine '' as payment for designing the U.S. flag, the seal for the Admiralty Board, the seal for the Treasury Board, Continental currency, the Great Seal of the United States, and other devices. However, in three subsequent bills to Congress, Hopkinson asked to be paid in cash, but he did not list his U.S. flag design. Instead, he asked to be paid for designing the "great Naval Flag of the United States '' in the first bill; the "Naval Flag of the United States '' in the second bill; and "the Naval Flag of the States '' in the third, along with the other items. The flag references were generic terms for the naval ensign that Hopkinson had designed, that is, a flag of seven red stripes and six white ones. The predominance of red stripes made the naval flag more visible against the sky on a ship at sea. By contrast, Hopkinson 's flag for the United States had seven white stripes, and six red ones -- in reality, six red stripes laid on a white background. Hopkinson 's sketches have not been found, but we can make these conclusions because Hopkinson incorporated different stripe arrangements in the Admiralty (naval) Seal that he designed in the Spring of 1780 and the Great Seal of the United States that he proposed at the same time. His Admiralty Seal had seven red stripes; whereas, his second U.S. Seal proposal had seven white ones. Hopkinson 's flag for the Navy is the one that the Nation preferred as the national flag. Remnants of Hopkinson 's U.S. flag of seven white stripes can be found in the Great Seal of the United States and the President 's seal. When Hopkinson was chairman of the Navy Board, his position was like that of today 's Secretary of the Navy. The payment was not made, however, because it was determined he had already received a salary as a member of Congress. This contradicts the legend of the Betsy Ross flag, which suggests that she sewed the first Stars and Stripes flag by request of the government in the Spring of 1776. Furthermore, a letter from the War Board to George Washington on May 10, 1779, documents that there was still no design established for a national flag for the Army 's use in battle.
The origin of the stars and stripes design has been muddled by a story disseminated by the descendants of Betsy Ross. The apocryphal story credits Betsy Ross for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch handed to her by George Washington. No evidence for this exists either in the diaries of George Washington nor in the records of the Continental Congress. Indeed, nearly a century passed before Ross ' grandson, William Canby, first publicly suggested the story in 1870. By her family 's own admission, Ross ran an upholstery business, and she had never made a flag as of the supposed visit in June 1776. Furthermore, her grandson admitted that his own search through the Journals of Congress and other official records failed to find corroboration of his grandmother 's story.
The family of Rebecca Young claimed that she sewed the first flag. Young 's daughter was Mary Pickersgill, who made the Star Spangled Banner Flag. According to rumor, the Washington family coat of arms, shown in a 15th - century window of Selby Abbey, was the origin of the stars and stripes.
In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the Union). For a time the flag was not changed when subsequent states were admitted, probably because it was thought that this would cause too much clutter. It was the 15 - star, 15 - stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', later known as "The Star Spangled Banner '', which is now the American national anthem. The flag is currently on display in the exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem '' at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History in a two - story display chamber that protects the flag while it is on view.
On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would be reduced to 13 so as to honor the original colonies. The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states. The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short - lived 49 - star flag.
Prior to the adoption of the 48 - star flag in 1912, there was no official arrangement of the stars in the canton, although the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy used standardized designs. Throughout the 19th century there was an abundance of different star patterns, rectangular and circular.
On July 4, 2007, the 50 - star flag became the version of the flag in longest use, surpassing the 48 - star flag that was used from 1912 to 1959.
The U.S. flag was brought to the city of Canton (Guǎngzhōu) in China in 1784 by the merchant ship Empress of China, which carried a cargo of ginseng. There it gained the designation "Flower Flag '' (Chinese: 花旗; pinyin: huāqí; Cantonese Yale: fākeì). According to a pseudonymous account first published in the Boston Courier and later retold by author and U.S. naval officer George H. Preble:
When the thirteen stripes and stars first appeared at Canton, much curiosity was excited among the people. News was circulated that a strange ship had arrived from the further end of the world, bearing a flag "as beautiful as a flower ''. Every body went to see the kwa kee chuen (花旗 船; Fākeìsyùhn), or "flower flagship ''. This name at once established itself in the language, and America is now called the kwa kee kwoh (花旗 國; Fākeìgwok), the "flower flag country '' -- and an American, kwa kee kwoh yin (花旗 國人; Fākeìgwokyàhn) -- "flower flag countryman '' -- a more complimentary designation than that of "red headed barbarian '' -- the name first bestowed upon the Dutch.
In the above quote, the Chinese words are written phonetically based on spoken Cantonese. The names given were common usage in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Other Asian nations have equivalent terms for America, for example Vietnamese: Hoa Kỳ ("Flower Flag ''). Chinese now refer to the United States as simplified Chinese: 美国; traditional Chinese: 美國; pinyin: Měiguó. Měi is short for Měilìjiān (simplified Chinese: 美利坚; traditional Chinese: 美利堅, phono - semantic matching of "American '') and "guó '' means "country '', so this name is unrelated to the flag. However, the "flower flag '' terminology persists in some places today: for example, American Ginseng is called simplified Chinese: 花旗 参; traditional Chinese: 花旗 參; literally: "flower flag ginseng '' in Chinese, and Citibank, which opened a branch in China in 1902, is known as 花旗 银行; "Flower Flag Bank ''.
The U.S. flag took its first trip around the world in 1787 -- 90 on board the Columbia. William Driver, who coined the phrase "Old Glory '', took the U.S. flag around the world in 1831 -- 32. The flag attracted the notice of Japanese when an oversized version was carried to Yokohama by the steamer Great Republic as part of a round - the - world journey in 1871.
In the following table depicting the 28 various designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for the flags are merely the usual patterns, often associated with the United States Navy. Canton designs, prior to the proclamation of the 48 - star flag, had no official arrangement of the stars. Furthermore, the exact colors of the flag were not standardized until 1934.
In the November 2012 U.S. election, Puerto Rico voted to become a U.S. state. However, the legitimacy of the result of this election was disputed. On June 11, 2017, another referendum was held, this time with the result that 97 % of voters in Puerto Rico voted for statehood, but it had a turnout of only 23 %. Similarly in November 2016, a statehood referendum was held in the District of Columbia where 86 % of voters approved the proposal. If a new U.S. state were to be admitted, it would require a new design on the flag to accommodate the additional star.
The modern meaning of the flag was forged in December 1860, when Major Robert Anderson moved the U.S. garrison from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. Author Adam Goodheart argues this was the opening move of the American Civil War, and the flag was used throughout northern states to symbolize U.S. nationalism and rejection of secessionism.
Before that day, the flag had served mostly as a military ensign or a convenient marking of American territory, flown from forts, embassies, and ships, and displayed on special occasions like American Independence day. But in the weeks after Major Anderson 's surprising stand, it became something different. Suddenly the Stars and Stripes flew -- as it does today, and especially as it did after the September 11 attacks in 2001 -- from houses, from storefronts, from churches; above the village greens and college quads. For the first time American flags were mass - produced rather than individually stitched and even so, manufacturers could not keep up with demand. As the long winter of 1861 turned into spring, that old flag meant something new. The abstraction of the Union cause was transfigured into a physical thing: strips of cloth that millions of people would fight for, and many thousands die for. -- Adam Goodheart.
The flag of the United States is one of the nation 's most widely recognized symbols. Within the United States, flags are frequently displayed not only on public buildings but on private residences. The flag is a common motif on decals for car windows, and clothing ornaments such as badges and lapel pins. Throughout the world the flag has been used in public discourse to refer to the United States.
The flag has become a powerful symbol of Americanism, and is flown on many occasions, with giant outdoor flags used by retail outlets to draw customers. Desecration of the flag is considered a public outrage, but remains protected as freedom of speech. Scholars have noted the irony that "(t) he flag is so revered because it represents the land of the free, and that freedom includes the ability to use or abuse that flag in protest ''. In worldwide comparison, Testi noted in 2010 that the United States was not unique in adoring its banner, for the flags of Scandinavian countries are also "beloved, domesticated, commercialized and sacralized objects ''.
The man credited with designing the current 50 star American flag was Robert G. Heft. He was 17 years old at the time and created the flag design in 1958 as a high school class project while living with his grandparents in Ohio. He received a B − on the project. According to Heft, his history teacher honored their agreement to change his grade to an A after his design was selected.
The basic design of the current flag is specified by 4 U.S.C. § 1; 4 U.S.C. § 2 outlines the addition of new stars to represent new states. The specification gives the following values:
These specifications are contained in an executive order which, strictly speaking, governs only flags made for or by the U.S. federal government. In practice, most U.S. national flags available for sale to the public have a different width - to - height ratio; common sizes are 2 × 3 ft. or 4 × 6 ft. (flag ratio 1.5), 2.5 × 4 ft. or 5 × 8 ft. (1.6), or 3 × 5 ft. or 6 × 10 ft. (1.667). Even flags flown over the U.S. Capitol for sale to the public through Representatives or Senators are provided in these sizes. Flags that are made to the prescribed 1.9 ratio are often referred to as "G - spec '' (for "government specification '') flags.
The exact red, white, and blue colors to be used in the flag are specified with reference to the CAUS Standard Color Reference of America, 10th edition. Specifically, the colors are "White '', "Old Glory Red '', and "Old Glory Blue ''. The CIE coordinates for the colors of the 9th edition of the Standard Color Card were formally specified in JOSA in 1946. These colors form the standard for cloth, and there is no perfect way to convert them to RGB for display on screen or CMYK for printing. The "relative '' coordinates in the following table were found by scaling the luminous reflectance relative to the flag 's "white ''.
As with the design, the official colors are only officially required for flags produced for the U.S. federal government, and other colors are often used for mass - market flags, printed reproductions, and other products intended to evoke flag colors. The practice of using more saturated colors than the official cloth is not new. As Taylor, Knoche, and Granville wrote in 1950: "The color of the official wool bunting (of the blue field) is a very dark blue, but printed reproductions of the flag, as well as merchandise supposed to match the flag, present the color as a deep blue much brighter than the official wool. ''
Sometimes, Pantone Matching System (PMS) approximations to the flag colors are used. One set was given on the website of the U.S. embassy in London as early as 1998; the website of the U.S. embassy in Stockholm claimed in 2001 that those had been suggested by Pantone, and that the U.S. Government Printing Office preferred a different set. A third red was suggested by a California Military Department document in 2002. In 2001, the Texas legislature specified that the colors of the Texas flag should be "(1) the same colors used in the United States flag; and (2) defined as numbers 193 (red) and 281 (dark blue) of the Pantone Matching System. ''
When Alaska and Hawaii were being considered for statehood in the 1950s, more than 1,500 designs were submitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although some of them were 49 - star versions, the vast majority were 50 - star proposals. At least three of these designs were identical to the present design of the 50 - star flag. At the time, credit was given by the executive department to the United States Army Institute of Heraldry for the design.
Of these proposals, one created by 17 - year - old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project received the most publicity. His mother was a seamstress, but refused to do any of the work for him. He originally received a B -- for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft 's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after Alaska and before Hawaii was admitted into the Union in 1959. According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an A for the project. The 49 - and 50 - star flags were each flown for the first time at Fort McHenry on Independence Day, in 1959 and 1960 respectively.
Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag as long as it does not deface the flag proper. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use fringe to enhance the appearance of the flag.
The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895. No specific law governs the legality of fringe, but a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) "... is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy... '' as quoted from footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books and is a source for claims that such a flag is a military ensign not civilian. However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe. Several federal courts have upheld this conclusion, most recently and forcefully in Colorado v. Drew, a Colorado Court of Appeals judgment that was released in May 2010. Traditionally, the Army and Air Force use a fringed National Color for parade, color guard and indoor display, while the Sea Services (Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard) use a fringeless National Color for all occasions.
The flag is customarily flown year - round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full - size (3 by 5 feet (0.91 by 1.52 m)) flags. Some private use is year - round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents ' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans. Also on Memorial Day it is common to fly the flag at half staff, until noon, in remembrance of those who lost their lives fighting in U.S. wars.
The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the use, display, and disposal of the flag. For example, the flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation. This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not. Team captain Martin Sheridan is famously quoted as saying "this flag dips to no earthly king '', though the true provenance of this quotation is unclear.
The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and, if flown at night, must be illuminated. If the edges become tattered through wear, the flag should be repaired or replaced. When a flag is so tattered that it can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct flag retirement ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14. (The Boy Scouts of America recommends that modern nylon or polyester flags be recycled instead of burned, due to hazardous gases being produced when such materials are burned.)
The Flag Code prohibits using the flag "for any advertising purpose '' and also states that the flag "should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use ''. Both of these codes are generally ignored, almost always without comment.
Section 8, entitled Respect For Flag states in part: "The flag should never be used as wearing apparel, bedding, or drapery '', and "No part of the flag should ever be used as a costume or athletic uniform ''. Section 3 of the Flag Code defines "the flag '' as anything "by which the average person seeing the same without deliberation may believe the same to represent the flag of the United States of America ''.
An additional part of Section 8 Respect For Flag, that is frequently violated at sporting events is part (c) "The flag should never be carried flat or horizontally, but always aloft and free. ''
Although the Flag Code is U.S. federal law, there is no penalty for a private citizen or group failing to comply with the Flag Code and it is not widely enforced -- indeed, punitive enforcement would conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech. Passage of the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment would overrule legal precedent that has been established.
When the flag is affixed to the right side of a vehicle of any kind (e.g.: cars, boats, planes, any physical object that moves), it should be oriented so that the canton is towards the front of the vehicle, as if the flag were streaming backwards from its hoist as the vehicle moves forward. Therefore, U.S. flag decals on the right sides of vehicles may appear to be reversed, with the union to the observer 's right instead of left as more commonly seen.
The flag has been displayed on every U.S. spacecraft designed for manned flight, including Mercury, Gemini, Apollo Command / Service Module, Apollo Lunar Module, and the Space Shuttle. The flag also appeared on the S - IC first stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle used for Apollo. But since Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and were not capable of horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, the "streaming '' convention was not followed and these flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of flight.
On some U.S. military uniforms, flag patches are worn on the right shoulder, following the vehicle convention with the union toward the front. This rule dates back to the Army 's early history, when both mounted cavalry and infantry units would designate a standard bearer, who carried the Colors into battle. As he charged, his forward motion caused the flag to stream back. Since the Stars and Stripes are mounted with the canton closest to the pole, that section stayed to the right, while the stripes flew to the left. Several US military uniforms, such as flight suits worn by members of the United States Air Force and Navy, have the flag patch on the left shoulder.
Other organizations that wear flag patches on their uniforms can have the flag facing in either direction. The congressional charter of the Boy Scouts of America stipulates that Boy Scout uniforms should not imitate U.S. military uniforms; consequently, the flags are displayed on the right shoulder with the stripes facing front, the reverse of the military style. Law enforcement officers often wear a small flag patch, either on a shoulder, or above a shirt pocket.
Every U.S. astronaut since the crew of Gemini 4 has worn the flag on the left shoulder of his or her space suit, with the exception of the crew of Apollo 1, whose flags were worn on the right shoulder. In this case, the canton was on the left.
The flag did not appear on U.S. postal stamp issues until the Battle of White Plains Issue was released in 1926, depicting the flag with a circle of 13 stars. The 48 - star flag first appeared on the General Casimir Pulaski issue of 1931, though in a small monochrome depiction. The first U.S. postage stamp to feature the flag as the sole subject was issued July 4, 1957, Scott catalog number 1094. Since that time the flag has frequently appeared on U.S. stamps.
In 1907 Eben Appleton, New York stockbroker and grandson of Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead (the commander of Fort McHenry during the 1814 bombardment) loaned the Star Spangled Banner Flag to the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1912 he converted the loan to a gift. Appleton donated the flag with the wish that it would always be on view to the public. In 1994, the National Museum of American History determined that the Star Spangled Banner Flag required further conservation treatment to remain on public display. In 1998 teams of museum conservators, curators, and other specialists helped move the flag from its home in the Museum 's Flag Hall into a new conservation laboratory. Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008, the flag is now on display in a special exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem, '' where it rests at a 10 degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes.
By presidential proclamation, acts of Congress, and custom, U.S. flags are displayed continuously at certain locations.
The flag should especially be displayed at full staff on the following days:
The flag is displayed at half - staff (half - mast in naval usage) as a sign of respect or mourning. Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; statewide or territory - wide, the proclamation is made by the governor. In addition, there is no prohibition against municipal governments, private businesses or citizens flying the flag at half - staff as a local sign of respect and mourning. However, many flag enthusiasts feel this type of practice has somewhat diminished the meaning of the original intent of lowering the flag to honor those who held high positions in federal or state offices. President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954, standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half - staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued. However, they are only guidelines to all other entities: typically followed at state and local government facilities, and encouraged of private businesses and citizens.
To properly fly the flag at half - staff, one should first briefly hoist it top of the staff, then lower it to the half - staff position, halfway between the top and bottom of the staff. Similarly, when the flag is to be lowered from half - staff, it should be first briefly hoisted to the top of the staff.
Federal statutes provide that the flag should be flown at half - staff on the following dates:
National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day, on July 27, was formerly a day of half - staff observance until the law expired in 2003. In 2009, it became a day of full - staff observance.
Though not part of the official Flag Code, according to military custom, flags should be folded into a triangular shape when not in use. To properly fold the flag:
There is also no specific meaning for each fold of the flag. However, there are scripts read by non-government organizations and also by the Air Force that are used during the flag folding ceremony. These scripts range from historical timelines of the flag to religious themes.
Traditionally, the flag of the United States plays a role in military funerals, and occasionally in funerals of other civil servants (such as law enforcement officers, fire fighters, and U.S. presidents). A burial flag is draped over the deceased 's casket as a pall during services. Just prior to the casket being lowered into the ground, the flag is ceremonially folded and presented to the deceased 's next of kin as a token of respect.
Flag of Bikini Atoll
Flag of Liberia
Flag of Malaysia
Flag of El Salvador 1875 -- 1912
Flag of Brittany
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which state gave the republican candidate the largest number of popular votes | United states presidential election, 1824 - wikipedia
James Monroe Democratic - Republican
John Quincy Adams Democratic - Republican
The United States presidential election of 1824 was the tenth quadrennial presidential election, held from Tuesday, October 26, to Thursday, December 2, 1824. In an election contested by four members of the Democratic - Republican Party, no candidate won a majority of the electoral vote, necessitating a contingent election in the House of Representatives under the provisions of the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution. On February 9, 1825, the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams as president. The 1824 presidential election was the first election in which the winner of the election lost the popular vote.
Prior to the election, the Democratic - Republican Party had won six consecutive presidential elections, and by 1824 the opposition Federalist Party had collapsed as a national party. Secretary of State Adams, General Andrew Jackson, Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford, and Speaker of the House Henry Clay all sought the presidency as members of the Democratic - Republican Party. A fifth candidate, John C. Calhoun, also sought the presidency before dropping out to run for vice president. The 1824 Democratic - Republican congressional nominating caucus nominated Crawford for president, but the other candidates disregarded this nomination and continued to seek the presidency.
In the election, Adams won New England, Jackson and Adams split the mid-Atlantic states, Jackson and Clay split the Western states, and Jackson and Crawford split the Southern states. Jackson finished with a plurality of the electoral and popular vote, while the other three candidates each finished with a significant share of the electoral and popular vote. Calhoun, who supported Jackson, also became the de facto running mate of Adams and as such was elected with a comfortable majority of the vice presidential vote in the Electoral College. However, no one had won a majority of the presidential electoral vote, and the 1824 election thus became the first (and, so far, only) election to be decided in the House of Representatives under the terms of the 12th Amendment. The 12th Amendment specified that only the three top finishers in the electoral vote were eligible to be selected by the House, thus eliminating Clay, who was influential within that chamber. In the contingent election, Clay threw his support behind Adams, who shared many of his positions on the major issues. With Clay 's backing, Adams won the contingent election on the first ballot.
After Adams took office, he appointed Clay as Secretary of State, and supporters of Jackson accused Clay and Adams of having agreed to a "corrupt bargain '' in which Clay supported Adams in return for his appointment to the most prestigious Cabinet position. Later, the faction led by Jackson would evolve into the modern Democratic Party, while supporters of Adams and Henry Clay would form the National Republican Party and then the Whig Party. Adams 's 1824 election victory was thus the last of seven consecutive wins by the Democratic - Republican Party.
The Era of Good Feelings, closely associated with the administration of President James Monroe (1817 -- 1825), was characterized by the dissolution of national political identities. With the discredited Federalists in decline nationally, the "amalgamated '' or hybridized Republicans adopted key Federalist economic programs and institutions, further erasing party identities and consolidating their victory. The economic nationalism of the Era of Good Feelings that would authorize the Tariff of 1816 and incorporate the Second Bank of the United States portended an abandonment of the Jeffersonian political formula for strict construction of the constitution, limited central government and commitments to the primacy of Southern agrarian interests.
The end of opposition parties also meant the end of party discipline and the means to suppress internecine factional animosities. Rather than produce political harmony, as President James Monroe had hoped, amalgamation had led to intense rivalries among Republicans. Bereft of any party apparatus to contain these outbursts, Monroe attempted to enlist the leading statesmen of his day into his cabinet so as to commit them to advancing his policies. Of the five politicians who would run for president in 1824, three were in Monroe 's cabinet: Secretary of State John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford of Georgia, and Secretary of War John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, a commander in the regular US Army, was tapped for high - profile military assignments. Only Speaker of the House of Representatives Henry Clay of Kentucky held political power independent of the Monroe administration. Monroe 's efforts to bring Clay into his cabinet failed, and the Speaker remained a persistent critic of the Monroe administration.
Amid these reconfigured political landscapes arose two pivotal events: the Panic of 1819 and the Missouri crisis of 1820. Both the alarming economic disaster, which fell heavily upon both agrarian and industrial workers, and the distressing sectional disputes over slavery expansion, produced widespread social unrest and calls for increased democratic control over the future of the American republic. From these disaffected social groups would be assembled the popular base on which political parties would be revived, though these were only beginning to take shape at the time of the 1824 presidential election.
The previous competition between the Federalist Party and the Democratic - Republican Party collapsed after the War of 1812 due to the disintegration of the Federalists ' popular appeal, and U.S. President James Monroe of the Democratic - Republican Party was able to run without opposition in the election of 1820. Like previous presidents who had been elected to two terms, James Monroe declined to seek re-nomination for a third term.
Monroe 's vice president, Daniel D. Tompkins, was considered unelectable due to his overwhelming unpopularity and major health problems (Tompkins died in June 1825, a little over three months after he left office). The presidential nomination was thus left wide open within the Democratic - Republican Party, the only major national political entity remaining in the United States.
Secretary of State John Quincy Adams
House Speaker Henry Clay from Kentucky
Senator Andrew Jackson from Tennessee
Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford
Andrew Jackson was recruited to run for the office of the president by the state legislature of Tennessee. Jackson did not seek the task of running for president. Instead, he wished to retire to his estate on the outskirts of Nashville called the Hermitage. However, Andrew Jackson was not one to decline such a request.
Secretary of War John C. Calhoun
Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson
The traditional Congressional caucus nominated Crawford for president and Albert Gallatin for vice-president, but it was sparsely attended and was widely attacked as undemocratic. With the breakdown of the congressional nominating caucus, legislatures convened state caucuses to nominate candidates. Gallatin later withdrew from the contest for the vice presidency, after quickly becoming disillusioned by repeated attacks on his credibility made by the other candidates. He was replaced by North Carolina senator Nathaniel Macon. A serious impediment to Crawford 's candidacy was created by the effects of a stroke he suffered in 1823. Among other candidates, John Quincy Adams had more support than Henry Clay because of his huge popularity among the old Federalist voters in New England. By this time, even the traditionally Federalist Adams family had come to terms with the Democratic - Republican Party.
The election was as much a contest of favorite sons as it was a conflict over policy, although positions on tariffs and internal improvements did create some significant disagreements. In general, the candidates were favored by different sections of the country: Adams was strong in the Northeast; Jackson in the South, West and mid-Atlantic; Clay in parts of the West; and Crawford in parts of the South.
Secretary of War John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, who was a fifth candidate in the early stages of consideration, declined to run for president, but did decide to seek the vice presidency. For president, he backed Jackson, whose political beliefs he considered more compatible with those of most voters in the southern states. Both Adams and Jackson supporters backed Calhoun 's candidacy as vice president; thus, he easily secured the majority of electoral votes he needed to secure that office. In reality, Calhoun was vehemently opposed to nearly all of Adams 's policies, but he did nothing to dissuade Adams supporters from voting for him for vice president.
The campaigning for presidential election of 1824 took many forms. Contrafacta, or well known songs and tunes whose lyrics have been altered, were used to promote political agendas and presidential candidates. Below can be found a sound clip featuring "Hunters of Kentucky '', a tune written by Samuel Woodsworth in 1815 under the title "The Unfortunate Miss Bailey ''. Contrafacta such as this one, which promoted Andrew Jackson as a national hero, have been a long - standing tradition in presidential elections. Another form of campaigning during this election was through newsprint. Political cartoons and partisan writings were best circulated among the voting public through newspapers. Presidential candidate John C. Calhoun was one of the candidates most directly involved through his participation in the publishing of the newspaper The Patriot as a member of the editorial staff. This was a sure way to promote his own political agendas and campaign. In contrast, most candidates involved in early 19th century elections did not run their own political campaigns. Instead it was left to volunteer citizens and partisans to speak on their behalf.
The 1824 presidential election marked the final collapse of the Republican - Federalist political framework. Considering the large numbers of candidates and strong regional preferences, it is not surprising that the results of the election of 1824 were inconclusive. The electoral map confirmed the candidates ' sectional support, with Adams winning outright in the New England states, Jackson gleaning success in states throughout the nation, Clay attracting votes from the West, and Crawford attracting votes from the eastern South. Andrew Jackson received more electoral and popular votes than any other candidate, but not the majority of 131 electoral votes needed to win the election. Since no candidate received the required majority of electoral votes, the presidential election was decided by the House of Representatives (see "Contingent election '' below). Meanwhile, John C. Calhoun easily defeated his rivals in the race for the vice presidency, as the support of both the Adams and Jackson camps quickly gave him an unassailable lead over the other candidates. This means that 1824 marks the only election in U.S. history where only the vice presidential candidate had been elected to an executive office by Electoral College. Despite Clay himself finishing last in the electoral college, his running - mate, Nathan Sanford actually finished second behind Calhoun in the vice presidential vote, mostly because nearly half of the electors pledged to Crawford voted for candidates other than his designated running - mate, Nathaniel Macon, with New York senator Martin Van Buren being the main beneficiary.
Since no candidate received a majority of the electoral votes, the presidential election was thrown into a contingent election in the U.S. House of Representatives. Following the provisions of the Twelfth Amendment, only the top three candidates in the electoral vote were admitted as candidates in the House: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and William Harris Crawford. Henry Clay, who happened to be Speaker of the House at the time, was left out. Clay detested Jackson and had said of him, "I can not believe that killing 2,500 Englishmen at New Orleans qualifies for the various, difficult, and complicated duties of the Chief Magistracy. '' Moreover, Clay 's American System was far closer to Adams ' position on tariffs and internal improvements than Jackson 's or Crawford 's, so Clay threw his support to Adams. Thus Adams was elected President on February 9, 1825, on the first ballot, with 13 states, followed by Jackson with 7, and Crawford with 4.
Adams ' victory shocked Jackson, who, as the winner of a plurality of both the popular and electoral votes, expected to be elected president. Not long before the results of the House election, an anonymous statement appeared in a Philadelphia paper, called the Columbian Observer. The statement, said to be from a member of Congress, essentially accused Clay of selling Adams his support for the office of Secretary of State. No formal investigation was conducted, so the matter was neither confirmed nor denied. When Clay was indeed offered the position after Adams was victorious, he opted to accept and continue to support the administration he voted for, knowing that declining the position would not have helped to dispel the rumors brought against him. By appointing Clay his Secretary of State, President Adams essentially declared him heir to the Presidency, as Adams and his three predecessors had all served as Secretary of State. Jackson and his followers accused Adams and Clay of striking a "corrupt bargain ''. The Jacksonians would campaign on this claim for the next four years, ultimately attaining Jackson 's victory in the Adams - Jackson rematch in 1828.
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who plays the mom in everybody hates chris | List of Everybody Hates Chris characters - wikipedia
This is a list of the main characters in the Emmy - nominated TV series Everybody Hates Chris. The fictional family is loosely based upon that of actor / comedian Chris Rock.
While the protagonist is clearly based upon Chris Rock, the surname "Rock '' is never used when referring to the character Chris or any member of his family.
Tyler James Williams as Chris, the ambitious, normal, responsible, kind - hearted, but unlucky, unpopular, untalented, nonathletic, nonacademic, hapless, awkward, nerdy, vulnerable and mischievous eldest child and main protagonist of the series. He wishes he was more like his younger brother, Drew. Regardless of whether Chris possesses any of these traits, he 's certainly never treated as if he does (being disliked by the opposite race, unlike his siblings). He tries hard to fit in with his peers, but often finds himself a victim of circumstance. Chris is bullied at school (with little help from teachers or faculty members), tortured by his sister, shown up by his brother, victimized by the racist teaching staff, rejected by girls, slandered by his neighbors, gets his money stolen by neighborhood thugs, does poorly in class, is underpaid at work, and receives tough love from his mother and distressing treatment from his father. As the eldest child, he is often put in charge of his younger siblings, but they usually disobey him and he usually has to take the blame for them. Next to all this, Chris is always the butt of the last jokes on each show. People just seem to hate him for inexplicable reasons. His luck improves as the series progresses. One of his talents is playing Asteroids and the other is calling basketball games. As he gets older, Chris becomes interested in stand - up comedy and begins telling jokes in school. At the end of the series -- after being told that he has to repeat the tenth grade for constantly being late for school -- he drops out and gets his GED.
Julius (played by Terry Crews) based on Chris Rock 's real father, he is Rochelle 's cheap, frugal, worrisome, levelheaded devoted, husband and the father of Chris, Tonya, and Drew. He is known for his extreme cheapness and taking the easy way out when it comes to purchasing essential items for his family (such as by using food - stamps and buying store - brands). Julius ' cheapness is also exhibited by how he uses duct tape to fix everything and anything broken in the house. He has even been shown to memorize the price of nearly every object in his family 's possession, shouting it out loud when such an item has been wasted or ruined. One of his most famous character attributes is bargaining his way out of having to pay full price for an item. He coddles Tonya and is more likely than his wife to give her what she wants, and will react with a lecture every time one of his children considers quitting or asks him about receiving money. Said lectures having been known to last for hours on end and be encouraging to his kids in order to avoid bringing up such subjects around him. It is implied that Julius can understand Chinese but can not speak it due to the fact that when he communicates with Mr. Fong, (who speaks in Chinese towards him) he is able to respond back. Whenever Chris has a problem, he goes to Julius, who gives him advice in a confusing manner. Once, Chris remarked that even though he did n't understand what his father said, it made him feel better anyway.
Rochelle (played by Tichina Arnold) is Julius ' strict, humorously cheeky wife and is the mother of Chris, Tonya, and Drew. She is an assertive woman who frequently becomes apprehensive over things that often have nothing to do with the current subject matter (such as Tonya becoming pregnant or her kids selling drugs). She is noted for the saucy comebacks that she uses to put a stop to any complaints that her children might have. She uses the comebacks to ensure that they do not end up performing a crime or great misdeed of some sort; she also fears that they may wind up as street criminals. The narrator describes her as a "Ghetto Snob '', likely because of her cautious behavior towards the way her family is perceived in public. She shares loving moments with her children, showing that her true intentions for her assertive ways are sincerely because she cares for them. She also has a passion for chocolate Turtles, which often calm her, and experiences symptoms of withdrawal whenever she must sacrifice them for whatever reason. She is also noted for having to get jobs, and then quitting her job whenever she has a problem with it. Rochelle 's famous catchphrase that refers to this running gag is: "I do n't need this, my man has two jobs! '' This expresses her using Julius ' having two jobs as an excuse to quit her job and be comfortable at home. She is very judgemental towards Julius when it comes to their marriage. This can be seen in the episodes where she starts to think that Julius will leave her for a white woman or finds something which leads her to believe that Julius is having an affair. She sometimes disagrees to Julius ' methods about being cheap, like when they celebrated Kwanza instead of Christmas. Julius believes that this method is an effective way to save money for more important things rather than materialistic items. There are times where Rochelle understands Julius ' behavior, like in the episode where he got a second job in order to earn more money for the family. However, Rochelle eventually developed second thoughts about the situation, for she believed that Julius was actually throwing money away. In the final season of the series, Rochelle works as a beautician at Nessa 's Beauty Salon, where in previous seasons she would often get her hair done. She also shared gossip with her friend and owner of the salon, Vanessa (Jackee Harry) and other workers of the salon. Another running gag about her is that she regularly threatens her children with physical violence but does not hit them. It is only when she takes them into a room saying "we need to talk '' when she smacks them.
Drew (played by Tequan Richmond) is Chris 's popular, lucky, talented, athletic, academic, not - virgin, and handsome younger brother. As opposed to the malicious rejection and harassment Chris receives from his peers, Drew is idolized above all of his classmates. His supreme charm earned him a multitude of girlfriends in the past. Secretly, Chris envies the limitless amount of luck and talent possessed by his younger brother, who appears slightly older than he does. Drew 's height as opposed to that of Chris provides his elder brother with a number of disadvantages. Ironically, Drew himself looks up to Chris and envies all the responsibility and trust their parents give him. Highly athletic, Drew loves hockey and idolizes Wayne Gretzky. He is also shown to be interested in magic and karate. Drew also has the talent of copying things he sees off of television, especially karate movies. He becomes more responsible and more hardworking as the series progresses. "Was n't Me '' is a familiar catchphrase of his, often to get himself out of any possible trouble he is sure he had nothing to do with. In one episode, the narrator even claims that this was his first phrase as a baby. This was first introduced in the Pilot episode.
Tonya (played by Imani Hakim) is Chris and Drew 's younger sister. She is a smart - mouthed, and shrewd little girl who enjoys getting her brothers in trouble by whining to her parents about things they never actually did, and Julius and Rochelle always believe her. However, in the third and fourth seasons, she tends to hold a soft spot for Drew and Chris (when Chris got thrown out of the house, she admitted she does n't want him gone and she and Drew try to rethink Chris 's and her mother 's decisions) by charging money to keep her mouth shut if they do something wrong (particularly to Chris), and sometimes hangs around Drew. Billy Ocean is her favorite entertainer (though later on she adopts a fondness for Danny Glover), and telling by the way Tonya believes that he originally was responsible for the invention of the Moonwalk instead of Michael Jackson, she might not like to believe what she does not want to believe. Julius over-indulges Tonya and is usually the parent apt to give her what she wants, whereas Rochelle is normally not afraid to not provide Tonya with one of her desires if it is for something she is unwilling to give to her daughter, and worries that one mistake in raising her will be linked to her being pregnant one day, and "She ai n't raisin ' no babies ''. She is very attractive, and is usually given nice gifts from the neighborhood kids; for example, James (one of her admirers) bought her a car in one episode.
Vincent Martella as Gregory "Greg '' Wuliger, Chris 's weird, nerdy, and anxious best friend. He is the only kid at Corleone Junior High who does n't hate Chris. He is almost as unpopular as Chris. Chris always comes to Greg for advice, even though Greg is usually terrible at coming up with solutions. Despite being Chris ' best and only friend, Greg is always quick to abandon Chris when bullies come in order to save himself. On top of being a good student, Greg also has a series of odd quirks (such as going to bed dressed as different superheroes), but considers himself cool. He has a book about almost everything in his locker. He is an only child and is of Italian and Swedish descent. His mom married his dad because she lost a bet but ran off with his uncle Patrick Wuliger, who later had a gender change. After graduating from Corleone, Greg went to a different high school from Chris in Season 4, but got kicked out due to poor grades when he tried to portray a tougher image. He transferred to the same high school that Chris attends and the two continue their friendship. Although his father was seen in one episode his mother is never actually seen. Greg 's catch phrase is "You 're so in there ''. He was absent from only two episodes in the entire series.
Chris Rock as The Narrator (voice), a sarcastic older Chris looking back at his youth, like that of The Wonder Years. His narration is usually the opposite of what his younger self says, but is actually thinking. The Narrator also mentions his disdain for George W. Bush as he frequently says sarcastic things about him. For instance in one episode the narrator talks how Greg has gone from bad to worse like "America under Bush ''.
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where is the fate of the furious filmed | The Fate of the Furious - wikipedia
The Fate of the Furious (alternatively known as Fast & Furious 8 and Fast 8, and often stylized as F8) is a 2017 American action film directed by F. Gary Gray and written by Chris Morgan. It is the eighth installment in The Fast and the Furious franchise. The film stars Vin Diesel, Dwayne Johnson, Jason Statham, Michelle Rodriguez, Tyrese Gibson, Chris "Ludacris '' Bridges, Scott Eastwood, Nathalie Emmanuel, Elsa Pataky, Kurt Russell and Charlize Theron. The Fate of the Furious follows Dominic Toretto (Diesel), who has settled down with his wife Letty Ortiz (Rodriguez), until cyberterrorist Cipher (Theron) coerces him into working for her and turns him against his team, forcing them to find Dom and take down Cipher.
The Fate of the Furious marks the first installment in the franchise since Tokyo Drift (2006) not to feature both Paul Walker, who died in a single - vehicle crash during the filming of Furious 7 (2015) on November 30, 2013, and Jordana Brewster. Script rewrites to the seventh installment after Walker 's death were intended to complete the story arcs for both of their characters (Brian O'Conner and Mia Toretto, respectively).
Plans for an eighth installment were first announced in March 2015 when Diesel appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live! and announced that the film would be set in New York City. Preparations for the film began immediately after the release of Furious 7, with Diesel, Morgan and producer Neal H. Moritz re-signing. After setting an initial release date in the same month, casting took place between April and June 2015. In October 2015, Gray was announced to direct the film in the place of James Wan, who had directed the previous installment. Principal photography began in March 2016 in locations such as Mývatn, Havana, Atlanta, Cleveland and New York City, continuing the franchise 's tradition of filming in exotic locations around the world.
The Fate of the Furious premiered in Berlin on April 4, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States on April 14, 2017, playing in 3D, IMAX 3D and 4DX internationally. The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics, many of whom praised the action sequences and acting performances but criticized the storyline. The film grossed over $1.2 billion worldwide, making it the thirtieth film (and the second in the franchise, after Furious 7) to gross over $1 billion, the third - highest - grossing film of 2017 and the fourteenth - highest - grossing film of all time. The film grossed $542 million worldwide during its opening weekend, setting the record for the highest - grossing worldwide opening of all time, ahead of Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($529 million). A spinoff film starring Johnson and Statham 's characters is scheduled for release in August 2019, while the ninth and tenth films are scheduled for releases on the years 2020 and 2021.
Dominic "Dom '' Toretto and Letty Ortiz are on their honeymoon in Havana when Dom 's cousin Fernando gets in trouble owing money to local racer Raldo. Sensing Raldo is a loan shark, Dom challenges Raldo to a race, pitting Fernando 's reworked car against Raldo 's, and wagering his own show car. After narrowly winning the race, Dom allows Raldo to keep his car, earning his respect, and instead leaves his cousin with his show car.
The next day, Dom is approached by the elusive cyberterrorist Cipher who coerces him into working for her. Shortly afterwards, Dom and his team, comprising Letty, Roman Pearce, Tej Parker, and Ramsey, are recruited by Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) agent Luke Hobbs to help him retrieve an EMP device from a military outpost in Berlin. During the getaway, Dom goes rogue, forcing Hobbs off the road and stealing the device for Cipher. Hobbs is arrested and locked up in the same high - security prison he helped imprison Deckard Shaw in. After escaping, Deckard and Hobbs are recruited by intelligence operative Mr. Nobody and his protégé to help the team find Dom and capture Cipher. Deckard reveals that Cipher had hired his brother Owen Shaw to steal the Nightshade device and Mose Jakande to steal God 's Eye, Ramsey 's software program. The team tracks Dom and Cipher to their very location just as the latter two attack the base and steal God 's Eye. When Dom questions Cipher 's motives, she reveals that she has been holding hostage Dom 's ex-lover and DSS agent Elena Neves -- as well as their son, of whose existence Dom was previously unaware. Elena tells Dom that she wanted him to decide the child 's first name, having already given him the middle name Marcos.
In New York City, Cipher sends Dom to retrieve a nuclear football held by the Russian Minister of Defence. Prior to the theft, Dom briefly evades Cipher - with the help of Raldo - and persuades Deckard and Owen 's mother, Magdalene Shaw, to help him. Cipher hacks into the electronics systems of a large number of cars, causing them to drive automatically and taking out the convoy so that Dom can take the football. The team intercepts Dom, but Dom escapes, shooting and apparently killing Deckard in the process. Letty catches up to Dom, but is ambushed and nearly killed by Cipher 's enforcer, Connor Rhodes, before Dom rescues her. In retaliation, Cipher has Rhodes execute Elena in front of Dom.
Dom infiltrates a base in Russia to use the EMP device to disable their security and then to disable a nuclear submarine, enabling Cipher to hijack it and attempt to use its arsenal to trigger a nuclear war. They are once again intercepted by the team, who attempt to shut down the sub, and then drive out toward the gates that would prevent the sub from leaving into open waters. Meanwhile, Deckard, whose death was apparently faked, teams up with Owen, and under Magdalene 's behest, infiltrates Cipher 's plane to rescue Dom 's son. Once Deckard reports that the child is safe, Dom turns on Cipher and kills Rhodes, avenging Elena 's death, before rejoining his team. Outraged, Cipher fires an infrared homing missile at Dom, but he breaks away from his team and maneuvers around it, causing the missile to hit the submarine instead. The team quickly forms a vehicular blockade around Dom, shielding him from the ensuing explosion. When Deckard reaches the front of the plane and confronts a defeated Cipher, she makes her escape by parachuting out of the plane.
Mr. Nobody and his protégé visit Dom and his team in New York City to report that Cipher is still at large in Athens. Hobbs is offered his DSS job back, but he declines in order to spend more time with his daughter. Deckard delivers Dom his son, putting his differences aside with Dom and Hobbs. Dom names his son Brian, after his friend and brother - in - law Brian O'Conner, and they celebrate.
Tego Calderón and Don Omar reprise their roles from previous films as Tego Leo and Rico Santos, former members of Dom 's team from the Dominican Republic and Rio de Janeiro, respectively. Luke Evans reprises his role from Fast & Furious 6 (2013) as Owen Shaw, Deckard 's younger brother and a former Special Air Service (SAS) soldier who formerly opposed Dom 's team in Europe, and who helps his brother in rescuing Dom 's son. Kristofer Hivju appears as Connor Rhodes, Cipher 's enforcer and right - hand man. Patrick St. Esprit appears as DS Allen. Helen Mirren makes an uncredited cameo appearance as Magdalene Shaw, the mother of Deckard and Owen Shaw. Celestino Cornielle portrays Raldo, a street racer who Dom earns the respect of.
Following the release of Furious 7 (2015), Vin Diesel said regarding a possible sequel:
I was trying to keep it close to the vest throughout the release. Paul Walker used to say that (an eighth film) was guaranteed. And in some ways, when your brother guarantees something, you sometimes feel like you have to make sure it comes to pass... so if fate has it, then you 'll get this when you hear about it. (Furious 7) was for Paul, (the eighth film) is from Paul.
-- Neal H. Moritz, The Fast and the Furious franchise producer
Diesel further hinted at an eighth film on Jimmy Kimmel Live! when he stated that Kurt Russell 's character would span multiple films. He also stated that the next film would take place in New York City. Chris Morgan wrote his sixth script in the franchise, while Neal H. Moritz returned to produce. Moritz later stated, "(The story) is going to have to be something enticing for all of us. It has to be as good as or better (than Furious 7) ''.
At the 2015 CinemaCon in Las Vegas, Diesel announced the film for an April 14, 2017 release date. On August 16, 2015, at the 2015 Teen Choice Awards (where Furious 7 received the award for Choice Movie -- Action and Walker received the award for Choice Movie Actor -- Action), Diesel gave the film the initial title Fast 8. In September 2015, Diesel stated that the script had almost been completed, and expressed interest in Rob Cohen, who directed the first film, to direct the eighth installment. On October 14, 2015, Diesel announced on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon that Straight Outta Compton director F. Gary Gray would direct the film.
In July 2015, Moritz said that Walker 's character, Brian O'Conner, would not appear in the film, following the use of CGI in the previous film after Walker died in a single - vehicle accident on November 30, 2013, with Moritz stating that his character had "moved on ''. It had previously been reported that Paul 's younger brother, Cody Walker, would either join the cast in a new role, or replace his older brother in the role of O'Conner; however, it was later announced that the character will not return to the franchise. Moritz also said that the film would shift the focus of the franchise from a series of heist films to a spy caper, following a similar change in focus from street racing in Fast Five (2011). In December 2016, the film was retitled The Fate of the Furious.
Diesel, Russell and Michelle Rodriguez were the first to confirm their involvement in the film, and Tyrese Gibson and Chris Bridges both confirmed their return soon after. Lucas Black had signed on to reprise his role from The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift as Sean Boswell for Furious 7, and two more installments in September 2013, though he did not appear in Fate. In May 2015, Dwayne Johnson confirmed his involvement in the film, additionally hinting at a possible spin - off film involving his character, Luke Hobbs. Jason Statham also confirmed his return. In April 2016, Charlize Theron and Kristofer Hivju were confirmed as additions to the cast, in villainous roles, while Scott Eastwood also joined the film as a law enforcement agent. On May 17, 2016, Diesel posted a photo on his Instagram page of himself and Elsa Pataky on set, indicating that she had also returned for the film, and was followed two days later by a video on set with Nathalie Emmanuel, who also starred in the previous film. In June 2016, Helen Mirren announced in an interview with Elle that she would appear in the film. In July 2016, Don Omar tweeted that he and Tego Calderon would return to the franchise for the eighth picture. During an interview with Chris Mannix on July 21, 2016, Lucas Black confirmed he would not appear in the eighth installment, due to scheduling conflicts.
In keeping with the franchise 's penchant for filming in "exotic '' locations, such as Dubai and Rio de Janeiro, in January 2016 it was announced that Universal was seeking approval from the United States and Cuban governments to shoot part of the film in Cuba. Principal photography began on March 14, 2016, in Mývatn, Iceland, where strong winds sent a plastic iceberg prop flying into a paddock. The prop struck two horses: one was wounded and the other mortally injured; it was later euthanized. In late April, filming began in Cuba 's capital city, Havana. In May, filming also took place in Cleveland, Ohio. Franchise cinematographer Stephen F. Windon returned for the eighth installment. Filming also took place in Atlanta and New York City.
Brian Tyler, who scored the third, fourth, fifth, and seventh installments, was tapped to compose the film score for the eighth picture. A soundtrack album by Atlantic Records was released on April 14, 2017, coinciding with the film 's US theatrical release. The film 's score album was released on April 27, by Back Lot Music.
The Fate of the Furious had its world premiere in Berlin on April 4, 2017. The film was theatrically released in the United States on April 14, 2017, playing in 3D, IMAX 3D, and 4DX internationally, and received a day - and - date release across major markets such as Australia, the United Kingdom, China, and India, beginning on April 12, 2017. The film was released day - and - date in 1,074 IMAX screens around the world, making it the widest day - and - date opening in IMAX history.
The Fate of the Furious was released on 4K, Blu - ray, DVD and Digital HD on July 11, 2017.
The Fate of the Furious grossed $226 million in the United States and Canada and $1.010 billion in other territories for a worldwide total of $1.236 billion, against a production budget of $250 million ($350 million including marketing costs). It is Universal Pictures ' most ambitious worldwide distribution release in the studio 's history. The film was released day - and - date in 64 territories worldwide, including almost all major markets (minus Japan), starting from April 12, 2017, and was projected to earn anywhere between $375 -- 440 million in its five - day opening weekend. By the end of the weekend, it ended up earning $539.9 million from nearly 23,000 screens, way above initial projections, to score the biggest global opening in cinematic history. It also marked the third time that a film earned over $500 million in a single weekend, after Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($529 million) and Jurassic World ($525.5 million). In IMAX, the film made $31.1 million from 1,079 screens to record the biggest IMAX April debut and the fourth - biggest overall.
On April 30, it crossed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the second release of 2017 (following Beauty and the Beast), the fifth film released by Universal Pictures (after Jurassic Park, Furious 7, Jurassic World, and Minions) and the thirtieth film overall in cinematic history to gross over $1 billion. It is currently the third - highest - grossing film of the year, behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi, and Beauty and the Beast, the second - biggest action film that is not a fantasy or superhero movie, behind Furious 7, and is Universal 's highest - grossing live - action release since Jurassic World back in June 2015.
Like many of its predecessors, The Fate of the Furious was released in the United States and Canada in the month of April, and like its immediate predecessor, occupied the lucrative Easter week holiday period slot, where it was expected to open with $100 -- 125 million. It received the widest pre-summer release ever, at an estimated 4,304 venues, besting the 4,242 opening theater count of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice the previous March. The film made $10.4 million from Thursday night previews from 3,310 theaters, the second - highest of the franchise behind Furious 7 's $15.8 million. On its opening day it grossed $45.6 million, with Thursday previews making up 22.8 % of the amount, slightly better than the 23 % for Furious 7. Earning a total of $98.8 million on its opening weekend, the film scored the second - biggest opening in the franchise (the third biggest adjusted for inflation) and the third - biggest April debut, behind Furious 7 and The Jungle Book. It posted an almost identical weekend multiplier like its immediate predecessor (2.166 x vs 2.18 x). However, this is not surprising considering how both films opened over Good Friday / Easter Sunday stretch. Scott Mendelson of Forbes magazine compared the opening to how Spectre (2015) opening fell from Skyfall (2012). One notable record the film set was the best opening for a film with an African American director, with Gray besting his own record set with Straight Outta Compton in 2015.
Sticking to the franchise 's famous and lauded habit of including a multi-ethnic cast of characters, the film played to audiences of all ethnicities. Domestically, Caucasians made up 41 percent of the audience, followed by Hispanics (26 percent), African - Americans (21 percent), Asians (11 percent), and Native American / Other (3 percent), according to comScore 's exit polling service PostTrack. The pic skewed male at 58 percent, far more than the last film at 51 percent. 2D ticketbuyers represented 57 % of the film 's opening compared to its predecessor 's 71 %. This means more die - hard moviegoers came out to watch the eighth installment rather than people who do not typically go to the movies.
While The Fate of the Furious 's debut is 34 % less than its predecessor 's opening, critics have noted that the debut is still considered a massive success and not a big let down given how it is the eighth installment in an action franchise. Universal Pictures was well aware that the robust debut of Furious 7 could not be duplicated due to the wave of good reviews and publicity over the death of star Paul Walker, as well as the notion that the installment was both a farewell to said actor and a kind of coronation for the franchise as a whole. Nevertheless, the film benefited from Easter holiday business with 74 % of all K - 12 schools off on Good Friday as well as a third of the nation 's colleges. The film comes out in the wake of its parent franchise celebrating 16 years of availability in cinemas. To wit, few film franchises which are close to 20 years old have demonstrated a box office ability to increase their openings with each installment over time or maintain them in close proximity in terms of debut numbers; James Bond film series, Batman film series, Jurassic Park franchise, and Star Wars franchise.
Its hefty opening was followed by the second - biggest April Monday gross ever with $8.5 million, behind the seventh installment. Its Sunday to Monday drop was 60 % compared to its prequel 's 57 % drop which is far better than the Monday dropped witnessed by other April releases; The Jungle Book (- 76 %) and Captain America: The Winter Soldier (- 73 %), albeit without the advantage of a school holiday. Despite the entry of four new wide releases, critics and box office prognosticators kept a close watch on how much the film would drop in its second weekend. The film fell precipitously on its second Friday earning $11.17 million for a 76 % drop which is the biggest in the franchise 's history, besting the 72 % drops for both its two immediate predecessors. The steep decline maybe attributed not because of the onslaught of competitions, but rather due to the polarised reception received by the film and due to just 12 % K - 12 schools beings off compared to 74 % on Good Friday. It kept its hold at No. 1, albeit dropping about 61 % in its sophomore frame for an estimated $38.4 million. That domestic drop is right in line with the 59 - 63 % drops of the six previous installment in the franchise 's on their second weekend out. It topped the box office for three straight weekends, witnessing similar weekend - to - weekend percentage drops like its prequel, albeit earning lesser in terms of numbers.
Internationally, The Fate of the Furious secured a release in 69 countries. The film was projected to post an opening between $275 -- 330 million from over 20,000 screens, with some analysts believing it could go as high as $350 -- 400 million. It opened Wednesday, April 12, 2017, in 8 countries, earning $17.9 million (including previews from 12 countries). It opened in 33 more countries on Thursday, April 2, for a total of 41 countries, earning $58.4 million, marking Universal Pictures overseas ' highest - grossing Thursday ever, and for a two - day total of $82.2 million. It added 22 more countries on Friday, April 3, earning $112.1 million to score Universal International 's highest - grossing Friday of all time, for a three - day total of $194.8 million. The robust Friday take helped Universal push past $1 billion internationally in 2017 which is the second - quickest ever and the studio 's eleventh consecutive year overall the pass the mark. Moreover, on the same day, the franchise crossed the $4 billion milestone. In total, through Sunday, the film registered an opening of $441.1 million from 64 markets, setting new records for the biggest April international debut, Universal 's biggest, and the biggest of all time overall (ahead of Jurassic World) -- It is the first such film to open past $400 million in a single weekend with a bulk of it coming from China. Around $22.6 million came from (681) IMAX screens which is Universal 's second - biggest behind only Jurassic World. It topped the international charts for a second consecutive term, adding another $158.1 million after which it was surpassed by Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, another film starring Diesel and Russell, in its third weekend. In IMAX, the film has grossed north of $58 million. On May 28, the film officially passed the $1 billion threshold to become the second film in the franchise, following Furious 7, and the sixth film to pass the said mark.
It set the record for the biggest opening day of 2017 in every territory it has been released at, the biggest opening day of all time in 16 markets, Universal 's biggest opening day ever in 22 territories and the biggest opening in the franchise in 38 markets. Moreover, it recorded the biggest paid previews of all time in Malaysia, Singapore, Venezuela, and Vietnam. In terms of opening weekend, the film debuted at No. 1 in all markets where it set the biggest opening weekend of all time in 20 markets; Universal 's biggest opening weekend ever in 28 markets; and the biggest opening in the franchise in 40 markets. The top openings were recorded in China ($192 million), Mexico ($17.7 million), the UK and Ireland ($17.5 million), Russia ($14.2 million), Germany ($13.6 million), Brazil ($12.8 million), India ($10.7 million), Korea ($10.6 million), Middle East combined ($9.9 million), Taiwan ($9.3 million), France ($9.2 million), Australia ($9.5 million), Argentina ($9 million), Indonesia ($8.5 million), Italy ($6.7 million), Malaysia ($6.3 million), Spain ($6.1 million), Colombia ($4.9 million), Thailand ($4.9 million), Panama ($4.8 million), and Romania ($1.7 million). Comparing market - to - market performance, Furious 7 had an opening worth $250 million without China and Russia while The Fate of the Furious delivered $228.2 million debut, sans the two aforementioned markets. In Japan, the film debuted with $7.5 million. Although that 's a new record for the franchise, the film debuted at number three behind Disney 's Beauty and the Beast and local film Detective Conan: Crimson Love Letter -- their robust second weekend earnings blocked the former from taking the top spot, making Japan one of the few markets where the film did n't open at No. 1.
Expectations were high for the film 's performance in China, as its predecessor set notable records and went on to become the biggest film release there (now the biggest Hollywood release). The film was rebranded in Chinese as The Fast and the Furious 8 to make clear its connection to Furious 7. After ticket sales began on April 2, the film pre-sold more than RMB 125 million ($18.1 million) worth of tickets before its release, breaking the previous record held by local film Journey to the West: Conquering the Demons three months prior. Moreover, it also set a record for the fastest IMAX advance sales, with RMB 16.5 million ($2.4 million), breaking the previous record held by Captain America: Civil War, according to leading local movie site Mtime. In total, it pre-sold around $43.5 million tickets two hours before previews began, the biggest ever in the country. It earned a record - breaking RMB 59.8 million ($8.7 million) from Thursday paid previews ($8 million excluding online ticketing surcharges which now count as grosses), breaking its predecessor 's former record of RMB 52.5 million ($8.5 million in 2015; $7.6 million in 2017 exchange rates). On Friday, the film was screened in approximately 158,000 screens, a new record for any film, breaking Warcraft 's former 122,000 screen counts, and almost double the estimated 80,700 screen count of its predecessor. By Friday noon, it had already grossed $30 million. Buoyed by positive word - of - mouth -- 9.4 / 10 user rating on mobile ticketing platform Maoyan, and 7.4 / 10 from reviews aggregator Douban -- and effective marketing campaign, it set a new record for the biggest single - day ever at the Chinese box office, including previews. This was achieved at 7 p.m. local time. In total, the film grossed an estimated RMB 452.8 million ($65.8 million) on its opening day, inclusive of previews and online ticketing surcharges, compared to the RMB 398 million ($57.8 million) posted by its predecessor. It is the first film in Chinese history to register above RMB 400 million ($58 million) in a single day. Earning a total of RMB 1.323 billion ($192.2 million), according to Chinese sources and RMB 190 million, according to Universal, in its debut weekend, it set a new milestone for three - day opening weekend and overall the second - best debut ever behind only local pic The Mermaid, which had the benefit of four days of previews over the New Year period in February 2016. An estimated $14 million came from 395 IMAX screens, the second - biggest - ever in the country, behind Warcraft. Its three - day debut alone made it the biggest Hollywood release of 2017 and the third - biggest overall. Factoring out online ticketing surcharges, the total comes to a slightly less - hefty RMB 1.245 billion ($182.2 million). In just nine days, the film passed the historic RMB 2 billion ($300 million) and thereby became the biggest release of the year. The film fell precipitously by 71.4 % in its second weekend (from its $190 million debut), earning RMB 374 million ($54.3 million) for a massive 10 - day total of RMB 2.19 billion ($318 million). On April 30, it became the biggest Hollywood / foreign release of all time with RMB 2.44 billion, surpassing its prequels former record of 2.41 billion. However, in terms of US currency, The Fate of the Furious ($381 million) is still behind Furious 7 ($391 million). After three consecutive weeks of topping the charts, it slipped to fourth place after being dethroned by Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 from the top spot. It has so far grossed a total of RMB 2.671 billion ($392.8 million) and is the country 's second - biggest grosser ever, behind only The Mermaid at the time of its release.
In India, the film secured a release across approximately 1,600 -- 1,800 screens (1,000 -- 1,200 screens fewer than its predecessor). Like other Hollywood releases, it was released in both 2K projections and normal projections, and dubbed in local languages such as Hindi, Tamil and Telugu. It is the first international film to be dubbed into the Kannada language. Despite clashing with local pic Begum Jaan, analysts believe the two films will not affect each other 's performance, as they appeal to distinct moviegoers. Universal had high hopes in the territory, after Furious 7 grossed an unprecedented $24.9 million in 2015, and became the biggest foreign release ever in the country at the time of its release (now the second biggest). The Central Board of Film Certification gave the film a UA rating (parental guidance suggested for children under 12), rather than an A for adults, after the studio agreed to cut several profanities (CBFC was willing to pass the film with an A certificate with no cuts but Universal wanted a UA certificate leading to the board censoring all profanities with few cuts). It earned around ₹ 8.50 crore (US $1.3 million) net from Wednesday paid previews. The following day it grossed ₹ 22.50 crore (US $3.4 million), including previews. On its official opening day, it grossed ₹ 16.10 crore (US $2.4 million) for a three - day total of ₹ 38.60 crore (US $5.8 million). Earning a total of $10.7 million, it set a new record for the biggest - ever foreign opening in the country, toppling its prequel 's former record. As such, it is the first foreign film to open north of $10 million. Following its record breaking opening, it fell about 58 % on its second weekend excluding previews, earning another $4 million for a two - weekend total of over $17.4 million, With over $19.2 million it is currently the biggest foreign release of the year. However, in terms of net earnings -- which is the base for box office calculations in India -- the film was unable to break past the ₹ 100 crore (US $15 million) mark, stalling at around ₹ 85.59 crore (US $13 million). Despite a record breaking opening, it lost significant amount of screen counts and audiences thereafter, partly due to the release of Baahubali: The Conclusion.
The biggest - earning markets are China ($392.8 million), followed by Brazil ($41.8 million), the UK and Ireland ($37.5 million), Mexico ($36.8 million) and Germany ($32.4 million). In Peru, it has become Universal 's highest - grossing film ever. With over $1 billion in international receipts and representing a boffo 82 % of the film 's total worldwide gross, it is currently the seventh - biggest overseas earner behind Avatar, Titanic, Furious 7, Star Wars: The Force Awakens, and Jurassic World.
The Fate of the Furious received mixed - to - positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 66 % based on 259 reviews, and an average rating of 6.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "The Fate of the Furious opens a new chapter in the franchise, fueled by the same infectious cast chemistry and over-the - top action fans have come to expect. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a weighted average score 56 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 81 % overall positive score and a 71 % "definite recommend. ''
Mike Ryan of Uproxx gave the film a positive review, writing: "This is n't my favorite of the series -- that 's still Furious 7 (it 's hard to top those jumps from skyscraper to skyscraper, but this is a worthy entry). These movies know what they are. These movies know they are fun. These are fun movies! '' Owen Gleiberman of Variety, in his positive review of the film, wrote: "Most franchises, after eight films, are feeling a twinge of exhaustion, but this one has achieved a level of success -- and perpetual kinetic creative energy -- that 's a testament to its commercial / cultural / demographic resonance. '' He also wrote, "If this series, over the last 16 years, has taught us anything, it 's that just when you think it 's about to run out of gas, it gets outfitted with an even more elaborate fuel - injection system. ''
Conversely, David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a C − and called it the worst entry of the franchise, saying: "As much a mess of conflicting tones and styles as it is of locations, this setpiece -- like the rest of Gray 's movie -- feels like a heap of random parts that were thrown together in the hopes that fate might somehow weld them into a roadworthy vehicle. But it 's not all groundbreaking. '' J.R. Kinnard of PopMatters magazine gave a lukewarm review, writing: "It 's unlikely that devotees will consider The Fate of the Furious one of the stronger entries in the series. Still, the filmmakers and actors are clearly dedicated to making a quality product, avoiding the complacency that often plagues action sequels. '' Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, saying: "Moments after Dom has gone rogue and apparently wants to kill them, they 're making jokes. As they 're racing through the streets of New York City or skidding along the ice in Russia, killing bad guys and narrowly avoiding getting killed themselves, they 're crackin ' wise. Even within this ludicrous universe, it 's jarring to hear these supposedly smart folks, who refer to themselves as ' family, ' acting like idiots who do n't seem to care if they live or die, or if their friends survive. ''
Professor of international political economy Richard E. Feinberg has commented on the political significance of the film 's opening setting of Havana in the context of shifting US - Cuban relations, calling the eighth installment, "Hollywood 's love letter to Havana ''. He writes, "In the Cuban sequence 's dramatic climax, Dom wins his hard - fought one - mile race ('' a Cuban mile ") against a tough local competitor, by a nose. The loser is gracious: ' You won my car and you earned my respect, ' he admits to the FF hero. Dom 's response is equally magnanimous: ' Keep your car, your respect is good enough for me. ' In this instance, FF8 captures the essence of the relations between the United States and Cuba: it 's all about mutual respect. ''
On February 3, 2016, Universal Pictures set initial release dates for the two remaining films in the franchise. The first, tentatively titled Fast & Furious 9, is scheduled to be released on April 10, 2020.
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what episode do george and callie get married | Callie Torres - wikipedia
Calliope Iphegenia "Callie '' Torres, M.D. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy, which airs on the ABC in the United States. The character was created by series ' producer Shonda Rhimes, and is portrayed by Sara Ramirez. She was introduced in season two, as a senior orthopedic resident, as a love interest for intern George O'Malley (T.R. Knight). Eventually becoming an attending orthopedic surgeon, the character was originally contracted to appear on a recurring basis, but received star billing in the third season.
Torres was initially conceived as a love interest, and eventual wife, for O'Malley, and was created to be disliked by her colleagues. Further storylines include relationships between her and plastic surgeon, Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), cardiothoracic surgeon Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), as well as a marriage to pediatric surgeon Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw). The character 's bisexual storyline with Hahn and Robbins, and her development later in the series has garnered much acclaim. She is also the longest running LGBT character in television history, appearing in 11 seasons and 239 episodes.
Ramirez 's portrayal of Torres has been widely praised by television critics and the character gained significant popularity as the series progressed. Ramirez was nominated for several awards for her portrayal of Torres, including the Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, and the ALMA Award for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Television Series. The character was ranked at no. 7 by AfterEllen.com in the list of "Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters. '' At the end of the show 's twelfth season, Ramirez departed the show after ten years, desiring to take a break.
Callie Torres is introduced as an orthopedic surgery resident with a crush on intern George O'Malley (T.R. Knight). The two start a relationship and Torres moves into Meredith 's house (Meredith and Izzie Stevens lived there as well). Uneased at the way their relationship is progressing, O'Malley confronts her, which results in her moving into a hotel. In the aftermath of the breakup, she meets and has a one - night stand with plastic surgeon Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), who becomes her friend. Torres and O'Malley subsequently reconcile, and the two marry in Las Vegas on the spur of the moment. Confused, O'Malley confides to fellow intern Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), about his relationship woes over alcohol, leading to a drunken sexual encounter between the two. Torres remains unaware of his sexual encounter, but becomes increasingly suspicious, and announces her desire to conceive a child. Shortly thereafter, however, she discovers that O'Malley has been unfaithful, ending their marriage. Though her personal life is troubled, Torres thrives professionally when she is appointed as the hospital 's Chief Resident. However, she soon begins struggling to cope in the role, and is demoted soon thereafter.
Torres forms a friendship with Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), the hospital 's new chief of cardiothoracic surgery. The two embark on a relationship when Hahn jokingly kisses Torres in an elevator to tease Sloan. Neither has been with another woman before, and Torres struggles with her bisexuality, and cheats on her with Sloan. She is initially forgiven, but after an argument about work, Hahn resigns from Seattle Grace, ending their relationship. New pediatric surgeon Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) kisses her, and they begin dating. Their relationship is tested when Torres comes out to her father, Carlos, who disowns her, cutting her off both financially and emotionally. When she is not granted a position as an attending, she publicly berates the chief, Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.), and resigns from her post. She begins working at the neighboring Mercy West hospital, and when the two hospitals merge, she is promoted to an attending surgeon. Torres ' father returns yet again, to condemn her, but ultimately accepts her sexuality. When Torres explains her desire to bear children, Robbins expresses disappointment, and their differing stances on the matter lead them to break up. Soon thereafter, a gunman commits mass murder at the hospital, and, relieved to have survived, Torres and Robbins reconcile, with Robbins agreeing that they should have children together.
When Robbins wins a prestigious grant to help treat children in Malawi, a disgruntled Torres agrees to move there with her, as the position will last for three years; however, her lack of enthusiasm causes Robbins to end their relationship and go without her. A heartbroken Torres moves in with Sloan, and they have a one - night stand. Robbins returns for Torres, apologizing and hoping for forgiveness, but Torres initially rebuffs her, and later reveals that she is pregnant with Sloan 's baby. Robbins agrees to raise the child with her, but dislikes that Sloan will be a permanent part of their lives. En route a weekend getaway, Robbins proposes to Torres, but before Torres can reply, the two are in a head - on collision with a truck, leaving Torres severely injured. In an attempt to save her life, obstetrician - gynecologist Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh), delivers Torres 's premature baby. Torres survives, and agrees to marry Robbins. After twelve weeks of recovery, both Torres and baby Sofia are discharged and allowed to leave the hospital. Torres recovers from her surgery, but deals with the backlash from her mother (Gina Gallego) 's attitude toward the wedding and her granddaughter. Torres and Robbins marry in a garden after the minister 's wife falls ill, with general surgeon Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson), officiating the ceremony.
In the aftermath of a plane accident that killed Sloan and Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh), Torres is forced to make the decision to have Alex Karev amputate Robbins 's left leg to keep her alive, which puts strains on their relationship. The hospital is sued and eventually found guilty of negligence. Each victim, including Robbins, Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), and Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) must receive $15 million of compensation, which leads the hospital to a near bankruptcy as the insurances refuse to pay. These doctors and Torres buy the hospital with the help of the Harper - Avery Foundation to prevent it from closing, and each become members of the new directing board. Everything seems to go well for Arizona and Callie, until a big storm hits the hospital now named after Mark Sloan and Lexie Grey. In the last episode of the ninth season, Arizona cheats on Callie with Dr. Lauren Boswell (Hilarie Burton). Callie soon discovers Arizona 's infidelity by seeing her wedding ring pinned to Dr. Boswell 's scrub top. In the aftermath of discovery, both Callie and Arizona share their feelings and it is revealed that Arizona does not forgive Callie for making the call to amputate her leg. Callie is heartbroken and Arizona states that Callie lost nothing in the crash, to which Callie responds that she, apparently, lost Arizona.
Callie takes Sofia to live with Meredith and Derek, Zola, and Baby Bailey for a while before kicking Arizona out of their apartment and celebrates by dancing in her underwear. Callie also left Arizona at therapy, telling her that she was the only one that needed to go. After being hit by a lawsuit, her father, Carlos, visits and tells Callie that he cheated on her mother but she took him back and Callie would n't be here if her mother did n't give Carlos a second chance. Callie goes to Arizona 's apartment and invites her to come back home. Callie finds out during surgery that Arizona was sleeping with Leah, a second year resident, while separated. Although angry at Arizona, Callie still agrees to work things out.
After April 's failed wedding to Matthew, Callie and Arizona bought a house together, a fresh start, away from the memories of their apartment. They later decided to try again for a second child. However, a trip to the OB / GYN led to the discovery that Callie had developed adhesions in her uterus in the years since Sofia 's birth, meaning she could not carry any more babies. After talking about it, the couple agreed to postpone their dream to have another baby until they 're on more solid footing as a couple.
At the beginning of the eleventh season, Callie and Arizona gave therapy another chance in order to help mend their marriage. They were made to go 30 days living separate lives in the same house with no sexual activity with others or each other. They come close to breaking that rule and had to start over and before the 30 days was up they eventually gave in and connected sexually again. At the end of the 30 days at the final therapy session Arizona realized she could n't live without Callie; however Callie did n't feel the same and stated she felt suffocated and eventually walked out of therapy, ending their marriage.
Callie then goes on to date Penny, who was the resident in charge of Derek Shepard 's case. She comes to a dinner party hosted by Meredith, who recognizes her. It is then discovered that Penny is going to be working at Grey Sloan Memorial. When everyone, including Callie, finds out who Penny actually is, they protest and try to get her off of the Grey Sloan Memorial residency line. She manages to stay on the line despite all the others ' pleads and wishes.
After Callie discloses her desire to move to New York with Penny and take her and Arizona 's daughter, Sofia, with her, Arizona takes Callie to court for sole parental custody. Callie loses custody of her daughter to Arizona and Penny moves to New York. After Arizona decides that both Sofia 's moms deserve to be happy, Arizona presents Callie with plane tickets and offers a custody agreement that keeps Sofia in Seattle for the summer and then sharing her every other school year and Christmas.
Callie is referenced occasionally by Arizona and Sofia after her departure from the show. At the conclusion of season 14, Arizona departs the show to move to New York and it is implied that the two will ultimately reconcile after Callie and Penny are mentioned to have broken up.
Ramirez on Grey 's Anatomy
Ramirez was seen by ABC executives, in her Broadway performance of Spamalot, which garnered their attention. Due to their admiration, the network offered Ramirez a role on any ABC television series, of her choice, and she chose Grey 's Anatomy. Ramirez further explained that at her initial audition, the producers liked her, and had intentions to add her to the show, but did not know who to cast her as. She also said she was in awe of how the executives said, "Pick a show, any show '', explaining that it is rare. Shonda Rhimes said: "I was looking for a girlfriend for George, but it was in the infancy stages, so I had no idea what I was looking for. '' Rhimes built the character around Ramirez after she met her. Ramirez 's character was initially given recurring status in the second season and received star billing in the third season, alongside fellow cast member Dane, who portrayed Mark Sloan. Ramirez discusses maintaining relationships with co-stars:
Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation on Torres ' bisexual storyline
The American Broadcasting Company (ABC) characterized Torres as "driven '', "determined '', and "outgoing '', while also noting her weaknesses: "defensive '' and "impulsive ''. Ramirez described her character as someone who "appears to be a certain way, but has some very complex issues going on behind the scenes. She seems to be a very strong personality, someone who really believes in herself and has worked very hard to get where she is. She 's very competitive but does have a sense of self, so she does n't need to win all the time. '' At Torres ' initial appearance on the show, she was disliked by fans, due to her getting in the way of O'Malley and Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) 's relationship. When asked of this, Ramirez said: "You do run across a lot of people who are extremely invested in that story line. Obviously, I 've heard some negative stuff. '' The end of the show 's fourth season saw Torres grow closer to cardiothoracic surgeon Erica Hahn, in a relationship referred to by the portmanteau "Eri - Cal '' and later "Callica '' by Michael Ausiello of Entertainment Weekly. Rhimes stated that: "Callie and Erica have an undeniable chemistry, and watching the story unfold is something the writers are looking forward to. I wanted to illuminate their relationship in the same way we do all relationships on the show -- it will be funny, sweet, honest, and a little bit dirty. ''
She explained that in developing the relationship between the two: "we wanted it to be real -- not some stunt to get people talking. We wanted to see what would happen if a woman suddenly had feelings for another woman. '' The two characters shared a kiss at the end of the season four finale, with which D. Williams of After Ellen noted: "Callie and Erica became the only regular lesbian / bisexual female characters currently on network television. This is also the first time that two regular characters on a network show have begun a lesbian romance, as opposed to one becoming involved with a new lesbian character introduced expressly for that relationship. '' Before continuing with the storyline, the show 's producers consulted with the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation to ensure they maintained realism throughout. Trish Doolan, star of April 's Shower was invited to consult in the workshop sessions which took place, and surmised that; "They were really wanting to be truthful to the two characters they 're focusing on in the woman - woman relationship '', with Nikki Weiss, who also consulted, adding: "they did n't want to stereotype anything either, and write from a place where they did n't understand it. (...) I do n't think they did it as a stunt to get people back to watching after the strike. I really think that they wanted to develop these two characters, and that you could see a closeness with them way before they ever decided any kind of -- I think they just have a chemistry together, as actresses, too. You could tell that in the room. They definitely have a chemistry. ''
In the show 's fifth season, Torres embarked on a relationship with Arizona Robbins (Capshaw). The relationship between the two is referred to by the portmanteau "Calzona ''. Rhimes praised the chemistry between Arizona and Callie in contrast, comparing it to that between the show 's primary couple Grey and Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), and stating: "They have that little thing that makes you want to watch them. '' In "An Honest Mistake '', Torres was initially rejected by Robbins, with Robbins citing Torres ' "inexperience '' as a factor. Series writer Peter Nowalk offered the insight:
The couple ultimately decided to begin a relationship, however, the two experience difficulties, but eventually reunite. Rhimes commented on their reconciliation: "I love (Callie) with Arizona. (...) I like that they make me feel hopeful about love. '' Rhimes has mentioned of their relationship in the sixth season: "I would like to see Callie happily in a long - term relationship. We have so much to explore with them, because we barely know anything about (Arizona). ''
Callie and Arizona have a five - year relationship, ultimately marrying in the seventh season and divorcing in the eleventh season. Callie starts a new relationship with Penny Blake and leaves to go to New York with her in the twelfth - season finale. Shonda Rhimes spoke on Ramirez 's abrupt departure, saying, "This one was different because it was n't a big planned thing. I had a different plan going and when Sara came in and said, ' I really need to take this break, ' I was lucky that we 'd shot the end of the season with her going to New York. ''
Maureen Ryan from the Chicago Tribune was critical about the character 's initial development. Reviewing the third season 's premiere, she wrote the writers should give up on Callie explaining they have made her "far too obviously the "weird girl, '' but there 's nothing underneath her brusque persona. '' Her marriage to O'Malley was well received; Staci Krause of IGN wrote: "Their relationship has been a roller coaster and it was nice to see this turn of events, as she really is a perfect contrast to George. '' Discussing the character in terms of her relationship with Hahn, Williams was largely positive, assessing that: "The story line offered both the drama Grey 's is known for and a truthfulness network television has rarely achieved when it comes to lesbian relationships. '' Trish Doolan and Nikki Weiss, invited by GLAAD to consult with Grey 's Anatomy producers on the storyline, praised the effort put into researching the issue by the writers and actors involved, though were more negative on the scene which saw Hahn kiss Callie in an elevator in front of Mark Sloan. Weiss commented: "I just felt like, if they really cared about each other, I do n't think they would do that as a stunt. That seemed a little, I do n't know, forced. (...) (It) was more like a conquest, like he could have (Hahn) too or something. '' LGBT website AfterEllen.com agreed with this view, criticizing the way the scene was edited so as to keep cutting to Sloan 's point of view, as though "privileging the male gaze. '' AfterEllen.com included Torres in their list of the Top 50 Lesbian and Bisexual Characters, ranking her at No. 6 and in their Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters. The character was also listed in Wetpaint 's "10 Hottest TV Doctors on TV ''.
Commenting on Hahn 's abrupt departure from the show, Dorothy Snarker, writing for AfterEllen.com, observed of Torres and Robbins ' relationship: "I (...) ca n't help but be wary of how the Grey 's writers will handle this relationship. Jessica has proven lovely and likable in her brief screen time so far. But it 's not how the romance starts, but what happens next that really matters. '' Speaking of the musical episode, Nicole Golden of TV Fanatic called Ramirez 's rendition of "Chasing Cars '' "amazing '' and referred to her performance in Kate Havnevik 's "Grace '' as "beautiful ''. Margaret Lyons of New York Magazine was happy with the evolution of Bailey and Torres ' friendship in the first half of the ninth season, calling it "the one bright spot '': "They joke, they tease each other, they offer sage love advice to one another, now that they 're both on their second marriages. '' Ramirez was nominated for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Television Series at the Alma Awards, in 2007 and 2008. Also in 2007, at the 13th Screen Actors Guild Awards, Ramirez and the cast of Grey 's Anatomy, were the recipients of the Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series. She and the cast were nominated for the same award, in 2008. In 2011, at the 42nd NAACP Image Awards, Ramirez was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. She was ranked at no. 7 in AfterEllen.com 's list of "Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters ''
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when is the last year the yankees won the world series | New York Yankees - wikipedia
The New York Yankees are an American professional baseball team based in the New York City borough of the Bronx. The Yankees compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) East division. They are one of two major league clubs based in New York City, the other being the New York Mets of the National League. In the 1901 season, the club began play in the AL as the Baltimore Orioles (no relation to the modern Baltimore Orioles). Frank Farrell and Bill Devery purchased the franchise (which had ceased operations) and moved it to New York City, renaming the club the New York Highlanders. The Highlanders were officially renamed the Yankees in 1913.
The team is owned by Yankee Global Enterprises, an LLC controlled by the family of the late George Steinbrenner, who purchased the team in 1973. Brian Cashman is the team 's general manager. The manager position is currently vacant. The team 's home games were played at the original Yankee Stadium from 1923 to 1973 and from 1976 to 2008. In 2009, they moved into a new ballpark of the same name after the previous facility was closed and demolished. The team is perennially among the leaders in MLB attendance; in 2011, the Yankees had the second - highest attendance.
One of the most successful sports clubs in the world, the Yankees have won 18 division titles, 40 AL pennants, and 27 World Series championships, all of which are MLB records. The Yankees have won more titles than any other franchise in the four major North American sports leagues. Forty - four Yankees players and eleven Yankees managers have been inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame, including Babe Ruth, Lou Gehrig, Joe DiMaggio, Mickey Mantle, Yogi Berra, and Whitey Ford. In pursuit of winning championships, the franchise has used a large payroll to attract talent, particularly during the Steinbrenner era. According to Forbes, the Yankees are the second highest valued sports franchise in the United States and the second in the world, with an estimated value of approximately $3.7 billion. The Yankees have garnered enormous popularity and a dedicated fanbase, as well as widespread enmity from fans of other MLB teams. The team 's rivalry with the Boston Red Sox is one of the most well - known rivalries in U.S. sports.
At the end of 1900, Ban Johnson, president of the American League -- a minor league previously known as the Western League (1894 -- 1899) -- reorganized the league. He added teams in three East Coast cities, forming the American League (AL) as a major league in an attempt to challenge the National League (NL) for supremacy. Plans to add another a team in New York City were blocked by the NL 's New York Giants, who had enough political power in New York City to prevent the AL from establishing a team. Instead, a team was placed in Baltimore, Maryland, a city which the NL abandoned when it contracted from 12 to 8 teams in 1900.
Nicknamed the Orioles, the team began playing in 1901 and was managed and partly owned by John McGraw. During the 1902 season, McGraw feuded with Johnson and secretly jumped to the Giants. In the middle of the season, the Giants, aided and abetted by McGraw, gained controlling interest of the Orioles and began raiding it for players, until the AL stepped in and took control of the team. In January 1903, a "peace conference '' was held between the two leagues to settle disputes and try to coexist. At the conference, Johnson requested that an AL team be put in New York, to play alongside the NL 's Giants. It was put to a vote, and 15 of the 16 major league owners agreed on it, with only John T. Brush of the Giants opposing. The Orioles ' new owners, Frank J. Farrell and William S. Devery, found a ballpark location not blocked by the Giants, and Baltimore 's team moved to New York.
The team 's new ballpark, Hilltop Park (formally known as "American League Park ''), was constructed in one of Upper Manhattan 's highest points -- between 165th and 168th Streets -- just a few blocks away from the much larger Polo Grounds. The team came to be known as the New York Highlanders. The name was inspired by a combination of the team 's elevated location in Upper Manhattan, and to the noted Scottish military unit The Gordon Highlanders, which coincided with the team 's president Joseph Gordon whose family was of Scots Irish heritage. Newspapers initially called the team "Gordon 's Highlanders '' (e.g. New York World, April 15, 1903), which soon became just "Highlanders ''. As was common with all members of the American League, the team was often called the New York Americans. They were also dubbed the "Invaders '' for a short time in 1903. New York Press Sports Editor Jim Price coined the unofficial nickname Yankees (or "Yanks '') for the club as early as 1904, because it was easier to fit in headlines and because "Yankee '' was and is a commonly - used synonym for "American ''. A prophetic letter to the editor of the New York Sun, May 7, 1903, p. 8, had raised this question: "Name for the American New Yorks. If the new baseball team is to have a name that is in keeping with the ' Giants, ' does it not seem reasonable that if they are the ' New York Americans ' they might be called the ' Yankees ' or ' Yanks '? ''
The most success the Highlanders achieved was finishing second in 1904, 1906 and 1910, 1904 being the closest they came to winning the AL pennant. That year, they lost the deciding game on the last day of the season to the Boston Americans, who later became the Boston Red Sox. This had much historical significance, as the Highlanders ' role in the pennant race caused the Giants to announce that they would not play in the World Series against the AL pennant winner. The World Series was not skipped again for another 90 years, when a strike truncated the entire 1994 season. It was the last time Boston would beat New York in a pennant - deciding game for a full century (2004). In 1904, pitcher Jack Chesbro set the single - season wins record at 41, which still stands. Under current playing practices, this is most likely an unbreakable record, when you consider that the last thirty game winner was Denny McLain (31) in 1968.
The original Polo Grounds burned down in 1911 and the Highlanders allowed the Giants to play in Hilltop Park during reconstruction. Relations between the two teams warmed, and the Highlanders would move into the newly rebuilt Polo Grounds in 1913. Now playing on the Harlem River, a far cry from their high - altitude home, the name "Highlanders '' no longer applied, and fell into disuse among the press. The media had already widely adopted the "Yankees '' nickname coined by the New York Press, and in 1913 the team became officially known as the New York Yankees.
By the middle of the decade, Yankees owners Farrell and Devery had become estranged and both were in dire need of money. At the start of 1915, they sold the team to Colonel Jacob Ruppert and Captain Tillinghast L'Hommedieu Huston for $1.25 million. Ruppert inherited a brewery fortune, providing the Yankees with an owner who possessed deep pockets and a willingness to dig into them to produce a winning team. This would lead the team to more success and prestige than Ruppert could ever have envisioned.
It is interesting to note that all the games of the 1921 and 1922 World Series were played in the Polo Grounds, when the Yankees squared off against their intracity rival Giants.
In the years around 1920, the Yankees, the Red Sox, and the Chicago White Sox had a détente. The trades between the three ballclubs antagonized Ban Johnson and garnered the teams the nickname "The Insurrectos ''. This détente paid off well for the Yankees as they increased their payroll. Most new players who would later contribute to the team 's success came from the Red Sox, whose owner, Harry Frazee, was trading them for large sums of money to finance his theatrical productions. Pitcher - turned - outfielder Babe Ruth was the most talented of all the acquisitions from Boston, and the outcome of the trade would haunt the Red Sox for the next 86 years, a span in which the team did not win a single World Series championship. The Red Sox often found themselves eliminated from the playoff hunt as a result of the Yankees ' success. This phenomenon eventually became known as the Curse of the Bambino as the failure of the Red Sox and the success of the Yankees seemed almost supernatural, and seemed to stem from that one trade. However, it would not be until 1990 when Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe wrote a book with the same title that the curse was publicized.
Ruth 's multitude of home runs proved so popular that the Yankees began drawing more people than their National League counterpart, the Giants. In 1921 -- the year after acquiring Babe Ruth -- the Yankees played in their first World Series. They competed against the Giants, and all eight games of the series were played in the Polo Grounds. After the 1922 season, the Yankees were told to move out of the Polo Grounds. Giants manager John McGraw was said to have commented that the Yankees should "move to some out - of - the - way place, like Queens '', but they instead broke ground for a new ballpark in the Bronx, right across the Harlem River from the Polo Grounds. In 1922, the Yankees returned to the World Series again, and were dealt a second defeat at the hands of the Giants. Important newcomers in this period were manager Miller Huggins and general manager Ed Barrow. The hiring of Huggins by Ruppert in 1918 would cause a rift between the owners that eventually led to Ruppert buying Huston out in 1923.
In 1923, the Yankees moved to their new home, Yankee Stadium. It was the first triple - deck venue in baseball and seated an astounding 58,000 people. In the first game at Yankee Stadium, Babe Ruth hit a home run, which was fitting as his home runs and drawing power paid for the stadium, giving it its nickname of "The House That Ruth Built ''. At the end of the season, the Yankees faced the Giants in the World Series for the third straight year, and triumphed in the brand new ballpark for their first championship. Prior to that point, the Giants had been the city 's icon and dominant team. From 1923 onward, the Yankees would assume that role, and many years later the Giants would leave Coogan 's Bluff for San Francisco.
In the 1927 season, the Yankees featured a lineup that became known as "Murderers ' Row '', and some consider this team to be the best in the history of baseball (though similar claims have been made for other Yankee squads, notably those of 1939, 1961 and 1998). The Yankees won a then - AL record 110 games with only 44 losses, and swept the Pittsburgh Pirates in the World Series. Ruth 's home run total of 60 in 1927 set a single - season home run record that would stand until it was broken by Roger Maris in 1961. Meanwhile, first baseman Lou Gehrig had his first big season, batting. 373 with 47 home runs and 175 RBIs, beating Ruth 's single - season RBI mark (171 in 1921). The Yankees would win the World Series again in 1928.
In 1931, Joe McCarthy was hired as manager and brought the Yankees back to the top of the AL. They swept the Chicago Cubs in the 1932 World Series, and brought the team 's streak of consecutive World Series game wins to 12. This series was made famous by Babe Ruth 's "Called Shot '' in game three of the series at Wrigley Field, a fitting "swan song '' to his illustrious World Series career. In 1935, Ruth would leave the Yankees to join the NL 's Boston Braves, and he made his last major league baseball appearance on May 30 of that year.
With Ruth retired, Gehrig finally had a chance to take center stage, but it was only one year before a new star appeared, Joe DiMaggio. The team would win an unprecedented four straight World Series titles from 1936 to 1939. For most of 1939, however, they had to do it without Gehrig, who took himself out of the lineup and retired due to Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), now nicknamed "Lou Gehrig 's Disease '' in his memory. The Yankees declared July 4, 1939 to be "Lou Gehrig Day '', on which they retired his number 4 (the first retired number in baseball). Gehrig made a famous speech in which he declared himself to be "the luckiest man on the face of the earth. '' He died two years later.
The 1941 baseball season was often described as the last year of the "Golden Era '' before World War II and other realities intervened. It was a thrilling year as America watched two major events unfold: Ted Williams of the Red Sox hitting for the elusive. 400 batting average and Joe DiMaggio getting hits in consecutive ballgames. By the end of his hitting streak, DiMaggio hit in 56 consecutive games, the current major league record and one often deemed unbreakable.
Two months after the Yankees beat the Brooklyn Dodgers in the 1941 World Series -- the first of seven October meetings between the two crosstown rivals before the Dodgers ultimately moved to California -- the United States was attacked at Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan, and many of their best players, including DiMaggio, were drafted into the military to fight in World War II. The Yankees still managed to pull out a win against the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1943 World Series.
In 1945 construction magnate Del Webb and partners Dan Topping and Larry MacPhail purchased the team from the Ruppert estate for $2.8 million; MacPhail was bought out in 1947.
After a few slumping seasons, McCarthy was fired early in 1946. A few interim managers later, Bucky Harris took the job, righting the ship and taking the Yankees to a hard fought series victory against the Dodgers.
Despite finishing only three games behind the Cleveland Indians in the 1948 pennant race, Harris was relieved of his duties and replaced by Casey Stengel, who had a reputation of being a clown and managing bad teams. His tenure as Yankee field manager, however, was marked with success. The "underdog '' Yankees came from behind to catch and surprise a powerful Red Sox team on the last two days of the 1949 season, a face off that fueled the beginning of the modern Yankees -- Red Sox rivalry. By this time, however, DiMaggio 's career was winding down, and the "Yankee Clipper '' retired after the 1951 season. This year marked the arrival of the "Oklahoma Kid '', Mickey Mantle, who was one of several new stars that would fill the gap.
Bettering the clubs managed by Joe McCarthy, the Yankees won the World Series five consecutive times from 1949 -- 1953 under Stengel, which continues to be the major league record. Led by players like center fielder Mickey Mantle, pitcher Whitey Ford, and catcher Yogi Berra, Stengel 's teams won ten pennants and seven World Series titles in his twelve seasons as the Yankees manager. Stengel was a master at publicity for the team and for himself, even landing a cover story in Time magazine in 1955. The 1950 title was the only one of those five championships not to be won against either the New York Giants or Brooklyn Dodgers; it was won in four straight games against the Whiz Kids of the Philadelphia Phillies.
In 1954, the Yankees won over 100 games, but the Indians took the pennant with an AL record 111 wins; 1954 was famously referred to as The Year the Yankees Lost the Pennant. In 1955, the Dodgers finally beat the Yankees in the World Series, after five previous Series losses to them, but the Yankees came back strong the next year. On October 8, 1956, in Game Five of the 1956 World Series against the Dodgers, pitcher Don Larsen threw the only perfect game in World Series history, which remains the only perfect game in postseason play and was the only no - hitter of any kind to be pitched in postseason play until Roy Halladay pitched a no - hitter on October 6, 2010.
The Yankees lost the 1957 World Series to the Milwaukee Braves when Lew Burdette incredibly won three games for the Braves. Following the Series, the New York Giants and the Brooklyn Dodgers both left for California, the former leaving for San Francisco and the latter moving to Los Angeles, leaving the Yankees as New York 's only baseball team. In the 1958 World Series, the Yankees got their revenge against the Braves, and became the second team to win the Series after being down three - games - to - one. For the decade, the Yankees won six World Series championships (' 50, 51, ' 52, ' 53, ' 56, ' 58) and eight American League pennants (those six plus ' 55 and ' 57). Led by Mantle, Ford, Berra, Elston Howard (the Yankees ' first African - American player), and the newly acquired Roger Maris, the Yankees entered the 1960s seeking to replicate their success of the 1950s.
Arnold Johnson, owner of the Kansas City Athletics, was a longtime business associate of then - Yankees co-owners Del Webb and Dan Topping. Because of this "special relationship '' with the Yankees, he traded young players to them in exchange for cash and aging veterans. Invariably, these trades ended up being heavily tilted in the Yankees ' favor, leading to accusations that the Athletics were little more than a Yankee farm team at the major league level. Kansas City had been home to the Yankees ' top farm team for almost 20 years before the Athletics moved there from Philadelphia in 1954.
In 1960, Charles O. Finley purchased the Athletics and put an end to the trades. But the Yankees had already strengthened their supply of future prospects, which included a young outfielder named Roger Maris. In 1960, Maris led the league in slugging percentage, RBIs, and extra base hits. He finished second in home runs (one behind Mantle) and total bases, and won a Gold Glove, which garnered enough votes for the American League MVP award.
The year 1961 would prove to be one of the most memorable in Yankee history. Throughout the summer, Mantle and Maris hit home runs at a fast pace, and became known as the "M&M Boys ''. Ultimately, a severe hip infection forced Mantle to leave the lineup and drop out of the race. Maris continued though, and on October 1 (the last day of the regular season), he hit home run number 61, surpassing Babe Ruth 's single season home run record of 60. However, MLB Commissioner Ford Frick (who, as it was discovered later, had ghostwritten for Babe Ruth during his career) decreed that since Maris had played in a 162 - game season, and Ruth (in 1927) had played in a 154 - game season, two separate records would be kept. It would be 30 years before the dual record would be done away with, and Maris would hold the record alone until Mark McGwire broke it in 1998. Maris still holds the American League record.
The Yankees won the pennant with a 109 -- 53 record and went on to defeat the Cincinnati Reds in the 1961 World Series. The team finished the year with a then - record 240 home runs.
After the 1957 departures of the Dodgers and Giants for the West Coast, New York City was a one - team town for the first time since professional play began. In 1962, the sports scene in New York changed when the National League expanded to include a new expansion team, the New York Mets, who played at the Giants ' former home, the Polo Grounds, for two seasons while Shea Stadium was under construction in nearby Flushing, Queens. The Mets lost a record 120 games while the Yankees would win the 1962 World Series, their tenth in the past sixteen years, defeating the San Francisco Giants in seven games. It would be the Yankees ' last championship until 1977.
The Yankees reached the 1963 World Series, but were swept by the Los Angeles Dodgers and their ace pitcher Sandy Koufax.
After the season, Yogi Berra, who had just retired from playing, took over managerial duties. The aging Yankees returned the next year for a fifth straight World Series, but were beaten in seven games by the St. Louis Cardinals. It would be the Yankees ' last World Series appearance until 1976, when they were swept by the Big Red Machine.
After the 1964 season, CBS purchased 80 % of the Yankees from Topping and Webb for $11.2 million. With the new ownership, the team began to decline. In fact, the Yankees finished in the second division in 1965 -- their first losing record in 40 years, and only their second in 47 years.
In 1966, the Yankees finished last in the AL for the first time since 1912. It also marked their first consecutive losing seasons since 1917 and 1918. They finished next - to - last in 1967. While their fortunes improved somewhat in the late 1960s and early 1970s, they only finished higher than fourth once during CBS ' ownership, in 1970. Topping and Webb had owned the Yankees for 20 years, missing the World Series only five times and going 10 -- 5 in the ones they did get to. By contrast, the CBS - owned teams never went to the World Series.
Various reasons have been given for the decline, but the single biggest one was the Yankees ' inability to replace their aging superstars with promising young talent, as they had consistently done in the previous five decades. As early as the 1961 - 62 offseason, longtime fans noticed that the pipeline of talent had started to dry up. This was worsened by the introduction of the major league amateur draft that year, which meant that the Yankees could no longer sign any player they wanted. While the Yankees usually drafted fairly early during this period due to their lackluster records, Thurman Munson was the only pick who lived up to his billing.
At the start of this period, all - time "Voice of the Yankees '' Mel Allen, the team 's top announcer since 1939, was fired after the 1964 season, supposedly due to cost - cutting measures by longtime broadcast sponsor Ballantine Beer.
During baseball 's centennial season in 1969, the greatest players at each position for every team were named during a voting. The all - time Yankees were: Bill Dickey (catcher), Whitey Ford (left - handed pitcher), Red Ruffing (right - handed pitcher), Johnny Murphy (relief pitcher), Lou Gehrig (first base), Tony Lazzeri (second base), Phil Rizzuto (shortstop), Red Rolfe (third base), Joe DiMaggio (center field, also named baseball 's "Greatest Living Player ''), Babe Ruth (right field), Mickey Mantle (left field), and Casey Stengel (manager).
A group of investors, led by Cleveland - based shipbuilder George Steinbrenner (1930 -- 2010), purchased the club from CBS on January 3, 1973 for $8.7 million. Mike Burke stayed on as president until he quit in April. Within a year, Steinbrenner bought out most of his other partners and became the team 's principal owner, although Burke continued to hold a minority share into the 1980s.
One of Steinbrenner 's major goals was to renovate the Stadium. It had greatly deteriorated by the late 1960s, and the surrounding neighborhood had gone south as well. CBS initially suggested renovations, but the team would have needed to play elsewhere, and the Mets refused to open their home, Shea Stadium, to the Yankees. A new stadium in the Meadowlands, across the Hudson River in New Jersey, was suggested (and was eventually built, as Giants Stadium, specifically for football). Finally, in mid-1972, Mayor John Lindsay stepped in. The city bought the stadium and began an extensive two - year renovation period. Since the city owned Shea, the Mets had to allow the Yankees to play two seasons there. The renovations modernized the look of the stadium, significantly altered the dimensions, and reconfigured some of the seating.
After the 1974 season, Steinbrenner made a move that started the modern era of free agency, signing star pitcher Catfish Hunter away from Oakland. Midway through the 1975 season, Steinbrenner made another move, hiring former second baseman Billy Martin as manager. With Martin at the helm, the Yankees reached the 1976 World Series, but were swept by the Cincinnati Reds and their famed "Big Red Machine. ''
After the 1976 campaign, Steinbrenner added star Oakland outfielder Reggie Jackson -- who had spent 1976 with the Baltimore Orioles -- to his roster. During spring training of 1977, Jackson alienated his teammates with controversial remarks about the Yankees captain, catcher Thurman Munson. He had bad blood with manager Billy Martin, who had managed the Detroit Tigers when Jackson 's Athletics defeated them in the 1972 playoffs. Jackson, Martin, and Steinbrenner repeatedly feuded with each other throughout Jackson 's 5 - year contract. Martin would be hired and fired by Steinbrenner five times over the next 13 years. This conflict, combined with the extremely rowdy Yankees fans of the late 1970s and the bad conditions of the Bronx, led to the Yankee organization and stadium being referred to as the "Bronx Zoo. '' Despite the turmoil, Jackson starred in the 1977 World Series, when he hit three home runs in the same game, and overall, four home runs on four consecutive pitches from four different pitchers. Jackson 's great performance in the postseason earned him the Series MVP Award, and the nickname "Mr. October. ''
Throughout the late 1970s, the race for the pennant was often a close competition between the Yankees and the Red Sox. In the 1950s and early 1960s, the Yankees had been dominant while the Red Sox were largely a non-factor. However, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Yankees were mired in second place and the Red Sox led the league. In the late 1970s the two teams were contending simultaneously and locked in a close fight.
On July 14, 1978, the Yankees were 14 ⁄ games behind the Red Sox. In late July, Martin suspended Reggie Jackson for "defiance '' after he bunted while Martin had the "swing '' signal on. Upon Jackson 's return, Martin made a famous statement against both Jackson and owner Steinbrenner: "They deserve each other. One 's a born liar; the other 's convicted. '' Martin was forced to resign the next day and was replaced by Bob Lemon. This came while the team was winning five games in a row and Boston was losing five in a row.
The Yankees continued to win games, making up ground and by the time they met Boston for a pivotal four - game series at Fenway Park in early September, they were only four games behind the Red Sox. The Yankees swept the Red Sox in what became known as the "Boston Massacre '', winning the games 15 -- 3, 13 -- 2, 7 -- 0, and 7 -- 4. The third game was a shutout pitched by "Louisiana Lightning '' Ron Guidry, who would lead the majors with nine shutouts, a 25 -- 3 record, and a 1.74 ERA. Guidry finished with 248 strikeouts, but Nolan Ryan 's 260 strikeouts with the California Angels deprived Guidry of the pitching Triple Crown.
On the last day of the season, the two clubs finished in a tie for first place in the AL East, and a one - game playoff (the 163rd game of the regular season) was held at Fenway Park. With Guidry pitching against former Yankee Mike Torrez, the Red Sox took an early 2 -- 0 lead. In the seventh inning, light - hitting Yankee shortstop Bucky Dent drove a three - run home run over the "Green Monster '' (Fenway Park 's famed left field wall), putting the Yankees up 3 -- 2. Reggie Jackson 's solo home run in the following inning sealed the eventual 5 -- 4 win that gave the Yankees their one hundredth win of the season and their third straight AL East title and Guidry earned his 25th win of the season.
After beating the Kansas City Royals for the third consecutive year in the ALCS, the Yankees faced the Dodgers again in the World Series. They lost the first two games in LA, but won all three games at Yankee Stadium and won Game 6 in Los Angeles, winning their 22nd World Championship.
Changes occurred during the 1979 season. Former Cy Young Award - winning closer Sparky Lyle was traded to the Texas Rangers for several players, including Dave Righetti. Tommy John was acquired from the Dodgers and Luis Tiant from the hated Red Sox to bolster the pitching staff. During the season, Bob Lemon was replaced by Billy Martin.
The 1970s ended on a tragic note for the Yankees. On August 2, 1979, Thurman Munson died after crashing his private plane while practicing "Touch and Go '' landings. Four days later, the entire team flew out to Canton, Ohio for the funeral, despite having a game later that day against the Orioles. Martin adamantly stated that the funeral was more important, and that he did not care if they made it back in time. Bobby Murcer, a close friend of Munson 's, was chosen to give the eulogy at his funeral. In a nationally televised and emotional game, Murcer used Munson 's bat (which he gave to his fallen friend 's wife after the game), and drove in all five of the team 's runs in a dramatic 5 -- 4 walk - off victory. Before the game, Munson 's locker sat empty except for his catching gear, a sad reminder for his teammates. His locker, labeled with his number 15, has remained empty in the Yankee clubhouse as a memorial. When the Yankees moved across the street, Munson 's locker was torn out and installed in the new Stadium 's museum. The number 15 has been retired by the team.
The 1980 season brought more changes to the Yankees. Billy Martin was fired once again and Dick Howser took his place. Chris Chambliss was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays for catcher Rick Cerone. Thanks to Howser 's no - nonsense attitude, Reggie Jackson hit. 300 for the only time in his career with 41 homers, and finished 2nd in the MVP voting to Kansas City 's George Brett. The Yankees won 103 games and the AL East by three games over the 100 - win Baltimore Orioles, but were swept by the Royals in the 1980 ALCS.
After the season ended, the Yankees signed Dave Winfield to a 10 - year contract. The Yankees fired Howser and replaced him with Gene Michael. Under Michael, the Yankees led the AL East before a strike hit in June 1981. In the second half of the season, the Yankees struggled under Bob Lemon, who replaced Michael. Thanks to the split - season playoff format, the Yankees faced the second - half winner Milwaukee Brewers in the special 1981 American League Division Series. After narrowly defeating Milwaukee in five games, they breezed through Billy Martin and the Oakland Athletics in a three - game ALCS. In the World Series, the Yankees got off to a hot start by winning the first two games against the Los Angeles Dodgers. But the Dodgers fought back and stunned the Yankees by winning the next four games to clinch their first World Series title since 1965.
Following the team 's loss to the Dodgers in the 1981 World Series, the Yankees began their longest absence from the playoffs since 1921. Following the example set by the St. Louis Cardinals and the Big Red Machine that had defeated his team in the 1976 World Series, George Steinbrenner announced his plan to transform the Yankees from the Bronx Bombers into the "Bronx Burners '', increasing the Yankees ' ability to win games based on speed and defense instead of "waiting around for a 3 run home run ''. As a first step towards this end, the Yankees signed Dave Collins from the Cincinnati Reds during the 1981 off season. Collins was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays after the 1982 season in a deal that also included future All - Stars Fred McGriff and Mike Morgan. In return the Yankees got Dale Murray and Tom Dodd.
The Yankees of the 1980s were led by All - Star first baseman Don Mattingly. In spite of accumulating the most total wins of any major league team, they failed to win a World Series (the first such Yankees team since the 1910s) and had only 1 playoff appearance. Although they consistently had a powerful offense -- Mattingly at various times was teammate to Dave Winfield (whom Mattingly battled for the AL batting title throughout most of the 1984 season), Rickey Henderson, Don Baylor, Ken Griffey, Sr., Mike Pagliarulo, Steve Sax, and Jesse Barfield, and the Yankees led the majors in runs scored for the decade -- the Yankees teams of the 1980s lacked sufficient starting pitching to win a championship. After posting a 22 -- 6 record in 1985, arm problems caught up with Ron Guidry, and his performance declined over the next three years. Of the remaining mainstays of the Yankees ' rotation, only Dave Righetti stood out, pitching a no - hitter on July 4, 1983, but he was moved to the bullpen the next year where he helped to define the closer role. Despite the Yankees ' lack of pitching success during the 1980s, they had three of the premier pitchers of the early 1990s on their roster during these years in Al Leiter, Doug Drabek and José Rijo. All were mismanaged and dealt away before they could reach their full potential, with only Rijo returning much value -- he was traded to the Oakland A 's in the deal that brought Henderson to New York.
The team came close to winning the AL East in 1985 and 1986, finishing second to the Toronto Blue Jays and Boston Red Sox (who lost in the World Series that year to the Yankees ' cross-town rivals, the New York Mets) respectively, but fell to fourth place in 1987 and fifth in 1988, despite having mid-season leads in the AL East standings both years. Despite their lack of championships and playoff appearances the Yankees posted the highest winning percentage of all MLB teams during the 1980s.
By the end of the decade, the Yankees ' offense was on the decline. Henderson and Pagliarulo had departed by the middle of 1989, while back problems hampered both Winfield (who missed the entire ' 89 season) and Mattingly (who missed almost the entire second half of 1990). Winfield 's tenure with the team ended when he was dealt to the Angels. From 1989 to 1992, the team had a losing record, spending significant money on free - agents and draft picks who did not live up to expectations. In 1990, the Yankees had the worst record in the American League, and their fourth last - place finish in franchise history.
On July 1, 1990, pitcher Andy Hawkins became the first Yankee ever to lose despite throwing a no - hitter. Third baseman Mike Blowers committed an error, followed by two walks and an error by the left fielder Jim Leyritz with the bases loaded, scoring all three runners and the batter. The 4 -- 0 loss to the Chicago White Sox was the largest margin of any no - hitter loss in the 20th century. Ironically, the Yankees (and Hawkins) were no - hit for six innings in a rain - shortened game against the White Sox 11 days later.
During the 1990 season, Yankee fans started to chant "1918! '' to taunt the Red Sox, reminding them of the last time they won a World Series one weekend the Red Sox were there in 1990. Each time the Red Sox were at Yankee Stadium afterward, demeaning chants of "1918! '' echoed through the stadium. Yankee fans also taunted the Red Sox with signs saying "CURSE OF THE BAMBINO '', pictures of Babe Ruth, and wearing "1918! '' T - shirts each time they were at the stadium.
The poor showings in the 1980s and 1990s would soon change. Steinbrenner hired Howard Spira to uncover damaging information on Winfield and was subsequently suspended from day - to - day team operations by Commissioner Fay Vincent when the plot was revealed. This turn of events allowed management to implement a coherent acquisition / development program without owner interference. General Manager Gene Michael, along with manager Buck Showalter, shifted the club 's emphasis from high - priced acquisitions to developing talent through the farm system. This new philosophy developed key players such as outfielder Bernie Williams, shortstop Derek Jeter, catcher Jorge Posada, and pitchers Andy Pettitte and Mariano Rivera. The first significant success came in 1994, when the Yankees had the best record in the AL, but the strike ended the season and Mattingly 's best chance for a World Series title and is remembered among the 10 worst moments in New York City sports history. Because the Yankees were last in a postseason in a season cut short by a strike, the news media constantly reminded the Yankees about the parallels between the two Yankee teams (1981 and 1994), which included both Yankee teams having division leads taken away by strike. Throughout October, the media continued to speculate about what might have been if there had not been a strike, making references to the days games in the post-season would have been played.
A year later, the team qualified for the playoffs in the new wild card slot in the strike shortened 1995 season. In the memorable 1995 American League Division Series against the Seattle Mariners, the Yankees won the first two games at home and dropped the next three in Seattle. Mattingly, suffering greatly from his back injury, retired after the 1995 season. He had the unfortunate distinction of beginning and ending his career on years bookended by Yankee World Series appearances (1981 and 1996).
Joe Torre had a mediocre run as a manager in the National League, and the choice was initially derided ("Clueless Joe '' was a headline in the New York Daily News). However, his calm demeanor proved to be a good fit, and his tenure was the longest under George Steinbrenner 's ownership.
1996 saw the rise of three Yankees who would form the core of the team for years to come: rookie shortstop Derek Jeter, second - year starting pitcher Andy Pettitte, and second - year pitcher Mariano Rivera, who served as setup man in 1996 before becoming closer in 1997. Aided by these young players, the Yankees won their first AL East title in 15 years in 1996. They defeated the Texas Rangers in the ALDS, and in the ALCS beat the Baltimore Orioles in five games, which included a notable fan interference by young Jeffrey Maier that was called as a home run for the Yankees. In the World Series the team rebounded from an 0 -- 2 series deficit and defeated the defending champion Atlanta Braves, ending an 18 - year championship drought. Jeter was named Rookie of the Year. In 1997, the Yankees lost the 1997 ALDS to the Cleveland Indians in five games. GM Bob Watson stepped down and was replaced by assistant GM Brian Cashman.
The 1998 Yankees are widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest teams in baseball history, compiling a then - AL record 114 regular season wins against just 48 losses and then sweeping the San Diego Padres in the 1998 World Series. Their 125 combined regular and postseason wins is an MLB single - season record.
On May 17, 1998, David Wells pitched a perfect game against the Minnesota Twins at Yankee Stadium. On July 18, 1999, which was "Yogi Berra Day '' at the stadium, David Cone pitched a perfect game against the Montreal Expos. The ALCS was the Yankees ' first meeting with the Red Sox in a post-season series. The Yankees would go on to win the 1999 World Series giving the 1998 -- 1999 Yankees a 22 -- 3 record (including four series sweeps) in six consecutive post-season series.
In 2000, the Yankees faced the New York Mets in the first Subway Series World Series since 1956. The Yankees won the series in 5 games, but a loss in Game 3 snapped their streak of World Series wins at 14, surpassing the club 's previous record of 12 (in 1927, 1928, and 1932). The Yankees are the last major league team to repeat as World Series champions and after the 2000 season they joined the Yankee teams of 1936 -- 1939 and 1949 -- 1953, as well as the 1972 -- 1974 Oakland Athletics as the only teams to win at least three consecutive World Series.
The Yankees dynasty of the 1990s was also part the Braves -- Mets rivalry. As noted above, three of their four World Series wins happened against either team (Braves in 1996 and 1999, Mets in 2000). Joe Torre added further fuel to the dynasty being part of the rivalry, having played for and managed both teams and he becoming manager of the Yankees and the events of the 1996 season were seen as factors in that rivalry intensifying.
In aftermath of the September 11 attacks, that year, Yankees defeated the Oakland A 's in the ALDS, and the Seattle Mariners in the ALCS. By winning the pennant for a fourth straight year, the 1998 -- 2001 Yankees joined the 1921 -- 1924 New York Giants, and the Yankee teams of ' 36 -- ' 39, ' 49 -- ' 53, ' 55 -- ' 58 and ' 60 -- ' 64 as the only teams to win at least four straight pennants. The Yankees won 11 consecutive postseason series in this 4 - year period. In the World Series against the Arizona Diamondbacks, the Yankees lost the series when closer Mariano Rivera uncharacteristically blew a save in the bottom of the ninth inning of Game 7; it was the second time in five years that a team lost the World Series after taking a lead into the bottom of the ninth inning of Game 7 (following the Cleveland Indians in 1997) and the first time since 1991 that the home team won all seven games of a World Series. The Yankees were also the first American League team to lose a World Series in which the home team won all seven games. Also, despite a very poor series overall, batting under. 200, Derek Jeter got the nickname, "Mr. November '', echoing comparisons Reggie Jackson 's "Mr. October '', for his walk - off home run in Game 4, though it began October 31, as the game ended in the first minutes of November 1. In addition, the Yankees ' home field in the aftermath of the attacks served as hosts of a memorial service titled "Prayer for America. ''
A vastly revamped Yankees team finished the 2002 season with an AL best record of 103 -- 58. The season was highlighted by Alfonso Soriano becoming the first second baseman ever to hit 30 home runs and steal 30 bases in a season. In the ALDS the Yankees lost to the eventual champion Anaheim Angels in four games.
In 2003, the Yankees again had the best league record (101 -- 61), highlighted by Roger Clemens ' 300th win and 4000th strikeout. In the ALCS, they defeated the Boston Red Sox in a dramatic seven game series, which featured a bench - clearing incident in Game 3 and a series - ending walk - off home run by Aaron Boone in the bottom of the 11th inning of Game 7. In the World Series the Yankees lost in 6 games to the Florida Marlins, losing a World Series at home for the first time since 1981.
In 2004, the Yankees acquired Alex Rodriguez, who moved to third base from his usual shortstop position to accommodate Derek Jeter. In the ALCS, the Yankees met the Boston Red Sox again, and became the first team in professional baseball history, and only the third team in North American pro sports history, to lose a best - of - seven series after taking a 3 -- 0 series lead.
In 2005 Alex Rodriguez won the American League MVP award, becoming the first Yankee to win the award since Don Mattingly in 1985. The Yankees again won the AL East by virtue of a tiebreaker but lost the ALDS in five games to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. The 2006 season was highlighted by a 5 - game series sweep of the Red Sox at Fenway Park (sometimes referred to as the "Second Boston Massacre ''), outscoring the Red Sox 49 -- 26.
Despite winning the AL East for the ninth consecutive year, the Yankees lost again in the ALDS, this time to the Detroit Tigers. After the ALDS was over, tragedy struck when pitcher Cory Lidle died when his plane crashed into a highrise apartment building in Manhattan. Along with Thurman Munson, Lidle was the second active Yankee to be killed in a private plane crash.
On June 18, 2007 the Yankees broke new ground by signing the first two professional baseball players from the People 's Republic of China to the MLB, and became the first team in MLB history to sign an advertising deal with a Chinese company. The Yankees ' streak of nine straight AL East division titles ended in 2007, but they still reached the playoffs with the AL Wild Card. For the third year in a row, the team lost in the first round of the playoffs, as the Cleveland Indians defeated the Yankees in the 2007 ALDS. After the series, Joe Torre declined a reduced - length and compensation contract offer from the Yankees and returned to the National League as manager of the Los Angeles Dodgers.
After Torre 's departure the Yankees signed former catcher Joe Girardi to a three - year contract to manage the club. The 2008 season was the last season played at Yankee Stadium. To celebrate the final year and history of Yankee Stadium, the 2008 Major League Baseball All - Star Game was played there on July 15, 2008. The final regular - season game at Yankee Stadium was played on September 21, 2008. After the game, Jeter addressed the crowd, thanking them for their support over the years, and urging them to "take the memories of this field, add them to the new memories that will come at the new Yankee Stadium and continue to pass them on from generation to generation. '' Despite multiple midseason roster moves, the team was hampered by injuries and missed the playoffs for the first time in 14 seasons.
During the off - season, the Yankees retooled their roster with several star free agent acquisitions, including CC Sabathia, Mark Teixeira, and A.J. Burnett. At the beginning of the 2009 season, the Yankees opened the new Yankee Stadium, located just a block north on River Avenue from their former home. The Yankees set a major league record by playing error - free ball for 18 consecutive games from May 14 to June 1, 2009. The Yankees finished first in the AL East. In the ALDS they defeated the Twins in a sweep before moving on to the ALCS where the Yankees defeated Angels in six games. They defeated the defending champions, the Philadelphia Phillies, in Game 6 of the World Series 7 -- 3, to take the series 4 -- 2, their 27th World Series title.
The 2010 season featured the rivalry between the Yankees and Red Sox being revived to start and end the season. The Yankees and the Red Sox started and finished the season against each other at Fenway Park. This was the first time since 1950 this had happened. In June, Joe Torre 's Dodgers played games against the Yankees for the first time since he became manager of the Dodgers, with the Yankees taking two out of three games in the series. During the 2010 All - Star break, Pennsylvania announcer Bob Sheppard and principal owner George Steinbrenner died. Eight days later, another longtime Yankee icon, former player and manager Ralph Houk, died. The Yankees won the American League Wild Card. They swept the Minnesota Twins in the 2010 American League Division Series, but lost to the Texas Rangers in the 2010 American League Championship Series 4 games to 2.
In a 22 -- 9 win over the Athletics at home on August 25, 2011, the Yankees became the first team in Major League history to hit three grand slams in a single game. They were hit by Robinson Canó, Russell Martin, and Curtis Granderson. The Yankees won the AL East title for the second time in three seasons, finishing with 97 wins and took home field throughout the AL postseason. However, they were defeated by the Tigers in five games in the 2011 American League Division Series.
In 2012, the Yankees again finished the season with the AL 's best record at 95 -- 67. They faced the Orioles in the 2012 American League Division Series. In Game 3, Raúl Ibañez became the oldest player to hit two home runs in a game, the oldest to hit a walk - off homer, the first substitute position player in a postseason game to hit two home runs, and the first to hit two home runs in the 9th inning or later in a postseason game, in the Yankees ' 3 -- 2 win. The Yankees would defeat the Orioles in five games. But in the 2012 American League Championship Series, the Yankees lost to the Tigers again, this time in a four - game sweep, which was compounded with a struggling offense and a season - ending injury to Derek Jeter.
The 2013 season was riddled with injuries. Mark Teixeira strained his elbow during the WBC and played only 15 games in the season, Alex Rodriguez played only 44 games after a hip surgery, Derek Jeter played only 17 games due to his ankle injury from the 2012 ALCS and Curtis Granderson played only 61 games due to forearm and knuckle injuries. On April 12, 2013, the Yankees made their second triple play ever in a home game playing the Baltimore Orioles. It was scored as 4 -- 6 -- 5 -- 6 -- 5 -- 3 -- 4, the first triple play of its kind in baseball history. On September 25, 2013, the Yankees lost to the Tampa Bay Rays, which for the second time in the wild card era, eliminated them from any playoffs. They ended the season 85 - 77, finishing in 3rd place in the AL East.
During the 2013 -- 14 offseason, the Yankees went on a large free agent spending spree, signing players such as Brian McCann, Jacoby Ellsbury, Masahiro Tanaka, and Carlos Beltrán. Despite that, the Yankees missed the playoffs for the second straight season, the first time in the post-1994 strike era, finishing 2nd in the AL East with an 84 - 78 record. Rodriguez missed the entire season due to a 162 - game suspension for his participation in the Biogenesis baseball scandal. One notable moment happened on September 25, 2014, when Derek Jeter -- playing his final home game -- hit a walk - off single off pitcher Evan Meek to defeat the Baltimore Orioles in front of 48,613 fans who came to see the captain for the last time. Reliever Dellin Betances finished 3rd in voting for AL Rookie of the Year, while starting pitcher Masahiro Tanaka finished 5th.
The 2015 season saw the Yankees make the playoffs for the first time since 2012. In his return from suspension, Rodriguez hit 33 home runs, his most since 2008, and tied Hank Aaron 's record of fifteen 30 - homer seasons. Teixeira hit 31 home runs before a hit - by - pitch ended his season in August. Rookie first baseman Greg Bird had an impressive showing in Teixeira 's place, hitting 11 home runs in 46 games, while rookie starting pitcher Luis Severino went 5 - 3 with a 2.89 ERA in 62.1 innings after getting called up in August. Closer Andrew Miller won the AL Reliever of the Year Award. The Yankees led the AL East for most of the year before being felled by a surging Toronto Blue Jays team, ending the season 87 - 75 and in 2nd place. They were soundly defeated by the Houston Astros, 3 -- 0 in the 2015 American League Wild Card Game, shutout for six innings by opposing starter Dallas Keuchel, earning boos from the frustrated home crowd of Yankees fans.
In the offseason, the Yankees traded for Cincinnati Reds ' closer Aroldis Chapman after a domestic violence allegation lowered his value. Chapman would later be suspended 30 games. The Yankees started the 2016 season on a rough note, starting 9 - 17. The resurgent 2015 experienced by Rodriguez and Teixeira did not carry over, as they batted. 200 and. 204 for the season, respectively. Bird was ruled out for the season after undergoing shoulder surgery. Starting pitcher Michael Pineda struggled, going 6 - 12 with a 4.82 ERA, the 7th - highest in baseball. At the trade deadline, the Yankees stood at an uninspiring 52 - 52, persuading ownership to trade away their most valuable assets and be sellers at the deadline.
On July 25, 2016, the Yankees traded Chapman to the Chicago Cubs for a package centered around top shortstop prospect Gleyber Torres and Miller to the Cleveland Indians for prospects outfielder Clint Frazier and pitcher Justus Sheffield. In early August, both Teixeira and Rodriguez revealed their plans to retire by the season 's end. Rodriguez played his final game on August 12.. In his fourth - to - last game, Teixeira hit a walk - off grand slam against the Boston Red Sox, his 409th and last career home run.
The Yankees called up Tyler Austin and outfielder Aaron Judge in August. They made their debuts on August 13, hitting back - to - back home runs in their first career at - bats. Catcher Gary Sánchez hit 20 home runs in only 53 games, finishing 2nd in AL Rookie of the Year voting and setting the record at the time as the fastest to reach 20 career home runs. Sanchez, Judge and Austin, as well as the Yankees ' prosperous farm system in general, became nicknamed the "Baby Bombers ''.
During the 2016 - 17 offseason, the Yankees signed Chapman back after just trading him to the Cubs to a five - year, $86 million contract, the most expensive for a relief pitcher in history. In 2017, the Yankees finished the season with their first 90 or more win season since 2012, finishing the season with a 91 - 71 overall record. They finished 2nd in the AL East behind the Red Sox, but captured the first AL Wild Card spot. Judge and Sánchez combined for 85 home runs. Sanchez finished with 33, the most by a Yankees catcher in a single season. Judge led the American League with 52 home runs, and broke the record for most home runs in a single season by a rookie which was previously held by Mark McGwire with 49 home runs in 1987. The Yankees starting pitching was led by ace Luis Severino, who rebounded from his last season to lead the Yankees ' pitching staff. On July 1, Clint Frazier made his MLB debut where he went 2 for 4 with a home run. The Yankees sent five players to the 2017 All star game including Dellin Betances, Starlin Castro, Sánchez, Severino, and Judge. Judge won the 2017 Home Run Derby, making the Yankees the team with the most players to win a Home Run Derby in history.
After the All Star break, the Yankees acquired Todd Frazier, David Robertson, Tommy Kahnle, and Sonny Gray. In the 2017 AL Wild Card Game at Yankee Stadium the Yankees defeated the Minnesota Twins 8 -- 4 to move on the ALDS. In the ALDS, the Yankees lost the first two games to the Cleveland Indians before winning the final three games. They played the Houston Astros in the 2017 American League Championship Series and lost the series in seven games.
The Yankees have won a record 27 World Series in 40 appearances (which, since the first World Series in 1903, currently amounts to an average appearance every 2.7 seasons and a championship every 4.0 seasons); the St. Louis Cardinals are second with 11 World Series victories. The Yankees ' number of World Series losses, 13, leads Major League Baseball. The St. Louis Cardinals, Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers and New York / San Francisco Giants are second in total World Series appearances with eighteen apiece. Of their 18 World Series appearances, the Dodgers have faced the Yankees eleven times, going 3 -- 8, while the Giants have faced the Yankees seven times, going 2 -- 5. Among North American major sports, the Yankees ' success is approached only by the 24 Stanley Cup championships of the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League. The Yankees have played in the World Series against every National League pennant winner except the Houston Astros and the Colorado Rockies.
Through 2014, the Yankees have an all - time regular season winning percentage of. 567 (a 10,031 -- 7,648 record), the best of any team in baseball.
The Yankees have won 27 World Series Championships. Their most recent one came in 2009, under manager Joe Girardi, when they defeated the Philadelphia Phillies in six games.
The "Yankees '' name is often shortened to "the Yanks. '' Their most prominently used nickname is "the Bronx Bombers '' or simply "the Bombers '', a reference to their home and their prolific hitting. A less used nickname is "the Pinstripes '', in reference to the iconic feature on their home uniforms. Critics often refer to the team and the organization as "the Evil Empire '', a term applied to the Yankees by Boston Red Sox president Larry Lucchino in a 2002 interview with the New York Times. A term from the team 's tumultuous late 70s, "the Bronx Zoo '', is sometimes used by detractors, as well as the "Damn Yankees '', after the musical of the same name. Ironically, even many Yankees supporters refer to their team as the "Evil Empire '' as a badge of honor and in fact enjoy having their team play "the villain ''.
With their recurring success since the 1920s, the Yankees have since been one of the most popular teams in the world, with their fan base coming from much further than the New York metropolitan area. The Yankees typically bring an upsurge in attendance at all or most of their various road - trip venues, drawing crowds of their own fans, as well as home - town fans whose interest is heightened when the Yankees come to town.
The first 1 million - fan season was in 1920, when 1,289,422 fans attended Yankee games at the Polo Grounds. The first 2 million - fan season was in 1946, when 2,265,512 fans attended the games at Yankee Stadium. The Yankees have beaten the league average for home attendance 83 out of the last 87 years (only during 1990, 1991, 1992 and 1994 did they not accomplish this). In the past seven years, the Yankees have drawn over three million fans each year, with an American League record - setting 4,090,696 in 2005, becoming only the third franchise in sports history to draw over four million in regular season attendance in their own ballpark. The Yankees were the league leaders in "road attendance '' each year from 2001 through 2006.
One famous fan was Freddy Schuman, popularly known as "Freddy Sez. '' For over 50 years, he came to the Yankees ' home games with a baseball cap, a Yankees ' jersey (which on the back bears his own name), and a cake pan with a shamrock painted on it, which was connected to a sign inscribed with words of encouragement for the home team. Schuman died on October 17, 2010 at the age of 85.
To avoid unwanted publicity, Yankees members use aliases when registering for hotels. The Village Voice published a list of aliases used by Yankees members, and the contents were republished on The Smoking Gun.
The "Bleacher Creatures '' are a notorious group of season ticket holders who occupied Section 39 in the right field bleachers at the old Yankee Stadium, and occupy Section 203 in the new one. They are known for their strict allegiance to the Yankees, and are often merciless to opposing fans who sit in the section and cheer for the road team. They enjoy taunting the opposing team 's right fielder with a series of chanting and slandering. The "creatures '' got their nickname from New York Daily News columnist Filip "Flip '' Bondy, who spent the 2004 season sitting in the section for research on his book about the group, Bleeding Pinstripes: A Season with the Bleacher Creatures of Yankee Stadium, published in 2005.
The Yankees baseball club is formally owned by Yankee Global Enterprises which owns the team 's regional YES sports network. While the club has claimed it is operating under annual losses in excess of $47 million this figure is attributed only to the ballclub 's finances and not to finances attributed to YES or Yankees Global Enterprises.
The Yankees have become well known for a winning reputation on a global level. In 2007, they reached an agreement with the Chinese Baseball Association to allow coaches, scouts and trainers to work in China to promote baseball and judge talent. They are trying to do the same with the Yomiuri Giants and the Hanshin Tigers in Japan. The Yankees and Yomiuri Giants currently have a close relationship and share ideas and strategies. The Yomiuri Shimbun daily newspaper has an ad on the left - field wall at Yankee Stadium, and other Japanese ads appear on the scrolling backstop advertising board. The Yankees are hoping that close ties with countries such as China and Japan will give them personal, in depth judgments of baseball talent.
In 2008, the Yankees announced a joint venture with the Dallas Cowboys that would form the basis for a partnership in running food and beverage, and other catering services to both teams ' stadiums.
In 2013, Forbes magazine ranked New York Yankees as the fourth most valuable sports team in the world, behind Real Madrid of La Liga, Manchester United of the Premier League and Barcelona of La Liga, a value of $2.3 billion.
In 2017, Forbes magazine ranked the Yankees as the most valuable MLB team at $3.7 billion, up 9 % from 2016, with the average MLB team worth $1.54 billion.
With the long - term success of the franchise and a large Yankee fanbase, many fans of other teams have come to dislike the Yankees. The organization is sometimes referred to by detractors as "the Bronx Zoo '' (echoing the title of Sparky Lyle 's book) or "the Evil Empire. '' When the Yankees are on the road, it is common for the home fans to chant "Yankees Suck '', and T - shirts, bumper stickers and other items have been sold with this phrase.
Much of the animosity toward the team may derive from its high payroll (which was around $200 million at the start of the 2008 season, the highest of any American sports team), and the free agent superstars the team attracts in the offseason. Chicago Tribune columnist Mike Royko noted, "Hating the Yankees is as American as pizza pie, unwed mothers, and cheating on your income tax. ''
The official fight song for the Yankees is "Here Come the Yankees '', written in 1967 by Bob Bundin and Lou Stallman. While it is not used as often, it is still heard frequently in instrumental form, most prominently in radio broadcasts. Another song strongly linked to the team is "New York, New York '', which is played in the stadium after home games. The Frank Sinatra cover version is traditionally played after victories, and the Liza Minnelli original version after losses. When the Yankees take the field before the start of every game, 2 Unlimited 's "Get Ready For This '' is played, with the fans usually clapping along. When the Yankees score a run at home, a short snippet of 2 Unlimited 's "Workaholic '' containing the bell chime of Westminster Quarters is played.
A wide selection of songs are played regularly at the stadium, many of them live on the Stadium 's Hammond organ. "God Bless America '' has been played during the 7th inning stretch since September 11. The version typically played is an abbreviated version of Kate Smith 's rendition. However, during many important games (including most play - off games) and on noteworthy days, it is sung live a Capella and includes a longer introduction. During the 5th inning, the grounds crew, while performing their duties, dance to "Y.M.C.A. ''. "Cotton - Eyed Joe '', once played during the 7th inning stretch, is now played in the 8th inning. On the DiamondVision screen, a man in farmer 's garb is shown dancing in the stadium 's control room, with the words "Cotton - Eyed Joey '' at the bottom. The organist will sometimes play the "Zorba the Greek Theme '', accompanied by clapping from the audience, to excite the crowd and encourage a rally.
The Yankees Entertainment and Sports (YES) Network launched in 2002, and serves as the primary home of the New York Yankees. Michael Kay is the play - by - play announcer with Ken Singleton, David Cone, Al Leiter, John Flaherty, and Paul O'Neill work as commentators as part of a three - man, or occasionally two - man, booth. Bob Lorenz hosts the pre-game show and the post-game show with Jack Curry, and Meredith Marakovits and Nancy Newman are the on site reporters. Some games are telecast on WPIX and formerly on WWOR - TV; those broadcasts are produced by YES.
Radio broadcasts are on the Yankees Radio Network, the flagship station being WFAN 660 AM, with John Sterling as the play - by - play announcer and Suzyn Waldman providing the commentary, with Spanish - language broadcasts on WADO 1280 AM.
The history of Yankee radio broadcasters is: WJZ 770 (1939 -- ' 40), WOR 710 (1942), WINS 1010 (1944 -- ' 57), WMGM 1050 (1958 -- ' 60), WCBS 880 (1961 -- ' 66), WHN 1050 (1967 -- ' 70), WMCA 570 (1971 -- ' 77), WINS 1010 (1978 -- ' 80), WABC 770 (1981 -- 2001), WCBS 880 (2002 -- 2013), WFAN 660 AM and WFAN - FM 101.9 (2014 -- present).
Pitchers
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Manager
Coaches
40 active, 0 inactive, 0 non-roster invitees
7 - or 10 - day disabled list * Not on active roster Suspended list Roster, coaches, and NRIs updated November 21, 2017 Transactions Depth Chart → All MLB rosters
The Yankees have retired 21 numbers for 23 individuals, the most in Major League Baseball.
The retired numbers were displayed behind the old Yankee Stadium 's left field fence and in front of the opposing team 's bullpen, forming a little alley that connects Monument Park to the left field stands. When the franchise moved across the street to the new stadium, the numbers were incorporated into Monument Park that sits place in center field between both bullpens. The 20 numbers are placed on the wall in chronological order, beginning with Lou Gehrig 's number 4. This was retired soon after Gehrig left baseball on July 4, 1939, the same day he gave his famous farewell speech. His was the first number retired in Major League Baseball history. Beneath the numbers are plaques with the names of the players and a descriptive paragraph.
The number 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball in honor of Jackie Robinson on April 15, 1997, the 50th anniversary of his breaking the color barrier. The day was declared Jackie Robinson Day, and would later be observed by all of baseball, with select players from every team wearing the number 42. Players who wore No. 42 at the time were allowed to continue to wear it until they left the team with which they played on April 15, 1997; Mariano Rivera was the last active player covered under that grandfather clause. While other teams placed the number 42 with the rest of their retired numbers, the Yankees did not do so at first. Ten years later, on April 17, 2007, the Yankees honored Robinson by mounting the logo of Jackie Robinson Day with a corresponding plaque alongside the rest of the retired numbers. Because the Yankees were finishing a roadtrip in Oakland on Jackie Robinson Day, the ceremony took place two days later. When the Yankees moved to the second Yankee Stadium, they replaced the Jackie Robinson Day logo with a number 42 that resembled the other retired numbers. Later on they replaced the number 42 so that it resembled the Dodger 's style, and on September 22, 2013 a plaque was dedicated to Robinson in Monument Park. Also, the number 42 dedicated to Robinson was removed entirely and replaced with one for Mariano Rivera.
In 1972, the number 8 was retired for two players on the same day, in honor of catcher Bill Dickey and his protege, catcher Yogi Berra. Berra inherited Dickey 's number in 1948 after Dickey ended his playing career and became a coach.
Billy Martin is the only Yankee to have his number retired as a player / manager combination. He wore number 1 as a player in the 1950s and as a manager in the 1970s and 1980s.
The numbers 37 and 6, retired for Casey Stengel and Joe Torre respectively, are the only numbers retired by the Yankees for someone who served solely as manager of the team. Stengel managed the Yankees to ten pennants and seven world championships between 1949 and 1960, including a record five consecutive world championships from 1949 through 1953. Joe Torre managed the Yankees from 1996 to 2007, winning six pennants and four World Series championships.
On May 14, 2017, the Yankees retired number 2 in honor of Derek Jeter. This leaves 0, which the Yankees have never issued in their history, as the only single - digit number available for future Yankees.
Roger Bresnahan Joe Kelley
Joe McGinnity
John McGraw Wilbert Robinson
Jack Chesbro *
Clark Griffith Willie Keeler
Branch Rickey
Frank Baker Ed Barrow Yogi Berra Wade Boggs Frank Chance Earle Combs Stan Coveleski Bobby Cox Bill Dickey
Joe DiMaggio Leo Durocher Whitey Ford Lou Gehrig Lefty Gomez Joe Gordon Goose Gossage Burleigh Grimes Bucky Harris Rickey Henderson
Waite Hoyt Miller Huggins Catfish Hunter * * Reggie Jackson Randy Johnson Tony Lazzeri Bob Lemon Larry MacPhail Lee MacPhail Mickey Mantle
Joe McCarthy Johnny Mize Phil Niekro Herb Pennock Gaylord Perry Tim Raines Phil Rizzuto Iván Rodríguez Red Ruffing Jacob Ruppert
Babe Ruth Joe Sewell Enos Slaughter Casey Stengel Joe Torre Dazzy Vance Paul Waner George Weiss Dave Winfield
Mel Allen
Red Barber Buck Canel
Jerry Coleman * Joe Garagiola
Curt Gowdy Russ Hodges
Tony Kubek *
The Yankees -- Red Sox rivalry is one of the oldest, most famous and fiercest rivalries in professional sports. For over 100 years, the Boston Red Sox and the Yankees have been intense rivals. The rivalry is often termed "the best '' and "greatest rivalry in all of sports. '' Games between the two teams are often broadcast on national television, schedule permitting.
The rivalry is sometimes so polarizing that it is often a heated subject, like religion or politics, in the Northeastern United States. Since the inception of the wild card team and an added Division Series, the American League East rivals have squared off in the American League Championship Series three times, with the Yankees winning twice in 1999 and 2003 and the Sox winning in 2004. In addition, the teams have twice met in the last regular - season series of a season to decide the league title, in 1904 (when the Red Sox won) and 1949 (when the Yankees won).
The teams also finished tied for first in 1978, when the Yankees won a high - profile one - game playoff for the division title. The 1978 division race is memorable for the Red Sox having held a 14 - game lead over the Yankees more than halfway through the season. Similarly, the 2004 ALCS is notable for the Yankees leading 3 games to 0 and ultimately losing a best of seven series. The Red Sox comeback was the only time in baseball history that a team has come back from a 0 -- 3 deficit to win a postseason series.
The Subway Series is a series of games played between teams based in New York City. The term 's historic usage has been in reference to World Series games played between New York teams. The Yankees have appeared in all Subway Series games as they have been the only American League team in the city, and have compiled an 11 -- 3 record in the fourteen championship Subway Series. Since 1997, the term Subway Series has also been applied to interleague play during the regular season between the Yankees and National League New York Mets.
The Yankees are affiliated with the following minor league teams:
The Yankees front office, as of 2013, included Hal Steinbrenner (Managing General Partner / Co-Chairperson), Randy Levine (President), Lonn A. Trost (Chief Operating Officer and General Counsel), and Brian Cashman (Senior Vice President, General Manager).
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what is 9.5 uk shoe size in the us | Shoe size - wikipedia
A shoe size is an indication of the fitting size of a shoe for a person.
There are a number of different shoe - size systems used worldwide. While all of them use a number to indicate the length of the shoe, they differ in exactly what they measure, what unit of measurement they use, and where the size 0 (or 1) is positioned. Some systems also indicate the shoe width, sometimes also as a number, but in many cases by one or more letters. Some regions use different shoe - size systems for different types of shoes (e.g. men 's, women 's, children 's, sport, and safety shoes). This article sets out several complexities in the definition of shoe sizes. In practice, shoes should be tried on for size and fit before they are purchased.
The length of a foot is commonly defined as (a) the distance between two parallel lines that are perpendicular to the foot and (b) in contact with the most prominent toe and the most prominent part of the heel. Foot length is measured with the subject standing barefoot and the weight of the body equally distributed between both feet.
The sizes of the left and right feet are often slightly different. In this case, both feet are measured, and purchasers of mass - produced shoes are advised to purchase a shoe size based on the larger foot, as most retailers do not sell pairs of shoes in non-matching sizes.
Each size of shoe is considered suitable for a small interval of foot lengths. The inner cavity of a shoe must typically be 15 -- 20 mm longer than the foot, but this varies between different types of shoes.
A shoe - size system can refer to three characteristic lengths:
All these measures differ substantially from one another for the same shoe.
Sizing systems also differ in what units of measurement they use. This also results in different increments between shoe sizes, because usually only "full '' or "half '' sizes are made.
The following length units are commonly used today to define shoe - size systems:
The sizing systems also place size 0 (or 1) at different locations:
Some systems also include the width of a foot, but do so in a variety of ways:
The width for which these sizes are suitable can vary significantly between manufacturers. The A -- E width indicators used by most American, Canadian, and some British shoe manufacturers are typically based on the width of the foot, and common step sizes are ⁄ inch (4.8 mm).
The International Standard is ISO 9407: 1991, "Shoe sizes -- Mondopoint system of sizing and marking '', which recommends a shoe - size system known as Mondopoint.
It is based on the mean foot length and width for which the shoe is suitable, measured in millimetres. A shoe size of 280 / 110 indicates a mean foot length of 280 millimetres (11.0 in) and width of 110 millimetres (4.3 in).
Because Mondopoint also takes the foot width into account, it allows for better fitting than most other systems. It is, therefore, used by NATO and other military services. Mondopoint is also used for ski boots.
Shoe size in the United Kingdom and Ireland is based on the length of the last used to make the shoes, measured in barleycorn (⁄ inch) starting from the smallest size deemed practical, which is called size zero. It is not formally standardised. Note that the last is typically longer than the foot heel to toe length by about ⁄ to ⁄ inch (13 to 17 mm).
A child 's size zero is equivalent to 4 inches (a hand = 12 barleycorns = 10.16 cm), and the sizes go up to size 13 ⁄ (8 ⁄ in, 25 ⁄ barleycorns or 21.59 cm). Thus, the calculation for a children 's shoe size in the UK is:
equivalent to
An adult size one is then the next size up (8 ⁄ in, 26 barleycorns or 22.01 cm) and each size up continues the progression in barleycorns. The calculation for an adult shoe size in the UK is thus:
equivalent to
Note: some manufacturers choose to use a constant other than 25, so sizes do vary in either direction e.g. A shoe marked as a European size 40 may also be marked as a UK: 6 by Jimmy Choo, Nike; a 6 ⁄ by Adidas, Clarks, Dr Martens, Fred Perry, Karrimor, Monsoon, New Balance, Reebok, and Slazenger; a 7 by Converse, Gap, Pavers, and Timberland; and a 7 ⁄ by Crocs. Some retailers mark a larger size on women 's European compatible which can cause confusion with the UK unisex sizes. A size 8 should be a European 42 in both male and female shoes, but this is often marked as a 9 for women.
For men and children 's footwear the UK system is followed. Women 's footwear has a slightly different sizing that is unique. It is in between the UK and US 's sizings.
In North America, there are different systems that are used concurrently. The size indications are usually similar but not exactly equivalent especially with athletic shoes at extreme sizes. The most common is the customary, described in more detail below, which for men 's shoes is one barleycorn shorter than the UK equivalent. (so a men 's 13 in the US or Canada is the same size as a men 's 12 in the UK)
The traditional system is similar to English sizes but start counting at one rather than zero, so equivalent sizes are one greater. So the calculation for a male shoe size in the USA or Canada is:
Women 's sizes are almost always determined with the "common '' scale, in which women 's sizes are equal to men 's sizes plus 1.5 (for example, a men 's 10.5 is a women 's 12). In other words:
In the less popular scale, known as the "standard '' or "FIA '' (Footwear Industries of America) scale, women 's sizes are men 's sizes plus 1 (so a men 's 10.5 is a women 's 11.5).
Children 's sizes are equal to men 's sizes plus 12 ⁄. Children 's sizes do not differ by gender even though adults ' do.
Children 's shoe stores in the United States and Canada use a sizing scheme which ends at 13, after which the adult range starts at 1:
Alternatively, a scale running from K4 to K13 and then 1 to 7 is in use. K4 to K9 are toddler sizes, K10 to 3 are pre-school and 1 to 7 are grade school sizes.
A slightly different sizing method is based on the Brannock Device, a measuring instrument invented by Charles F. Brannock in 1925 and now found in many shoe stores. The formula used by the Brannock device assumes a foot length 2⁄3 inch (1.7 cm) less than the length of the last; thus, men 's size 1 is equivalent to a foot 's length of 7 2⁄3 inches. Women 's sizes are one size up.
The method also measures the length of the distance of the heel and the widest point of the foot. For that purpose, the device has another, shorter scale at the side of the foot. If this scale indicates a larger size, it is taken in place of the foot 's length.
For children 's sizes, additional wiggle room is added to allow for growth.
The device also measures the width of the foot and assigns it designations of AAA, AA, A, B, C, D, E, EE, or EEE. The widths are 3 / 16 in apart and differ by shoe length.
Some shoe stores use optical devices to precisely measure the length and width of both feet and recommend the appropriate shoe model and size. (1)
The Continental European system is used in Portugal, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and most other continental European countries. It is also used in Middle Eastern countries (such as Iran), Brazil -- which uses the same method but subtracts 2 from the final result -- and, commonly, Hong Kong.
In this system, the shoe size is the length of the last, expressed in Paris points, for both sexes and for adults and children alike. Because a Paris point is 2⁄3 of a centimetre, the formula is as follows:
To compute the size based on actual foot length, one must first add a length of about 1.5 to 2 cm. For instance, for a shoe having an internal length 1.5 cm longer than the foot:
This gives the relationships:
European size = 1.27 × UK size + 31.75
UK size = European size / 1.27 - 25 = 0.7874 × European size - 25
The Asian system is based on metric measurements and standardised as JIS S 5037: 1998, CNS 4800, S 1093, or KS M 6681. Foot length and girth are taken into account.
The foot length is indicated in centimetres; an increment of 5 mm is used. This system was also used in the GDR.
The length is followed by designators for girth (A, B, C, D, E, EE, EEE, EEEE, F, G), which is taken from a table indexed to girth and length. There are different tables for men 's, women 's, and children 's (less than 12 years of age) shoes. The tables also include the width as supplemental indications. Not all designators are used for all genders and in all countries. For example, the largest girth for women in China is EEEE, whereas in Japan, it is F.
Shoes are sized either according to the foot length they are intended to fit, in cm, or alternatively to another variation of the barleycorn system, with sizes calculated approximately as:
Historically the USSR used the European (Paris point) system but an alternative metric system (State Standard 3927 -- 64) was devised, with shoe sizes increasing in 1⁄2 rather than the 2⁄3 cm intervals found in the European scheme. This system has been refined by later standards:
Where used this system is sometimes described as a Pointe (ballet shoe) or Stych size:
Please note that the following tables indicate theoretical sizes calculated from the standards and information given above. Differences between various shoe size tables, makers ' tables or other tables found on the Web are usually due to the following factors:
Further, some tables available on the Web simply contain errors. For example, the wiggle room or different zero point is not taken into account, or tables based on different U.S. systems (traditional and athletic) are simply combined although they are incompatible.
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first female police officer in new york city | History of the New York City Police Department - wikipedia
The New York City Police Department (NYPD) had it origins in the city government of New York trying to find a better way to control the rising crime rate in early - mid 19th century New York City. This crime rate had been brought on by the massive population growth, caused primarily by poor Irish immigrants from Ireland beginning in the 1820s. The City implemented the London, England policing model of a full - time professional police force in 1845, with the establishment of the Municipal Police, replacing the inadequate, out of date night watch system which had been in place since the 17th century with the founding of the Dutch colonial city of New Amsterdam. In 1857, the Municipal Police were tumultuously replaced by a Metropolitan Police, which consolidated other local police departments. Late 19th and early 20th century trends included professionalization and struggles against corruption.
Prior to the establishment of the NYPD, New York City 's population of about 320,000 was served by a force consisting of one night watch, one hundred city marshals, thirty - one constables, and 51 municipal police officers. On May 7, 1844, the New York State passed the Municipal Police Act, a law which authorized creation of a police force and abolished the night watch system. At the request of the New York City Common Council, Peter Cooper drew up a proposal to create a police force of 1,200 officers. John Watts de Peyster was an early advocate of implementing military style discipline and organization to the force.
However, because of a lengthy dispute between the Common Council and the Mayor of New York City regarding who would appoint the officers, the law was not put into effect until the following year. Under Mayor William Havemeyer, the city finally repealed their watch system and adopted the Municipal Police Act as an ordinance on May 23, 1845, creating the New York Police Department in fact rather than merely in legislative theory.
For the purposes of policing, the city was divided into three districts, with courts, magistrates, and clerks, and station houses. The NYPD was closely modeled after the Metropolitan Police Service in London, England which used a military - like organizational structure, with rank and order. A navy blue uniform was introduced after long debate in 1853.
In 1857, Republican reformers in the state capital, Albany, created a new Metropolitan police force and abolished the Municipal police, as part of their effort to rein in the Democratically controlled New York City government. The Metropolitan police bill consolidated the police in New York, Brooklyn, Staten Island, and Westchester County (which then included The Bronx), under a governor - appointed board of commissioners.
Unwilling to be abolished, Mayor Fernando Wood and the Municipals resisted for several months, during which time the city effectively had two police forces, the State - controlled Metropolitans and the Municipals. The Metropolitans included 300 policemen and 7 captains who left the Municipal police, but was primarily made up of raw recruits with little or no training. The Municipals were controlled directly by Wood and including 800 policemen and 15 captains who stayed. The division between the forces was ethnically determined, with immigrants largely staying with the Municipals, and those of Anglo - Dutch heritage going to the Metropolitans.
Chaos ensued. Criminals had a high old time. Arrested by one force, they were rescued by the other. Rival cops tussled over possession of station houses. The opera buffa climax came in mid-June when (a) Metropolitan police captain... attempted to deliver a warrant for the mayor 's arrest, only to be tossed out by a group of Municipals. Armed with a second warrant, a much larger force of Metropolitans marched against City Hall. Awaiting them were a massed body of Municipals, supplemented by a large crowd... Together, the mayor 's supporters began clubbing and punching the outnumbered Metropolitans away from the seat of government... The Metropolitans gained the day after the (State - controlled) Seventh Regiment came to its rescue, and the warrant was served on Wood. This setback for the mayor was followed by another: on July 2 the Court of Appeals ruled in favor of the state law. Wood knuckled under and disbanded the Municipals late in the afternoon of July 3, leaving the Metropolitans in possession of the field.
Unfortunately, the untested Metropolitans failed to prevent rioting in the city the next day, Independence Day (July 4), and had to be rescued by the nativist Bowery Boys gang when the Irish - immigrant gang the Dead Rabbits attacked the "Mets ''. Barricades were erected and the battle went on for hours, the worst rioting in the city since 1849. The next Sunday, peace was maintained by the State Militia, but a week later, on July 12, German - immigrants in Little Germany rioted when the Metropolitans attempted to enforce the new reform liquor laws and close down saloons. A blacksmith was killed in the skirmish, and the next day, ten thousand marched up Broadway with a banner proclaiming Opfer der Metropolitan - Polizei ("Victim of the Metropolitan Police '').
Throughout the years, the NYPD has been involved with a number of riots in New York City. In July 1863, the New York State Militias were aiding Union troops in Pennsylvania, when the 1863 Draft Riots broke out. Their absence left it to the police -- who were then outnumbered -- to quell the riots. The Tompkins Square Riot occurred on January 13, 1874 when police crushed a demonstration involving thousands of unemployed in Tompkins Square Park.
Newspapers, including The New York Times, covered numerous cases of police brutality during the latter part of the 19th century. Cases often involved officers using clubs to beat suspects and persons who were drunk or rowdy, posed a challenge to officers ' authority, or refused to move along down the street. Most cases of police brutality occurred in poor immigrant neighborhoods, including Five Points, the Lower East Side, and Tenderloin.
Beginning in the 1870s, politics and corruption of Tammany Hall, a political machine supported by Irish immigrants infiltrated the NYPD, which was used as political tool, with positions awarded by politicians to loyalists. Many officers and leaders in the police department took bribes from local businesses, overlooking things like illegal liquor sales. Police also served political purposes such as manning polling places, where they would turn a blind eye to ballot box stuffing and other acts of fraud.
The Lexow Committee was established in 1894 to investigate corruption in the police department. The committee made reform recommendations, including the suggestion that the police department adopt a civil service system. Corruption investigations have been a regular feature of the NYPD, including the Knapp Commission of the 1970s, and the Mollen Commission of the 1990s.
In 1895, Theodore Roosevelt became President of the NYPD Police Commission. Under his leadership many reforms were instituted in the NYPD.
On 1 January 1898, the city expanded to include Brooklyn. The department absorbed eighteen existing police departments, requiring more modern organization and communication as it now protected 320 square miles and over three million residents.
Around the turn of the century, the NYPD began to professionalize under leadership of then President of the Police Commission, Theodore Roosevelt. With innovations in science and technology, the police force were able to establish new units, such as the Bomb Squad in 1905, Motorcycle Squad in 1911, Automobile Squad in 1919, Emergency Service Unit in 1926, Aviation Unit in 1929 as well as the Radio Motor Patrol (RMP) in 1932. The department was also among the earliest to implement fingerprinting techniques and mug shots. In 1919, the department adopted its own flag.
In 1911, the department hired Samuel (Jesse) Battle as its first black officer. He went on to become the first black sergeant and lieutenant and retired after a thirty - year career.
In 1896 Commissioner Roosevelt authorized the purchase of a standard issued revolver for the NYPD. It was the Colt New Police Revolver in. 32 Long Colt caliber. He also instituted required firearms training including pistol practice and qualification for officers. In 1907 the Colt Police Positive revolver in. 38 caliber was adopted by the department. In May 1926 the NYPD adopted the. 38 Special cartridge as the standard issue ammunition for the department and started issuing its officers the Smith & Wesson Model 10 revolver and the Colt Official Police revolver. In 1994 the NYPD replaced the revolver as its main service weapon and adopted the 9mm semiautomatic pistol as its standard issued sidearm, replacing the. 38 Special revolver. NYPD officers who were "on the job '' on or prior to 1994 could continue to carry their revolvers if they wished. The. 38 Special can still be found as a backup or off duty weapon, particularly with long serving personnel.
The economic downturn of the 1970s led to some extremely difficult times for the city. The Bronx, in particular, was plagued by arson, and an atmosphere of lawlessness permeated the city. Frank Serpico wrote about corruption he encountered in his time as a police officer in this era in a book, which was later turned into a movie and television series. In addition, the city 's financial crisis led to a hiring freeze on all city departments, including the NYPD, from 1976 to 1980.
This was followed by the crack cocaine epidemic of the late 1980s and early 1990s, which was one factor in the city 's homicide rate soaring to an all - time high. By 1990, New York, a city with 7.3 million people at the time, set a record of 2,262 murders, a record that has yet to be broken by any U.S. city. Petty thefts associated with drug addiction were also increasingly common.
In 1993, Mayor David Dinkins appointed the Mollen Commission, chaired by Milton Mollen, to investigate corruption in the department. The commission found that "Today 's corruption is not the corruption of Knapp Commission days. Corruption then was largely a corruption of accommodation, of criminals and police officers giving and taking bribes, buying and selling protection. Corruption was, in its essence, consensual. Today 's corruption is characterized by brutality, theft, abuse of authority and active police criminality. ''
In the mid-1990s, under Mayor Rudy Giuliani, the NYPD oversaw a large reduction in crime across the city, which has been attributed to the NYPD 's implementation of the CompStat program under Police Commissioner Bill Bratton, broken windows policing, as well as general demographic changes, and subsiding of the crack cocaine epidemic. While CompStat was a concept that is generally attributed to Deputy Police Commissioner Jack Maple when he was a police lieutenant serving in the New York City Transit Police which came to the attention of then NYC Transit Authority Police Chief Bratton, in fact it was first implemented by Captain Mario Selvagi in Far Rockaway 's 101 precinct. Since Selvagi was unable to secure the cooperation of the department 's MIS department, he used pin maps. Selvagi went on to become a "superchief '', but was forced out by Bill Bratton. In 1995, with Bratton as the former NYC Transit Police Chief, now as Police Commissioner, the New York City Transit Police and the New York City Housing Authority Police Department are merged in with the NYPD. The enforcement and traffic control elements of the City 's Department of Transportation were merged into the NYPD in 1996. In 1998 the NYC Board of Education 's school safety agents were merged into the newly formed New York City Police Department School Safety Division, to improve safety in NYC public schools.
On September 11, 2001, 23 NYPD officers were killed when the World Trade Center collapsed due to terrorist attacks. More lives were lost that year than in any other year in the department 's history. The NYPD Counter-Terrorism Bureau was founded in 2002 as a result of the tragedy and the threats to attack the city that followed.
In the last two weeks of 2005, two officers were shot to death by criminals using illegal weapons.
In 2014, two highly publicized attacks were committed against the NYPD. In the first, on October 23, two NYPD officers were injured, one critically, in a hatchet attack, but both officers survived their injuries. In the second, in December, two NYPD officers, Wenjian Liu and Rafael Ramos, were shot to death in an ambush in Brooklyn. In both cases, the perpetrators later died -- in the hatchet attack, the suspect was killed by police, while in the gunfire attack, the suspect killed himself after being confronted by police.
In 2015 the Strategic Response Group was formed.
On June 20, 2016, three officers were arrested as part of a federal corruption investigation.
In 1845, the New York City Police Department hired its first female jail matrons. Legislation was enacted to appoint female police matrons in 1888, and the first four were hired in 1891. In 1895, the first woman to work at Police Headquarters, Minnie Gertrude Kelly, was appointed Secretary to the Police Board. In 1912, Isabella Goodwin was appointed as the first female, first grade detective. In 1917, two unknown women were assigned special patrolwomen 's badges.
In 1918, the first female Deputy Commissioner, Ellen O'Grady, was appointed, and in August of that year the first group of policewomen in the NYPD were appointed (there were six). In 1919, the title "policewoman '' was changed to "patrolwoman ''. In 1921, the Women 's Police Precinct was formed with 20 patrolwomen assigned; Mary Hamilton was assigned as director.
November 13, 1923, Governor Walker appointed Sylvia Daly Connell, a widow with two children, the first woman Deputy Sheriff in New York State. She was assigned to Richmond County.
In 1924, the New York Police Department 's Women Bureau was created.
In 1934, female officers began to have pistol practice with male officers. In 1938, the first civil service exam for the title "Policewoman '' was given. About 5,000 women took the exam, with 300 passing it. In 1942, there began a requirement of a college degree for female officers. In 1958, women and men began to train together at the Police Academy. In 1961, Felicia Shpritzer of the NYPD sued to allow women the right to take the sergeant 's exam. As a result of this lawsuit, 126 policewomen took the sergeant 's exam for the first time in 1964. Shpritzer and another policewoman, Gertrude Schimmel, became the first female sergeants and after suing again, the duo became the first female lieutenants in 1967. Schimmel went on to become the first female police captain in 1971 and the first female deputy inspector in 1972.
In 1970, the first woman was allowed to take the test for Police Administrative Aides, and the first women were hired from the Police Administrative List. Also in that year, Police Commissioner Murphy assigned the first group of women to patrol. In 1973, the Bureau of Policewomen was abolished, and the first gender - neutral civil service exam for police officers was held. Also in that year, "Policewomen '' and "Patrolmen '' were officially renamed "Police Officers ''.
In 1974, Gertrude Schimmel was appointed as the first female Inspector. In 1976, Captain Vittoria Renzullo was appointed as the first Precinct Commander. In 1977, the first women were assigned to the Homicide Unit (there were nine of them). In 1978, Gertrude Schimmel was appointed as the first female Deputy Chief. Also in that year, the Department entered into an agreement to increase the number of female detectives.
In 1981, Suzanne Medicis became the first woman to receive the Combat Cross, and Sharon Fields and Tanya Braithwaite became the first women to receive the NYPD 's Medal of Honor. In 1984, Irma Lozada became the first female police officer killed in the line of duty. Also in 1984, Mary Bembry became the first woman shot in the line of duty.
In 1985, the first Women in Policing Conference was held. In 1987, Paula Berlinerman and Joan Clark were appointed as the first civilian women Civil Service Managers. In 1988, Mary Lowery became the first female police officer assigned to the Aviation Unit.
In 1991, for the first time, the majority of the deputy commissioners were female. In 1992, Deputy Inspector Kathy Ryan was appointed as the first female Commanding Officer of the Mounted Unit. In 1994, Joyce A. Stephen became the first African - American female captain, and an Action Plan on Women 's Concerns was prepared and submitted to the Police Commissioner. In 1995, Gertrude LaForgia was appointed as the first female Assistant Chief Borough Commander.
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